History of Classical Scholarship: A Biographical Dictionary 9004245936, 9789004245938

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Brill's New Pauly SUPPLEMENTS HISTORY

OF CLASSICAL

SCHOLARSHIP

6

Brill's New Pauly SUPPLEMENTS

EDITORS

Hubert Cancik Manfred Landfester Helmuth Schneider

Brill's History of Classical Scholarship

New Pauly A Biographical Dictionary Edited by

Peter Kuhlmann and Helmuth Schneider Translated and edited by Duncan Smart and Chad M. Schroeder

LEIDEN - BOSTON 2014

BRILL

© Copyright

2014 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands

Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Global Oriental, Hotei Publishing, and Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. Original German language edition: Peter Kuhlmann und Helmuth Schneider (Hrsg.): Geschichte der Altertumswissenschaften. Biographisches Lexicon (= Der Neue Pauly Supplemente 6) published by J. B. Metzler'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung und Carl Ernst Poeschel Verlag GmbH Stuttgart, Germany. Copyright © 2012 Cover design: TopicA (Antoinette Hanekuyk) Front: Delphi, temple area

ISBN

978 90

04

24593

8

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Brill provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. Fees are subject to change. This book is printed on acid-free paper. PRINTED

IN THE NETHERLANDS

J,;j _...._,_ MIX

-FSC

Paper from

FSC- C004472

Specialist Editors Humanism: Antiquity: (17th-18th cents.): ( 19th-2.oth cents.): Archaeology: Ancient history: Ancient Near East:

Prof. Dorothee Gall (Bonn) Antiquarianism Prof. Dietrich Boschung (Cologne) Philology Prof. Jurgen Leonhardt (Ti.ibingen) Philology Prof. Stefan Kipf (Berlin) Dr. Daniel Graepler (Gottingen) Prof. Heinrich Schlange-Schoningen (Saarbriicken) Prof. Johannes Renger (Berlin)

Contents

Contributors Foreword Classical studies from Petrarch to the 20th century Abbreviations Chronological list of articles Notes on use of the volume Articles A-Z Index

IX

xv xvii xlix liii lxv I

683

Contributors Irene Aghion (Paris): Pellerin, Joseph Hartwig Altenmiiller (Hamburg): Heick, Wolfgang Beatrice Andre-Salvini (Paris): Parrot, Andre Ernst Baltrusch (Berlin): Altheim, Franz; Bickermann, Elias Joseph; Bleicken, Jochen; Curtius, Ernst; Gelzer, Matthias; Heuss, Alfred; Kahrstedt, Ulrich; Kornemann, Ernst; Kunkel, Wolfgang; Smith, Morton; Weber, Wilhelm; Wieacker, Franz Hansgeorg Bankel (Munich): Haller von Hallerstein, Carl Marcello Barbanera (Rome): Anti, Carlo; Bianchi Bandinelli, Ranuccio; Della Seta, Alessandro; Lowy, Emanuel; Quatremere de Quincy, Antoine-Chrysostome Matthias Barth (Munich): Frank, Tenney; Ziebarth, Erich Manuel Baumbach (Zurich): Bernays, Jacob; Rohde, Erwin Roland Baumgarten (Berlin): Dodds, Eric Robertson; Jacoby, Felix; Meuli, Karl; Nilsson, Martin Persson; Schwartz, Eduard; Ziegler, Konrat Marcus Beck (Halle): Cellarius, Christophorus; Forcellini, Egidio Martin Bentz (Bonn): Hugues d'Hancarville, Pierre-Fran~ois; Korte, Gustav; Passeri, Giovanni Battista; Venuti, Ridolfino Marianne Bergmann (Gottingen): Delbrueck, Richard; Lehmann-Hartleben, Karl Hans-Ulrich Berner (Hannover): Arnim, Hans von; Blass, Friedrich; Cobet, Carel Gabriel; Croiset, Alfred; Dittenberger, Wilhelm; Ernout, Alfred; Fraenkel, Eduard; Frankel, Hermann; Friedlander, Paul; Gigon, Olof; Heinze, Richard; Heurgon, Jacques; Laum, Bernhard; Lesky, Albin; Pfeiffer, Rudolf; Pohlenz, Max; Reitzenstein, Richard; Schaefer, Arnold; Schwyzer, Eduard Christof Berns (Berlin): Addison, Joseph; Payne Knight, Richard; Spence, Joseph Gregor Bitto (Rostock): Bowra, Cecil Maurice; Gildersleeve, Basil Lanneau; Merkelbach, Reinhold Horst Blanck t (Rome/Cerveteri): Henzen, Wilhelm; Hiilsen, Christian; Panofka, Theodor; Petersen, Eugen; Stackelberg, Otto Magnus von Dietrich Boschung (Cologne): Bernoulli, Johann Jacob; Clarac, Charles Othon Frederic Jean Baptiste, Comte de; Rubens, Peter Paul Kai Brodersen (Erfurt): Bury, John Bagnell; Grote, George Stephanie-Gerrit Bruer (Stendal): Bracci, Domenico Augusto

Friederike Bubenheimer-Erhart (Vienna): Braun, Emil Marco Buonocore (Rome): De Rossi, Giovanni Battista Giinter Burkard (Munich): Posener, Georges Hans-Ulrich Cain (Leipzig): Overbeck, Johannes; Studniczka, Franz William M. Calder III (Urbana, Illinois): Jaeger, Werner; Oldfather, William Abbott; Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Ulrich von Camilla Campedelli (Berlin): Muratori, Ludovico Antonio Eva Cancik-Kirschbaum (Berlin): Grotefend, Georg Friedrich; Jensen, Peter; Rawlinson, George; Rawlinson, Henry; Schrader, Eberhard Annette Clamor (Osnabriick): Marouzeau, Jules Justus Cobet (Essen): Wiegand, Theodor Jan Colln (Rostock): Wieland, Christoph Martin Giovanni Colonna (Rome): Pallottino, Massimo Lisa Sophie Cordes (Berlin): Dittenberger, Wilhelm; Frazer, James George John Curtis (London): Woolley, Leonard Anna Lucia D'Agata (Rome): Halbherr, Federico; Levi, Doro Margarita Diaz-Andreu (Barcelona): Bonsor Saint-Martin, George Edward; Bosch Gimpera, Pedro (Pere); Garda y Bellido, Antonio Jean-Marie Dentzer (Paris): Seyrig, Henri Marcus Deufert (Leipzig): Camerarius, loachimus Oliver Dickinson (Durham): Wace, Alan Jens-Arne Dickmann (Heidelberg): Mau, August Sylvia Diebner (Rome): Amelung, Walther; Curtius, Ludwig Siegmar Dopp (Gottingen): Bolland, Jean; Salmasius, Claudius Rachele Dubbini (Heidelberg/Rome): Rizzo, Giulio Emanuele Herve Duchene (Dijon): Reinach, Salomon Stephen L. Dyson (Buffalo, New York): Ashby, Thomas; Dinsmoor, William Bell; Hanfmann, George; Newton, Charles Thomas; Richter, Gisela; Thompson, Homer Armstrong Rudolf Echt (Saarbriicken): Fol, Alexander Werner Eck (Cologne): Alfoldy, Geza Kay Ebling (Munich): Bosch, Clemens; Heichelheim, Fritz Moritz; Kraft, Konrad; Laqueur, Richard; Liegle, Josef Theodor; Rosenberg, Arthur; Schenk von Stauffenberg, Alexander Graf; Schwabacher, Willy; Stein, Ernst; Uxkull-Gyllenband, Count Woldemar von

CONTRIBUTORS

Karl A. E. Enenkel (Munster): Petrarch; Piccolomini, Enea Silvio Roland Etienne (Paris): Homolle, Theophile Lucia Faedo (Pisa): Fea, Carlo; Gori, Anton Francesco; Visconti, Ennio Quirino; Zoega, Georg Frederick Mario Fales (Udine): Layard, Austen Henry Fabrizio Federici (Pisa): Dai Pozzo, Cassiano Thomas Finkenauer (Tubingen): Conring, Hermann Klaus Fittschen (Gottingen): Schweitzer, Bernhard Sotera Fornaro (Berlin): Bachofen, Johann Jakob; Buttmann, Philipp Karl; Cornford, Francis Macdonald; Gernet, Louis-Jules; Hermann, Gottfried; Holscher, Uvo; Humboldt, Wilhelm von; Kerenyi, Karl; Lehrs, Karl; Lobeck, Christian August; Marchesi, Concetto; Muller, Karl Otfried; Pasquali, Giorgio; Usener, Hermann; Welcker, Friedrich Gottlieb; Wolf, Friedrich August Benjamin Read Foster (New Haven, Connecticut): Gelb, lgnace Jay (Jerzy); Goetze, Albrecht; Jacobsen, Thorkild; Kramer, Samuel Noah Elke Freier (Panitzsch): Lepsius, Karl Richard Christian Freigang (Berlin): Rieg), Alois; Warburg, Aby; Wickhoff, Franz Otto-Herman Frey (Marburg): Jacobsthal, Paul Andreas Fritsch (Berlin): Fuhrmann, Manfred; Kiihner, Raphael; Menge, Hermann Thomas Frohlich (Rome): Gerkan, Armin von Dorothee Gall (Bonn): Aesticampianus, Johannes Rhagius; Alciatus, Andreas; Aleander, Hieronymus; Barbaro, Ermolao; Barzizza, Gasparino; Boccaccio, Giovanni; Ceporinus, Jacobus; Cola di Rienzo; Cusanus, Nicolaus; Cyriacus of Ancona; Enoch of Ascoli; Giphanius, Obertus; Guarino da Verona; Leoniceno, Niccolo; Linacre, Thomas; Loschi, Antonio; Pighius, Stephanus Vinandus; Pilato, Leonzio; Poliziano, Angelo; Sylburg, Friedrich; Valla, Giorgio; Vettori, Piero; Vittorino da Feltre; Xylander, Guilielmus Pierluigi Leone Gatti (Berlin): Ernout, Alfred; Rostagni, Augusto Thomas Gerhardt (Berlin): Dessau, Hermann; Mai, Angelo Thomas Gertzen (Berlin): Carter, Howard; Petrie, Flinders; Steindorff, Georg Johannes Gobel (Marburg): Dacier, Anne and Andre; Mabillon, Jean; Montesquieu, Charles-Louis de Secondat Daniel Graepler (Gottingen): Ashmole, Bernard; Brunn, Heinrich; Curtius, Ludwig; De Rossi, Giovanni Battista; Elgin, Thomas Bruce,

X

Earl of; Gardner, Percy; Lenormant, Charles; Matz, Friedrich; Payne, Humfry; Reinach, Salomon; Richter, Gisela; Thompson, Homer Armstrong; Ward-Perkins, John Bryan Eve Gran-Aymerich (Paris): Collignon, Maxime; Picard, Charles Michel Gras (Rome): Vallet, Georges Dagmar Grassinger (Cologne): Cavaceppi, Bartolomeo Reinhard Grieshammer (Heidelberg): Buck, Adriaan de; Crum, Walter Ewing; Golenishchev, Vladimir; Kircher, Athanasius; Morenz, Siegfried; Till, Walter Sepp-Gustav Groschel (Berlin): Beger, Lorenz; Bellori, Giovanni Pietro Laurent Guichard (Nancy): Courcelle, Pierre; Festugiere, Andre-Jean; Renan, Ernest Alessandro Guidi (Rome): Bernabo Brea, Luigi; Pigorini, Luigi Andreas Gutsfeld (Nancy): Chastagnol, Andre; Piganiol, Andre Pier Giovanni Guzzo (Pompeii): Fiorelli, Giuseppe Ralph Hafner (Tubingen): Fabricius, Johann Albert; Pareus, Johann Philipp Mathias Hanses (New York): Boeckh, August; Housman, Alfred Edward Volker Hartmann (Heidelberg): Gruter, Jan Stefan R. Hauser (Konstanz): Herzfeld, Ernst Karl Hecker (Munster): Soden, Wolfram von Volker Heenes (Berlin): Duperac, Etienne; Gronovius, Jacobus; Maffei, Paolo Alessandro; Panvinio, Onofrio Heinz Heinen (Trier): Mashkin, Nikolai; Otto, Walter; Preaux, Claire; Shtaerman, Elena Christian Heitz (Gottingen): Ward-Perkins, John Bryan; Wheeler, Mortimer Malte Helfberend (Dusseldorf ): Klotz, Christian Adolph; Vossius, Isaac Marie-Christine Hellmann (Nanterre): Martin, Roland Christoph Helmig (Berlin): Harder, Richard; Shorey, Paul Marcus Heinrich Hermanns (Cologne/Madrid): Chacon, Alfonso; Chandler, Richard; Paciaudi, Paolo Maria; Rosinus, Johannes; Santi Bartoli, Pietro; Sestini, Domenico; Vettori, Francesco Klaus Herrmann (Munich): Dorpfeld, Wilhelm Elisabeth Herrmann-Otto (Trier): Munzer, Friedrich; Straub, Johannes; Temporini, Hildegard, Countess Vitzthum; WelskopfHenrich, Liselotte Henner von Hesberg (Rome): Drerup, Heinrich; Kahler, Heinz; Rumpf, Andreas Peter Hibst (Olpe): ljsewijn, Jozef; Langosch, Karl Beate Hintzen (Bonn): Acidalius, Valens; Argyropoulos, John; Aurispa, Giovanni;

Xl

Bembo, Pietro; Bessarion, Basilios; Bude, Guillaume; Chrysolaras, Manuel; Laskaris, Janus (Andreas Johannes); Melanchthon, Philipp; Micyllus, Jacobus; Pico della Mirandola, Giovanni; Susenbrot, Johannes Christoph Hocker (Augsburg/Ziirich): Piranesi, Giambattista and Francesco; Revett, Nicholas; Stuart, James Mathias Rene Hofter (Berlin): Buschor, Ernst; Furtwangler, Adolf; Kaschnitz von Weinberg, Guido Mirjam H. E. Hoijtink (Amsterdam): Reuvens, Caspar Jacob Christiaan Tonio Holscher (Heidelberg): Hampe, Roland; Schefold, Karl; Stark, Carl Bernhard Claudia Horst (Bremen): Bengtson, Hermann; Foucault, Michel; Nesselhauf, Herbert; Ruschenbusch, Eberhard; Vernant, Jean-Pierre Marcel Humar (Berlin): Cobet, Carel Gabriel; Elmsley, Peter; Kirchhoff, Adolf; Kroll, Wilhelm; Laum, Bernhard; Reitzenstein, Richard; Traube, Ludwig Hermann Hunger (Vienna): Neugebauer, Otto; Oppenheim, Adolph Leo Fahri l~tk (Antalya): Akurgal, Ekrem Cornelia Isler-Kerenyi (Erlenbach): Beazley, John Davidson Peter Janosi (Vienna): Junker, Hermann Sabine Jaubert (Paris): Lenormant, Charles; Lenormant, Fran~ois Christian Jessen-Klingenberg (Hamburg): Bopp, Franz; Powell, Enoch Tobias Joho (Chicago): Burck, Erich; Curtius, Ernst Robert; Highet, Gilbert; Snell, Bruno Andrea Jordens (Heidelberg): Preisigke, Friedrich Friedrich Junge (Gottingen): Edel, Elmar Hans-Markus von Kaenel (Frankfurt am Main): Imhoof-Blumer, Friedrich Ronny Kaiser (Berlin): Bergk, Theodor; Curtius, Georg; Dornseiff, Franz; Hofmann, Johann Baptist; Nauck, August; Pauly, August Friedrich Steffen Kammler (Rostock): Fritz, Kurt von; Nietzsche, Friedrich Anna-Maria Kanthak (Berlin): Harrison, Jane Ellen Stefanie Kennell (Athens): Schliemann, Heinrich Wolfram Kinzig (Bonn): Lietzmann, Hans; Loofs, Friedrich Stefan Kipf (Berlin): Drexler, Hans; Passow, Franz; Pauly, August Friedrich; Pohlenz, Max Fran~ois Kirbihler (Nancy): Cagnat, Rene; Carcopino, Jerome; Marrou, Henri-lrenee Jorg Klinger (Berlin): Alp, Sedat; Bittel, Kurt; Guterbock, Hans Gustav; Hrozny, Bedrich (Friedrich); Laroche, Emmanuel Hans Kloft (Bremen): Bolkestein, Hendrik; Drumann, Wilhelm Karl August; Lauffer, Siegfried; Marx, Karl; Walser, Gerold; Wickert, Lothar

CONTRIBUTORS

Kordelia Knoll (Dresden): Treu, Georg Wolf Koenigs (Munich): Gruben, Gottfried Leonid Kogan (Moscow): Diakonoff, Igor Frank Kolb (Tubingen): Alfoldi, Andreas Foteini Kolovou (Leipzig): Plethon, George Gemistos Natalia Koslova (St. Petersburg): Diakonoff, Igor Detlev Kreikenbom (Mainz): Arndt, Paul Julius; Friederichs, Karl; Kekule von Stradonitz, Reinhard; Langlotz, Ernst; Lippold, Georg; Schuchhardt, Carl; Schuchhardt, WalterHerwig Stefan Krmnicek (Tubingen): Aulock, Hans von; Mattingly, Harold; Meshorer, Yaakov; Mildenberg, Leo; M0rkholm, Otto; Newell, Edward T.; Price, Martin Jessop; Thompson, Margaret Peter Kuhlmann (Gottingen): Canter, Willem; Gazes, Theodore; Machiavelli, Niccolo; Meursius, Johannes; Nestle, Wilhelm; Ruhnken, David; Scaliger, Julius Caesar; Suss, Wilhelm; Walde, Alois Wilhelm Kuhlmann (Heidelberg): Bernegger, Matthias; Boeckler, Johann Heinrich; Buchner, August; Freinsheim, Johannes Barbara Kuhn-Chen (Frankfurt am Main): Hoschel, David; Millar, John; Savile, Henry; Scaliger, Joseph Justus; Schoppe, Kaspar; Ferguson, Adam Max Kunze (Berlin): Junius, Franciscus; Stosch, Philipp von; Winckelmann, Johann Joachim Manfred Landfester (Giessen): Bekker, Immanuel; Dindorf, Karl Wilhelm; Gomperz, Theodor; Hemsterhuis, Tiberius; Lachmann, Karl; Musgrave, Samuel; Reiske, Johann Jacob; Ritschl, Friedrich Wilhelm; Schleiermacher, Friedrich Daniel Ernst; Schwyzer, Eduard; Valckenaer, Lodewijk Caspar; Wyttenbach, Daniel Jorn Lang (Leipzig): Agostini, Leonardo; Baudelot de Dairval, Charles Cesar; Ficoroni, Francesco de'; Heraeus, Carl Gustav; Lippert, Philipp Daniel; Montfaucon, Bernard de; Natter, Lorenz; Orsini, Fulvio Ralph Lather (Osnabruck): Erbse, Hartmut; Kakridis, loannis; Klingner, Friedrich; Leo, Friedrich; Lofstedt, Einar; Madvig, Johan Nicolai; Marouzeau, Jules Marc Laureys (Bonn): Beatus Rhenanus; Biondo, Flavio; Cleynaerts, Nicolaes; Erasmus of Rotterdam; Trithemius, Johannes Reinhard Lehmann (Mainz): Delitzsch, Friedrich Jurgen Leonhardt (Tubingen): DuCange, Charles du Fresne; Gothofredus, Jacobus; Graevius, Johann Georg; Grotius, Hugo; Hardouin, Jean; Heyne, Christian Gottlob; Martinius, Matthias; Meibom, Marcus;

CONTRIBUTORS

Putschius, Helias; Ramler, Karl Wilhelm; Scheffer, Johannes; Scheller, Immanuel Johann Gerhard; Schmid, Erasmus; Taubmann, Friedrich; Tursellinus, Horatius Hartmut Leppin (Frankfurt am Main): Burckhardt, Jacob; Christ, Karl; Ensslin, Wilhelm; Seeck, Otto Valeria Lilie (Kiel): Bidez, Joseph; Croiset, Alfred; Delcourt, Marie; Heurgon, Jacques; Migne, Jacques-Paul Astrid Lindenlauf (Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania): Karo, Georg Heinrich Bernhard Linke (Bochum): Brunt, Peter; Busolt, Georg; Vidal-Naquet, Pierre Brigitte Lion (Tours): Botta, Paul-Emile; Oppert, Jules; Thureau-Dangin, Fram;ois Katharina Lorenz (Nottingham): Brendel, Otto Johannes Volker Losemann (Marburg): Berve, Helmut; Irmscher, Johannes; Premerstein, Anton von; Stein, Arthur; Vogt, Joseph Angelika Lozar (Berlin): Benoist, Eugene; Berard, Victor; Marx, Friedrich; Norden, Eduard Kerstin Ludwig (Berlin): Page, Denys Lionel; Zeller, Eduard Veronika Lukas (Munich): Rader, Matthaeus John Lund (Copenhagen): Brnndsted, Peter Oluf Bernhard Maier (Tiibingen): Creuzer, Georg Friedrich Arnaldo Marcone (Rome): Ciccotti, Ettore; De Sanctis, Gaetano; Ferrero, Guglielmo; Mazzarino, Santo Hartmut Matthaus (Erlangen): Gjerstad, Einar Olaf Matthes (Hamburg): Andrae, Walter; Koldewey, Robert Burckhard Meissner (Hamburg): Gunther, Rigobert; Meyer, Eduard Jurgen Merten (Trier): Hettner, Felix; Massow, Wilhelm von Cecile Michel (Nanterre): Botta, Paul-Emile; Oppert, Jules; Thureau-Dangin, Fran~ois Dennis Miedek (Osnabruck): Leumann, Manu Gabriele Mietke (Berlin): Deichmann, FriedrichWilhelm Peter N. Miller (New York): Fabri de Peiresc, Nicolas-Claude Nina Mindt (Berlin): Lobeck, Christian August; Schadewaldt, Wolfgang Ina E. Minner (Hattingen): Ross, Ludwig Peter Franz Mittag (Cologne): D'Orville, Jacques Philippe; Eckhel, Joseph Hilarius; Foy-Vaillant, Jean; Morell, Andreas; Spanheim, Ezechiel Nicoletta Momigliano (Bristol): Evans, Arthur Aliki Moustaka (Thessaloniki): Andronikos, Manolis; Karousos, Christos; KarousouPapaspyridi, Semni; Orlandos, Anastasios

xii Carl Werner Muller (Saarbrucken): Diimmler, Georg Ferdinand; Jahn, Otto Hans-Peter Muller (Leipzig): Christ, Johann Friedrich Marita Mi.iller (Berlin): Aldrovandi, Ulisse Martin Mulsow (Erfurt): Huet, Pierre Daniel Felix Mundt (Berlin): Buchner, Karl; Haupt, Moriz Beat Naf (Zurich): Meyer, Ernst Friederike Naumann-Steckner (Cologne): Fremersdorf, Fritz Heinz-Gunther Nesselrath (Gottingen): Bentley, Richard; Wood, Robert Hans Neumann (Munster): Koschaker, Paul Wilfried Nippe! (Berlin): Delbriick, Hans; Droysen, Johann Gustav; Friedlander, Ludwig; Gibbon, Edward; Momigliano, Arnaldo Dante; Niebuhr, Barthold Georg; Savigny, Friedrich Carl von Hans Ulrich Nuber (Freiburg): Dragendorff, Hans Marcel Nuss (Tiibingen): Ernesti, Johann August; Gesner, Johann Matthias Joachim Oelsner (Leipzig): Landsberger, Benno Eckart Olshausen (Stuttgart): Kirsten, Ernst Manfred Oppermann (Halle): Robert, Carl Winfried Orthmann (Halle): Moortgat, Anton Mayya Pait (Berlin): Fraenkel, Eduard; Frankel, Hermann; Friedlander, Paul; Zielinski, Tadeusz Bernhard Palme (Vienna): Grenfell, Bernard Pyne; Hunt, Arthur Surridge; Mitteis, Ludwig; Oertel, Friedrich; Schubart, Wilhelm; Turner, Eric Gardner; Wilcken, Ulrich; Youtie, Herbert Chayyim Domenico Palombi (Rome): Lanciani, Rodolfo Diamantis Panagiotopoulos (Heidelberg): Marinatos, Spyridon; Mylonas, Georgios; Tsountas, Christos Maurizio Paoletti (Cosenza): Orsi, Paolo Jan Papy (Leuven): Burmann, Pieter the Elder; Burmann, Pieter the Younger; Gronovius, Johannes Fredericus; Heinsius, Daniel; Heinsius, Nicolaus; Lipsius, Justus Anna Maria Pastorino (Diisseldorf ): Maffei, Francesco Scipione Martina Pesditschek (Vienna): Badian, Ernst; Domaszewski, Alfred von; Egger, Rudolf; Keil, Josef; Kubitschek, Wilhelm; Schachermeyr, Fritz Christoph Pieper (Leiden): Beroaldo, Filippo the Elder; Celtis, Conrad; Landino, Cristoforo; Tortelli, Giovanni; Valla, Lorenzo Pierre Pinon (Paris): Grenier, Albert Thomas Poiss (Berlin): Holscher, Uvo Danny Praet (Gent): Cumont, Franz; Sarton, George Wolfgang Radt (Berlin): Hamdi Bey, Osman; Humann, Carl

xiii Stefan Rebenich (Bern): Beloch, Karl Julius; Chantraine, Heinrich; Harnack, Adolf von; Hirschfeld, Otto; Jones, Arnold Hugh Martin; Mommsen, Theodor; Syme, Ronald Matthias Recke (Giessen): Bieber, Margarete Fram;ois Richard (Nancy): Fustel de Coulanges, Numa Denis Volker Riedel (Berlin): Goethe, Johann Wolfgang; Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim; Schlegel, August Wilhelm; Schlegel, Friedrich; Voss, Johann Heinrich Thomas Riesenweber (Bonn): Laetus, Julius Pomponius; Salutati, Coluccio Sebastian Ristow (Cologne): Bosio, Antonio; Ciampini, Giovanni Giustino; Fabretti, Raffaele Detlef Rossler (Berlin): Gerhard, Eduard Philippe Rouet (Paris): Pottier, Edmond Walther Sallaberger (Munich): Edzard, Dietz Otto; Falkenstein, Adam; Poebel, Arno Giovanni Salmeri (Pisa): Borghesi, Bartolomeo Jan Marco Sawilla (Konstanz): Perrault, Claude Ann-Louise Schallin (Athens): Furumark, Arne Egon Schallmaycr (Bad Homburg): Nissen, Heinrich Markus Schauer (Bamberg): Posch!, Viktor; Ribbeck, Otto; Thiersch, Friedrich Oliver Schelske (Ti.ibingen): Georges, Karl Ernst; Gigon, Olof; Lesky, Albin; Maas, Paul; Parson, Richard Wolfgang Schenkel (Ti.ibingen): Brugsch, Heinrich; Champollion, Jean-Fram;ois; Gardiner, Alan H.; Mariette, Auguste; Maspero, Gaston; Polotsky, Hans Jakob Claudia Schindler (Hamburg): Casaubonus, Isaac Thomas Schirrcn (Salzburg): Vossius, Gerardus Johannes Heinrich Schlange-Schoningen (Saarbri.icken): Edelstein, Ludwig; Eder, Walter; Enmann, Alexander; Gregoire, Henri; Hadas, Moses; Hertzberg, Gustav Friedrich; Jullian, Camille; Kromayer, Johannes; Lippold, Adolf; Meiggs, Russell; Moreau, Jacques; Niese, Benedictus; Robert, Louis; Roussel, Pierre; Tarn, William Woodthorpe; Taylor, Lily Ross; Toynbee, Arnold Joseph; Wolff, Hans Julius Danny Schlumpf (Zurich): Bli.imner, Hugo; Hasebroek, Johannes Ernst August Schmidt (Tiibingen): Gaiser, Konrad Stefan Schmidt (Munich): Pfuhl, Ernst Tassilo Schmitt (Bremen): Gschnitzer, Fritz; Rilinger, Rolf Dietmar Schmitz (Oberhausen): Heinze, Richard; Latte, Kurt; Leopardi, Giacomo; Solmsen, Friedrich Alain Schnapp (Paris): Camden, William; Perrault, Charles; Perrot, Georges; Spon, Jacques

CONTRIBUTORS

Helmuth Schneider (Kassel): Biichsenschiitz, Albert Bernhard; De Ste. Croix, Geoffrey; Ehrenberg, Victor; Finley, Moses I.; Hume, David; Pohlmann, Robert von; Polanyi, Karl; Rodbertus, Karl; Rostovtzeff, Michael; Weber, Max Sonja Schonauer (Bonn): Crusius, Martinus; Laskaris, Constantine; Leunclavius, Johannes; Wolf, Hieronymus Anna Schreurs (Florence): Ligorio, Pirro; Sandrart, Joachim von Jan Schroder (Tiibingen): Cujas, Jacques; Doneau, Hugues; Zasius, Ulrich Helmut Schubert (Frankfurt am Main): Babelon, Ernest; Cohen, Henry; Gobi, Robert; Head, Barclay Vincent; Svoronos, loannes Nikolaos Stephan Seidlmayer (Cairo): Erman, Adolf; Sethe, Kurt Gabriele Seitz (Freiburg): Fabricius, Ernst Doreen Selent (Rostock): Bi.icheler, Franz Reinhard Senff (Athens): Kunze, Emil Kurt Sier (Leipzig): Dorat, Jean; Robortello, Francesco; Stephanus, Henricus; Stephanus, Robertus; Turnebus, Adrianus Roswitha Simons (Gottingen): Pirckheimer, Willibald; Sigonius, Carolus Ulrich Sinn (Wiirzburg): Wagner, Johann Martin von Brigitte Solch (Florence): Bianchini, Francesco Anika Soltenfuss (Osnabriick): Wissowa, Georg Holger Sonnabend (Stuttgart): Broughton, Thomas Robert Shannon; Graham, Alexander John; Holleaux, Maurice; Holm, Adolf; Loraux, Nicole; Pflaum, Hans-Georg Reinhard Sorries (Kassel): Wilpert, Joseph Adrian Stahli (Cambridge, Massachusetts): Caylus, Anne-Claude-Philippe, Comte de; Richardson, Jonathan Markus Stein (Diisseldorf): Dolger, Franz Joseph Ulrike Claudia Ariane Stephan (Berlin/London): Bywater, Ingram; Gaisford, Thomas; Jowett, Benjamin; Murray, Gilbert; Nettleship, Henry; Pfeiffer, Rudolf; Ventris, Michael Rene Sternke (Berlin): Bottiger, Karl August; Millin de Grandmaison, Aubin-Louis; RaoulRochette, Desire Dirk Steuernagel (Regensburg): Dempster, Thomas Jan Stubbe 0stergaard (Copenhagen): Poulsen, Frederik Esther Sophia Siinderhauf (Berlin): Rodenwaldt, Gerhart Hubert Szemethy (Vienna): Benndorf, Otto; Conze, Alexander; Duhn, Friedrich von; Loeschcke, Georg; Michaelis, Adolf; Winter, Franz

CONTRIBUTORS

Nikolaus Thurn (Berlin): Acciaiuoli, Donato; Buonaccorsi, Filippo; Calderini, Domizio; Della Fonte, Bartolomeo; Filelfo, Francesco; Nebrija, Elio Antonio de; Rabelais, Fran~ois; Reuchlin, Johannes; Sambucus, loannes; Sepulveda, Juan Gines; Vives, Juan Luis Ursula Troger (Bonn): Enzinas, Francisco de; Lambinus, Dionysius; Lefevre d'Etaples, Jacques; Riccoboni, Antonio; Ruel, Jean Ioulia Tzonou-Herbst (Corinth): Blegen, Carl William Alexandra Verbovsek (Munich/Oxford): Bissing, Friedrich Wilhelm von Edzard Visser (Basel): Diels, Hermann; Parry, Milman; Reinhardt, Karl; Wackernagel, Jacob Gunter Vittmann (Wurzburg): Erichsen, Wolja Susanne Voss (Berlin): Borchardt, Ludwig Axel E. Walter (Klaipeda/Osnabruck): Bongars, Jacques Uwe Walter (Bielefeld): Grant, Michael; Hohl, Ernst; Marquardt, Karl Joachim; Strasburger, Hermann

Cornelia Weber-Lehmann (Bochum): Helbig, Wolfgang Christian Wendt (Berlin): Gardthausen, Victor; Kaser, Max; Schmitthenner, Walter Antonia Wenzel (Berlin): Grima!, Pierre; Heiberg, Johan Ludvig; Jebb, Richard Claverhouse; Vallauri, Tommaso Hildegard Wiegel (Schwabach): Meyer, Johann Heinrich Anja Wolkenhauer (Tubingen): Alberti, Leon Battista; Barbaro, Daniele; Glareanus, Heinrich; Manutius, Aldus; Muretus, Marcus Antonius; Musurus, Marcus; Niccoli, Niccolo; Peutinger, Conrad Alessia Zambon (Paris): Boissard, Jean-Jacques; La Chausse, Michel-Ange de Jurgen Zimmer (Berlin): Hirt, Aloys Clemens Zintzen (Cologne): Ficino, Marsilio; Poggio Bracciolini, Gian Francesco

Foreword The 'Classical Tradition' volumes of Brill's New Pauly devoted to the history of reception and scholarship (BNP 1-V) focus on institutions that have been of importance in the history of classical studies, on the development of the individual disciplines within the field, on the position of classical studies in different countries and on the reception of ancient art and culture. They do not, however, include articles on individual scholars and researchers. The supplement volumes to Bri/1's New Pauly now provide the opportunity to contribute to the history of scholarship with a historical lexicon of classical studies. Although great weight is nowadays rightly attached to research institutions, and to the dependence of scholarly developments and trends on political and cultural contexts, there is still no doubt that advances in scholarship often come about through the work of individual scholars and by virtue of their perspectives, interests and creativity. This evident fact amply justifies the biographical approach of the present volume. Consideration is given not only to philologists, archaeologists and ancient historians, but also to antiquarians, epigraphists, numismatists and papyrologists. In accordance with the overall conception of Brill's New Pauly, which in its 'Antiquity' section pays attention to the role of the cultures of Ancient Egypt and the Ancient Near East in the development of the eastern Mediterranean after I ooo BC, as well as to the cultural diversity of the Mediterranean world, the present volume also includes articles on Egyptologists and Ancient Near Eastern specialists. The editors and authors of the present volume are convinced that scholarly disciplines must always acknowledge those existing works and achievements upon which the present state of scholarship is founded. Knowledge of its historical context is essential to a discipline's understanding of itself, and to successful research practice. An interdisciplinary history of scholarship today can no longer legitimately disregard philosophers, ethnologists, social scientists or art historians - or, indeed, collectors and writers who have made decisive contributions to the development of classical studies or to an understanding of antiquity. Goethe may serve as an example: he aspired to study classical philology, knew the philologists of his day well and, as is often recalled, wrote a treatise on Winckelmann, corresponded with Friedrich August Wolf and made an intensive study of ancient art and literature. Similarly, it would be indefensible today to omit consideration of social scientists like

Max Weber or Karl Polanyi, whose works have enjoyed widespread reception among ancient historians. The same is true of scholars like Michel Foucault, whose works on sexuality in ancient Greece have been a notable influence on academic research. The present volume covers a chronological span from the 14th cent. to the :z.oth. Classical studies became increasingly important at universities and academies in the I 9th and early :z.oth cents., while constituent disciplines within the general field became more clearly differentiated as chairs of archaeology and ancient history were founded. Although the ancient languages lost their dominant position in the education system over the course of the :z.othcent., the number of philologists, archaeologists and ancient historians worldwide has increased as many new universities have been established. More than half of the articles are therefore devoted to scholars of the 1 9th and :z.oth cents. As a general principle, no articles have been devoted to living scholars. The editors and authors have striven to give equal and proportionate weight to classical studies in Germany, other European countries and the United States, in order to create a comprehensive international reference tool on the history of classical scholarship. Selecting scholars and researchers for individual consideration has not been an easy task either for the editors of the volume as a whole or for the specialist subject editors. Limitations of space have necessitated restricting the number of articles, and in many cases it has proved impossible to include scholars who unquestionably made important contributions to classical studies. Naturally, too, such a selection depends in part on subjective criteria, and the editors are well aware that other decisions would have been possible and perfectly justifiable in scholarly terms. The work of individual scholars and researchers can only ever be properly understood in the context of the development of scholarship as a whole. Moreover, the work of an individual scholar must always be dependent on the work of his or her predecessors, and scholarly research is also conditioned by political, cultural and institutional contexts. For these reasons, the editors have attempted in a brief survey to present the development of classical scholarship from its beginnings in the 14th cent. through to the second half of the :z.oth cent. This survey is also intended to facilitate the location of the individual articles in the context of the history of scholarship.

FOREWORD

The principle of 'decentralized organization of work' (cf. BNP 1, Preface) has also been observed in this lexicon. The editors wish to thank the specialist subject editors for their thorough work, which has extended far beyond the organization and supervision of their individual areas of expertise. Thanks are also due to the authors for their articles, which have often required considerable research, and to the editorial team at

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Metzler-Verlag, especially Dr. Brigitte Egger, who has risen to master every challenge and difficulty as the work has progressed, and whose ever helpful and dedicated management has been crucial to the production of the lexicon. Stuttgart, Spring 2012 Peter Kuhlmann, Gottingen Helmuth Schneider, Kassel

Classical studies from Petrarch to the 20th century

A.

HISTORY

CLASSICAL OF

THE

OF

SCHOLARSHIP

STUDIES

-

THE

AND

CONCEPT

VOLUME

Over recent decades, the history of scholarship has manifestly gained in importance as a discipline alongside the history of philosophy, the history of literature and the history of art. The remit of research in the history of scholarship has not been restricted to describing past advances in knowledge within the various fields, but has also included more generally the analysis of research processes. Scholars have sought to establish the conditions under which scholarly progress is possible (Karl Raimund Popper; Thomas S. Kuhn; Paul Feyerabend), the interdependencies that exist between scholarly research and political, social and cultural contexts, and the factors that impact upon research interests, the formulation of problem issues and the choice of methods. At first, such scholarly history tended to concentrate primarily on the natural sciences and the great revolutions in scientific thought that led to the development of new theories and methods in disciplines such as mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry and biology. At first, then, many works in the history of scholarship were devoted to important individual scientists, such as Galileo, Newton, Darwin and Einstein. More recently, the emphasis has shifted more towards the institutional contexts of scholarly research for instance, to the role of universities and communication between scholars in the formulation of new research outcomes, the emergence of research institutes and laboratories at universities in the 19th cent. or the foundation of institutions like the Max-Planck-Gesellschaft and the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft. Although several important monographs on the history of classical studies were published before 1970 - examples include the Geschichte der Philologie by Ulrich van WilamowitzMoellendorff ( 192.1) and Theodor Mommsen und das 19. Jahrhundert by Alfred Heuss ( 19 56) -, research into the history of scholarship only really began to intensify after 1970, thanks in particular to the initiatives and commitment of Alfred Heuss, William M. Calder III, Arnaldo Momigliano, Rudolf Pfeiffer, Karl Christ, Alexander Demandt, Manfred Landfester, Wilfried Nippe!, Beat Naf and Stefan Rebenich. The work of these ancient historians and classical philologists has been vital firstly in greatly enhancing our understanding of the development of classical philology, archaeology and ancient history, and secondly in establishing the history of scholarship as a recognized discipline of classical studies.

There are two distinct approaches to research in the history of scholarship. While many accounts consider the subject in terms of the history of individual scholars, and therefore tend to emphasize the biographies of particular figures in the field, other researchers have seen the history of scholarship in terms of the history of problem issues, and attempted to focus their works and conclusions on particular thematic complexes, conducting critical analysis of the development of the various scholarly positions. It is vital to acknowledge that in earlier times, studies mainly concerned with assessing the achievements of individual researchers seldom paid attention to the political and cultural conditions and contexts within which those researchers worked. This predilection for a biographical account also often produced very positive, sometimes flattering assessments of the achievements of particular scholars, while their shortcomings were rarely addressed. In this context it must be emphatically stated that alongside the important work done by individual researchers, the world of scholarship has also always played host to errors of judgment and problematic positions. Many studies of the history of scholarship also concentrated on developments in particular nations or even at particular universities, thereby neglecting the work of collaboration among scholars of different nations that was so characteristic of the early modern period and the I 9th cent. in particular. Another problem has arisen where focus has been restricted to a single discipline, thereby similarly overlooking interdisciplinary collaboration. Surveys of the history of scholarship often set the period around the year 1800 as a definite watershed. There is more interest in modern classical studies, as the subject established itself and developed its thematic spectrum, its overall approach and above all its methodology at the universities in the 19th cent. This weight of emphasis does not pay due attention to the scholars of the early modern period, whose achievements were often of pioneering importance. The scholarly positions of Humanism and the Enlightenment are also frequently forgotten. Yet it should be remembered that the editing and commentating of ancient texts, the identification of topographical data with remains and ruins, and the examination of ancient works of art were all, at the time, remarkable scholarly accomplishments. Moreover, the development of a method for interpreting texts and pictorial works and the emergence of a historical understanding of ancient art and literature were advances of crucial importance in the culture of

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the early modern period. The work of the early modern Humanists and antiquarians may thus quite justifiably be compared with the emergence of modern scientific method, based on experiment and the assumption of laws of nature. The Humanists and the outstanding philologists and antiquarians of the Renaissance and early modern period are representatives of European culture, and thus deserve their place in European cultural history. In the circumstances, it must be considered a matter of some urgency for historians of scholarship to accord scholars of the Renaissance and early modern period the attention that their historical importance warrants, and to draw renewed attention to their achievements. Anthony Grafton, for instance, has drawn attention to the extent to which we risk losing works dating from before 1800, in the section on Friedrich August Wolf in his book Defenders of the Text (1991): To judge this account we must venture outside the orderly, well-mapped intellectual landscape found in most histories of scholarship. We must confront Wolf's ideas and results with those of his immediate predecessors and contemporaries. These are buried in hundreds of forgotten books, whose neoclassical title pages unfairly raise the hopes of the reader, soon to be discouraged by foxed paper und ugly type. Most of them are too technical to attract historians and too obsolete to interest classicists. No wonder, then, that the dusty sectors of eighteenth-century culture bounded by their covers have become a terra largely incognita (p. 216). Grafton's point applies not only to the r 8th cent., but also more generally to the entire period from Petrarch to Wolf. Indeed, scholars of the Renaissance and early modern periods who are of the utmost important to the history of scholarship itself are today largely unknown. Names such as J. J. Scaliger, Justus Lipsius and Richard Bentley have been generally forgotten and their works, in some cases, are almost inaccessible. For this reason, the present volume attempts to document the influence of the Humanists since Petrarch (1304-1374) and the full thematic spectrum of philological and antiquarian research in the early modern period, and to collate information from the many detailed modern studies - mostly published in some obscurity - of the history of early modern scholarship and present new results, in the hope of stimulating research into scholars who have been largely ignored in recent decades. Nor will it be sufficient here to confine the perspective to the disciplines of today: the history of scholarship must also

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address fields that were at the centre of attention in the early modern period - gemmology being one such example. One important task facing historians of scholarship in their research today is to study the parts played by classical philologists, archaeologists and ancient historians in the totalitarian systems of the 20th cent., including not only Italian Fascism and German National Socialism, but also communism in the Soviet Union and the countries of the then Eastern bloc. For the Weimar Republic and the Fascist and National Socialist periods in particular, studies and compilations are available that clearly show the extent to which classical scholars were susceptible to political influence and proved ready to compromise the academic standards of their speciality by adopting and legitimizing the positions of National Socialist ideology, including especially racism, militarism and the glorification of authoritarian rule. Cicero's maxim that history must say nothing that is false and omit nothing that is true seems particularly pertinent to this issue (Cic. De or. 2.,62). Another important field of research in the history of scholarship is the study of exile. Renowned classical philologists and ancient historians from Italy, Germany and Russia found pastures new in Britain and America in particular, where they long exerted lasting influence on British and American scholarship. The history of classical studies in Europe is a long one, closely associated with that of the universities. The following outline is intended to locate the individual scholars and specialists within the development of their subject, and to clarify contexts both scholarly and cultural.

8.

CLASSICAL

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CENTURY THE EARLY

UP TO THE

B.1. HUMANISTS The roots of Humanism lie in Italy. One important precursor of the Humanists was Dante, already turning as he was away from medieval scholasticism and towards pagan authors including Cicero, Livy and Virgil, and taking at least a theoretical interest in Greek literature. The process that now began to take hold was motivated by a feeling that classical antiquity was superior to the contemporary world in all spheres of life. Hence, the study of ancient authors served to facilitate progress in the world of now. The first Humanist in the true sense of the word is generally agreed to have been Petrarch (1304-1374), who drew explicitly on the pagan literature of antiquity and saw it as setting standards for his own day. He was in contact with the politician Cola di Rienzo, and sympathized with his plan to restore the ancient Roman res publica. He rejected the Aristotle-based scholastic

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schooling of his own times. Like later Humanists, Petrarch started out by collecting manuscripts of ancient authors. He made finds in the process, rediscovering Cicero's speech Pro Archia poeta in 13 33, for example, and the same author's Epistulae ad familiares in 13 50. His correspondence, compiled under the same title, also imitated Cicero's work in use of language. Petrarch was certainly the first Humanist for whom Cicero was an explicit linguistic model. He also took an interest in Greek literature, especially Plato and Homer, although his own knowledge of Greek was insufficient to read these authors in the original. In 1366, he commissioned Leonzio Pilato to make a Latin translation of the Iliad and parts of the Odyssey, but the results did not meet the stylistic standards of the first Humanists and there was little interest. Nevertheless, the first shoots of Greek learning were now beginning to show in Western Europe. The work of Petrarch 's student Boccaccio ( 13 13-13 7 5) was of key importance to the further development of classical studies - not only his many encyclopaedic writings, but also his rediscovery of Cicero's speeches against the corrupt provincial governor Verres ( Verrine Orations), Ovid's vilificatory poem Ibis, the erotic anthology Priapea and the poetic description of the River Mose) (Mosella) by the late-antique poet Ausonius. A plethora of important figures emerged in the second half of the 14th cent. under the influence of these early Humanists. Like Petrarch, they were active not only as philologists but also as authors in their own right, and issues of Latinity and style were naturally of the highest importance to them. The period is characterized, particularly as distinct from medieval scholasticism, firstly by the emphasis on the importance of rhetoric above philosophy, even if the connection between eloquentia and sapientia (in the sense of moral philosophy) was certainly an ideal as inspired by Cicero. Secondly, there was the increasing importance of Cicero as a linguistic model, a factor that greatly stimulated the study of the Latin of classical antiquity. Finally, the fledgling studia humanitatis was now rooted not in the universities, which were steeped in scholasticism, but in the princely courts (including the Papal Curia), academies and private schools, and circles of wealthy private citizens. An early centre of Humanism was the city of Florence, at first a free city-state and later under Medici rule. Successive chancellors of the city, Coluccio Salutati ( 1331-1406) and Leonardo Bruni (c. 1370-1444), encouraged both the study of Cicero and the rediscovery of Greek literature. In 13 96, Salutati brought the Byzantine philologist Manuel Chrysolaras to Florence to establish regular Greek tuition there. Bruni used his

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knowledge of Greek thus acquired to translate works of Aristotle, Plato and Aristophanes into Latin. In Florence, Humanist studies had a particular edge of topical relevance, serving as they did to enhance the study of the history of the city and to lend political legitimacy to its tradition of civic freedoms (so-called 'Civic Humanism'). From the second half of the 1 5th cent., Rome was becoming increasingly important in the field of antiquarian studies alongside Florence. Popes like Nicholas V and Pius II (Enea Silvio Piccolomini) either were active Humanists themselves or actively promoted the search for ancient texts, the translation of Greek authors and the quest to discover ancient works of art. Among the discoveries made in this period were the complete works of Quintilian, yet more speeches by Cicero, Tacitus' Annales, Germania and Dialogus, the letters of Pliny, Suetonius' De viris illustribus, Frontinus and sixteen comedies of Plautus. The most successful of the manuscript hunters were Gian Francesco Poggio Bracciolini (1380-1459), who used his participation in the Council of Konstanz ( 1414-1418) as secretary to Pope Nicholas I to undertake further expeditions and investigations, and Francesco Filelfo ( 13 981481) and Giovanni Aurispa (1376-1459), both of whom went to Constantinople in the 1440s, where they acquired manuscripts including the first of the Greek tragedians and Apollonius of Rhodes. This period also saw the arrival in Italy of more Byzantine philologists. In 1438, for example, the Platonist George Gemistos Plethon travelled to Ferrara for the ecumenical council, and his presence catalysed the development of the Platonic Academy founded at Florence by Cosimo de' Medici. At the Academy, Marsilio Ficino ( 1433-1499) translated the works of Plato into Latin, like Plethon aiming to purge the true teachings of Plato of the distortions of late-antique Neoplatonism - although the result was a species of Platonic mysticism fused with Christian elements. The Fall of Constantinople in 14 53 naturally marked a major turning-point in the development of Greek philology, since it led to the flight into exile of Greek philologists and the sale of many manuscripts by the Turks. However, this did not bring any new discoveries of previously lost ancient authors or texts. Considerable advances in the development of philology were inspired in particular by Lorenzo Valla (c. 1407-1457), who no longer saw himself as a poet but as a philologist. In 1440, working for the King of Naples, Alfonso of Aragon, who was in dispute with the Papal State, Valla exposed the so-called 'Donation of Constantine' as a forgery. However, in 1448 he changed sides, becoming a secretary in the service of the Pope. His student, the poet and philologist

CLASSICALSTUDIES FROM PETRARCHTO THE 2.0TH CENTURY Angelo Poliziano ( 14 54-1494), furthered the development of textual criticism with his manuscript collations and his lists of variant readings. For instance, he was the first to use the term 'archetype' and the first to include the category of error coniunctivus in his editions. B.2..

HUMANISTS

IN THE ERA

OF

BOOK

PRINTING

Printing arrived in Italy from 1464. The new technology now made the Humanists' editions and handbooks available to a wider readership, but books were expensive, and book ownership was at first the preserve of libraries and the wealthy. In academic circles, texts therefore continued to be dictated or copied. Printing led to the systematization of many formal conventions, such as typefaces, orthography, abbreviations and the physical design of pages with pagination and chapter numbering. In Italy, the major centres of printing were Rome (37 printing houses by 1480) and especially Venice, where the philologist Aldus Manutius (1450/52.-1515) published not only Latin works but also the first printed editions of Greek authors (so-called 'Aldines'). The most important printing-houses in France were at Lyon, and in the German-speaking world at Strasbourg and Basel. There was a special case in Paris, where the Humanist Estienne (Stephanus) family founded an important printing-house in 1502., only to move it to Geneva later because of their Calvinist sympathies (see below, B.3.). Printing technology stimulated a boom in the creation of editions, so that virtually all of the important pagan Greek and Latin authors had been edited by around 152.0. Most Greek texts were published in Latin translation before they were issued in the original version. Overall, these first printed editions were still unreliable and littered with errors, because of the lack of competent proofreaders. From the late 1 5th cent., Italy slowly began to fall behind, and was gradually overtaken by developments in philological studies in France and Germany (i.e. in the Holy Roman Empire north of the Alps). One factor that contributed to this was the presence from 1442. to 14 5 5 of the Italian Enea Silvio Piccolomini (the future Pope Pius II) at the court of the future Emperor Friedrich III. Subsequently, the university at Vienna began to offer lectures on the Latin classical authors, Cicero, Sallust, Virgil, Horace and Seneca. One of the key founding fathers of German Humanism, Conrad Celtis (14591 508), taught at Vienna until 1508. Besides Vienna, Heidelberg was another important centre of Humanism. For instance, it was one of the workplaces of Peter Luder ( 14 r 5-1472.), trained in Italy and Greece, who lectured on ancient literature, rhetoric and metrics. Luder was also

XX

active in Ulm, Leipzig and Vienna, encouraging the foundation of private Humanist societies in each of these places along the same lines as the Academy in Florence. The study of Greek and Hebrew was stimulated in particular by the work of Johannes Reuchlin ( 14 5 5-1 522.), who had learned Greek from John Argyropoulos, and now specialized in Homer and Plato; he at least began compiling a Greek-Latin dictionary. The wide-ranging achievements of the welltravelled cleric (he had visited France and England) Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam (c. 1466-1536), meanwhile, were outstanding and ahead of their time. In his treatise De recta Latini Graecique sennonis pronuntiatione ( 152.8), he reconstructed the ancient pronunciation of Latin and Greek, and spoke out against Reuchlin's and Melanchthon's practice of pronouncing Greek with contemporary phonetics. He also made complete editions of authors including Aristotle and Livy, but also of the New Testament, which he subjected to true philological analysis in the tradition of Valla for the first time. Finally, he anticipated principles of modern critical biblical exegesis, showing among other things that the doctrine of the Trinity cannot be derived from the New Testament. This duly earned him criticism in Protestant circles. Other figures of importance to the spread of Greek studies in the German-speaking world, finally, were Philipp Melanchthon ( 1497-1 560) with his Greek grammar (first published 1 5 r 8) and his commented editions, and Joachim Camerarius (1500-1574). 8.3. PHILOLOGY UP TO THE EARLY 18TH CENTURY From around the mid-16th cent., the era of the pioneers of Humanism gave way to a period in which philological studies were becoming established and increasingly specialized, with an increasing tendency towards the simple accumulation of information. This was the age of textual criticism, commentary and the great lexica. At the same time, the Humanist programme of education was consolidating its position in the emerging Latin schools, Jesuit colleges and universities, in all of which the reading of Latin and, where possible, Greek classics was now a central bulwark of the curriculum. The basis for tuition, and indeed of the language used in tuition, was now a classical Latin primarily founded on Cicero. The issue of Latinity was widely debated. Those loyal to scholasticism were particularly and sometimes harshly critical of the new Ciceronianism, which was espoused to differing degrees of strictness, and which was intolerant of the lively use of the language that had been the custom since the Middle Ages, with its mostly lexical innovations at variants with classical Latin. Nevertheless, the Papal Curia

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implemented Ciceronianism with determination through Pietro Bembo (1470-1547). Conversely, in non-philological technical Latin prose (especially the natural sciences), purely practical considerations meant that a somewhat un-Ciceronian practice persisted until around 1 800, with many non-classical but semantically precise expressions in use. The growth of Humanist tuition, with its classical linguistic standards often at odds with traditional usage, increasingly called for suitable teaching aids, and this stimulated the production both of the so-called 'antibarbarus' literature (to remedy offences against classical Latin) and of major lexica to facilitate the reading of the ancient texts. In geographical terms, the 17th cent. saw France joined as a centre of antiquarian studies by the Netherlands and, increasingly, England. In France, philology was primarily aligned with Greek literature, and it was closely associated with the Francophone poetry of the day, for instance in the circle of poets and philologists known as the Pleiade, which was modelled on the Florentine Academy. The Humanist and jurist Guillaume Bude ( 1468-1 540) published Latin translations of Greek authors that would form the foundation of the Collection Bude named after him. The research institute of the College de France in Paris was also founded on his initiative. Meanwhile, the Estienne (Stephanus) family of publishers were providing a great stimulus to lexicography. The first Thesaurus Linguae Latinae was published in 1531 by Robert Estienne (Robertus Stephanus) in Paris, and it would remain unsurpassed until the appearance of Forcellini's Totius Latinitatis Lexicon in 1771. The Thesaurus gave a lexicological analysis of all the linguistic material then available in printed form, taken directly from the sources and annotated with sophisticated semantic explanations in Latin. Another pioneering achievement was the Thesaurus Graecae Unguae compiled in 1572 by Henri (II) Estienne (Henricus Stephanus). This Greek dictionary with Latin explanations remains to this day the most comprehensive lexicon of Greek. It was thoroughly revised and optimized for modern use in the 19th cent. In 1678, Charles DuCange (1610-1688) published his Glossarium ad scriptores mediae et infimae Graecitatis, the first comprehensive lexicon also to assist in the understanding of post-ancient Greek literature. The range of the research interests of Joseph Justus Scaliger ( 1 540-1609) was very wide. Like later generations of philologists, he concerned himself mostly with conjectural criticism using athetesis and transposition. His particular achievements lie in having founded a scientific chronology entailing critical editions of ancient

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chronographers like Eusebius, and in his collections of Latin and Greek inscriptions and his compilation of indices to them, work that would open the way for the development of scholarly epigraphy. In the Netherlands, the University of Leiden was founded in 1575, and it developed into an important centre of Humanism and antiquarian studies, particularly of Roman antiquity. Scholars who were active there included the philosopher and Humanist Justus Lipsius ( 1547-1606), the jurist and editor Hugo Grotius ( 158 3-1645) and the philologists Nicolaus Heinsius ( 1620-1681 ), Johann Graevius (1632-1703; Thesaurus antiquitatum et historiarum ltaliae: 1699 and 1704) and Jacob Gronovius (1645-1716; Thesaurus antiquitatum Graecarum, 1702). Most were engaged in text criticism and commentary or the compilation of antiquarian information. One figure there, however, was an important precursor to modern historical research. This was the Leiden Professor Jacob Perizonius (died 1715). He was the first to question the reliability of Livy on early Roman history, and to develop criteria for the evaluation of historical sources on ancient history. Other scholars influential in the development of Greek studies were the philologists Tiberius Hemsterhuis ( 168 5-1766) and Caspar Valckenaer (1715-1785), both of whom were influenced by Richard Bentley (see below). They produced critical analyses and editions of Lucian and Aristophanes (Hemsterhuis) and Euripides (Valckenaer) respectively. In England, the critic and editor Richard Bentley (1662-1742) worked at the University of Cambridge, with Oxford one of the outstanding centres of antiquarian research. In 1711, he produced a new edition of Horace with over 700 interventions in the text (most of which were later rejected), collected the fragments of Callimachus, Menander and Philemon, and issued new editions of Manilius and Terence. His new principle of textual criticism, which later became controversial, was the primacy of the ratio over the evidence of the codices. Bentley's most brilliant achievements were his discovery of traces of older phonetic and orthographic forms in Homer (the digamma) on the evidence of metrical anomalies (hiatuses) in the transmitted text, and his proof of the inauthenticity of the 'Epistles of Phalaris' (and other collections of correspondence) on the basis of criteria of language and dialect. Through his precise linguistic observations, Bentley thus became a founder of the scientific method of dating ancient linguistic and textual documents. The Hellenist Richard Porson (1759-1808) was also working in the tradition of Bentley in his metrical and critical studies of the tragedians. He was the discoverer of what became known as 'Porson's Bridge' in the iambic trimeter, i.e. a

CLASSICALSTUDIES FROM PETRARCHTO THE :Z.OTHCENTURY position in a metrical line where a word ending is forbidden. In Germany, Johann Albert Fabricius (16681736) published the Bibliotheca Graeca, an important bibliographic tool that is still used today. This is a compilation of scholarly literature on Greek studies from the invention of printing to 1700, and hence anticipates later bibliographies like the Annee philologique of Jules Marouzeau. B.4. THE STUDIES OF THE ANTIQUARIANS (16TH-18TH CENTS.) During the Renaissance, as interest in antiquity was awakening, the monuments of Rome survived - with a few exceptions like the Pantheon - only as ruins. Until as late as the midI 7th cent., ancient buildings in Rome were still being broken up as quarries of building material for churches and palaces. Marble found its way into lime kilns, ancient columns were reused in new structures and obelisks were removed to be set up at sites in the city that were of significance for the Church. Ancient ruins were built over or incorporated into fortifications, so that the original architecture was almost indecipherable. Only a few of the countless ancient sculptures and reliefs survived, among them the famous equestrian statue on the Roman Capitol. This monument escaped destruction because it was believed to depict the Emperor Constantine, the first Roman princeps to adopt Christianity and in many respects a benefactor of the Church. Yet in spite of the destruction and decay, antiquity was still visible in the monuments, especially in the city of Rome. During the Renaissance, awareness grew that the Roman remains were witnesses to a great past, and that as such they warranted attention. Another observation had already been made in the Middle Ages: that Rome was a city of inscriptions that were often to be found on a monumental scale on buildings, such as temples, triumphal arches, bridges and aqueducts. It is striking that the first collection of inscriptions of the city of Rome is found in a codex from the Benedictine Abbey of Einsiedeln dating from the 9th cent. AD (Codex Einsidlensis 3 26). In the 14th cent., Roman inscriptions were even requisitioned as political instruments, when Cola di Rienzo (1313-1354) cited the Lex de imperio Vespasiani in support of his ambitions. The vast number of ancient remains and works of art, in Rome and Central Italy in particular, necessitated first obtaining an overview of the structures and sculptures that were at hand. The study of the material remains of antiquity in Rome and Italy began with the work of the Humanist Gian Francesco Poggio Bracciolini (1380-1459), whose work on the 'misery of

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humankind' (De miseria humanae conditionis, 1430) also includes a record and description of the ancient remains of the city of Rome. The Roman buildings were then the main focus of the works of Flavio Biondo ( 1392.-1463 ), who in his Roma instaurata ( 1446) and Roma triurn, phans (1459) attempted to clarify ancient topog, raphy and regain contact with Roman culture. Both these works were soon available to schol, ars as printed books ( 148 I and 15 3 1 ), and they became the basis for further research. At last, in the 1 5th and early 16th cents., efforts began to save the Roman ruins from further degradation and destruction. A historic watershed came in I 5 1 5 with the appointment of Raphael as superintendent of Roman antiqui, ties by Pope Leo X. The architects and artists of the Renaissance engaged intensively with ancient art and architecture. Roman cupola construction was a model for the churches of the Renaissance. Filippo Brunelleschi, for instance, drew inspira, tion from the Pantheon in designing the dome of S. Maria del Fiore in Florence. The triumphal arch, meanwhile, was an important element in the church fai;ades of Leon Battista Alberti. But antiquity was by now a mandatory model not only for architecture but also for sculpture. Even painting can now be seen to be influenced by ancient sculpture. Michelangelo praised the Belvedere Torso as the work of a man who was wiser than nature. Increasing building activity in Rome meant that Roman statues were constantly being unearthed, and they attracted more and more interest from scholars and artists alike. The discovery of the Laocoon Group in 1506 caused a sensation. Michelangelo called the group a "miracle of art". Familiarity with ancient texts meant that the subject could immediately be correctly identified. Not only artists, but also scholars were by now turning their attention to the material remains of antiquity, so that from the latter years of the 1 5th cent., Humanists and philologists were adding the study of ruins, works of art, inscriptions and coins to their work of editing and interpreting texts. Antiquarian research would now dominate scholarly engagement with ancient architecture, art and material culture for almost three centuries, up to the time of Johann Joachim Winckelmann and Christian Gottlob Heyne. There were two main tasks facing researchers here: firstly, to catalogue the known ruins, works of art, coins and inscriptions in order to create a reliable basis for further study; secondly, to identify structures and clarify their function and to determine the iconography of works of art. From this period on, antiquarian research had at its disposal the possibility of illustrating texts with woodcuts, engravings and etch-

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ings, and thus to portray the ruins and artefacts of antiquity in pictures. Texts and illustrations complemented one another in antiquarian books, indeed the images - culminating in the works of Giambattista Piranesi - often took pride of place in a publication, vividly presenting the ancient buildings or objects to the reader with an accompanying explanatory text. This was certainly true of the early compilers of ancient topography like Etienne Duperac (1535-1604), who provided only brief commentaries to the large illustrations of his Vestigi dell' antichita di Roma ( 157 5). Such works are invaluable to our modern knowledge of Roman topography, because the illustrations still show monuments and buildings that have since disappeared. From an early date, it is possible to detect a close correlation between the research work of antiquarians and the activities of collectors. The ambition of collectors was to acquire ancient statues and reliefs in order to display these works of art as their property in a representative manner and hence emphasize their social status and distinction. It became the custom to exhibit ancient statues in the courtyards, galleries or libraries of palazzi. This is well documented in the case of the inner courtyard of the Palazzo Valle-Capranica in Rome by an engraving (c. 1 5 5 3) by Hieronymus Cock. In many cases, the works of art in the collections of the Roman nobility were discovered on their own property and latifundia. Besides the private collections, the public exhibition of ancient statues in Rome on the Capitol and in the Cortile de/ Belvedere in the Vatican is worthy of note. The holdings of ancient art works in Roman collections were catalogued as early as the 16th cent. Pioneering work in this field was done by Ulisse Aldrovandi ( 1 5 22-1605 ), who in 1549 and 15 50 drew and described the ancient statues of Rome (Delle statue antiche che per tutta Roma in diversi luoghi & case si veggono, 1558 ), and by Johannes Baptista De Cavallerijs (Giovanni Battista Cavalieri; c. 1525-1600), who in his Antiquarum statuarum urbis Romae ... icones (1561, 1585 and 1594) arranged Roman statues according to collection or subject. His complete work contains some 200 illustrations documenting the condition of the statues as they were in the 16th cent. Antiquarians' interest would soon widen beyond the monuments of pagan antiquity to include the remains of early Christianity, which came to scholars' attention with the discovery of the catacombs. Antonio Bosio (1575/76-1629) made an intensive study of the Christians' subterranean burial grounds. His comprehensive depiction of these cemeteries (Roma sotterranea, 1632), which was of the utmost relevance to eccle-

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siastical politics in the age of the Reformation and Counter-Reformation, contains a precise pictorial documentation of the Christian burials and especially of the wall-paintings. The efforts of the Popes and the Roman noble families to expand their collections of antiquities led to substantial excavations in search of ancient works of art. Occasionally, such excavation work was accompanied by detailed study of the ancient ruins. Pirro Ligorio (1512/13-1583), for instance, took advantage of the excavations at the Villa Hadriani to make a thorough study of this extensive villa complex. Using a brief reference to the villa in the Historia Augusta (SHA Hadr. 26,5 ), Ligorio attempted to identify exactly the individual ruins in the terrain and ascertain their functions. Although his treatise Descriptio Villae Hadrianae was only first published in 1723, scholars were familiar with it before this date. From the late 16th cent., inscriptions and coins were becoming increasingly important in antiquarian research. They were regarded as documents - and were felt to be more reliable as documents than other texts of antiquity. It was quickly understood that what mattered as far as knowledge of antiquity was concerned was not so much the individual inscription as the complete available spectrum of inscriptions. Philologists and antiquarians therefore strove to collect known inscriptions and to publish them in compendia. Important stimuli came once more from Gian Francesco Poggio Bracciolini. But not until the collection of Martinus Smetius (died 1 578) was a work published that answered the needs of antiquarian research. Smetius was secretary to Cardinal Rodolfo Pio da Carpi, who owned a substantial collection of inscriptions work on the publication of the inscriptions was again closely associated with the major collections in the city of Rome. Smetius' lnscriptionum antiquarum quae passim per Europam liber, which was only published (by Justus Lipsius) in 1588, arranges the inscriptions by category (on public and private buildings; from the sphere of religion; concerning important individuals; concerning public offices, trades and professions). This work was followed by publications by Jan Gruter (1560-1627) and Ludovico Antonio Muratori (1672-1750). Gruter's lnscriptiones antiquae totius orbis Romani, published in 1603 at Heidelberg, was based on the collection of Smetius, but Gruter's work was much more comprehensive and included well over 11,000 inscriptions. Muratori's Novus thesaurus (17391742) adopted the texts of earlier collections, which were not always reliably edited and were sometimes altered at will; it even included forgeries. Consequently, it was soon found unequal to the standards of scholarly epigraphic studies.

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The roots of Greek epigraphy are found in this period in the collection of Thomas Howard, 21st Earl of Arundel (1585-1646). Arundel had acquired many Greek inscriptions along with ancient sculptures. The inscriptions included the 'Parian Chronicle' (Marmor Parium), which John Selden edited in the Marmora Arundel/iana (1629). By the early 18th cent., the great number of books published by antiquarians had brought about such an increase in knowledge of the art and material culture of antiquity that it was all but impossible to achieve an overview of ancient monuments and works of art. Bernhard de Montfaucon (1655-1741) now published his monumental work L'Antiquite expliquee et representee en figures (10 volumes, 1719-1724), aiming to provide an encyclopaedic survey of the artefacts of antiquity. Montfaucon had drawings made of all the collections known to him, arranged them according to criteria of content, and added explanatory texts to the illustrations. His ambition was "to reconstruct the past in synopsis" (A. Schnapp). What interested Anne Claude Philippe, the Comte de Caylus (16921765), was a new view, and in particular new methods, of antiquarian research. Although very wealthy, he was not concerned with building up his own collection of beautiful works of art, but with the knowledge that was to be derived from the study of even unassuming remains. The study of objects was most important to Caylus than that of texts. His central methodical principle, as he himself explained, was only to include in his catalogue of antiquities objects that were or had been in his possession. He attached great importance to exactness in the drawings. Besides Greek and Roman antiquities, his catalogue also contains finds from Egypt, Etruria and Gaul (Recueil d'antiquites egyptiennes, etrusques, grecques, romaines et gauloises, 1752-1768). Other genres of ancient art began to interest scholars in addition to architecture and sculpture in the 17th and 18th cents. Gemstones were collected in great quantities. They were cheaper to acquire than sculptures, and hence readily available to the nobility and middle classes. They became highly desirable objects that afforded their owners direct physical access to pieces of original ancient art. Gemstones also quickly became a subject of scholarly literature. Fulvio Orsini included them in the evaluations of ancient portraiture in his Imagines et elogia virorum illustrium et eruditorum ex antiquis lapidibus ( 1 570), and the catalogues of the great collections, like Lorenz Beger's Thesaurus Brandenburgicus (1696-1701), also gave gemstones due attention. The gemmological collection of Baron Philipp von Stosch (1691-1757) was famous, and indeed Stosch as a young man had written a

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seminal book on the subject (Gemmae antiquae caelatae, 1724). After Stosch 's death, Johanrt Joachim Winckelmann ( 17 17-1 768) took ort the task of compiling a catalogue of his collec· tion of over 3,000 gems (Description des pierreS gravees du feu Baron de Stosch, 1760). This, his first antiquarian publication on ancient art, was the foundation of Winckelmann 's high renowrt among the educated public. Ancient coins had also been collected on i grand scale since the Renaissance. Many 'coin cabinets' were created from the 16th cent. in Europe, and these often stimulated intensive engagement with coins. Among the most significant works ort ancient coinage written in the 17th cent. were the Dissertationes de usu et praestantia numismatum antiquorum (Rome 1664) by Ezechiel Spanheim (1629-1710) and the Introduction a l'histoire par la connoissance des medailles (Paris 1 66 5) by Charles Patin ( 16 33-1693 ). Jean Foy-Vaillant ( 163 2-1706), superintendent of the royal coin col• lection in Paris, published works on the Roman coinage of the Principate and saw ancient coins as an important historical source. Joseph Hilarius Eckhel ( 173 7-1798), while director of the Imperial coin collection at Vienna (from 1774), not only published a catalogue of the collection for which he was responsible, but also wrote specialist studies of various problems of ancient coinage. His pioneering magnum opus, the Doctrina numorum veterum (8 volumes, Vienna 1792-1798), also laid the methodical foundations of modern numismatics. Eckhel's work was widely received by scholars across Europe; in introducing Greek coins to a wider public, it exerted a considerable influence on the aesthetic sensibilities of the late 18th cent. Greek art only came to the attention of antiquarian scholars in the 18th cent., in a period of enthusiasm for the Etruscans and their art. Fascination with the Etruscans, which had been a key force in the development of a sense of Tuscan identity since the Renaissance, intensified yet further in the 18th cent. with the publication of Thomas Dempster's De Etruria regali (Florence 1723-1724), becoming nothing short of a craze. At first, the many Greek vases found in Etruscan tombs were believed to be native Etruscan productions, but it soon came to be understood that these grave goods were Greek vessels, mostly Attic black- and red-figure pottery. Although Winckelmann dealt with the "painted vessels" (gemalte Gefasse) in the section on the Etruscans and their neighbours in his Geschichte der Kunst des Alterthums ( 1764 ), he judged these pieces to be products of Greek art, mostly on the basis of their Greek inscriptions. Whereas early antiquarians had tended to neglect ancient pottery as merely utilitarian, Winckelmann explicitly placed the quality of the

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work in the vase-paintings on a level with that in the drawings of Raphael. Large vase collections were assembled during this period. That of William Hamilton (1730-1803) would prove particularly influential. Hamilton, who was the British Resident at Naples from 1 764, and hence had contacts in the Italian art trade, acquired over 700 Greek vases, through purchases as well as from his own excavations. He also commissioned Baron Pierrefrarn;ois Hugues d'Hancarville ( 1719-1805) to create a splendid publication of the collection furnished with many large-format illustrations (Antiquites etrusques, grecques et romaines tirees du Cabinet de M. Hamilton, 1767-1776), as an influence on the tastes of the times. There may have been another reason: Hamilton may have wished to drive up the value of his collection. Indeed, he did ultimately succeed in selling it to the British Museum in 1772, for the considerable price of £8, I 40. A contemporary of Winckelmann's who warrants special mention is Giambattista Piranesi (1720-1778), often underestimated in his importance to archaeology. Piranesi should certainly not be seen only as the artist behind the Carceri and the Vedute di Roma. He was also the author of many publications on individual collections of monuments and in particular on Roman architecture - its monumental edifices of infrastructure (roads, bridges, aqueducts and drains) and its construction techniques, the focus of his Antichita Romane (1756), for instance. The support of Pope Clement XIII enabled Piranesi to study the Roman structures in Castel Gandolfo on Lake Albano. In 1762, he presented a detailed report on the outflow canal from the lake (Descrizione e disegno dell'emissario de/ Lago Albano). He followed this up with other books, for instance on the field of Mars in Rome and Cori (// Campo Marzio dell'antica Roma 1762; Antichita di Cori, 1764), all richly illustrated and offering reconstructions. In many respects, what Piranesi stood for was in direct opposition to Winckelmann. While the latter primarily made Greek art, sculpture and 'beauty' the subject of his Geschichte der Kunst des Altertums, Piranesi concentrated on Etruscan and Roman art, architecture, monuments and infrastructure. Consequently, too, Winckelmann and Piranesi were on opposite sides of the debate on the superiority of Greek or Roman art. A final series of large vedute by Piranesi illustrated the temples of Paestum in southern Italy, triggering lively debate among antiquarians of the day. At first, it was unclear whether these temples were Etruscan-Italic or Greek in origin. In accordance with his belief in the superiority of Italic architecture, Piranesi vehemently rejected the notion that the temples were Greek structures.

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Like the temples of Paestum, the discoveries at Herculaneum and Pompeii in the second half of the 18th cent. had a lasting impact on the European public's view of antiquity. The first excavations in the two Vesuvian cities, which were pursued with enthusiasm following a few chance finds in the area of the theatre at Herculaneum, were initially supposed to salvage ancient works of art for the museum of the King of Naples at Portici. Excavations at Pompeii began in 173 8, and they continued with interruptions into the 20th cent. Prior to Napoleon's invasion of Italy, there were two main problems. Firstly, the excavators were not trained antiquarian scholars and they were not equal to the job. Secondly, the King of Naples regarded both the campaign and the Portici museum as prestige projects and refused to allow scholars, including Winckelmann, to make drawings or sketches in the museum. Still, the European public followed the excavations with great interest. Across Europe, tastes and fashions were much influenced by reports of the excavations and especially by the illustrations of the art objects and wallpaintings found at Herculaneum and Pompeii. Fortunately, from 1750, it was at least decided at Pompeii to begin revealing the street plan with the tombs and residential quarters in the vicinity of the theatre. This afforded Goethe, on his visit on 11 March 1787, the experience which he found somewhat disillusioning - of seeing what a Roman town looked like. "Pompeii is a wonder to everyone in its narrowness and smallness. Narrow streets, albeit straight and laid with pavements to the sides, small houses with no windows, rooms off the courtyards and open galleries illuminated only through their doorways" (ltalienische Reise, Volume 2, first published 1817).

8.5.

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Until the Enlightenment, the study of antiquity and its architecture, art and literature was mainly the preserve of philologists and antiquarians. Although philologists did certainly take the political institutions of the ancient commonwealth into consideration in their work alongside the major themes associated with the texts and monuments, their interest in them was incidental. Surprisingly, there were no attempts in this period to write books on Greek or Roman history. This may simply be because the works of the ancient historians were regarded as reliable accounts of ancient history and they were still widely read. There seems to have been no urge to write new histories of ancient Greece or Rome. The known facts of ancient political history, however, were certainly requisitioned from an early date. One example of this is the

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Discorsi sopra la prima deca di Tito Livio by Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527; the work was published posthumously in 1531 ). Here, the commentary on Livy is the pretext for a political analysis referring to the present day, intended as a contribution to solving the problems of the Italian Renaissance city-states. The late 16th and 17th cents. saw the publication of many books on Tacitus in which the Principate is deployed as a foil for discussions of monarchical rule, and lessons for the present day are drawn from the ancient histories. In the Enlightenment too, the discourse of antiquity had the function of lending historical legitimacy to positions of political philosophy. This can still be seen in the case of Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), whose Contrat social (1762.) takes the institutions of Sparta and Rome a models for his theory of a modern commonwealth. In the 18th cent., scholars and philosophers increasingly came to address the political history of antiquity per se. In many cases, this was done in the context of universal histories, or philosophical essays examining particular aspects of Greek or Roman history, often in comparison with modern conditions. The Political Discourses by David Hume (17u-1776), to take one outstanding example, develops a critical discussion of fundamental issues of ancient society. In his essay Of the Populousness of Ancient Nations (1752), Hume presented a pioneering study of demographic development in antiquity. He attributed the social and economic differences between antiquity and the modern world to slavery, which he considered a defining structural characteristic of ancient society. Meanwhile, however, attempts were also being made to account for the historical development of antiquity by pursuing particular lines of inquiry. A classic example of this is the treatise Considerations sur les causes de la grandeur des Romains et de leur decadence by Montesquieu (1689-1755), published in 1734 in Amsterdam. Insofar as Montesquieu makes reference in many footnotes to the ancient texts from which he draws his information, this work - which surveys Roman history from its beginnings to the Fall of Constantinople - meets the expectations of philological scholarship: he deals with specific problems, such as the level of the wage of a Roman soldier, by reference to the most pertinent sources (Chapter 16). His aim, however, was not simply to convey historical information, still less to give a complete account of historical development, but to examine and discuss the reasons for the rise of Rome, the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the decline of the Eastern. Historical facts were of interest to Montesquieu only insofar as they shed light on his argument. His lack of interest in Christianity is striking.

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His account of Constantine does not mention the emperor's conversion, and Christianization does not enter his description of late antiquity until the chapter on Justinian (20), when the struggle against Christian heresies is belatedly addressed as a factor weakening the Empire. The most important historical work of the Enlightenment was the monumental History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire by Edward Gibbon (1737-1794), who, like many 18th-cent. antiquarians, was a private scholar. His most important working tool was his own substantial library. His work begins with a comprehensive description of the state of the Roman Empire in the 20d cent. AD. Following chapters chart political developments through to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire. Finally, Gibbon continues his history through to the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks ( 14 53 ). Gibbon devotes considerable space to Christianity and the process of Christianization, especially in the chapters dealing with the 4th cent. AD, assembling much evidence to support his case that Christianity was the crucial contributory factor in the decline of the Roman Empire. Gibbon's achievement is especially clear given that only short periods between the reign of Trajan and the end of the 5th cent. AD are covered in surviving ancient historiographic studies of any quality. His account is based on an evaluation of a wide range of source material, including the writings of the Church Fathers. As his notes and his many references, quotations and discussions of the credibility of particular source texts clearly show, Gibbon interpreted the ancient sources thoroughly and with care. His work thus already largely meets the methodical standards of scholarly history. The main reason why Gibbon's history, which paid close attention to religion and institutions, struck such a chord with the European public was that it is based on philosophical reflections on the course of history, and is much more than just a narrative of events. In this respect, it owes a debt to David Hume's History of England (1754 and 1762). The study of the sources was a central problem in Enlightenment historiography. The 18th-cent. British Roman History by Oliver Goldsmith (1730-1774), the author of The Vicar of Wakefield, still displays an unquestioning reliance on the ancient historians. For instance, Goldsmith's first chapters devoted to the Monarchical Period rely closely on Livy. Yet such a view of early Roman history was by no means universal in the Enlightenment, as doubt was beginning to be expressed in the credibility of the ancient tradition. Rousseau, for instance, could assert in his Contrat social (Book 4, Chapter 4) that there were no really reliable accounts of the earliest period of Roman

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history and that the ancient narratives of these times should be regarded as legends. Such a view had been founded as early as 1738 by Louis de Beaufort ( 1703-179 5 ), and it was widespread in the 18th cent. Where leading historians of Enlightenment like Gibbon and Goldsmith had been private scholars, a tendency emerged towards the end of the 1 8th cent. for historical research to be conducted primarily at universities, where institutes and large libraries provided better working conditions than private study rooms. Unique conditions for historical research developed at the University of Gottingen, founded shortly before 17 50, where new subjects such as political science, technology and economics were highly prioritized, and even exerted an influence on research work in the traditional disciplines. In this climate, A.H.L. Heeren ( 1760-1842.), a student of Christian Gottlob Heyne and professor extraordinarius in philology, chose to specialize in ancient economic history - a most unusual decision at the time. His multi-volume work Jdeen uber die Politik, den Verkehr und den Handel der vornehmsten Volker der a/ten Welt ( 1st ed. 179 3-1796) ranges far and wide beyond the traditional thematic spectrum of classical philology. The Persians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Carthaginians and Egyptians are dignified with just as comprehensive a presentation as the Greeks. The respective sections pay as close attention to political institutions as they do to economy and society. It is characteristic of Heeren's approach that the volume on ancient Greece opens with a detailed description of the geographical conditions as they impinged on the Greek economy. For his account of the social and economic conditions in early Greece, Heeren turns to analysis of the Homeric epics. The section on the Greek public economy in the period after the Persian Wars contains a comprehensive examination of slavery and the monetary system. Heeren's work is also important in the history of scholarship because it was a decisive inspiration for August Boeckh (1785-1867) to write his monograph Die Staatshaushaltung der Athener (1817). It thus occupies a position in that history between Enlightenment historiography and a scientific scholarly approach to the study of antiquity based on the examination of the sources.

C. CLASSICAL STUDIES IN THE AGE OF THE UNIVERSITIES C.1. THE BEGINNINGS OF MODERN PHILOLOGY (1750-1850) Until the 18th cent., the study of Latin and Greek was largely considered part of theological training. Moreover, the main focus was on Latin, and within antiquarian research on

Roman antiquities. This began to change, in the German-speaking world in particular, in the second half of the 18th cent. The influence of the Enlightenment led to a separation of philology from theology, and hence also to the establishment of new, independent philology 'seminars' (i.e. departments) at universities. A pioneering example appeared as early as 1738 at the reform university of Gottingen, with Johann Matthias Gesner as professor, but only in 1787 would a Seminarium philologicum be founded (in Halle under Friedrich August Wolf (1759-182.4)) with the explicit purpose of training not theologians but philologists and 'schoolmen' (Schulmanner). Other universities followed this lead in the years that followed, bringing about a complete dissociation of antiquarian research from theology. During the same period, attention also turned towards Greek literature and culture. This Philhellenism was stimulated firstly by Johann Joachim Winckelmann (1717-1768) with his Geschichte der Kunst des Alterthums ( 1764), a history of art from Egypt to the Romans in which Greece was portrayed as the high point, and secondly by the Essay on the Original Genius of Homer ( 1769) by the British amateur of antiquity Robert Wood (1716/J7-1771). This essay sprang from the spirit of the British cult of genius (which in turn inspired the later German Romanticism). The Greeks were now seen as the original geniuses, whereas Roman culture was disqualified as imitative. The denigration of everything Roman sat comfortably with the increasing anti-French sentiment in Germany insofar as the French were seen as the heirs of ancient Rome. The 'Neo-Humanism' that now gathered pace brought a tremendous boost to Greek studies, in the face of which Latin studies seemed doomed to fade away. In many respects, this Neo-Humanist precept of the superiority of the Greeks to the Romans continues to resonate to this day. Another defining characteristic that persists today is the radical turn of Neo-Humanist philology away from the Christian authors. Christian literature was now marginalized, and it has tended to remain on the peripheries of the history of literature as seen in classical philology ever since. In part, the genre became a specialist field of the fledgling discipline of Patristics, which had an important standard-bearer in Catholic France in Jacques-Paul Migne (1800-1875). Migne founded the edition of the complete Greek and Latin Church Fathers, the Patrologiae cursus completus (1844-1858), at over 400 volumes still not entirely superseded today as a series. The offspring of this project are the specialist Christian literature edition series Sources Chretiennes (bilingual, Latin/Greek-French) in France, the Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum

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(CSEL; since 1864) in Vienna and the Corpus Christianorum (Series Latina I Graeca) (CCSUG; since 1947) in Belgium. The first important figure of Neo-Humanism was Christian Gottlob Heyne (1729-1812.), who taught at Gottingen from 1763. Heyne's erudition still combined antiquarian studies, or archaeology and history, with philology. But in contrast to the tendencies of earlier periods, his work was not primarily focused on textual criticism, but on the thematic interpretation of texts as a contribution to general cultural illumination. Heyne's student at Gottingen, Friedrich August Wolf, developed influential work at Halle that would be formative in Homeric research in particular. In his Prolegomena ad H omerum ( 179 5), still wholly in the spirit of Enlightenment criticism, Wolf attempted to demonstrate the oral roots of the Homeric poems and hence to show that such long poems could not possibly be the work of a single author. This anticipated later Homeric analysis and study of 'oral poetry', and it provoked reactions (from Goethe among others). The real Neo-Humanist programme, however, emerged from Wolf's lectures (which were published later) and his Darstellung der AlterthumsWissenschaft (1807). Neo-Humanist thought was also propagated by many other figures outside the strict field of philology, including Lessing, Wieland, Herder, Goethe and Schiller. As the 19th cent. dawned, there was a relatively swift turn away from Latin as the language of scholarship in universities in favour of the vernacular. Heyne's other students and the other Neo-Humanists now mostly published in German. This again clearly betrays, on a formal level, the onset of the paradigm shift. What was happening in the first years of the 19th cent. was a profound reformation of the university system in the German-speaking world. In Prussia, universities and higher schools were being reformed under the guiding influence of Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767-1835; a student of Heyne's), leading to the foundation of the FriedrichWilhelms-Universitiit in Berlin ( 1810; now the Humboldt-Universitat) as the first 'modern' university, and of the Humanistisches Gymnasium, where both classical languages were core subjects of the curriculum. At around the same time in Bavaria, the Philhellenic Wittelsbachs were instigating similar educational reforms through the efforts of Friedrich Niethammer ( 1766-1848). The old-style university dominated by theology was thus effectively abolished in the two largest states of the German Confederation outside Habsburg Austria, replaced by a secular university modelled on the principles of the freedom of research and teaching, a model that was subsequently adopted in the other German states and

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that also set an example followed elsewhere in Europe and the United States. Finally, the foundation of important periodicals in the period after 1800 is also of relevance in the history of scholarship: these included the Rheinisches Museum (1827), Philologus (1846) and Hermes (1866). Humboldt succeeded in bringing the leading scholars of his day to his new Berlin university. In classical studies, for example, Friedrich August Wolf was tempted to Berlin with the promise of a pure research professorship with no teaching obligations. In 1811, Wolf's student August Boeckh (1785-1867) also came to Berlin, bringing with him a broad range of research interests including ancient history and epigra· phy. In 181 7, he wrote his Staatshaushaltung der Athener based mostly on epigraphic evidence, a work that founded Greek economic history. In collaboration with the Berliner Akademie der Wissenschaften, Boeckh found the Corpus lnscriptionum Graecarum. Like Wolf, Boeckh stood for the union of Wortphilologie ('philol· ogy of words') and Sachphilologie ('philology of things'), i.e. a comprehensive concept of philology as a study of the classical world, arguing for it in his lecture Encyclopiidie und Methodologie der philologischen Wissenschaften. At the other end of the spectrum was the Leipzig philologist Gottfried Hermann ( 1772-1848), who worked mostly as an editor and critic and espoused Wortphilologie. The Boeckh-Hermann controversy stimulated the methodological discourse in classical studies in the first half of the 19th cent. Ultimately, however, what increasingly came to prevail was a process of specialization, fragment• ing into the constituent disciplines of philology, archaeology, ancient history and linguistics. Other advocates of a more comprehensive understanding of classical studies were Friedrich Gottlieb Welcker (1784-1868), with works on the Epic Cycle and mythology, Boeckh's students Karl Otfried Muller ( 1797-1840) and Otto Jahn ( 1813-1869) - both working in the fields of history, archaeology and philology. Typical proponents of textual philology, on the other hand, included Immanuel Bekker (1785-1871) and the Homer scholar Karl Lehrs ( 1802-1878). Another universalist, and one influenced by NeoHumanism, was the theologian, philosopher and classical scholar Friedrich Daniel Schleiermacher ( 1768-1 8 34 ). Schleiermacher was one of the founders of the Berlin university, where he became a professor in 181 o, and he was also a moving force in the organization of the Berliner Akademie der Wissenschaften. Alongside his theological works, he prepared a complete German translation of the works of Plato that is still in use today, and he studied the chronology of the

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Platonic dialogues, seeking to demonstrate a historical process of development through Plato's works. In defiance of the Lutheran orthodoxies of his day, he thus opened his mind to pagan philosophy too, and this duly brought him into difficulties with the official Church. Historical linguistics as a distinct branch of classical studies was founded in Berlin by Franz Bopp ( 1791-1867), whose particular interest lay in the genetic interrelationship among the IndoEuropean languages. This kind of historical genealogical approach had antecedents in the works of the British colonial officer Sir William Jones and of Friedrich Schlegel (1772-1829), who compared the ancient Indian language Sanskrit with Greek and Latin, thereby disproving the traditional view that all languages derived ultimately from Hebrew. Bopp's research also influenced the new grammars and lexicons now being produced by philologists. Karl Lachmann ( 1793-1851 ), who is remembered today primarily as a pioneer of modern editorial philology, also pursued an interest in linguistics, publishing on Latin and Old German sound laws ('Lachmann's Laws'). Alongside his speciality in Latin literature (text editions of the Latin poets), his work on Old and Middle High German made him, along with his friends the Brothers Grimm, one of the founders of Old German studies. His text edition of the New Testament (first published 18 3 1) was a pioneering work of theology that follows modern criteria of textual criticism. Meanwhile, Wilhelm von Humboldt can fairly be called the father of general linguistics. He made synchronous comparisons of languages applying typological criteria, and, basing his work on Schlegel, developed the categories of inflected (Greek, Latin), agglutinative (Finnish, Turkish) and isolating (Chinese) languages that are still used today. In the Romantic tradition, Humboldt believed that it was possible to discern the 'spirit of the people' ( Volksgeist) in the structure of its language; he found the highly-inflected Greek language to be particularly admirable and therefore also 'improving'.

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Nauck. These were joined by the Doxographi G raeci ( 1879) and Vorsokratikerfragmente (from 1903) edited by Hermann Diels (18481922), and later by Felix Jacoby's ( 1876-1959) Fragmente der griechischen Historiker (from 1923). Around 1900, publication began of the first volumes of the monumental Thesaurus Unguae Latinae founded by Eduard Wolfflin ( 183 1-1908 ), a project still not yet completed. Countless commentaries on ancient texts were also published at this time; although these were often intended as school texts, they readily tackled highly specialized philological issues (e.g. the Homer commentary by Ameis / Henze from 1863). In general, research in this period was not confined to universities alone: many schoolteachers and Gymnasium profs. also published industriously, contributing to specialist philological issues in the context of 'school programmes'. Archaeological excavations in Egypt brought ever more papyri to light, and these helped (and are still helping) to fill many gaps, especially in the Greek tradition. Hitherto unknown texts were found of works by Aleman, Alcaeus, Sappho, Pindar, Bacchylides, Menander and Herondas, as well as lost works by Callimachus, which now also bore witness to the high quality of Hellenistic poetry. The work of editing the papyri preoccupied not only German scholars but also in particular British philologists, such as Bernard Pyne Grenfell ( 1869-1926) and Arthur Surridge Hunt (1871-1934). In 1898, the London Egyptological Society began the edition series of the Oxyrhynchus Papyri (P. Oxy.) that continues to this day. It has published thousands of Greek papyri from the Egyptian site at Oxyrhynchus with translations and commentaries. Greek lyric poetry, which has become better known thanks to the papyrus finds, has been presented in important scholarly editions of fragments, particularly those by Denys Page (1908-1978). Some outstanding scholars assembled the many new discoveries in monograph surveys with an eye to the overall picture. Eduard Zeller (1814-1908), for instance, wrote his Philosophie der Griechen ( 1844-18 52), which also sought to rehabilitate the Hellenistic Period in the wake C.2. PHILOLOGY UP TO WILAMOWITZ of the Classicism of the earlier Neo-Humanists. While the first half of the 19th cent. was often The versatile Bonn professor Hermann Usener characterized by sheer idealization of the Greeks (1834-1905) worked on Epicurus, Greek metre in the Neo-Humanist tradition, a historicism of and especially the history of ancient religion and empirical and positivist stamp made itself felt in myth, but also on the survival of ancient relithe second half of the century. The result of this gious ideas into post-ancient times (e.g. in his was a feverish quest to collect all possible resid- Weihnachtsfest, 1889). Nietzsche's friend, the ual material relating to antiquity as a whole. This Berlin philologist Erwin Rohde (1845-1898), period saw the inception of many compilations studied the Greek romance (or novel), which of fragments, such as those of the Greek comedi- classically-minded philology tended to regard ans (1841) by August Meineke (1790-1870) and as peripheral and trivial, from a comparative of the Greek tragedians (1856, •1889) by August literary perspective. He also worked on the

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history of Greek mysticism (Psyche, 1890/94). Other important impulses for the investigation of ancient texts from perspectives of cultural and religious history came from scholars outside Germany, as seen for instance in the multifaceted works of the British philologist Gilbert Murray (1866-1957) on the historical and cultural background to Greek drama, and on philosophy and religion. The most brilliant British philologist of the age was Richard Claverhouse Jebb (18411905), with his commentaries on the tragedies and various works on the history of scholarship, philosophy, Homer and Hellenistic literature. In Belgium, the religious historian, epigraphist and philologist Franz Cumont (1868-1947) was a commanding figure, while his colleague Joseph Bidez (1867-1945) worked (sometimes in collaboration with Cumont) on the intellectual and religious history of Late Antiquity. Latin studies, increasingly autonomous from Greek, developed in particular in what became known as the 'Bonn School', associated above all with the work of Friedrich Ritschl ( 1806-1876) and Franz Bi.icheler (1837-1908), becoming a research discipline equal in rank to Greek studies. The study of 'Roman culture' began to coalesce in analogy to that of 'Greek culture', and it remained influential through figures like Heinze, Oppermann and Burck (see below) until after World War II. Ritschl himself worked mostly in the field of Republican literature (Varro, Plautus). His students again established important collections of fragments: Johannes Vahlen (fragments of Ennius), Hermann Peter (the Roman historians), Josef Keil (the Latin grammarians) and the Old Latin and Old Italic expert Franz Bi.icheler (1837-1908) and his important students in turn (e.g. Eduard Norden). Ritschl moved to Leipzig in 1865, where other important Latinists would determine the development of Latin philology and along with Richard Heinze (1867-1929) Friedrich Klingner (see below, D.2.). An important moment in this process came with the programmatic speech of Friedrich Leo (1851-1914) on 'the originality of Roman literature' (Die Originalitat der romischen Litteratur, 1 899 ), in which he showed the Romans to be, if not 'aboriginal' (original), then certainly 'original' (originell), and thereby freed their technique of literary aemulatio from the stigma of imitation. Heinze, in turn, saw himself clearly as a literary scientist, and interpreted Roman literature according to what were then modern criteria, in which respect he was far ahead of the classical philology of his day. His study of Virgils epische Technik (first published 1903) was particularly influential, the first work to give a positive estimation of Virgil, who had long been dismissively compared to Homer. The study anticipated many categories of modern narrative research. Outside

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Germany, the outstanding Polish philologist proand writer Tadeusz Zielinski (1859-1944) vided important impulses with his many works on Roman comedy, Virgil and especially on Cicero and his reception (Cicero im Wandel der Jahrhunderte, 1897). Beyond all doubt, the towering academic figure of the entire period was Ulrich von Wilamowitza schoolmate of Moellendorff (1848-1931), Nietzsche's at Schulpforta and son-in-law of Theodor Mommsen. He worked as a university professor at Greifswald, Gottingen and and he was another finally Berlin (1897-1921), scholar to orchestrate programmatically all the constituent elements of classical studies in his work with the aim of bringing to life "all life of the ancients" for the modern world. He saw the real motivation for studying antiquity in the formation of a 'historical consciousness', in other words despite his methodological adherence to Textphilologie, he regarded all philological work as ultimately subordinate to a historical purpose. Wilamowitz was thus a typical proponent of historicism and positivism, who sought to portray all subjects in the context of their time, fully, dispassionately and without speculative interpretation. He was a key participant in countless projects, for instance the lnscriptiones Graecae, the Corpus Medicorum Graecorum and the edition of the Berlin papyri. Yet he also reached out beyond the frontiers of the academic world as a popularizer of classical studies, variously as a translator, in his participation in the Prussian curriculum commissions, and through the publication of his much reprinted Greek reader for school use (Griechisches Lesebuch, from 1902; some translations, including English). He left some 50 monographs and countless other publications in every conceivable field and on every period of antiquity, although his passion for Ancient Greece was always clearly evident. In spite of the stupendous erudition and wideranging production of this period, there was a feeling that the immense quantitative expansion of knowledge in classical studies was not being matched by an increase in qualitative understanding. As early as I 87 5, the Basel Hellenist Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) was criticizing the 'ant-like toil' (Ameisenarbeit) of philologists and asking what the teaching of Greek particles had to do with the meaning of life. Nietzsche was an erratic figure in the philological profession, and he was accordingly harshly attacked by colleagues like Wilamowitz. Among his influences was his colleague at Basel, the historian of art and culture Jakob Burckhardt (1818-1897), who presented a decisively anti-Classicist view of the Greek Classical Period in his lectures on Griechische Culturgeschichte (published posthumously 1898-1902), which Wilamowitz dis-

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missed. Burckhardt also attempted, consciously turning away from historicism, to assemble his diverse and detailed insights into a synthesis of cultural history, an approach that continues to influence cultural studies. In his writings, Nietzsche countered the (Neo-)Humanist tradition by also giving weight to the dark sides of the Greeks, for instance in his Geburt der Tragodie aus dem Geiste der Musik ( 1872.), which emphasizes not only the shining Apollonian side of tragedy, but also its pessimistic, ecstatic Dionysian side. In his Unzeitgemiisse Betrachtungen ( 18731876), Nietzsche vehemently opposed historicism as a paradigm of scholarship; in this respect he was two generations ahead of his time. C.3.

ANCIENT

HISTORY

UP TO

EDUARD

MEYER

There were two tendencies, each with different aims, in German classical philology in the first half of the 19th cent. One group of philologists held that the ancient texts and languages were crucial to philological study, while another demanded a broader study of antiquity not limited to language alone. August Boeckh, who taught at the Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universitat in Berlin from 18 11, the year after its foundation, offered a pithy formulation of the conception of a 'study of the Hellenistic antiquities' in the introduction to his monograph Die Staatshaushaltung der Athener (1817), and criticized linguistic research reduced to textual criticism. This methodical position noticeably colours his study of the Athenian financial system. According to a modern understanding of the disciplines of classical studies, Boeckh's work is a piece of ancient history. Going far beyond the subject area suggested by its title, the first section of the book offers a comprehensive description of the Athenian economy in the 5th and 4th cents. BC. The rejection of any idealizing glorification of Greek antiquity is typical of Boeckh. The results of scholarly research no longer permit seeing antiquity as a model for the present. It says much for the status of this book that it was translated into English as early as 182.8 and was permanently in print in the English-speaking book trade for many decades. One important methodical advance was that Boeckh evaluated not only the literary texts, but also - and on a large scale - the inscriptions, i.e. the primary documentary sources. This was a major influence on subsequent research in ancient history. The entire second volume of the Staatshaushaltung der Athener is devoted to the editing and interpreting of Attic inscriptions on financial matters. It became apparent through this work that ancient history was urgently in need of a modern edition of all Greek inscriptions. With this realization in mind, Boeckh sub-

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mitted a motion to the Prussian Akademie der Wissenschaften to publish a new collection of Greek inscriptions to include all known texts. The plan here was primarily to inspect all the inscriptions that had already been edited or were held in museums, to subject them to critical analysis and to collect them. With conditions as they were, however, Boeckh did not think it possible for a scholar to view every inscription in its original form for the publication. He took on the job of directing the scholarly work for the Corpus lnscriptionum Graecarum (C/G) himself, and edited the first two volumes (182.8 and 1843) personally. The CIG heralded the age of the great editorial projects, which requisitioned much of the labour of classical scholars in the 19th and 2.oth cents., but repaid that effort by laying the foundations for the further study of antiquity. In many respects, Boeckh proved to be the founding father of ancient history as a modern discipline. His work on the Athenian financial system may fairly be regarded as a groundbreaking achievement both in terms of methodology and subject matter. It integrates issues of economic history into a portrayal of the ancient world and no longer relies in the final analysis on the historiographic tradition, but on the primary documentary sources. The large-scale projects like the CIG now became increasingly important, and the idea that antiquity was to be seen as a model for the present gave way to a sober analysis of the conditions of the ancient world. Until the 18th cent., the historiographic tradition passed down from antiquity possessed an unchallenged authority, and the task of early modern historiography was essentially to reproduce the ancient texts and, at most, to comment upon them. During the Enlightenment, scepticism towards the sources grew, but this attitude did not lead to any real discussion of the criteria for judging the credibility of sources. The Romische Geschichte by Barthold Georg Niebuhr (177618 3 1 ), published in 18 11 and 1812., combined a narrative account of the early history of Rome with a critique of the historiographic tradition. Niebuhr no longer found the accounts of Livy to be credible, but at the same time he tried to combine facts to create a historical context. What was of decisive importance was his conviction that the deeds of great men in early Rome had been passed down orally in the form of songs (cf. Cic. Tusc. 4,3), so that events of historical importance were still present and available in the later tradition. Niebuhr's Romische Geschichte was seminal to historical research and historiography in the 19th cent. in another respect too. It was strongly influenced by the political convictions of its author. Niebuhr's interest in the agrarian ques-

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tion in the age of the emancipation from serfdom, his rejection of the French Revolution and his admiration for the British constitution were all conditions for his reference to the Roman commonwealth and the conflicts between the patricians and plebeians. Such critical examination of the historiographic tradition on the early history of Rome struck a powerful chord with the wider scholarly public. The discussion of the sources was seen as a crucial achievement, and since Niebuhr, historical research has inevitably been founded on criticism and interpretation of the sources. Niebuhr was thus the key figure who founded the methodology of modern historical studies. His Romische Geschichte was translated into English between 1828 and 1842, and in Britain his theories were taken up in particular by Thomas Arnold (1795-1842). A pronounced interest in the history and culture of antiquity in the 19th cent. created a favourable climate for the development of classical studies in German universities in particular. After Gibbon's and Niebuhr's works on Roman history, more attention was now paid to Greek history. Several comprehensive studies of the history of Greece appeared in Britain and Germany, intended for a wider public, but also affording new insights into ancient history and able to effect important impulses. The focus of the ancient history of Johann Gustav Droysen ( 1808-1884) was not Classical Greece, but the Hellenistic Period. His account begins with the Geschichte Alexanders des Grossen ( 18 3 3 ), and continues with two further volumes (1836 and 184 3) on the period of the Diadochi (3 2 3-28 1 BC) and the Hellenistic kingdoms (280-220 BC). Inspired by the historical philosophy of Hegel, Droysen saw Macedonia as the power that united Greece and hence created the conditions for the "great national war of the Greeks against the Persians". In terms of world history, he reads the Hellenistic Period as having facilitated the emergence and spread of Christianity through its merging of Greek and Near Eastern elements. Without question, Droysen must be credited with having been the first to make a detailed study of the Hellenistic Period and to have insisted on its historical importance. Two very different accounts exerted a key influence on the idea of Greek history in the 19th cent. In Britain, the banker George Grote (1794-1871), a Member of Parliament from 1832 to 1841, wrote his History of Greece (1846-1856), which quickly won renown. His narrative reflected the position of the Whigs and of English Utilitarianism. Beginning from these premises, Grote arrived at what was for the time an extraordinarily positive evaluation of Greek democracy. In this respect,

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his work was a reaction to the History of Greece (1785-1810) by William Mitford (1744-1827), which had roundly condemned Athenian democracy. However, Grote's account remained wedded to the Classical perspective of Greek history, finishing with Alexander and ignoring the Hellenistic Period. For Ernst Curtius ( 1814-1 896) too, Greek history really meant the history of the Greek Classical Period. His history ( 18 57-1867), much admired in its day, ends with the Macedonian victory at Chaeronea in 338 BC. Curtius proposed a highly idealistic and aestheticized view of Classical Athens. Art and literature find their place here alongside political history, and are crucial to the status and importance of Greek antiquity to this day. Without doubt, the dominant figure in the discipline of ancient history after 18 50 was Theodor Mommsen ( 18 17-1903 ). His renown was based primarily on his Ri>mische Geschichte ( 18 54-18 56), which covers the development of the Roman Republic up to Julius Caesar. The highly evocative descriptions of events, the outspoken verdicts on individual figures like Cicero and Caesar, and an assessment of the decline of the Republic clearly influenced by the political and social problems of Mommsen's time helped his work to fascinate a broad readership. An important field of specialist study for Mommsen, who had studied law and whose first professorships at Zurich and Breslau were in the history of law, was Roman constitutional law, to which he devoted the systematic multi-volume history Romisches Staatsrecht written between 1871 and 1888. This remains a standard work to this day, and Mommsen's view of the Principate in particular has provided a perennial stimulus and challenge to later scholars. Mommsen contributed to the development of the methods of modern epigraphy with his initiative to edit the complete Latin inscriptions into a corpus. He established the principle that every original inscription must be scrutinized directly before editing. This insistence on direct sight of all inscriptions that were to be published was thought at first to be impracticable, since inscriptions were scattered all over Western Europe and the entire Mediterranean world. Nevertheless, Mommsen enforced his principle. Publication of the Corpus lnscriptionum Latinarum (CIL), in which all Latin inscriptions were to be published, began in 18 53 and became one of the greatest academic projects of the 19th cent. Mommsen directed it personally for many decades. Ancient historians from other countries took inspiration from it and set to work editing ancient inscriptions. In France, Rene Cagnat (1852-1937) published the lnscriptiones Graecae ad res Romanas pertinentes (19II-1927). Epigraphy became a

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extends only up to the 4th cent. Meyer's research field of work characterized by close international cooperation. interests went far beyond Greek and Roman history. for instance, he wrote seminal studies on One of the outstanding achievements of french scholarship in this period is La Cite antique the history and chronology of Ancient Egypt and early Christianity. His works on the ancient ( 1864) by Numa Denis Fustel de Coulanges (1830-1889). The work continues to exert a economy and slavery were especially important to subsequent ancient historical scholarship. In great fascination on readers today. In fustel's view, the ancient commonwealth, the city, was his lecture Die wirtschaftliche Entwicklung des profoundly influenced by the belief systems and Altertums ( 189 5), Meyer criticized the theory fundamental structures of the family. He sees the derived from Karl Rodbertus (1805-1875) and city primarily in terms of religion and society, Karl Bucher ( 1847-1930) essentially defining the between which there is a close connection. This ancient economy as a household economy; Meyer instead emphasized the modernity of the ancient is the basis of the influence exerted by fustel's work in 2oth-cent. french ancient history, which economy. For instance, he asserted that Archaic always paid close attention to issues of religious and Classical Greece had "industry working for export", "dedicated industrial zones" and a "comand social history in particular. German ancient historians of particular note petition between individual factories". Meyer's from the generation after Mommsen included authority enabled such 'modernistic' notions of Robert von Phlmann (1852-1914), Karl Julius the ancient economy to gain acceptance, and they influenced economic history through to William Beloch (1854-1929) and Eduard Meyer (1855Linn Westermann and Michael Rostovtzeff. 1930). These were authors of monumental An interest in social history was at the foreworks of history that exerted powerful influence on scholarship in their time. Beloch's career took front of the works of Robert von Pohlmann. In an unusual path in that illness drove him to live his Geschichte des antiken Kommunismus und in Italy from his youth. He studied in Palermo, Sozialismus (1893-1901), prompted by the social Heidelberg and Rome, where he took his post- consequences of industrialization and the socialist movements of the 19th cent., he examined doctoral habit. and became a professor Through his students, who included Gaetano De Sanctis poverty, revolutionary social ideas and uprisings (1870-1957), he was able to exert a long-lasting of antiquity, like Meyer drawing clear parallels influence on ancient history in Italy. Beloch's with the world of his own day. The aim of this most important work, his Griechische Geschichte work was to warn that, just as in antiquity, social hardship could lead to political revolution. (1893-1904), is characterized by unconventional While subsequent scholars found Pohlmann's opinions and a definite rejection of many of the commonly-held views of German ancient his- views difficult to accept, the relatively brief habit. tory. For instance, he argued vehemently against thesis of Matthias Gelzer (1886-1974), Die a view of history reduced to the deeds of great Nobilitiit der romischen Republik, published in 191 2., proved inspirational in the study of social men. In sharp contrast to Droysen, Beloch downhistory. In this study, Gelzer examined not the played the historical importance of Alexander the Great. He insisted on the inclusion of eco- political system of the Republic based on laws, nomic history in the overall historical view and but the informal social and political mechanisms himself specialized in ancient demographics. In that served to secure the dominant political posithis field, his monograph Die Bevolkerung der tion of a small group of nobiles. Besides pergriechisch-romischen Welt ( 1886) must be seen sonal relationships and obligations, Gelzer also as an outstanding and innovative achievement explored the economic conditions underlying the that greatly stimulated scholarship. The impor- status of the nobility. He vigorously opposed the tance of the work lies firstly in its methodology view expressed by Mommsen that only a very (its careful study of ancient statements of num- few families in the Roman Republic were 'fit to bers with critical evaluation of the source mate- rule' (regimentsfiihig). rial), and secondly in its results, which for the Work on the Real-Encyclopiidie der classisfirst time offered a reasonably reliable estimate chen Altertumswissenschaft (RE; 1893-1980), a lexicon devised with the intention of compilof the populations of the ancient world. The multi-volume Geschichte des Altertums ing all that was known of antiquity, led to the ( I 884-1902) by Eduard Meyer is characterized rise of prosopography ('study of persons') within by perspectives of universal history. It begins in ancient history to occupy a prominent position the 3rd millennium BC with the history of Ancient after 1900. For instance, Gelzer's later biography Egypt and the Near East. Besides Greece it also of Cicero (1969) developed from an article in gives a comprehensive treatment of the Persian the RE, while Friedrich Miinzer's ( 1868-1942.) Empire. Yet Meyer was unable to complete his Romische Adelsparteien und Adelsfamilien ( 19 20) work, which inevitably exceeded the capacities was the result of intensive prosopographic research and powers of a single historian. The narrative for the RE.

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One scholar who took something of a maverick position in discussions of the ancient economy was Max Weber (1864-1920). Weber described Karl Bi.icher's position as a "construction of the ideal type of an economic constitution" ("idealtypische Konstruktion einer Wirtschaftsverfassung") and defended it against the criticisms of Eduard Meyer. His lecture Die sozialen Grunde des Untergangs der antiken Kultur (1896) explains historical developments in the Principate and Late Antiquity in terms of social and economic changes, in particular the decline of slavery, the control of vast territories of the European interior and the establishment of major estate complexes that were no longer dependent on urban markets. The theories of Weber still count today as some of the most innovative contributions to the social and economic history of the Principate. In the section of his Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft ( 1922) devoted to the sociology of the city, Weber distinguishes between a 'consumer city' (Konsumentenstadt) and a 'producer city' (Produzentenstadt). Ancient cities he argued primarily to be consumer cities, a view that would gain ground in research after World War II. Large-scale finds of papyri in Egypt around 1900, especially in the Faiyum and at Oxyrhynchus, proved important to the further development of classical studies. A new discipline emerged in papyrology, stimulated by the simple need to read, edit and interpret the papyri; it would come to play a key role in learning more about Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt. The importance of the papyri becomes clear when one considers that, quite apart from literary texts, these documents and archive provide an insight into everyday life, administration, society and the economy that is unique in all antiquity. The formative influences on the fledgling discipline were the British scholars Bernard P. Grenfell ( 18691926) and Arthur S. Hunt (1871-1934), and the Germans Ulrich Wilcken (1862-1944) and Friedrich Preisigke (1856-1924), The era of the great papyrus editions began towards the end of the 19th cent.; two of the most notable examples are the A.gyptische Urkunden aus den Koniglichen Museen zu Berlin, Griechische Urkunden (BGU, from 1895) and The Oxyrhynchus Papyri (P. Oxy., from 1898). In institutional contexts, the discipline of ancient history was a young one. Only in the second half of the 19th cent. were professorships established for it - at Gottingen in 1877, at Munich only in 1900. Like archaeology, ancient history was a component discipline of classical studies, but it also formed part of the training of history teachers, so that it also belonged to faculties of humanities or the arts. Similar tendencies towards the institutionalization of the subject at universities were seen in other European coun-

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tries and the United States. The institutional conditions were thus established for the development of ancient history research in the 20th cent. C.4.

THE

BEGINNINGS

ARCHAEOLOGY:

fROM

OF

CLASSICAL

WINCKELMANN

TO

fURTWANGLER

In many respects, Johann Joachim Winckelmann still belonged to the world of the antiquarians. He came from a modest background and studied theology and medicine before becoming a tutor and then a comital librarian. He claimed to have had a "love of art" from an early age, but he was certainly not trained as a scholar in the field of antiquity. In Rome from 1755, he found support and sponsorship from influential cardinals. The antiquities collection of Cardinal Albani became his most important place of work. Winckelmann thus remained tied to the world of the antiquarians: a close connection to one or more such collections is the defining characteristic of 'antiquarian' research. Nonetheless, the roots of scientific archaeology are inextricably linked to his work. Winckelmann formulated his view of the task of interpreting ancient works of art, and of the history of ancient art, in the foreword to his Geschichte der Kunst des Alterthums (1764). His concern was to depict "the origin, the growth, the alteration and the fall" of art. His concept of a history of art depended on the idea, taken frorn Scaliger, of a cyclical historical development. This approach enabled Winckelmann to divide the history of ancient art into epochs according to stylistic criteria, and to associate those epochs with political developments in Greece and Rome. Greek art is thus located within its political context. Accordingly, it was the freedom that reigned in the Greek cities that permitted the flowering of Greek art. Although Winckelmann's theories on the development of Greek artistic styles through to the period of 'decline' are regarded with scepticism today, he undoubtedly rendered the service of lending a historical dimension to the criticism of ancient art, and he paid attention to the differences between Greek and Roman art as he did so. Winckelmann's fundamental insistence on seeing ancient statuary as works of art imposes two obligations. Firstly, the style of a particular piece must be investigated and established. Secondly, the criteria of the beauty of a work of art must be discussed. Beauty is a crucial concept in Winckelmann's aesthetic view. The question of the beauty of an individual work of art is an issue that underlies the study and description of all kinds of works. Winckelmann's insistence that the description of ancient works of art must be based on direct scrutiny was also significant. He was adamant that, for this reason, only in

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Rome could "anything fundamental !be written! about ancient art and unknown antiquities". He criticized those antiquarians who often only knew art works from books and illustrations for misattributing statues or failing to observe additions and completions made to them during the Baroque period. Winckelmann took up with great enthusiasm one central task of archaeology: to portray the results of new excavations and to interpret new finds. In his Sendschreiben von den Herculanischen Entdeckungen (1762. and 1764), he made an intensive study of the excavations at Herculaneum and Pompeii. These works also attest to his outstanding knowledge of the ancient texts and his ability to draw on epigraphic material in interpreting finds. While Winckelmann's writings afforded an important step on the road to scientific archaeology, the institutional framework for archaeological research was provided by philology in the context of the universities. Moreover, as the material culture of antiquity became the subject of university research, the tone in which ancient art was discussed in written works changed. The enthusiasm with which Winckelmann delivered his assessments of ancient works of art was shunned. Indeed, such emotionalism was now regarded with some antipathy as a danger to scholarly objectivity and truth. The roots of archaeology in universities can be traced back to Christian Gottlob Heyne (172918 12), who held regular lectures on ancient art at the University of Gottingen between 1767 and 1804. The practice of scholarly research on ancient art was now no longer dictated by collectors and their activities - publications primarily intended to influence public taste, collection catalogues serving the prestige or the material interests of the collector or prince, excavations in pursuit of ancient works of art as booty - but by university scholars pursuing a sober analysis of ancient remains. Heyne paid attention not only to ancient works or art but also to less conspicuous finds that might yield important information about ancient culture. The fundamental precepts of Winckelmann - for instance, his view of the 'epochs' of Greek art history - were adopted, but they were also subjected to critical examination and correction. Like Winckelmann, one of Heyne's students, the Dane Georg Zoega ( 17 5 5-1809 ), worked at Rome, and his work Bassirilievi anti chi di Roma ( 1808) also explored the same subject matter as Winckelmann's. In the 19th cent., archaeology in German universities was at first taught within the context of philology, but later it developed into a separate subject. It was scholars such as Friedrich Gottlob Welcker (1784-1868), Eduard Gerhard (1795-1867), Otto Jahn (1813-1869) and Adolf Furtwangler ( 1853-1907) who gave German

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archaeology a clear understanding of itself as a discipline. Welcker was appointed to Giessen in 1809 as professor of Greek literature and archaeology. From 1819, he taught at the University of Bonn, where he founded the cast collection. To him, archaeology also had the function of aiding the understanding of ancient literature. In 182.9, Gerhard was a key force behind the foundation of the Instituto di Corrispondenza Archeologica in Rome, which later became the Deutsche Archiiologische Institut (DAI). Jahn's work too was typified by a combination of philology and archaeology - his oeuvre also includes a biography of Mozart that is still regarded as a classic. Furtwangler, who was professor of archaeology at the University of Munich from 1894, published standard works in the Meisterwerke der griechischen Plastik ( 1893) and Griechische Vasenmalerei (1904) that would exert a powerful influence on 2.oth-cent. archaeology. He emphasized the uniqueness of Classical art, and based on this opinion he formulated what would be the canonical view of art in German archaeology of the early 20th cent. - one that derived ultimately from Winckelmann. The importance to archaeological research of the Jnstituto founded by Gerhard is well illustrated by the career of Heinrich Brunn (182.2.-1894), who worked there from 1843 to 18 53 before becoming second secretary at the institute ( 18 57-186 5) and ultimately taking the newly-established professorship of archaeology at the University of Munich 1865. It was his years in Rome, to which he owed his great expertise in ancient art, that enabled Brunn to write works that would be enormously influential to future scholars. Other nations followed the example of the institute and founded their own archaeological presences in Rome, and these became important centres of research alongside the universities, enabling archaeologists to spend extended periods of time in the Mediterranean world, to the benefit both of research and of excavation work. A second important trend in 19th-cent. archaeology was the improvement of excavation techniques. Giuseppe Fiorelli (1823-1896) presented proposals for the reorganization of the excavations at Pompeii as early as 1848, but in the phase of reaction to the events of that year, he was imprisoned for several months in 1849 for political reasons, and was frozen out of public employment until 1860. In the years leading up to Italian unification, he was able to publish the Oscan inscriptions from Pompeii and a street plan of the city. Both publications set new standards in the reporting of excavations. Fiorelli divided the city area into nine regions, thereby creating a system by which every house could be identified by region, insula and numbered entrance - a scheme that is still used

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today. After being appointed director of excavations at Pompeii, Fiorelli implemented numerous improvements in excavation techniques. Also important were his introduction of an excavation diary and later of a regular channel of reports on results of the excavations (Notizie degli scavi de/le antichita). What interested Fiorelli was the city of Pompeii and its history. Archaeology as treasure-hunting was dead. New standards were also put in place at other excavation sites in the Mediterranean, like the German project to explore Olympia. This was directed by Wilhelm Dorpfeld (1853-1940), who was not an archaeologist, but had studied architecture in Berlin and was in charge of the technical side of the excavations. Structural research remained a key research interest for Dorpfeld in subsequent campaigns for the DAI. The figure who struck the most profound chord with the public was Heinrich Schliemann ( 1822-1890), whose personal fortune, acquired in Russia, enabled him to finance and direct his own excavations on the Aegean coast in the north-west of Asia Minor. He succeeded in unearthing a major Bronze Age settlement there which, it was concluded, was Homer's Troy. The excavation of this fortified citadel and the find of a hoard that was labelled 'Priam's Treasure' caused a sensation. Schliemann, always very devoted to his reputation, was celebrated throughout Europe. Other excavations followed at Mycenae, which led to the discovery of Bronze Age tombs with rich grave goods. Archaeologists have tended to distance themselves from Schliemann's work or to criticize it because he did not adhere to the standards that had been achieved by this period, and he removed recent layers without documentation. Yet there is no doubt that Schliemann stimulated interest in early Greece and hence opened up a new field of research in archaeology. Schliemann's importance to Mycenae was mirrored by that of Arthur Evans (1851-1941) for Crete. Evans began excavations there in 1899, and the work would reveal the great palace complex of Knossos. Knowledge of the Minoan culture of Crete also depends for the most part on the results of archaeological research. The archaeological activities of a number of countries intensified considerably from the late 19th and early 20th cents. The French campaigns at Delphi, the American explorations of the Athenian Agora, Austrian excavations at Ephesus and activities at Pergamum and Priene made crucial contributions to widening understanding of the urban design and topography of ancient cities and sanctuaries. Important finds of individual works of art and the unearthing of architectural monuments have also contributed much to an understanding of ancient art and architecture. Since the 19th cent., therefore, the increase in

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knowledge of the ancient world has depended to a high degree on the work of archaeologists. Archaeological materials and excavation finds have taken their place alongside the texts. C.5.

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The genesis and development of Egyptology and Ancient Near Eastern studies depended on two conditions: the understanding of the relevant languages and scripts, and the great excavation campaigns in the Nile Valley and Mesopotamia. Through the 19th cent., too, the collections in the major European museums became increasingly important for scholarly work. Political events also influenced the development of these disciplines devoted to the study of the ancient Egyptian and Oriental cultures. Egypt and the ancient Near East were ever present in the cultural memory of Europe through the Old Testament. Surviving works of ancient literature also contained a number of impressive descriptions of Egypt and the Near East, and Egyptian monuments - the obelisks - were found in Rome from the early days of the Principate. Given these conditions, a scholar like Athanasius Kircher (1602-1680) was already able to write works on the Egyptian obelisks of the city of Rome or the hieroglyphs. Such enterprises may be argued to have been precursors of scholarly engagement with the culture of Egypt. A decisive stimulus was given with the Egypt expedition of Napoleon. After the successful campaign in Northern Italy in 1796/97 and their victory over the Habsburgs, the French now hoped to weaken the British position in India. The French military adventure was cut short after the French conquest of Egypt with Lord Nelson's victory over the French fleet at Aboukir in August 1798, but the decision of the young general Bonaparte to make use of the military expedition to conduct a comprehensive scholarly documentation of the monuments of Egypt was of incalculable significance. A large cohort of scholars, including Dominique-Vivant Denon (1747-182.5), accompanied Napoleon and gathered the material, which was then published in the multi-volume Description de l'E.gypte ( r 809-18 2.8). This ambitious and richly-illustrated presentation kindled scholars' interest in Egypt. If possible of even greater importance was the chance find made by the French army during desperate fortification works as it defended itself against the British onslaught: the Rosetta Stone, bearing texts in hieroglyphs and in Demotic and Greek scripts. These inscriptions - a trilingual presentation of the same text (an inscription from the Egyptian priesthood in honour of Ptolemy V Epiphanes, dated 196 BC) - proved to be the key to the decipherment of the hieroglyphs. Ultimately it

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was Jean Franr,;ois Cham po IIion ( 1790-183 2.) tions in Mesopotamia, which led to the unearthing of palace complexes, temples and settlements. who succeeded in deciphering the hieroglyphs Paul-Emile Botta ( 1802-1870), a doctor and after identifying the king's name on the Rosetta inscription. This laid the foundations for a disci- diplomat working for the French government, pline of Egyptology based on knowledge of the excavated the palace of Sargon II at Mosul Ancient Egyptian language. When the French between 1843 and 1846, and in 1 8 50 the British diplomat Austen Henry Layard (1817-1894) surrendered, the Rosetta Stone had to be handed over to the British, and it is now found in the finally discovered the library of the Assyrian king Assurbanipal in the ruins; it consisted of British Museum in London. Excavations in Egypt determined the activities more than 2.5,000 clay tablets. The aim of early of Egyptologists until the 20th cent., but their excavations in Mesopotamia was to bring back main interest for many years was the quest for finds (some monumental) to Europe, in as good condition as possible. Botta's finds thus went valuable objects of art. Giovanni Belzoni ( 1778to the Louvre, Layard's to the British Museum. 182.3), who went to Egypt in 1814 to sell hydraulic machinery and went on to conduct a trade in Both brought the European public face to face Egyptian antiquities as a business, was one of for the first time with monumental Assyrian art. the pioneers of excavation, but his methods were However, the procedure also had the fatal consequence that ships and rafts sometimes sank while later much criticized. Other successful excavators included Karl Richard Lepsius ( 1 810-1 884), who transporting the finds, and many monuments and worked in Egypt in r 84 2. and in 18 5 5 became objects were unfortunately lost in this way. For Assyriology, which established itself as a director of the Agyptisches Museum in Berlin. The British scholar W. Flinders Petrie ( 18 5 3- discipline over the ensuing decades, the decipher1942) rendered the service of first applying sci- ment of cuneiform was of key importance. Georg entific archaeological methods to excavations in Friedrich Grotefend (1775-1853), who had studEgypt. The excavation reports of George Andrew ied at Gottingen with Heyne and Heeren, was able Reisner ( 1867-1942), professor of Egyptology at to identify names of kings in inscriptions, which Harvard, are regarded as exemplary in the pre- gave him a key to assign certain symbols to parcision of their documentation. Finally, the dis- ticular phonetic values. A further step towards covery of the tomb of Tutankhamun in 1922 by the complete decipherment of the cuneiform Howard Carter (1874-1939) captured the pub- texts came with the copy made by the British lic imagination. Unlike many other Pharaonic officer Henry Creswicke Rawlinson (1810-1895) tombs, it had not been plundered; it still con- of the monumental inscription of Darius I on the tained, almost untouched, a wealth of valuable rock wall at Bisutun. This inscription, adjoining furnishings. an image of the victorious king, and which Josef An important step towards the institutionWiesehofer calls "a form of royal self-represenalization of Egyptology came with the foundatation and propaganda", revealed a number of tion of the Egyptian Antiquities Commission by linguistic variants and thus made it possible to the Frenchman Auguste Mariette (1821-1881), compare cuneiform texts. Copying the inscripwho was succeeded by Gaston Maspero ( 1846tion was a daredevil exploit: Rawlinson had to 1916). Both men were successful excavators and work at a height of 60 metres with little or no authors of important works on Egyptology. The safety equipment. Egyptian collections in London, Paris, Munich, In a period when rivalry between the great Berlin, Hildesheim and Turin remain important powers was at its height in the cultural sphere centres of Egyptological research to this day. too, it was no surprise that the United States Egyptology is also taught as a subject at many and the German Empire also sent expeditions to European and North American universities. On Mesopotamia. The American expedition made the whole, modern excavations focus less on substantial cuneiform finds at Nippur that have high-quality finds and more on shedding light proved extraordinarily important for a modon historical contexts and connections. ern understanding of ancient Near Eastern litTravel reports played an important part in erature. The excavations of Eduard Koldewey the early days of Ancient Near Eastern stud- (1855-1925) in Babylon were pioneering in ies. For instance, in the late 1 8th cent., Carsten their methodology, aiming at shedding light Niebuhr's (1733-1815) Reisebeschreibung nach on the architecture and topography of the city. Arabien und andern umliegenden Landern The use of the most modern excavation tech( 1774/78) provided the first detailed informaniques available at the time contributed greatly tion on the monumental ruins of the Persian to Koldewey's results. In the 20th cent., the Empire. The work contains many illustrations excavations of the British archaeologist Leonard of reliefs and inscriptions, and a first overview Woolley (1880-1960) were also of great imporof the symbols of the cuneiform script. It was tant to Ancient Near Eastern studies: Woolley followed in the 19th cent. by large-scale excava- discovered the material remains of a culture of

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the 3rd millenium BC at Ur, and he unearthed many royal graves of this period. The many recovered cuneiform texts became a subject of study for the special discipline of ancient Near Eastern philology, the remit of which went far beyond simply editing and translating texts. Since the clay tablets included many documents of economic life, scholars were able to study economic conditions in Mesopotamia in greater detail. The reception of the theories of Karl Polanyi (1886-1964) played a key role here. Because of the great linguistic demands imposed by Egyptology and Ancient Near Eastern studies, a high degree of scholarly specialization has arisen, surely irrevocably. The concept of 'classical studies' encompassing classical antiquity, ancient Egypt and the near East can now only be managed in interdisciplinary collaboration, even if certain ancient historians have made very successful attempts at including regions and cultures beyond the Mediterranean world in their works.

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D.1.

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The development of scholarship and research in 2.oth-cent. Europe was influenced to a high degree by political events. This is no less true of classical studies than of other disciplines. Beginning with the October Revolution in Russia and the National Socialist seizure of power in Germany, scholarship in these countries - and later in others including Italy and Austria - was subject to the dictates of the prevailing ideology. The continuity of free scholarly research was therefore interrupted in these countries. In the Soviet Union, an initial toleration of scholars of conservative sympathies soon gave way to the compulsory imposition of the MarxistLeninist doctrine on historians, i.e. the theory ultimately derived from the Man ifest der kommunistischen Partei (1848) according to which the most important element in the history of all societies from antiquity to the capitalist age was class struggle, and which emphasized the importance of revolution for human progress. The central doctrines of the ideology of National Socialism were racialism and anti-Semitism, and these too were imposed with increasing vigour in classical studies after 19 33. The racial theories of the National Socialist regime were of dire consequence not only to research and teaching, but also to scholars personally. The Gesetz zur Wiederherstellung des Berufsbeamtentums ('The Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service'), enacted on 7 April 1933, soon after Hitler's appointment as Reich Chancellor, stipu-

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lated that positions in state employment were reserved solely for Germans of 'Aryan' descent. The law also provided for the dismissal of opponents of the National Socialist regime from state employment. These provisions quickly led to the dismissal of many scholars from universities. These arbitrary measures affected Jewish academics and those who had been involved with socialist parties, the social democratic movement or the trade unions. It is estimated that some 3,000 scholars around a third of the entire profession - lost their jobs at German universities after 1933. These circumstances drove many German scholars to emigrate, mostly to Britain and the United States. The history of scholarship in the 20th cent. is thus also a history of emigration. The same is true of Russia. After 19 r 7, academics who saw no prospect of free scholarly activities or who feared politically-motivated persecution left the country. They included the ancient historian Michael Rostovtzeff ( r 87019 5 2), who taught from 1898 at the University of St. Petersburg, before leaving Bolshevik Russia a year after the October Revolution and going first to Oxford, then in 1920 to the United States, where he finally worked from 1925 at Yale. Many of the scholars who did not emigrate became victims of the persecution of the Jews in Germany. For example, the ancient historian Friedrich Munzer (1868-1942), professor at the University of Munster from 1921, was deported in July 1942. He died on 20 October 1942 in the concentration camp of Theresienstadt. Nor should it be forgotten that National Socialist policies, which tended to see teachers as the military leaders of their students, excluded women from scholarly careers at universities. An entire generation of women was thus deprived of the opportunity to gain academic qualifications. This meant that even after 1945, German universities were institutions dominated by men, and they had great difficulties in the following decades with encouraging and integrating female scholars. Considerable pressure was exerted by the National Socialist regime to ensure adherence to the ideological line. Although niches did exist that enabled a few scholars to refrain from making concessions to National Socialist doctrines, there were many cases where academics did accommodate the prevailing racist and antiSemitic viewpoint. In the case of classical studies, such behaviour may to some extent have been provoked by a perceived need to demonstrate the relevance of antiquity and the classical languages to a National Socialist Germany preoccupied with its 'Germanic' ideology, but in some cases at least, it appears that ambition and careerism were higher priorities. People whose views tended in general to be authoritarian and opposed to the Weimar Republic, parliamentary

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democracy and the French and American models of civilization also tended to accept the National Socialist regime. The outbreak of World War II had dramatic consequences for scholarship in Europe. Many British classical scholars were drafted into the military administration, while many younger scholars in Germany were sent to the front. In France, Jean-Pierre Vernant for instance joined the Resistance, as did the medievalist Marc Bloch, who was shot dead by the Germans in Lyon on 16 June 1944. Communication with scholars in Western Europe and the United States, already difficult, now broke off altogether, and international discussions and the exchange of results of research ceased to be possible. During the war, the National Socialist regime requisitioned scholarship to further its military and political aims, which in the case of classical studies led to a series of publications more or less explicitly expressing viewpoints in support of Nazi doctrine. The situation gradually normalized in Western Europe after 194 5, while in the Eastern bloc, the continuing hegemony of Marxism-Leninism still gave little scope for free research in academic work. The development of classical studies in the first half of the 20th cent. must also be seen in the light of the transformation of the education system. During the 19th cent., philology had claimed a privileged position among the disciplines at German universities. This position was clearly reflected in an incident that took place at the Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universitiit in Berlin, where the rector at the time, Ulrich von WilamowitzMoellendorff, demanded the removal of the statue that had been put up in honour of the leading physicist Hermann von Helmholtz. Wilamowitz petitioned the minister concerned with the argument that it was inappropriate for "the natural sciences to usurp such status of authority" ("dass die Naturwissenschaft sich einen Herrschaftsplatz anmasst"). However, with the rise of scientific and technical education, the classical Gymnasium in Germany lost its monopoly on admissions to universities. In other European countries too, the ancient languages lost their special status in the education of social elites. The reform of the education system that began in Prussia with the schools conference of I 890 led to lasting insecurity for classical philologists and ancient historians. Some classical scholars reacted defensively by attempting to demonstrate the relevance of their subjects with sometimes radical modernizations of their educational aims. Great emphasis was also placed on the function of these subjects in the legitimization of the political system of Prussia and Germany. Classicists now increasingly turned to a wider public in search of an understanding audience receptive to their subjects.

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D.2. PHILOLOGY The era of historical pos1t1v1sm in philology came to an end in the wake of World War I under the influence of the ideas of Friedrich Nietzsche. The standard-bearer for a quite new direction in philology was a student of none other than Wilamowitz, Werner Jaeger (18881961 ), who began as professor at Kiel and in 1921 succeeded his teacher at Berlin. In radical contrast to the historicists, Jaeger was a proponent of the approach to intellectual history developed by Wilhelm Dilthey, and it was in this tradition that he developed his classicist concept of the paideia, which he presented in the threevolume work of that title (from 1934), a work that was reprinted and translated many times. Jaeger asserted that the leading authors of the Greek Archaic and Classical Periods had written their works for the purpose of educating people towards an intellectual aristocracy. The paideia ideology thus became a catalyst for the propagation of an anti-individualistic, political education process in the service of an authoritarian state. The service rendered by the Romans was that they were the first to adopt the Greek paideia by imitation. This programme made it easier to justify engagement with Greek literature: it gave everyone access to the Greek spirit and hence admission to a "true humanity". These ideas, which were known as the 'Third Humanism' because of their deliberate alignment towards Neo-Humanism, admittedly encountered much resistance among Jaeger's colleagues because of their one-sided pedagogical reading of Greek Archaic and Classical literature. Nevertheless, in the National Socialist period, such ways of thinking were a welcome instrument for lending legitimacy to teaching the ancient languages, and even before the Nazi seizure of power, they found their way into the national curriculum that remained in force until 1937/38. Jaeger was also influential as one of the cofounders of the Deutscher Altphilologenverband (1925), which adopted his Humanism wholesale as a programme and even remained loyal to it after the war. Jaeger's problematical Paideia concept thus remained to some extent the pedagogical foundation of the Humanist Gymnasium until the 1960s. Jaeger himself emigrated to the United States with his Jewish wife in 1936, but his concepts of intellectual history long remained influential in the field through his students Richard Harder (1896-1957), Viktor Posch! (1910-1997) and Wolfgang Schadewaldt (1900-1974), who remained in Germany and had prominent post-war careers. A central feature of Jaeger's way of working was a return to a pure philology of the text, in sharp contrast both with the old Bonn School (and Usener) and with Wilamowitz' claim of

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'totality'. This return to the text long remained a hallmark of Germanophone philology in particular, and in Latin studies at least, it was only really superseded in the 1980s with the so-called 'cultural turn'. Pure textual philology was still present outside Germany too, however, as shown for instance in the still-influential work of the Italian philologist Giorgio Pasqua Ii ( 188 5-19 52) to improve on the method of Lachmann. At the opposite end of the spectrum, the internationally-renowned Hungarian scholar Karl Kerenyi (1897-1973) took a quite different direction in classical studies. Following on from the approach of Erwin Rohde, Kerenyi succeeded in achieving a synthesis of mythology, religion and philology in cultural studies. In its approach of cultural anthropology in particular, his work continues to be of influence in the study of mythology. In Latin studies, the so-called 'Third Humanism' posed a problem insofar as its Hellenocentric paideia ideology denigrated Roman culture as an imitative culture of reception. Although research in Roman studies offered some correction here, Richard Heinze's methodological literary science was no match for the parareligious idealism of Jaeger in terms of its public resonance. During the National Socialist period, Latin studies gained an advantage of sorts, because the field lost far fewer scholars to emigration and persecution than Greek studies, which were very badly hit (e.g. Felix Jacoby, Werner Jaeger, Hermann Frankel, Walther Kranz, Friedrich Solmsen, Rudolf Pfeiffer, Kurt Latte, Konrat Ziegler). Among Latin scholars, there were two politically active National Socialists in Hans Oppermann (1895-1982) and Hans Drexler (1895-1984), in whose spheres of influence Roman studies were brought at least approximately into line with the prevailing ideology (e.g. Erich Burck, 1901-1994). Drexler and Oppermann were devout followers of the Nazi racial ideology, even roundly condemning Jaeger's concept of Humanism and, indeed, Humanism in general. Within the NSDAP, the term 'Humanism' rapidly became a non-word, so that even to use it under the Third Reich was to engage in a form of intellectual resistance. After 194 5, the clearly complicit teachers Oppermann and Drexler (as well as Harder) were dismissed from their posts, but most philologists who had been guilty of some degree of publication or activity in collusion with the party (e.g. party or SA/SS membership, organizing National Socialist Dozentenlager, or ideological 'teaching camps'), such as Burck and Posch!, escaped sanction, so that there was no real reckoning with the National Socialist period. On the contrary: in 1949, the Nazi historian and friend of Oppermann's, Ernst Anrich, founded the so-called Wissenschaftliche

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Buchgesellschaft ('Scholarly Book Society'), in which none other than Drexler and Oppermann were free to publish compendia on values, the individual and Humanism. The complexity of the situation even among the victims of National Socialism is illustrated by the fates of the Gottingen philologists Kurt Latte (1891-1964) and Konrat Ziegler (1884-1974), both of whom were dismissed from their jobs under the Third Reich. Ziegler risked his life to hide the Jew Latte. After the war, Latte then vetoed the appointment of his saviour Ziegler, who was renowned in the profession, to a professorship at Gottingen because of Ziegler's social democrat sympathies, which the Jewish Latte evidently considered more dangerous than a Nazi past. Nevertheless, Ziegler in 1946 took over editorship of the RE and continued to work at Gottingen as an honorary professor. As a whole, the National Socialist period was one of substantial losses for German philology, and the field did not really recover over the following decades, particularly and ironically because its most important scholars had in the main emigrated to the United States and Britain where they ushered in a golden age of classical studies. Post-war German philology was characterized, among other things, but a recourse to pure textual philology that was to some extent dictated by contemporary political conditions. Although 'New Criticism', with its method of the 'close reading', was also present in the Englishspeaking world, the approach of German scholarship was more markedly indebted to Dilthey, with its view of intellectual history and its attendant idealism frequently limiting scrutiny of the text to a search for what was 'true, beautiful and good', as if in a kind of inward emigration away from the turmoil of reality. To leading scholars like Wolfgang Schadewaldt, Viktor Posch!, Friedrich Klingner ( 1894-1968) and the latter's student Karl Buchner (1910-1981), 'interpretation' meant a kind of 'sympathetic understanding', especially of classical poetry (prose was less highly prized) - as it were kindling an 'affinity with the poet' without heed to cultural, political or social contexts. In part, this was a reaction to the previous instrumentalization of ancient literature for political ends. Not only in Latin studies but indeed especially in Greek, the 'great classical authors' were seen as exemplary models, and reading their works gave an individual a kind of immunity against the outside world. Elsewhere, Burck was meanwhile giving a lasting and very different methodical and thematic stimulus to research with his literary criticism of the historian Livy and his studies ranging widely across the field of Latin studies, from Roman comedy

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to erotic elegy to Flavian epic. Among other works translated and received in the Germanspeaking world were the cultural historical studies of the influential French Latinist Pierre Grima! (1912-1996) on Pompeii and Roman authors like Virgil, Cicero and Seneca. Another hallmark of post-war German philology was a long-lasting process of methodical and conceptual fortification against international influences. For instance, the American Milman Parry (1902-1935) had demonstrated the many oral characteristics of Homeric poetry as early as 1928, in work based on empirical linguistic studies. German scholars acknowledged this work only reluctantly and belatedly, from the 1960s, and it was scarcely reflected at all in academic teaching, seemingly because it did not coincide with the idea of the 'original genius' of Homer. In the United States, meanwhile, the study of 'oral poetry' developed quickly, but it was ignored in Germany for many years (with one exception: Albin Lesky, 1896-1981 ). Another typical example is the decipherment of the Mycenaean Linear B tablets first presented in 19 52. by the British architect Michael Ventris (192.2.-1956) and continued by the Cambridge philologist John Chadwick (192.0-1998). While many international scholars immediately joined in the process of further decipherment, German Hellenists continued to doubt the results and to treat them with supercilious disdain even twenty years later (exceptions, again, Albin Lesky and Alfred Heubeck), so that in the German-speaking world, Mycenaean studies remained a backwater of Inda-European studies. To some extent, this too was a product of disillusionment with the very ordinary world of the actual Mycenaean culture, which aesthetes of Humanist predisposition found incompatible with their romanticized view of the Mycenae of the Homeric epics. The influences of the ancient Near Eastern culture on Greece, which were discovered by the Danish archaeologist Frederik Poulsen as early as 191 2., were also long ignored in Germany, and only belatedly acknowledged via the Anglophone route (Martin West). An important watershed in German philology came through the work of the Konstanz Latinist Manfred Fuhrmann (192.5-2.005), whose publications, some of which caught the imagination of a wider public, sought to cleanse philology of the dust of Classicism while insisting on openness towards other philologies. Both approaches ultimately bore fruit. Less Classicist perspectives were certainly already available in classical philology, evidenced, for instance, in the still unfinished Bonn project of the Reallexikon fur Antike und Christentum (since 1950). The foundation of the Franz-Joseph-Dolger-Institut ( 19 5 5) to study relations between antiquity and

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Christianity also attests to this tendency. In any case, typical German constraints on thinking were of little consequence in international research, which often had a wider methodological foundation. Outstanding British philologists, for example, included Murray's successor at Oxford, Eric Dodds ( 189 3-1979 ), with his works on Christianity and Late Antiquity, and his much-discussed anti-Classicist The Greeks and the Irrational (first published 19 5 1). There was also Murray's student and ubiquitous honorary doctor Maurice Bowra (1898-1971), who wrote many books on Greek and Russian poetry, reception history, poetology, the history of Athens and the relationship between poetry and politics. Approaches taking account of context were also present in French scholarship, especially in cultural anthropology and in the common ground between philology and religious science, for instance in the work of the internationally muchlauded scholar Jean-Pierre Vernant ( 1914-2.007), who examined the relationship between tragedy and myth and considered Greek literature from an anthropological perspective. D.3. ANCIENT HISTORY Defeat in World War I brought no thematic or methodological shift in German studies of ancient history. Many ancient historians who still harboured pronounced sympathies for the Second Empire and concomitant reservations about the Weimar Republic kept to the traditional positions of historiography, maintaining the primacy of political history, narrative history and the biographical history of outstanding individuals. It was then impossible for the new directions in scholarship championed by younger scholars, especially in the fields of social and economic history, to gain ground to any extent, because the National Socialist seizure of power in 1933 drove many of these figures, such as Fritz M. Heichelheim ( 1901-1968), into exile abroad, while others, like Johannes Hasebroek (1893-1957), lost their professorships. Many able ancient historians were lost to Germany in the years after 1933: Eugen Taubler (1879195 5 ), Richard Laqueur ( 1881-19 59), Ernst Stein (1891-1945), Elias Bickermann (1897-1981) and Hans-Georg Pflaum ( 1902-1979) are only a few examples. Victor Ehrenberg ( 1891-1976), professor of ancient history at the German University in Prague, escaped Czechoslovakia in February 1939, just a few days before the German annexation. The development of the discipline of ancient history in Germany after 19 3 3 was profoundly affected by the fact that two ancient historians of the younger generation who had achieved recognition for their work now voluntarily

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adopted National Socialism. As early as 1934, ers is attributed to an 'opposition of races' Helmut Berve (1896-1979), professor of ancient (Rassengegensatz). In the first article, Karthago history from 1927 at the University of Leipzig, in rassengeschichtlicher Betrachtung, Fritz published an essay entitled Antike und national- Schachermeyr ( 189 5-1987) characterizes the sozialistischer Staat. In it, he firstly rejected Carthaginians as follows: "But Carthage! Still both the Classicist view of antiquity and the of the Semites, but really of that characterless, 'Third Humanism' of Werner Jaeger with equal peripheral Levantine Semitism of the Syrian vehemence. Secondly, Berve was concerned coasts. And not even any longer fully represento emphasize the importance of antiquity and tative of this Semitic periphery, but yet further ancient values to the National Socialist regime. altered on the coasts of Africa through gradual He explicitly affirms the idea of race. According transmogrification and Libyan admixture. Heir to Berve, the function of antiquity was "to exem- also to the Semitic flaw, and the associated flucplify vividly the importance of the racial instinct, tuation between the desert and Armenoid types. the possibility and impact of a racial policy and [... ] At root, a changeling between races and the destruction of a culture through racial degra- worlds." The last section presents a contrasting dation". In his monograph Sparta (1937), Berve view of Rome: "Rome's superiority, then, was praised the "virtues of obedience, discipline and based [... J upon so many qualitative advantages order": "Service here became an honour, devo- of the Nordic race, against which other races tion a perfection of self; death lost its terror if it have nothing quite equal to offer - we think were a manly one, met in battle." Such notions most especially of the iron consistency of the will were closely related to the militarism of the to achievement." National Socialist regime. The section devoted Vogt himself, in his article on Septimius to the Battle of Thermopylae displays the same Severus, argued that 'the Punic nation' (das Puniertum) "regained its ancestral nature and its tendency. To Berve, the heroism of the Spartans was that they "endured, far from home, in the powerful position in the country." It was only place where orders had taken them, for no other because of this mercy shown by Rome that a reason than that those were their orders." The Carthaginian was finally able to become Roman conclusion he draws is summarized thus: "Both princeps. At the very beginning of the excursus the greatness and the impact of the deed lay in on the princeps, Vogt makes clear that "the family into which the emperor Septimius Severus was its very futility." born was without doubt Carthaginian in oriLike Berve, Joseph Vogt (1895-1986) adopted National Socialist terminology. In his treatise on gin." Of Septimius Severus himself, Vogt asserts, "According to all available evidence, Septimius the Catilinarian Conspiracy ( 193 8 ), the Romans are "Nordic conquerors" who were "tenaSeverus represented a mongrelization of the immigrant Phoenician race with the Hamitic eleciously, enterprisingly, by their essential cultural nature inwardly inimical to all deception". These ment of North Africa - a mix that in this case Roman qualities are described as "innate" (ange- yielded a less than harmonious result." This Vogt borene Art), and Vogt asserts that the Romans believes to be proved by the ancient portraits, acted "with a sure and certain instinct for the which reveal "the double nature of the mongrel mission of the leadership of the state". In Vogt's in the expression of inward suffering combined semantic world, the Senate was the Fuhrerkorps with dark threat." Yet such arguments, which of the state (Fuhrerkorps des Staates). The crisis were wholly in accord with National Socialist of the Republic, then, was not caused by "racial racial ideology, prevented neither Vogt nor aliens" (artfremden Menschen), but by a "deforBerve (the latter after a few years' delay) from mity of state" (staatliche Missbildung) triggered becoming highly influential and respected ancient by the "development of imperial rule" (imperiale historians in post-war Germany, figures whose Herrschaftsbildung), which "destroyed the integ- work in academic commissions and academies rity of the master race" and ultimately ushered enabled them to determine the direction of future in "miscegenation" (Rassenmischung). The trea- research to a considerable degree. tise ends with an assessment of Cataline, who One important development in ancient hisbecame "in the last battle a true Leader", while tory between the wars was a turn towards Vogt calls the "victory of the government" into social and economic history. This field is parquestion, since it derived "only from the apparaticularly associated with the names of Michael tus as a whole, and not from any elite leadership Rostovtzeff and Tenney Frank in the United and followers". States and Johannes Hasebroek and Fritz Moritz During the war, and well after the National Heichelheim in Germany. Rostovtzeff (1870Socialist regime had embarked on its criminal 1952), who published important specialist studies in the field even before 1914, wrote two substanproject to annihilate the Jews, Vogt published the collection Rom und Karthago ( 194 3), in tial works on the ancient economy: The Social which the conflict between the two great pow- and Economic History of the Roman Empire

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(r92.6) and The Social and Economic History of hence a work in the highly politicized tradition the Hellenistic Wr,rld ( 1941 ). Both established of 19th-cent. ancient history, but it also relied on new subjects of study and new horizons for the methods of prosopographic research. Syme international research. The Social and Economic kept faith with these methods in his later works, such as The Augustan Aristocracy ( 1986). History of the Roman Empire is an account of the social and economic development of the Scholarly work in the field of ancient hisRoman Empire from the 1st to the 3rd cents. AD tory worldwide continued to be determined by that still impresses today. Particularly striking is a series of major projects, some of which had its attention to the often difficult archaeological commenced in the 19th cent. Worthy of menmaterial. In The Social and Economic History tion alongside the RE is the British Cambridge of the Hellenistic World, Rostovtzeff gives an Ancient History (12. volumes, 192.4-1939), authoritative overview of society and the econ- which was the result of collaboration between omy in the Hellenistic kingdoms. His work led many ancient historians. The idea that a single ancient historians to pay much more attention to scholar like Eduard Meyer could write a 'history economic history, and his book on the Roman of antiquity' had to be relinquished because of economy was soon translated into many lan- developments in ancient historical research, and guages, adding to its international impact. The especially because of the enormous accumulation passages that provoked the greatest interest were of data. The second edition of the Cambridge Ancient History has been appearing since 1982.; those in which Rostovtzeff, like Eduard Meyer, sought to describe the Roman economy using it also covers Late Antiquity and explores beyond Greece and Rome to include other cultures of modern terminology. In this way, Rostovtzeff's the ancient Mediterranean. The sections on modernizing perspective on the ancient economy influenced studies of the subject through to the social and economic history are also extensive. publication of Moses I. Finley's The Ancient The Cambridge Ancient History is thus without doubt the most important presentation of ancient Economy in 1973. The seminal handbook on the Roman econ- history in the world today. Academies continued to tend older research omy also appeared in the United States during this period. This was An Economic Survey of projects; these included the editions of Greek and Ancient Rome (5 volumes; 1933-1940), edited Latin inscriptions (Jnscriptiones Graecae; Corpus lnscriptionum Latinarum) and the Prosopographia by Tenney Frank (1876-1939) in collaboration with American, British and French ancient histolmperii Romani, which sought to survey the ruling elite of the Roman Empire. Other important rians. The work made the sources on the Roman economy available to scholars on a scale never research projects in ancient history included the prosopographic works on the magistrates of seen before. Johannes Hasebroek (1893-1957), who wrote two studies on the economic history the Roman Republic (T. R. S. Broughton, The of Greece in the Archaic and Classical Periods Magistrates of the Roman Republic, 1951-1952.) towards the end of the Weimar Republic, took a and the political elites of Late Antiquity (The firm stance against the views of Eduard Meyer, Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, 1971 vehemently denying the theory that ancient Greece and 1980). The Forschungen zur antiken Sklaverei, a series published (since 1967) by the Mainz underwent industrialization and emphasizing, in accord with Max Weber, the importance of Akademie der Wissenschaften, was an initiative of Joseph Vogt. Also relevant to ancient history is agriculture to the Greek city-states. Hasebroek's the comprehensive collection of Fragmente der books had no particular influence on ancient history until the appearance of Finley's Ancient griechischen Historiker (since 192.3) begun by the Economy ( 197 3 ), because Hasebroek lost his Hellenist Felix Jacoby (1876-1959). professorship under the Third Reich and hence During the 2.oth cent., papyrology and epighad no opportunity to exert academic influ- raphy developed into important specialist discience. The Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Altertums plines to which fell the task of continuing the by Fritz Moritz Heichelheim (1901-1968) must great corpora and editions as well as editing be acknowledged as an outstanding achieve- and interpreting new finds as they were made. ment. It was not possible to publish the work in Another such discipline was numismatics, which Germany; instead, it appeared at Leiden in 1938, expanded far beyond a focus on coin images to the same year as the comprehensive chapter on become in effect a monetary history of antiquity. Syria in Volume 4 of Frank's Economic Survey Here too, progress in a subject was often the of Ancient Rome. Prosopography was gaining result of initiatives by individual scholars, such in influence internationally during this period. as Geza Alfoldy and Werner Eck in epigraphy or One of the most admired works of ancient his- Michael Crawford in numismatics. tory from the years before 1945, Ronald Syme's The development of research in ancient his(1903-1989) monograph The Roman Revolution tory after 194 5 was marked both by new top(1939), was not only a riposte to fascism and ics of special interest and by new approaches. In

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particular, periods of history that had been little heeded before were now the focus of attention. This is particularly so of Late Antiquity. A masterly account of late-antique history up to the early Byzantine Period is that by A. H. M. Jones (The Later Roman Empire 284-602. A Social, Economic and Administrative Survey, 1964). One great service rendered by this work lies in its inclusion of social and economic history, where Jones frequently anticipates theories later given form by Moses Finley. Worthy of a place alongside this work are the German handbook by Alexander Demandt (Die Spatantike. Romische Geschichte von Diocletian bis ]ustinian 284-565 n. Chr., 1989; 2nd ed. 2007), and the forays of Averil Cameron into the history of the period (e.g. The Mediterranean World in Late Antiquity, AD 395-600, 1993). The works of Peter Brown (e.g. The Making of Late Antiquity, 1978) and Ramsay MacMullen (Christianizing the Roman Empire, A.D. Ioo-400, 1984) gave rise to substantial new insights on Late Antiquity, and show that Christianization was associated with a profound transformation of mentality. The study of the Hellenistic Period also became more important after 1945. Rostovtzeff provided stimulus here with his Social and Economic History of the Hellenistic World, as did Claire Preaux with L'economie royale des Lagides (1939). These works challenged the view of history focused on the Classical Period, according to which the era of the Persian Wars and the rule of Pericles marked the zenith of Greek history, offering a more differentiated view of the history of the eastern Mediterranean - a view that takes particular account of cultural and civilizatory developments in the Hellenistic kingdoms and city-states. Subsequent studies have also taken account of the later Roman Republic and the emergence of the Principate. British scholars have emphasized the social background to the crisis of the Republic: Peter A. Brunt (The Fall of the Roman Republic and Related Essays, 1988) and Fergus Millar (The Crowd in Rome in the Late Republic, 1998) have shed new light with their detailed studies of the origins of unrest among the urban Roman underclass and the role played by soldiers in the Civil Wars, correcting the accepted view that the causes of the crisis were primarily to be found in dissent within the political elites. Particular countries and regions received more attention in studies of ancient history. There was an especial interest in the provinces of the Roman Empire, where development was examined partly in the light of processes of Romanization. Provincial Roman research has paid attention to the consolidation of Roman law, urbanization, the incorporation of regional economies into the imperial economy, the recep-

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tion of Roman architecture and the construction of infrastructure on Roman models. Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt in particular has been the subject of many studies, research in the field no longer being the province of papyrologists alone. Ancient historians too have understood that the documentary source material available in Egypt on a scale unmatched elsewhere in the ancient world offers the opportunity of investigating all spheres of government and of everyday social and economic life. A general Mediterranean perspective has become ever more evident in recent work on antiquity. The geographical conditions and climate of the Mediterranean world, and its cohesion as a region sustained by the maritime trade routes, have all been the subject of increasing attention, and all have come to be understood as challenges that faced the ancient societies. Other important subjects of recent research are the relations between Greece and the cultural foci of Western Asia, Egypt and the ancient Near East. It has come to be understood that the Greeks of the Archaic Period adopted important cultural technologies and accomplishments of civilization from Egypt and Mesopotamia, and that these influences had a lasting impact on Greek culture. The Hellenist Walter Burkert in particular drew attention to the relations between Greece and the East. Achaemenid Persia and the Parthian Empire in Western Asia, and Carthage in the West, have also been the subject of studies in ancient history, with initiatives by Werner Huss and Josef Wiesehofer. The situation in the socialist bloc between 1945 and 1990 must be seen as a special case. Besides works that essentially attempted to confirm through scholarship the theories of Marx and Engels, and sometimes even of Lenin and Stalin, there was also a series of studies in social and economic history that conducted Marxian ancient history without relinquishing proper academic standards. The focus here tended to be on slavery and class struggle, which were described with some subtlety. The Mainz Akademie der Wissenschaften is to he admired for having made a series of Russian monographs on ancient slavery more easily accessible in German translation. One example is the work of Elena Shtaerman on the slave economy in the Roman Republic (German 1969). Nor should it be forgotten that countries like Hungary were also home to ancient history and ancient historians of distinction. Overall, the influence of Marxist theory on ancient history in Western Europe was slight. Jean-Pierre Yernant, for example, although he was a member of the French Communist Party until 1970, followed the structuralism of Claude Levi-Strauss in his work rather than taking a Marxist position. But at least one monumental effort was made to apply Marxist theory to the

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in ancient cultures. In this context, increasing ancient world: The Class Struggle in the Ancient attention was paid to rituals related to the pasGreek World (1981) by Geoffrey De Ste. Croix. sage from childhood and adolescence to adultSocial history increasingly began to interest a younger generation of ancient historians after hood, marriage rituals, the division of society 1970. Two works of very different stamp were into classes of age and gender roles. Impulses and advances in this field of research were services pioneering achievements here: firstly, Roman rendered in particular by French ancient histoSocial Relations, 50 B.C. to A.O. 284 (1974) rians, such as Jean-Pierre Vernant (1914-2.007) by Ramsay MacMullen; secondly, Romische Sozialgeschichte ( 197 5) by Geza Alfoldy ( 19 3 5- and Pierre Vidal-Naquet (1930-2006), but also 2.011). While MacMullen undertakes a system- the American ancient historian Sally Humphreys. German ancient history too witnessed efforts to atic analysis of relations between social groups take inspiration from 'historical anthropology'. under the Principate, Alfoldy offers a magisterial The lives and freedom of action of women overview of the development of Roman society. in antiquity were the subject of thorough study, Since the appearance of these works, the relevant spheres of ancient social history have been sub- initially in a history of gender that developed as a feminist initiative in the United States. The first jected to intensive research. Moses I. Finley's lecture The Ancient Econ- comprehensive survey of the history of women in the ancient world was Sarah Pomeroy's omy, which was published in 1973, ushered Goddesses, Whores, Wives, and Slaves. Women in an important shift in the study of economic history. Finley ( 1912-1986), who subjected the in Classical Antiquity ( 197 5 ). This opened up a theoretical basis of works of ancient history on new field of research in ancient history, and one the economy of Greece and Rome to critical that encompassed a broad spectrum of themes, scrutiny, followed Max Weber and Karl Polanyi ranging from the social position of women and in vehemently denying the 'modernizing' view their role in the family and in religious life, to the influence of women in ruling families, to the of the ancient economy, and instead developed view of women in medical literature. The disciwhat critics later called a 'primitivist' position that emphasized the minor role played by mar- pline of gender studies today also pays attention kets and trade and characterizing ancient cities to male role concepts, and examines the differing roles assigned to women and men. as 'consumer cities'. His book is above all imporInternational ancient history today is a field tant for having triggered a debate on the nature that encompasses a wide diversity of methods, of the ancient economy that lasted for decades. Discussions were particularly lively on the sub- approaches and themes, and it is characterized by close interdisciplinary collaboration with jects of trade and the ancient money economy areas in which Vinley's position has proved to be other subjects that also investigate pre-modern societies. It also makes an important contribuin need of modification. Closely related to studies of the ancient econ- tion to the study of trans-epochal phenomena, omy and society are accounts of ancient tech- where perspectives of social and cultural science nology and demographics. Recent works have are increasingly important. Works of ancient history on the geography of the Mediterranean shown that antiquity was by no means characterworld are also of the utmost relevance to the ized by technological stagnation; on the contrary, relevant technological innovations were made study of the economies and societies of southern in many fields. Kenneth D. White's Greek and Europe, the Near East and North Africa, where pre-modern traditions and long-term continuities Roman Technology ( 1984) is a comprehensive are characteristic elements. standard work on the history of ancient technology. As Werner Eck in particular has shown, one D.4. ARCHAEOLOGY fundamental precondition for Roman rule over The Greek Classical Period was the predomiWestern Europe and the Mediterranean was the consolidation of infrastructure. Historical demo- nant theme in German archaeology during the graphic studies, meanwhile, have used refined first half of the 20th cent., and lively debate methodical apparatus to investigate human life at the time concerned both the dating of the expectancy, age at marriage, numbers of off- Classical Period as such, and its characteristic features. To some, the term 'Classical' applied spring and the impact of infant exposure. After 1970, international ancient history to the entire 5th and 4th centuries BC, to others only the time of Pericles, Phidias and Sophocles. began to take account of and receive methods, Views of Classical art were greatly conditioned approaches and results of related disciplines; hy subjective factors. Sometimes, archaeologists anthropology in particular played an important part. Living conditions, myths, customs, social resorted to highly emotional language, and the relations and social rituals of primitive peoples description of individual works started from the were the subject of analysis as scholars sought to direct experience in the encounter with Classical understand and explain comparable phenomena art. Artists themselves were also the subject of

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study, with attempts to decipher the personality of Phidias in particular through his works. The thematic realignment in archaeology after 1900 came about primarily through the works of Alois Riegl (1858-1905), especially his Spiitromische Kunstindustrie ( 1901 ), which drew attention to the neglect of late-antique art in archaeology and suggested that this was because archaeologists regarded it as 'unclassical'. Rieg! opposed the view that the decline of ancient art was caused by the barbarian invasions, theorizing instead that the art of every period was conditioned by a "particular and purposeful will to art" (Kunstwollen). The concept of a process in ancient art leading from a zenith to a decline was thus abandoned. According to Riegl, the denigration of late-antique art was based on a subjective view that measured ancient art objects by reference to modern tastes. His research opened a quite new perspective on the perception of lateantique and Roman art. In archaeological studies after 1900, it consequently became characteristic in spite of a fundamental acknowledgment of the Classical art of Greece to pay closer attention to Roman art and to investigate its peculiarities. In methodical terms, the study of style was the main focus of archaeological interpretation, and distinctions could be drawn between the styles of different periods, different regions and different artists. It remained the case, however, that interest was greatest in the works of art of the highest quality. Things began to change in many countries after World War II. Archaeology ceased to be regarded as 'ancient art history'. Alongside the analysis of works of art and the development of art, there was now also more intense study of material culture. In architectural archaeology, the focus broadened from individual structures to urban studies, investigating the complex structures of cities. Other forms of settlement also began to be studied. Different forms of land use (e.g. agriculture in the territorium surrounding cities; raw material extraction, e.g. work in marble quarries, metal and clay mining) now became subjects of archaeological study. No longer was the primary archaeological significance of artefacts deemed to be their artistic value: attention was also now paid to simple utilitarian clay crockery without representative function, or to simple glassware. Not only the artefact itself, but also the craftsman, his workshop and the manufacturing process were now of interest. Archaeological material made it possible to describe the development of civilizations with greater precision than before. This is true of the period of Greek expansion in the Archaic Period as it is of the Romanization process particularly in the western provinces of the Roman Empire. Classic works of archaeological research in this sense are without doubt

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John Boardman's The Greeks Overseas (1 1964) and Anthony Snodgrass' Archaic Greece. The Age of Experiment ( 1980). One focus of recent work has been amphora studies, which are no longer confined to establishing amphora types, origins and dates, but also aim to reconstruct transregional wine and oil production, trade routes and markets. Wreck finds in coastal Mediterranean waters have contributed to an understanding of shipbuilding, trade and traded goods. All of this has enabled Michel Gras to speak of an "archaeology of trade". This shift in thematic interest has also been closely associated with the introduction of new methods in archaeology. The most significant of these is the survey, which now often replaces excavation. Archaeologists investigate large areas of terrain on foot, carefully documenting all ground finds, structural remains and interventions in the terrain (e.g. terracing on slopes). Such surveys have yielded much data on settlement and agriculture, and in some regions on the mining of precious metals. Surveys by British archaeologists in north-western Spain, for instance, elicited a detailed description of Roman opencast gold mining. Archaeometry, the scientific study of ancient artefacts and the materials used in them, has yielded important information on the production of objects made of metal, clay and glass. Pinpointing the origins of materials permits inferences as to the distribution of craft products and commerce involving them. Meanwhile, technological advances in underwater archaeology have provided the necessary conditions for the systematic evaluation of wreck finds. There have also been important innovations in more traditional fields of archaeology, with new aspects and issues explored in the analysis of sculpture and architecture. These new approaches are characterized by the quest to understand ancient art works in their social and political contexts. Whereas archaeology used to be based on the assumption that the development of art followed its own laws, largely insulated from external factors, more recent work emphasizes the functions of art and architecture in the legitimization and consolidation of political authority. Pictorial programmes are found to pursue political goals. With this in mind, it has become possible to speak of "Roman state reliefs" (Tonio Holscher). Paul Zanker, examining the reign of Augustus, highlighted the connection between new "manifestations of art and architecture" and the establishment of the Principate (Augustus und die Macht der Bilder, 1987). There is now a consensus that Roman art and architecture formed an intrinsic element within an ensemble of social and political conceptions and norms - other contexts included

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myth, cult and ritual. There are now seminal works available in this field too, such as S. R. F. Price's Rituals and Power. The Roman Imperial Cult in Asia Minor ( 1984). Like French historians, French archaeologists since 1945 have placed an emphasis on considerations of anthropology. Pictorial worlds, for instance on Attic vases, have been interpreted in terms of what they tell us about social rituals and codes of behaviour, with women's ways of life a consideration of particular importance here. A compilation of such research is published in the work /,a cite des images ( 1984), jointly edited by Claude Berard and Jean-Pierre Vernant. The interpretation of Greek vase-paintings contributes to the understanding of Greek culture, with equal attention paid to the images and texts. These works have also been received in Anglophone archaeology, as the monograph 'Reading' Greek Culture. Text and Images, Rituals and Myths by Christiane SourvinouInwood (1991), for instance, makes clear. Here, these new approaches have become coordinated into the concept of a 'New Archaeology'. According to this research tendency, the job of archaeology is to explain cultural development with the help of anthropological theories.

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A survey of the almost seven-century history of classical studies, from its beginnings in the time of Petrarch to the 20th cent., reveals profound changes. At first, the study of ancient texts outside the realm of theology was an enthusiasm of intellectuals, who kindled interest in antiquity. In the age of the printing-press, the Humanists concentrated on editing and commenting on the ancient texts. This made the surviving testimonies to antiquity available to early modern soci-

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ety in many libraries, and engagement with these texts, both in terms of reception and criticism, has been a formative influence on European culture and contributed greatly to the rational foundations of European thought. The reception of ancient culture meant that antiquity and the ancient languages took a dominant position in European education from the early modern period to the 19th cent. According to Wilhelm von Humboldt, Humanist education and the encounter with antiquity were crucial stimuli to the formation of the personality. In Germany, access to university was linked to attendance at the Gymnasium, where the ancient languages were mandatory subjects. When Humanist education lost its monopoly in schools as scientific and technical subjects took root, classical studies had to relinquish its claim to primacy in universities. In the totalitarian systems of the 20th cent., classical studies like other disciplines was confronted with the claim to power of the prevailing ideology, but the classical tradition survived in Britain and the United States, and after 1945 the European nations could once more reconnect with the achievements of the time before World War I or 1933. Today, the methods of modern-language philology and modern historiography are applicable also to classical philology and ancient history. Interdisciplinary research is a self-evident part of everyday scholarly life. While it may no longer be legitimate to speak of classical studies as occupying a central position in universities, its constituent disciplines are certainly well-respected subjects alongside other fields of the humanities, and they continue to make their contribution to the history and culture of Europe, and hence to the self-image of European society. Peter Kuhlmann / Helmuth Schneider

Abbreviations

I.

GENERAL

Abh. Abt. Cod., Codd. comm. DAI Dept. diss.

E. ed. Enz. et al. exh. cat. FS habit. Hdb. hon. prof. HWB Jb., Jbb. Lex. LW M. MA MHG M.W.

N. F. N. S. OHG Pap. pl. priv.-doz. Proc. prof. prof. ext. prof. ord. prof. sup. SB Slg. suppl. TH,TU trans. Univ. vol., vols. WB Zs.

ABBREVIATIONS

Abhandlung(en) Abteilung (department; section) Codex, Codices commentary, commented Deutsches Archaologisches lnstitut department dissertation estate edition Enzyklopadie et alii, et aliae (and others/ elsewhere) Ausstellungskatalog Festschrift habilitation (German postdoctorate on approval of second thesis) Handbuch honorary professor Handw6rterbuch Jahrbuch,Jahrbticher Lexicon list of writings memoirs, autobiography Magister Artium Middle High German minor writings Neue Folge Neue Serie, Nova Serie, New Series etc. reiss., reissue Old High German Papyrus plate Privatdozent (univ. appointment between habil. and professorship) Proceedings professor professor extraordinarius professor ordinarius professor supernumerarius Sitzungsbericht(e) Sammlung supplement Technische Hochschule, Technische Universitat translation, translated University, Universitat, Universite, Universidad etc. volume(s) W6rterbuch Zeitschrift

ADB

Athenische Mitteilungen Bibi.Wolf.

Allgemeine deutsche Biographie AfO Archiv for Orientforschung ANRW H. Temporini, W. Haase (ed.), Aufstieg und Niedergang der r6mischen Welt, 1972 ff. Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archaologischen Instituts, Athenische Abteilung Archaologie der Antike. Aus den Bestanden der Herzog August Bibliothek 1 5001700, 1994

Briggs / Calder

Bursian Gesch.

Burs. Jbb. CAD Christ GGW

W.W. Briggs, W.M. Calder III (ed.), Classical Scholarship. A Biographical Encyclopedia, 1990 C. Bursian, Geschichte der classischen Philologie in Deutschland von den Anfangen bis zur Gegenwart, 2 vols., 188 3 Bursians Jahresberichte Chicago Assyrian Dictionary K. Christ, Griechische Geschichte und Wissenschaftsgeschichte, 1996

Christ Gib. Christ Hel.

K. Christ, Von Gibbon zu Rostovtsev, 1972 K. Christ, Hellas, Griechische Geschichte und deutsche Geschichtswissenschaft, 1999

Christ Klio

Christ prof. Christ, R6mGG

Christ, RomGW

K. Christ, Klios Wandlungen. Die deutsche Althistorie vom Neuhumanismus bis zur Gegenwart, 2006 K. Christ, Neue Profile der Alten Geschichte, 1990 K. Christ, R6mische Geschichte und deutsche Geschichtswissenschaft, 19 8 2 K. Christ, Romische Geschichte und Wissenschaftsgeschichte, Vol. 3: Wissenschaftsgeschichte, 1983

Christ / Mom.

K. Christ, A. Momigliano (ed.), Die Antike im 19. Jh. in Italien und Deutschland,

CIG

Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum Corpus Inscriptionum Latina rum

1988 2.

AA A&A

BIBLIOGRAPIC

ABBREVIATIONS

Archaologischer Anzeiger Antike und Abendland

CIL

ABBREVIATIONS

C.J. Classen (ed.), Die Klassische Altertumswissenschaft an der Georg-August-Universitiit Gottingen, 1989 Classical Philology CPh Classical Quarterly CQ Academie des inscriptions CRAI et belles-lettres. Compres rendus des seances E. Gran-Aymerich, OBA Dictionnaire biographique d'archeologie 1798-1945, 2001 DBC R.B. Todd (ed.), The Dictionary of British Classicists, 2004 DBI Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani DNP Der Neue Pauly. Enzyklopiidie der Antike, ed. H. Cancik et al., 1996-2003 EdN Enzyklopiidie der Neuzeit, ed. F. Jaeger, 16 vols., 2005-2012 EHCA N. Thomson de Grummond (ed.), An Encyclopedia of the History of Classical Archaeology, 2 vols., 1996 Flashar Alt. wiss. H. Flashar (ed.), Altertumswissenschaft in den 2oer Jahren. Neue Fragen und Impulse, 1995 Gnomon Gnomon. Kritische Zeitschrift fur die gesamte klassische Altertumswissenschaft Gran-Aym. E. Gran-Aymerich, Naissance de l'archeologie moderne. 1798-1945, 1998 Gymnasium. Zeitschrift Gymnasium for Kultur der Antike und humanistische Bildung Historische Zeitschrift HZ Indogermanische IF Forschungen International Journal of the IJCT Classical Tradition Italia medievale e umanistica IMU H. Jaumann, Handbuch Jaumann, Hdb. Gelehrtenkultur der friihen Neuzeit, Vol. 1: Biobibliographisches Repertorium, 2004 Journal of Hellenic Studies JHS Journal of Roman Studies JRS Die Kirsten AW Altertumswissenschaften an der Berliner Akademie. Classen Gott.

Wahlvorschlage zur Aufnahme von Mitgliedern von F.A. Wolf bis zu G. Rodenwaldt 1799-1932., ed. C. Kirsten, 1985 Lexikon des Mittelalters LMA Lullies / Schiering R. Lullies, W. Schiering (ed.), Arch. Archaologenbildnisse. Portriits und Kurzbiographien von Klassischen Archaologen deutscher Sprache, 1988 E. Mensching, Nugae zur Mensching Nug. Philologie-Geschichte, 14 vols., 198 7-2.004 Museum Helveticum MH A. Momigliano, Momigliano AS Ausgewiihlte Schriften zur Geschichte und Geschichtsschreibung. Vol. 2.: Spiitantike bis Spiita ufkliirung, 1999; Vol. 3: Die moderne Geschichtsschreibung der Alten Welt, :z.ooo A. Momigliano, Contributo Momigliano alla storia degli Contr. studi classici, 19 5 5; Secondo - Ottavo Contributo, 1960-1987 Momigliano Stud. A. Momigliano, Studies in Historiography, 1966 B. Naf (ed.), Antike und Niif AA Altertumswissenschaft in der Zeit von Faschismus und Nationalsozialismus, 2.001 Neue deutsche Biographie NOB W. Nippe! (ed.), Ober Nippe) Stud. das Studium der Alten Geschichte, 1993 Oxford Classical Texts OCT R. Pfeiffer, Die Klassische Pfeiffer KPh Philologie von Petrarca bis Mommsen, 1982. Poke!, Lex. W. Poke!, Philologisches Schriftsteller-Lexikon, G. Wissowa et al. (ed.), RE Paulys Real-Encyclopiidie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft, Neue Bearbeitung, 1893-1980 Revue des Etudes Latines REL Rheinisches Museum for RhM Philologie

....

Ii

RLA Rom. Mit-

Sandys Hist.

ABBREVIATIONS

Reallexikon der Assyriologie und Vorderasiatischen Archaologie, ed. E. Ebeling et al., 1928 ff. Mitteilungen des Deutschen teilungen Archaologischen lnstituts, Romische Abteilung J. E. Sandys, A History of Classical Scholarship, 3 vols.,

Voigt Wied.

Wilamowitz GPh WWE

1903-1908

Sichtermann Stark Syst.

TAphA TRE

H. Sichtermann, Kulturgeschichte der Klassischen Archaologie, 1996 C.B. Stark, Systematik und Geschichte der Archaologie der Kunst. Handbuch der Archaologie der Kunst, 1880 Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association Theologische Realenzyklopadie

ZA Zazoff GG

ZKG ZPE

G. Voigt, Die Wiederbelebung des classischen Alterthums, 3 1893. U. von WilamowitzMoellendorf, Geschichte der Philologie, 3 1998 Who Was Who in Egyptology, ed. W. Dawson und E. P. Uphill, 3 1995 Zeitschrift fi.ir Assyriologie und Vorderasiatische Archaologie P. und H. Zazoff, Gemmensammler und Gemmenforscher, 1983 Zeitschrift fi.ir Kirchengeschichte Zeitschrift fi.ir Papyrologie und Epigraphik

Chronological list of articles

ABBREVIATIONS CHRONOLOGICAL COUNTRIES

FOR

THE

LIST

(MOSTLY

PRESENT-DAY

1376-1459

EQUIVALENTS)

Austria Australia AUS B Belgium BALT Baltic states Bulgaria BG Canada CAN CH Switzerland Czech Republic cz Germany D Denmark DK France F FL Flanders Great Britain GB GR Greece HU Hungary I Italy Ireland IR ISR Israel MEX Mexico Netherlands NL NZ New Zealand Poland POL RU Russia s Sweden Spain SP Turkey TR United States of America us A

1380-1459 1391-1455

1398-1481 - 14oo-i457 -1400-1466 1401-1464

Each entry gives: • dates of birth and death • name • nationality abbreviation (I; GR; D; NL), mostly according to present-day equivalent • one or two disciplines/definitions, sometimes a selection.

?-1366 1304-1374 1313-1354 1313-1375 1331-1406 - 1350-1415

Pilato, Leonzio; I; Humanist, Translator Petrarch; I; Humanist Cola di Rienzo; I; Humanist Boccaccio, Giovanni; I; Humanist Salutati, Coluccio; I; Humanist Chrysolaras, Manuel; GR; Philologist, Collector Barzizza, Gasparino; I; Rhetorician, Philologist Plethon, George Gemistos; GR; Philosopher Loschi, Antonio; I; Humanist, Philologist

1441-152.2.

1447-1500 1450/52.-1515

Niccoli, Niccolo; I; Humanist, Collector Guarino da Verona; I; Humanist Aurispa, Giovanni; I; Humanist Vittorino da Feltre; I; Humanist Poggio Bracciolini, Gian Francesco; I; Humanist Cyriacus of Ancona; I; Humanist, Epigrapher Biondo, Flavio; I; Humanist, Historian Argyropoulos, John; GR; Philologist, Philosopher Filelfo, Francesco; I; Humanist Enoch of Ascoli; I; Humanist Tortelli, Giovanni; I; Humanist Cusanus, Nicolaus; D; Humanist Bessarion, Basilios; GR; Humanist Alberti, Leon Battista; I; Humanist, Art historian Piccolomini, Enea Silvio; I; Humanist Valla, Lorenzo; I; Humanist, Rhetorician Gazes, Theodore; GR; Humanist Landino, Cristoforo; I; Humanist Laetus, Julius Pomponius; I; Philologist Leoniceno, Niccolo; I; Humanist, Philologist Acciaiuoli, Donato; I; Humanist Ficino, Marsilio; I; Humanist, Philosopher Laskaris, Constantine; GR; Humanist Buonaccorsi, Filippo; I; Humanist Nebrija, Elio Antonio de; SP; Humanist Laskaris, Janus (Andreas Johannes); GR; Philologist Calderini, Domizio; I; Humanist Della Fonte, Bartolomeo; I; Humanist, Translator Valla, Giorgio; I; Humanist Manutius, Aldus; I; Humanist, Printer/Publisher

CHRONOLOGICAL

~r450-r529 1453-1493 1453-1515 1454-1494 1455-1522 1457-r520 1459-1508 1460-1524 1461-1535 1462-1516 1463-1494

1465-1547 1466-1536 1468-1540 1469-1527 1470-15r7 1470-1530 1470- 1547 1474-1537 1480-1542 1483/94-1553 1484-1558

1485-1542 1485-1547 1488-1563

1489/90-1573 1492-1540 1492-1550 1495-1542 r497-r560 1499-1525

LIST

OF

liv

ARTICLES

Lefevre d'Etaples, Jacques; F; Humanist, Translator Barbaro, Ermolao; I; Humanist, Philologist Beroaldo, Filippo the Elder; I; Humanist Poliziano, Angelo; I; Humanist Reuchlin, Johannes; D; Humanist, Philosopher Aesticampianus, Johannes Rhagius; D; Humanist Celtis, Conrad; D; Humanist Linacre, Thomas; GB; Philologist, Translator Zasius, Ulrich; D; Humanist, Jurist Trithemius, Johannes; D; Humanist Pico della Mirandola, Giovanni; I; Humanist, Philosopher Peutinger, Conrad; D; Humanist, Jurist Erasmus of Rotterdam; NL; Humanist, Philologist Bude, Guillaume; F; Jurist, Philologist Machiavelli, Niccolo; I; Philosopher, Historian Musurus, Marcus; GR/I; Humanist, Philologist Pirckheimer, Willibald; D; Humanist, Philologist Bembo, Pietro; I; Humanist Ruel, Jean; F; Humanist, Historian of medicine Aleander, Hieronymus; I; Humanist, Philologist Rabelais, Franiyois; F; Philologist Scaliger, Julius Caesar; I; Humanist, Literary theorist Susenbrot, Johannes; D; Grammarian, Rhetorician Beatus Rhenanus; D; Humanist, Philologist Glareanus, Heinrich; CH; Philologist, Musicologist Sepulveda, Juan Gines; SP; Humanist, Historian Vives, Juan Luis; SP; Humanist Alciatus, Andreas; I; Humanist, Jurist Cleynaerts, Nicolaes; FL; Humanist, Theologian Melanchthon, Philipp; D; Humanist, Philologist Ceporinus, Jacobus; CH; Humanist, Philologist

1499-1585 1 5°0- 1574 1503-1558 15o3-1559 1508/17-1588 1512/i3-1583 1512-1565 1514-1570 1516-1567 1516-1580 1518/20-1552 15 20/i 6-1572

1520-1604 1522/24-1584 1522-1590 1522-1605 r526-1585 1526-1607 1527-1591 1528-1598 1528-1602 1529-1600 1530/40-1599 1530-1568

r531-1584 1532-1576 1534-1604 r535-1604 1536-r596 1540-1609

Vettori, Piero; I; Humanist, Philologist Camerarius, loachimus; D; Humanist Micyllus, Jacobus; D; Philologist Stephanus, Robertus; F; Printer/Publisher, Lexicographer Dorat, Jean; F; Philologist Ligorio, Pirro; I; Antiquarian Turnebus, Adrianus; F; Humanist, Philosopher Barbaro, Daniele; I; Humanist, Architectural historian Robortello, Francesco; I; Humanist Wolf, Hieronymus; D; Humanist, Philologist Enzinas, Francisco de; SP; Humanist, Translator Lambinus, Dionysius; F; Philologist Pighius, Stephanus Vinandus; NL; Humanist, Antiquarian Sigonius, Carolus; I; Humanist, Philologist Cujas, Jacques; F; Humanist, Jurist Aldrovandi, Ulisse; I; Antiquarian, Jurist Muretus, Marcus Antonius; F; Humanist Crusius, Martinus; D; Philologist, Rhetorician Doneau, Hugues; F; Humanist, Jurist Stephanus, Henricus; F; Printer/Publisher Boissard, Jean-Jacques; F; Antiquarian Orsini, Fulvio; I; Antiquarian Chacon, Alfonso; SP/1; Antiquarian, Ecclesiastical historian Panvinio, Onofrio; I; Antiquarian, Ecclesiastical historian Sambucus, Ioannes; HU; Humanist, Philologist Xylander, Guilielmus; D; Humanist, Philologist Giphanius, Obertus; NL; Philologist, Jurist Duperac, Etienne; F; Antiquarian, Engraver Sylburg, Friedrich; D; Philologist Scaliger, Joseph Justus; F; Philologist

Iv 1 54 1 - 1 594 1 54 1-1599 1 54 2- 1 575 l545-1599 1547-1606 1 549-1622

1551-1623 1551-1626 1554-1612 1556-1617 I

559-1614

1560-1627 1561-1634 1565-1634 l567-1595

1 570-1637 1572-1630 1 575/76-1629 1 576-1648 1 576-1649 1 577-1640 1 577-1649 1579-1625

l579-1639 1580-1606 1580-1637 1 580-1655 1582-1640 1 583-1645

1 587-1652 1588-1653

L_

-

CHRONOLOGICAL

Leunclavius, Johannes; D; Philologist, Historian Riccoboni, Antonio; I; Humanist Canter, Willem; NL; Philologist Tursellinus, Horatius; I; Humanist Lipsius, Justus; FL; Philologist, Historian Savile, Henry; GB; Mathematician, Philologist Camden, William; GB; Historian, Antiquarian Rosinus, Johannes; D; Theologian, Antiquarian Bongars, Jacques; F; Historian Hoschel, David; D; Humanist, Philologist Casaubonus, Isaac; F/GB; Humanist, Philologist Gruter, Jan; FUD; Philologist, Historian Rader, Matthaeus; D; Philologist Taubmann, Friedrich; D; Philologist Acidalius, Valens; D; Humanist, Translator Schmid, Erasmus; D; Philologist Martinius, Matthias; D; Philologist Bosio, Antonio; I; Christian archaeologist Pareus, Johann Philipp; D; Theologian, Philologist Schoppe, Kaspar; D; Humanist, Philologist Rubens, Peter Paul; FL; Painter, Collector Vossius, Gerardus Johannes; NL; Humanist, Theologian Dempster, Thomas; GB; Philologist, Jurist Meursius, Johannes; NL; Philologist Putschius, Helias; FL; Historian, Philologist Fabri de Peiresc, NicolasClaude; F; Collector, Antiquarian Heinsius, Daniel; NL; Philologist Bernegger, Matthias; D; Philologist, Political scientist Grotius, Hugo; NL; Jurist, Philologist Gothofredus, Jacobus; CH; Philologist, Jurist Salmasius, Claudius; F; Philologist

1588-1657 1589-1677 1591-1661 1594-1676 1596-1665 1602-1680 1606-1681 1606-1688 1608-1660 1610-1688 1611-1671 1611-1672 1613-1688 1613-1696 1618-1689 1620-1681

1620-1700 1621-1679 1628-1703 1629-1710 1630?-1710 1630-1721 1632-1703 1632-1706 1632-1707 1633-1698 1635-1700 1638-1707 1645-1716 1646-1703 1646-1729 1647-1685 1648-1722

LIST

OF

ARTICLES

Dai Pozzo, Cassiano; I; Polymath, Antiquarian Junius, Franciscus; D/NL; Art critic, Philologist Buchner, August; D; Philologist Agostini, Leonardo; I; Antiquarian, Gemmologist Bolland, Jean; FL; Hagiographer Kircher, Athanasius; D; Polymath, Musicologist Conring, Hermann; D; Polymath, Jurist Sandrart, Joachim von; D; Painter, Engraver Freinsheim, Johannes; D; Historian, Philologist DuCange, Charles du Fresne; F; Jurist, Lexicographer Gronovius, Johannes Fredericus; D/NL; Jurist, Philologist Boeckler, Johann Heinrich; D; Polymath Perrault, Claude; F; Natural Scientist, Translator Bellori, Giovanni Pietro; I; Antiquarian, Art historian Vossius, Isaac; NL; Philologist Heinsius, Nicolaus; NL; Philologist Fabretti, Raffaele; I; Historian, Antiquarian Scheffer, Johannes; D; Philologist, Historian Perrault, Charles; F; Antiquarian Spanheim, Ezechiel; CH; Numismatist, Philologist Meibom, Marcus; DK; Philologist, Musicologist Huet, Pierre Daniel; F; Polymath Graevius, Johann Georg; D; Philologist Foy-Vaillant, Jean; F; Antiquarian, Numismatist Mabillon, Jean; F; Historian Ciampini, Giovanni Giustino; I; Historian, Archaeologist Santi Bartoli, Pierro; I; Engraver, Painter Cellarius, Christophorus; D; Historian, Philologist Gronovius, Jacobus; NL; Antiquarian, Historian Morell, Andreas; CHIO; Antiquarian, Numismatist Hardouin, Jean; F; Theologian, Philologist Spon, Jacques; F; Antiquarian, Traveller Baudelot de Dairval, Charles Cesar; F; Antiquarian, Gemmologist

CHRONOLOGICAL

1651-1722 1653-1705 1653-1716 1654-1720 1655-1741 1660-1724 1662-1729 1662-1742 1664-1747 1667-1745 1668-1736 1668-1741 1671-1725 1672-1719 1672-1750 1675-1755 1684-1782 1685-1766 1688-1768 1689-1755 1691-1757 1691-1757 1691-1761 1692/93-1770 1692-1765

1694-1780 1696-1751 1699-1768

1701-1756 1702-1785

LIST

OF

ARTICLES

Dacier, Andre; F; Translator Beger, Lorenz; D; Antiquarian, Numismatist Maffei, Paolo Alessandro; I; Antiquarian Dacier, Anne; F; Philologist, Translator Montfaucon, Bernard de; F; Palaeographer, Antiquarian La Chausse, Michel-Ange de; F; Antiquarian, Collector Bianchini, Francesco; I; Archaeologist, Theologian Bentley, Richard; GB; Philologist, Theologian Ficoroni, Francesco de'; I; Archaeologist, Antiquarian Richardson, Jonathan; GB; Art critic Fabricius, Johann Albert; D; Philologist, Theologian Burmann, Pieter the Elder; NL; Philologist Heraeus, Carl Gustav; D; Antiquarian, Numismatist Addison, Joseph; GB; Traveller, Numismatist Muratori, Ludovico Antonio; I; Historian, Jurist Maffei, Francesco Scipione; I; Historian, Epigrapher Pellerin, Joseph; F; Numismatist, Philologist Hemsterhuis, Tiberius; NL; Philologist, Mathematician Forcellini, Egidio; I; Philologist Montesquieu, Charles-Louis de Secondat; F; Political scientist, Philosopher Gori, Anton Francesco; I; Antiquarian, Gemmologist Stosch, Philipp von; D; Numismatist, Gemmologist Gesner, Johann Matthias; D; Philologist Vettori, Francesco; I; Antiquarian, Collector Caylus, Anne-Claude-Philippe, Comte de; I; Antiquarian, Archaeologist Passeri, Giovanni Battista; I; Archaeologist D'Orville, Jacques Philippe; NL; Philologist, Historian Spence, Joseph; GB; Historian Christ, Johann Friedrich; D; Philologist, Historian Lippert, Philipp Daniel; D; Draughtsman, Gemmologist

lv-i

1705-1763 1705-1763 1707-1781 1710-1785 1711-1776 1713-1778 1713-1788 1715II7-1799 1715-1785 17 16'17-1771 1716-1774 1717-1768

1717-1795 1719-1805

1720-1778 1720-1804 1723-1798 1723-1816 1725-1798 1729-1781

1729-1812

1732-1780 1733-1813 1735-1801 1735-1803 1737-1794 1737-1798 1738-1771 1738-1810

Natter, Lorenz; D; Gemmologist Venuti, Ridolfino; I; Archaeologist, Antiquarian Ernesti, Johann August; D; Philologist, Theologian Paciaudi, Paolo Maria; I; Theologian, Archaeologist Hume, David; GB; Philosopher, Historian Burmann, Pieter the Younger; NL; Philologist, Rhetorician Stuart, James; GB; Painter, Traveller Cavaceppi, Bartolomeo; I; Restorer Valckenaer, Lodewijk Caspar; NL; Philologist Wood, Robert; GB; Traveller Reiske, Johann Jacob; D; Philologist, Arabist Winckelmann, Johann Joachim; D; Archaeologist, Art historian Bracci, Domenico Augusto; I; Antiquarian, Gemmologist Hugues d'Hancarville, Pierre-Fram;ois; F; Art historian, Traveller Piranesi, Giambattista; I; Engraver, Graphic artist Revett, Nicholas; GB; Traveller, Painter Ruhnken, David; D/NL; Humanist Ferguson, Adam; GB; Historian, Philosopher Ramler, Karl Wilhelm; D; Literary theorist, Translator Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim; D; Literary theorist, Historian of literature Heyne, Christian Gottlob; D; Philologist, Librarian Musgrave, Samuel; GB; Philologist Wieland, Christoph Martin; D; Translator Millar, John; GB; Philosopher, Historian Scheller, Immanuel Johann Gerhard; D; Philologist Gibbon, Edward; GB; Historian Eckhel, Joseph Hilarius; A; Numismatist Klotz, Christian Adolph; D; Philologist Chandler, Richard; GB; Antiquarian, Theologian

lvii 1746-182.0 1749-1832. 1750-1832. 1751-1818 1751-182.4 1751-182.6 1753-1836 1755-1809 1755-1849

1758-1810 1759-1808 1759-1818 1759-182.4 1759-1837

1760-1832. 1760-1835 1764-182.9 1766-1841 1767-1835 1767-1845

1768-1834 1771-1858

1772.-182.9 1772.-1848 1773-182.5 1774-1817 1775-1853 1776-1831 1777-1847

CHRONOLOGICAL

Wyttcnbach, Daniel; CH/NL; Philologist Goethe, Johann Wolfgang; D; Literary theorist Sestini, Domenico; I; Numismatist, Antiquarian Visconti, Ennio Quirino; I; Archaeologist Payne Knight, Richard; GB; T rave Iler, Archaeologist Voss, Johann Heinrich; D; Translator, Philologist Fea, Carlo; I; Archaeologist Zoega, Georg; DK; Antiquarian, Archaeologist Quatremere de Quincy, AntoineChrysostome; F; Architectural theorist, Archaeologist Piranesi, Francesco; I; Engraver, Graphic artist Porson, Richard; GB; Philologist Millin de Grandmaison, AubinLouis; F; Archaeologist, Botanist Wolf, Friedrich August; D; Philologist Hirt, Aloys; D; Art critic, Archaeologist Meyer, Johann Heinrich; CH; Painter, Art historian Bottiger, Karl August; D; Archaeologist, Philologist Buttmann, Philipp Karl; D; Philologist Elgin, Thomas Bruce, Earl of; GB; Collector Humboldt, Wilhelm von; D; Translator, Cultural theorist Schlegel, August Wilhelm; D; Literary theorist, Translator Schleiermacher, Friedrich Daniel Ernst; D; Philosopher, Theologian Creuzer, Georg Friedrich; D; Philologist, Religious scholar Schlegel, Friedrich; D; Literary theorist, Philologist Hermann, Gottfried; D; Philologist Elmsley, Peter; GB; Philologist, Ecclesiastical historian Haller von Hallerstein, Carl; D; Archaeologist, Draughtsman Grotefend, Georg Friedrich; D; Philologist, Linguist Niebuhr, Barthold Georg; D; Historian Clarac, Charles Othon Frederic Jean Baptiste, Comte de; F; Draughtsman, Archaeologist

1777-1858 1779-1855 1779-1861 1780-1842 1781-1860 1781-1860 1782.-18 54 1784-1860 1784-1868 1785-1867 1785-1871 1786-1837 1786-1861 1786-1883 1790-1832. 1790-1854 1791-1867 1793-1835 1793-1851 1794-1871 1795-1867 1796-1845 1797-1840 1798-1837 1800-1858 1800-1875 1802.-1859 1802.-1870 1802.-1873 1802-1878 1802-1883 1804-1886

1805-1875 1805-1897

LIST

OF

ARTICLES

Wagner, Johann Martin von; D; Art historian, Collector Gaisford, Thomas; GB; Philologist, Theologian Savigny, Friedrich Carl von; D; Jurist, Legal historian Brnndsted, Peter Oluf; DK; Archaeologist, Philologist Borghesi, Bartolomeo; I; Epigrapher Lobeck, Christian August; D; Philologist, Linguist Mai, Angelo; I; Philologist Thiersch, Friedrich; D; Philologist Welcker, Friedrich Gottlieb; D; Philologist, Archaeologist Boeckh, August; D; Philologist Bekker, Immanuel; D; Philologist Stackelberg, Otto Magnus von; D/BALT; Painter, Draughtsman Drumann, Wilhelm Karl August; D; Historian Passow, Franz; D; Philologist Champollion, Jean-Fran~ois; F; Egyptologist Raoul-Rochette, Desire; F; Archaeologist Bopp, Franz; D; Linguist, IndoEuropean scholar Reuvens, Caspar Jacob Christiaan; NL; Archaeologist, Egyptologist Lachmann, Karl; D; Philologist, Germanist Grote, George; GB; Philologist Gerhard, Eduard; D; Archaeologist Pauly, August Friedrich; D; Lexicographer Muller, Karl Otfried; D; Philologist, Archaeologist Leopardi, Giacomo; I; Philologist Panofka, Theodor; D; Archaeologist Migne, Jacques-Paul; F; Philologist, Printer Lenormant, Charles; F; Archaeologist, Egyptologist Botta, Paul-Emile; F; Near Eastern archaeologist Lehrs, Karl; D; Philologist Kuhner, Raphael; D; Philologist Dindorf, Karl Wilhelm; D; Philologist Madvig, Johan Nicolai; DK; Philologist Rodbertus, Karl; D; Historian, Economist Vallauri, T ommaso; I; Philologist

CHRONOLOGICAL

LIST

OF

Ross, Ludwig; D; Archaeologist, Philologist Ritschl, Friedrich Wilhelm; D; 1806-1876 Philologist Cohen, Henry; F; Numismatist 1806-1880 Georges, Karl Ernst; D; 1806-1895 Philologist, Lexicographer Haupt, Moriz; D; Philologist 1808-1874 Droysen, Johann Gustav; D; 1808-1884 Historian Braun, Emil; D; Archaeologist 1809-1856 Lepsius, Karl Richard; D; 1810-1884 Egyptologist, Linguist Rawlinson, Henry; GB; 1810-1895 Archaeologist 1812.-1881 Bergk, Theodor; D; Philologist, Archaeologist 1812.-1882. Marquardt, Karl Joachim; D; Historian 1812.-1902. Rawlinson, George; GB; Historian Jahn, Otto; D; Philologist, 1813-1869 Archaeologist Cobet, Carel Gabriel; NL; 1813-1889 Philologist Curtius, Ernst; D; Archaeologist, 1814-1896 Philologist Zeller, Eduard; D; Theologian, 1814-1908 Philosopher Bachofen, Johann Jakob; CH; 1815-1887 Legal historian, Historian 1816-1887 Henzen, Wilhelm; D; Epigrapher Newton, Charles Thomas; GB; 1816-1894 Archaeologist, Epigrapher Jowett, Benjamin; GB; Philologist, 1817-1893 Theologian Layard, Austen Henry; GB; 1817-1894 Archaeologist Mommsen, Theodor; D; Historian 1817-1903 Marx, Karl; D; Philosopher 1818-1883 Burckhardt, Jacob; CH; Art histo1818-1897 rian, Historian Schaefer, Arnold; D; Historian 1819-1883 182.0-1885 Curtius, Georg; D; Philologist Engels, Friedrich; D; Egyptologist 1820-1895 Mariette, Auguste; F; Egyptologist 1821-1881 182.2.-1890 Schliemann, Heinrich; D; Archaeologist 182.2.-1892. Nauck, August; D; Philologist 182.2.-1894 Brunn, Heinrich; D; Archaeologist 182.2.-1894 De Rossi, Giovanni Battista; I; Christian archaeologist, Epigrapher 182.3-1892. Renan, Ernest; F; Religious scholar, Ancient Near Eastern scholar 182.3-1896 Fiorelli, Giuseppe; I; Archaeologist, Numismatist 182.4-1879 Stark, Carl Bernhard; D; Philologist, Archaeologist 1806-1859

Iviii

ARTICLES

Bernays, Jacob; D; Philologist, Historian of religion 182.4-1909 Friedlander, Ludwig; D; Philologist, Cultural theorist 182.5-1905 Oppert, Jules; D/F; Ancient Near Eastern scholar 182.6-1895 Overbeck, Johannes; D; Archaeologist 182.6-1907 Hertzberg, Gustav Friedrich; D; Historian 182.6-1908 Kirchhoff, Adolf; D; Philologist, Linguist 182.7-1894 Brugsch, Heinrich; D; Egyptologist 182.7-1898 Ribbeck, Otto; D; Philologist 182.8-192.2. Biichsenschiitz, Albert Bernhard; D; Historian 1830-1889 Fustel de Coulanges, Numa Denis; F; Historian, Medievalist Holm, Adolf; D; Historian 1830-1900 Friederichs, Karl; D; 1831-1871 Archaeologist Benoist, Eugene; F; Philologist 1831-1887 Bernoulli, Johann Jacob; CH; 1831-1913 Archaeologist Conze, Alexander; D; 1831-1914 Archaeologist 1831-192.4 Gildersleeve, Basil Lanneau; US; Philologist 1832.-1912 Gomperz, Theodor; A; Philologist 1832.-1914 Perrot, Georges; F; Archaeologist, Historian Usener, Hermann; D; Philologist, 1834-1905 Religious scholar Michaelis, Adolf; D; 1835-1910 Archaeologist, Philologist Schrader, Eberhard; D; 1836-1908 Theologian, Assyrologist Petersen, Eugen; D; Archaeologist, 1836-1919 Philologist Lenormant, Frannlichkeit und athenischer Staat zur Zeit des Peisistratos und des Miltiades, 1939 [3] Griechische Geschichte von den Anfangen bis in die ri>mischeKaiserzeit (Handbuch der Altertumswissenschaft 3.4.), 1950 (' 1977, et al.; English: History of Greece: From the Beginnings to the Byzantine Era, 1997) 141 Griechen und Perser, 1965 (English: The Greeks and the Persians: From the Sixth to the Fourth Centuries, 1968) Is] Einfiihrung in die Alte Geschichte, 1967 (et al.; English: Introduction to Ancient History, 1976) [6] Grundriss der ri>mischenGeschichte mit Quellenkunde. Republik und Kaiserzeit bis 284 n. Chr. (Hdb. der Altertumswissenschaft Abt. 3, Teil 5, Vol. 1), 1967. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

(7] S. REBENICH, Hermann Bengtson, 1909-1989,

in: K. WEIGAND (ed.), Miinchner Historiker zwischen Politik und Wissenschaft, 2010, 281-308 (8] S. REBENICH, Hermann Bengtson und Alfred Heuss. Zur Entwicklung der Alten Geschichte in der Zwischen- und Nachkriegszeit, in: V. LosEMANN (ed.), Alte Geschichte zwischen Wissenschaft und Politik. Gedenkschrift fiir K. Christ, 2009, r 81-206 Hermann Bengtson, in: J. SEIBERT (9] J. SEIBERT, (ed.), 100 Jahre Alte Geschichte an der LudwigMaximilians-Universitat Miinchen ( 1901-200 r ), 2002,

161-173.

CLAUDIA HORST

Vienna. Attended school in Greiz and Plauen; studied at Erlangen and Bonn; doctorate 1 862 in Bonn; habil. 1 868 in Gottingen. 1869 prof. ext. in Zurich; 1871 Hon. prof. in Munich; 1 872 prof. ord. of classical archaeology at Prague; 1877 prof. ord. at Vienna; 1898 Director of the Austrian Archaeological Institute, also Vienna. WORK

AND

German classical archaeologist. Born 1 3. 9. 1838 in Greiz (Vogtland), died 2. r. 1907 in

INFLUENCE

After his diss. on epigrams about visual arts in the Greek anthology [ 1 ], B. briefly worked as a teacher in Berlin and Schulpforta, before a travel scholarship in 1864 enabled him to study in Italy, Sicily and Greece. His museum index of the Lateran I2], his intensive work on vase-paintings [ 3) and his seminal study of the history and topography of Selinunte (4] were the fruits of these early travels. He resigned his professorship at Zurich after only two years in protest against anti-German riots in Switzerland, hut thanks to the support of Alexander • Conze he was soon invited to Prague, where he did important development work with Otto • Hirschfeld, and took part in Conze's excavations in Samothrace. Succeeding Conze at Vienna, B. continued his line of work with Hirschfeld in the Archaeological-Epigraphic Seminar, taking over the editing of the Archiio/ogisch-Epigraphische Mitteilungen and the Wiener Vorlegebliitter, and instigating research expeditions to Asia Minor 15), during which he succeeded in acquiring the Hernon of Trysa, about which he wrote his magnum opus [6]. As a research administrator, B. arranged many more archaeological expeditions in Austria and the Balkans. He was closely involved with the foundation of museums (Carnuntum, Aquileia), inspired the excavation of the Palace of Diocletian at Split, began the Austrian excavations at Ephesus in 1895 (which continue to this day), and in 1 898 founded the Austrian Archaeological Institute. LW: Osterreichische Jahreshefte 10, 1907, 109-120. E: manuscript collection, Osterreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna. WRITINGS

[1] De Anthologiae Graecae epigrammatis quae ad artes spectant (diss. Bonn), 1862 [2] Die antiken Bildwerke des Lateranensischen Museums, 1867 [3] (ed.), Griechische und sicilische Vasenbilder, Lieferung 1-4, 1869-188 3 (4] Die Metopen von Selinunt, 1873 Is] Reisen im siidwestlichen Kleinasien, Vol. r: Reisen in Lykien und Karien, 1884 [6] Das Hemon von Gji>lbaschi-Trysa,1889. SECONDARY

Benndorf, Otto

OTTO

LITERATURE

[7] H. KENNER, Otto Benndorf, in: LULLIES / ScHIERING Nachruf, in: Arch. 67-68 (8] R. VON SCHNEIDER, Osterreichische Jahreshefte 10, 1907, 1-5. HUBERT

SZEMETHY

BENOIST,

EUGENE

Benoist, Eugene

Bentley, Richard

French Latin scholar. Born Louis-Eugene B., 2.8. 11. 1831 at Nangis, died 2.3. 05. 1887 at Paris. Studied classical philology at Paris; doctorate there 1862.. After teaching at schools in Marseille, Nancy and Aix-en-Provence, from 1874 prof. ord. of Latin literature in Paris; 1867 elected to the Academie of Marseille.

English classical philologist and theologian_ Born 2.7. 1. 1662. in Oulton near Leeds, died 14. 7. 1742. in Cambridge. From 1676 studied at St. John's College, Cambridge; 1680 Bachelor of Ans; 1683 Master of Arts. 1690 Ordination; 1696 Doctor Theologiae. 1700 Master of Trini~ College, Cambridge.

WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

BACKGROUND

B. took his doctorate in 1862. with Henri Joseph Guillaume Patin, whom he succeeded in 187 4 (diss. De personis muliebribus apud Plautum). Thereafter he continued his work on Plautus with two editions [2.); [3]. He completed his work on Latin comedy with editions of Terence's Andria (4] and Adelphoi [7]. B.'s interests ranged from ancient Latin literature to the Renaissance [ 1) and the history of classical philology, in which field he published a monograph on Friedrich Wilhelm --+ Ritschl (6). B.'s works on ancient Latin literature include his threevolume commented edition of Virgil, the fourth edition of which was already published in 1880 and which is regarded as his most important work (5), a commented edition of Catullus (2. vols.) with verse translations (unfinished), and commentaries on Lucretius (Book 5) (10) and Livy (Books 2.1-2.5) (8). B.'s editions were usually reprinted several times. His Nouveau Lexique Franfais-Latin (9), written in collaboration with Henri Goelzer, was reprinted many times until well into the 2.oth cent. B. was one of the most important French Latin scholars of the 19th cent. He did important work especially through his profound understanding of Latin language and literature, and with his outstanding translations of Latin texts into French. WRITINGS

(1) Les lettres de Philippe de Comynes aux archives de Florence (edition), 1863 (2.) Titi Macci Plauti Cistellaria (edition), 1863 [3] Titi Macci Plauti Rudens (edition), 1864 (4] Terentii Andria (edition with annotations), 1866 (5) P. Virgilii Maronis opera, 3 vols. (edition), 1867-1872. (•1 880) (6] Frederic Ritschl, 1877 (7) Terence. Les Adelphes (edition), 1881 (8) Titi Livii Ab urbe condita, Vol. 1: Libri XXI et XXII; Vol. :z.:XXIII, XXIV, XXV (edition), 1881-1883 [9) Nouveau lexique fran~ais-latin a l'usage des classes de grammaire (with H. GoELZER),1885 [10] T. Lucreti Cari De rerum natura liber V (edition), 1886. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

(11) Benoist, Eugene, in: I. H. SALMONSEN (ed.), Salmonsens store illustrerede Konversationsleksikon, Vol. :z.,191 5, 9 37 [ 12.) F. PLESSIS, Eugene Benoist, ed. E. LEROUX,1888. ANGELIKA

LOZAR

B., son of a minor landowner, received private Latin tuition from his mother before attending grammar school at Wakefield and going up to Cambridge at the age of just 14. At 18 h.e received his BA with honours. After a year in charge of Spalding Grammar School (Lincolnshire), B. became private tutor to the two sons of Dr. Edward Stillingfleet (then Dean of St_ Paul's Cathedral in London), in whose outstanding private library he laid the foundations of his remarkable knowledge of ancient texts. B. accompanied his pupil to Wadham College, Oxford in 1689, where he developed his literary expertise in the Bodleian Library (especially its many as yet unpublished manuscripts)_ The following year he was ordained and became chaplain to Stillingfleet (who was by now Bishop of Worcester). In December 1694, he was appointed to the office of Director of the Roya I Library of St. James's Palace, and five months later he was entrusted with the associated lifelong supervision of all royal libraries in England. In 1695 he also obtained a royal chaplaincy, and in 1 696 he received a doctorate in theology from. Cambridge. In 1700, the commissioners of ecclesiastical patronage unanimously recommended him for the Mastership of Trinity College, Cambridge. During his first five years in this position, B. initiated a series of reforms on the appointment of fellows and the admission of students, libera 1izing access to scholarships and removing certain privileges for those of higher status. However, he also increased the burden of teaching and exam ination work for the fellows, which caused resentment, as did his relentless imposition of penalties for neglect of duties and an outbreak of controversy regarding the financing of building works (e.g. on the Master's Lodge). This resentment intensified over subsequent years as he exercised an authoritarian streak in matters of appointments, promotions and dismissals. Ultimately, a quarrel over cuts to lecturers' salaries led t-o almost thirty years of legal disputes. However., B. won all his arguments and remained Master of Trinity until his death. Nor did these quarre Is prevent him from producing a scholarly oeuvre that remains unmatched to this day.

BENTLEY,

39 WORK

B.'s first work, the Epistola ad Millium I I I, is dedicated to John Mill (Rector of St. Edmund Hall, Oxford), who was preparing an edition of the Byzantine chronicler John Malalas. As an appendix to this edition, the Epistola - beginning in each case from a textual error on the part of the chronicler - presents a remarkable spectrum of themes: god names in Orphic theology, a forged Sophocles fragment with monotheistic content; fragments of Euripides, in which B. rediscovered an unknown metrical law; the history of Greek tragedy; the fragments of the tragic poet Ion of Chios, and various emendations. In all these matters B. achieved considerable improvements. The Dissertation [3 I was written in 1697 as a reaction to the view (in the context of the Querelle des anciens et des modernes, which had spread from France to England), represented by Sir William Temple, that the 'letters of Phalaris' and the fables of Aesop were among the best ancient remains. After the publication of a new edition of the letters in 169 5, William Wotton invited B. to prove his opinion that they were neither old nor good. B. responded by sending his Dissertation as an addendum to the second edition of Wotton's Reflections upon Ancient and Modern Learning. Its 1 5 2 pages deal with the 'letters of Phalaris', other letters purportedly by renowned figures (Themistocles, Euripides, Socrates), and Aesop's fables. B. proved the inauthenticity of the 'letters of Phalaris' by irrefutably exposing historical anachronisms, quotations and commonplaces clearly later in date (than the first half of the 6th cent. BC, when Phalaris was Tyrant of the Sicilian city of Acragas), the unhistorical use of literary genres only attested in later periods, incorrect dialect usage and the late date of the transmission of the text. Already in 1697, provoked by criticism (see below), B. presented a second edition without the Aesop section 141, in which he expanded his remarks on Phalaris to almost eight times their original length. Besides its actual purpose, to prove the inauthenticity of the 'letters of Phalaris', the Dissertation also opened up many new fields of Ancient Greek culture for discussion (history of language and literature, political history). Between 1 697 and 1709, the textual critic B. provided many valuable notes and emendations for a series of editions by scholar friends (e.g. the coll. of 417 fragments for the Callimachus edition of Theodor Graevius, Utrecht 1697; contributions to the Suda edition of his protege Ludolf Kuster, 1707; notes to the plays Plutus and Clouds in Kuster's edition of Aristophanes, 1708; notes to the Hierocles edition of

RICH

ARD

Peter Needham, Cambridge 1709; emendations John Davies' edition of Cicero's Tusculan Disputations, Cambridge 1709 and •1723) 116. 128-1301. In 1710, B. published emendations to Menander and Philemon under the pseudonym 'Phileleutherus Lipsiensis' 151 in reaction to a less than successful edition ( 1709) of the two comedians by Jean Le Clerc (Joannes Clericus); B. presented over 3 20 fragments either new or improved. In 1722, he edited texts of the two didactic poems of Nicander (published only in to

I

8 I 4).

B.'s Horace edition was a much more ambitious project. The text was completed in 1706, and it was published together with the commentary in 1711 [7[; [6]. This was the first time B. dealt with the manuscript transmission, retracting over 20 suggested emendations inserted in the text. Even so, his Horace still displays more than 700 changes against the standard text of his day. In 1726, in reaction to an edition published two years before where he had found the metrical rules he had derived to be grotesquely distorted, B. issued the comedies of Terence, the fables of Phaedrus and the maxims of Publilius Syrus I10], his interventions in these texts just as extensive as in Horace. His last great philological work was an edition of Manilius I 12], which A. E. • Housman thought a greater achievement even than the Dissertation and the Horace edition. B. was unable to complete at least two planned projects: an edition of the Greek Bible (for which he did, however, have the Proposals for Printing 19] published in 1720) and an edition of Homer (where an important by-product of his work was the discovery of the digamma that had disappeared in the manuscripts). Alongside B. the classical philologist, mention should at least briefly also be made of B. the theologian. In his lecture series Confutation of Atheism [2[, published 1692, he took issue with deistic concepts of God, as he also did in 171 3 in his Remarks upon a Late Discourse of FreeThinking [81. In his 1732 edition of John Milton's Paradise Lost I 11 ], he attempted to reconcile theology and philology, but his assumption that an 'amanuensis' assisting Milton was responsible for many distortions in the text attracted much criticism and was not tenable. Nonetheless, this text, the first critical text on a work of English literature, can be called the "birth of English philology" [ 14. 111 ]. INFLUENCE

According to August two centuries ahead of and method of classical Many of his discoveries

Boeckh, B. was one or his time in his mastery philology [ I 4. 3 7; 71 ]. met with scepticism or

BENTLEY,

40

RICHARD

rejection. The results of the Dissertation (3) were rejected lock, stock and barrel, and with much mirth, in Charles Boyle's (4th Earl of Orrery) 1698 book Dr Bentley's Dissertations on the Epistles of Phalaris and the Fables of Aesop, which provoked B. to write a second edition in 1699 (4) (on which see above). William King's Dialogues of the Dead (1699) parodied B. as the know-all Bentivoglio, who knows the exact vintage of every Greek word. B.'s only appearance in Jonathan Swift's Tale of a Tub and Battle of the Books is in a satirical light as "the great and absolute Critick". B.'s level of knowledge was in many ways only generally matched or exceeded in the 19th cent., so that his achievement only began to be properly evaluated in this later period. B. believed that establishing the correct text depended more on critical understanding than any number of manuscripts: "Nobis et ratio et res ipsa centum codicibus potiores sunt" (note in his commentary on Horace, to Carm. 3,27,15). This exposed him to the accusation, especially in the French and Italian philological schools, of being "hypercritical". Yet B. was far more than just an outstanding textual critic. He was the first to make concerted attempts at reconstructing works that survived only in a fragmentary state, and he achieved fundamental insights into Greek and Latin metrics, as well as notable progress in the historical 'recontextualization' of ancient literature.

SECONDARY

LITERATURE

[ 14) C. 0.

BRINK, Klassische Studien in England. Historische Reflexionen uber Bentley, Parson und Housman, 1997, 2.7-113 (English 1986) [ 15] A. GRATTON,Defenders of the Text. The Tradition of Scholarship in an Age of Science, 1450-1800, 1991, 12.-2.1 [16) K. L. HAUGEN, Richard Bentley. Poetry and Enlightenment, 2.011 [17] PFEIFFER KPh 179-197 [18) H. DE QUEHEN, Bentley, Richard (1662.-1742.), in: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography 5, 2.004, 2.91-2.98 [19) WILAMOWITZ, GPh 192.1, 35-37. HEINZ-G0NTHER

NESSELRATH

Berard, Victor French historian and classical philologist. Born 10. 8. 1864 in Morez (Jura), died 13. I 1. 1931 in Paris. 1884-1887 studied history at the Ecole normale superieure in Paris; 1887-1890 member of the Ecole franfaise d'Athenes; 1894 doctorate [2]. 1896-1908 Maitre de conferences (state lecturer) at the Ecole des hautes etudes (EHE) in Paris in historical geography, which he also taught until 19 r 4 at the Ecole superieure de marine in Paris; 1908-19 3 1 head of the Dept. of Historical Geography at EHE. 1904-1911 Secretary-general of the Revue de Paris, responsible for articles on French foreign policy; 1920-1931 Senator for the departement of Jura. BACKGROUND,

WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

B.'s professional background was distinguished by the breadth of his interests. Alongside WRITINGS his scholarly studies, which focused on the geog[1) Epistola ad cl. v. Joannem Millium (Appendix), raphy of the ancient Mediterranean, he took a in: E. CHILMEAD (ed.), Joannis Antiocheni, cognokeen interest throughout his life in current politimento Malalae, historia chronica (edition), Oxford cal issues, on which he published frequently, e.g. 1691 [2.) A Confutation of Atheism, 3 vols., on the development of the Ottoman Empire, London 1692. (3) Dissertation upon the Epistles German and British foreign policy. Ultimately, of Phalaris, Themistocles, Socrates, Euripides, and he became active in politics, as senator for the Others, and the Fables of Aesop, London 1697 departement of Jura. His significance in the his(4] Dissertation upon the Epistles of Phalaris. With tory of classical philology comes mostly from his an Answer to the Objections of the Honourable research on the Odyssey, which he translated Charles Boyle, London •1699 [5] Emendationes in Menandri et Philemonis reliquias, Utrecht 1710 into rhythmical French prose [ 5] and thoroughly [6] In Quintum Horatium Flaccum notae et emenanalysed [8]. Inspired by the approach of Heindationes, 2. vols., 1711 [7] Q. Horatius Flaccus rich ---+ Schliemann, B. regarded Homer's work ex recensione et cum notis atque emendationibus not as pure fiction, but as a rather precise depic(edition), Cambridge 1711 [8) Remarks upon a tion through the voyages of Odysseus of the sea Late Discourse of Free-Thinking, London 1713 routes of the Phoenicians and their geographical [9] Novum Testamentum versionis vulgatae, per knowledge of the Mediterranean world [4); (6). Sanctum Hieronymum ad vetusta exemplaria Hoping to prove his theory, B. traced the route Graeca castigatae et exactae. Proposals for Printing, of Odysseus on two voyages of his own, docuCambridge 172.0 [10] Publii Terentii Afri comoediae, Phaedri fabulae Aesopiae, Publii Syrii et aliomenting the journey in detail in photographs rum veterum sententiae (edition), Cambridge 17 2.6 and text [6]; (9 ). In general, his research work is (11] John Milton, Paradise Lost (edition), London regarded as superseded from the perspective of 1732. [12.] M. Manilii Astronomicon (edition), modern archaeology and philology, but it cerLondon 1739 [13) M. Annaei Lucani Pharsalia tainly bears witness to a lively, original intellect, cum notis Hug. Grotii et Richardi Bentleii (edition), and especially one that was fascinated by the London 1760 (posthum.). ancient world.

BERNABO BREA, LUIGI

41 WRITINGS

[1) La Turquie et l'Hellenisme contemporain. La

Macedoine: Hellenes, Bulgares, Valaques, Albanais, Autrichiens, Serhes, 189 3 (• 1896 et al.) (2) L'origine des cultes arcadiens (diss. Paris), 1894 (3) L' Angleterre et l'imperialisme, 1900 (4) Les Pheniciens et l'Odyssee, 2. vols., 1902.-1903 (•192.7) (s) Homer, Odyssee (trans.), 192.4 (61 Les navigations d'Ulysse, 4 vols. (Vol. 1: lthaque et la Grece des Acheens; Vol. 2.: Penelope et les barons des iles; Vol. 3: Calypso et la mer de l'Atlantide; Vol. 4: Nausicaa et le retour d'Ulysse), 192.7-192.9 171La resurrection d'Homere, 2.vols., 1930 I8 I L'Odyssee d'Homere. Etude et analyse, 1931 (reiss. 1945 et al.) [9] Dans le sillage d'Ulysse (with photos by F. Boissonas), 1933 (reiss. 1973). SECONDARY

LITERATURE

[10] L. GAurns, Victor Berard, in: Annales de geographic 2.2.9, 1932., 102.-103. ANGELIKA LOZAR Bergk, Theodor

German classicist, especially classical philologist. Born 22. 5. 1812 in Leipzig, died 20. 7. 1881 in Ragaz (Switzerland). 1825-1830 Thomasschule in Leipzig; 18 30-1834 studied classical philology in Leipzig. Schoolteacher 1836-1842 in Halle an der Saale, Berlin and Kassel. From 1842 prof. ord. at Univ. of Marburg; 1844 full member of the Deutsches Archaologisches lnstitut at Rome; 1845 corresponding member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences at Berlin. 1847-1849 member of the Diet of Hesse (delegated by the univ.); 1848 one of the 17 Hesse deputies at the Frankfurt National Assembly. 1852 prof. ord. at Frei burg; 18 57-1 869 prof. ord. in eloquence at Halle; 1860 full member of the Academy of Sciences at Munich. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

In his very wide-ranging oeuvre of more than 300 publications, B. addressed a wide spectrum of themes in classical studies (e.g. archaeology, epigraphy, astronomy). This diversity of interest is also reflected in his univ. posts (especially in Halle, where they included Greek grammar, Roman and Greek literature, archaeology and ancient art history). However, his main personal field of scholarly interest was Greek literature, and within this, especially poetry preserved in fragmentary transmission (e.g. Old Comedy [2J, especially Aristophanes [3], Anacreon [1]). In terms of its constitution of the text, B.'s 1843 collection of fragments of Greek lyric poetry [5] constituted a great advance in classical philology, though it was only fully understood as such decades later, with the appearance of the first lyrical anthology in the Bibliotheca Teubneriana [17]. The history of Greek literature begun by B.

[ 12 I was only continued after his death [ 15 ]. B. was also interested in Latin poetry, as his studies on Ennius [6), Plautus I 10) and Lucretius I II I show. from 1843-1853, together with Carl Caesar, B. was editor of the Zeitschrift fur Altertum-

swissenschaft. WRITINGS

[ 1) Anacreontis carminum

reliquiae (edition), 1834 (2) Commentationum de reliquiis comoediae Atticae antiquae libri duo, 1838 [3] Aristophanis fragmenta (edition), 1840 [4] Commentatio de Aristotelis libello De Xenophane, Zenone et Gorgia, 1843 [5] Poetae lyrici Graeci (edition), 1843 [6] Ennianarum quaestionum specimen, 1844 17l Beitriige zur griechischen Monatskunde, 1845 (8) Anthologia lyrica, 4 vols. (edition), 18 541868 19] Sophoclis tragoediae (edition), 1858 I 10] De locis quibusdam in comoediis Plautinis, 1862. [u] Emendationes Lucretianae, 1865 [ 12] Griechische Literaturgeschichte, Vol. 1, 1872. I 13] Inschriften romischer Schleudergeschosse, 1876 [ 14] Zur Geschichte und Topographic der Rheinlande in romischer Zeit, 1 882. [ 15] Griechische Literaturgeschichte, Vol. 2.-3, ed. from the estate by 1883-1884 (16] Kleine philologische G. HINRICHS, Schriften, 2.. vols., ed. R. PF.PPMOU.F.R, 1884-1886 I 171 Anthologia lyrica, ed. E. HILLER, •1890. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

I 18I R. PE.PPMOLLER, Verzeichniss von Th. Bergks philologischen Schriften, in: TH. BERGK,Kleine philologische Schriften, Vol. 1, ed. R. PEPPMOLLE.R, 1884, IX-XXXII [19] R. H. PEPPMOLLE.R, Bergk, Theodor, in: ADB 46, 1884, 381-383. RONNYKAISER Bernabo Brea, Luigi Italian prehistorian and classical archaeologist. Born 27. 9. 1910 in Genoa, died 4. 2. 1999 in Lipari. 1932 graduated in law from Genoa and 1935 in archaeology from Rome. 1935-1937 scholarship from Scuola Archeologica ltaliana di Atene; 19 3 8 inspector of the state antiquities collection at Tarento; 1939-1941 director of the state antiquities collection at Genoa, also director of the Museum of Ligurian Archaeology at Genoa-Pegli until 1951, 1941-1973 Soprintendente a/le Antichita de/la Sicilia Orientate at Syracuse. Also taught at Univs. of Genoa, Catania and Palermo from 1940. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

In 1935-1938, B. B. took part in excavations of the early Bronze Age settlement of Poliokhni on Lemnos (3rd millennium BC). In 1951, he undertook further excavations there at the behest of Doro --• Levi, director of the Italian Archaeological School [6). Alongside these important assignments, B. B. is known worldwide for his outstanding research works on Italian prehistory.

BERNABO

BREA,

LUIGI

In 1939, working with Luigi Cardini, he began excavating the cave of Arene Candide (to 1951). The two-volume excavation report I 1); [2) is the first modern chronological seriation of the prehistoric and protohistoric cultures of northern Italy. B. B. achieved a comparable, if not even more significant chronological seriation of the prehistory and protohistory of southern Italy with his excavations on Lipari. With Madeleine Cavalier, he studied types of pottery, houses and graves there from 19 50, in the process also reconstructing the history of contacts with the Aegean region, which was already further developed. Around the same time, B. B. studied the prehistoric and protohistoric villages of the other Aeolian Islands (Panarea, Salina, Filicudi) and the Bronze Age necropolis of Milazzo 15]. With the assistance of Cavalier, he established the Aeolian Archaeological Museum and the Lipari Archaeological Park [7 ), a shining example of successful archaeological conservation. On the basis of his widely-publicized excavations and his decades of experience on Sicily, B. B. was invited to write a monograph for the renowned series Ancient Peoples and Places (3). One of his last works deals with the archaeological evidence for an invasion of Lipari from the mainland in the 1 3th cent. BC, an incident also attested in written sources (9 ]. B. B. also performed sterling service in researching and securing the classical monuments of Sicily. Noteworthy examples include the excavations of Tyndaris, the reconstruction of the ancient theatres of Syracuse, Tyndaris and Acrae, and the reorganization of the museum at Syracuse. He also furthered knowledge of the Greek theatre with his studies of the ceramic masks found in the Hellenistic necropolis of Lipari, which he and Cavalier had so expertly excavated and published [8]. B. B.'s outstanding importance in the history of Italian archaeology well justified two scholarly congresses dedicated to him (Lipari, 2000 [10); Genoa, 2001 (12)). LW: [11. 361-377).

(Annali dell'lstituto Archeologia Napoli, Book 2.), 1985. SECONDARY

Orientale

di

LITERATURE

II o] Le comunita dell a preistoria italiana. Studi e ricerche sul neolitico e le eta dei metalli. Castello di Lipari, 2.-7 giugno 2000. In memoria di Luigi Bernabo Brea (Istituto italiano di preistoria e protostoria; Atti della XXXV riunione scientifica), 2003 I11 I M. CAVALIER / M. BERNABOBREA (ed.), In memoria di Luigi Bernabo Brea, 2002 [12] P. PELAGATTI / G. SPADEA(ed.), Dalle Arene Candide a Lipari. Scritti in onore di Luigi Bernabo Brea (Bollettino d'arte, Sonderheft), 2004. ALESSANDRO

GUIDI

Bemays, Jacob German classical philologist and historian of religion. Born 1 1. 9. 1824 in Hamburg, died 28. 5. 1881 in Bonn. Studied philology at Bonn, doctorate and habit. (both 1848), then priv.-doz. there. 1853-1856 lecturer at the Jewish Theological Seminar in Breslau; from 1 866 senior librarian and prof. ext. at Univ. of Bonn. B. was a pupil of Friedrich Wilhelm --. Ritschl, Friedrich Gottlieb ► Welcker and Christian August Brandis, co-editor of the Rheinisches Museum ( 1 8 501854) and, from 1864, corresponding member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

Although B.'s scholarly career was greatly impeded by his Judaism (his father was an orthodox rabbi) [9 ], and his appointments to professorships in Heidelberg and Breslau failed, his research on ancient philosophy and history of religion in particular was widely influential. Indeed, his very first publication, on Lucretius ( 1847) l 1 ), is seen as a ground-breaking contribution to the reconstruction of the manuscript tradition, which was long attributed to Karl Lachmann's Lucretius edition of 1850 (13. 102-114). The most important of B.'s works in scholarly and historical terms is his treatise on Aristotle (3), in which he gave a new twist to the debate on catharsis. Unlike Lessing, with his WRITINGS [1) Gli scavi nella Caverna delle Arene Candide moral interpretation, and Goethe, with his aes(Finale Ligure). Part I. Gli strati con ceramiche, thetic view of the artistic autonomy of tragedy~ 1946 [2] Gli scavi nella Caverna delle Arene CanB. ascribed a therapeutic function of catharsis dide (Finale Ligure). Part II. Campagne di scavo in healing physical and psychological ailments. 1948-1950, 1956 (3] Sicily before the Greeks This definition of catharsis as an "alleviative dis(Ancient Peoples and Places), 1957 (4] Mylai charge of emotional affections" ("erleichternde (with M. CAVAUER),1959 Is) Meligunis-Lipara Entladung von Gemiitsaffectionen", [3. 140 f.]) 12 vols., 1960-2003 (partly with M. CAVALIER), influenced especially Friedrich ► Nietzsche [12. (6] Poliochni. Citta preistorica nell'isola di Lemnos, 2 parts, 1962-1976 (7] II Castello di Lipari e ii 113-143) and Sigmund Freud [11); (14). Also Museo Archeologico Eoliano (with M. CAVALIER), of great significance was the study in which he 1977 (8] Menandro e ii teatro greco nelle terredescribed the lost dialogues of Aristotle as exocotte liparesi (with M. CAVAI.IER),1982. (9) Gli teric early works [5], thereby recasting the quesEoli e l'inizio dell'eta del Bronzo nelle Isole Eolie tion of the editorial status of Aristotle's surviving e nell'Italia meridionale. Archeologia e leggende writings (9. 166 f.]. In [6], B. made an important

43 contribution to the debate on Lucian as a school author, defending him against the charge of antiChristian invective in his reading of the Peregrinus Proteus, arguing Lucian's treatise to be a literary assault on the Cynics I 10. 188-1941Most recently, B. has attracted renewed attention with the publication of lecture notes on the history of classical philology I71, which like his celebrated biography of Scaliger I2 I bear witness to his scholarly and historical interest. LW: (8).

BERNEGGER,

WORK

AND

MATTHIAS

INFLUENCE

B. was a leading academic figure in early 17th-cent. Germany, as an expert in modern astronomy (editor/translator of works of Galileo Galilei) and a proponent of the new Germanlanguage Kunstpoesie ('art poetry'), but especially as co-founder of political and historical philology, a discipline further developed by his pupils (especially Johannes -+ Freinsheim and Johann Heinrich Boeckler). He explored Justus ► Lipsius' Politica in his tuition, publishing this contemporary political manual as a basis for WRITINGS disputation [ 11- His comprehensive and epoch[1) De emendatione Lucretii, in: RhM 5, 1847, making correspondence, e.g. with the Heidelberg 533-587 [21 Joseph Justus Scaliger, 1855 Circle of Georg Michael Lingelsheim [ 16), the [3) Grundzi.ige der verlorenen Abhandlungen des authors of the Strasbourg Aufrichtiger TannengAristoteles i.iber Wirkung der Tragi>die, 18 57 esellschaft I 19) and the circle of Tiibingen schol( 1 1880) 141 Ueber die Chronik des Sulpicius ars around Johannes Kepler [14) and Wilhelm Severus. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der klassischen Schickard I 1 5 I; I29 I, attests to his alertness to und biblischen Studien, 1861 (5 I Die Dialoge des current political conflicts, as well as processes of Aristoteles in ihrem Verhaltniss zu seinen i.ibrigen transformation in international Late Humanism. Werken, 1863 (6) Lucian und die Kyniker, 1879 He dealt with many of these issues in academic [71 Geschichte der Klassischen Philologie. Vorlesungsnachschrift von R. Mi.inzel, ed. H. KURl Visconti, whose authoritative lconograpoliticae XXVIII, Tiibingen 1656 [11) Hugonis phie grecque (1811) and lconographie romaine Grotii et Matthiae Berneggeri epistolae mutuae, (1817-1829) he hoped to revise and expand. ed. J. C. BERNEGGER, Strasbourg 1667 (et al.) However, his work went much further as far as [12) 0bservationes miscellae, ed. T. and J. C. the Roman Imperial Period was concerned [ 1 o ]. BERNEGGER,Strasbourg 1669 [13) Epistolaris by Visconti's successor commercii ... fasciculus primus/secundus (2 Teile), The older collection, Strasbourg 1670 [14) Epistolae J. Keppleri Antoine Mongez, offers at best a resume of historical information on the individuals concerned, et M. Berneggeri mutuae, Strasbourg 1672 (15] Epistolae W. Schickarti et M. Berneggeri along with a brief treatment of coin images, gemmutuae, Strasbourg 1673 (16) Briefe G. M. stones and a few arbitrarily chosen sculptures. Lingelshei, M. Berneggers und ihrer Freunde, ed. B., by contrast, concentrated on discussing all 1889 (17) Der Briefwechsel known sculptures in the round, taking a critical A. REIFFERSCHEID, zwischen M. Bernegger und J. Freinsheim (1629, view of identifications hitherto proposed. 1633-1636), in: E. KELTER(ed.), Beitrage zur GeiB.'s focus on the archaeological material has stesgeschichte des 17. Jh.s., 1905, 1-72. rightly been called an expression of 19th-cent. positivism [ 13 ]. The restriction of focus was SECONDARY LITERATURE [18) E. BERNEKER, Matthias Bernegger, der Strass- also a reaction to what B. regarded, especially burger Historiker, in: W. MF.RZBACHER (ed.), Julius for the iconography of the Roman Republic, as Echter und seine Zeit, 1973 (19) M. BoPP,Die Tan- the methodical caprice of earlier scholars. Only of thematic focus nengesellschaft, 1997, 108-130 (2.0) C. BONGER, through his strict imposition Matthias Bernegger. Ein Bild aus dem geistigen did it become possible to complete the whole Per- project, making his monographs important Leben Strassburgs, 1893 [21) G. DONNHAUPT, founsonalbibliographien zu den Drucken des Barock, dations for portraiture research in subsequent / H. TREIBER, generations. Vol. 1, 1990 [2.2.) G. GRASSHOFF Naturgesetz und Naturrechtsdenken im 17. Jh. E: Basel, Universitatsbibliothek. Kepler - Bernegger - Descartes - Cumberland, 2.002 (2.3] H. jAUMANN,Hdb. GelehrtenkulWRITINGS tur der Friihen Neuzeit, Vol. 1, 2.004, 89-90 (1) Ueber den Charakter des Kaisers Tiberius, (2.4) W. KUHLMANN, Gelehrtenrepublik und Fiirsten1859 [2.] Ober die Laokoongruppe. Programm des Friihbarocke Stadtstaat, 1982. [2.5] W. KUHLMANN, kultur am 0berrhein, 1983 (2.6) W. KUHLMANN, Paedagogiums (doctoral ratio praelectionum), 1863 (3) Das romische Forum (Bericht tiber das humanGeschichte als Gegenwart. Formen der politischen istis~he Gymnasium zu Basel; appendix), 1864 Reflexion im deutschen Tacitismus des 17. Jh.s, in: [4] Ober die Minerven-Statuen. Der NaturforschenS. NEUMEISTER/ C. WIEDEMANN (ed.), Res publica litden Gesellschaft von Basel zur Feier ihres fiinfzig teraria. Die lnstitutionen der Gelehrsamkeit in der jahrigen Bestehens gewidmet von der antiquarischen friihen Neuzeit, 1987, 325-348 (2.7)W. KUHLMANN/ Gesellschaft ebendaselbst, 1867 [5) Aphrodite. W. E. SCHAFER, Literatur im Elsass von Fischart bis Ein Baustein der griechischen Kunstmythologie, Moscherosch, 2001 [2.8) A. SCHINDLING, Human1875 (6) Bildnisse des alteren Scipio (Einladungssistische Hochschule und freie Reichsstadt. Gymchrift zur Promotionsfeier des Padagogiums), 1875 nasium und Akademie in Strassburg, 1538-162.1, (7] Die erhaltenen Bildnisse beriihmter Griechen, 1977, 279-289 (2.9) F. SECK(ed.), W. Schickart, 1877 (81 Museum in Basel. Catalog ftir die Briefwechsel (2 vols.), 2.002 [30) A. E. WALTER, antiquarische Abteilung, 1880 [9] Romische Spathumanismus und Konfessionspolitik. Die eurolkonographie I. Bildnisse beriihmter Romer mit paische Gelehrtenrepublik um 1620 im Spiegel der Ausschluss der Kaiser und ihrer Angehorigen, 1881 Korrespondenzen Georg Michael Lingelshei, 2004, [10] Romische lkonographie II. Die Bildnisse der 334-337. romischen Kaiser und ihrer Angehorigen, Tei! 1-3, WILHELM K0HLMANN 1886-1894 (11) Griechische lkonographie, 2 vols., 1901 [12.] Die erhaltenen Bildnisse Alexanders des Bernoulli, Johann Jacob Grossen, 1905. Swiss archaeologist. Born 18. r. 18 31 in Basel, died there 22. 7. 1913. Studied German

45

BEROALOO,

SECONDARY

LITERATURE

(131 J. BAZANT, Roman Portraiture. A History of / Its History, 199 s [ 14J K. ScHEFOI.D,in: Lu1.1.1Es ScHIERINGArch. S s-s6. UIETRICH

Beroaldo,

BOSCHUNG

Filippo, the Elder

Philippus Beroaldus; Italian Humanist and poet. Born 7. 11. 145 3 in Bologna, died there 17. 7. 1505. Studied with Francesco dal Pozzo et al. First teaching post from 14 7 2. in rhetoric and philosophy at Univ. of Bologna; 1475/76 prof. at Parma; 1476-1479 prof. at Paris; 1479-1505 prof. at Bologna, member of the city senate; numerous embassies. BACKGROUND,

WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

B. was born into a noble family in Bologna, giving him the best educational opportunities. He himself cited his studies with Francesco dal Pozzo as the basis of his later knowledge (7. t 1 I, Much of his teaching activity prior to his permanent appointment at Bologna in 1 4 79 remains obscure. He went to Parma to print his edition of Pliny's Natura/is historia with Stefano Corallo. It may have been especially the school of rhetoric at the Sorbonne that drew him to Paris (7. 2.2.]. Back at Bologna, he maintained close contacts with the ruling House of Bentivoglio. Many of his writings are dedicated to members of the family. He was also involved throughout his life with the politics of his home city, as befitted his background. B.'s outstanding pedagogical skills were celebrated by many contemporaries (e.g. Giovanni ➔ Pico della Mirandola and Angelo ► Poliziano ). Among his pupils, who included a striking number from Northern and Eastern Europe, Giambattista Pio and Bohuslaus Hassenstein von Lobkowicz attained particular fame. According to B.'s own testimony, he would teach all day long, often to audiences of up to 300 13, 87]. His teaching practice yielded the four great commented editions of Propertius (Bologna 1487), Suetonius (Bologna 149 3 ), Cicero's Tusculanae disputationes (Bologna 1496) and Apuleius (Bologna 1500). Like the many other editions B. produced (Pliny the Elder; Florus; Virgil; Sallust; the speeches of Cicero; Servius; Scriptores rei rusticae; Scriptores rei militaris; Censorinus; the Epistulae of Pliny the Younger; Solinus; Philostratus; Horace; Xenophon; Plautus; Gellius; Caesar; posthumous: Lucan), his commented editions display much imaginative conjecture, some of which has been accepted by modern editors (a full list for Propertius in (7. 35 5 f.]). In his Annotationes centum ( 1], B. (like other contemporaries) demonstrates his virtuosity in textual

FILIPPO,

THE

ELDER

criticism m dealing with a wealth of different authors. As a commentator, his breadth of reading is apparent in the many references not only to ancient Latin and Greek authors, but also to medieval scholastics and Humanist contemporaries. In his commentary to Apuleius' Metamorphoses in particular, though, B. strove also to free commentary from its ancillary role and to develop it into a genre in its own right [ 5. 501. Besides often encyclopaedic lexical and factual explanations, there are frequent passages in which the ancient text is transposed to the world of the 15th cent. ( 3. 901. In the dedication to his Propertius commentary, B. explicitly emphasizes the close connection that must arise between poet and commentator: both must be seized by enthusiasm in order to fulfil their task properly (8. 401 I, Hence, the commentator too is granted a creative function. B. was more keenly aware than his contemporaries of the opportunity to gain an international reputation and lasting fame through commentary work (3. 107-1091. In terms of his own style, B. was far from being a Ciceronian [7. 59-63 I (although he unreservedly acknowledged Cicero's achievements). Rather he strove for an idiosyncratic language rooted in Apuleius and other Imperial authors. B. is regarded as one of the founders of Apuleianism, along with Ermolao . • Barbaro and Pico -➔ della Mirandola. Like Poliziano (with whose unconventional style the language of B. is often compared [6. 103 I), B. thus positioned himself on the anti-Ciceronian side in the 1 5th-cent. imitation controversies. WRITINGS

I 1] Annotationes centum, Brescia 1496 (ed. L. A. CIAPPONI,199 S), SECONDARY

LITERATURE

[2.] S. FABRIZIOCosTA / F. LA BRASCA,Filippo Beroaldo l'ancien. Un passeur d'humanites, 1005 131 J. H. GAISSER,Filippo Beroaldo on Apuleius. Bringing Antiquity to Life, in: M. PADE(ed.), On [4] J. H. Renaissance Commentary, 1005, 87-ro9 GA1ss.:R,The Fortunes of Apuleius and the Golden Ass. A Study in Transmission and Reception, 1008, Is] K. KRALITTER, Philologische Methode 197-141 und humanistische Existenz. Filippo Beroaldo und sein Kommentar zum Goldenen Esel des Apuleius, 1971 161 S. Rizzo, II latino del Poliziano, in: V. FERA / M. MARTEtll (ed.), Agnolo Poliziano [7] A. RosE, poeta scrittore filologo, 1998, 83-116 Filippo Beroaldo der Altere und sein Beitrag zur 1001 [8] G. SANDY,Lex Properz-Oberlieferung, commentandi. Philippe Beroalde et le commentaire humaniste, in: Bibliotheque d'Humanisme et Renaissance 69, 1007, 399-413. CHRISTOPH

PIEPER

BERVE,

HELMUT

Berve, Helmut German ancient historian. Born Helmut Friedrich Conrad 2.2.. 1. 1896 in Breslau, died 6. 4. 1979 in Hechendorf (Upper Bavaria). Studied history, classical philology, archaeology and history of art at Breslau 1914-191 9, Marburg 1919-192.1/22., Freiburg i. Br., Munich and Berlin. Doctorate 192.1 at Munich, 192.4 habit. in ancient history, also Munich. horn 192.7 prof. ord. of ancient history at Univ. of Leipzig. 19431945 prof. ord. at Univ. of Munich; Dismissed. 1949-1954 prof. sup. at Munich, 1950/51-1954 teaching contract at Hochschule Regensburg. 1954-1962. prof. ord. at Univ. of Erlangen. BACKGROUND,

WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

B. came from a prominent bourgeois banking family. He attended the Humanist Gymnasium in Breslau, then studied there, including ancient history with Walter • Otto; his studies were interrupted by voluntary service in World War I from November 1914 to February 1916 (discharge because of illness). He also worked at a Gymnasium as a teaching assistant in history and Latin. After the war, he studied at Marburg, Freiburg, Munich and, in 192. 1h2., Berlin, with Eduard • Meyer et al. He took his doctorate in 192.1 at Munich, along with a state examination in philology. A habit. followed late in 192.4. B.'s habit. thesis [ 1 ), which gives a survey of the entire structure of the empire of Alexander, including over 800 'personal histories', was regarded as his early masterpiece. It earned him an appointment to the chair of ancient history at Leipzig in 192.7. Distancing himself from the historicist approach of his prosopography, B. now demanded a 'contemporary' understanding of Greek antiquity in particular, his main field of work. His Griechische Geschichte 12.) is characterized by the dichotomy of 'Dorianity' and 'lonianity' (16. 32.6-332.]. Contrary to conceptions of universal history, B. sought the 'essence' of individual peoples, tribes and races, a vitalization of Greek history and a broad readership (a manifesto described in 196 5 as storia prenazista (16. 330)).

B. joined the NSDAP in 1933, and was one of the leading 'spokesmen' for classical studies, which brought him senior posts at the Univ. of Leipzig (1933-1934 Dean of the Faculty of Philosophy, 1939 Prorector, 1940-1943 Rector). In 1934, he demanded a new, 'full-blooded' (hlutvolles), i.e. ideologically racialist approach to antiquity [3]. In B.'s works on Greek and Roman history, aristocratic figures are to the fore (61; (8), as also in [5] and in his 1937 book on Sparta, the zenith of his idealization of the Spartan citystate [7]. The type of the 'master-man' (Herrenmensch) and the exposure of children judged

'unusable' (unbr..i1tchbar) duly surface here in the consistent application of 'racial' criteria. B.·s pronounced 'will to reform' (Reformwille) manifested itself in the debate on the 'racially alien· (art(remd) East. On the basis of racial ideology. he argued against the study of the ancient ~ear East, which had no place in the National Socialist state. This was an attack on the universal historical concept of Eduard Meyer and on his own teacher Walter • Otto. In this context too, B. made anti-Semitic attacks on the Jew Victor • Ehrenberg, his 'opponent' in the studv ot Sparta. R. presented the spectacle of a reno~ned ancient historian of high scholarly rank, and a univ. teacher of great charisma, seeking to enforce racialist ideology in his field. B.'s undeniably great scholarly influence is apparent from his Leipzig pupils who recei,,ed ancient history professorships, before and after 1933: Hans Schaefer, Wilhelm Hoffmann, Franz Hampl, Alfred • Heuss and Hans Rudolph. While their dissertations satisfied scholarly stanlagged well dards, their political commitment behind that of their teacher. During World War II, in 194 1, B. advanced to head of the Committee for the Classical Studies War Effort' (Kriegseinsatz der Alterturnsu·issenschaften). Built on traditional foundations, this enterprise outdid the competing National Socialist German Lecturers' League (Natio,w/sozialistischer Deutscher Dozentenbund, NSDOB l. As the editor-in-chief of the committee's joint work, an element within the campaign of cultural and war propaganda (9 I, B. asserted racial ideology and the ideology of Europe that was being enacted in the war. In his 'personal' war effort, B. intensified his work especially on Sparta and Carthage ( 19. 4 7 3 ). B. taught the syrnholi" Spartan subject matter in National Socialist elite education at Munich until the very last hours ot the regime. As rector at Leipzig, B. did not shy away from conflict with National Socialist authorities in defence of departments and colleagues under pressure. Even in 1943, he took the chair of his teacher Walter Otto in Munich, even in the teeth of resistance from party organizations. DisrnisseJ for Nazi activities in 194 5, B. was only allowed back to teach as prof. sup. in Munich in 1949. The second edition of his Griechische Geschichte appeared in 19 5 1. In it, he emphasized that he had not changed his ideas. The same can probably he said in regard to the problematic Sparta book, which appeared almost unaltered in 196t> as part of a series - one reason why B. has he-en called the .. personification of the problem of continuity after 1945" I 14. 187). Early in the 19 50s, Greek tyranny came to the fore in B.'s research work I 11 ). Here he was following a contemporary trend in comparing anJ

BESSARION,

47

contrasting ancient and modern tyranny. In its structure, the tyranny book is reminiscent of B.'s masterwork on the prosopography of the empire of Alexander. Both are among his enduring successes. He was appointed prof. ord. at Erlangen in 1954, and worked there until 1962.. 1960 saw him once more in a leading administrative position, as he became chairman of the Commission for Ancient History at Munich. In view of the continuity problem, this has also attracted criticism f 14. 179 J. B. refused to examine his conscience over his leading role in classical studies during the Third Reich, and saw himself as a victim. Like Joseph • Vogt, he was one of the notorious "silent academic fathers". WRITINGS [1J Das Alexanderreich auf prosopographischer Grundlage, 2 vols., 1926 (21 Griechische Geschichte, 2 vols., 1931-1933 ('1951-1952) [3) Antike und nationalsozialistischer Staat, in: Vergangenheit und Gegenwart 24, 1934, 257-272 (reiss. in: W. N1rrE1. [ed.!, Ober das Studium der Alten Geschichte, 1993, 283-299) [4[ Kaiser Augustus, 19 34 [5 I Fiirstliche Herren zur Zeit der Perserkriege, in: Die Antike 12, 1936, 1-28 (reiss. in: H. BERVE,Gestaltende Krafte der Antike, 1949, 30-65; •1966, 232-267; K. K1Nz1.led.], Die Tyrannis his zu den Perserkriegen. Beitrage zur Griechis[61 Miltiades, 1937 chen Tyrannis, 1979, 43-73) [7] Sparta, 1937 ('1944; reiss. almost unaltered in: E. Buc:HNER,P. R. FRANKE[ed.l, Gestaltende Krafte der Antike, • 1966, 5 8-:z.07) [ 8] Thukydides 5), 1937 (Auf dem Weg zum nationalpolitischen [9) (ed.), Das neue Bild der Antike, 2 vols., 194:z. [ 10] lmperium Romanum, 1943 [ 11 [ Die Tyrannis bei den Griechen, 2 vols., 1967.

BASJ 1.10S

Bcssarion, Basilios Byzantine Humanist and cardinal. Born 2.. 1. 1403 in Trebizond (Trabzon on the Black Sea), died 18. 11. 1472. in Ravenna. His baptismal name was probably Basilios rather than John, as sometimes asserted. He adopted the name B. as a monk. Schooling at Constantinople with George Chrysokokkes with Francesco • Filelfo. Monk from 142.3. Anointed as a Deacon 142.5, priesthood 1430. Studied at Mystra from ea. 14 3 1 with George Gemistos --> Plethon. Named Metropolitan of Nicaea 1437; 1438/39 in the retinue of Emperor John VIII Palaeologus and Ecumenical Patriarch Joseph II at the Council of Ferrara-Florence, as a champion of church unification. Named cardinal in 1439 by Pope Eugene IV. Various Papal missions to Italy and Europe. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

B.'s works included epideictic speeches, especially eulogies and funerary addresses, to members of the Imperial family of Byzantium, and political speeches in the course of his work as legate, e.g. arguing for the union of the churches and for a Crusade against the Turks. Also theological and philosophical writings and translations [ 10. 66]; [4. 694-696); [5. 2.1; 2.5-2.8]; (7. 91 f.]. The most important of his philosophical works is the treatise against George of Trebizond In calumniatorem Platonis (originally written in Greek, before B. himself translated it into Latin), in which he compares the teachings of Plato and Aristotle and discusses the differences between both and Christianity. This treatise, published at Rome in 1469, which brought many hitherto unavailable Platonic texts before a wider readerSECONDARY LITERATURE I 1 2) CHRIST Hel., :z.02-221, 246-2 5 1, 300-302 ship, triggered sometimes violent controversies [13j CHRISTKlio, 59-65 [14[ CHRISTprof. 12514- 695 f.l; (61; [9. 157-167). 187 I 15) L.-M. G0NTHER,Helmut Berve. Professor B. translated into Latin the sermons of Basil I, in Mi.inchen 6. 3. r943-12. 12. 1945, in: J. SEIBERT Xenophon's Memories of Socrates (1444), Aris(ed.), 1 oo Jahre Alte Geschichte an der Ludwigstotle's Metaphysics ( 14 50) and Demosthenes' Maximilians-Universitat Mi.inchen ( 1901-:z.001 ), First Olynthiac (as an appendix to his speeches [16] V. LosEMANN,Die Dorier im 2.002, 69-105 against the Turks, 1470) [4. 695); [5. 2.1; 2.4); [9. Deutschland der dreissiger und vierziger Jahre, 15 2.J. Probably his most important contribution in: W. M. CAI.DERIll / R. Sc:HI.f.SIER (ed.), Zwisto the transmission of ancient literature, howchen Rationalismus und Romantik. Karl Otfried Mi.iller und die antike Kultur, 1998, 313-348 ever, was in establishing what was at the time I. NS[ 17) V. LoSEMANN, Nationalsozialismus the largest collection of manuscripts. He was ldeologie und die Altertumswissenschaft, in: DNP helped in this enterprise by paid Greek scribes. 15/J, 2001, 723-754 [18] D. LOTZE, Zurn 100. This employees, as well as independent scholGeburtstag Des Althistorikers Helmut Berve, in: ars from Greece and Italy, supported a learned Mitteilungen der Akademie gemeinni.itziger Wissencircle around Cardinal B. in Rome, which was schaften zu Erfurt 1 1, 1996, 29-3 1 I19] S. REBEICH, also attended by members of the Roman AcadAlte Geschichte in Demokratie und Diktatur. Der emy, including Pomponius • Laetus and Flavio Fall Helmut Berve, in: Chiron 31, 2.001, 457· • Biondo. B. left his collection of 482. Greek 496 [20) CH. U1.F, Die Vorstellungen des Staates and 2.64 Latin manuscripts to the city of Venice, bei Helmut Serve und seinen Habilitanden in Leipzig, in: P. W. HAIDER(ed.), Althistorische Stuwhere they formed the nucleus of the Biblioteca dien im Spannungsfeld zwischen Universal- und Marciana j4. 693 f.]; (5. 2.0 f.f; j8. 6 f.J. Wissenschaftsgeschichte,

2.001, 378-454. VOLKER

LOSEMANN

BESSARION,

BASILIOS

culture in the Siena region. He co-organized the first Congresso nazionale etrusco in Florence in 1926, where he was already proposing the project of archaeologically mapping the territory. He also made efforts to determine in more detail the characteristics of Etruscan art and its relationship to the art of the Greeks and Romans. In 1927'2.8, he conducted excavations with this in SECONDARY LITERATURE mind in the necropolis of Sovana. [3] A. HEVIABALLINA, Bessarion de Nicea, humaniAfter posts teaching archaeology at the Univs. sta cristiano, in: Studium Ovetense 1, 1974, 22-31 of Cagliari and Pisa in 192.9/30, B. B. in 1931 [4] L. LABOWSKY, Bessarione, in: DBI 9, 1967, 686took a guest professorship in classical archaeKardinal Bessarion, 696 IsI M. MAN0USSAKAS, in: D. HARLFINGER / R. BARM(ed.), Graecogermaology at the Univ. of Groningen. In 1933, he nia. Griechischstudien deutscher Humanisten. Die accepted a post as prof. ord. at Pisa. During Editionstatigkeit der Griechen in der italienischen this period, he followed on from the studies of Renaissance {1469-1523) (exh. cat.), 1989, 19-28 Alois ► Riegl and Franz --+ Wickhoff to explore (6] K. A. NEUHAUSEN / E. TRAPP(ed.), Lat. HumanRoman art and its re-evaluation in the light of isten- briefe zu Bessarions Schrift 'In calumniatorem Greek art. In 1935, with Carlo Ludovico RagPlatonis' (Latin/German), in: Jb. der osterreichischen [7) G. PoosKALSKY, ghianti and inspired by the idealistic historicism Byzantinistik 28, 1979, 141-165 of Benedetto Croce, he founded the periodical La Drei vorreformatorische, miteinander befreundete Humanisten und ihre Beziehung zu Frankfurt, in: Critica d'Arte as a forum for the discussion of themes in art history from antiquity to modern Archiv fiir mittelrheinische Kirchengeschichte 51, 1999, 83-92 [8] G. PoosKALSKY, Von Photios zu times. It was suppressed in 1943. Bessarion, 2003 [9] K.-P. TooT, In CalumniaIn 1938, he moved to Florence to take the torem Platonis. Kardinal Johannes Bessarion (ea. chair of archaeology. That same year, in an essay 1403-1472) als Vermittler und Verteidiger der written in consultation with Gerhart - ► RodenPhilosophie Platons, in: E. KoNSTANTINou(ed.), waldt, he defined Roman art as the product of a Der Beitrag der byzantinischen Gelehrten zur confluence of educated Hellenistic traditions and abendlandischen Renaissance des 14. und 15. Jh.s, 2006, 149-168 [10] E. TRAPPet al., Bessarion, in: coarser, more demotic tendencies, made possible by an extraordinary artistic personality of the E. TRAPP et al., Prosopographisches Lex. der order of the master of the Trajan Column. In Palaiologenzeit 1/2., 1976, 65-68. BEATE HINTZEN 1943, B. B. published a collection of essays proposing a renewal of art history (4), in which he emphasized the constitutive role of artisanship in Bianchi Bandinelli, Ranuccio the formation of artistic personalities. This conItalian classical archaeologist, art historian cept superseded Croce's idealism, and took up and intellectual. Born 16. 2.. 1900 at Siena, died some ideas of his German colleague Bernhard 17. 1. 1975 at Rome. Studied archaeology at Pisa --+ Schweitzer. Following the truce with the Allies (8. 9. and Rome; doctorate 19 2.3. 1929-19 3 1 teaching posts in Italy; 1931-1933 guest professorship at 1943), B. B. and other students and teachers Groningen; 1933 prof. ord. in classical archaeol- joined the Comitato toscano di liberazione naziogy at Pisa. From 1938, prof. ord. at Florence. onale and resigned his teaching post. In 1944, Voluntary withdrawal from teaching during Ger- he was briefly arrested together with other antiman occupation 1943/44. 1945-1947 Director- Fascist professors in retribution for the murder General of Antichita e Belle Arti. 194 7 prof. at of the philosopher Giovanni Gentile. He joined Cagliari, from 1949 again prof. ord. at Florence. the Italian Communist Party in the same year. Still in 1944, he regained his teaching post on From 1956 prof. ord. at Rome. Emeritus 1964, the withdrawal of the German Wehrmacht, but but continued to publish regularly. the following year he moved to Rome to take over the general directorship of Antichita e Belle BACKGROUND, WORK AND INFLUENCE B. B. was from an august Sienese family. His Arti, which he held until 194 7. The most urgent father, Mario, was Mayor of Siena. His mother, task was to repair the worst of the war damage. born Margherita Ottilie von Korn, came from a Thereafter he taught at Cagliari, until he was wealthy Breslau family. From 1918, he studied able to resume his Florentine professorship in archaeology, at first in Pisa, then at Rome, where 1949. He had already been elected a full domeshe gained his doctorate in 1923 with a diss. on tic member of the reconstituted Accademia dei the Etruscan city of Chiusi, presented to Giulio Lincei in 1948. In 1948, B. B. published an autobiography Q. Giglioli. Thereafter, he devoted himself to collecting and publishing material on Etruscan (5), in which he describes his personal journey WRITINGS

[ 1) Patrologiae

curs us completus. Series Graeca, Vol. 161: Opera omnia, theologica, exegetica, polemica, ed. J. P. MIGNE,1866 (et al.) (2) Kardinal Bessarion als Theologe, Humanist und Staatsmann, vols. 2-3, ed. L. MOHLER,1927-1942 (reiss. 1967).

49

not altogether smooth in view of his aristocratic - from Crocean idealism to Marxbackground ism. He regarded this shift as akin to the transformation of the ancient world from paganism to Christianity. His transition to a Marxist concept of art (now understood as the product of the society in which it was made) also manifested itself in the new introduction to the second edition of Storicita I4 J. After acceding to the professorship in Rome in 19 56, B. B. published his perspective on the then lively discussion of the opposition of abstraction and figurative art through the lens of Graeco-Roman art (71, His ideological position compelled him to see abstract art as a product of irrationality, and hampered his attempts to distinguish between a 'political' judgment and historical art criticism. In 19 59, he contradicted Otto Brendel's interpretation of Roman art, according to which a variety of centres of production had produced a corresponding variety of styles, B. B. affirming his theory of the two main currents of 'official' and 'popular' art. Through the 1960s, B. B. argued for a renewal of archaeological studies, complaining that mere secondary technological problems were causing the loss of the historical perspective. He founded the periodical Studi Miscellanei as a discussion forum for the Scuola archeologica nazionale. A school coalesced around his teachings, and through the work of figures such as Mario Torelli, Filippo Coarelli and Andrea Carandini it would gradually regenerate the study of archaeology in Italy. His ideas on the application of the Marxist view of history also found their way into a collection of his post-war writings exploring the role of archaeology in culture and the artistic forms of the transition from late antiquity to the Middle Ages I 101. B. B. retired in 1964, devoting himself until 1966 to editing the encyclopaedia of art he had founded in 1958 [8]. In 1967, he started the periodical Dialoghi di archeologia to debate archaeological research in the context of other historical disciplines, and as a platform for younger colleagues to discuss univ. policy and the management of the cultural heritage. He wrote three volumes on Italic, Etruscan and Roman art (12]; [ 1 3 ]; [ 14 ], for the universal history of art series planned by Andre Malraux. As a synthesis of his life's work devoted to ancient art history, these works make a strong impression, not least with their general lucidity accessible to a readership beyond the specialist audience. Even in his final years, B. B. continued to surface as an advocate of art history studies in the field of archaeology, and of the study of material culture, as propagated by his pupil Andrea Carandini. In his last writings, he departed from

BIANCHI

BANDINELLI,

RANUCCIO

the historicist viewpoint in favour of a broader perspective, in which each method of research can make its contribution to the understanding of the phenomenon of art - which becomes a kind of multifaceted polyhedron. B. B. influenced the development of classical archaeology far beyond Italy in the second half of the 2.oth cent. In Germany in particular, even in the 1940s, his critiques of the irrationalist historical metaphysics of Ernst --> Buschor and the structural research of Guido • Kaschnitz von Weinberg, and his constant calls for observations in art history to be put in their (social) historical context were a lasting influence on leading figures of the younger generation (e.g. Paul Zanker, Tonia Holscher), and led from around 1970 to a fundamental realignment of the discipline. M: [5]. LW: Elenco degli scritti di R. Bianchi Bandinelli, in: Dialoghi di archeologia 8, 19741975, 2.01-2.12.. E: Pianella (Siena), Villa di Geggiano, Familien-

archiv Bianchi Bandinelli. WRITINGS

I 1) Clusium. Ricerche archeologiche e topografiche su Chiusi e ii suo territorio in eta etrusca, 192.5 12I La posizione dell'Etruria nell'arte dell'ltalia antica, in: Nuova Antologia 63, 192.8, 106-12.0 (3) Sovana. Topografia ed arte. Contributo alla conoscenza dell'archiretrura etrusca, 192.9 141Storicita dell'arte classica, 1943 (1 1950) Is] Dai diario di un borghese, 1948 16) Hellenistic-Byzantine Miniatures of the Iliad (llias Ambrosiana), 1955 171 Organicita e astrazione, 1956 18) Enciclopedia dell'arte antica, classica e orientate, 1958-1966 19) Romische Kunst zwei Generationen nach Wickhoff, in: Klio 38, 1960, 2.67-2.83 110) Archeologia e cultura, 1964 (11) Arte plebea, in: Dialoghi di archeologia 1, 1967, 7-19 [12) Roma. L'arte romana al centro del potere, 1969 (English: Rome: The Center of Power, 500 B.c. to A.D. 2.00, 1970) (13) Roma. La fine dell'arte antica, 1970 (English: Rome: The Late Empire, Roman Art A. D. 2.00-400, 1971) [14) Etruschi e ltalici prima del dominio di Roma (with A. GIULIANO),1973 [15) L'Italia storica e artistica allo sbaraglio, 1974 [ 16) Introduzione all'archeologia classica come storia dell'arte antica, 1976. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

[ 17) I. BALDASSARRE, Bianchi Bandinelli, Ranuccio, in: DBI 34, 1988, 42.9-434 [18) M. BARBANERA, Ranuccio Bianchi Bandinelli e ii suo mondo (exh. cat.), 2.000 (19] M. BARBANERA, Ranuccio Bianchi Bandinelli. Biografia ed epistolario di un grande archeologo, 2.003 12.0) M. BARBANERA (ed.), L'occhio dell'archeologo. Ranuccio Bianchi Bandinelli nella Siena del primo C900 (exh. cat.), 2.009 121) R. BARZANTI / M. BRIGNALI (ed.), Ranuccio Bianchi Bandinelli. Archeologo curioso del futuro, 1994, MARCELLO

BARBANERA

BIANCHINI,

FRANCESCO

Bianchini, Francesco Italian archaeologist, theologian and astronomer. Born 13. 12. 1662 in Verona, died 2. 3. 1729 in Rome. 1673-1680 schooling at Jesuit College of San Luigi in Bologna; 1680-1684 studied theology at Univ. of Padua; from 1684 in Rome, active as universal scholar and official of the Papal Curia; named honorary member of the Royal Academies of Paris ( 170 5) and London (1712). Appreciated in 1735 in the Vita di Monsignor Francesco Bianchini Veronese by Alessandro Mazzoleni. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

B.'s background and work, which attached great importance to the visibility of history and its didactic dissemination, and to astronomy, were influenced by the Jesuit educational model as well as by his close contacts with scientists and classicists during his theological studies at Padua. The meridian B. designed and inaugurated ( 1703) in the Roman church of S. Maria degli Angeli still to this day attests to the status and range of activity of this scholar, who rose to become an internationally-acclaimed uomo universale and Curial official. He found his most important patron in Pope Clement XI, took part in excavations in Rome and Latium, and was one of the first in Italy, in 1707, to replicate Sir Isaac Newton's experiments on the prismatic separation of light. As a 22-year-old theology graduate in 1684, B. had already moved to his new home city of choice, Rome. His contacts with the family of Cardinal Ottoboni eased the young scholar's entry into scholarly sancta of the city like the Accademia fisico-matematica of Giovanni Giustino ----> Ciampini, which introduced him to Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, among others. As custodian of the Ottoboni library, an important centre of cultural life in Rome, B. took on an ambitious book project: a universal history primarily based on archaeological sources. This is fundamental to an understanding of his later works. B.'s remarks on method in the introduction, and his focus on the material remains and their significance to civilization and culture, may explain why the first and only volume of this lstoria universale (1697) [1] was reprinted twice (Rome 1747; Venice 1825-1827) [1]; in the 18th cent. it was also used as a textbook for history teaching at the Roman Accademia di San Luca. As with his card game for learning history [7], B. explored the epistemological and mnemotechnical possibilities of images in scholarly use. B.'s main works on archaeology and classical studies represent various approaches on findings, reconstructions and documentations of

antiquity. His publication on the Columbarium of the Freedmen of Livia on the via Appia Antica [4] bases its scholarly approach on the graphic documentation of the architecture of the tomb building, and all the inscriptions it contains, all of which B. evaluated for the first time in socialhistorical terms, in relation to the organization of the Roman Imperial house. In his splendid posthumous work (1738) on the ancient Imperial palace on the Palatine I5 ], conversely, he developed a noble vision of antiquity taking into account the idea of the magnificenza of Rome. The sometimes obvious discrepancy between the aspiration to a relation between text and image and the actual implementation of such a relation (8) poses questions about the development of general and early Christian archaeology, classical studies and ecclesiastical history in Papal Rome of the early 18th cent. At all events, an important step in the history of the Vatican Museums and early Christian archaeology is seen in what was probably the most important work written by this universal scholar after 1703: his work of religious and cultural history, the Museo of Ecclesiastico. Although this presentation ancient exhibits of all genres, intended to complement the Vatican Library, was prematurely abandoned in 1710, it was continued as a kind of 'virtual museum' by B.'s nephew Giuseppe Bianchini: he included it as a series of engravings in Volume 4 of Demonstratio historiae ecclesiasticae quadripartitae (1752-1754), forming the crucial link to the Museo Sacra, which opened its doors in 1757 as the first public museum m the Vatican. WRITINGS

[1] La istoria universale provata con monumenti e figurata con simboli degli antichi, Rome 1697 (.2) De lapide Antiati epistola [... ) in qua agitur de villa Hadriani Augusti, in Antiati colonia sita, Rome 1698 (3) De kalendario & cyclo Caesaris [... ), et gnomone Clementino, Rome 1703 [4] Camera ed inscrizioni sepulcrali de' liberti, servi ed ufficiali della casa di Augusto scoperto nella via Appia, Rome 172.7 (reiss. 1991) (5] Del palazzo de' Cesari. Opera postuma, ed. G. BIANCHINI, Verona 1738 (61 De tribus generibus instrumentorum musicae veterum organicae dissertatio, Rome 1742. [7] Carte da giuoco in servigio dell'lstoria e della Cronologia (1695), Bologna 1871 (reiss. 1968). SECONDARY

LITERATURE

(8) V. KocKEL/ B. SOLCH(ed.), Francesco Bianchini (1662.-172.9) und die europaische gelehrte Welt, 2.005 (9) S. RonA, Bianchini, Francesco, in: DBI 10, 1968, 187-194 (10) B. S0LCH, Francesco Bianchini ( 1662.-172.9) und die Anfange offentlicher Mu seen in Rom, 2.007 I 11) F. UG1.1ETT1, Un erudito veronese alle soglie del Settecento: Mons. Francesco Bianchini, 1986. BRIGITTE SClLCH

....

81UEZ,

Bickermann,

Elias Joseph

Russian-American ancient historian. rorms of name: Bikerman in St. Petersburg/Petrograd and Paris, Bickermann in Berlin, Bickerman in US [II. 172.). Born 1. 6. 1897 in Kishinev (now Chi~in:lu, Moldova), died 3 1. 8. 198 1 in Jerusalem. 1915 studied at Petrograd with Michael • Rostovtzeff; from 1922 at Berlin with Ulrich + Wilcken, 192.6 doctorate, 1930 habit., both Berlin. 1933-1942 in France; 1942 emigration to New York. Fellowship there at the Jewish Theological Seminary; 1952-1967 taught at Columbia Univ. From 1967 Research Fellow at Jewish Theological Seminary in New York. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

B. "was one of the greatest classical scholars St. Petersburg has produced" 111.171 I- Even his dissertation for Ulrich • Wilcken [ 1 I displayed his affinity for documents [ 2). B.'s influence rests especially on his works on the history of Judaism in antiquity, which began in style with his RE article in 1928 [3). His Paris years 1933-1942 saw the publication of his cardinal works on the Maccabaean Revolt [ 5) and the Seleucid institutions (6). Both were and remain fundamental works, and they affirmed B.'s reputation, but were also received with controversy. He regarded the Maccabaean Revolt as the result of internal conflict among the Jews. He was highly productive in the decades after his emigration to the USA in 1942. More than half of his publications appeared here, including English translations of his books on the Maccabaeans and a new edition of the chronology of the ancient world 14). One of B.'s chief concerns was linking the past with the present and the future I81.He continued his Jewish studies all his life 17); I9 ), hut did not neglect other themes of philology and ancient history. The continuing influence of his research today is particularly a product of his works on Judaism I10), the theories of which are not universally accepted, but always keenly debated. LW: [12). WRITINGS

(1) Das Edikt des Kaisers Caracalla in P.Giss.40

(diss. Berlin), 19:z.6 [1.] Beitriige zur antiken Urkundengeschichte, 3 vols., 19:z.7-1930 13] Makkabiierbi.icher I-III, in: RE 14, 191.8, 779-800 (4] Chronologie (Einleitung in die Altertumswissenschaft, Vol. 3/5), 1933 ('1963; English: Chronology of the Ancient World, 1968) Is] Der Gott der Makkabiier. Untersuchungen iiber Sinn und Ursprung der makkabaischen Erhebung, 1937 (6] Institutions des Seleucides, 1938 (7( Studies in Jewish and Christian History, 3 vols., 1976-1986 (8) The Ancient History of Western Civilization

JOSEl'H

(with M. SMrrn), 1976 l91The Jews in the Greek Age, 1988. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

[10) A. I. BAUMGARTEN, Elias Bickerman as a Histo-

rian of the Jews. A Twentieth Century Tale, 1.010 [ 1 1] M. HENGF.I., Elias Bickermann. Erinnerungen an einen grossen Althistoriker aus St. Petersburg, in: Hyperboreus ro, :z.004,171-199 (n) F. PARENTE, Bibliography of the Writings of Elias Joseph Bickerman, in: E. GARRA / M. SMrrn (ed.), E. Bickerman. Religion and Politics in the Hellenistic and Roman Periods, 1985, XIII-XXXVIJ I 13 J M. SMrrn, Elias Bickermann, in: Proc. of the American Acad. of Jewish Research 50, 1983, I 5-18. ERNST BALTRUSCH

Bidez, Joseph Belgian classical philologist. Born MarieAuguste-Joseph Born 9. 4. 1867 in Frameries, died 20. 09. 194 5 in Oostakker near Ghent. Studied at the Univ. of Liege, 1888 doctorate in classical philology, 1 891 doctorate of law there; 1 894 'special doctorate' in classical philology at Univ. of Ghent, lecturer there in Greek philology and history of Greek philosophy from 1895, prof. ext. from 1902, prof. ord. from 1907. De facto dismissal from teaching 1933 because of new language legislation for the Flemish umv.; retired 1 9 3 7. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

B. hegan his research with a diss. on Empedocles supervised by Joseph Delbreuf at Liege and Hermann • Diels in Berlin. Turning to editing the church historians of late antiquity (with Leon Parmentier), B. became a specialist in late antique intellectual and religious history. The edition of the church history of Euagrius was followed by that of Philostorgius and - with considerable delays, as the intensive collaboration with the Prussian Academy of Sciences was interrupted by World War I - Sozomenus in the series Die griechischen christlichen Schriftsteller (GCS). The enduring fundamental importance of these editions is a tribute to B.'s editorial care. His collaboration with the religious historian Franz • Cumont was also fruitful, although B.'s efforts to have Cumont appointed to Ghent in defiance of political opposition, while energetic, were in vain. The edition of the collected works of the Emperor Julian [ 1 ]; [ 2) and evidence of eastern influence on Hellenistic religion and philosophy [4] attracted international admiration. B.'s historical works were also successful. Like his study of Porphyry (Porphyrius), his vita of Julian (3) was praised for its critical analyses of

BIDEZ,

JOSEPH

a lifelong friend), and did museum work at Kassel in 1912./13, creating the catalogue of sculptures [2]. After becoming Loeschcke's assistant in 1915, B. taught privately at the request of her students (including Erwin Panofsky). Her postdoctoral habit. with Rodenwaldt at Giessen in 1919 (3) even came before the official admission of women. Thereafter, B. published at regular intervals, including articles for the RE, Thieme-Becker's WRITINGS (1) Recherches sur la tradition manuscrite des Allgemeines Lexikon der Bildenden Kunstler and lettres de l'empereur Julien (with F. CuMom), P. J. Arndt's Photographische Einzelaufnahmen 1898 (2) Imp. Caesaris Flavii Claudii Iuliani epis- antiker Skulpturen. Her dismissal in 1933 pretulae (edition, with F. CuMom), 1922. (3) La vie vented the completion of her survey of the sculpde l'empereur Julien, 1930 (4) Les mages hellenitures of the Cos Asclepieum for Rudolf Herzog. ses. Zoroastre, Ostanes et Hystaspe apres la tradiIn exile, however, B. continued her publication tion grecque, 2 vols. (with F. CuMom), 1938. work without interruption, still for German series and periodicals (until 1943; no publication SECONDARY LITERATURE ban), but increasingly for an English-speaking (5) K. ROSEN, Julian. Kaiser, Gott und Christenhasser, 2006 [6) G. SANDERS, Bidez, Marie Auguste readership. Her students in New York included the archaeologist Evelyn B. Harrison. Joseph, in: Nationaal Biografisch Woordenboek 1,

the sources, which for the first time placed the contradictory picture of Julian in its context of intellectual history and which remains a standard research work on Julian and a classic of historical biography to this day. The undoubted fame of this work in National Socialist Germany seems to be a function of the questionable repute of the Emperor among the Nazis [5. 246-250).

1964, 191-193. VALERIA LILIE

Bieber, Margarete

German-American classical archaeologist and cultural historian. Born 31. 7. 1879 in Schonau (West Prussia, now Swiecie Przechowo, Poland), died 25. 2. 1978 in New Canaan (Connecticut, USA). 1902-1907 studied at Berlin and Bonn; 1907 doctorate in Bonn. 191 3 corresponding member of DAI, full member 1922; 1919 habit. in Giessen. 1923 adjunct prof. ext., then 1931 associate prof. ext. Dismissed 1933, emigrated to Britain, then 1934 to the USA; visiting lecturer at Barnard College in New York; 1935-1948 associate prof. at Columbia Univ., New York; 1949-1951 lectureship at Princeton; at Columbia School of General Studies in New York until 19 56. American citizen 1940. BIOGRAPHY

AND SCHOLARLY

BACKGROUND

Born into a family of Jewish industrialists, B. had a Christian and secular education. After attending the Gymnasium courses of the pedagogue and campaigner for women's rights, Helene Lange, in Berlin, she became the first woman to pass the Abitur in West Prussia in 1901. Excluded from regular higher education as a woman, she sat in as a guest on lectures in 1902 by Ulrich von ➔ Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Hermann -• Diels and Reinhard ➔ Kekule von Stradonitz. In 1904, she moved to Bonn to study with Georg ➔ Loeschcke, obtaining her doctorate in 1907 [1]. From then until 1914, she spent time abroad, especially in Athens and Rome, including a period in 1909/Jo on a travel scholarship from the DAI (with Georg ➔ Lippold and Gerhart ➔ Rodenwaldt, who became

WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

B.'s 1907 dissertation already betrays two important preoccupations: ancient dress (4]; (5) and ancient theatre [1); [3]; (6). Besides these, her 3 50 or so publications mostly deal with Hellenistic sculpture (9] and copying (II). In her writings on objects, B. proposes an overall ordering according to cultural historical context. Her highly inclusive and systematic approach, along with the abundant illustrations, has ensured that her comprehensive monographs in particular remain standards and reference works to this day. In some spheres of cultural history, B. was the first to drawn on pictorial archaeological evidence, and thus to add an iconographic aspect to what had hitherto been primarily philological research. Her view of Roman copies as independent testimony to the time of their creation encouraged a more differentiated attitude to the copying tradition as a phenomenon in art history. In the United States, B. explicitly emerged as an advocate of German approaches to research in art theory (8), and through her more popular publications, e.g. on Laocoon [7] and the ancient theatre [6), did much to enhance not only the standing of scholars of German origin in the USA, but also the popularity of the subject in general. The concept she developed in 19 1 5 for the Kassel catalogue [2], of de-restoring antiquities to which modern restoration had been added, was influential in German and North American museums. Thanks to her pioneering spirit in so many areas, B.'s life story has found much resonance, especially recently in women's studies (12), but she showed no signs of active feminist aspirations. E: New Orleans, Tulane Univ.

53

BIONDO,

FLAVIO

LW: L. Bonfante Warren / R. Winkes (ed.), Bibliography of the Works of Margarete Bieber for Her 90th Birthday,July 31, 1969; addendum in: American Journal of Archaeology 79, 1975, 147-148. of a Female Scholar M: Autobiography (unpubl. MS of 1961, forthcoming).

• Guarino da Verona (from ea. 142.0), Francesco Barbaro (from 142.3) and the Florentine Humanist circle, especially Leonardo Bruni (from ea. 1434). His first treatise De verbis Romanae locutionis on the unity of the Latin language in ancient Rome (against the then current belief in a permanent diglossia between Latin and Vulgar Latin dating hack to antiquity) reflects a discusWRITINGS sion that appears to have taken place within [ 1] Das Dresdner Schauspielerrelief. Ein Beitrag zur this Humanist circle around Pope Eugene IV in Geschichte des tragischen Costtims und der griechis14 35 at Florence. B. did write other short treachen Kunst (diss. Bonn), 1907 l2.I Die antiken tises, hut he gained more success and fame from Sculpturen und Bronzen des koniglichen Museums his historiographic and antiquarian works and Fridericianum in Cassel, 191 5 131 Die Denkmaler his works on historical geography. His Decades zum Theaterwesen im Altertum, 192.0 141 Griechis(written ea. 1435-145 3) offer an overview of the che Kleidung, 192.8 IsI Entwicklungsgeschichte history of Europe from the fall of the Roman der griechischen Tracht von der vorgriechischen Empire in the west (i.e. since the sack of Rome Zeit bis zur romischen Kaiserzeit, 1934 (•1967) [6] The History of the Greek and Roman Thehy the Goths under Alaric in AD 410) to 1441. ater, 19 3 9 ( • 1961) 17) Laocoon. The Influence of With his historical perspective, B. made decisive the Group since Its Rediscovery, 1942. (•1967) contribution to the general consolidation of the [8] German Readings in the History and Theory threefold concept of antiquity, Middle Ages and of Fine Arts, Vol. 1: Greek and Roman Art, 1946 modernity. (•1968) 191 The Sculpture of the Hellenistic Age, It's late work De origine et gestis Venetorum 1955 (•1961) [10I Alexander the Great in Greek (written 1454) 141 is a rather more conventional and Roman Art, 1964 [11I Ancient Copies, 1977. national or territorial history of a region that played a central role in the author's own backSECONDARY LITERATURE ground. His Roma instaurata (completed 1446) (12) L. BoNFANTE,Margarete Bieber (1879-1978). An Archaeologist in Two Worlds, in: C. R1ton the history of Roman style (3), in which he terleh re, 18 54 IsI Vorschule der Kunstmytholoargues for seeing Roman art as a pluralistic sysgie, 1854. tem in which artistic styles did not necessarily follow one another in sequence, but could coSECONDARY LITERATURE exist in use to convey particular meanings [9 ]. [6I Wilhelm Henzen und das Institut auf dem Kapitol. Eine Auswahl seiner Briefe an Eduard GerHis students included Larissa Bonfante and hard, ed. H.-G. KoLBE, 1984 171W. FASTENRATHJerome J. Pollitt. VINATTIERI,Der Archaologe Emil Braun als KunLW: [6. XII-XIV]. stagent fi.ir den Freiherrn Bernhard August von Lindenau, 2.004 (8) H.-G. KoLBF.,Emil Braun, in: LULLIES / ScHtERINGArch. 31-32. 191H.-G. KOLBE, Emil Braun und die Latin Epigraphik, in: Romische [ 10) H. SCHMIDT Mitteilungen 86, 1979, 52.9-543 / P. G. SCHMIDT,Emil Braun, 'ein Mann der edelsten Begabung von Herz und Geist'. Archaologe,

....

WRITINGS

[1] Ikonographie des Kaisers Augustus (diss. Heidelberg), 1931 [2.] Symbolik der Kugel, in: Romische Mitteilungen 51, 1936, 1-95 (English: Symbolism of the Sphere: A Contribution to the History of

BRENDEL,

OTTO

JOHANNES

Earlier Greek Philosophy, trans. M. W. BRENDU., B.'s main work consists of two monumental 1977) (3) Prolegomena to a Book on Roman Art, volumes, published in both German and French: in: Memoirs of the American Acad. in Rome 2.1, the first deals with his investigations on Kea. 1953, 8-73 (4) Etruscan Art, 1978 Is) The Vis- the second with the Parthenon sculptures (1). ible Idea. Interpretations of Classical Art, 1980. Six further planned volumes never materialized [8. 274-2761. B. also published a treatise on SECONDARY LITER A TU RE the Panathenaic prize amphorae ( 2) and bronzes [6] L. 8oNFANTE / H. VONHEINTZF. (ed.), In Memofrom Siris in southern Italy (3 I- He collected and riam Otto J. Brendel. Essays in Archaeology and sold coins and antiquities, and kindled the interthe Humanities, 1976 171W. M. CAI.DFR lll, Otto est of Prince Christian Frederik, the future King Brendel, in: LuuJES / Settlf.RINGArch. 2.83-2.84 Christian VIII of Denmark, in collecting antiqui(8] W. M. CALDFRIll, Biographical Note, in: L. 8

INl-'I.UF.NCE

B., the son of a teacher, attended the Cij/J. nisches Gymnasium in Berlin, studied philology at friedrich-Wilhelms-Univ. from 1848 and obtained his doctorate in 185, with a dissertation on the Orphic Hymns. He puhlished three books in a period of just two years ( 1868-1 869): a treatise on dream interpretation I I I, a slim monograph on centres of ancient handicraft 13I and the substantial centrepiece of his oeuvre I 2.I, a systematic account of the (jreek economy in the Archaic and Classical Periods. In the first part, on ownership and property relations, B. made particular studies of the ownership of land t.2.. 38-103) and slavery (.2.. 104-2.081, highlighting the structural importance and negative effects of the latter. In the second part, on commerce and commercial activities, agriculture is presented as the most important branch of the economy I.2.. 2.931- B. gives two factors that hampered the development of manufacture: the low prestige of such work, and home production for private use 12.. 316 f.t. He avoids any idealization of antiquity and any attempt to equate the ancient economy with the modern. B. was almost entirely forgotten in the .2.oth cent., although his hooks were reprinted. Karl • Christ does not mention him once in his survey of German scholarship of {jreek antiquity 141Eduard • Meyer, however, did make considerable use of B.'s observations on the Greek economy in his Geschi,·hte des Altertums I7- 44 1 f. lit is of interest in the history of scholarship that Sigmund Freud owed his knowledge of ancient dream interpretation to B.'s treatise. B.'s slight influence on ancient history scholarship is also doubtless connected with the fact that he never held a univ. professorship. Nevertheless, interest in his dream study is apparent in recent work on dreams and oneirocriticism in antiquity I6. 12.I; 19- 52.4). Moses I. • Finley's survey of ancient slavery makes mention of the critical verdict of B.'s long chapter on the subject 15- 2.51. WRITINGS

II J Traum und Traumdeutung im Alterthume, 1 868 (rciss. 1967) 12I Besitz und Erwcrb im griech. Altcrrhume, 1869 (reiss. 1961) 131Oic Hauptstatten des Gewcrbfleisses im klassischen Alterthume, r 869 (rciss. 1967).

AIJRIAAN

IH

LITERATURE

141CuRM Hel 1999, 417; s18 lsl M. 1. flNu.v, Am:ienr Slavery and Modern Ideology, 1980 l6I B. NAJ-,Traum und Traumdeurung im AirerDie Bucher-Meyer tum. 1004 l71 H. ScUNfJI>ER, Kontrovcrsc, in: W. M. CAWER / A. DEMANDT (ed.), Eduard Meyer. u-ben und Leistung eines Universalhisrorikers, 1990, 417-44 s I8 I H. ScuNEIOER, Die Erforschung der antiken Wirrschaft vom Ende des 18. Jh.s his zum Zweiten Welrkrieg. Von A. H. L. Heeren zu M. I. Rostovtzeff, in: V. LosEMANN (ed.), Alte Geschichre zwischen Wissenschaft und Politik. hilolugisch /,istituut vuor het Oude Nabije Ousten shortly before outbreak of World War II. 194 1 full member of the Koni11klijke Nederla11dse Akademie 11a11 Wete11Schappe11 at Amsterdam; 194 7 chairman of International Association of Egyptologists I 1 2.j. WORK

ANl>

INl'I.UENCE

In 192.4, while B. was still a pastor in North Holland, James Henry Breasted commissioned him, on the recommendation of Alan • {jardiner, to edit for the Chicago Oriental Institute the substantial corpus of sarcophagus texts mostly inscribed on wooden coffins of the 1 1th to 17th Dynasties. Until then, only a fraction of this material had been accessihle, and what was published was edited to a standard harely adequate to support work on the sometimes very ohscure texts. B. devoted himself unstintingly to the task of collecting the scattered material from Egypt and museums around Europe, and he presented the results in an exemplary publication (4(. By the time of his death, six volumes had appeared; the seventh was ready for printing and came out shortly afterwards. He never had the chance to provide translations and commentaries to these funerary texts, a task for which he would have been incomparably suited. B.'s other work was of great benefit to Egyptology in many ways. His diss. [ 1) explores the

BUCK,

ADRIAAN

DE

emergence and regional interpretations of the cosmogonic benben (primordial mound), connecting it with the temple and throne via the concept of creation. His accession lecture on his appointment to Leiden [2.] was devoted to the dichotomy of reality and ideal in Egyptian art and literature. It remains indispensable to this day for its methodological examination of principles on the subject. His short treatise on the instructions of King Amenemhet [ 5] provided the revelation that this poem, placed in the mouth of the murdered Pharaoh, was a propaganda piece to benefit Sesostris I. 8. examined the religious roots of Egyptian wisdom in a short I 9 3 2. study [3] and was later able to show that the word hapi does not refer only to the Nile per se, but to its flood (7). The history and phenomenology of religion was a constantly-recurring body of themes at the heart of 8.'s field of interest, as the 1939 accession lecture also exemplifies [6). In this work, he develops the idea that Egyptian texts equate the renewal of life in sleep with a plunge into Nu (the watery 'Abyss'), a sojourn in the Beyond and hence death. His Amsterdam academic treatise of 1947 is of particular importance (8): written in connection with his work on the coffin texts, it examines the theology surrounding the god Shu. The identification of the deceased in the coffin texts with Shu, the son of the primeval Heliopolitan god Atum, encouraged the idea of the existence of the Son predating Creation. It is to the credit of 8. that he describes fundamental and wide-ranging conceptual structures of Ancient Egyptian thought in this study that reveal much of the relationship between godfather and god-son, but does not succumb to the temptation to claim direct associations with Christian theology. LW: J.M. A. Janssen, Lijst der geschriften van Professor Dr. Adriaan de Buck, in [9. 19-36). WRITINGS

(1) De egyptische voorstellingen betreffende den oerheuvel (diss. Leiden), 192.2. (2) Het typische en het individueele bij de Egyptenaren, 1929 [3] Het religieus karakter der oudste Egyptische wijsheid, in: Nieuw Theologisch Tijdschrift 21, 1932., 32.2.-349 (4) The Egyptian Coffin Texts, 7 vols. (edition), 1935-1961 [sl The Instructions of Amenemmes, in: Melanges Maspero. lnstitut fran~ais d'archeologie orientale. Memoires 66, 1935[6) De godsdienstige opvatting van 1938, 847-852. den slaap, inzonderheid in het oude Egypte, 1939 [7] On the Meaning of the Name H'pj, in: Orientalia Neerlandica, 1948, 1-2.2. [8] Plaats en betekenis van Sjoe in de Egyptische theologie (Mededeelingen der Koninklijke Nederlandsche Akademie van Wetenschappen, Afdeling Letterkunde 1o/9), 1947.

SECONDARY

LITERATURE

19I Als een goet Instrument.

Leven en Wcrken van Professor A. de Buck (FS), 1960 (10) Buck, Adriaan de (1892.-1959), in: WWE, 1972., "70-71 [ 1 1) S. MORENZ. Adriaan de Buck, 22.. September 1892 - 2.8. Oktober 19 59, in: Zs. fur agyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde 8 s, 196mischGermanische Kommission at 1-'rankfurt alongside the older presences at Rome and Athens. Throughout the institute, which remains a leading centre of archaeological research to this day, he implemented his concept of a 'greater archaeology' I 1 3 ], in which various specialist disciplines unite and share in work to research a comprehensive cultural history. E: Berlin, Archive of the DAI. M: Unsern Kindern gewidmet ('To our children'; printed manuscript), 1908. WRITINGS

I Reise auf den Inseln des Thrakischen Meeres, 1860 I21 Melische Thongefasse, 1 862. 131 Reise auf der Insel Lesbos, 1865 141 Ueber die Bedeutung der classischen Archaeologie, 1 869 IsI (ed.), Wiener Vorlegebllitter, 1869-1877 [61 Zur Geschichte der Anfange der griechischen Kunst (SB of Osterreichische Akad. der Wissenschaften 64 and 73/4), 2. parts, 1870-1 873 (7 j Romische Bildwerke einheimischen Fundorts in Osterreich, 3 vols., 1872.-1877 I8 I Archaologische Untersuchungen auf Samothrake, 1875 19] Neue archliologische Untersuchungen auf Samothrake, 1880 I 101 (ed.), Altertiimer von Pergamon, Vol. 1-8, 1885-192.3 [11) (ed.), Die attischen Grabreliefs, Vol. 1-4, 1893-192.2. ( 12) Ober den Ursprung der hildenden Kunst, in: SB der preussischen Akad. der Wissenschaften Berlin, 1897, 98-109 I 13) Ansprache zum Winckel(1

CORNFORD,

mannsfest, 167.

FRANCIS

in: Archaologischer

SEC ON DARY

MACDONALD

Anzeiger,

1902.,

LI TERA TU RE

[ 14 I A. BoRIWJN,Alexander Conze, in: LuUJf.S / ScttlERINLArchliologie. 59-60 [15) H. DRAU,NDORl-l', Gedachtnisrede, gehalten am Winckelmannstage 1914 in der Archliologischen Gesellschaft zu Berlin, , 9, 5 I 16) G. KARO, Gedlichtnisrede in Athen, in: Athenische Mitteilungen 39, 1914, I-XV I17) R. LINDNER,Reinhard Kekule von Stradonitz Alexander Conze. Zurn Diskurs der Fotografie in der klassischen Archliologie des 19. Jh.s, in: Fotogeschichte 19/73, 1999, 3-16 118) S. L. MARCHAND, Down from Olympus. Archaeology and Philhellenism in Germany. 1750-1970, 1996, 93-103 [191 W. RAvr,Pergamon. Geschichte und Bauten, Funde und Erforschung einer antiken Metropole, 1988, 339-345 11.oj F. WrNTER, Gedenkwort auf Alexander Conze, in: Bonner Jhb. 12.3, 1916, 75-86. HUBERT SZEMETHY

Cornford, Francis Macdonald British classical philologist and historian of philosophy. Born Eastbourne 2.7. 2. 1874, died 3. 1. 194 3 in Cambridge. 1894-1 897 studied classical philology and ancient philosophy at Trinity College, Cambridge; 1 899 doctorate and Fellow of Trinity; from 1 902. assistant lecturer; lecturer from 1904; Laurence Prof. of Ancient Philosophy there from I 9 3 1. WORK

AND

INFI.UENCE

In his first major book [ 1 ), C. showed Thucydides' dependence on a traditional historical idea, especially that of tragic fate. The work was dedicated to Jane Ellen ► Harrison, of whose group, the Cambridge Ritualists, C. was a member I 1 2). C. applied a ritualistic model based on Gilbert ► Murray's (on Greek tragedy) to Greek comedy 141, seeing the origins of the genre in a dramatic ritual connected with the return of the daim6n of the year (eniautos daimon; cf. James ► Frazer) in spring after his victory over the powers of darkness I 10]; I 12.). He traced the Olympic Games back to a New Year festival (3). C. proposed a development from pre-theological or mythical thought to philosophy or science which, in the narrow sense, had arisen with the Atomists and their mechanistic (i.e. no longer religious) explanations of the world (8. rn4-119]. Like Emile Durkheim, C. initially saw religion as a sociological phenomenon, i.e. an expression of a collective and emotional nature not from an individual but from society as a whole (in (2.), a work admired by Jean-Pierre + Vernant). Later, he came to the conclusion that Greek philosophy never overcame its religious substrate and thus never became a science, because its subject remained the nature of things. The link between myth and philosophy,

CORNFORD,

FRANCIS

MACDONALD

he argued, was cosmogony, i.e. the rationalization of myth. The Milesian cosmogony he believed to originate in the Near East (9); [8). C.'s most lasting achievement was in his influence as an editor, translator and commentator of philosophical texts from the Presocratics to the Physics of Aristotle (5) and the Platonic dialogues Theaetetus and Sophist [6), Timaeus (1937), Parmenides (7) and Republic (1941). His students (e.g. W. K. C. Guthrie, Francis Henry Sandbach) continued his research in the field of ancient philosophy.

to the Academie des inscriptions et belles-lettre:s.; 1973 president of the Academie des inscriptio>is ~t belles-lettres and the Institut de France. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

After studying at renowned French uniV'S,. C. enjoyed a stellar career that took him to the College de France in 1952.. His double training as a classical philologist and medieval archivist and palaeographer dictated the fields of his research, which ranged from classical antiquity to the Middle Ages. After completing his habit. thesis [ 1 ], in which he explored the influence of Hellenism on Christian and profane Latin WRITINGS [1) Thucydides Mythistoricus, 1907 (reiss. 1965 culture, the committed Christian C. turned to et al.) (2.) From Religion to Philosophy. A Srudy the study of Augustine [2.); (3) becoming und~r in the Origins of Western Speculation, 19 12. the influence of Goulven Madec an important [3) The Origin of the Olympic Games, in: J. HARRISON, expert on the Church Father. C. also worked on Themis. A Study in the Social Origins of Greek Boethius [4) and Ambrose [5). A specialist in t1'e Religion, 1912., 2.12.-2.59 (et passim) (4) The Origin of Attic Comedy, 1914 (et al.) (5I Aristoteles, history of ideas and literature, C. pursued transThe Physics, 2. vols. (edition and trans., with P. H. mission and interrelation in literature as well as continuities between ancient and medieval litera192.9-1934 (et al.) [6) Plato's Theory WICKSTEED), ture (6). of Knowledge. The 'Theaetetus' and the 'Sophist' of Plato (trans. and comm.), 1935 (7) Plato and LW: 1938-1980 (7. 11-2.5); 1935-1967 Parmenides. Parmenides' 'Way of Truth' and Plato's (8. 37-42.). 'Parmenides' (trans. and comm.), 1939 (et al.) [8) The Unwritten Philosophy and Other Essays, ed. W. K. C. GlJTHRJE, 1950 [9) Principium sapientiae. The Origin of Greek Philosophical Thought, ed. 1952. (reiss. 1971). W. K. C. GlJTHRJE, SECONDARY

LITERATURE

(10) S. FORNARO,La commedia o la poesia del

rito, in: F. M. CORNFORD, L'origine della comme2.007, dia attica (English 1914), ed. P. INGROSSO, Wocm, F. M. Cornford, in: 9-2.9 [11) D. KELLOGG 2.3-36 [u] R. SCHLESIER, Kulte, BRIGGS/CALDER Mythen, Gelehrte, 1994, 132.-134 (13) K.-G. WESSELING, Cornford, Francis Macdonald, in: Biographisch-Bibliographisches Kirchenlexikon. 18, S0TERAFORNARO

Courcelle, Pierre

WRITINGS

a Cassiodore. 3 [2 I Recherches sur les 'Confessions de Saint Augustin', 1950 (3) Les confessions de Saint Augustin dans la tradition litteraire. Antecedents et posterite, 1963 (4) La consolation de philosoet phic dans la tradition lineraire. Antecedents posterite de Boece, 1967 Is) Recherches sur Saint Ambroise. 'Vies' anciennes, culture, iconographic. 1973 (6) Lecteurs chretiens et pa"iens de l'Eneide. 1980 (7) Opuscula selecta. Bibliographie et recueil d'articles publies entre 1938 et 1980, 1984.

I I I Les lettres grecques de Macrobe 1 94

SECONDARY

LITERATURE

(8) Rcmise de l'epee d'Academicien a M. Pierre Courcelle, membre de I' Academic des inscriptions Pierre et bellcs-lenres, 1967 [9) L. CAROLUS-BARR£., Courcelle, in: Bibliotheque de l'Ecole des chanes 139'2., 1981, 346-350.

French philologist and ancient historian. Born 16. 3. 1912. in Orleans, died Paris 2.5. 7. 1980. 1930 entered the Paris Ecole normale superieure and Ecole des chartes; 19 34 agregation in classical philology and French; also graduated as archivist and palaeographer. 1934-1936 member of the Ecole fran~ise de Rome. 1936/37 army service. 1937-1939 lecturer at Institut fran~is de Naples. 1939/40 war service (Croix de guerre). 1941 prof. (Maitre de conferences) of Latin philology at the Univ. of Bordeaux; 1943 habit. From 1944 prof. of Latin philology at the Sorbonne (Paris) and Directeur d'etudes at the Ecole pratique des hautes etudes (Paris); 1952. prof. of Latin literature at College de France; 1960-1972. president of the Institut des Etudes Augustiniennes. 196 5 elected

LAURENT

CUICHAR.D

Creuzer, Georg Friedrich German classical philologist and religious scholar. Born Marburg 10. 3. 1771, died studied Heidelberg 16, :z.. 1858. 1789-1790 Protestant theology, philosophy and philology at Marburg and Jena. Private teacher at Marburg from 1791. Study trip to Leipzig 1798. 1799 habit. at Univ. of Marburg. 1800 prof. ext., 1802. prof. ord. there; I 804-1845 prof. of classical philology and ancient history at Heidelberg (with one interruption for a three-month visit to Leiden 1809).

CREUZER,

12.5

BACKGROUND

C., the son of a bookbinder, began studying theology, but under the influence of Friedrich Carl van ➔ Savigny he increasingly turned to classical studies. He was appointed to the Univ. of Heidelberg in 1804 with the support of the economist and Pietist author Johann Heinrich Jung-Stilling and the theologian Karl Daub, and in J 807 he was one of the founders of the Philological Seminar there. He was closely associated with the Romantic circle around Achim von Arnim, Clemens Brentano and Joseph Gorres. From 1805 to 1810, with Daub, C. published the Heidelbergische jahrbucher, which also offered a forum to authors such as the philologist August ► Boeckh, the literary and linguistic scholar Wilhelm Grimm and the Protestant theologian Philipp Konrad Marheineke. A love affair between the married C. and the Romantic poet Karoline von Gi.inderrode ended with Gi.inderrode's suicide in 1 806 after C. called the relationship off. C. 's most intense period of academic activity came between 181 5 and 1830, when his lectures were among the most popular at the Univ. of Heidelberg. WORK

C.'s teaching and research activities touched on all aspects of classical studies and consequently dealt with issues of philology, history, literature and archaeology ([4); [5]; [61; [71). Among his text editions, some of the most notable are the versions of Plotinus' Enneads (Oxford 18 35, Paris ~18 5 5) and several works of Cicero ( 1 8 r 8182.9) prepared in collaboration with his friend and student Georg Heinrich Moser. He returned repeatedly to the early Greek historians, e.g. in his first treatise Herodot und Thucydides ( 1798), then his first major monograph (Die historische Kunst der Griechen, 'The historical art of the Greeks', 1803 [1)), the text edition Historicorum Graecorum antiquissimorum (ragmenta ( 1 806) and the Commentationes Herodoteae ( r 81 9 ). In his archaeological publications, he explored Greek antiquities in German museums (Zur Gallerie der a/ten Dramatiker, 1839) and Roman archaeological monuments (Zur Geschichte altromischer Cultur am Ober-Rhein und Neckar, 'The history of ancient Roman culture on the Upper Rhine and Neckar', 1833; Das Mithreum von N euenheim bei Heidelberg, r 8 3 8). The Antiquarium Creuzerianum, C.'s private collection of ancient art founded by students in r 8 3 5, gave rise to what are now the archaeological collections of the Univ. of Heidelberg. However, C. achieved his widest fame with his studies on comparative mythology and religious history, which he first compiled in 1810-1812. in his four-volume Symbolik und Mythologie ('Symbolism and mythology' [2.]. In it, he pro-

GEORG

FRIEDRICH

fessed a belief in an original, monotheistic revelation, passed on through sages of early India, through Western Asia to the Pelasgian people and from them to the Greeks. He believed that he could demonstrate the partially misunderstood remnants of this lore in Homer and Hesiod, but especially in the ancient mystery religions. INFLUENCE

C.'s interpretation of ancient myth was in the tradition of the early Romantic mythological studies founded under the influence of Johann Gottfried Herder and running counter to the rationalist devaluation of myth by Enlightenment philosophers, especially Christian Gottlob ► Heyne and Karl Philipp Moritz. Ideas similar to C.'s are found in Joseph Gorres' Mythengeschichte der asiatischen Welt ('Mythic history of the Asian world', 1810) and the works of Johann Arnold Kanne, who also posited an original monotheism in his Pantheum der iiltesten Naturphilosophie ('Pantheum of the oldest natural philosophy', r 8 r 1) and System der indischen Mythe ('System of the Indian myths', 1813), and who was convinced of a profound consonance between Christianity, the ancient mystery religions and Hinduism. However, it proved impossible to find historical evidence in support of the cultural relationships postulated by these authors, because the earliest Indian literatures, and indeed most of the Semitic and lndo-European literatures of the Near East, had yet to be studied or in some cases even discovered. Significantly, too, C. drew his knowledge of Ancient Egyptian culture not from the Egyptian texts, which at the time were still indecipherable, but from a combination of the Graeco-Roman tradition with a speculative interpretation of the hieroglyphs as pure symbols that had been handed down from Horapollo's Hieroglyphika via the Baroque universal scholar Athanasius ► Kircher. In a wider perspective, C. recalls the tradition of pre-Christian Homeric exegesis that had found acceptance in early Christianity because of its reception by Hellenistic Jewish authors like Philo of Alexandria, as well as the eclectic approaches of the early church authors who sought to reconcile the belief in a specifically Biblical revelation with the assumption of a divine providence in non-Christian religious history. Orphic-Pythagorean and Neoplatonist traditions are also reflected in the Romantic idea that the Greek mystery cults had Oriental roots, such notions having been regularly taken up since Humanism by figures such as Marsilio ➔ Ficino and Giovanni •-➔ Pico della Mirandola. C. 's work encountered stiff resistance, sometimes even brusque dismissal among classical scholars because of its lack of terminological clarity, its distinctly theological premises, its

CREUZER,

GEORG

FRIEDRICH

intuitive and speculative approach and the virtual absence within it of methodological reflection. Among the best-known writings directed against C.'s work are the Briefe uber Homer und Hesiodus ('Letters on Homer and Hesiod', 1817) and the polemic Ober das Wesen und die Behandlung der Mythologie ('On the nature and treatment of mythology', 18 19) by the Leipzig classical philologist des Gottfried ➔ Hermann, the two-volume Antisymbolik ('Anti-symbolism', 182.4-182.6) by the poet and translator Johann Heinrich --> Voss, and the account of the Greek mystery cults published in Latin under the title Aglaophamus ( 182.9) by the Konigsberg prof. of classical studies, Christian August -• Lobeck. Over the decades that followed, C.'s approach went increasingly out of vogue as a result of such criticism, but also because of new discoveries in comparative linguistics, the increasing accessibility of Ancient Near Eastern and Ancient Indian languages and literatures, the consequent specialization of panicular disciplines and the influence of new ethnological research. Nonetheless, his work exened a considerable and wide-ranging influence outside classical studies, both in the original and in the French translation and adaptation by Joseph-Daniel Guigniaut (Les Religions de l'antiquite considerees principalement dans leur formes sym- boliques et mythologiques, 182.5-1841 ), The high regard in which C.'s work was held by Georg Wilhelm Hegel and Friedrich Wilhelm Schelling is well-known, but he also influenced cultural theorists like Victor Cousin, historians like Jules Michelet and Edgar Quinet, and authors like George Eliot (Mary Ann Evans) and Gustave Flauben. ➔ Goethe rejected C.'s work, being generally critical of the Heidelberg Romantics and taking exception both to the overemphasis on the mystery cults and the hypothesis that they were connected to Christianity. Not long afterwards, mythological research was taken in a quite different direction by Karl Otfried ➔ Muller, whose Prolegomena zu einer wissenschaftlichen Mythologie ('Prolegomena to a scientific mythology', 182.5) follows the ideas of Herder and Jacob Grimm in emphasizing the local and regional roots of Greek myths and their relationship to the prehistory and protohistory of the individual Greek tribes. C. had no impact on religious studies. M: Aus dem Leben eines alten Professors, 1848; Paralipomena der Lebensskizzen eines alten Profes- sors, 1 8 5 8. E: Univ.-Bibliothek Heidelberg, Univ.-Bibliothek Frankfun a. M., Badische Landesbibliothek Karlsruhe, Univ.-Bibliothek Marburg.

116

WRITINGS

I1)

Die historische Kunst der Griechen in ihrcr Entstehung und Fonbildung, 1803 (•1 8,45) 11) Symbolik und Mythologie der alten Volker, besonders der Griechen, 4 vols., 1810-1812. 1 1836-1843) (3) Abriss der romis(•1819-18.u; chen Antiquitaten zum Gebrauch bci Vorlesungcn, 1814 (•1819) (4} Zur romischen Geschichte und Alterthumskunde, 1836 Is1 Zur Archiiologie oder zur Geschichte und Erklarung der alten Kunst, 1846184 7 I61 Zur Geschichte der griechischen und romischen Literatur. Treatises, 1847 (7) Zur Geschichte der dassischen Philologie scit Wiederherstellung der Literatur, 1854 (8} Hessische Briefe des 19. Jh.s: Briefe Friedrich Creuzcrs an Savigny, ed. H. DAHIMANN,1971. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

(9] L. Bosco, Das furchtbar-schone Gorgonenhaupt (1755des Klassischen. Deutsche Antikebilder [10) F. ENGEHAUS£Net al. (ed.), 1875), 1004 Friedrich Creuzer 1771-18 58, 1008 I11] F. ENGH.HAUSEN et al. (ed.), Friedrich Creuzer 17711858. Philologie und Mythologie im Zeitalter der in der Romantik. Begleitband zur Ausstellung ( 12) S. Universitatsbibliothek Heidelberg, 1008 FORNARO,Friedrich Creuzer und die Diskussion iiber Philologie und Mythologie zu Beginn des 19. Jh.s, in: M. KoRENJAK/ K. T0CHTERLE (ed.), Pontes I, 2.001, 18-41 (13) E. HowAID (ed.), Der Kampf um Creuzers Symbolik. Eine Auswahl 1916 (14) F. MARELU, Lo von Dokumenten, sguardo da Oriente. Simbolo, mito e grecita in (15) A. MoMIGUA.~, Friedrich Creuzer, 1000 Friedrich Creuzer and Greek Historiography, 1969, 75-90 1161 M. M. MONCH, La symbolique ~ Friedrich Creuzer, 1976 [171 W. P. SoHNLE, Georg Friedrich Creuzers Symbolik und Mythologie in Frankreich, 1971 (18) F. STRACK(ed.), 100 Jahre Heidelberger Romantik (Heidelberger Jbb. 51), 1007 ( 191 T. ZIOLKOWSKI, Heidelberger Romantik. 1009. BERNHARD

MAIER

Croiset, Alfred French classical philologist. Born MarieJoseph-Alfred C. in Paris, 5. 1. 1845, died there 14. 6. 192.3. 1864 Baccalaureat at the Lycee Louis-le-Grand, where his father Paul C. taught lansuages. 1864-1 867 studied classical philolog~. at Ecole normale superieure in Paris. 1867-1 877 except during army service in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 and his doctorate at the Sorbonne in 1873 - teacher at various renowned lycees. Lecturer at the Sorbonne from 1877; from 1885 prof. of Greek rhetoric there. Dean of the Faculte des Lettres 1898-1919, 1919 dean honoris caus.i; retired 192.1. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

C. qualified with works on Xenophon [ 1) and Aristophanes (2.), and also wrote on Pindar

CRUS I US, MAR TIN US

117

[3] and Thucydides 141• The edition of Plato's dialogues that he co-edited with the philosopher Louis Bodin [9) is still current today. C. wrote a history of Greek literature with his brother Maurice C. ( 5); at the time, it too enjoyed worldwide acclaim. It became the basis for a handbook which, like his writings on democratic education, was especially well-received in the USA, appearing in translation I1 I; [8 I- With his efforts at educational reform and in his office as dean, he attracted the ire of Action franfaise [ 16] and anti-modernist student groups (e.g. Henri Massis) that attacked the scientization and 'Germanification' of the arts I1 5 ]. C. taught many French Hellenists, including Paul Mazon, Auguste Dies and Gustave Glotz.

WORK

AND

INFl.UENCE

After studying in Paris with Gaston • Maspero, C. went to study with Adolf • Erman in Berlin, forging a lifelong friendship with him. He turned to Coptic studies here, beginning by preparing a Coptic lexicon that would prove a groundbreaking achievement in the field. Beginning in 1 892, he collected relevant material for the project in British and continental museums and libraries and in Cairo. The Coptic Dictionary 141, published in five parts and C.'s magnum opus, presents Coptic vocabulary, including consideration given to all dialects (3,308 words), from literary and non-literary, edited and some unedited texts, all in thesaurus style. The work sealed C. 's reputation as the leading Coptic scholar of his generation. C. never held an official academic post, but WRITINGS (1) Xenophon, son caractere et son talent, 1873 published prolifically on almost all areas of 12.) De personis apud Aristophanem, 1880 131 La Coptic studies, especially Biblical and apocrypoesie de Pindare et les lois du lyrisme grec, 1881 phal texts, the Gnostics, Manichaeism, patristics, (4) Thucydide, Historie de la Guerre du Peloponnese, hagiography, homiletics, liturgy, monasticism Buch 1-2. (edition and comm.), 1886 (5) Histoire and non-literary documents [ 3 I. He wrote one de la litterature grecque, 5 vols. (with M. CROISF.T), of the first accounts of Egyptian ecclesiastical 1887-1899 ('1901) (61 L'education morale dans history I11. His text editions of material from l'universite, 1901 171 Manuel d'histoire de la littemany important museums, published from 1893, rature grecque, 1901 (English: An abridged history are especially noteworthy I 1 [. of Greek literature, trans. G. F. HEFfELROWER, New (8) The Study of Latin and Greek York 1904) C. was a member of the British Academy and and the Democracy, 1919 191 Platon. U:uvres the American Philosophical Society. completes, :z.vols. (edition with French trans.; with LW: H. I. Bell, in: Journal of Egyptian L. BomN), 19:z.1-19:z.3 (et al.). Archeology 25, 1939, 134-138; 30, 1944, 65-66; Bibliography of Walter Ewing Crum, in: I6. VIISECONDARY LITERATURE XII I. [10) Alfred Croiset, in: J. LECI.ANT(ed.), Le second E: Oxford, Griffith Institute (scholarly estate); siecle de l'Institut de France 1895-1995, Vol. 1, London, British Museum (correspondence). 1999, 337-338 [11( C. CHARI.F.,Croiset, Alfred,

in: Dictionnaire Biographique des Universitaires aux XIX et XX siecles, Vol. 1, 198 5, 4 7-48 M. Alfred Croiset, historien de la (12.) P. LASSERRE, democratie athenienne, 1909 I 1 -~I F. LoT, Notice sur la vie et les travaux de M. Alfred C:roiset, in: CRAI 73/4, 19:z.9, 36:z.-384 (141 A. PuEcH, Alfred Croiset, in: Association amicale des anciens eleves de l'Ecole normale superieure, 19:z.4, 89-99 [ 1 5] P. STOCK,Students versus the University in PreWorld War Paris, in: French Historical Studies 7/x, 1971, 93-110 [16j E. Wt::BER,L'Action frarn;aise, 1985. HANS-ULRICHBERNER/ VALERIALILIE

Crum, Walter Ewing British Coptic scholar and Egyptologist. Born 22. 7. 1865 in Glasgow, died Bath 18. 5. 1944.

School at Eton, studied at Balliol College, Oxford. Studied Egyptology at Paris and Berlin from 1888. 1931 Fellow of the British Academy; 1937 honorary doctorate (Hon. D. Litt.) from Oxford. Honorary doctorate from Berlin (before the outbreak of World War II). C. lived on a private income as a independent scholar in Oxford.

WRITINGS

I I J Coptic Manuscripts Brought from the Fayum by W. M. Flinders Petrie Together with a Papyrus in the Bodleian Library (edition), 1893 121 Die koptische Kirche, in: A. HAUCK(ed.), Realenzyklopadie fur protestantische Theologie, Vol. 12., 1 1903, 8018 1 5 I3 I Koptische Rechtsurkunden des achten Jh.s aus Djeme (edition; with G. STEINDORfF), 1912. 141 A Coptic Dictionary, 6 vols., 192.9-1939. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

Is] Crum, Walter Ewing

(1865-1944), in: WWE, 7:z.-73 161 Coptic Studies in Honour of Walter Ewing Crum, 1950 171 J. VERGOTE,In memoriam Walter Ewing Crum, in: Chronique d'Egypte :z.o, 1945, 147-151. REINHARDGRIESHAMMER

Crusius, Martinus Martin Krause; German philologist and prof. of rhetoric, born Walkersbrunn (Upper Franconia) 19. 9. 1516, died Tubingen 14. 1. 1607. 1540-1545 attended Latin School at Ulm. 154 5-1554 pupil, then teacher at Johannes

CRUSIUS,

MARTINUS

Sturm's Gymnasium in Strasbourg. Rector of the Latin School of Memmingen from 1554. From 15 59 to his death, prof. of Greek, Latin and for a time rhetoric at Univ. of Ttibingen. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

C., son of a Protestant

cleric, called himself a 'Philhellene', thereby expressing his love for the Greek language and culture. His substantial library, which is preserved at the Ttibingen Univ. Library, contains many Latin and Greek manuscripts, and is impressive testimony to the fact that his interest was not limited to antiquiry, but also included the Byzantine Period and his own times (9); [10). He had great sympathy for the plight of the Greeks under Ottoman rule. Former students like Stefan Gerlach who took part in embassies to Constantinople supplied him with information and Greek manuscripts, and he received many Greek guests in his home, where they told him of their countrymen's conditions of life [6). C. also learned lingua barbarograeca (the contemporary Greek of the day) and was the first to lecture on the contemporary Greek language (8). C. corresponded from 1573 to 1 58 1 with the Patriarch of Constantinople, Jeremias II Tranos. However, a project to unite the Greek Orthodox Church with the German Protestant Church with the aim of pursuing common cause against the Catholic Church - failed because of the irreconcilability of their positions, and the Patriarchy broke off contact (6); (8). C. left a substantial and diverse body of work, including teaching manuals of Greek and Latin grammar [1); (2.), commentaries on ancient texts, especially Homer's Iliad, academic speeches, occasional speeches and poems, and no fewer than 2.1 quarto volumes of transcripts of sermons he had heard in the Stiftskirche at Ttibingen and simultaneously translated, at first into Latin, later into Greek [6); (9 ); [ 10). He published two smaller collections of sermons by Wtirttemberg theologians in Greek translation, and these were even used in the curriculum of the Ttibingen Paedagogium (8). The public and very violent dispute with his former student Nicodemus Frischlin over the quality of the Latin grammars then in use at Ttibingen polarized opinion, not only in the univs. themselves, but also among printers and publishers (6). C. wrote two important works on the contemporary history of the Greeks under Turkish rule and contacts between Germany and Greece: respectively Turcograecia [3) and Germanograecia [4); (6). The Turcograecia in particular documents the course of the ecumenical correspondence with Jeremias II, and affords insights into C.'s voracious interest in anything

I

2.8

Greek [81. However, his magnum opus is considered to be the Schwiibische Annalen [5 ), a 'national history' in the widest sense. For it, C. drew in particular on personal notes and his diaries, which survive in nine volumes; also on his abundant exchanges of letters with correspondents all over Europe. His Philhellenism also manifested itself in the form of many writings on the history of Byzantium, and his interest in the history of education is reflected in his accounts of univ. foundations, the emergence of printing, new editions of ancient authors and short biographies of other Humanists ( 6). He played a vital part in developing Greek studies north of the Alps [7). WRITINGS

[ 1) Grammaticae Graecae, cum Latina congruentis, pars prima et pars altera, Basel :i: 5 62.1563 (2.) Grammaticae Latinae, cum Graeca congruentis, pars prima et pars altera, Basel 1563 131Turcograeciae libri octo, Basel :r584 (4 J Germanograeciae libri sex, Basel Is 8 5 ls) Annales Suevicae sive chronica rerum gestarum Suevicae gentis, 3 vols., Frankfun am Main 1595-1696. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

(6) F. BRENDtE,Martin Crusius. Humanistische Bildung, schwabisches Luthertum und Griechenlandbegeisterung, in: F. BRENDLE et al. (ed.), Deutsche Landesgeschichtsschreibung im Zcichen des (7) W. LUDWING, Humanismus, 2.001, 145-163 Martin Crusius und das Studium des Griechischen in Nordeuropa, in: Arctos. Acta philologica fennica 32., 1998, 133-148 (8) D. WENDEBOURG, "Alles Griechische macht mir Freude wie Spielzeug den Kindern'. Martin Crusius und der 0bergang des Humanismus zur griechischen Landeskunde, in: H. ElDENEIF.R (ed.), Graeca recentiora in Germania. Deutsch-griechische Kulturbeziehungen vom Is. bis 19. Jh., 1994, 113-12.1 (9) T. WnHELMt,Crusius, Martin, in: Ku.LYLiteraturlexikon, Vol. 2., 2.008, p3-s14 [10) T. WILHELMI,Die griechischen Handschriften der Universitatsbibliothek Tiibingen, Sonderband: Martin Crusius, 2.002.. SONJA

SCH0NAUER

Cujas, Jacques Jacobus Cuiacius/Cuyacio, Jacobo; French legal historian and Humanist jurist. Born Toulouse 152-2., died Bourges 4. 10. 1590. Studied jurisprudence at Toulouse; 15 54 unsuccessful application for a professorship there, departure as prof. for Cahors; 1 5 55 chair at Bourges. BACKGROUND,

WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

C. repeatedly returned to his professorship at Bourges after long absences while he held teaching posts at Valence and Turin. He refused an offer at Toulouse because of an insult he had

12.9

CUMONT, FRANZ

suffered there, but he also turned down an invi- Cumont, Franz tation to Bologna from the Pope in 1 584. At Bourges and Valence, he became the fulcrum and Belgian classical archaeologist, classical philologist and historian of religion. Born Franz Valery figurehead of French legal Humanism. As a jurist, C. was "the greatest Humanist Marie C. at Aalst (Belgium) 3. 1. 1868, died 2.0. text critic" [8], and he is still today regarded as 8. 1947 at Sint- Pieters Woluwe/Brussels. 1884one of the most important legal exegetes of all 1887 studied classics at Ghent, taking his doctime. He went against the practical and unhistorate there in classical philology in 1887, then torical late medieval mos ltalicus (Bartolus de a further doctorate in law 1887/88. 1888-1892. Sassoferrato, Baldus de Ubaldi) in his investifurther studies in Bonn, Berlin, Vienna and Paris. gation of the Roman legal sources, to follow Lecturer at Univ. of Ghent from 1892.; prof. ord. instead the mos Gallucis founded by --+ Alciatus, there from 1896. From 1 899, curator of the a strictly historical and philological examination Koninkliike Musea voor Kunst en Geschiedenis of the sources. He took scholarly legal studies (Oudheid) in Brussels. Resigned in 1910 after to a new high-water mark in his editions (e.g. of disputes with the Catholic Minister of Science, Paulus' Sententiae), his notes and commentaries left Belgium 191 :z. I2.4]. Worked as a private on the Corpus iuris civilis [2.] and other sources scholar in Belgian and French academies and of Roman law and canon and feudal law, and elsewhere. Worked at Paris and Rome; 1939 first his famous 'Observations and Emendations' I 1]. president (board of directors) of the Academia His attempts at reconstructing the original form Belgica in Rome. of the classical Roman texts after their frequent alteration by the Justinianic compilators are WORK particularly important - an anticipation, among C. was a prolific scholar (around 1,000 publicaother things, of the modern study of interpolations) with a wide international network f 2.0). He tion that began in the 19th cent. He was also worked in almost all fields of classical studies. He one of the first and best Humanist scholars of made critical editions (Philo of Alexandria, Julian the Greek texts of the Corpus iuris civilis and 19] - with Joseph ➔ Bidez et al.), founded major other Byzantine Greek legal sources. series on astrology f 2.] and alchemy [10], collected and commentated texts (e.g. on the Western recepWRITINGS tion of Zoroastrianism, with Bidez I 131), wrote [ 1) Observation um et emendation um libri XXVIII, hundreds of reviews and lexicon articles (90 for 1556-1595, 1556-1595 (Books 2.5-2.8, 1595, postthe RE alone), worked as an epigraphist, archaehumous ed. F. Prrnou) 12.)Corpus iuris civilis. ologist and general historian, but especially as a Paratitla in L libros digestorum (edition), Lyon historian of religion on the relations between the 1570 (3) Opera omnia, ed. C. A. fABRorus, 10 religions of the Middle East and the West from vols., 1658-1783 (reiss. 1996). the Hellenistic Period to the Middle Ages, and on the relations between ancient religions, philosoSECONDARY LITERATURE phy (2.3] and (pseudo-) science I6); (12.). [4) A. BAZENNF.RYE, Cujas et l'ecole de Bourges, C. was the leading specialist on the so-called 1876 Is) G. KLEINHEYER/ J. SCHRODER(ed.), 'Oriental religions'. His first major work on the Deutsche und europaische Juristen aus neun 161 P. MF.sNARO, Mithraic mysteries I 1] became a classic. In it, Jahrhunderten, '2.008, 106-109 La place de Cujas dans la querelle de l'Humanisme he assembled all the available literary and other juridique, in: Revue historique du droit fran~ais sources in his investigation of the cult. He also 171E. addressed a wider public, e.g. with his 1900 et etranger, 4-. serie, 2.8, 1950, 52.1-537 SPANGENBERG, Jacob Cujas und seine Zeitgenossen, work on the Mithraic mysteries, which was 182.2. (reiss. 1967) (8) P. G. STEIN,Roman Law in translated into many languages (3). C. coined European History, 1999, 76-79 19) H. E. TROJE, the term 'Oriental religions' in his work on Graeca leguntur. Die Aneignung des byzantinischen those movements in pagan Rome 15], referring Rechts und der Entstehung eines humanistischen to cults of deities such as Attis and Cybele, Isis Corpus iuris civilis in der Jurisprudenz des 16. Jh.s, 1971, especially 109-12.4 I I o I H. E. TRoJE, and Osiris, Syrian Baal and Mithras. He interHumanistische Jurisprudenz. Studien zur europaispreted these are religions in their own right that chen Rechtswissenschaft unter dem Einfluss des were not only competing with Christianity but Humanismus, 1993, 5-18, 77-113 [II] E. VARELA, also paving the way for it. C. was influenced by Jacques Cujas (Jacobus Cuiacius; Cuyacio), in: R. evolutionary and teleological perspectives. He DOMINGO(ed.), Juristas universales, •2008, 221considered 'his' Oriental religions superior to 2.2.5 (12) L. W1NKEL,Cujas (Cujacius) Jacques, in: Roman religion in moral and intellectual terms. P. ARABEYRE et al. (ed.), Dictionnaire historique des His views on the Orient, however, were ambivajuristes fran~ais, •2.008, 2.2.0-2.2.2.. JAN SCHR6DER lent: generally positive, but sometimes guided by cliche. For instance, he presented both Mithras

CUMONT,

FRANZ

and Manichaeism as dualist 'attacks' on the supposed 'Western spirit'. C. travelled widely in the Near East and researched the Black Sea region (4), Armenia and Syria (7). He initiated the excavation of Dura-Europus [ 11) which Michael -+ Rostovtzeff continued (19). Another important field of research for C. was concepts of the afterlife [8); [14); [15). He believed that he had discovered a development in the Roman period from primitive views of death towards a belief in an astral immortality under the influence of Greek philosophy and eastern religion. The works [ 1 4) and [ 1 5 I show his impressive command, at the beginning and end of his career, of all available types of sources, which he successfully coordinated; they also show the refined sensibility of his interpretation and the holistic perspective he pursued in conscious imitation of the Humanist tradition. INFLUENCE

C. cooperated with many scholars and exerted a great influence on international research. The two volumes of Melanges (17) and Hommages [ 18) (the latter published after his death) dedicated to him give a good impression of his scholarly importance, as do several international conferences [2.2.); [21). He inspired the series Etudes preliminaires aux religions orientales dans /'Empire romain (EPRO) under the editorship of Maarten J. Vermaseren. The C. archive at the Academia Belgica in Rome studies C.'s work and legacy. His writings will shortly be reissued in new editions with historical introductions [ 16) including his monographs (Scripta maiora), thematic anthologies (Scripta minora) and lnedita. LW: [23. 1-XXXIII).

130

1938 [14) Recherches sur le symholismc funcraire des Roma ins, 1942. I 1 5 I Lux perpctua, 1949 (reiss. 2.010) (16) Bibliotheca Cumontiana, 2.0 vols., ed. C. BoNNETet al., 2.006-2.018 (pa" forthcoming). SECONDARY

LITERATURE

( 17) Melanges Franz Cumont (FS), 2. 19 3 6 I I 8 I Hommages Joseph Bidez

a

Franz

Cumont

1949

(19) G. BoNGARD-Lf.VTNE / C. 8oNNET

(FS;

Collection

Latomus

vols., et a

:z.), (ed.),

'Mongolus Syrio salutem optimam dat'. La correspondance entre Mikha"il Rostovtsev et Franz Cumom, 2.007 [2.0) C. BoNNET (ed.), La cor~spondam.:e scientifique de Franz Cumont conservee a l'Academia Belgica de Rome, 1997 [:z.1) C. BoNNn et al. (ed.), Les religions orientales dans le monde grec et romain. Cent ans apres Cumont ( 1906[2.:z.] C. 2.006) (Colloque de Rome, 2.006), 2.009 BoNNET/ A. Morn (ed.), Les syncretismes religieux dans le monde mediterraneen antique (Actes du colloque international en l'honneur de Franz Cumont, Rome 1997), 1999 (2.3) D. PRAET, Introduction. Cumont et la philosophic ancienne et moderne, in: D. PRAFT/ A. LANNOY(ed.), Franz Cumont. Scripta minora, Vol. 1, 2.012., 1-L (forthcoming) [i4) D. PRAET,L'affaire Cumont. Ideologies et politique academique a l'universite de Gand au cours de la crise moderniste, in: C. BoNNET / D. PRAH (ed.), Religion, Politics and Science during the Modernist Crisis, 2.012., 1-2.5. DANNY

PRAET

Curtius, Ernst

German archaeological, classical philologist and ancient historian. Born Lubeck 2. 9. 18 I 4, died Berlin 1 1. 7. 1896. 1 8 3 3 studies at Bonn with Friedrich Gottlieb ► Welcker and Christian with Karl August Brandis, 1834 at Gottingen Otfried ► Muller, 1835 in Berlin with August ► Boeckh; 1 841 doctorate with Moritz Hermann WRITINGS Meier in Halle; 1843 habil. in Berlin. 1844 prof. (1) Textes et monuments figures relatifs aux mysext. in Berlin and tutor to the future Emperor teres de Mithra, 2. vols., 1894-1898 (2.) (ed.), Friedrich Ill; 18 5 5-1867 prof. of classical philolCatalogus codicum astrologorum Graecorum (with ogy at Gottingen; 1868 prof. of archaeology at j. BIDEZet al.), 12. vols., 1898-1953 (3) Les mysteBerlin and curator of the Altes Museum, also of res de Mithra, 1900 (1 1902., new ed. 2.012.; English: The Mysteries of Mithra, trans. T. J. McCoRMACK, the Antiquarium from 1872.; 1881/8:z. rector of New York 1956) (4) Studia Pontica (edition, with Berlin Univ.; 1874 founder of DAI Athens; 1875 J. G. C. ANDERSON), 3 vols., 1903-1910 (5) Les began excavations at Olympia. religions orientales dans le paganisme romain, 1906 ('2.006; English: The Oriental Religions in Roman Paganism, 1911) (6) Astrology and Religion among the Greeks and Romans, 1912. (7) Etudes syriennes, 1917 (8] After Life in Roman Paganism, 192.2. [9) Imp. Caesaris Flavii Claudii luliani epistulae, leges, poematia, fragmenta varia (edition; with J. BIDEZ), 192.2. [10) (ed.), Catalogue des manuscrits alchimiques grecs (with J. BIDEZet al.), 3 vols., 192.4-1939 [11) Fouilles de Doura-Europos (192.2.-192.3), 2. vols., 192.6 [12.) L'Egypte des astrologues, 1937 [13) Les mages hellenises. Zoroastre, Ostanes et Hystaspe d'apres la tradition grecque (with J. BmEZ), 2. vols.,

WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

Influenced by his teachers -• Boeckh and especially Karl Otfried ► Muller, C., beginning as a philologist, became the complete classical scholar. To him, Greece was "the epitome of free and noble humanity" [16). His lively interest in historical geography as a complement to philology, which he developed on several tours of Greece and Italy with the geographer Carl Ritter, inspired his first great work, and probably his most important, on the Peloponnese [3 ). In his

131

CU RTI US,

ERNST

RO BERT

19. Januar 1897, 1897 I 12.) K. FITTSCHEN, vividly written Griechische Geschichte, the first Die Griindung des Deutschen Archaologischen written by a German, which he began in 18 57, Instituts in Athen. Ernst Curtius ( 1814-1896) zum C. departed from Muller in emphasizing the proGedachtnis, in: Athenische Mitteilungen 111, 1996, found Eastern influences on Greek culture 141I 13] G. HERF.S, Ernst Curtius als Archaologe, 1-44 In archaeology, C. is especially synonymous with in: Forschungen und Berichte der Staatlichen the excavations at Olympia, which although he Museen zu Berlin 16, 1974, 12.9-148 [14) H. launched the idea in a famous speech of 185 :z., KAHl.l'R,Curtius, Ernst, in: NOB 3, 1957, 446only began in 1875 Is]. He arranged the con447 l1sJ 0. KERN,Curtius, Ernst, in: ADB 47, tracts for the excavations so as to enable the finds 1903, 580-597 l16J U. KOHLER,Gedachtnisrede auf Ernst Curtius, 1 897 I 17 J R. SCHONE, to remain in Greece but scholarly evaluation to Zur Erinnerung an Ernst Curtius, in: Jb. der take place in Germany. It was also on his iniKoniglich Preussischen Kunstsarnrnlungen 17/i, tiative that the Archaeological Institute at Rome 1896, 2.I 5-2.2.0 [ I 8) H. WREDE,Olympia, Ernst was transformed firstly into a Prussian institute Curtius und die kulturgeschichtliche Leistung ( I 871 ), then an Imperial German Reichsinstitut des Philhellenismus, in: A. M. BAERTSCHI / ( 1894), and that another branch of the KaiserlichC. G. KING(ed.), Die modernen Yater der Antike. Deutsches Archaologisches lnstitut was founded Die Entwicklung der Altertumswissenschaften an in Athens. Akadernie und Universitiit im Berlin des 19. Jh.s, C. was an influential teacher, whose impact 2.009, 165-2.08. ERNSTBALTRUSCH on the next generation of scholars was great, not least abroad, especially in Britain and France [7); (18). His principle as a historian Curtius, Ernst Robert was "to understand fragmentary evidence in context, and complete evidence in its processes" German Romance scholar and comparatavist. ("das fragmentarisch Oberlieferte in seinem Born 1 4. 4. 1886 at Thann (Alsace), died Rome Zusammenhange und das Vollendete in seinem 19. 4. 1956. 1903 Abitur at Protestantisches Werden zu verstehen") (16). The result of this Gymnasium in Strasbourg; 1903-1912. studied was an "apolitical, aesthetic and idealistic view modern philology and philosophy at Strasbourg, of Greek history" ("unpolitische, asthetisierende Berlin and Heidelberg; 1910 doctorate at und idealisierende Auf(assung der griechischen Strasbourg; 191 3 habil. at Bonn. Prof. ext. at Geschichte") I 10). Marburg from 19:z.o; prof. ord. in Romance philology at Heidelberg from 1924; 1929-1951 Writings prof. ord. in Romance philology at Bonn. (1] Commentatio de portuhus Athenarurn (diss. Halle), 1841 (2) Anecdota Delphica (hahil. theSCHOLARLY BACKGROUND sis Berlin), 1843 (3) Peloponnes. Eine historischC., grandson of the excavator of Olympia geographische Beschreihung der Halhinsel, 2. vols., 1851-1852. (4) Griechische Geschichte, 3 vols., Ernst ► Curtius and great-nephew of the philologist Georg ► Curtius, studied at the Univ. 1857-1 867 (English: The History of Greece, trans. of Strasbourg from 1903, specializing in French Is) Die Ausgrahungen A. W. WARD,1868-1873) and English philology and philosophy. His studzu Olympia, 3 vols., 1876-1881 16] Alterthurn und Gegenwart. Gesarnrnelte Reden und Vortrage, ies also took him to Berlin and Heidelberg. His 1882. (7) Ernst Curtius' Vorlesung 'Griechische Strasbourg teacher and later doctoral superviKunstgeschichte'. Nach der Mitschrift Wilhelm sor Gustav Gr6ber became a key figure for C., Gurlitts im Winter 1864/65, ed. S.-G. GROSC:HEI. / who was influenced by his admiration both for H. WRFDE(Transformationen der Antike 2.0), 2.010. Gr6ber's rigorous philological method and for his interest in medieval literature. However, C. also SECONDARY LITERATURE took lasting inspiration from the Stefan George (8) A. H. BoRBEIN,Ernst Curtius, m: M. ERB!' his friendship with Friedrich (ed.), Berlinische Lebensbilder, Vol. 4: circle through Gundolf. The pair shared a strong attraction to 1987, 157-174 (illuGeisteswissenschaftler, the great figures of European intellectual life, and strated) (9) A. H. BoRBl'IN, Ernst Curtius, Alexander Conze, Reinhard Kekule. Problerne a belief in the ethical force and aesthetic exaltaund Perspektiven der klassischen Archaologie zwi- tion emanating from that tradition. schen Rornantik und Positivismus, in: K. CHRIST/ C. took his doctorate at Strasbourg in 1910. A. MoMIGLIANo(ed.), L'antichita nell'Ottocento After his habil. at Bonn in 1913, he was appointed in Italia e Germania. Die Antike irn 19. Jh. in prof. ext. at Marburg in 192.0. He accepted an ltalien und Deutschland (Atti delta settirnana di appointment to the chair of Romance philology studio, Trento 1-5 settemhre 1986), 1988, 2.75at Heidelberg in 19:z.4, before returning to Bonn (10] CHRISTGib. 68-83 111] c. CURTIUS, 302 in 192.9. C., who had previously been critical of Zur Erinnerung an Ernst Curtius. Ein Vortrag gehalten in der Versamrnlung der Gesellschaft nationalism 15), was an opponent of the Third zur Beforderung gemeinntitziger Thiitigkeit am Reich. He received high German and interna-

CURTIUS,

ERNST

ROBERT

tional academic honours after 1945. He pursued a lively correspondence with some of the outstanding intellectuals of the 20th cent., among them Andre Gide and T. S. Eliot; some of the correspondence is published [20. 187 f.]. WORK

A hallmark of C.' work is that unlike many of his contemporaries, he saw no contradiction between the philological method and a scholarly engagement with modern literature. For instance, his dissertation provides an edition of one of the earliest Old French prose texts [ 1], while after World War I he turned increasingly towards more modern and contemporary literature, which he evaluated aesthetically in the style of a literary critic and discussed in essay form. Among the major achievements of this period are his book on Honore de Balzac [3] and his essay on Marcel Proust [4. Chap. 1). C. seldom indulged in 'close readings'. Instead, he tried to discern the fundamental conceptual forms underlying the themes of these literary works, i.e. the world-view of the author. C. turned to medieval literature again in the 1930s, a process that culminated in his magnum opus: Europaische Literatur und Lateinisches Mittelalter (European Literature and the Latin Middle Ages, ELLMA) [7). His use of the term 'Latin Middle Ages' points up the profound influence apparent in this period emanating from the cultural of ancient Rome. According to this view, the early and High Middle Ages took up the Latin tradition from antiquity and passed it on, and the Latin inheritance lent an element of continuity to European literature. To C., then, European literature was a single phenomenon, and the vernacular literatures could not be adequately evaluated on their own terms, but only in connection with Latin literature. The crucial agents of this transfer of tradition, he argued, were the authors of the mostly neglected Latin literature of late antiquity and the early Middle Ages, i.e. from Prudentius to Isidore of Seville. As C. showed by his study of medieval education, continuity between ancient and medieval literature was assured because medieval poetical composition required prior study of rhetoric in Latin models. It was rhetoric, then, that formed the basis of the transmission [6. 133 ]. C. consolidated this theory mainly by studying the persistence of particular topoi in European literature. Following ancient rhetoric, he understood the topos concept to mean recurring rhetorical forms or stereotypical thematic motifs that were first used in ancient literature and continued to recur through the Carolingian period and the High Middle Ages, into the Renaissance and to some extent even until the time of Goethe. Examples include rhetorical figures (e.g. paronomasia or

the invocation of the Muses), tropes (e.g. the sea voyage metaphor) and types of content (e.g. the ideal landscape). For all this emphasis placed upon suprapersonal models, C. still attached much importance to the great authors, most of whom in his account set definite inflection points in the current of tradition. ELLMA also deals with other themes besides literary, e.g. the early medieval fusion of petry with philosophy and theology. C. reads Dante's work as the quintessence of the medieval Latin cultural tradition. In spite of this thematic diversity, however, ELLMA is always focused on the goal of its argument: the function of Latin culture providing continuity in the Western tradition. INFLUENCE

Significant objections were raised to the view C. propagated. In emphasizing the continuum of unchanging literary models, C. came close to an ahistorical perspective that tended to suppress the effects of intellectual, spiritual and cultural change on literature [ 13. 140 f.). His insistence on continuity in European literature created a straitjacket, often to the detriment of the individual and extraordinary aspects of particular great works (12.. 1105). Moreover, C.' understanding of the topos, encompassing such diverse phenomena as thematic motifs, stylistic figures and tropes, is often too vague to do justice to the subjects (22. 125). Nevertheless, ELLMA remains one of the great achievements in literary scholarship of the 20th cent. Thanks to his combination of stupendous philological expertise and comprehensive Humanist education, C. was able to discern how suprapersonal models dating back centuries determined the form and content of literary works and lent a deep structure to the European tradition. M: Reminiscences 1952, in: E. R. Curtius, Franzosischer Geist im 20. Jh., 1952.. LW: [20. 170-188). E: Bonn, Univ.- und Landesbibliothek. WRITINGS

[ 1) Li Quatre livre des Reis. Die Bucher Samuelis und der Konige in einer franzosischen Bearbeitung des 12.. Jh.s (critical ed.; diss. Strasbourg), 1911 (2.) Die literarischen Wegbereiter des neuen Frankreich, 1919 ('192.3) (3) Balzac, 192.3 (4) Franzosischer Geist im neuen Europa. ('1951) 192.5 [s) Deutscher Geist in Gefahr, 1932. (6) Zur Literarasthetik des Mittelalters II, in: Zs. fur romanische Philologie 58, 1938 [7) Europaische Literarur und Lateinisches Mittelalter, 1948 ( 1 1954; "1993; English: European Literature and the Latin Middle Ages, W. R. TRASK, 1963) (8) Kritische Essays zur europaischen Literatur, 1950 ( 1 1954; English: Essays on European Literature, trans. M. KOWAL, 1973) (9) Deutsch-franzosische Gesprache 192.er

CURTIUS, GEORG

133 1950. La Correspondence de Ernst Robert Curtius avcc A. Gide, C. Du Bos et V. Larbaud, ed. H. and j. M. DIECKMANN,1980.

WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

C.' scholarship was directed towards comparative studies and comparative historical linguistics, and he was primarily influenced by Franz SECONDARY LITERATURE ► Bopp, Wilhelm von ► Humboldt and Jacob (10) E. AUERBACH, Rezeption zu ELLMA, Grimm. He emphasized the close relationship in: Romanische Forschungen 62., 1950, between lndo-European linguistics and classical [11) W. BERSCHIN / A. Ronrn 2.37-2.45 philology, especially Greek [9 ). His diss. [ 1) and (ed.), Ernst Robert Curtius. Werk, Wirkung, his habit. thesis [3) already make points to this 1989 [ 12.I P. DRONKE, Zukunftsperspektiven, effect, e.g. comparing Greek with Sanskrit. His Curtius as Medievalist and Modernist, in: Times major work [ 5 ), in which he placed Greek etyLiterary Supplement, 3. 10. 1980, no. 79, 11031106 [13) A. R. EVANSJR., Ernst Robert Curtius, in: mology on a reliable methodological foundation, A. R. EVANSJR. (ed.), On Four Modern Humanists, enjoyed several editions. C. did not accept the 1970, 85-145 (14) K. GARBER, Ein feind di.inner exceptionlessness of the sound laws, but argued Suppen, in: Si.iddeutsche Zeitung, 2.6. and 2.7. 4. for sporadic phonetic shifts. His foundation of 1997, Nr. 96 (15] P. GooMAN, The Ideas of Ernst the Grammatische Gesellschaft in Leipzig did Robert Curtius and the Genesis of EU.MA, in: E. R. much to promote the scholarly interconnection CURTIUS, European Literature and the Latin Middle of linguistics and classical philology (6). He also 116) W.-D. Ages (English trans.), 1990, 599-653 made his research available in a form usable in LANGE(ed.), 'In Ihnen begegnet sich das Abendland'. schools, preparing a Griechische Schulgrammatik Bonner Vortrage zur Erinnerung an Ernst Robert with explanatory linguistic notes. Its 30th ediCurtius, 1990 (17) H. LAUSBERG,Ernst Robert Curtius, in: Bonner Gelehrte, Vol. 3, 1970, 2.14tion was published in 1922, and it remained 135 (18) H. LAUSBERG, Ernst Robert Curtius, in use even longer in revisions by Wilhelm von 1993 (19) R. L. PoLITZER, Rez. zu EU.MA, in: Hartel and others, as well as English versions. It Comparative Literature 5, 1953, 171-196 1101 had a lasting impact on Greek language teachE. J. RICHARDS, Modernism, Medievalism and ing (4(. For instance, it was C. who coined the Humanism. A Research Bibliography on the distinction between the 'weak' and 'strong' aorReception of the Works of Ernst Robert Curtius, ists, introduced verbal aspect, classified the verb 1983 [21) L. SPITZER, Rezeption zu ELI.MA, system by stem and changed the terminology in: American Journal of Philology 70, 1949, ('alpha' declension rather than 'first'). C. had 42.5-441 [2.2.) W. VEIT, Toposforschung. Ein Forschungsbericht, in: Deutsche Vierteljahresschrift many students, including the Indo-European fur Literaturwissenschaft und Geistesgeschichte scholar Karl Brugmann. 37, 1963, 12.0-163 [1_3) H. WEINREICH, Thirty Years after Ernst Robert Curtius' Book ELLMA, in: Romanic Review 69, 1978, 2.61178 (2.4) R. WELLEK, The Literary Criticism of Ernst Robert Curtius, in: PTL. A Journal for Descriptive Poetics and Theory of Literature 3, 1978, 15-41.

TOBIASJ0H0

Curtius, Georg German classical philologist. Born Li.ibeck 16. 4. 1820, died 12. 8. 1885 in Hermsdorf (Warmbrunn). Brother of the archaeologist Ernst ---. Curtius. Attended Katharineum in Lubeck until 183 7; studied classical philology and Inda-European linguistics at Bonn from 1838 and Berlin from 1840. 1842 doctorate from Berlin; 1846 habit. there. Prof. ext. from 1849 and prof. ord. from 1851 at Prague; From 1854 prof. ord. in Kiel; 1862-1885 prof. ord. in Leipzig. From 1863, member of the KoniglichSiichsische Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften at Leipzig. From 1869, corresponding member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences; 1869/70 dean of the Faculty of Philology at the Univ. of Leipzig.

l

WRITINGS

I1] De nominum Graecorum formatione linguarum cognatarum ratione habita (diss. Berlin), 184.2. [2.J Die Sprachvergleichung in ihrem Verhaltnis zur dassischen Philologie, 1845 ('1848) (3) Sprachvergleichende Beitrage zur griechischen und Latin Grammatik (habil. thesis Berlin), 1 846 (4 I Griechische Schulgrammatik, 1852. (' 0 192.2.; English: A Grammar of the Greek Language, ed. W. SM111-1, 1872.) [5] Grundzi.ige der griechischen Etymologie, 2. vols., 1858-186.2. ('1879; English: Principles of Greek Etymology, trans. A. S. WILKINS/ E. B. ENGLAND,1886) [61 Studien zur griechischen und lateinischen Grammatik, 10 vols., 1868-1878 171 Das Verbum der griechischen 18] K. S., 1 vols., ed. Sprache, 2. vols., 1877-1880 E. WINDISCH,1880-1886. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

191 F. LOCHNER VONHOTTENBACH, Georg Curtius und

die Vergleichende Sprachwissenschaft, in: P. HANDEL/ W. MEm (ed.), FS R. Muth (Innsbrucker Beitrage zur Kulturwissenschaft .2.1), 1983, .2.172.2.9 [101 R. MEISTER,Curtius, Georg, in: ADB 47, 1903, 597-60.2. [111 E. WINDISCH,Georg Curtius. Eine Charakteristik, 1887. RONNYKAISER

CURTIUS,

LUDWIG

Curtius, Ludwig

WRITINGS

I 1)

German classical archaeologist. Born 13. 12. 1874 in Augsburg, died Rome 10. 4. 1954. 1894-1897 studied law and economics at Munich and Berlin. From 1897, studied classical archaeology at Munich and Rome. 1902. doctorate at Munich, 1907 ha bil. there. 1908 curator of the museum of antiquities at Munich. 1908 prof. ext., 1913 prof. ord. at Erlangen. Served in World War I as a volunteer and officer. 1918 prof. ord. at Freiburg; 192.0-192.7 prof. ord. at Heidelberg; 192.8-193 7 first director of the DAI at Rome; 1937 compulsory retirement. Lived the rest of his life at Rome. 1952. Order Pour le merite. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

C., the son of a doctor, came to archaeology by a circuitous route, and took his doctorate in 1902. with Adolf -+ Furtwangler [ 1). His 1908 habit. thesis [2.) was a seminal contribution to the history of early Greek sculpture. In 191 3, he published a first compilation and interpretation of Egyptian and Near Asian art that went far beyond the field of his speciality; it appeared in the Handbuch der Kunstwissenschaft (3) and was later joined by a survey of Greek art through to the late Classical Period (4). C.' main spheres of research were the history of Greek and Roman sculpture, the Roman portrait and the development of ancient painting ( 5 ). His primary focus in these fields was on issues of formal history and hermeneutics. Always intent on making a public contribution, C. was politically active too, initially as a follower of Friedrich Naumann's National Social Movement, then in the 192.os as a member of the Deutschnationale Volkspartei (German National People's Party) (13. 2.78(. Alongside his scholarly work, he was prolific all his life as a writer of features and essays for cultural periodicals, newspapers and radio (9). As an opponent of National Socialism (the Nazis dismissed him from his post), as a Humanist of universal education and a guarantor of what through him could appear as an 'unbroken' Western cultural tradition [10), C. enjoyed high prestige and a high profile after World War II, especially through his memoirs, which achieved bestseller status (6]. Only in recent studies has a more critical approach to his philosophical standpoint emerged, altering perspectives on his scholarly work [II); [13). LW: R. Lullies, Schriften von Ludwig Curtius (1874-1954). Eine Bibliographie, 1979. M: [6).

E: Koblenz, Bundesarchiv; Nuremberg, Deutsches Nationalmuseum; Rome, DAI.

antike Herme (diss. Munich,, einen Apollokopf in Horenz (habil. the5.is Munich), 1908 131 Die antike Kunst, Vol. 1: Agypten und Vorderasien, 19 .z.3 (4) Die antike (5) Die Kunst, Vol. .z.: Der klassische Stil, 192.6 Wandmalerei Pompejis. Eine Einfi.ihrung in ihr Verstandnis, 19.z.9 (6) Deutsche und antike Welt. Lebenserinnerungen, 1950 (7) J. MORAS, Torso. Verstreute und nachgelassene Schriften von Ludwig Cunius, 1957. 1903

Die

l.z.J Ober

SECONDARY

LITERATURE

181 Corolla. Ludwig Curtius zum sechzigstcn 193 7 19I S. DtEB1'."'Ell, Gebunstag dargebracht, Ludwig Curtius (1874-1954). Ein Archaologe als Schriftsteller, in: Kritische Berichte 37, 2.009. 12.7-145 [10J s. DIF.BNF.R / H. MANDERSCHEID (ed.), Aus dem Leben eines Abendlanders. Tagebiicher von Ludwig Curtius 1945-1 9 5 1 ( forthcoming) I 11I R. FABF.R, Humanistische und faschistische Welt. Ober Ludwig Curtius (1874-1954). in: R. fABf.R (ed.), Streit um den Humanismus. .z.003, 1 57-.z..z.1 I ul G. KASCHNITZ voN WEINBE.R.c, Ludwig Cunius. Das wissenschaftliche Werk. 19 5 8 [ I 3 I E. S. SONDERHAUF, Griechensehnsucht und Kulturkritik. Die deutsche Rezeption von Winckelmanns Antikenideal 1840-194 5, 2.004. .z.65-.z.90. SYLVIA

DIF.BNER

/ DANIEL

GRAEPLEII

Cusanus, Nicolaus Nicholas of Kues, Nicolaus Treverensis. Nicolaus de Cusa; German Humanist and cardinal. Born Kues an der Mose! 2.2.. 1 o. 140 1, dieJ Todi (Umbria) 11. 8. 1464. 1416 studied artes at Heidelberg; from r 4 17/t 8, studied ecclesiastical law at Padua, 142.3 doctorate as Doctor decretorum. Returned to Germany by 142.5 (Kues. Cologne). 1431-1436 took part in Council of Basel; travels to libraries; 1437 at Byzantium on behalf of the Pope. Holy orders (not earlier than) 1436. Cardinal December 1448. Prince-Bishor of Brixen from 1450. Return to Rome 1459 an appointment as curial cardinal. BACKGROUND

C. was the son of the wealthy Mose! boatman and merchant Johann Cryfftz (Cryfftz = Krebs; his opponents sometimes called him Nicolaus Cancer, from Krebs - 'crab', Latin cancerl. After taking his doctorate at Padua, where he was in contact with Giuliano Cesarini and the astrologer and mathematician Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli, he was introduced to Neoplatonism by Heymericus de Campo at Cologne. On behalf of the Bishop of Trier, Ulrich von Manderscheid, whose secretary and chancellor he was, C. took part in the Nuremberg Reichstag of 143 1 and the Council of Basel from 1431 to 1436. Here, he shifted ground from opposing the primaq·

135

of the Pope over the Council to supporting it. He took holy orders after the Council (the exact date is unknown). In 1437, on behalf of Pope Eugene IV, he took on the diplomatic mission of advocating a Council to resolve the split in the church. At this point, he made contact with the future cardinal, Basilios • Bessarion. Over the next decade, C. argued widely for the primacy of the Pope and the unity of the church. He took a leading role in the brokering of the Vienna Concordat. Pope Nicholas V made him a cardinal and bestowed the Prince-Bishopric of Brixen on him, but his stringent reformist and economic policies provoked much resistance there. In 1458, he was forced to leave Brixen for Rome, where early in 1459 Pope Pius II made him a vicar-general and Papal legate. The dispute over his bishopric lingered, and C. tried in vain to solve it by force of arms. Thereafter, he remained as curial cardinal at Rome. While trying to foment a Crusade on behalf of Pius II, he fell ill and died at Todi in 1464. He left his important library to the Hospital of St. Nikolaus (Cusanusstift) at Kues, where his heart is also buried. WORK

C. produced many theological and philosophical writings and some on law, mathematics and the natural sciences, frequently using the dialogue form; he also wrote sermons and letters. His interest in issues of chronology, kindled by his study of ancient texts, inspired his treatise De co"ectione calendarii (1434/35), but the calendar reform he proposes here never came to fruition. His most famous works include De concordia catholica ( 143 3 ), a treatise calling for compromise in the dispute between the Pope and the Council. In 1440, he completed De docta ignorantia, an essentially Neoplatonist treatise on the unknowability of God and the truth, which can only be glimpsed beyond superseded contradictions (in the coincidentia oppositorum) [ 12J. Contemporaries were already aware that this meant the abandonment of Aristotelianism and scholasticism, and the development of a new world-view [ 5 I (cf. the critique of Johannes Wenck in De ignota litteratura, 1442/43). C. was renowned among Humanists not least for his rediscovery of manuscripts, including a codex of 20 Plautus comedies ( 1 2 of them hitherto unknown), the elder Pliny's Natura/is historia and the Codex Carolinus of Papal letters compiled in the Carolingian period. It cannot be shown beyond doubt that he had a hand in the rediscovery of Tacitus' Annales. In jurisprudence too, C. found new manuscripts and legal sources and made them available. Even before Lorenzo • Valla, he used philological arguments to show that the Dontaion of Constantine was a forgery.

CUSANUS,

NICOLAUS

He was also able to demonstrate that the Pseudolsidorian Decretals were not genuine Papal edicts. It is uncertain whether he learned Greek, but he certainly collected Greek manuscripts in addition to translations of Greek texts. C. was an important figure in Neoplatonism, who continued its ancient and medieval tradition (Dionysius Areopagites, Albertus Magnus, Meister Eckhart [ 10), Raimondo Lullo) into the early modern period [81. His writings explored philosophical, theological, mathematical and political issues. He owed his place in the tradition of ancient writers less to his Latin style, which never achieved classical polish, than to his choice of the dialogue form. Among Humanists, he conversed with Giordano Orsini, Giuliano Cesarini, Antonio de la Cerda, Jean Jouffroy, Gian Francesco • Poggio Bracciolini and perhaps also Basilios • Bessarion. C.' pupil was Jacques ► Lefevre d'Etaples, who also published his writings ( 1514). INFLUENCE

C. played a part in the translatio of ancient thought into the early modern period primarily through his rediscovery and dissemination of Latin manuscripts and his reception of Neoplatonist philosophy. He has undergone differing degrees of reception in the various disciplines in which he worked [ 1 1 ). His mathematical renown soon faded, largely thanks to the critique of Johannes Regiomontanus. His philosophy seems to have been received by Marsilio -► Ficino, but it also influenced other Neoplatonists, and later also Leibniz, Kant, Hegel and the German Idealists, and others [ 11 ). Ernst Cassirer called him "the first modern philosopher" 13• 10); (5). As a Humanist he was particularly prominent in Italy, where the manuscripts he rediscovered caused much excitement I 1 3 ). C. was also influential in the spread of printing in Italy. He was the only German of whom Vespasiano da Bisticci wrote a biography, calling him tedesco di nazione ma non di costumi ("a German by nation, but not by custom"). WRITINGS

I 1) Opera omnia, iussu et auctoritate Academiae Litterarum Heidelbergensis ad codicum fidem edita, 1932.-2.010 SECONDARY

(ff.). LITERATURE

12) P.R. 81.UM,Selbstbezug und Transzendenz in der Renaissance-Philosophie bei Cusanus, Ficino und Pico, in: H.-B. GERt.-FALKOVITZ (ed.), Rationalitat und lnnerlichkeit, 1997, 59-74 131E. CAssrRER, lndividuum und Kosmos in der Philosophie der Renaissance, 192.7 [4) K. Ft.ASCH, Nicolaus Cusanus, 2.001 [sl J. HOPKINS,Nicholas of Cusa ( 1401-1464): First Modern Philosopher?, in: P. A. FRENCH/ H. K. WETTSTEIN (ed.), Renaissance

CUSANUS,

NICOLAUS

136

and Early Modem Philosophy (Midwest Studies He also brought manuscripts of ancient in Philosophy 2.6), 2.002., 13-2.9 (6) P. 0. authors (e.g. Homer, Euripides) to the West. KRISnLLER, Studies in Renaissance Thought and either as originals or in copies. He sometimes Letters, Vol. 3, 1993 (7) A. LUBKE,Nikolaus worked as a copyist himself. His transcripts von Kues. Kirchenfiirst zwischen Mittelalter und of inscriptions, always made on site, and his / H. ScHWAETZER Neuzeit, 1968 (8) K. REINHARDT of Greek (ed.), Nikolaus von Kues in der Gcschichte des detailed descriptions and drawings architecture and sculpture, filled six volumes of Niccolo Platonismus, 2.007 (9) R. SABBADINl, which da Cusa e i conciliari di Basilea alla scoperta dei Commentaria. Although his manuscripts, codici, in: Rendiconti della Reale Accademia dei were never published, were destroyed in a fire in Lincci. Classe di Scienze morali, storiche e filolog- 1 5 1 4 except for a few pages that had previously iche, ser. S, 2.0, 1911, 3-40 (10] H. ScHWAETZERbeen removed, C. himself had often presented his (ed.), Meister Eckhart und Nikolaus von Kues, studies in letters and excerpts, of which copies 2.011 [u) H. G. SENGER, Ludus sapientiae. Studien were in circulation (albeit sadly often omitting zum Werk und zur Wirkungsgeschichtedes Nikolaus the sketches) (3). These documents are often von Kues, 2.002. (12.) j. STALLMACH, lneinsfall der Gegensatze und Weisheit des Nichtwissens. the sole testimony to lost and destroyed inscripand art (10); Grundziige der Philosophic des Nikolaus von Kues, tions and works of architecture ( 11). They had a decisive influence on the early 1989 [13) M. THURNER (ed.), Nikolaus Cusanus Renaissance view of art (Albrecht Di.irer still zwischen Deutschland und Italien, 2.002.. DOROTHEE GALL received C.' studies in copies made by Hartmann Schedel). The epigrams (inscriptions) [1] and his ltinerarium (2) were finally published long after Cyriacus of Ancona C.' death. Cyriacus Anconitanus / Ciriaco de' Pizzicolli; WRITINGS Italian Humanist, traveller and epigrapher. Born [ 1 I Epigrammata reperta per lllyricum, ed. c. 1391 in Ancona, died c. 1455 in Cremona. C. MoRONUS, Rome 1645 (2) Kyriaci Between 1412 and 1454, travelled to southern Anconitani ltinerarium, ed. L. MEHUS, Florence Italy, Greece, Egypt and the East. Worked as 1742. (reiss. 1969) (3) Commentariorum merchant, archivist, epigrapher, collector and Cyriaci ... nova fragmenta, notis illustrata, ed. copyist of manuscripts. Patrons included Pope A. DE ABATIBUS OLIVERIO / P. COMPAGNONl, Eugene IV, Cosimo de' Medici, the Visconti and Pesaro 1763 (4) Cyriaque d'Ancone en Egypte. Emperor Sigismund. Fragments des Commentaria rerum antiquarurn. ed. C. C. VANEssEN(Mededelingen der Koninklijke nederlandse akadernie van wetenschappen. Afd. BACKGROUND, WORK AND INFLUENCE Lctterkunde, N. S. 2.1/12.), 1958 Is) Cyriacus C. came from the noble but impoverished of Ancona 's Journeys in the Propontis and the Pizzicolli family. A commission from Cardinal Northern Aegean, 1444-1445, ed. E.W. BODNARI Gabriele Condulmer (the future Pope Eugene C. MITCHELL,1976 (6) Later Travels, trans. and IV) to renovate the ancient harbour of Ancona ed. E. W. BODNAR/ C. Foss, 2.003. brought him into contact with Roman (Arch of Trajan) and sowed the seeds of his enthusiasm SECONDARY LITERATURE for antiquity. He learned Latin in 1421 and (7) B. AsHMOLE, Ciriac of Ancona, in: Greek in 1425. He combined trading missions Proc. of the British Academy 45, 1959. with archival and epigraphic work that was so 2.5-41 (8) M. BELOZERSKAYA, To Wake the comprehensive and thorough that he has come Dead. A Renaissance Merchant and the Binh of Archaeology, 2.009 (9) E. W. BODNAR,Cyriacus of to be known as one of the founding fathers of Ancona and Athens, 1960 (10) M. CHATZID.U:.IS. archaeology and as the greatest epigrapher of Antike Pragung. Ciriaco d' Ancona und die kulturclle his time. His travels took him to Athens (9) and Verortung Griechenlands, in: P. BELL(ed.), Frcmde Delphi, Crete and Egypt, Constantinople and the in der Stadt. Ordnungen, Reprasentationen und sozOttoman Empire, and elsewhere. He was responiale Praktiken (13.-15. Jh.), 2.010, 2.2.5-2.56 (11) sible for the identification of the ancient city of J. CouN, Cyriaque d'Ancone. Le voyageur, le Apollonia in Epirus (western Greece), and he was marchand, l'humaniste, 1981 [ 12.) G. PACI / S. the first to survey the ruins of Eretria on Euboea, ScoNOCCHIA(ed.), Ciriaco d'Ancona e la cultura which had hitherto gone almost entirely ignored antiquaria dell'Umanesimo, 1998. (Codex Vaticanus Barberianus latinus 4424). DOROTHEEGALL

J

D Da feltre, Vittorino v. Vittorino da Fcltre Dacier, Anne and Andre ANNE

DACIER

French philologist and translator. Born Saumur 1654, died Paris 17. 8. 1720. Daughter of the Humanist Tanneguy Le Fevre the Elder ( 161 51672.), who encouraged her talents from a young age. In Paris from 1672 with the friend of her youth, Andre D. (see below), whom she married in 1683. Conversion to Catholicism 1685. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

D., a philological prodigy, began her career as the fille savante of her learned father. He, originally a Catholic theologian and head of the royal publishing house at the Louvre, converted to Calvinism after the death of Richelieu, and settled near Saumur, where he devoted himself to editing ancient poets. He gives detailed reading recommendations for the study of Greek and Latin in his Methode pour commencer les humanites grecques et latines (1672). Working from material or earlier editions by her father, Anne, under the name 'Anna Tanaquili Fabri filia', at first exclusively made editions of his favourite authors: Florus (1674), Callimachus (1675), Diccys Cretensis and Dares Phrygius ( 1680), Aurelius Victor (1681) and Eutropius (1683), Because of the support lent by Pierre Daniel -+ Huet and Paul Pellisson, both friends of her father, these editions appeared with the sign in usum Delphini, i.e. 'for the use of the Dauphin' (the heir to the French throne). In spite of these advantages, the court's reception of Anne and her future husband Andre D. was frosty. In 1682, Louis XIV showed distaste for the couple, who were cohabiting unwed, but even more distaste for their Calvinist faith. Both withdrew from Paris for a long period, converting to Catholicism (just before the repeal of the Edict of Nantes). Back in Paris and cordially received by the King, Anne intensified her activities as a translator of ancient classics into French prose, beginning with Sappho and Anacreon (1681) and selections from Pia utus ( 168 3) and Aristophanes' Plutus and Clouds ( 1684). The most important work of this period was her complete translation of Terence 12], which would determine reception of his oeuvre in France for the next century. Anne D.'s masterpiece is her complete translation of the Homeric epics, made from around 168 5 and annotated with prolific notes [ 5); I8 ]. Her aim was to achieve an imitation Libre et noble, displaying the sagesse and utilite of the Iliad and Odyssey (cf. foreword to (8)), She vig-

orously refuted the criticism that she had failed to adapt Homer sufficiently to contemporary tastes. Objections of this nature were voiced in the course of the so-called Querelle d'Homere, a final spasm of the Querelle des Anciens et des Modernes. De La Motte reacted to D.'s Iliad in 17 14 by publishing his own version of the epic, abridged by a quarter, with a Discours sur Homere, in which he launched a vitriolic attack on the ancients. D.'s rebuttal (6) in turn elicited his Reflex ions sur la critique ( 171 5 ), which is important for the terminology of modern literary criticism. Although D.'s sometimes aggressive defence of Homer as the divinely inspired poet second only in authority to the Bible was hardly conducive to consensus, the opponents were supposedly reconciled over a good dinner. The broad impact of D.'s Homer translations was unaffected by these disputes. As early as 17 1 5, Alexander Pope praised her as "equally careful and elegant". D.'s Homer was such a success in France that no other prose translation of Homer appeared for 60 years, and comparable verse translations only began to appear towards the end of the 18th cent. Chateaubriand, in Genie du christianisme ( 1802), praised the simplicite of D.'s translation, which he thought characteristic of her times. ANDRt

DACIER

French philologist and translator, husband of Anne. Born Castres 6. 4. 1651, died 18. 9. 1722 in Paris. Favourite pupil of Anne's father at Saumur. Member of the Academie des inscriptions and the Academie franr;aise (from 169 5 ), and secretary of the latter from 1713. Royal Librarian of the Louvre from 1720. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

Even in his lifetime, D.'s scholarly achievement was overshadowed by that of his wife Anne. Like her, he was an interprete dauphin, i.e. he prepared editions (sometimes collaborating with her) for the use of the heir to the throne (Festus 1681, Marcus Aurelius 1690). He also made translations of Plato ( 1689 ), Epictetus (1715) and Plutarch (1721). His French version of Aristotle's Poetics, with a thorough introduction [4 ], was influential, as were his translations of Sophocles [3], which were intended to clarify the use and validity of Aristotelian dramatic theory in practical examples. He was often seen in the 18th cent. as an ancien given to an excessively rigorous defence of Aristotle, the polar opposite of a Ludovico Castelvetro. His recommendations to modern adaptors of the Electra material influenced European reception of the myth. His

DACIER, ANNE AND ANDRE edition of Horace was also widely received [ 1 ); it focuses strongly on biography and chronology in the works. His comments on the edition of Horace ( 1711) by the British philologist Richard Bentley were published posthumously in 172.7.

138

accompanied on m1ss1ons to France and Spain in 162.5'2.6, and Primo maestro di camera in the Apostolic Palace. Thereafter active as a private secretary at the Barherini court and a collector in Rome. Elected to the Accademia de/la Crusca (Italian language society) 162.6.

WRITINGS

[1) ANDREDACIER,CEvres d'Horace, en latin et en fran~aise, avec des remarques historiques et critiques, 10 vols. (edition with trans.), Paris 16811689 (partial English trans.: Several Odes of Horace Translated into English Verse, trans. J. BROWNE, London, 1705) [2] ANNE DACIER,Les comedies de Terence, 3 vols. (trans.), Paris 1688 [3I ANDRt DACIER,CEdipeet l'Electre de Sophocle, avec des remarques (trans.), Paris 1692. [4J ANoRt DACIER, Poetique d' Aristote, traduite en fran~aise avec des remarques (trans.), Paris I 692.(partial English trans.: The Preface to Aristotle's Art of Poetry, anonymous trans., 1705) Is) ANNE DACIER,L'Iliade d'Homere, avec des remarques, 3 vols. (trans.), 1711 [6) ANNEDACIER,Des causes pour la corruption du goust, 1714 171 ANNEDACIER,Homere defendu contre l'apologie du R. P. Hardouin, ou Suite de la corruption du goust, 1716 [8) ANNEDACIER, L'Odysseed'Homere, avec remarques, 3 vols. (trans.), 1716.

POSITION

AND

INFLUENCE

As one of the central figures of European intellectual life in the 17th cent. and a representative of the encyclopaedic, universal spirit of the Italian Renaissance, D. P. displayed a great wealth of scholarly and artistic interests. He shared with his friend Nicolas-Claude --. Fabri de Peiresc a determination to support the efforts of others, but like Fabri he published nothing himself. As private secretary to Cardinal Barherini, he was also an influential courtier, whose protection was sought by antiquarians and artists, as the plethora of printed editions dedicated to him testifies (8. 69-84). D. P.'s interest in natural history is apparent from the size and scope of his collection_ It includes geological finds, pictures of birds and drawings of plants and animals. Most of it is now held at the Royal Library, Windsor Castle. and in the library of the lnstitut de France (Paris) SECONDARY LITERATURE 191E. BURY,Madame Dacier, in: C. NATIVEL(ed.), [ 12.). On the death of Federico Cesi, founder of Femmes savantes, savoir des femmes. Du crepuscule the Accademia dei l.incei, D. P. inherited a subde la Renaissance a l'aube des Lumieres. (Actes stantial part of his library and collection of scidu Colloque de Chantilly 199 S), 1999, 2.09-2.22. entific instruments. In his scholarly interests, too, [10J J. CHANDLER HAYES,Translation, Subjectivity, he can rightly he called Cesi's heir (8. 69-Tz.J_ and Culture in France and England, 1600-1800, painting, As a connoisseur of Renaissance 2.009 I 11 I G. CHIARINI,Dacier, Andre, in: EncidoD. P. was "probably the first private client ever to pedia Oraziana 3, 1998, 186-187 [12) H. R. have exerted a lasting influence on the art of his jAuss, Antiqui/moderni (Querelle des anciens et des modernes), in: Historisches Worterbuch der own day" (5. 167 f.). As a courtier, he mediated Philosophie 1, 1971, 410-414 (13J F. MooRE, between artists, collectors and patrons. As an art Homer Revisited. Anne Le Fevre-Dacier's Preface lover, he encouraged painters of various styles. to Her Prose Translation of the Iliad in Early from those still adhering to the Cinquecento and Eighteenth-CenturyFrance, in: Studies in the Literary those who took their inspiration from ancient Imagination 33/2., 2.000, 87-107 [141 G. S. forms to Caravaggisti and Baroque artists. D. P.'s SANTANGELO, Madame Dacier, una filologa nella fondness for Nicolas Poussin is striking: his colQuerelle 'crisi' ( I 672.-172.0),1984 IIS) A. SCHMITT, including des Anciens et des Modernes, in: DNP 15/2., 2.003, lection contains some fifty paintings, the Seven Sacraments (1636-1642.) (13). 607-62.2.. D. P. cultivated good relations with the JOHANNES GOBEL scholars at the Barherini court. Also important was his closeness to his brother Carlo Antonio. Dai Pozzo, Cassiano who added to the family collections from 1657 Italian scholar and antiquarian. Born Turin 2.1, [8. 101-118). D. P.'s attitude to antiquity as it 2.. 1588, died Rome 2.2.. 10. 1657. From 1596, a emerges from his writings and correspondence of classiward of his uncle Carlo Antonio, Archbishop of [ 10) shows some traits characteristic cal studies. His view of sepulchral reliefs in parPisa. Entered the military order of the Cavalieri ticular tends to emphasize their usefulness for di Santo Stefano in 1 599. Returned to Piedmont mores et instituta, while reasserting the ancient in 1606, where he worked for several months downplaying identifications of the mythological as a lawyer in the Piedmontese Senate (Turin). subjects. The quality of the pieces is important Judge at Siena from 1608; at Rome from 1611. to him, and to a lesser extent the style, but heMember of the Accademia dei Lincei in Rome is largely indifferent to the chronology of thefrom 162.2.; from 162.3 secretary in the service D. P. of Cardinal Francesco Barberini, whom he artefacts (8. 2.84-2.95). The importance attached to material sources is exemplified by

DAL

139

his annotations to De servis ( 1 61 3) by Lorenzo Pignoria in regard to a new edition (which never happened). D. P. suggested that the new edition should have additional illustrations of a whole series of instrumenta in relief sculptures [7 j. D. P.'s prominence in Roman scholarly circles is also evident from his collaboration in many editorial projects, from De flurum cultura (1633) by Giovanni Battista Ferrari I I r. 37-72) and Roma sotterranea ( 16 3 2, de facto 16 35) by Antonio --. Bosio to the description of Praeneste by Joseph-Marie de Suares ( 16 5 5) I8. 59-6 5 I, WORK

AND

INFLUENCE:

THE

MUSEO

CARTACEO

D. P. 's name is above all associated with the extraordinary, though incomplete project of the Museo Cartaceo ('Paper Museum'), a collection of drawings of ancient utility objects and works of art aiming at a comprehensive reconstruction of ancient culture. It also included around 2.,700 drawings of naturalia. Although similar enterprises had preceded it, e.g. the Codex Ursinianus (Cod. Vat. Lat. 3439) assembled by Fulvio -+ Orsini, the Museo Cartaceo exceeded them all in scope and ambition. The synoptic illustration accompanying Carlo Roberto Dati's obituary of D. P. provides a firstrate source for the project j 3 ]. It shows that the organizational principles D. P. applied were essentially those found used by ancient authors like Varro and subsequently taken up in the tradition of antiquarian studies. Beginning with the fundamental categorization of the drawings as res divinae and res humanae, D. P. subdivided them into the themes of war and peace, with further classification as puhlicae (institutions, weights and measures, games) and privatae (costume traditions, trades, baths and banquets). Although the Museo Cartaceo was never completed and the collection has undergone many changes over the centuries, the thematic categories are still discernible. Topography was also important in the ordering process, and hence also the attribution of a relief to a particular monument (8.2.66-2.83). Most of the Museo Cartaceo is held at the Royal Library in Windsor, where it arrived in 1762 from the ownership of the Albani Library at Rome [II. 75-94j. The surviving parts are: ten volumes under the rubric Bassi rilievi antichi; one volume of Antichita diverse and one entitled Disegni di varie antichita. Nettuno; two volumes of reproductions of miniatures in the late-antique Virgil codices in the Vatican Library; one volume of reproductions of the illustrations from a Carolingian copy of Terence also held there; two volumes headed Mosaici antichi, on ancient and medieval Christian antiquities with illustrations of frescos, Goldglas vessels and sarcophagi.

L

POZZO,

CASSIANO

Another volume contains a collection of architectural drawings. If the drawings not contained in these volumes and those found in other institutions are added to those held here, the total number of surviving illustrations is around 2,300 dal/'antico (and over 3,000 also counting depictions of later architecture) 18. 119-137]. The focus of the collection is on reliefs, as these were more suitable for an antiquarian reconstruction of the classical world than statues. Formal constants of the drawings include the completion of ancient pieces and the omission of inscriptions. The aim was to highlight significant content rather than the monument itself, as is shown by the representation of friezes and structural decor as rolled scrolls. Not everything is drawn from life: much comes from earlier graphic collections, especially the Codex Ursinianus with drawings from the 162.os. Other scribal abbreviations in the volume Antichita diverse identify the collections to which the individual pieces belonged, with the manuscripts V. E. 10 of the National Library at Naples (late 1640s) as an important source. A kind of 'museum catalogue', this gives lists of the antiquities held in the Roman collections from which D. P. intended to prepare illustrations [ 12. 8 5-9 5 ]. Those working on the Museo Cartaceo were mostly young draughtsmen, and the participation of gifted artists like Nicolas Poussin and Pietro da Cortona, to whom a few of the drawings can be attributed with some confidence, was probably limited on the whole. Only Pietro Testa provided more than 500 drawings [8. 137-1501, D. P. had copies made of the manuscripts. Many of the antiquarian writings published between the 1630s and 1650s draw on the content of the Museo Cartaceo, including treatises on artefact types, books on the history of costume (e.g. De re vestiaria by Ottavio Ferrari, r 64 2, revised r 6 54; the Dissertatio de utraque paenula by Giovanni Battista Doni, 1644) and comprehensive reconstructions of ancient culture, such as the treatises of Giovanni Battista Casali, especially ·is De urhis ac Romani olim imperii splendore (1650) j8. 151-186). D. P.'s correspondence suggests that he meant the Museo Cartaceo, or at least parts of it, to be published. A caption to each illustration would describe the objects shown and give references to the ancient literary sources. However, aside from the preparation of some engravings of sarcophagi, nothing came of the project [8. 262-265]. What D. P. had been unable to do would now fall to the Dai Pozzo Catalogue Proiect organized by the Royal Collection to bring about: a complete catalogue (34 volumes) of the Museo Cartaceo, including the naturalia drawings and the printed works associated with the name of D. P. - a total of 7,000 objects 12].

DAL

POZZO,

CASSIANO

The antiquarian encyclopaedia and taxonRomano, taking doctorate in law 1843 at the omy appended to the Museo Cartaceo remained Sapienza in Rome. Named scriptor at the Vatican seminal in classical studies long after D. P.'s Library. 1871-1 894 president of the Pontifici.l death. The Antiquite expliquee (1719-1724) by Accademia romana di archeologia; from 1878 Bernard de - Montfaucon could be said to be prefect of the Museo Cristiano in Rome; from a completed and standardized Museo. The first 1884 president of the Societa dei cultori di arche~ ologia cristiana and secretary of the Pontificia works to move beyond this perspective towards a history of style with a chronological presentaCommissione di archeologia sacra; 18 5 3 member tion of the material were those of the Comte de of the Prussian Academy of Sciences, and of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences from 1867, 1886 -+ Caylus and Johann Joachim • Winckelmann Order Pour le merite. [8. 295-306}. WRITINGS

WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

II]

D. is regarded as the founder of scholarly Christian archaeology. His achievements lay equally in the fields of archaeology, epigraphy and codicology. His research into Roman topogSECONDARY LITERATURE raphy focused mainly on the early Christian cat[2] The Paper Museum of Cassiano Dai Pozzo. A acombs. From 1849, he studied the Catacombs catalogue raisonne, 1996 [3] C. R. DATI, Delle of Praetextatus (where he unearthed the Crypt of lodi del commendatore Cassiano Dai Pozzo, 1664 St. lanuarius in 1863), then located the Catacomb [4] F. HASKELLet al., Musco Cartaceo di Cassiano of Callixtus in 1850, excavating it in 185 ~Dai Pozzo (Quaderni puteani 1-4), 1989-1993 Inside it, he found the 3rd-cent. Crypt of the [sl F. HASKELL,Maler und Auftraggeber. Kunst Popes (Capella dei Papi) in 1854, and discovered und Gesellschaft im italienischen Barock, 1996 (English 1963) [6] F. HASKELL/ S. RINEHART, the tomb of St. Caecilia. In 188 2, he discovered the The Dai Pozzo Collection. Some New Evidence, crypt in the cemetery of Sant'lppolito and the Via in: The Burlington Magazine 102., 196o, 3 18-326 Tiburtina, and in 188 3 that of St. Felicitas on [7I I. HERKLOTZ,Das Musco Cartaceo des Cassiano the Salaria Nuova. He published his finds in Dai Pozzo und seine Stellung in der antiquarischen the Bullettino di archeologia cristiana, which he Wissenschaft des 17. Jh.s, in: E. CROPPER (ed.), had founded in 1863, and in the volumes of his Documentary Culture. Florence and Rome from Roma sotte"anea cristiana (2.]. Grand-Duke Ferdinand I to Pope Alexander VII, 1992, D. and Giuseppe Marchi were commis81-125 [81 I. HERKLOTZ,Cassiano Dai Pozzo und sioned by the Pope to establish the Christian dieArchaologiedes 17.Jh.s, 1999 [9I G. LuMBROso, Notizie sulla vita di Cassiano Dai Pozzo, in: Department of the Lateran Museum. His cataMiscellanea di storia italiana Is, 1874, 129loguing of the manuscripts at the Vatican Library 388 [10] A. NICOLO(ed.), II carteggio di Cassiano won him great repute [ 5 }. The Prussian Academy Dai Pozzo. Catalogo, 1991 [11I F. SOLINAS(ed.), of Sciences in 185 4 invited him to work on the Cassiano Dai Pozzo. Atti del seminario internazionCorpus lnscriptionum l,atinarum, which led to ale di studi (Naples 1987), 1989 [12.I F. SOLINAS a close friendship with Theodor • Mommsen (ed.), I segreti di un collezionista. Le straordina[ 13 ). Outstanding among D. 's many writings are rie raccolte di Cassiano dal Pozzo, 1588-1657, the volumes on the early Christian inscriptions 2001 [13] D. L. SPARTI,Le collezioni Dai Pozzo. of Rome ( 1 ), the work (in single plates) on the Storia di una famiglia e del suo museo nella Roma mosaics and pavements of the churches of Rome seicentesca, 1992 [14) E. STUMPO, Dai Pozzo, Cassiano, in: DBI 32, 1986, 109-213 (1sl C. C. [3) and his collection of existing plans and views VERMEULE,The Dai Pozzo-Albani Drawings of of Rome (4). Classical Antiquities in the Royal Library at LW: Melanges G. B. de Rossi. Recueil de Windsor Castle, 1966. travaux publies par !'Ecole fran~aise de Rome FABRIZIOFEDERICI (FS), I 892. E: Rome, Pontificio lstituto di Archeologi.i Daurat, Jean v. Dorat, Jean Cristiana ( 10); Bibi. Apostolica Vaticana [9}. II diario del viaggio in Spagna del cardinale Francesco Barberini scrino da Cassiano Dai Pozzo, ed. A. ANSELMI,2004.

De la Chausse, Michel-Ange v. La Chausse, Michel-Ange de De Rossi, Giovanni Battista Italian Christian archaeologist and epigrapher. Born Rome 23. 2. 1822., died Castelgandolfo 20. 9. 1894. Studied philosophy at the Collegio

WRITINGS ( 1 I lnscriptiones Christianae urbis Romae septimo saeculo antiquiores, Vol. 1-2 (edition), 1861-1888 [2I La Roma sotterranea cristiana, Vol. 1-3, 18641877 [3] Musaici cristiani e saggi dei pavimenri delle chiese di Roma anteriori al secolo XV. Tavole cromo-litografiche con cenni storici (with French trans.), 1872.-1899 e (4) Piante iconografiche prospettiche di Roma anteriori al secolo XVI.

DE SANCTIS,

1879 Is) (ed.), Codices Palatini Latini Bihliothecae Vaticanae (with H. STEVENSONJR.), 1886. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

[6] A. BARUFFA, Giovanni Battista de Rossi. L'archeologo delle catacomhe, 1994 171 P. M. BAUMGARTEN,Giovanni Battista de Rossi fondatore della scienza di archeologia sacra. Cenni biografici, 1892 18] M. BUONOCORE, Giovan Battista de Rossi e l'lstituto Archeologico Germanico di Roma (Codici Vaticani Latini 14238-14295), in: Romische Mitteilungen, 103, 1996, 29 5-3 14 191 _M. BuoNOCORE, Theodor Mommsen e gli stud, sul mondo antico. Dalle sue lettere conservate nella Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, 2003, ;-10; 110) S. FRASCATI, La collezione 65-270 epigrafica di Giovanni Battista De Rossi presso ii Pontificio lstituto di Archeologia Cristiana, 1997 [11] H. LECLERCQ,De Rossi (Jean-Baptiste), in: Dictionnaire d'archeologie chretienne et de 112) N. PARISE, De liturgie 7, 1950, 18-100 Rossi, Giovan Battista, in: DBI 39, 1991, 201-204 (1;] S. REBENICH, Giovanni Battista de Rossi und Theodor Mommsen, in: R. STUPPERICH(ed.), Lebendige Antike. Rezeptionen der Antike in Politik, Kunst und Wissenschaft der Neuzeit, 199 5, 173186 I14] P. SAINT-RocH (ed.), Correspondance de Giovanni Battista De Rossi et de Louis Duchesne (1873-1894), 1995. MARCOBUONOCORE/ DANIELGRAEPLER

De Sanctis, Gaetano Italia_n ancient historian. Born Rome 15. 10. died there 9. 4. 1957. Studied at the Univ. La Sapienza in Rome from 1888, graduating in ancient history 1892. in (/aurea). 1900-192.9 prof. ord. in the history of antiquity at Univ. of Turin. r 92.9-19 3 1 at Sapienza in Rome. Dismissed in 1931 fo~ refusing to take an oath of loyalty to the Fascists. New teaching permit awarded 1944. 1950 made a senator for life. 1870,

SCHOLARLY

BACKGROUND

De S. was the third son of a capitano in the Papal gendarmerie. He came from a family of scrupulous legal principles who, out of loyalty to the Pa~~cy, had always refused to acknowledge the leg1t1macy of the Italian state and of Rome as its capital. De S. attended only ecclesiastical schools, ending up at the Roman seminary of S. Apo_llinare from 1883 to 1888, where he took his final school examination. He studied ancient history at the Faculty of Philosophy of L_a.Sapienza Univ_. in Rome, under the superVIS1on of Karl Julius • Beloch, with whom he always kept faith in spite of some differences of opinion. De S. graduated in Greek history in ! 892. under B~loch.. He received a scholarship m 1895_ enablmg him to make an epigraphic study trip to Greece. This tour also deepened his friendships with other students who would

GAETANO

later enjoy glittering careers, above all Michael • Rostovtzeff. In 1900, De S. was made prof. of ancient history at Turin. He married his student Emilia Rosmini here. He was named director of the Rivista di Fi/ologia e di lstruzione Classica in 1~2.3. Then, in 192.9, when Beloch retired (to d~e soon afterwards), De S. was appointed as his successor at the Univ. of Rome. Here he also_ took on editorial control of the antiquities section of the Enciclopedia ltaliana. His teaching career was brought to a premature close in 19 3' when he refused to take the oath of loyalty to the Fascists and was punished with dis~issal. _Although stricken by a progressive and 1rrevers1ble loss of sight, he published a history of rpfelds 100. Geburtstag, in: AA, 1955, 86-93 [101 K. HERR· friends (91.However, his two major works are MANN, Wilhelm Dorpfeld. Pers6nlichkeit und Werk, the commented first edition of Chariton [ 101and in: Mitteilungen aus dem Heinrich-Schliemannhis description of Sicily (posthumous) ( 11 ), outMuseum Ankershagen 6, 1999, u3-134. standing not only for its exquisite illustrations, KLAUSHERRMANN but also for its presentation and interpretation of small finds like coins and a Goldglas vessel alongside the detailed description of the island.

D'ORVILLE,

JACQUES

PHILIPPE

D.'O.'s estate also contains notes for editions of the Anthologia Graeca (with Latin translation by Hugo - Grotius), Theocritus ( 30 manuscripts already compared), Catullus, Tibullus and Propertius, and three volumes of Animadversiones in Muratorii inscriptiones veteres. Through his close contacts with important scholars of his day and his philological reputation, D.'O. already exerted a great influence on other classical philologists during his lifetime. Notice of the description of Sicily had circulated in the press since 1733, and so it is no surprise that it was published, in 1762.-1 764, by the son of his teacher.--+ Burmann the Younger also held the funeral oration, which was translated into Dutch shortly afterwards, hence finding a wider circulation. E: Oxford, Bodleian Library MSS. D'Orville 1-618 (MSS) [13).

School and studies (classical archaeology, classical philology, ancient history) at Dorpat, Berlin and Bonn, doctorate Bonn 1 894. 1896/97 DAI tra"·el scholarship, 1898 prof. ext. in classical archaeology at Univ. of Basel; 1902. founder-d.irC1..-tor of the Riimisch-Germanische Kommission at Frankfurt (RGK); 1911-192.2. secretary-general of DAI in Berlin. 1916 full member of Prussian Academy of Sciences; 192. 2.- 1 9 3 8 prof. ord. in classical archaeology at Univ. of Freiburg and its 1939-1941 again director of rector 192.9-1931. the RGK. WORKS

ANO

INFLUENCE

Greatly liked by his colleagues, D. was an outstanding scholarly administrator possessed of extensive historical and archaeological expertise, which today would tend to define him as an archaeologist of the Roman provinces. Formed b:.his teacher Georg • Loeschcke in Dorpat, whom he followed to Bonn, D. gained international recWRITINGS ( 1) Dissertatio iuridica inauguralis ad legem 6 5 de ognition with his diss. on te"a sigillata l • l- The adquirendo rerum dominio (diss.), Leiden 172.1 catalogue of types of ceramic forms it contains (2) Oratio de Mercurii cum musis felici contuimmortalizes his name in the citation •Drag.' still (ed.), Miscellaneae bcrnio ... , Amsterdam 1730 131 conventional today. His further career was deterobscrvationes in auctores veteres et recentiores, 1 o mined by issues concerning the Roman Rhineland (4) Oratio vols. (with P. BuRMANN), 1732.-1739 I2.J. As the first director of the newly-founded in centesimum natalem illustris Amstelaedamensium RGK, he set the direction for its future research. Athenaei, Amsterdam 1732- IsI Calumniae rcfuas reflected especially in the excavations in the tantur circa epistolam, in qua de aetate msti. camps on the Lippe and the Upper Germanic and Philae actum fuit, Amsterdam 1737 16) Critica vannus in inanes loannis Cornelii Pavonis paleas, Rhaetian limes. As well as furthering the training Amsterdam 1737 (7) Excerpta quaedam censuraof new generations of scholars and issuing sperum in Horapollinem, Amsterdam 1737 (81(ed.), cialist publications, D. developed international Miscellaneae observationes criticae novae in aucrelations. His successes made him an obvious tores veteres et recentiores, 12. vols., Amsterdam choice to lead the DAI in Berlin in 191 1. He 1740-1751 (9) (ed.), Petri d'Orville iurisconshepherded the institute through the difficult sulti poemata, Amsterdam 1740 ( 101 Charitonis years of the war and its aftermath before taking Aphrodisiensis de Chaerea et Callirrhoc amatoria post at freiburg in 192.2. that he had already arum narrationum libri VIII (edition with comm.), Amsterdam 1750 [ 11 I Sicula, quibus Siciliae turned down once. His teaching responsibilities.. veteris rudera, additis antiquitatum tabulis, illus- up to his retirement in 1938, again allowed him trantur, 2. vols., ed. P. BURMANNTHE YOUNGER, scope to conduct his own research [3 ]. \'t'ith his Amsterdam 1762.-1764. Arretinische Relie{keramik [4) D. returned to his beginnings, and after the outbreak of war, at the SECONDARY LITERATURE age of 68, he again took on the directorship of (u) T. DoKKUM, Orville, Jacobus Philippus d', in: the RGK, leading it until his death in 194 1. P. C. VANMOLHUYSEN/ P. J. BLOK (ed.), Nieuw The extent of his published scholarly work Nederlandsch Biografisch Woordenbock 4, 1918, may seem slight at first glance, but this is ve~· 1043-1046 (13) F. MADAN et al., A Summary largely because of his commitment to administraCatalogue of Western Manuscripts in the Bodleian in Germany. Library at Oxford Which Have Not Hitherto Been tive work for Roman archaeology His publications do, nevertheless, reflect the full Catalogued in the Quarto Series, Vol. 4, 1980, spectrum of his specialist interests. no. 16869-17496 (14) J. C. STRODTMANN,Das Neue Gelehrte Europa, 1752., 330-358. LW: (8. 2.12.-2.17). PETERFRANZMITTAG WRITINGS

Dragendorff, Hans German classical and archaeologist of the Roman provinces. Born Dorpat (now T artu, Estonia) 15.10.1870, died Freiburg 2.9. 1. 1941.

I I I Terra Sigillata (diss. Bonn), 1894 (2) ~'estdeutschland zur Romerzeit, 1912. (•1919) (3) Das ReliefGrabmal von Igel, 192.4 141Arretinische keramik, 1948 (posthumous).

lJREXI.ER,

SECONDARY

LITERATURE

K. BECKER, Die Gri.indung der R6mischGcrmanischen Kommission und der Gri.indungsdirektor Hans Dragendorff, in: Bcricht der Romisch-Gcrmanischen Kommission Hz., z.oo 1, 105-136 (6) G. GRIMM, Hans Dragendorf, in: (s)

LuLUEs/ScHIERINGArch.

179-1Ho

(7[E.KROGF.R,

Hans Dragendorff zum Gedachtnis, in: Trierer Zeirschrifr 15, 1940, 1-7 (HI G. RooENWAI.DT, Gedachrnisrede auf Hans Dragendorff, in: Jh. der Preussischen Akad. der Wissenschaften, 1941, 110-117.

IIANS Ul.RICII

NUBER

Drerup, Heinrich German classical archaeologist.

Born Munich

13. 8. 1908, died Marburg 10. 1. 1995. 19.2.619 3 3 studied classical archaeology, history of

art and ancient history at Freiburg, Munich, Vienna and Bonn, doctorate Bonn 1933. 1934 DAI travel scholarship, 1934/35 assistant at scholarly consultant at Pergamum; 1936-1945 war the DAI headquarters in Berlin. 1939-1948 service and captivity. 1948 habil. at Munster, 1950 lecturer, 1954 prof. sup. there; 1959-1976 prof. ord. in classical archaeology at Marburg. WORKS

AND

tions that tend to characterize these works, they also attempt to locate phenomena within cultural history (9 ). LW: (9. 9-1.2.). WRITINGS

Die Datierung der Mumienportraits (diss. Bonn), [2] Architektur und Toreutik in der griechischen Fri.ihzeit, in: Mitteilungen des l.11Pytheos und Satyros. Die DAI 5, 1952, 7-38 Kapitelle des Athenatempels von Priene und des Maussoleums von Halikarnass (hahil. Munster, only part puhl.), in: Jh. des DAI 69, 1954, in der r6mi1-3 1 141Zurn Ausstattungsluxus schen Architektur, 1957 (•1981) [sl Bildraum und Realraum in der r6mischen Architektur, in: R6mische Mitteilungen 66, 1959, 147-174 (6] Die romische Villa, in: Marburger WinckelmannProgramm, 1959, 1-2.4 [7[ Zur Entstehung der griechischen Tempelringhalle, in: FS Friedrich [81 Griechische Baukunst in Matz, 1962., 32-38 geometrischer Zeit (Archaeologia Homerica, Cap. 0 = Vol. 3), 1969. [ 1[

1933 (reiss. 1968)

SECONDARY

LITERATURE

(9[ H. BOslNG / F. Hu.I.ER (ed.), Bathron. Beitriige

zur Architektur und verwandten Ki.insten. FS H. Heinrich Drerup, Drerup, 1988 I 10[ H. KYRIEL.EIS, in: Gnomon 69, 1997, 176-179. HENNER VON HESBERG

INFLUENCE

D. was the son of the Hellenist Engelbert D. and the only student of Richard • Delbrueck, who supervised his doctorate (function and chronology of the mummy portraits) in 1933 I• I. His habit. thesis explores the development of the Ionic capital 131-He did not see the development of form as an autonomous process so much as the product of a variety of influences at work. In his treatise on 'Architecture in the Geometric Period' (Baukunst in geometrischer Zeit) he explored a new period of Greek architecture I8 IHe demonstrated the close relation between the period and the testimony of Homer, but especially he showed its decisive cultural break with the Mycenaean Period. Studies of the semantic quality of Greek architectural elements belong to the same field [7j. D. took an interest in certain constitutive elements of Roman architecture, e.g. the axiality of villa design in an antithesis of pictorial and real space, or the tendency to see such design as a symbol of the mastery of nature I 5 I; I6 IHis research was markedly distinct from that of his contemporaries both in subject and purpose, and its blend of sobriety and suggestion was beguiling. D.'s approach to the interpretation of ancient architecture was pursued and developed within the substantial cohort of his students (who included Burkhard Fehr, Henner von Hesberg, Helmut Kyrieleis and Burkhardt Wesenberg). Besides the typological examina-

HANS

Drexler, Hans

German classical philologist. Born Niesky (Oberlausitz) 11. 3. 1895, died Gc>ttingen 10. 4. 1984. Studied from 1913 in freiburg and Berlin (classical philology, history, philosophy, linguistics). Volunteered for World War I. Continued studies at G6ttingen 191 9, taking doctorate there 19.2.2.. 19.2.3 State licensing examination (Staatsexamen) and Studienre(erendariat at Magdalene11gymnasium in Magdeburg. 19.2.4/2.5 scholarship to Thesaurus U11guae Latinae in Munich; 192.5 habil. in G6ttingen. 19.2.5 assistant at Breslau; substitutions at Kiel 192.8/2.9 and Leipzig 1930. 1933 member of the National Socialist Teachers' League. 193 5 appointed to Ureslau (succeeding Wilhelm • Kroll); member of the National Socialist Lecturers' League; member of the NSDAP from 1937. Appointed to G6ttingen 1940 (succeeding Ulrich Knoche); 1943 rector. 1945 dismissed, interned by US forces, banned from working. Attempts to return to the Univ. of Gc>ttingen from 1945; reappointment refused 19 5 3; thereafter active as Gymnasium teacher, private teacher and private scholar. WORKS

AND

INFLUENCE

D. grew up in the spiritual environment of the Pietist denomination of the Unitas Fratrum (Herrnhuter Brudergemeine). His studies at

DREXLER,

HANS

Freiburg and Berlin, with Hermann -+ Diets, Eduard -+ Meyer, Eduard ➔ Norden and Ulrich were intervan -+ Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, rupted when he volunteered to serve in World War I. They were only resumed in 1919, when his teachers included Gunther Jachmann, Max -+ Pohlenz and Richard -+ Reitzenstein, who supervised D.'s doctorate in 1922 on Plautine metre [ 1). This formed the basis for one of D .'s most significant areas of research, on which he published many seminal works (Plautus [2), hexameter studies [5), Latin metre - many editions [61). He also studied ancient historiography (e.g. on Herodotus (7), Thucydides [8] and Tacitus [3)), Roman drama (Plautus, Terence) and Roman value concepts. His habil., a commentary on Philo Alexandrinus (1925), remained unpublished. D. is a cardinal example of the entanglement of classical philology with the Third Reich [ 12. 244-263 ). He was a National Socialist activist, rapidly rising to the highest ranks of the Party, and working to reorganize his scholarly discipline accordingly by establishing a deutsche Latinistik. This became particular apparent in his confrontation with the Third Humanism [4) of Werner ➔ Jaeger, which attracted D.'s "hatred and [... ) annihilatory zeal" (4. 9), and which he called an "occult ideology" [4. 10). To D., Jaeger's approach was inimical to the times, to the world and to life, being individualistic and liberal and shot through with a sloppy humanitarian and internationalist sentimentality. In spite of his intensive lobbying, D. was never employed again after US forces dismissed him as one of the very few univ. teachers to be classified as an 'incriminated' individual (Belastete). Nevertheless, he continued to publish prolifically. WRITINGS

(1) Observationes Plautinae (diss. Gottingen), 1921. [1.] Plautinische Akzentstudien, 3 vols., 1931.-1933

(3) Tacitus. Grundzi.ige einer politischen Pathologie, 1939 (reiss. 1970) (4) Der Dritte Humanismus. Ein kritischer Epilog, •1942 [5] Hexameterstudien, 6 vols., 1951-1956 [6) Einfi.ihrung in die romische Metrik, 1967 (1 1993) (7) Herodot-Studien, 1972 [8) Thukydides-Studien, 1976 [9] Ausgewahlte K. S., 1981.. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

[10] H.-U. BERNER,Hans Drexler, in: Gnomon 60, [11] P. KUHLMANN, Humanismus 1988, 188-191

und Alte Sprachen im Dritten Reich, in: Archiv fi.ir Kulturgeschichte 88'2, 2.006, 409-431 [11.] C. WEGELER, ' ... wir sagen ab der internationalen Gelehrtenrepublik'. Altertumswissenschaft und Nationalsozialismus, 1996. STEFAN KIPF

Droysen, Johann Gustav German historian. Born Treptow (Pomerania) 6. 7. 1808, died Berlin 19. 6. 1884. Studied at Berlin 1826-1829; doctorate 1831; habil. 1833, all at Berlin. Prof. ord. in history at Kiel from 1840; member of the Frankfurt Parliament May 1848-May 1849; prof. ord. at Jena from 1851, at Berlin from 1859. CAREER

The son of Johann Christoph D., a garrison chaplain, D. took his doctorate in 18 3 I with August -+ Boeckh, then from 1833 taught as a priv.-doz. or unsalaried prof. ord. in ancient history at the Univ. of Berlin alongside his regular employment as a Gymnasium teacher (from 1829). As prof. of history at Kiel, he specialized in the early modern period. Late in March 1848, the provisional government of Schleswig-Holstein elected him a member of the 'Committee of Seventeen' (Siebzehnerausschuss) to the Bundestag at Frankfurt. Thereafter, as a member of the Frankfurt Parliament, he agitated for a 'Lesser German' solution under Prussian leadership. At Jena, he worked mostly on Prussian history, but also for the first time gave lectures on historical theory. A passionate advocate of Prussia's 'mission' to bring about German unification, he was appointed to Berlin against the wishes of the faculty by the 'New Era' Prussian Ministry of Culture (neue Ara, liberal Regency of Wilhelm I, 1858-1861). As well as continuing his project of Prussian historiography, he also resumed his work on ancient history here. WORK

After his diss. on the Lagid Kingdom under Ptolemy VI Philometor, D. attracted attention with translations of Aeschylus [ 1] and Aristophanes [3), in the introductions to which he evaluates them as historical sources, as he had already done in essays on Aristophanes [II. Vol. 2., 1-61). His history of Alexander (2) caused the biggest stir: he idealized him as an agent of historical necessity in the Hegelian sense. He intended his sequels on Hellenistic history (4) to depict the merging of Greek, Eastern and Jewish culture as a precondition for the rise of Christianity, but this ambition, expressed in forewords and afterwords, was never accomplished. D got no further than a history of the Hellenistic state system (to 220 BC). The 'grammatico-critical' philologists sharply criticized these works, accusing D. of philological inaccuracies and neglecting the problem of the sources [2.4. 22-40). His proof of the inauthenticity of the documents in Demosthenes' oration On the Crown [II. Vol. 1, 9 5-2 70] was also received

DROYSEN,

with scepticism and found acceptance only later. These reactions, along with his realization that he would not be able to accomplish his original concept of a cultural history, and finally his political commitments in Schleswig-Holstein, led D. to turn to more modern history. After his 'Lectures on the Age of the Wars of Liberation' (Vorlesungen uber das Zeitalter der Freiheitskriege) (5), which traced developments in Europe and America between 1776 and 1815, D. concentrated on Prussian history, beginning with a biography of a hero of the War of the Sixth Coalition (7] and continuing with a voluminous 'History of Prussian Politics' (Geschichte der preussischen Politik, with various supplements on individual subjects) [8 [, intended to show that ever since its emergence in the 1 5th cent., Brandenburg-Prussia had objectively represented the German national cause. Although this work was not yet complete, or because he knew that he would not complete it (24. 299-301], D. returned to his ancient historical roots in the mid-187os and published a revised edition of his Alexander and Hellenism books, now under the combined title Geschichte des Hellenismus [ 10[. The tone is more restrained than in the first editions. Although D. now made up the deficit in source criticism, he changed essentially nothing in the conception of the work. INFLUENCE

D. was the first to assert the 'historical interest' of the post-Classical Period, and as such he lastingly influenced scholarship. His redefinition of the term 'Hellenistic' to denote a period found general acceptance, although the exact dates of the period remained a matter of dispute dependent on criteria or political or cultural history (18); [2.3]. His unrealized intention of incorporating the history of Judaism into his scheme was also taken up by other scholars I22.]. His treatment of Attic comedy as a historical source also set a precedent (cf. e.g. Victor .. Ehrenberg). Although most of his contemporaries already received his historiography of Prussia as political propaganda, and though it was regarded as obsolete after the foundation of the Second Reich (1871), his Historik (9), while initially receiving little attention as a brief outline, has proved influential in theoretical discussions of the subject as a basis for a hermeneutics of historiography [ 19 ]; [z.6] ever since the posthumous publication of the lecture texts [ 1 5 [. LW: J. G. Droysen, Historik. Historischkritische Ausgabe, Supplement DroysenBibliographie, ed. H. W. Blanke, 2.008. E: Berlin, Geheimes Staatsarchiv Preussischer Kultur- besitz; Halle (Saale), Univ.- und Landesbibliothek; Jena, Univ.- und Landesbibliothek.

JOHANN

GUSTAV

WRITINGS

[1I

Des Aischylos Werke, 2 vols., 183 2 Geschichte Alexanders des Grossen, 1 8 33 (English: History of Alexander the Great, trans. F. K1MMICH, 2012) [3) Des Aristophanes Werke, 3 vols., 18351838 [4) Geschichte des Hellenism us, Vol. 1: Geschichte der Nachfolger Alexanders; Vol. 2: Geschichte der Bildung des hellenistischen Staatensystems, 1836-1843 [5) Vorlesungen i.iber das Zeitalter der Freiheitskriege, 2 vols., 1846 [61 Die Verhandlungen des Verfassungs- Ausschusses der deutschen Nationalversammlung, Vol. 1 (edition), 1849 [7] Das Leben des Feldmarschalls Grafen York von Wartenburg, 3 vols., 1851-1852 (8] Geschichte der Preussischen Politik, 14 vols., 18 55-1886 (9) Grundriss der Historik, 1868 (English: Outline of the Principles of History, trans. E. B. ANDREWS,1893 et al.) [10) Geschichte des Hellenismus, Vol. 1: Geschichte Alexanders des Grossen; Vol. 2: Geschichte der Diadochen; Vol. 3: Geschichte der Epigonen, 1877-1878 [ 11) K. S. zur Alten Geschichte, ed. E. HOeNER, 2 vols., 18931894 [ul Aktensti.icke und Aufzeichnungen zur Geschichte der Frankfurter Nationalversammlung, ed. R. HOBNER, 1924 (13] Briefwechsel, ed. R. HOBNER,2 vols., 1929 [14) Politische Schriften, ed. F. GILBERT,1931 (15] Historik. Vorlesungen i.iberEnzyklopadie und Methodologie der Geschichte, ed. R. HOSNER, 1937 (16] Historik. Historischkritische Ausgabe, Vol. 1: Rekonstruktion der ersten vollstandigen Fassung der Vorlesungen ( 18 57), Grundriss der Historik in der ersten handschriftlichen (1857/58) und in der letzten gedruckten Fassung (1882), ed. P. LEYH, 1977 [17) Historik. Historisch-kritische Ausgabe, Vol. 2: Texte im Umkreis der Historik, ed. H. W. BLANKE,2007. [ 2]

SECONDARY

LITERATURE

R. BICHLER, 'Hellenismus'. Geschichte und Problematik eines Epochenbegriffes, 198 3 [19) H. W. BLANKE (ed.), Historie und Historik. 200 Jahre Johann Gustav Droysen, 2009 [20] B. BRAVO, Philologie, histoire, philosophie de l'histoire. Etude sur J. G. Droysen, historien de l'antiquite, 1968 [21] C. HACKEL(ed.), Johann Gustav Droysen, 1808-1884. Philologe, Historiker, Politiker, 2008 [22) A. D. MoMIGLIANO,J. G. Droysen. Between Greeks and Jews, in: History and Theory 9, 1970, 139-153 [23) W. N1PPEL, 'Hellenismus'. Von Droysen bis Harnack oder: Interdisziplinare Missverstandnisse, in: K. NOWAKet al. (ed.), Adolf von Harnack. Christentum, Wissenschaft und Gesellschaft, 2003, 15-28 (24) W. NIPPEL,Johann Gustav Droysen. Ein Leben zwischen Wissenschaft und Politik, 2008 [25) K. RIES (ed.), Johann Gustav Droysen. Facetten eines Historikers, 2.010 [26) J. ROSEN, Begriffene Geschichte. Genesis und Begri.indung der Geschichtstheorie J. G. Droysens, 1969 [27) C. WAGNER, Die Entwicklung Johann Gustav Droysens als Althistoriker, 1991. WILFRIEDNIPPEL [18)

DRUMANN,

WILHELM

KARL

Drumann, Wilhelm Karl August German ancient historian. Born Danstedt (Saxony-Anhalt) 11. 6. 1786, died Konigsberg 2.9. 7. 1861. Studied theology and ancient history at Univs. of Helmstedt and Halle; habil. Halle 1812.. 1817 prof. ext. at Univ. of Konigsberg; 182.1-1856 prof. ord. in history there. WORKS

AND

166

AUGUST

INFLUENCE

D. developed a lively teaching and research career at Konigsberg, with Greece [ 1] and Rome [3] in pride of place, but also including Egyptian [2.] and medieval [5] history and general cultural history [4]. The hallmark of D.'s works is great antiquarian erudition, which he was well able to adapt to topical perspectives. His study of the decline of the world of the Greek states [1] examined Athens' ascent to Greek hegemony in the 5th cent. BC, and the loss of power and death throes of the Greek states in the 4th cent. BC. Arbeiter und Communisten ('Workers and Communists') [6], a work of his latter years, adopted the terminology of contemporary categories in the social controversies of the 19th cent., but did not really capitalize on the analogy. D.'s best-known work [3] presents a procession of leading personages and families of late Republican Rome on the basis of an encyclopaedic knowledge of the sources and distinctly idiosyncratic assessments ("biased", according to Eduard -• Meyer, e.g. on Caesar, Cicero, Clodius). "Probably the most important German-language work of the decades between Niebuhr and Mommsen" [7 ], it became an indispensable tool, especially in its revision by Paul Groebe, even if frequently (and sometimes unfairly) derided for its scattergun approach (9. VIf., 32.3]. D.'s focus on individuals and families as agents of historical evolution came in for further structural development in the 2.oth cent. The portrayal of Caesar as an unscrupulous politician hell-bent on autocratic rule was highly influential, and developed further in the course of the discussions of the res publica amissa triggered by Christian Meier. With his conviction that the Roman Republic must inevitably give way to a monarchy as the most suitable form of human government, D. emphasized the function of "history as the best teacher" ("Geschichte als beste Lehrerin") for the present day (3. Vol. 1, 39]. "Know the old and you will understand the new" ("Kennst du das Alte, so wird auch das Neue klar") [6. IV] was a fallacy he shared as a "conservative monarchist" [8] with many 19thcent. historians. WRITINGS

(1) ldeen zur Geschichte des Verfalls der griechischen [:z.)Historisch-antiquarischc Staaten, 1815 ('1820)

Untersuchungen i.iber Agypten oder die lnschrift von Rosette, 182.3 (3) Geschichte Roms in seinem Obergang von der republikanischen zur monarchis(Neuausg. chen Verfassung, 6 vols., 1834-1844 (4) Grundriss der von P. GROEBE 1899-192.9) Kulturgeschichte, 1847 Is) Geschichte Bonifacius des Achten, 2 vols., 1852. (6) Die Arbeiter und Communisten in Griechenland und Rom nach den Quellen, 1860. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

171 CHRIST, RomGG 45-48 (8) K. LoHMEYER, Drumann, Wilhelm Karl August, in: ADB 5, I 877, 436-439 191 E. MEYER, Caesars Monarchic und das Prinzipat des Pompejus, •1919. HANS KLOFT

Dryander 11.Enzinas, Francisco de DuCangc, Charles du Fresne French jurist and lexicographer. Born Amiens 18. 12.. 1610, died Paris 2.3. 10. 1688. After studying law at Orleans from 1631. worked as lawyer in Paris. 1638 marriage to the wealthy Catherine Du Bos. 1645-1668 tresorier of Amiens, succeeding his father-in-law, thereafter private scholar in Paris. Best documentation of biographical data in [4. Vol. 10, 1-XXVI]. WORKS

AND

INFLUENCE

D.'s lasting influence, which endures to this day, was achieved through his lexicographic works. His Glossarium on the authors of late antiquity and the Middle Ages was first published in 1678 (3 vols.) [1], and was variously expanded and supplemented over the next hundred years (Frankfurt 1710, four vols.; supplemented by the Benedictine Maurists 1733-1736, reissued Venice 1736-1740, Basel 1762.; by Pierre Carpentier, Paris 1766 with four supplement vols.; by G. A. Louis Henschel 1 840-1 846; by Leopold Favre, 1883-1887, ten vols. (41). In this most recent form, the lexicon was reprinted a number of times in the 20th cent.; it continues to be in use as a reference work today, and is accessible on the internet. D.'s G/ossarium on the Greek authors of the Byzantine Period [3) is arranged in a similar way. Although it never enjoyed such wide circulation, it too was reprinted in the 2.oth cent. One important aim of both works was to document Latin words not attested in antiquity. These were largely expunged from the classical lexica that pursued a Humanist ideal of style, such as that of Ambrogio Calepino (Calepinus) or the Thesaurus Linguae Latinae of Robert -+ Estienne, but they are often essential in learned ecclesiastical or scholarly practice. In this way, and rather like Gerard us Johannes - + Vossius with his De 11itiis Latini sermonis ( 164 5) and Matthias

D0MMLER,

Martinius with his Lexicon etymologicum D. mediated between the demands of a Humanist standard for Latin and the real Latin linguistic practice of his own day I6 ). Being by far the most substantial and philologically thorough of these works, D.'s Glossarium even remained irreplaceable once post-ancient Latin had dwindled to a requisite only for historical research. D. also published several other works, mostly on Byzantium, including a two-volume history of Byzantium I 2 ). -+

(1623),

WRITINGS

( 1] Glossarium ad scriptores mediae et infimae Latinitatis, 3 vols., Paris 1678 (reiss. hankfurt 1681) 12] Historia Byzantina duplici commentario illustrata, Paris 1680 131 Glossarium ad scriptores mediae et infimae Graecitatis, Lyon 1688 [4] Glossarium mediae et infimae Latinitatis. Sequuntur glossarium Gallicum, tabulae, indices auctorum et rerum, dissertationes/conditum ... , cum suppl. integris D. P. Carpenterii, Adelungii, aliorum, suisque ... Henschel. Ed. nova aucta, 1o vols., ed. L. FAVRE, 1883-1887. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

Is] J. CoNSIONJE, Du Cange. Lexicography and the Medieval Heritage, in:J. Co LEMAN NI A. McDERMOTT (ed.), Historical Dictionaries and Historical Dictionary Research, 2.004, 1-10 l6JJ. LEONHARDT, Latein als Weltsprache und als Bildungssprache. Stationen eines Konflikts, in: J. KoRF.NJAK / F. ScHAFFENRATH (ed.), Der altsprachliche Unterricht in der Fruhen Neuzeit, 2.01o, 2.47-2. 58. J0RGEN LEONHARDT

Duhn, Friedrich von German archaeologist. Born Lubeck 17. 4. died 5. 2. 1930 in Heidelberg. Studied at Bonn, doctorate there 1874. Thereafter DAI travel scholarship; habit. Gc,ttingen 1879. From 1880, prof. ord. at Heidelberg. 1851,

WORKS

AND

INFLUENCE

Following his studies in classical philology and archaeology at Bonn, which he completed in 1874 with a philological diss., D. spent several years in Italy, Sicily and Greek, equipped with a DAI travel scholarship. His significant achievements included his identification of the relief of the Ara Pacis Augustae [ 1 I; and his publication of the catalogue made by his friend, Friedrich Matz the Elder, who had died young 12.). Shortly after his Gottingen habit., D. was appointed to Heidelberg to succeed Carl Bernhard ► Stark, and he worked there until his retirement in 1920 and beyond. He expanded the Archaeological Institute by instituting depts. of ancient history and art history, and he enlarged the collections with important new acquisitions, especially of small-scale ancient art works.

GEORG FERDINAND

What marked D. out, as a member of the generation that was able to broaden its horizons thanks to the abundant new finds from the major scientific excavations, was his versatility, which enabled him to construct a bridge between classical archaeology and prehistory, and to set the classical centres of Greece and Rome in a wider context of cultural geography. He also took part in studies of Minoan-Mycenaean culture. His lifelong passion, however, was the early history of Italy, especially the study of grave finds from various regions; this was the subject of his magnum opus 13). He wrote numerous articles on Italian subjects for Max Ebert's 1 5-volume Reallexikon der Vorgeschichte (1924-1932). He enjoyed warm relations with his Italian colleagues, and they held him in great esteem. In 1908, he was elected an external member of the Accademia dei Lincei in Rome. LW: [5. 444-447). E: Berlin, DAI; Heidelberg, Univ. WRITINGS

I I I Ueber einige Basreliefs und ein rom. Bauwerk der ersten Kaiserzeit, in: Miscellanea Capitolina, 1879, 11-19 12.I F. MATZ, Antike Bildwerke in Rom mit Ausschluss der gri>sseren Sammlungen, 3 vols., ed. and continued by F. DuHN, 1881-1882 13I Italische Griiberkunde, 192.4 (2.nd part posthumous 1939). SECONDARY

LITERATURE

141T. H6LSCHER, Friedrich von Duhn, in: LULLIES/ ScHIERING Arch. 100-101 Is] P. MtNGAZZINI, Federico von Duhn, in: Studi etruschi 2.2., 19 5 2, 443-447 161 P. ORSI, Federico von Duhn, in: Gnomon 6, 1930, 509-512. [7] 0.-W. VON V ACANO, Duhn, Friedrich Carl von, in: NOB 4, 1959, 180. HUBERTSZEMETHY

Diimmlcr, Gcorg Ferdinand German classical philologist and archaeologist. Born Halle an der Saale 10. 2. 1859, died Basel 1 5. 11. 1896. After attending the local Gymnasium, he studied at Halle and Strasbourg in 1877, Bonn from 1 878; doctorate 1882 and Staatsexamen 188 3, also Bonn. 188 3/84 study tours to Italy, 1884/85 to Greece and Cyprus (with DAI travel scholarship). 1886 habit. (archaeology and philology) at Giessen, 1890 prof. ext. there; 1 890-1 896 prof. ord. in classical philology at Basel. WORKS

AND

INFLUENCE

D.'s Bonn diss. with Hermann -► Usener arrived at perceptive and original conclusions on the relationship between Plato and the Socratic Antisthenes [ 1 ), which the philosopher Karl Joel developed systematically in a three-volume work,

D0MMLER,

GEORG FERDINAND

Der echte und der Xenophontische Sokrates ('The Real and the Xenophontic Socrates', 1893-1901), but which elsewhere met with a critical reception. Only recently has the idea that the young Plato was closely connected with Antisthenes found new favour (5. 409 f.]. D.'s tours of Greece and Cyprus led to successful excavations that produced important discoveries for prehistory and protohistory. His studies of a group of Italic vessels, the so-called 'Pontic Vessels' (3. Vol. 3, 2.39-2.61], brought new insights in the field of vase studies. The 1887 first publication of the oldest Latin inscription (on the Praeneste fibula) bears D.'s name [3. Vol. 2, 528-531). His many essays on Greek cultural history from 1892. were highly regarded, and accordingly in 1894 he received an offer from a publisher. D.'s early death prevented him from completing the planned handbook, entrusted only to him in view of his comprehensive expertise in all branches of ancient studies. The memorial page in D.'s Kleine Schriften bears the names of the most renowned German-speaking classical scholars. LW: (3. Vol. 1, XXV-XXIX).

168

• Panvinio, who became his main employer in 1 565/66. Panvinio introduced D. to ancient culture, as well as kindling his interest in iconography and architectural reconstructions. In 1 57 0 , D. worked for Bonifacio I Caetani on his palace at Cisterna. In 1572, working with Banolomeo Gritti, he directed the structural preparations for the conclave to elect Pope Gregory XIII. He Was engaged to restore the church of S. Salvatore in Thermis at Rome in 1574. D. returned to France in 1578, and worked as architect to the ducal family of Guise until 1 588. He designed a villa for Catherine de Medicis, for a site close to the Colline de Chaillot, but it was never built. From 1 596, D. was a royal architect for Henri IV. He made plans (never implemented) for the palace and gardens of the Tuileries, and completed the first part of the so-called Grande Galerie of the Louvre. WORKS

AND

INFLUENCE

D. made several engravings for Lafreri's Speculum Romanae magnificentiae (a printed pantheon of ancient art and a collector's album. 1 560s), including those of the Arch of Titus, the Tiber Island and the Mausoleum of Augustus WRITINGS [1] Antisthenica, 1882. [.:z.]Akademika. Beitrage (12. 56-58]. In 1565/66, he made etchings der sokratischen Schulen, zur Litteraturgeschichte for Panvinio's treatise on the Roman triumph I 889 [3] K. S., 3 vols., 1901. and circus games [ 1 3. 5 II]. D. did not refer to archaeological monuments for his depiction SECONDARY LITERATURE of the triumphal procession, but drew it from 141P. VON DER MOHLL, Ferdinand Diimmler, in: ancient written sources alone, unlike his 2.8 A. STAEHELIN (ed.), Professoren der Universitat illustrations of the circus, for which the archaeBasel, 1960, 2.64-2.65 Is] c. w. MOLLER, Die ological evidence was mostly taken from the Dichter und ihre lnterpreten, in: C. W. MOLLER, • Ligorio, which D. had K. s., 1999, 393-42.I [6] c. w. MOLLER, manuscripts of Pirro copied for Panvinio. Wilamowitz und Ferdinand Diimmler, in: C. W. D.'s 1573 map Specimen seu ... imago (1) is MOLLER, Nachlese, 2.009, 171-2.09 [7] F. STUDNICZKA, Zur Einftihrung, in: F. Diimmler, K. S., a bird's eye vedute of ancient Rome - evidently Vol. 1, 1901, Xl-XXlll [8] U. VON WILAMOWITZ- based on Panvinio's 1565 map of Rome, since the MoELLENDORFF, Rez. zu: Diimmler, K. S., 1901, list of monuments and their illustrations match. in: Deutsche Literaturzeitung 2.3, 1902., 344-347 He published another map of ancient Rome (2.), [9] P. WOLTERS, Aus Ferdinand Diimmlers Leben. but this time, although drawing on prior work Dichtungen, Briefe und Erinnerungen, 1917. by Ligorio and Panvinio, he presented his own CARLWERNER MOLLER visionary idea of Imperial Rome. He even used in it a fragment of the ancient (early 3rd cent.) Duperac, Etienne Roman city map Forma Urbis Romae, which had been discovered in 1562.. In 1577, D. published Also Du Perac; French artist, architect and a perspective map of contemporary Rome (5) antiquarian. Born Paris c. 153 5, died March showing the geographical conditions and scales, 1604. Trained as a landscape painted and a supreme example of its type (7]; [10. 57). engraver in Venice; member of the circle of D. 's Roman veduti had been published as early Giovanni Battista Angolo del Moro there [11. 39]; as 1575 in [3], with some 40 plates. The text disat Rome from 1559, then worked in France from cusses a range of opinions, describes the colum1 578 to his death. nar orders and marble types, gives measurements and reports on excavations and finds of ancient PROFESSIONAL CAREER statues and fragments. The plates do not follow a Nothing is known of D.'s family. He came tour, but are arranged toporaphically (9. 8 5-87). to Rome in 15 59, working first in the workshop The work was a great success. An expanded ediof Antonio Lafreri as an engraver. Through tion was quickly published in 1606 by Egidius Gabriele Faerno, he made contact with Onofrio Sadder [6). 1575 also saw the appearance of D.'s

DUPERAC, ETIENNE

album of drawings of antiquities 141-It contains three books: one each on ancient Egyptian works of art, antiquities and Roman architecture. The high points of D. 's antiquarian career were his 1574 map of ancient Rome and his Roman veduti, which exerted an incalculable influence on the idea of Rome in their day (until 1756; ---+ Piranesi). D. conducted no antiquarian research of his own, and he was not a scholar in the academic sense. His achievement lay in contributing, with his engravings, to the pictorial depiction and transmission of what was known of antiquities in his day. WRITINGS

[1) Specimen seu perfecta urbis antiquae imago, Rome 1573 [2.) Urbis Romae sciographia ex antiquis monumentis accuratissime delineata, Rom 1574 [3) I vestigi dell'antichita di Roma raccolti et ritratti in perspettiva con ogni diligentia, Rom I 575 [4) Illustration des fragments antiques, 1575 (original in Musee du Louvre, inv. 2.6372.-26477; copy in BNF, Ms. fr. 382) [s) Nova urbis Romae descriptio, Rome 1577 [6] Vestigi delle antichita di Roma, Tivoli, Pozzuolo et altri luochi, ed. E. SADELER,Prague 1606 (et al.).

SECONDARY

LITERATURE

(7) F. EHRLE(ed.), Roma prima di Sisto V. La pianta di Roma du Perac-Lafrery del 1577, 1908 (8) A. P. FRUTAZ,Le piante di Roma, 1962 [9] V. HEENES, Antike in Bildern. Illustrationen in antiquarischen Werken des 16. und 17. Jh.s, 2.003 [10) E. LURIN, Etienne Duperac vedutista e cartografo. La costruzione della pianta di Roma del I 577, in: C. DE SETA/ B. MARIN (ed.), Lecitta dei cartografi. Studi e ricerche di storia urbana, 2008, 49-59 [ 11] E. LuRIN, Un homme entre deux mondes. Etienne Duperac, peintre, graveur et architecte, en ltalie et en France (c. 1535?-1604), in: M. BAYARD/ H. ZERNER (ed.), Renaissance en France, Renaissance franttingen and Berlin, he studied classics from 19 12. to 191 4. He was a soldier during World War I, finishing as a lieutenant. He completed his studies at Ti.ibingen (1919-192.0). In April 1919, he married Eva Sommer, whose father was the first Jew to be appointed Oberlandesgerichtsrat in Prussia. At Tiibingen, E. was a student of Wilhelm ➔ Weber, but was critical of Weber's "cult of great personalities" [ 17. 2.08]. He forged dose friendships with other students of Weber's at this time, including Fritz Taeger and Joseph Vogt [II. 5 f.). Taking his habit. at Frankfurt in 192.2., E. became prof. of ancient history at the German Univ. in Prague in 192.9. E. and his family left Prague in 19 39, shortly before the German annexation, and moved to Britain (see below: M. 52.-57). Over the ensuing years, relatives of Eva E. fell victim to the National Socialist campaign. From 1941, E. taught classics at the Univ. of Durham (King's College, Newcastle upon Tyne), then from 1946 at Bedford College, London, initially as a lecturer, then as prof. of ancient history. He acquired British citizenship, as did his two sons, both of whom adopted the surname Elton during the war. The elder, Geoffrey Rudolph Elton, Regius Prof. of Modern History from 1983 to 1988, was one of the leading British post-war historians. Although E. turned down an appointment to the Univ. of Munich in 194 7 [ 2.0. 1 24 f.], he soon resumed his contacts with Germany. He lectured as a guest at

VICTOR

German univs., and became co-editor of the periodical Historia. The memoirs of his wife are an important document for E.'s biography (see below: M). WORK

E. 's Ti.ibingen diss. was on the Greek understanding of law in the Archaic Period, which he sought to clarify by his analysis of the central terms themis, dike and n6mos I I I. Greek history remained his primary field of research. His habit. thesis explored the new order of the Greek states in the 6th cent. BC [2), seeking to demonstrate that around the mid-6th cent., a single Spartan refounded the polis by a comprehensive programme of reforms, as Cleisthenes did at Athens. This new order, he argued, was lent legitimacy by the myth of Lycurgus. E. distilled his research on Spartan history in his important Realenzyklopiidie article on Sparta I3 I- His monograph on the Greek state deserves recognition as a seminal work of Greek constitutional history l4). After 1930, E. took issue with the racialist theories of Helmut ► Berve l17. 2121. Around the same time, he abandoned his idealistic image of Sparta, and in 1934 he formulated a thoroughgoing critique of the Spartan political system I 131Further important monographs appeared in Britain: The People of Aristophanes I6 I and Sophocles and Pericles )8); these won E. international recognition. l6) collates all the remarks in the comedies concerning individual social groupings, family, neighbourliness, money, property, war and peace, and analyses them to arrive at an account of everyday life. In I8 I, E. uses a comparison of two prominent personalities to show the contradictions and tensions inherent in Classical Greece. It is characteristic of E.'s understanding of history that Solon and Socrates are given as the figures representative of the Archaic and Classical Periods respectively in the title of his history of Greece in the 6th and 5th cents. I 101, His last work to appear was the essay collection ( 12.), which also contains the essay Remarks on the Meaning of History. Here, E. explains his view of history and its relation to religion. INFLUENCE

Berve immediately rejected E.'s account of Spartan history in [21 in a review ( 15 J. But more recently, some scholars have accepted the theory of a profound social and political reformation in 6th-cent. Sparta. One example is Moses ► Finley, who wrote of a "sixth-century revolution" in Sparta [21. 162.). The reissue of Der Staat der Griechen ( 196 5), which became a standard work [24. 436-438], and the translation of his books led to E. 's exerting considerable influence on German classical studies after 1960. His

EHRENBERG,

VICTOR

students in Britain included Geoffrey ► De Ste. Croix. M: Eva Ehrenberg, Sehnsucht - mein geliebtes Kind. Bekenntnisse und Erinnerungen, 1963. LW: Ancient Society and Institutions. Studies Presented to Victor Ehrenberg on His 7 5th Birthday, 1966, XI-XV. E: Univ. of Sussex, Centre for German-Jewish Studies, The Elton/Ehrenberg Papers.

Westminster, 1782-1786 studies at St. Andrews and Paris (law), 1786/87 in Dresden. 1790-1807 Scottish Representative Peer in the House of Lords (Tory). 1791-1794 Envoy-Extraordinary to the court at Vienna and to Brussels (Austrian Netherlands). 179 5-1798 MinisterPlenipotentiary at the Prussian court in Berlin, 1799-1803 ambassador to Constantinople. 1803-1806 captivity in France, after which he retired to private life.

WRITINGS

[1] Die Rechtsidee im friihen Griechentum (diss. Tiibingen), 1921 [:z.] Neugriinder des Staates (Habil. thesis Frankfurt), 1925 [3] Sparta, in: RE 3A, 1929, 1373-1453 [4) Der griechische und der hellenistische Staat, 1932 (Der Staat der Griechen, 1 1965; English: The Greek State, 1969) [s] Ost und West. Studien zur geschichtlichen Problematik der Antike, 1935 [6] The People of Aristophanes, 1943 (7] Aspects of the Ancient World, 1946 (81 Sophocles and Pericles, 1954 [9] Polis und lmperium. Beirrage zur Alten Geschichte, 1965 [10) From Solon to Socrates. Greek History and Civilization during the Sixth and Fifth Centuries B. C., 1968 (11] Joseph Vogt, in: ANRW V1, 1972, 5-13 (appendix) (11) Man, State and Deity, 1974 (13] Ein totalitarer Staat, 1934, in: K. CHRIST(ed.), Sparta, 1986, 217-228.

WORKS

AND

INFLUENCE

With his passionate enthusiasm for ancient art, E. hoped to use his position as ambassador to Constantinople to bring new inspiration for artistic activity to his homeland (3. 18-22J. He duly assembled a team of scholars and draughtsmen, intending to study and document the monuments of Ottoman Greece in the tradition of the Greek expedition of James ~► Stuart and Nicholas -► Revett (1751-1753). In May 1801 he obtained a firman (official letter) from the Sublime Porte granting permission for his colleagues to conduct extensive studies at Athens, including on the Acropolis, which was a military zone. Faced with the ongoing wholesale destruction of the ancient remains there, E.'s chaplain Philip Hunt, with the help of the SECONDARY LITERATURE draughtsman Giovanni Battista Lusieri, began [ 14) G. AUDRING et al. (ed.), Eduard Meyer, Victor removing and transporting away the sculptural Ehrenberg. Ein Briefwechsel, 1914-1930, 1990 decorations from the Parthenon, and some from [15] H. BERVE,Rez. Ehrenberg, Neugri.inder des Staates, in: Gnomon 1, 1925, 305-327 [16] H. BERVF., the Erechtheion. Intermittent difficulties with the Rez. Ehrenberg, Ost und West, in: Philologische Ottoman authorities were overcome in 1810 by Wochenschrift 57, 1937, 650-655 (17] CHRIST the issue of a second firman from Constantinople GGW 1996, 208-216 [18] CHRIST Hel., 195I8]. E. offered the sculptures, which were trans[19) CHRISTKlio, 74-77 202, 271-273; 313-314 ported to London in trying circumstances during [:z.o)K. EHLING, 'Vielleicht werde ich auch einmal wiethe war against Napoleon, to the British governder Deutschland besuchen konnen.' Ein Brief Victor ment [ 1 ], but it was only after heated debates in Ehrenbergs vom 20. Februar 1947, in: Historia 53, 2004, 121-128 (21] M. I. FINLEY,Sparta, in: M. I. the House of Commons in 181 6 that they were purchased for the British Museum. The purchase FINLEY,The Use and Abuse of History, 1975, sum failed by far to cover E.'s expenses, which 161-177 [22] P. R. FRANKE, Victor Ehrenberg. Ein deutsches Gelehrtenschicksal 1891-1976, led to his financial ruin. Despite fierce criticism in: R. ScHNEIDER(ed.), Juden in Deutschland. of "Plunderer" E., especially from Lord Byron Lebenswelten und Einzelschicksale, 1994, 309(Chi/de Harold's Pilgrimage, 1812) - criticism 331 [:z.3]S. REBENICH, Ehrenberg, Victor Leopold, that has yet to die down - the so-called •Elgin in: DBC 1, 2004, 274-278 [:z.4}H. ScHAFER, Victor Marbles' have exerted a lasting influence from Ehrenbergs Beitrag zur historischen Erforschung London (4), facilitating a new understanding of des Griechentums, in: H. SCHAFER,Probleme der original Greek sculpture of the 5th cent. BC. Alten Geschichte. Gesammelte Abhandlungen E: London, British Library; Edinburgh, und Vortrage, ed. U. WEIDEMANN, 1963, 428-440 National Archives of Scotland. [:z.s)J. VOGT, Victor Ehrenberg, in: Gnomon 48, 1976, 423-426. HELMUTHSCHNEIDER

Eichmann v. Enzinas, Francisco de Elgin, Thomas Bruce, 7th Earl of Lord Elgin; British art collector and diplomat. Born Broomhall, Fife (Scotland) 20. 7. 1766, died 4. 11. 1841 in Paris. School at Harrow and

WRITINGS

(1} Memorandum on the Subject of the Earl of Elgin's Pursuits in Greece (anonymous), 1810 (revised ed. 1815). SECONDARY

LITERATURE

[:z.]S. CHECKLANI>, The Elgins, 1766-1917. of Aristocrats, Proconsuls and Their Wives, 1-107 (3) L. GALLO,Lord Elgin and Ancient Architecture. The Elgin Drawings at the

A Tale 1988, Greek British

ENMANN,

1 77

Museum, 2.009 141 J. RoTHf,NBERG,'Descensus ad terram'. The Acquisition and Reception of the Elgin Marbles, 1977 Is) A. H. SMITH,Lord Elgin and His Collection, in: JHS 36, 1916, 163-372. (6) W. ST. CLAIR, Lord Elgin and the Marbles, 1967 ('199R) 17] W. ST. CLAIR,Bruce, Thomas, in: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography 8, 2.004, 3 2.9-3 3 1 [ 8) D. WnuAMS, Lord Elgin 's Firman, in: Journal of the History of Collections 2.1, 2.009, 49-76. DANIEL GRAEPLER

Elmsley, Peter British classical philologist and church historian. Born Hampstead (London) 1773, died Oxford 8. 3. 182.5. School and studies of classical philology at Westminster and Christ Church, Oxford (BA 1794, MA 1797). Holy orders 1797 and benefice at Great Horkesley (Essex). From 1816, some years spent in Italy and France, 181 8 in Florence. , 8 14 Fellow of the Royal Society. 182.3-182.5 prof. of ancient history at Oxford. CAREER,

WORKS

AND

INFLUENCE

E. was named after his uncle, Peter E., a renowned bookseller of the day, and he was also his heir. After his studies, E. left univ. and lived in Kent until 1816. He travelled to France and Italy from 1816, studying a variety of manuscripts on Sophocles and evaluating them for his editions. He took part in the work on the papyri from Herculaneum at Naples in 1819. In spite of his erudition in ecclesiastical history, E. was refused the Regius Chair of Divinity, one of the oldest and most prestigious professorships at Oxford, in 182.2. (7. 2.87). From 182.3 until his death, he held the Camden Chair of Ancient History, and was Principal of St. Alban Hall in Oxford. The main focus of E.'s work was his editions of the Greek dramatists Sophocles and Euripides (Heracleidae (2.), Medea [3], Bacchae (4)) and their scholia. As well as his published articles, there are also many notes and emendations in E.'s estate (collected at the Bodleian Library in Oxford), some recently published (BJ. Alongside his editorial work, E. collaborated on the periodical the Edinburgh Review. He was influential for being the first philologist to study the so-called Laurentian manuscripts, from the library of the same name in Florence, and using it for his text editions (9). This manuscript is regarded today (albeit not without dispute) as the archetype for all manuscripts of the Sophoclean tragedies. E. was the first to recognize its value to the study of Sophocles (first mentioned in the introduction to his edition of Sophocles' OC (5)). E. maintained close contacts with Richard -+ Porson, Robert Southey and other scholars of his time, but there were allegations that he adopted

....

ALEXANDER

emendations from Porson for his edition of Aristophanes' Acharnians [ 1) without acknowledgment. An anonymous letter to the Church of l:.ngland Quarterly Review ( 183 9) accuses him of copying, but provides no substantive evidence for the charge of plagiarism (6). WRITINGS

II I

Aristophanis comoedia Acharnenses (edition), 1809 ('1819) 12.) Euripidis Heraclidae (edition), 1813 (•182.8) 131 Euripidis Medea (edition), 1818 (•182.8) 141 Euripidis Bacchae (edition), 182.1 Is] Sophoclis Oedipus Coloneus (edition), 182.3. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

161 M. L. CLARKE,Greek Studies in England, 1700-1830, 1945 171 C. Cot.LARD,Elmsley, Peter, in: DBC 1, 2.004, 2.86-2.88 18) P. J. F1NGLASS, Unpublished Emendations by Peter Elmsley on Euripides and Aristophanes, in: CQ, 2.007, 742.Hist., Vol. 3, 1908, 394-395. 746 19] SANDYS MARCEL HUMAR

Engels, Friedrich v. Marx, Karl Enmann, Alexander Baltic German ancient historian. Born Pernau (Livonia, Russian Empire; now Piirnu, Estonia) 2.0. 8. 1856, died St. Petersburg 1. 7. 1903. Studied history at Univ. of Dorpat (Tartu), especially with Franz Riihl and Ludwig Mendelssohn. Graduated 1 877 with an award-winning theBerlin, sis (1). Studied abroad, 1880-1883: Paris, London and Tiibingen (with Alfred von Gutschmid), presumably with a scholarship [ 11. 10 5 ). Worked from 1883 in the library of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg; 1886 doctorate at Dorpat with a thesis on Eastern influences in the cult of Aphrodite on Cyprus (4). 1883-1888 teacher of Latin at St. Katherine School in St. Petersburg, then from 1888 teacher of history and geography at the Lutheran School there. WORKS

AND

INFLUENCE

Although E. 's works on early Greek and Roman history were harshly criticized [ 11. 106 ff., fn. 17 and 2.1, 113), for their combination of archaeological, mythological, linguistic and historical elements [4]; [6], his name remains indelibly associated with his reconstruction of an Imperial history, the so-called 'E.'s Kaisergeschichte' (Enmannsche Kaisergeschichte, written between AD 337 and 361). E. deduced from linguistic and thematic correspondences that this sequence of emperor biographies was a source used by Aurelius Victor, Eutropius and the authors of the Historia Augusta and the Epitome de Caesaribus (2.). E. was also interested in geographical onomatology, ancient Italic

ENMANN,

ALEXANDER

ethnography (5) and mythology (9). Latterly, he returned to intensive study of the early history of Rome [7 ], and in this context also worked with epigraphic sources (8). E. was in contact with Heinrich -> Nissen and Ulrich van -• Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, whom he provided with references to manuscripts in the library of the St. Petersburg Academy [ 1 o. 6 3]. Michael --. Rostovtzeff, who obtained his first professorship in 1903 at the Univ. of St. Petersburg, recalled with gratitude the encouragement of E. [II. 113 ], who was denied a univ. career.

WORKS

AND

INFLUENCE

E. (actually Alberto) of Ascoli in the Italian Marche came from a lowly background. He was initially educated at Ascoli, then at Florence with Francesco • Filelfo. After teaching for a short time at Perugia in 1440, he returned to Florence and taught the sons of Cosimo de' Medici, Piero and Giovanni. It was probably while at Florence that he encountered Tommaso Parentucelli, the future Pope Nicholas V, for whom he later worked. On the Pope's behalf, E. made two journeys, to the East and to Germany and Northern Europe, searching for undiscovered manuscripts WRITINGS of ancient authors. The main hope of these expe[1] Untersuchungen iiber die Quellen des Pompejus ditions was to rediscover the lost books of Livy. T rogus fiir die griechische und sicilische Geschichte, What he actually found at Hersfeld was the soDorpat 1 880 (Part 2.: Ober die Quellen der sicilis- called Codex Hersfeldensis, containing previchen Geschichte bei Pompeius Trogus, 1880) ously lost minor writings of T acitus (Agricola, (2.) Eine verlorene Geschichte der romischen Kaiser Germania, Dialogus de oratoribus) and fragund das Buch De viris illustribus urbis Romae. ments of Suetonius' treatise De grammaticis et Quellenstudien, in: Philologus Suppl.-Vol. 4, 1883, of whose existence Gian Francesco rhetoribus, 338-510 [3) Geographische Homerstudien in -+ Poggio Bracciolini already knew. E. was able to Pausanias, in: Jb. fiir classische Philologie 30, 141 Kritische Versuche zur iilt- acquire the MS and bring it to Italy along with a 1884, 497-52.0 esten griechischen Geschichte. 1. Kypros und MS of Apicius' De re coquinaria, which he found der Ursprung des Aphroditekultus (diss. Dorpat; at Fulda, Porphyry's commentary on Horace, Memoires de I' Acad., ser. 7, Vol. 34'13 ), 1886 found in the Cathedral Library at Augsburg. ls) Zur Ethnographie Altitaliens. I. Sicilien and a copy of the Pseudo-Virgilian Elegiae in und Latium, in: Jahresbericht der Reformierten Maecenatem. E. himself considered these works 16I Zur romischen Kirchenschule, 1891-1892. to be of very little value. Moreover, his Papal Konigsgeschichte, St. Petersburg 189:z. (extract patron died shortly after E.'s return to Rome in from the annual report of the Reformierten 14 5 5, and his successor, Callixtus III, had March Kirchenschule, published separately) 17I The no interest in the studia humanitatis. E. thereLegend of the Roman King (St. Petersburg, fore sold the Codex Hersfeldensis quire by quire Journal of the Ministry of Education), 1894-1896 [8] Die neuentdeckte archaische Inschrift des romisto interested parties. All trace of the manuscript chen Forums, 1899 (extract from the Bulletin de was then lost until a quire was rediscovered m )' Acad. Imperiale des Sciences de St. Petersbourg, 1902 as part of the Codex Aesinas l1]. ser. 5, Vol. n/5, 1899, :z.63-2.74) [9) Niobe und Niobiden, in: RoscHER's Ausfiihrliches Lcxikon der griechischen und romischen M ythologie, Vol. 3/r, 1902., 372.-396. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

[10) M. BRAUNet al. (ed.), 'Lieber Prinz'. Der

Briefwechsel zwischen Hermann Diets und Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, 1995 [11) J. F. GILLIAM,Rostovtsev's Obituary of Enmann, in: A. AtF0LDI / J. STRAUB(ed.), Historia-AugustaColloquium 1977/78, 1980, 103-114. HEINRICH

SCHLANGE-SCHONINGEN

Enoch von Ascoli Enoch Asculanus;

Italian

Humanist.

Born

c. 1400 at Ascoli Piceno, died there c. 1457. Educated at Florence; teaching (poetry and rhetoric) at Perugia c. 1440. Tutor to the sons of Cosimo de' Medici in Florence. Thereafter working at Rome in the service of Pope Nicholas V. 1451-145 5 searching for manuscripts in Northern and Eastern Europe. Returned to Rome in 14 5 5 with the Codex Herfeldensis.

I1) G. BRllGNOI.I, La vicenda del codice Hersfeldense. in: Rivista di cultura classica e medioevalc 3, i:961, 68--90 [2) M. LEHNERDT,Enoch von Ascoli und die 'Germania' des Tacitus, in: Hermes 33, 1898, 499-505 131R. SABBADINI, Le scoperte dei codici latini e greci ne' secoli XIV e XV, 2. vols., 19051914 (Vol. 1, 57, 109, 140 ff., 150, 2.09, 2.12; Vol. 2., 2.9) 141 P. Vm, Enoch d'Ascoli, in: DBI 42., 1993, 695-699. DOROTHEE

GALL

Ensslin, Wilhelm German ancient historian. Born Aalen 9. 1 2.. 8. 1. 1965. Studied history and classical philology at Ti.ibingen, Berlin, Munich and Strasbourg, his teachers including Eduard -> Meyer, Ernst - ► Kornemann and Karl Johannes Neumann, who supervised his doctorate, which he took in 1911 at Strasbourg with a thesis on the legislation and Imperial administration of the Emperor Julian. He thereafter taught in a Gymnasium. After war service and 1885, died Kirchheim

179

ENZINAS,

his return from captivity in France, he was an assistant master at the Gymnasium Phi/ippinum in Marburg. Habil. 1923 at Marburg Univ. I 1 ). From 1930, prof. of ancient history at Graz; from 1936 in Erlangen, 1940-1943 dean there. From 1943 prof. at Wi.irzburg. From 1940 a member of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences, and from 1964 of the British Academy. WORKS

AND

INFLUENCE

E. was one of the leading scholars of late antiquity of his day. He rarely addressed Greek history, Imperial history rather more frequently, especially on matters of administrative history. His specialities were the history of ideas, especially in the late Empire (e.g. 13); (71), and relations between Rome and the Persians 151 and Germans 141, in which field he rejected racialist models in spite of the circumstances of the time, although he did not avoid terms like Volksgeist. E. emphasized that the Germanic tribes long made a vital contribution to the survival of the Roman Empire. His biography of the Ostrogothic King Theoderic the Great was widely received, and views its subject to a great extent in a Roman light I4 ). His study I3 I, too, remains very influential. Casting its nets widely across intellectual history even as far as the ancient Near East, it examines the interrelation of concepts of divine monarchy and divine grace. His many Rea/enzyklopiidie articles on late-antique prosopography and Roman administration remain standards to this day, as do his articles in Volume 1 2 of the first edition of the Cambridge Ancient History. WRITINGS

[ 1] Zur Geschichtsschreilmng und Weltanschauung des Ammianus Marcellinus, 192.3 ( 1 1971) 12.I Zur Ostpolitik des Kaisers Diokletian, 194 2. I3 I GottKaiser und Kaiser von Gottes Gnaden, 1943 (4] Theoderich der Grosse, 1 1947 ( 1 1959) lsl Zu den Kriegen des Sassaniden Schapur I. Vorgetragen am 4. Juli 1947, 1949 [6I Die Religionspolitik des Kaisers Theodosius des Grossen, 195 3 171 Der Kaiser in der Spatantike, in: HZ 177, 1954, 449-468. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

(8] CHRIST, RomGG 148-150 19I A. LIPPOLD, Wilhelm Ensslin, in: Gnomon 37, 1965, 637-639. HARTMUT LEPPIN

Enzinas, Francisco de Franciscus Dryander, Fran~oys du Chesne, Franciscus Quernaeus/Eichmann/van Eyck; Spanish Humanist and Bible translator. Born Burgos 151 8 or 1520, died Strasbourg 15 5 2. Studied at Leuven from 1539, then Wittenberg

FRANCISCO

DE

from I 54 1. Lecturer in Greek at Cambridge, 1 548/49. Returned to Strasbourg 1550. CAREER

AND

WORKS

E.' father, Juan, was a successful merchant, and his stepmother Beatriz de Santa Cruz came from a prominent bourgeois family. His relatives included Pedro de Lerma, the first Chancellor of the Univ. of Alcala de Henares and later dean of the theological faculty at the Sorbonne. His influential family connections frequently proved useful to E. in the course of his eventful career. After initial studies (at Paris and Alcala?), E. matriculated at the Collegium Trilingue at Leuven in June 1539, the first certain evidence of his educational career. At Leuven, he assumed the Hellenizing byname Dryander (from the Spanish encina, 'oak'), and together with his brother Diego, proceeded to publish writings by John Calvin and Martin Luther. The brothers fled the city in 1541 to escape the ensuing scandal and the Inquisition. Diego continued to publish Protestant texts, which earned him execution at the stake in 1547. E. too remained loyal to the Reformation, and went to Wittenberg, where he studied with Philipp .. Melanchthon and lived at his house. Melanchthon encouraged E.' translation of the New Testament fro Greek into Spanish, which was published at Antwerp in 1543 (E/ nuevo testamento de nuestro Redemptor y Salvador Jesu Christo). Hoping for an Imperial privilege, E. submitted a copy to Emperor Karl V. However, the Catholic Church at the time considered vernacular translations of the New Testament to be heretical, so the Emperor passed the matter to his confessor, the Dominican Pedro de Soto, who had E. arrested in Brussels. At the request of Melanchthon, to whom he returned on his escape from prison in 1545, he described his experiences and the persecution of Protestants in the Netherlands in general in a treatise in the style of a letter addressed to Melanchthon (2(. This piece, written in simple but elegant Latin, dates from July 1545, but was only published after E.' death ( 1558 in French translation; 1862/63 Latin/French I I I). The Historia, like E.' account of the murder of the Protestant theological Juan Diaz (Historia vera de morte sancti viri loannis Diazii Hispani, I 546 (4)), continued to be included in Protestant books of martyrs until the 19th cent. After his escape, E. spent the rest of his life travelling throughout Europe, on the run from the Inquisition and on a quest for publishers for his translations of ancient works. Along the way, he met other important Reformation figures besides Melanchthon, such as Martin Bucer, Heinrich Bullinger and Joachim Vadian, who supported and promoted his work. He also

ENZINAS,

FRANCISCO

180

DE

probably met Calvin at least once. E.' correspondence bears witness to these contacts with scholars. His travels took him to Cambridge, and several times to Basel and Zurich. He had married at Strasbourg in 1 548, and he returned there in 1 5 50, to found a publishing house for Spanish literature. Two years later, however, he died, in his early thirties, of plague. In spite of the appalling circumstances with which E. had to contend because of his confessional commitment, he was an exceedingly productive translator of ancient literature. From 1550, he published a significant number of Spanish versions of authors such as Plutarch (Parallel Lives), Lucian, Livy, Caesar and Florus.

Temporarily excused the obligation to reside at the canonry; 149 5-1 505 studies, private teaching and publication work in Paris (with interruptions; academic graduation not securely 1505-1506 first visits to attested); 1499-1500, England. 1 502. refused an offer of a post lecruring at Leuven from the prof. of theology Adrian of Utrecht (the future Pope Hadrian VI). 1 5061 509 in Italy: Turin (where he was awarded his theology doctorate, 4. 9. 1 506), Venice (working with Aldus Manutius), Padua, Siena, Rome. teaching (Greek, Latin and Naples; 1511-1514 theology) at Queen's College, Cambridge. Returned from England 1514, finally cutting ties (in writing) with Stein canonry. First visit to the Holy Roman Empire (via Mainz. Strasbourg and Selestat to Basel). Beginning of WRITINGS ( 1] Memoires de Francisco de Enzinas, 3 vols. collaboration with Johannes Froben. Return to (Latin/French), ed. C.-A. CAMPAN, 1862.-1863 the Netherlands in 151 6, named royal coun(2.) Historia de statu Belgico deque religione cillor to Archduke Karl (the future Emperor Hispanica, ed. F. SocAs, 1991 (3I Epistolario, Karl V); 1517-152.1 at Leuven, where he matricutrans. and comm. I. J. GARCIA PtNtll.A, 199 s lated to the univ. 30. 8. 1517 as professor sacrae (4) Verdadera historia de la muerte del santo varon theologiae (i.e. was admitted to the theological Juan Diaz, por C. Senarclens, ed. and comm. I. J. faculty - the title does not imply a teaching GARCIAPINILLA,2.008 (orig. 1546). post). 1517 lent his support to the foundation of the Collegium Trilingue. 15 2.1, after a short stay SECONDARY LITERATURE (May-October) at Anderlecht, moved to Basel. (s) j. BERGUACAVER, Franciso de Enzinas. Un 152.9 moved from there to Frei burg because of humanista reformado en la Europa de Carlos V., 2.006 (6) E. MHMER, Spanish Reformers of Two the introduction of the Reformation at Basel. Centuries from 152.0. Their Lives and Writings Returned to Basel 153 5, refused cardinalate. According to the Late Benjamin B. Wiffen's Plan and with the Use of His Materials, Vol. 1, 1874, PEDAGOGY, RHETORIC, SATIRE 133-184 171 I. J. GARdA PINILLA/ J. L. NELSON, E.' programme was genuinely Humanist. His The Textual Tradition of the Historia de statu fundamental quest was for a reform of society, Belgico et religione Hispanica by Francisco de which he felt to be in crisis. The essential preEnzinas (Dryander), in: Humanistica Lovaniensia condition for such a reform was a renewal of 50, 2.001, 2.67-2.86 (8) J. L. NELSON,Francisco de language and education, founded on the recourse Enzinas and Spanish Evangelical Humanism before to antiquity E. laid the foundations for his own the Council of Trent (diss. Manchester), 1999 (9) J. L. NELSON,Enzinas, Francisco de (Known as Humanist education at the canonry of Stein. Francis Dryander), in: Oxford Dictionary of National where he acquainted himself thoroughly with (10) S. Os1EJA,Das Biography 18, 2.004, 471-472. ancient pagan and Christian literature, and with literarische Bild des verfolgten Glaubensgenossen the writings of many Italian Humanists. This was bei den protestantischen Schriftstellern der Romania also where he wrote his first works, including zur Zeit der Reformation, 2.002., 2.65-2.75. URSULA TR0GER

Erasmus of Rotterdam Erasmus, Desiderius; Dutch Humanist, theologian, philosopher and philologist. Born Rotterdam 2.7'2.8. 10. 1466 (probably correctly as in (2.9), rather than 1467 or 1469), died Basel 11/12.. 7. 1536. School 1478-1487 at Deventer (chapter school of St. Lebuin); from 1484, after his mother's death, at ' s-Hertogenbosch (school of the Brethren of the Common Life). 14871488 entered canonry of Stein at Gouda, professing as canon-regular in the Augustinian rite. Holy orders 2.5. 4. 1492.; 1493 named secretary to the Bishop of Cambrai, Hendrik van Bergen.

his Antibarbari (only published I 5 20 in a revised form), on the value of literary studies [10). While studying in Paris, he met Humanists including Fausto Andrelini, Jacques --. Lefevre d'Etaples and Robert Gaguin. Besides his study of theolo~·, his private teaching was of particular importance here. It was in this context that he wrote the original versions of several textbooks that would later become highly influential: Colloquia [9); De conscribendis epistolis (Cambridge 152.1); De copia verborum (Paris 151 2.), a precis of Lorenzo _,.Valla's Elegantiae. E. also published his first texts during his Paris years: in 1 49 5 a letter appended to Robert Gaguin's De origine et gestis Francorum and in 1496 his poetry collection De casa natalitia Jesu.

ERASMUS

181

He developed his knowledge of Greek, probably especially under the influence of his English friends. The first fruits of this work are most clearly observable in the Adagia. Whereas the first edition of this collection of aphorisms ( 1 500) is limited to around Soo mostly Latin examples (1), the new I 508 edition contains some 3,300 (3 ], most of which are now by Greek authors. This work was prepared and published during E.' stay at Venice. It is not easy to determine exactly how important E.'s stay in Italy was to his intellectual development, not least because E. himself never addressed this question directly and left only fragmentary and sporadic records of his experiences there. It is important to remember that E. did not come to Italy as a young student on an educational tour, but at the age of 40 and with his intellectual profile already largely established. For all his keen interest in the homeland of Renaissance Humanism, E. was not blind to the ills of the contemporary Catholic Church. It may therefore be no coincidence that his most famous treatise, and one with which he cemented his reputation as a satirical contemporary observer, appeared immediately after his stay in Italy. This was the Moriae encomium (Paris 1511 ), a paean of self-praise by and to the personification of Folly. On the one hand, it comprises an expose of foolishness in all social strata and groupings, all the way up to the highest political and religious figures, but it also contains an exhortation to open oneself to the 'folly of God' (in the Pauline sense). His typically Humanist faith in schooling and education is reflected in E.' prince's mirror of 151 6 [6 J. His literary talent for witticism, irony and satire also emerged later in the revised versions of the Colloquia (especially after 1 522; first, albeit not authorized edition 1518 [91), in which he brilliantly exploits the potential of the dialogue form to turn didactic discussions among students into a literary instrument of social criticism. His great treatise of stylistic criticism, Ciceronianus ( 1528) [ 12 ], contains a sermon, written in strict Ciceronian style, which E. had heard in Rome in 1 509, as the starting-point for an entertaining dialogue on matters of correct style and literary imitation. E. here argues against a restrictive Ciceronianism, but also explores the problems of reception of a pagan literary heritage in a Christian world. Finally, his last great treatise, the Ecclesiastes ( 1 5 3 5) [ 14 [, deals with the correct use of ancient rhetorical equipment for the appropriate presentation of central themes of Christian theology in a sermon. PHILOSOPHIA

CHRISTIANA

E. strove for a complete fusion of Humanist culture and Christian philosophy of life, and

OF

ROTTERDAM

consequently developed his concept of a philosophia Christiana, a practical philosophy far removed from all speculative theology, aimed at leading the Christian to true happiness through the imitation of Christ. The first harbingers of this viewpoint are detectable in his early work Enchiridion [2], which received little attention at the time, but has been one of E.' best-known works since the publication of its 151 8 edition: This treatise offers instructions for leading an authentic Christian life, and describes the 'weapons' a Christian needs for this. The basis for leading such a life are the imitation of the 'model' of Christ, and knowledge of Holy Scripture. As he discusses the issue of familiarity with the Bible, he also argues the value of reading the classics as preparation for Bible study. Early as it is, this work also already displays to the full E.'s distaste for the worldly excesses of the religious institutions of his day, and his disdain for many superficialities of religion. The potential value to the philosophia Christiana of revisiting classical literature was something E. demonstrated not least through his own philosophical activities. Following in the footsteps of Lorenzo + Valla, he applied philological methods developed by the Renaissance Humanists to the source texts of authentic Christianity, above all the Bible itself. After rediscovering Valla's Annotationes in Nol/Um Testamentum (1449) in the Park Abbey at Leuven and publishing it in 1 505, Biblical philology became an abiding interest, leading in 1516 to the publication of his edition of the Greek New Testament alongside three important introductory texts (Paraclesis, Methodus and Apologia), a new Latin translation and explanatory notes [7]. It is apparent from the dedication to Pope Leo X and the Paraclesis that E. meant the project as an integral part of his efforts to popularize his philosophia Christiana. E.' many editions of Greek and Latin patristic and other early Christian authors should be understood in the same spirit, and E. himself considered them part of the core of his scholarly work. These are editions (and, for Greek authors, Latin translations) of Jerome ( 1516), Eucherius (1517), Basil the Great (1518 and 1532), Cyprian (1520), Arnobius (152.2), Hilarius of Poitiers (1523),John Chrysostom (1525-1533), Irenaeus/ Eirenaios (1526), Athanasius (1527), Origen ( 1 5 2. 7 and posthumously 1536 ), Ambrose ( 152.7 ), Augustine (1528-1529), Lactantius (1529) and Gregory of Nazianzus ( 1531 ). Erasmian writings that are relatively little read and studied today include his commented paraphrases of the New Testament (several separate editions from 1517 to 1524), which E. himself considered a particularly important part of his output. He also made some use of this commentary form in his

ENZINAS,

FRANCISCO

DE

182.

commentaries on the Psalms (several separate editions from I 515 to 15 36). CONTROVERSIES

AND

PLEAS

FOR

PEACE

E. campaigned publicly against abuses in church and society from In Praise of Folly onwards, and turned his fire on defenders of traditional monasticism, academic theologians and even the ecclesiastical hierarchy. In several writings, he also pleaded for harmony and peace within the Christian congregation. Appeals for peace are found even in E.' earliest writings, e.g. the Oratio de pace et discordia written at Stein, and echo also in important texts like the adagium Dulce helium inexpertis. The most complete exposition of this concern is found in his work on political ethics, with the description of an ideal Christian world order in his 1516 Querela pacis l8). E. became increasingly entangled in theological controversies, beginning during his Leuven years (1517-152.1) and especially in the wake of publication of his New Testament (1516). He responded to these controversies in some 40 Apologiae. Although these defences contain much theological substance, it appears that in essence these disputes often concerned neither dogma nor nuances of doctrine, but arguments over the essential competences of the true theologian. Looming behind them was always the fundamental confrontation between Renaissance Humanism and scholasticism. E. had already drawn attention to this opposition in his early writings like the Antibarbari. In this context, the scholastics were the barbarians, enemies of the bonae litterae, while to E. it was precisely the cultivation of the bonae litterae that was an essential condition for rational analysis of Holy Scripture, and hence for leading an authentic Christian life. E.' first real polemics appeared in the wake of the criticism levelled at his New Testament edition by Edward Lee and Diego Lopez Zuniga. Zuniga, in his philological Monita (Annotationes contra Erasmum Roterodamum, 152.0), had already raised the stakes with doctrinal objections, and in a later treatise (Erasmi Roterodami blasphemiae et impietates, 1522) he denounced E.' entire religious programme as heretical. This trend only intensified with later Catholic opponents, such as Noel Beda and Alberto Pio da Carpi, not least in the light of the growing success of the Reformation. In later Apologiae too, E. readily addressed issues of Biblical exegesis, the interpretation of the Church Fathers and the value of philology to the true theologian. He frequently salted his factual criticism with satire and invective, as the Carmelite Nicolaas Baechem Egmondanus, for instance, knew to his cost. His disputes with

Reformation followers and sympathizers could be particularly ugly and bitter, as the example of Ulrich von Hutten shows. His most famous argument is that with Martin Luther himself. whom E. - after some hesitation - confronted in his great treatise on free will in I 5 24 ( 11 IThe contrast between this Diatribe sive collatio and Luther's reply De servo arbitrio (Wittenberg 152 5) throws not only the respective intellectual profiles of the opponents but also their quite different understandings of theology into sharp relief. In his struggles with the Reformation, what probably particularly depressed E. most was the disintegration of global Christianity and the efforts of some scholastic theologians to discredit study of the bonae litterae in the course of their disputes with Luther. INFLUENCE

E.' influence was colossal and continued unabated until the collapse of the Latin res publica litteraria in the 1 8th cent. Thereafter, less and less attention was gradually paid to his work, until today probably only one treatise, In Praise of Folly, is still known to a reasonably wide audience. Nonetheless, E. and his intellectual legacy live on, albeit in a sense different from their early modern influence, for instance in the European Union 'E. Programme' promoting the mobility of students and teachers, or the E. Prize founded by Prince Bernhard of the Netherlands to celebrate outstanding achievements in European culture. At least two fundamental factors explain the extraordinary aura, unprecedented for a scholar, that E. even achieved during his own lifetime. Firstly, E. was the first scholar who knew how to harness in full the possibilities of the new medium of book printing to promote his own profile. Secondly, he consistently chose to publish in Latin, and did so with a literary elegance that was admired across Europe and so also helped disseminate his ideas. However, even during his lifetime, E. was a highly divisive figure. To those positively disposed towards him, he was understood and valued as the inventor of a renewed Christianity of the individual Christian's personal experience, founded firmly on a return to the source texts of the early church. To others, even during his Leuven years ( 15I7-1521 ), E. was a sceptic, a relativist (not least because of his love for satirical writing) and even a heretic (especially for his revolutionary Biblical exegesis). In spite of this, his edition of the New Testament remained highly influential for centuries. In many respects, the process of reception of his intellectual output still awaits thorough study, and will not always be readily responsive to investigation, because E. did not leave a clear, defined body of teachings. Overall, his strength lay more in literary transmission than in conceptual

ERICHSEN, WOLJA systematization. For this reason, his influence has lasted most strongly and longest as a unique luminary of Latin language and style, and an outstanding communicator of Humanist culture - thanks not least to his immensely popular textbooks, editions of which run into the hundreds. WRITINGS

( 1] Adagiorum collectanea, Paris 1500 (2) Enchiridion militis Christiani, Antwerp 1503 (3) Adagiorum chiliades, Venice 1508 141Moriae encomium, sive Stultitiae laus, Paris 151 1 IsI De duplici copia verborum ac rerum, Paris 1512. 16) Institutio principis Christiani, Basel 1516 (7] Novum Instrumentum, Basel 15 r 6 (edition; later editions under the title: Novum Testamentum) (8) Querela pacis undique gentium eiectae profligataeque, Basel 1516 191 Familiarium colloquiorum formulae, et alia quaedam, Basel r 5 r 8 (first authorized edition: Leuven 1519) I 101 Antibarbarorum liber unus, Basel 152.0 I1 1J De libero arbitrio diatribe sive collatio, Basel 152.4 I 12) Ciceronianus, sive de optimo dicendi genere dialogus, Basel 1 5 2.8 [ 13) De sarcienda ecdesiae concordia, Basel I 533 ( 14) Ecclesiastes, sive de ratione com:ionandi libri, Basel 1535. (The series Collected Works of Erasmus in English translation aims to publish all of his works in 89 vols.; 50 have appeared so far.) SECONDARY

sI

LITERATURE

AUGUSTIJN,Erasmus von Rotterdam, 1986 I16 I R. BAINTON,Erasmus of Christendom, 1969 [17) P. G. 81ETENHOIZ et al., Erasmus von (ed.), Deutscher Rotterdam, in: F. J. WoRSTBROCK Humanismus 1480-152.0. Verfasserlexikon, Vol. 1, 2.008, 658-808 1181 W. P. EcKERT,Erasmus von Rotterdam. Werk und Wirkung, 2.. vols., 1967 (19) L.-E. HAI.KIN, Erasme parmi nous, 1987 (201 J. HUIZINGA,Erasmus, 192.4 12.1I L. JARDINE, Erasmus, Man of Letters. The Construction of Charisma in Print, 199 3 I2.2.I J.-C. MARGOLIN, Erasme, precepteur de !'Europe, 1995 12..JI.f. McCoNICA, Erasmus, 1991 (2.41 W. RIIIHEGGE, Erasmus von Rotterdam, 2.010 (2.sl E. RUMMEi., Erasmus, Erasmus of Europe, :z. 2.004 (2.6) R. J. SCHOECK, vols., 1990-199 3 I2.71 R. SrnrrERICII, Erasmus von Rotterdam und seine Welt, 1977 j:z.81J. D. TRACY,Erasmus of the I.ow Countries, 1996 12.91 H. VREDEVELD, The Ages of Erasmus and the Year of His Birth, in: Renaissance Quarterly 46, 199 3, 754-809. MARCI.AUREYS (1

C.

Erbse, Hartmut German classical philologist. Born Rudolstadt (Thuringia) 2.3. 11. 191 5, died Bonn, 7. 7. 2.004. School at the Rudolstadt Fridericianum; from 1937 studied classical philology at Hamburg; doctorate 1941, habit. 1948, Hamburg. Thereafter univ. lecturer; 1954-1960 prof. ext., 1960-1965 prof. ord. at Hamburg (with one intervening semester deputizing at Wiirzburg). 196 5-1968

prof. ord. at Tiibingen; Bonn. WORK

AND

1968-1984

prof. ord. at

INFLUENCE

E. studied with Bruno ► Snell, who supervised his doctorate [ 1 J. Ancient lexicography, the subject of his habil. [ 2.J, subsequently remained a focus of his work. Greek studies, especially Homer, always remained his keenest interest. He only occasionally turned to Latin themes. E. was editor of the periodicals Hermes and Ciotta and of several scholarly series, and between 1960 and 196 5 he edited the Lexikon des fruhgriechischen Epos. In over 2.00 publications, E., equally interested in linguistics and literary studies, researched virtually all genres (e.g. epic, historiography, drama, biography, poetry) and authors of all epochs of Greek literature. E.'s magnum opus is the edition of the scholia to Homer's Iliad 141, written at Snell's suggestion, and for decades thereafter an indispensable basis for all Homeric criticism. He published his preliminary work in numerous essays and a monograph (3). E. argued for more attention to be paid to the exegetic class of scholia (bT) compared to the class of textual criticism (A). He also wrote internationally renowned studies on the Odyssey I 5 I; [6). In these, he argues that the works of Homer constitute an exception to the 'oral tradition' proposed by Milman ► Parry and others. Students of E. included Klaus Alpers, Andrew Roy Dyck and Alexander Kleinlogel. LW: (8. 2.69-2.761 (writings to 1980). WRITINGS [ 1 I Fragmente griechischer Theosophien (diss. Hamburg), 1941 (1 1995: Theosophorum Graecorum Fragmenta [Bibi. Teubnerianal) 12.I Untersuchungen zu den attizistischen Lexika (Abh. der Deutschen Akad. der Wissenschaften, PhilosophischHistorische Klasse :z./1949;Habil. thesis Hamburg), 19 50 131 Beitriige zur Oberlieferung der Iliasscholien, 1960 141 Scholia Graeca in Homeri Iliadem (Scholia vetera), 7 vols. (edition), 19691988 IsI Beitriige zum Verstiindnis der Odyssee, 1972. [6[ Untersuchungen zur Funktion der Gotter im homerischen Epos, 1986.

SECONDARY

LITERATURE

[7) A. KOHNKEN, Hartmut Erbse, in: Gnomon 77, 2.005, 380-383 18) J. LATACZ et al. (ed.), FS H. Erbse, 1980 191 G. RuorNGER, In memoriam Hartmut Erbse, 2.008. RALPHLATHER Erichsen, Wolja Danish Egyptologist, Coptologist and Demotist. Born Copenhagen 2.1. 1 1. 1 890, died Frederiksberg 2.5. 3. 1966. Son of a ship's captain.

ERICHSEN,

WOLJA

Studied Oriental languages at Copenhagen, assistant on the master's 1923. 1925-1944 Agyptisches Worterbuch, Berlin. 1948-1953 honorary prof. at Mainz; lecturer in Coptic at Copenhagen from 1955; from 1963 also prof. of Egyptology there. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

E.'s speciality was Demotic, to which he was introduced by Kurt -+ Sethe. His Demotisches Glossar [6) was a pioneering work that remains unsurpassed. His collections of Demotic writings, published between 1937 and 1950, with character lists and glossaries [1]; (4), long served as practical readers and are still useful today. E. edited and adapted many documents, including legal [2]; (9), literary (8), medical (5) and mythological texts (7] and enquiries to oracles [3 ]. He was also a gifted calligrapher, lending his skills to the design of the monumental volumes of the Agyptisches Worterbuch (ed. A. • Erman and H. Grapow). Two projects on which E. worked, a lexicon of Demotic personal names and the publication of papyri from Hawara in the Faiyum, were only completed long after his death, on the initiative of his student and colleague Erich Uiddeckens (Demotisches Namenbuch, 1980-2000; Demotische Urkunden aus Hawara, 1998).

fiir Agyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde 1968, 1-V. G0NTER

95,

VITTMANN

Erman, Adolf German Egyptologist. Born Berlin 3 1. 10. died there 26. 6. 1937. Studied (from around 1872) in Leipzig and Berlin; 1878 doctorate in Leipzig; 1881 habil. in Berlin. From 1884, director of the Agyptisches Museum (to 1914) and prof. ext. in Egyptology at Berlin. From 1892 prof. ord. there. Retired 1923. From 1895, full member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences. 1854,

WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

E., who came from a Swiss Protestant family (originally Ermatinger), studied with Georg Ebe;s and Richard • Lepsius, but left his teachers far behind and became the real founder of modem Egyptology. His Neu-agyptische Grammatik [ 1 ], his study of the Westcar Papyrus [3] and his A.gyptische Grammatik [4] brought the decisive breakthrough in the reconstruction of the Egyptian language. Only E.'s insight into the diachronous development of the language and his analysis using well-defined bodies of text made it possible to resolve the prevailing confusion over the diversity of forms and syntax. E. also recognized the correlation between Egyptian and the WRITINGS Semitic languages. The major project he initiated (1) Demotische Lesestiicke, Vol. 1: Literarische Texte; Vol. 2.: Urkunden der Ptolemaerzeit, 1937at the Prussian Academy of Sciences to prepare 1939 (2.) Ein demotischer Ehevertrag aus a dictionary of Egyptian [6) created a body of Elephantine (Abh. der Preussischen Akad. der texts, systematically analysed and unmatched in Wissenschaften, Philosophisch-hisrorische Klasse 8), extent and diversity to this day; it formed a new 1939 (3) Demotische Orakelfragen, in: Historiskbasis for research into lexicography and philolfilologiske meddelelser 2.8/3, 1942., 1-19 ogy. Work on this project catalysed and drove (4) Auswahl friihdemotischer Texte (edition), research for an entire generation. The dictionary, 1950 Is) Aus einem demotischen Papyrus iiber Frauenkrankheiten, in: Mineilungen des published with the collaboration of his students Hermann Grapow and Kurt -+ Sethe, still proInstituts fiir Orientforschung 2., 1954, 363-377 (6) Demotisches Glossar, 1954 (7) Fragmente vides the standard account of Egyptian vocabumemphitischer Theologie in demotischer Schrift lary today. E.'s achievement set philological and (Abh. der Geistes- und Sozialwissenschaftlichen linguistic work in Egptology on a firm methodKlasse. Akad. der Wissenschaften und der Literatur ological foundation. Mainz 7; with S. SCHMIDT),19 54 [8) Eine E.'s output was prolific. His strictly scholarly neue demotische Erzahlung (Abh. der Geistesworks are dominated by grammar and philology. und Sozialwissenschaftlichen Klasse. Akad. der But he also wrote influential works of cultural Wissenschaften und der Literatur Mainz 2.), history for a wider public, e.g. his books on 1956 (9) Eine demotische Schenkungsurkunde aus der Zeit des Darius (Abh. der Geistes- und ancient Egyptian everyday life [2] and Egyptian religion (7], and an anthology of Egyptian literaSozialwissenschaftlichen Klasse. Akad. der Wissenschaften und der Literatur Mainz 6), 1962.. ture in German translation (5). His purpose here was to dispense with the traditional notion of SECONDARY LITERATURE 'mysterious' Egypt passed down through recep(10] Erichsen, Wolja (1890-1966), in: WWE, tion history, and replace it with a picture he 3-4 [ 11) I. DANNESKIOLD-SAMS0E, In memosaw as having been rationally and empirically riam Wolja Erichsen, in: Das Alterrum 15, 1969, derived from authentic sources. E.'s broad rep59-64 [11.) E. KERRNLILLES0,Wolja Christian ertoire of interests, which included monuments Erichsen, in: Chronique d'Egypte 41, 1966, 32.7and archaeology as necessary aspects of an 334 (13) E. L0DDECKENS, Wolja Erichsen, in: Zs. Egyptology incorporating cultural history, was

ERNESTI,

also expressed in his passionate commitment to his work at the Agyptisches Museum in Berlin, where he directed a thoroughgoing process to put in order, catalogue and exhihit the collection. An outstanding scholar and founder of the 'Berlin School' of Egyptology, E. attracted a whole generation of younger scholars to Berlin from all over the world, and so lastingly influenced the direction and development of the subject far beyond Germany. Immune to nationalist tendencies, E. nurtured a broad weh of international contacts. A key figure of German scholarship in his day, E. also played a central role in establishing a permanent presence for Germany archaeology in Egypt (DAI). M: Mein Werden und mein Wirken, Erinnerungen eines alten Berliner Gelehrten, 1929. WRITINGS

[1] Neuagyptische

JOHANN

AUGUST

his studies, initially (from 1726) at the Univ. of Wittenberg, then from 1728 at the Univ. of Leipzig, E. attended theological, philological and philosophical lectures and also took an interest in mathematics. A master from 1730, in 1731 he became deputy rector of the Thomasschule. In 1734, he succeeded Johann Matthias ► Gesner as rector there, and he continued the latter's programme of reform in the school and its tuition. E.'s initially good relationship with the cantor of the school, Johann Sebastian Bach, was sorely tested during the so-called 'prefect dispute' of 1736/37 I 19); I 18). In 1742., E. was appointed prof. ext. of ancient literature at the Univ. of Leipzig, and from 17 56 he held an ordinary professorship in rhetoric there. He took a doctorate in theology the same year, with 19). In 1759, when E. also took on the post of prof. ord. in theology, he resigned his rectorship of the Thomasschule. In 1770, he resigned the chair of rhetoric and took various academic positions. E.'s nephews were the classical philologists Johann Christian Gottlieb and August Wilhelm E.

Grammatik, 1880 l2.I Ai-typten agyptisches Leben im Altcrthum, :z. vols., 1885-1887 (3) Die Sprache des Papyrus Westcar. Eine Vorarbeit zur Grammatik der alteren agyptischen Sprache, 1890 141Agyptische Grammatik, 1894 (5) Die Literatur der Agypter. Gedichte, WORK AND INFLUENCE Erzahlungen und Lehrbiicher aus dem 3. und :z.. In theology, E. represented the theologia natJt. v. Chr. (trans.), 192.3 (English: The Literature of the Ancient Egyptians, trans. A. M. BLACKMAN, uralis and worked primarily in patristics, ecclesiastical history and New Testament studies. In 192.7) [6) (ed.), WB der agyptischen Sprache (with H. GRAPOW),12. vols., 192.6-1963 l71 Die transposing the grammatical-critical method to Religion der Agypter. 1hr Werden und Vergehen in the analysis of the New Testament, he had a vier Jahrtausenden, 1934 l8I Das WB der agyp- decisive influence on exegesis and hermeneutics, tischen Sprache. Zur Geschichte eines grossen wiswhich he saw as consisting in illuminating the senschaftlichen Unternehmens der Akademie Berlin one sense of the text through the use of language. 1953. (with H. GRAPW), und

The Institutio interpretis Novi Testamenti [ 11 ), "a summation of the New Testament exegesis of SECONDARY LITERATURE Ernesti" [ 1 7. 14 I, is his theological masterpiece. (9) Erman, Jean Pierre Adolphe (Adolf) ( 18 54As an editor, E. was guided by the grammati1939), in: WWE, 143-144 (10) B. U. ScHIPPF.R cal-critical method and the needs of schools. This (ed.), Agyptologie als Wissenschaft. Adolf Erman is well exemplified in his editions of Suetonius in seiner Zeit, 2.006. (5), Xenophon's Memorabilia [3] and Homer STEFAN SEIDLMAYER (10). In his edition of Tacitus [7] E., himself a masterly Latin stylist, considered some peculiariErnesti, Johann August ties of T acitean expression to be errors, probGerman classical philologist, theologian and ably because of his own familiarity with Cicero (14. 253). He also produced new editions of pedagogue. Born Tennstedt (Erfurt) 4. 8. 1707, Benjamin Hederich's Greek dictionary (8) and died Leipzig 11. 9. 1781. Studied at Wittenberg Johann Albert • Fabricius' Bibliotheca Latina from 1726, at Leipzig from 1728. From (12). But his edition of Cicero (2) earned him 1731 deputy rector, 1734-1759 rector of the his greatest fame, the third edition (1774-1777) Thomasschule at Leipzig. From 1742., prof. ext. litterarum humaniorum at the Univ. of Leipzig, being regarded as the finest. It is closely related to his Clavis Ciceroniana, e.g. with notes on lan1756 theological doctorate; 1756-1770 prof. ord. in eloquence, from 1759 prof. ord. in theol- guage use and a list of laws (4). While David . • Ruhnken called E. a Ciceronis sospitator and ogy at Univ. of Leipzig. his edition and the Clavis were reissued well into the 19th cent., Karl Gottlob Zumpt in 1830 CAREER E.'s theologian father, Dr. Johann Christoph E., regarded E. 's textual criticism as recognitio rather than recensio [14. 252-254]. From a present-day was superintendent of Tennstedt. E. attended standpoint, E. did solid philological work, but the Schulpforta Gymnasium from 1723, graduneither achieved nor, probably, hoped to achieve ating with distinction after three years. During

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greatness in textual criticism. A modern scholarly evaluation of his philological achievement remains to be made. E. exerted considerable influence in the renewal of classical studies in the 18th cent. His priority was the 'cursory' reading (following Gesner's method) rather than an excessive focus on grammar teaching. Teaching focused above all on comprehension: to E., the active agent in education was the precious content of the exemplary ancient authors' works, as well as their aesthetic linguistic expression. Subjects such as mathematics and physics are also promoted in E.'s influential pedagogical masterpiece [ 1 J. In spite of some neglect of Greek, E. was one of the first proponents of Neo-Humanism. His most important students included Christian Gottlob ➔ Heyne. M: A. W. Ernesti, Memoria viri magnifici ... Joannis Augusti Ernesti, Leipzig 1781 (funeral oration). LW: [17. 2.07-2.2.7].

Ernout, Alfred French classical philologist. Born Lille 30. 10. 1879, died Paris 16.6.1973. School and studies at Lille; 1901 agregation (civil service examination) there; 1905 diplome at Ecole pratique des hautes etudes (EPHE) in Paris; 1908 doctorate (docteur es lettres) there. From 1908, prof. at Troyes; from 1913 maitre (lecturer) at Lille, from 1920 prof. there. From 192.4 maitre de conferences, from 1928 prof. at Sorbonne in Paris. From 1925 directeur of the EPHE; from 1946 prof. at College de France there. [ 1 5. 79 ]. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

E. studied classical philology and linguistics, his teachers including Emile Thomas, Bernard Haussoullier, Louis Havet and Antoine Meillet. His scholarly interests spanned the whole range of Latin literature and the Latin language. With Meillet, he published an etymological dictionary of Latin that remains essential to this day. He WRITINGS wrote monographs on the Italic and Latin lan[ 1) Initia doctrinae solidioris, 173 6 (or 17 3 4/ guages [1]; [10]; [2]; [3) and a work on Latin 35) (2.) M. Tullii Ciceronis opera omnia, syntax with Fran~ois Thomas [9). 6 vols. (edition), 1737-1739 (et al.) (3) XenoE. focused on Latin in a diachronic and synphontis Memorabilium Socratis dictorum libri IV, chronic perspective (archaic Latin, Umbrian, 1738 (et al.) (4) Clavis Ciceroniana, 1739 (et al.) Is]C. Suetonii Tranquilli opera, 1748-1749 (et al. inscriptions from Praeneste). For his Syntaxe latine, he also drew on Plautus as well as Vulgar (6) Initia rhetorica, 1750 (et al.) (7) C. Comelii and Church Latin to trace the historical develTaciti opera, 1752. (et al.) [8] Graecum lexicon opment of classical Latinity. E.'s lexicographic manuale, ... primum a Beniamine Hederico instistudies are anthologized [7 ), and his critical tutum, 1754 (et al.) (9) Vindiciae arbitrii divini in religione constituenda (diss. Leipzig), 1756 achievements are documented e.g. in editions (10) Homeri opera omnia, 5 vols., 1759-1764 (et of Plautus (6), Petronius [4) and Pliny the Elder al.) [u] lnstitutio interpretis Novi Testamenti, [8 ), providing conservative texts and substan1761 (et al.) (English: Elements of Interpretation, tial apparatus on the indirect transmission. E. trans. M. SruART,182.2.et al.) [n) (ed.), Jo. Alb. worked as co-editor of professional journals like Fabricii Bibliotheca Latina, 3 vols., 1773-1774. the Revue de Philologie. His academic students included Jacques Andre, Jean Beaujeau, Jean SECONDARY LITERATURE Collart and Marcel Durry. (13] K. BLASCHKE/ F. LAU,Ernesti, Johann August, LW: J. Andre, Alfred Ernout (30 octobre (14] F. A. ECKSTEIN, in: NDB 4, 1959, 604-605 Ernesti, Johann August), in: J. S. ERSCH/ J. G. GRUBER 1879-16 juin 1973), in: Annuaire de Ecole pratique des hautes etudes, 1975, 63-79. (ed.), Allgemeine Enzcyclopadie der Wissenschaften und Kiinste 37, 1842., 2.50-2.57 (15) F. A. ECKSTEIN, Ernesti, Johann August, in: ADB 6, 1877, 2.352.41 (16) F. C. h.GNER,Ernesti, Johann August, in: H. D. BETZ et al. (ed.), Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart. Handworterbuch fiir Theologie und Religionswissenschaft 2., ◄ I 999, 1461-1 462. F. C. lLGNER, Die neutestamentliche [17] Auslegungslehre des Johann August Emesti ( 17071781). Ein Beitrag zur Erforschung der Aufklarungshermeneutik (diss. Leipzig), 2.002. (CD-ROM) [18) P. S. MINEAR,J. S. BACHand J. A. ERNESTI: A Case Study in Exegetical and Theological et al. (ed.), Our Common Conflict, in: J. DESCHNER History as Christians. Essays in Honor of A. C. Outler, 1975, 131-155 [19) R. STEVENSON, Bach's Quarrel with the Rector of St. Thomas School, in: Anglican Theological Review 35, 1951, 2.19-2.30. MARCEL Nuss

WRITINGS

I1)

Le parter de Preneste d'apres les inscriptions, 1905 12) Les elements dialectaux du vocabulaire latin, 1909 (31 Morphologie historique du latin, 1914 ('192.3) [4) Petrone, Le Satiricon (edition), 192.3 ('1950) (5) Dictionnaire etymologique de la

langue latine. Histoire des mots (with A. MEILLET), 1932. ( ◄ 1959) [61 Plaute. Comedies, 7 vols. (edi(7) Philologica, 3 vols., 1946tion), 1932.-1940 1963 [8) Pline l'Ancien, Histoire naturelle. Books 8, 9, 1 2., 13, 2.6-30 (ed. of the Acad. des belles lettres; edition with trans.; part with R. PEPIN), 1947-1963 191Syntaxe latine (with F. THOMAS), 1951 [10) Le dialecte ombrien, 1961.

EVANS, ARTHUR SECONDARY

LITERATURE

(11) E. ALBERTINIet al., Melanges de philologie, de litterature et d'histoire anciennes offerts a Alfred Ernout, 1940 I ll. I P. Ct1ANTRAINE, Alfred Emout, in: Bulletin de I' Association Guillaume Bude 3, 1973, 307-312. 1•31 c. CUARI.E,Ernout, Alfred, in: C. CHARLE, Dictionnaire biographique des universitaires aux XIX• et XX• siecles, Vol. 1 r, 1986, 76-78 (14] F. CHARPIN, Ernout, Alfred, in: H. Stammerjohann (ed.), Lexicon grammaticorum, •2.009, 437 (15) J. HHJRGON, Notice sur la vie et les travaux d'Alfred Ernout, in: CRAI 119, 1975, 77-93 116( J. LECI.ANT,Le second siecle de l'lnstitut de France, 1895-1995, Vol. 1, 1999, 467. HANS-ULRICH BERNER/ PIERLUIGILEONEGATTI

Estienne,

Henri v. Stephanus,

Estienne,

Robert

v. Stephanus,

Henricus Robertus

Evans, Arthur British archaeologist and numismatist. Born died 8. 7. 18 5 1 at Nash Mills, Hertfordshire, 11. 7. 1941 at Boars Hill, Berkshire. 1865-1870 Harrow Public School; 1 870-1 874 Brasenose College, Oxford; MA there. 1877-r 882. Balkans correspondent of the Manchester Guardian. 1884-1908 Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford ( 1908-1941 Honorary Keeper); 19001931 excavation director at Knossos. Knighted 191 I. BIOGRAPHY

AND

SCHOLARLY

CAREER

E. was the son of the wealthy paper manufacturer and renowned archaeologist, collector and numismatist Sir John Evans. After attending the exclusive Harrow public school, he studied at Brasenose College, Oxford, graduating in modern history in 1874. After a guest term at Gottingen in 187 5, he travelled to Bosnia and Hercegovina during the revolt against Ottoman rule I1 ). In 1877 he took the job of Balkans correspondent for the Manchester Guardian I2.). In 1878 he married Margaret Freeman, daughter of the historian Edward Augustus Freeman, and settled at Ragusa (Dubrovnik). From there, he explored the Balkans, conducting archaeological research and writing on politics until in 1882, the Austrians (successors to the Ottomans as regional overlords) arrested and ultimately expelled him for his advocacy of Slavic self-determination. E. moved to Oxford, but by 1883 he was already back travelling in the Balkans and Greece, where he met Heinrich - • Schliemann, whose discoveries at Troy and Mycenae sparked his interested in Aegean prehistory. E. was appointed Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum in 1884 [3], and remained in this post until his resignation in 1908 on coming into a

substantial legacy. As Honorary Keeper and Perpetual Visitor of the museum, he took a lifelong interest in its affairs. In the 1880s and 1890s, E. revived and greatly expanded the Ashmolean. One of the main focal points of his work was the coin collection, and especially Tarentine coinage, on which he published a seminal treatise 14). He gave the Rhind Lectures for 1895 at the Univ. of Edinburgh on the origins of Celtic art (still unpublished). By the early 1890s, E. 's interests were shifting towards the prehistoric Aegean, and especially towards the problem of literacy in Mycenaean Greece - a quest that would ultimately lead him to excavate at Knossos [5); [6]. In 1892 he met Federico • Halbherr, whose work in the 1880s had revealed the rich epigraphic and archaeological heritage of Crete to the scholarly world I 181- E. duly visited Crete in 1894, when it was still part of the Ottoman Empire, and started negotiations to purchase the excavation site at Knossos, where digs by Minos Kalikairinos in 1878 had revealed remains of what was believed to be a Mycenaean palace. Crete gained autonomy in 1898 after a violent uprising against the Ottomans and an intervention by the Great Powers. The new political climate favoured progress with excavations, and in 1900 E. was able to begin his work at Knossos. After just one week, he discovered large hoards of tablets. These were inscribed in a script that would later become known as Linear B, and that proved the existence of a literate culture in Bronze Age Greece. E. also discovered a new civilization, which he called Minoan after the mythical king Minos (although, contrary to the received opinion, he did not invent the term) 116]. The excavations at Knossos continued with interruptions (e.g. during World War I) until 193 1. E.' distinguished career (above all his successes at Knossos) brought him great fame and many honours. In 1875, he became a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries, of which he was chairman from 1914 to 1919 (ex officio also a Trustee of the British Museum). He became a fellow of the Royal Society in 1901, and in 1902. he was one of the founders of the British Academy. He became prof. ext. in prehistoric archaeology at Oxford in 1909. He was knighted in 1911. E. was for many years a key member of the British School at Athens, the British School at Rome and the Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies, of which he became president in 191 2. From 1914 to 1919 he was also president of the Royal Numismatic Society, and in 1916 he became president of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. He received academic honours from many univs., including Trinity College, Dublin, and the Univs. of

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Edinburgh, Berlin and Cambridge. The Swedish Society of Anthropology and Geography (SSAG) awarded him its gold medal in 192.0. WORKS

Over 1 50 'selected' publications of E. have been catalogued [ 19 ], on topics ranging from Greek coins to Celtic archaeology, Balkan politics, Aegean writing systems, Roman roads and Minoan religion. The most famous is his monumental work on the palace of Minos [7 ): not only a synthesis of his discoveries at Knossos, but in its day also an encyclopaedia of Aegean protohistory, in which E. stressed Minoan supremacy, as expressed in their colonies, their exquisite art and architecture, their written culture and their monotheistic cult of the Great Mother Goddess. INFLUENCE

E.' remarkable discoveries at Knossos, which rivalled those made by Heinrich -• Schliemann, received great publicity not only among scholars but also among the general public. References to his finds are apparent in many works of art and literature at the time (12.); (14). In academic circles, according to Moses -• Finley, "no man has ever dominated an archaeological field so completely" as E. (13. 13). After his death, and especially after the decipherment of Linear B by Michael ➔ Ventris in 1952. (which proved that the Mycenaean Greeks conquered Crete), E.' views have come under more scrutiny [ 17. 2.72.-314]. Nevertheless, his work continues to be highly influential, and no publication to this day on Minoan Crete or Aegean protohistory can omit to take E. into consideration. LW: (17. 331-337). E: Oxford, Ashmolean Museum. WRITINGS [ 1) Through Bosnia and the Herzegovina on Foot

during the Insurrection, August and September 1875, 1876 (•1877) [2) lllyrian Letters. A Revised Selection of Correspondence from the lllyrian Provinces of Bosnia, Herzegovina, Montenegro, Albania, Dalmatia, Croatia and Slavonia, Addressed to the Manchester Guardian during the Year 1877, 1878 (3) The Ashmolean Museum as a Home of Archaeology in Oxford, 1884 (4) The 'Horsemen' of Tarentum, in: Numismatic Chronicle 3rd series, 9, 1889, 1-2.2.8 [5) Cretan Pictographs and PraePhoenician Script with an Account of a Sepulchral Deposit at Hagios Onuphrios Near Phaestos in Its Relation to Primitive Cretan and Aegean Culture, 1895 [6) Scripta Minoa. The Written Documents of Minoan Crete with Special Reference to the Archives of Knossos, Vol. 1, 1909 [7) The Palace of Minos. A Comparative Account of the Successive Stages of the Early Cretan Civilization as Illustrated by the Discoveries at Knossos, 4 vols., 192.1-1935.

SECONDARY

LITERATURE

[81 A. BROWN,Arthur Evans and the Palace of Minos, 1983 [9) A. BROWN, Before Knossos .••

Arthur Evans's Travels in the Balkans and Crete, 1993 [10) A. BROWN/K. BENNETT,Arthur Evans's 2001 [II) J. EVANS. Travels in Crete 1894-1899, Time and Chance. The Story of Arthur Evans and His Forebears, 1943 [12) A. FARNOUX,Cnossos. L'archeologie d'un reve, 1993 (13) M. I. FINLEY, The Rediscovery of Crete, in: M. I. FINLEY,Aspects of Antiquity. Discoveries and Controversies, 1968, 7-23 (et al.) [14) Y. HAMILAKIS / N. MoMIGUANO (ed.), Archaeology and European Modernity. Producing and Consuming the Minoans. 2006 (15) D. B. HARDEN,Sir Arthur Evans 18511941. A Memoir, 1983 (16) N. KARADIMAS/ N. MOMIGLIANo, On the Term 'Minoan' before Sir Arthur Evans's Work in Crete (1894), in: Studi 46/2, 2.004, 243micenei ed egeo-anatolici 258 (17) J. A. MAc:Gn.LIVRAY, Minotaur. Sir Arthur Evans and the Archaeology of the Minoan Myth, 2000 (181 N. MoMIGI.IANo,Federico Halbherr and Arthur Evans. An Archaeological Correspon- dence (1894-1917), in: Studi micenei ed egeo-anatolici 44'2, 2002, 263-318 (19) J. L. MYRES, Arthur in: Obituary Notices of John Evans, 18s1-1941, Fellows of the Royal Society 3, 1941, 941-968. NICOLETTA

MOMIGLIANO

Fahretti, Raffaele R. Fabretti Urbinate, called lasiteo Nafilio (Jasitheus). Born Urbino 3. 7. 162.0, died Rome 7. 1. 1700. Italian historian, antiquarian and archaeologist. Studied law. Doctorate 10.5.1639 at Cagli (Negroni in [II. 2.7-34, here 2.9)); thereafter working at Rome as a lawyer (Pietrobono in [12.. 115-149, here 12.1-12.8)). 1665 acquired a house at Urbino, where he later had his collection of antiquities. Papal counsellor; treasurer of the Spanish Nunciature (9) (cf. Pietrobono in (12.. n5-149, here 12.4 f.)), responsible from 1673 for Roman relic excavations and cemeteries (Luni in (II. 11-2.6, here 14); (8)); curator of the secret Papal archive in the Castel Sant' Angelo from 1691 until his death. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

F. developed an interest in archaeology and epigraphy at Rome, partly through his contacts with the Academy of Sciences of Giovanni Giustino • Ciampini, under the patronage of Queen Christina of Sweden, and the Accademia dell'Arcadia, whose members included F.'s biographer Giovanni Mario Crescimbeni (Riviera/ Crescimbeni in {11. 41-67)). F. collected antiquities, especially inscriptions, and undertook excavations (cf. Bisconti in [12.. 1 5-2.3]; Giuliani in [12.. 33-60]). He was interested in the Roman aqueducts, on which he published drawings and textual and epigraphic sources [ 1 ); [ 6) (cf. Ramieri in [12.. 151-167]), and the Trajan Column [3);

FABRI DE PEIRESC, NICOLAS-CLAUDE [10) (cf. Micheli in I 12.. 77-1021). In 1690, he made a collection of antiquities and inscriptions at Urbino, which he then published in 1699 f4l; [ 1 1. 1 6). This collection forms the cornerstone of the Lapidarium at Urbino, which opened in 1756 and to this day still forms the heart of the exhibition in the Palazzo Ducale (Negroni in [11. 27-34, here 33 f.l; Luni in 11r. 16-261). F. wrote a monograph on ancient Latium in the course of a dispute with the Jesuit Athanasius --+ Kircher, but it remained unfinished and was published posthumously in 1741 I5 ). After that of Janus ► Gruter, F.'s epigraphic work is the most important of the 17th cent. I 13 ). He examined both pagan and Christian inscriptions [4]. At the time, he was reproached for his zeal for acquiring inscriptions (Pietrobono in [12. 115-149, here 138-140); cf. later Giovanni Battista - ► De Rossi). F.'s data from the catacombs was used in the 17th cent. (Pietrobono in (12. 115-149, here 137-1421). E: Urbino (manuscripts) [ 11. 3 5-40).

France and studied law at Montpellier. 1604 graduation at Aix. 1606/7 travels to Netherlands and England. 1607 member of the Parlement de Provence, at various times travelling to Paris as conseiller to its president Guillaume du Vair. Permanent return to Provence 1623. WORK

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INFLUENCE

f. d. P. came from a family of magistrates with a seat in the Parlement de Provence. During his relatively short life, he became one of the most famous men in Europe. His friends included Pope Urban VIII, Galileo Galilei, Sir Peter-Paul • Rubens, Hugo • Grotius, Gabriel Naude, T ommaso Campanella and Marin Mersenne. His death was marked in 1639 by the publication of a multilingual volume of poetry in his memory. His closest friend and scholarly collaborator, the philosopher and astronomer Pierre Gassendi, published his biography in 1641 I5]. Daniel Morhof in 1688 praised it as the finest biography of a scholar ever written. F. d. P.'s prodigious correspondence, which has still not been fully studied and probably included some WRITINGS (1) De aquis et aquaeductibus veteris Romae dis10,000 letters, is itself dwarfed by the legacy sertationes tres, Rome 1680 (several times reiss.) of around 50,000 pages of manuscripts. This (2) Ad Jae. Gronovium apologema in eiusque 'archive' documents an intellectual practice that Titilivitia sive somnia de Tito Livio animadver- Arnaldo ► Momigliano calls the "archetype" of siones, antea edite [sic] sub nomine Jasithei, Naples antiquarianism f7 . .2.2). r 686 [3] De columna Traiani syntagma, Rome 1690 f. d. P.'s four magna opera, all incomplete [4] lnscriptionum antiquarum quae in aedihus and unpublished, were, according to Gassendi, paternis asservantur explicatio et additamentum, Rome 1 699 (5) Dissertazione sopra alcune correzi- an astrological commentary on Galileo's discovery of the moons of Jupiter; a calendar study oni del Lazio del P. At. Kircher, Rome 1741. of the year AD 3 54; an introduction to ancient weights and measures, and a history of Provence SECONDARY LITERATURE (6) H. B. EVANS,Aqueduct Hunting in the from antiquity to his own day. F. d. P. owned (ed.), an enormous coin collection, one of the largest Seventeenth Century, .2.00.2. (7) P. FINDLEN Athanasius Kircher. The Last Man Who Knew at the time. By far the greater part of his outEverything, 2004, 6, 44, 98, 4.2..2. (8) M. GHII.ARm, put was historical in subject. The religious life Sanguine tumulus madet. Devozione al sangue dei of antiquity was one particular focus, especially martiri delle catacombe nella prima era moderna, .2.008, 48-5 I [9) C. GRoss1,Degli uomini illus- the late-antique syncretistic cults, the material (10] I. HERKLOTZ,remains of which enabled him to establish contri di Urbino, 1819, 89-95 Bellori, Fabretti, and Trajans Column, in: J. BELi./ nections between the classical and Biblical past T. WILLETTE (ed.), Art History in the Age of Bellori, and between Europe and the Near East. F. d. P. 200.2., 1.2.7-144 [11] M. LUNIet al., Raffaello used the philological tools developed by Italian Fabretti 'archeologo' Urbinate. 'Principe della antiquarians in the 16th cent. for their study of Romana Antichita', .2.001 (12) D. MAZZOLENIthe ancient world to explore the Near East of (ed.), Raffaele Fabretti, archeologo ed erudito late antiquity and early medieval Europe. He (Atti della Giornata di studi, Vatican City .2.003), thus stood at the interface of the disciplines we .2.006 (13) S. PANCIERA, Raffaele Fabretti trecento anni dopo la morte, in: S. Panciera, Epigrafi, epi- now call classical philology, archaeological and Near Eastern and medieval studies. Although grafia, epigrafisti, .2.006, 1689-1696. almost nothing of his work was published during SEBASTIAN RISTOW his lifetime, he was one of the greatest scholars of his time. Fabri de Peiresc, Nicolas-Claude Peirescius; French scholar, collector and antiquarian. Born Belgentier 1580, died Aix-enProvence (?) 1637. Jesuit education at Avignon. 1599'1600 travelled to Italy. Later returned to

WRITINGS

[ 1) Lettres de Peiresc a Guillemin, a Holstenius et a Menestrier, 7 vols., ed. P. TAMIZEYDE (2) Lettres a Claude LAROQUE,1888-1898 1992. Soumaise et a son entourage, ed. A. BRESSON,

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190

(3) Correspondance de Peiresc et Aleandro, 2 vols.• ed. J.-F. LHoTE/ D. JoYAL,1995.

the limes project 141, which ended in 1937 with the 56th issue. Its 14 folio volumes have since formed the basis for all engagement with the SECONDARY LITERATURE largest ancient earthworks in Europe. (ed.), Peiresc (1604(4) J. OHOMBRES / A. BRESSON LW: J. von Beckerath / W. Schleiermacher, 2004). Actes du colloque international, 2006 Bericht der Romisch-Germanischen Kommission Is] P. GASSENDI, Nicolai Claudii Fabricii de Peiresc 32, 1942 (1950), 229-2.36. senatoris aquisextiensis vita, 1641 [6 I J. HELLING, E: Freiburg, Univ. archive. Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc. 1580-1637, 1980 (7) P. N. M11.1.ER, Introduction. Momigliano, WRITINGS Antiquarianism and Cultural History, in: P. N. I I I De architectura Graeca commentationes epiMILLER(ed.), Momigliano and Antiquarianism, graphicae (diss. Strasbourg), 1881 [2) Alterthiimer 2007, 3-65 (81 P. N. MILLER,Peiresc's Europe. auf Kreta, 1-5, in: Athenische Mitteilungen 9-11, Learning and Virtue in the Seventeenth Century, 1884-1886 131 Die lnschriften von Pergamon, 2000. 2 vols., 1890-1895 (with M. FRANKELand PETERN, MILLER C. ScHUCHHARDT) 141 (ed.), Der obergermanischraetische Limes des Roemerreiches, 1894-19 37 Fabricius, Ernst (in 56 issues) Is) Ein Limesproblem, in: FS der Albrecht-l.udwigs-Universitat in Freiburg zum German archaeologist and historian. Born fiinfzig jahrigen Regierungs-Jubilaum Seiner Darmstadt 6. 9. 1857, died Freiburg im Breisgau Koniglichen Hoheit des Grossherzogs Friedrich, 1881. 22. 3. 1942. Doctorate, Strasbourg, 1902, 275-299 161 Die Besitznahme Badens durch die R6mer, in: Neujahrsblatter der Badischen 1882-1885 DAI travel scholarship. 1886 assisHistorischen Kommission N. F. 8, 1905, 1-88 tant at the Konigliches Antikenmuseum, Berlin; (7) Limes, in: RE 13, 1926, 572-671. 1886 habil. at Univ. of Berlin. 1888 prof. ext. in Freiburg im Breisgau, 1894 prof. ord. there. SECONDARY LITERATURE From 1897, director of the executive committee (8) M. GEIZER, Nachruf auf Ernst Fabricius, of the Reichslimeskommission, from 1902. its in: Gnomon 18, 1942, 2.38-240 (9) W. chairman. 1911/12. prorector of Freiburg Univ. ScHLEIERMACHER, Fabricius, Ernst, in: NOB 4, (the rector, a ceremonial position, was the Grand 1959, 733 [10) K. STADE,Ernst Fabricius zum Duke of Baden); 1913-1918 member of the first Gedachtnis, in: Bericht der Romisch-Germanischen chamber of the Baden Assembly of the Estates Kommission 32, 1942, 225-2.2.8 (published (Standeversammlung); retired 1924. 1937 honorAlte Geschichte und 1950) (11) E. WIRBELAUER, Klassische Archaologie, in: E. W1RBEI.AUER (ed.), ary senator of the Univ. of Freiburg. Honorary Die Freiburger Philosophische Fakultat 192.0-1960. doctorates from Univs. of Athens, Freiburg and Mitglieder, Strukturen, Vernetzungen, 2006, 111Durham; member of several scholarly academies 237 (here 111-158). and commissions. GABRIELESEITZ WORK AND INFLUENCE After studying at Bonn and Strasbourg, F. took his doctorate with a diss. on epigraphy with Adolf _., Michaelis (1]. After several years of research in Greece (especially Samas and Crete), also focusing on inscriptions [2.]; [3], he took his postdoctoral habil. while assisting Alexander -• Conze at the Berlin sculpture collection. In 188 8, after a brief term as priv.-doz., he was appointed to the new chair of ancient history at Freiburg, where he worked as prof. ord. from 1894 [11). His tenacity and his scholarly versatility made F. one of the great pioneers of archaeological and historical research, whose name will forever be associated with study of the German limes. He became deputy Streckenkommissar ('section director') in Hessen-Nassau in 1897, with the task of editing the publications on the section. At the request of the Reichslimeskommission, he was appointed in 1902 to chair the executive committee and as editor-in-chief of all remaining publications on the limes forts. Effectively, this made him the sole responsible director of

Fabricius, Johann Albert German philologist, bibliographer and theologian. Born Leipzig 11. 11. 1668, died Hamburg 30. 4. 1736. Studied at Leipzig from 1686; 1688 MA, then 1699 doctorate in theology at Univ. of Kiel. From 1699, prof. at Akademisches Gymnasium in Hamburg; 1708-1711 rector of f ohanneum, also Hamburg. CAREER, WORK AND INFLUENCE F.' father, Werner F., worked at Leipzig as a musical director, organist and musicologist. F.' schooling at the Gymnasium of Quedlinburg (1684-1686), where his teachers included Wenzeslaus Buhl and Johann Gottfried Herrichen. was followed from autumn 1686 by studies at the Univ. of Leipzig, with Johann Benedict Carpzov the Younger, Thomas Ittig, Johannes Olearius, Adam Rechenberg, Otto Mencke et al. F. settled at Hamburg in 1694, initially working as a domestic librarian to the theologian and

FALKENSTEIN,

Kiel prof. Johann Friedrich Mayer, with whom he obtained his theological doctorate in 1699 with a work on the soul's capacity for memory after the death of the body. In the same year, he was appointed to the professorship of eloquence and practical philosophy at the Akademisches Gymnasium in Hamburg made vacant by the death of Vincentius Placcius. F.'s bibliographic and literary surveys of Latin (3), Greek (including Byzantine) 151and medieval Latin [ 10] philology rapidly became standard reference works. The Bibliotheca Graeca IsI in particular established F.' reputation as one of the leading philologists of his day. He made careful critical reconstructions of the entire textual transmission, dealing with issues of authorship and the authenticity of texts and giving detailed accounts of the acceptance of readings, including recent editorial histories. The work also contains assorted first publications of sources with critical apparatus, and indices of printed sources. Just as groundbreaking were F.' editions of the works of Sextus Empiricus and Chalcidius' commentary on the Timaeus and his production of the first ever complete edition of Hippolytus of Rome. In Biblical philology, his commented editions of the apocrypha [4J and pseudepigrapha 171 are worthy of mention. F. also kept the products of earlier researchers up to date with numerous new editions of works by Leone Allacci, Anselmo Banduri, Jacques Gaffarel, Paul Colomies, Peter Lambeck and Daniel Georg Morhof, among others. F. also discovered another field of activity closely related to philology in physicotheology. He encouraged the translation of relevant works by William Derham, as well as publishing his own writings on the subject I 11 ]. F.' efforts to defend Christian doctrine in a comprehensive commented bibliography of Christian apologetics 191 and a wide-ranging history of missions I 8 I were expressions of an essential element of his understanding of himself as a philologist. F. nurtured a network of learned contacts that extended across the whole of Europe. At Hamburg, he was an active member of the Teutsch-ubende Gesellschaft, and later of the Patriotische Gesellschaft. Long after his death, his publications were still regarded as milestones of philological scholarship. The Bibliotheca Graeca was reissued from 1790 to 1 809 in a version revised and expanded by the Erlangen scholar Gottlieb Christoph Harless. WRITINGS

[1) Scriptorum recentiorum decas, Hamburg 1688 (1.) Exercitatio de platonismo Philonis Judaei viro doctissimo Johanni Jonsio opposita, Leipzig 1693 [3) Bibliotheca Latina, 6 vols., Hamburg 1699 141 Codex apocryphus Novi Testamenti (edition), Hamburg 1703 [sl Bibliotheca Graeca,

ADAM

14 vols., Hildesheim 1705-1718 l6J Bibliographia antiquaria, Hamburg 1713 171 Codex pseudepigraphus Veteris Testamenti, l. vols. (edition), Hamburg 1713-1723 181 Salutaris lux evangelii toti orbi per divinam gratiam exoriens, sive notitia historico chronologica literaria et geographica propagatorum per orbem totum Christianorum sacrorum, Hamburg 1713 191 Delectus argumentorum et syllabus scriptorum qui veritatem religionis Christianae adversus Atheos, Epicureos, Deistas seu Naturalistas, Idololatras, Judaeos et Muhammedanos lucubrationibus suis asseruerunt, Hamburg 1725 I 10) Bibliotheca Latina mediae et infimae aetatis, 4 vols., Graz 1734Hydrotheologie, Hamburg 1734 1735 [111 [ r 1.) Opusculorum historico-critico-literariorum sylloge quae sparsim viderant lucem nunc recensita denuo et partem aucta indice instruuntur, Hamburg 1738. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

[ 1J I R. HAFNER,Das Erklenntnisproblem in der Philologie um 1700. Zurn Verhaltnis von Polymathie,

Philologie und Aporetik bei Jacob Friedrich Reimmann, Christian Thomasius und Johann Albert Fabricius, in: R. HAFNER(ed.), Philologie und Erkenntnis, 2001, 95-u8 [14) R. HAFNER,Die Vorlesungsskripte des Hamburger Gelehrten Johann Albert Fabricius, in: F. VON AMMON/ H. VOGEJ. (ed.), Die Pluralisierung des Paratextes in der Friihen Neuzeit, 2008, 28 3-299 [ 1 s I E. PETERSEN, Johann Albert Fabricius en humanist i Europa (diss. Copenhagen), 1998 [161 W. RAUPP, Fabricius, Johann Albert, in: Biographisch-Bibliographisches Kirchenlex. 25, 2005, 393-408 1171 H. S. REIMARUS, De vita et scriptis Joannis Alberti Fabricii commenrarius, 1737 1181 M. VERNER,Johann Albert Fabricius. Eighteenth-Century Scholar and Bibliographer, in: The Papers of the Bibliographical Society of America 60, 1966, 28 1-3 26. RALPHHAFNER

Falkenstein, Adam German Ancient Near Eastern scholar. Born Planegg (near Munich) 17. 9. 1906, died Heidelberg 15. 10. 1966. 192.5-192.8 studied Semitic studies and Assyriology at Munich, then from 192.8 at Leipzig; doctorate there 192.9. 1933 habil. and priv.-doz. of Semitic and cuneiform studies at Munich. Joined NSDAP 1940. From 1940, prof. of Assyriology and Arabic studies at Gottingen. War service 194 1. From 1943 at German Embassy in Ankara. 1945/46 internment as staff member of German Embassy in Ankara and military forces in Adana, southern Turkey. From 1947 prof. ext. at Gottingen; from 1949 prof. ord. in Assyriology and Arabic studies at Heidelberg. Member of several academies from 1947. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

At Munich, F. studied first with Fritz Hommel and Gotthelf Bergstrasser, but Benno

FALKENSTEIN,

ADAM

-,. Landsberger at Leipzig was the formative influence. In his diss. on Sumerian invocations I1 ), F. developed the typology and classification of this literary genre that remains current today. At Berlin in 1930, he analysed texts from Warka'/ Uruk (Iraq), where he participated as philologist in nine archaeological campaigns between 1930 and 1960. His publications of clay tablets from Uruk range from literary texts (2.) to archaic documents of the late 4th millennium BC (3). With this work, F. supplied a fundamental study of the emergence, formation and development of cuneiform. He devoted himself in particular to the study of Sumerian, following on from Arno Poebel, whose meticulous philological method he emulated. A milestone in research into the morphology of Sumerian in particular was the reference grammar of the inscriptions of Gudea of Lagas [4); a short grammatical primer appeared 1959 [6]. F.'s interest in Sumerian grammar and vocabulary led to his monumental edition of the Neo-Sumerian legal documents [5), a standard reference work for ancient Near Eastern cultural and legal history too (cf. Paul -,. Koschaker). F. analysed literary Sumerian texts in many articles, in which his thoroughness of detail never detracts from the coherence of the wider argument or his attention to all aspects of language, literature, religion and history (8). He was unable to finish his well-advanced study of the Gudea texts, a task accomplished by Dietz Otto ➔ Edzard (7]. F. was an influential teacher at Heidelberg, where he was a formative influence on an entire generation of ancient Near Eastern specialists. His students included Ake W. Sjoberg (Philadelphia), Dietz 0. . • Edzard (Munich), Burkhard Kienast (Freiburg), Wolfgang Heimpel (Berkeley), Hans J. Nissen (Berlin), Johannes Renger (Berlin), Joachim Krecher (Munster) and Claus Wilcke (Leipzig).

Fea, Carlo Italian archaeologist. Born Pigna (near Oneglia, Liguria) 4. 6. 1753, died Rome 2,7. 3. 1836. Educated at Nice, then studied at lJni"·· La Sapienza in Rome, 1776 doctorate as doctor iuris. Holy orders 1781. 1783 assistant to Ennio • Visconti in the Biblioteca Chigiana Quirino at Rome. I 801-1836 commissar for antiquities (Rome); 1801-1809 president, then from 1809 honorary president of the Capitoline Museum. Rome. From 1801 prefect of the Biblioteca Chigiana. From 182.9, member of the Roman

lnstituto di Corrispondenza Archeologica. CAREER,

WORKS

AND

INFLUENCE

After his doctorate, F. showed an increasing interest in antiquarian matters. His appointment as assistant to Ennio Quirino • Visconti, librarian to Prince Sigismondo Chigi, was a fateful one. It heralded a prolific publishing career that encompassed editions of ancient and contemporary works and articles on a variety of other subjects. Yet this initial versatility, displayed in over a hundred titles, then developed into an almost exclusive interest in archaeology and history (7]; [8). During Napoleon's Italian campaign of 1797, F. took sides against the French. He fled to Florence in 1798, and was then arrested twice after returning to Rome. As commissar of antiquities, he was responsible for observance of the Papal chirograph of 1802., which affirmed the 1750 law banning the export of antiquities and paintings. The story of F.'s career is peppered with actions in defence of the cultural heritage (8]. He also produced political writings that served, in their providential interpretation of the history of Rome, to inspire a liberal, nationalistic Catholicism (in the spirit of the so-called 'NeoGuelph' movement for the unification of Italy under Papal rule) (4); (6). F. campaigned for the conservation of important Roman monuments, e.g. Giuseppe Valadier's WRITINGS (1) Die Haupttypen der sumerischen Beschworung restoration of the Arch of Titus, the excavations 1929), literarisch untersucht (diss. Leipzig at the Colosseum, the base of the Column of 1931 (2) Literarische Keilschrifttexte aus Uruk Marcus Aurelius, the Arches of Constantine and (edition), 1931 (3) Archaische Texte aus Uruk Septimius Severus and the Pantheon, on which (edition), 1936 (4) Grammatik der Sprache Is) Die he wrote the first scholarly article [8). While Gudeas von Lagas, 2 vols., 1949-1950 his new 182.2. edition of Antoine neusumerischen Gerichtsurkunden, 3 vols. (edi- preparing Desgodetz' Les edifices antiques de Rome (orig. (6) Das Sumerische, 195 tion), 1956-1957 1682.), which he provided with new illustra(7) Die Inschriften Gudeas von Lagas: Einleitung, tions, he worked (from 181 6 to 1 8 1 8) with the 1966 (8) Geschichte Mesopotamiens. Von den Sumerern bis zu Alexander dem Grossen, 2004. Due de Blacas on the excavation of the Forum Romanum, studied the Temple of Castor and SECONDARY LITERATURE Pollux and discovered (and correctly identified) (9) D. 0. EDZARD, Zurn Tode von Adam the Temple of Concordia and fragments of the Falkenstein, in: ZA 59, 1969, 1-10 (10) J. RF.NGER, Fasti Capitolini. In 182.1, he succeeded in almost Altorientalistik, in: J. ELVERT/ J. NIELSEN-SIKORA (ed.), completely deciphering the layout of the Temple Kulturwissenschaften und Nationalsozialismus, of Venus and Rome (8). F. also helped to clarify 2008, 469-502 (especially 494-498). the function of the church of S. Costanza as a WALTHER SALLABERGER

FERGUSON, ADAM

1 93

burial site, and after the fire of 182.5 he campaigned for the reconstruction of the church of S. Paolo fuori le mura l8J. During the 182.os, he worked on the harbours of Ostia, identifying the fossa Traiana there, and Antium, and wrote a systematic study of the Roman aqueducts that is still highly regarded today [3); 181. He earned renown as early as 178 3/84 with his Storia de/le arti de/ disegno [ 1 ), an Italian translation (with commentary and an original essay on the Roman ruins) of Johann Joachim --+ Winckelmann's Geschichte der Kunst des Alterthums (1764), for which he made use of the Milan (Italian) edition of 1779 and a French translation, and collaborated with the Spanish collector Jose Nicolas de Azara and the German antiquarian Johann Friedrich Reiffenstein. Attention has recently been drawn to the limitations of his understanding of the text 15), and the commentary mostly reproduces the ideas of Ennio Quirino --+ Visconti. However, the work was well-received in the Effemeridi Letterarie Romane from 1784 to 1786, before triggering a violent dispute with the antiquarian and artist Onofrio Boni - the first of several (e.g. with Giuseppe Guattani and Antonio Nihby). At ► Heyne received Gottingen, Christian Gottlob the commentary positively. Goethe acquired F.'s book in 1786 and found it useful !5 ). F.'s collection of archival documents and hitherto unpublished memoirs of scholars (including Flaminio Vacca and Franceso de' Ficoroni) [2.J, to which his nephew Antonio F. added another volume in 18 3 6, have been and remain to this day valuable historical sources on him and his contemporaries. WRITINGS

[ 1] Storia delle arti del disegno presso gli antichi di Giovanni Winkelmann. Tradotta dal tedesco e in questa edizione corretta e aumentata dall'aoate Carlo Fea, 3 vols., 1783-1784 (2) Miscellanea filologica critica e antiquaria, 2. vols., 1790-1836 (3) Storia I. Delle acque antiche sorgenti in Roma perdute, e modo di ristabilirle. II. Dei condotti antico-moderni delle acque Vergine, Felice e Paola e loro autori, 1832. [4J Considerazioni sull'lmpero romano da Romolo ad Augusto e da questo per l'epoca cristiana fino all'anno 757, 1835. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

IsI S. FERRARI, L'eredita culturale di Winckelmann. Carlo Fea e la seconda edizione della Storia delle arti del disegno presso gli antichi, in: Roma moderna e contemporanea 1-2., 2.002., 15-48 [6] A. FRASCHETTI, L'antiquario e ii fondatore. Carlo Fea e le sue 'Lodi di Romolo e di Roma', in: Mediterraneo antico. Economic, societa, culture [7] R. T. RIDLEY, Fea, Carlo, 1/1, 1998, 2.35-2.46 in: DBI 45, 1995, 518-52.8 (8) R. T. RIDLEY, The Pope's Archaeologist. The Life and Times of Carlo Fea, 2.000 (9) 0. Rossi PINELi.i, Carlo Fea e ii chi-

rografo del 1802.. Cronaca, giudiziaria e non, delle prime battaglie per la tutela delle 'Belle Arti', in: Ricerche di storia dell'arte 8, 1978-1979, 2.7-40. LUCIAFAEDO Ferguson, Adam Scottish historian and philosopher. Born Logierait, Atholl (Perthshire) 2.0. 6. 172.3, died St. Andrews 2.2.. 2.. 181 6. School at Logierait and Perth. Studied theology at St. Andrews and Edinburgh; 1742. Master of Arts at St. Andrews. 17 4 5 granted a licence to serve as minister of the Church of Scotland; 1745-1754 army chaplain; 1757/58 librarian of the Advocates' Library in Edinburgh. 1759 prof. of natural philosophy there; 1764 prof. of pneumatics and moral philosophy. 1766 honorary doctorate in law, Edinburgh. 1793 honorary member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

F. made contact with David --+ Hume, Adam Smith and other leading lights of the Scottish Enlightenment while still a student at Edinburgh, and after his military service. The support of Hume helped him to a position as librarian, then as prof. of natural philosophy at the Univ. of Edinburgh, where in 1764 he took the chair of pneumatics (philosophy of mind) and moral philosophy. In 1767, he wrote his Essay on the History of Civil Society I1 ), an account of the development of human society, informed by moral philosophy and materialism and based on Stoic ideas [7. xvf.]. With his demand for wealth to be combined with political commitment, F. took up the concept of civic virtue propounded by Aristotle, Niccolo Machiavelli and especially Montesquieu [8. 343); (6. 612.): F.'s ideal state is a republican meritocracy, somewhat akin to Sparta or the early Roman Republic, in which every man may contribute on equal terms of entitlement to the common good [6. 615 f.]; [5. 605). In 1769, he followed up this work with his Institutes of Moral Philosophy [2.] (a revised version was published in 1792. under the title Principles of Moral and Political Science), again built on Stoic principles (6. 609-612.). In spite of the republican sympathies he expressed in his Essay, F. vehemently opposed the secession of the rebel North American colonies from the British Crown - a position that earned him a place on the Peace Commission headed by the Earl of Carlisle in 1778. 1783 saw the publication of F.'s account of Roman history from around the outbreak of the First Punic War (2.46 BC) to the death of Tiberius (AD 2.7) (3). F.'s importance lay above all in the development of the modern social sciences. His works are preoccupied with the issue of "how an ancient,

FERGUSON,

194

ADAM

and especially Stoic ideal of political and moral coexistence may be implemented under modern conditions" (6. 613). WRITINGS (1) An Essay on the History of Civil Society, 1767 (2) Institutes of Moral Philosophy, 1769 [3) The History of the Progress and Termination of the Roman Republic, 1783. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

Augustus [ 12. 277). Its brilliant style helped the work to resonate with a broad readership, but F. was largely disdained by the academic community, and he never attained a professorship in Italy. F., who travelled widely not only in Europe [ 1 ), but also in South and Nonh America, sought to bring about a rapprochement between the American and European cultural traditions [4); (5); (6); (7). His opposition to the Fascist regime (81 compelled F. to seek asylum in Switzerland with his wife. He taught contemporary history at the Univ. of Geneva until his death.

(4) C. J. BERRY,Sociality and Socialisation, in: A. BROADIE(ed.), The Cambridge Companion to the Scottish Enlightenment, :z.003, 2.43-:z.57 (5) A. GARRETT, Ferguson, Adam, in: D. M. BORCHERT (ed.), The Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Vol. 3, •2.006, 604-605 (6) H. HmzHEY et al. (ed.), Die Philosophic des 18. Jh.s, Vol. 1/:z.: Grossbritannien und Nordamerika, Niederlande, :z.004, 603618 [7) Introduction, in: A. FERGUSON, An Essay on the History of Civil Society, ed. F. Oz-SALZBERGER, 1995, VII-XXV (8) F. Oz-SALZBERGER, Ferguson, Adam, in: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography 19, :z.004, 341-347. BARBARA

KUHN-CHEN

Ferrero, Guglielmo Italian-Swiss writer and historian. Born Portici 21. 7. 1871, died Mont-Pelerin (Vaud) 3. 8. 1942. Studied law at Turin, then humanities at Bologna. 1897-1923 worked for the radical republican journal JI secolo in Milan. 1906 lecture series at College de France; 1908 travelled

to the United States at the invitation of President Roosevelt. Emigrated to Switzerland under Fascist oppression 1929. 1930-1942 prof. of contemporary history at the Univ. of Geneva. CAREER,

WORKS

AND

INFLUENCE

F.'s publications and scholarship won him considerable influence in Italy and great renown worldwide. Much influenced by his father-in-law Cesare Lombroso, in whose studies of criminal anthropology he collaborated at the beginning of his scholarly career (3], F. was a devotee of positivism and liberalism. Politically speaking, his orientation was towards radical republicanism (in 1925, he signed Benedetto Croce's manifesto of the anti-Fascist intellectuals), and a campaigner for democratic freedoms. He was imprisoned in 1896 for taking part in protests against the regime of Francesco Crispi. His chief work, Greatness and Decline of Rome, examines the period between the death of Sulla and the death of Augustus (2). The focus of this great study of social history is the new political class that came to power in the age of the Roman revolution. Opposing Theodor ~ Mommsen, F. espoused a critical re-evaluation of Julius Caesar, while emphasizing the political achievement of

WRITINGS

[ 1) L' Europa giovanc. Studi c viaggi nei paesi del nord, 1898 [2) Grandezza e decadenza di Roma, 5 vols., 1902-1907 (English: The Greatness and Decline of Rome, trans. A. E.ZJMMERN and H. J. CHAYTOR,5 vols., 1909) (3) La donna delinquente. La prostituta e la donna normale (with C. LoMBRoso), 1903 (English: Criminal Woman, The Prostitute, and the Normal Woman, trans. N. H. RAtTF.R and M. GtBSON,:z.004) (4) Characters and Events of Roman History, from Caesar to Nero. The Lowell Lectures of 1908, 1909 Is] Fra i due mondi, 1913 (6) Ancient Rome and Modern America, 1914 (7) Problems of Peace. From the Holy Alliance to the League of Nations. A Message from a European Writer to Americans, 1919 (8) La democrazia in Italia. Studi e precisioni, 192.5 191La rovina delta civilta antica, 1926 (reiss. 1988). SECONDARY

LITERATURE

[ 10] C. BARBAGALLO, L'opera

storica di Guglielmo Ferrero e i suoi critici, 191 1 I 1 1 I L. CEDRONI, Guglielmo Ferrero. Una hiografia intellettuale, :z.006 I 12) L. PoLVERINt, Cesare e Augusto nell'opera storica di Guglielmo Ferrero in 'Caesar und Augustus', in: K. CHRIST / E. GABBA (ed.), Romische Geschichte und Zeitgeschichte in der deutschen und italicnischen Altertumswissenschaft wahrend des 19. und 20. Jh.s, Vol. 1: Caesar und Augustus, 1989, :z.77-2.98 [13) P. TREVES,Ferrero, Guglielmo, in: DBI 47, 1997, 17-17. ARNALDO

MARCONE

Festugiere, Andre-Jean French religious scholar and philologist. Born Paris 15. 3. 1898, died there 13. 8. 1982. From 191 8, studied at the Ecole normale superieure in Paris; 1920 agrege des lettres. 192.1'2.2 Member of the Ecoles fran,aises de Rome and d'Athenes. Holy orders 1930. 1936 doctorate at the Sorbonne, Paris. 1942-1968 directeur d'etudes at the Paris Ecole pratique des hautes etudes, section des sciences religieuses, Paris. 19 5 8 elected to the Academie des inscriptions et belles-lettres.

195 SCHOLARLY

FICINO,

CAREER

The second son of nine children, f. attended the Lycee Condorcet and Lycee Louis-le-Grand at Paris. In 1920, he passed the state teaching examination. The following year, he became a member of the Ecole fran(aise at Rome, moving to the Ecole fran(aise at Athens in 1922. After visiting an uncle who was a Benedictine monk at the Belgian monastery of Maredsous, F. decided in 1923/24 to join the Dominican order. He studied theology at Amiens (1924/25) and Le Saulchoir (Kain, Belgium), and was ordained a priest in 1930. He spend the years 193 1/32 at the Ecole biblique in Jerusalem, and in 1936 took his doctorate at the Sorbonne. As a Dominican, he was ineligible for a professorship at a French univ. In 194 2, therefore, he took the post of a Directeur d'etudes at the Ecole pratique des hautes etudes in Paris. He conducted research far beyond his univ. subject there until his retirement in 1968. His friends included Franz -.. Cumont, Arthur Darby Nock and Eric Robertson -• Dodds. WORKS

Around 1922, the works of • Cumont on Mithras and Oriental religion provoked F. to study ancient cults. His religious commitment and his lively interest in Greek culture naturally inclined him towards ancient spirituality. His doctoral thesis of 19 3 6 explores the mystical aspects of the works of Plato [2). Thereafter, f. focused increasingly on the study of Christianity and paganism with particular reference to late antiquity. This choice of period was an original one: at the time, it enjoyed little attention at French univs. F. also studied ancient philosophy, and he became a great expert on Neoplatonism. Working with A. D. Nock, he translated the Corpus Hermeticum, a collection of occult, mostly Neoplatonist texts associated with Hermes Trismegistos 14). His own work on Hermes Trismegistos appeared at the same time [3]; it explores not only hermeticism in the strict sense, but also alchemy, astrology and pagan monotheism. In 1952/53, F. taught at Berkeley as a Sather Prof. In his lectures [ 5 ), he drew a distinction for the Greeks between the communal religion and personal beliefs (whether tending towards folk religion or spirituality). In 19 59, he explored the question of how Christians and pagan Greeks lived together (6). He later translated works including Greek monastic vitae (7] and Proclus' commentaries on Plato's Timaeus (8) and Republic (9]. All his life, F. translated difficult and obscure philosophical, magical, religious and mystical texts (e.g. Artemidorus of Ephesus,

MARSILIO

Porphyry, Sallustius and the Sacred Tales of Aelius Aristides). INFLUENCE

Contrary to the pos1t1v1st approach, F. to some extent set out to explore Greek and Roman experiences of the divine in order to find answers on his own search for religious understanding. The price paid for this valuable empathy is sometimes a lack of historical distance. F.'s idea of personal spirituality, based on an outmoded idea of the decline of the city-states in the Hellenistic Period and strongly influenced by Christianity, encountered criticism [ 10. 23-26]. Going beyond public cults and religious institutions, F. was always interested in the religious feelings of ancient people, whether they were pagans or Christians, •dirty' monks or Neoplatonists. He did demonstrate how rationalism gave way to the divine through the course of antiquity. His monumental output (75 books, 225 articles and several translations left at his death that he intended to publish, e.g. of Evagrius Scholasticus in the Sources chretiennes) assured F. of great international renown. LW: E. Lucchesi, H. D. Saffrey (ed.), Memorial Andre-Jean Festugiere. Antiquite pai'enne et chretienne, 1984, XVII-XXXIV. WRITINGS

I 1) L'ideal religieux des Grecs et l'Evangile, 1932. [2.] Contemplation et vie contemplative selon Platon, 1936 [3] La revelation d'Hermes 141 Hermes Trismegiste, 4 vols., 1944-1954 Trismegiste, Corpus Hermeticum, 4 vols. (trans. with A. D. NocK), 1945-1954 Is] Personal Religion among the Greeks, 1954 [6) Antioche patenne et chretienne, 1959 [7) Les moines d'Orient, 4 vols. (French edition), 1961-1965 (7 vols.) 181 Proclus, Commentaire sur le Timee, 5 vols. (trans.), 19661969 19] Proclus, Commentaire sur la Republique, 3 vols. (trans.), 1970. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

[ 10] M. ALEXANDRE, La notion de religion person-

nelle clans l'reuvre d' A.-J. Festugiere, in: Cahiers du Saulchoir 8, 2.001, 9-2.6 [11] J. DE RoMILLY, Notice sur la vie et les travaux du R. P. AndreJean Festugiere, membre de l'Academie, in: CRAI 12.9'2, 1985, 406-419 112) H. D. SAFFREY, Le Pere Andre-Jean Festugiere. Une histoire litteraire et doctrinale du besoin d'etre avec Dieu clans le monde romain, in: Revue des sciences philosophiques et theologiques 92/3, 2.008, 591-600. LAURENT GUICHARD

Ficino, Marsilio Marsilius Ficinus; Italian Humanist and philosopher. Born Figline (Arno Valley) 19. 10. 1433, the son of Diotifeci, personal physician

FICINO,

MARSILIO

sion of the commentary on the Phaedrus by the Neoplatonist Hermias (in reality a copy of the lecture on Phaedrus by Syrianus). Of his systematic writings describing his own teachings, the following are panicularly noteworthy. 1469: commentaries on Plato's Symposium (7) (beginning of the magnum opus: Theologica Platonica completed 1469-1474 and WORK published 1482. (31) and Phaedrus [5] (only comIn 1454, while still a student at Florence, F. pleted 1492); 1492: commentary on the Philebus (his name Fecino/Ficino is a diminutive form of (4); 1494: commentary on the Sophistes (6] and his father's name Diotifeci) wrote a commennotes on the Parmenides [ r. Vol. 2., 1136-12.06]. tary on Lucretius' De rerum natura, but he later 1474: De Christiana religione (vernacular trans(maturiore aetate) repudiated and burned it [ 1. lation by F. himself). 1484: at the suggestion of Giovanni • Pico della Mirandola, F. began Vol. 1, 933). Instead, he developed his relationship with Platonism [ 1. Vol. 1, 61 8) and in 14 56, to translate Plotinus, completing the project in clearly impressed by Cristofaro ➔ Landino, he 1486 (published 1492.). His Plotinus commentarwrote a four-volume survey of the Platonic doc- ies appeared 1486-1490 (1. Vol. 2., 1537-1800), though he had been well acquainted with Plotinus' trine (lnstitutiones ad Platonicam philosophiam) Ontology, on which he built his own philosoas he had deduced it from the Latin sources (Augustine, Apuleius). However, Cosimo de' phy, since around 1460. 1480: the first book De vita, with the second and third books in 1489; Medici and Landino advised him to learn Greek so that he could draw directly on the writings of also 1489: translations of other Neoplatonists: lamblichus' De mysteriis and pans of Synesius, Plato (1. Vol. 1, 929). By continuing his medical studies at Bologna in 1457, F. may have been Psellus, Priscian, Porphyry and Proclus. 1490: avoiding the anti-Platonic atmosphere rigorously translation and commentary of the treatises Mystica theologia and De divinis nominibus by cultivated at Florence by its bishop, Antoninus Dionysius Areopagites [r. Vol. 1, 92.5), whom Pierrozzi (1. Vol. 1, 929); (12. 280). he "worshipped" and wrongly believed to have In 1462, Cosimo gave F. a villa at Careggi as a meeting-place for the Platonists (exact date been a student of Paul in the 1st cent. AD. attested by F.'s letter of thanks to Cosimo dated In 1495, F. arranged an edition of his letters. 4. 9. 1462. (2.. Vol. 2., 88)). Cosimo now seems to which he had been collecting since 1473. After have been able to realize a long-cherished proj- the execution of the Dominican Savonarola. who since his emergence at Florence in 1492. ect. At the Council of Union in 1439, George ((2.. Vol. 2., Gemistos • Plethon had convinced Cosimo the had recruited many Humanists Elder to found a Platonic Academy As F. noted 76): viri ingeniosi eruditique) to his fundamentalist cause and to whom F. was initially well in the 1492. translation of Plotinus he dedicated to Lorenzo de' Medici, Cosimo marked him out disposed, F. wrote a strident Apologia contra for a role in this academy while he was still a Savonarolam (2. Vol. 2, 76). One particular point young man (adhuc puer) [r. Vol. 2., 1537). On of violent contention was Savonarola 's denunCosimo's death in 1464, F. wrote that he had ciation of astrology, for which F. always had a been in philosophical discourse with Cosimo for weakness. - (2.. Vol. 1, CXX] meticulously docutwelve years. This evidence gives the foundation ments the chronology of F.'s writings; cf. the survey of the work of F. in [8. Vol. 1, XXXIX-LXX: year as 1452. individual works XXV-XXXVII]. The inscripF.'s writings include many Latin translations tion on the monument in Florence Cathedral of Plato, Plotinus and the later Neoplatonists Porphyry, Iamblichus and Proclus (1. Vol. 1, calls F. pater sophiae (in analogy to Cosimo's title pater patriae). 1801; 1873 ff.], as well as the Corpus Hermeticum (1463, published 1471 as F.'s first printed book), which he wrongly believed to be an Egyptian preTEACHINGS cursor to the writings of Plato. Cosimo had preAt first, F.'s philosophy was in the tradition viously advised him to translate Plato. In 1464, of medieval thought. His studies had acquainted F. read to the dying Cosimo from his Latin transhim thoroughly with the Aristotelian school lation, which by then comprised ten dialogues of philosophy. But F. turned to the teachings of Plato. He dedicated his translations of a further Plato, as he saw them manifested in the concepnine dialogues to Piero de' Medici in 1468. F.'s tual world of the Neoplatonists and especially complete translation of Plato appeared in 1484 of Plotinus, and hoped to revive them (revixit and was dedicated to Lorenzo I12.. 304-311 ]. Plato). The aim of all his philosophical work was 1484 also saw the publication of his Latin ver- to reconcile Platonic philosophy with the teach-

to Cosimo de' Medici the Elder, died Careggi 1. 10. 1499. 1448/49 studied medicine at Florence, then briefly at Bologna in 14 57. From 145 1 studied philosophy and arts at Florence. Founded Platonic Academy at Florence around 14 5 2 (?). 1473 holy orders. Canonicus at Florence Cathedral from 1487; buried there.

197 ings of Christianity rI. Vol. 2, I 4421 (Platonem Christianae theologiae magis conciliabimus): Christian doctrine should be underpinned by ancient philosophy. F. knew the teachings of the Middle Platonist Albinus, and from around 1460 he worked on Plotinus, whose complete works he later translated. He was familiar with Hermetic, Orphic and Pythagorean literature, and his great model was Dionysius Areopagites, in whom he saw the unification of Platonic doctrine and Christian dogma. The central themes of his philosophical teaching were ( 1) the doctrine of the soul; (2) the immortality of the individual human soul; (3) the importance of the vita contemplativa for the attainment of the individual destiny; (4) the doctrine of Platonic love (amor Socraticus). (1) Doctrine of the soul: F.'s doctrine of the soul is based on the ontological system of Plotinus, in which the soul is located at the centre of all being (Plotinus IV 8,7,6 and Porphyry, Sententiae V). To the ontological hierarchy of the Neoplatonists, with the One (God), mind, soul and matter (the body), F. added the level of qualitas (an active force, vis agendi, in bodies). This enabled him to place the soul at the centre of all levels of being. The soul, he taught, was the link between God and all the things of nature. It bears the images (imagines) of divine things and the concepts and archetypes (rationes et exemplaria) of lower things within itself. By virtue of this intermediary position, it is also capable of bringing the individual up from the earthly realm to God. With Plotinus, F. makes it the particular task of the individual human to realize the noetic qualities of his soul and thus to ascend to God, indeed to become God 13• Vol. 2, 247]. (2) Proving the immortality of the human soul was a chief preoccupation of Renaissance philosophers. F. argues vigorously on this subject [3. Vol. 2, Book 9-14]. To take one example: the soul can comprehend the divine ideas located within the mind. Since there is a relation between the comprehender and the comprehended, the soul must be immortal, lik~ the divine that it comprehends. The doctrine of immortality as taught in the tradition of Plato by Plotinus and the Neoplatonists brings religious and secular philosophical thought into harmony. Hence, like the Neoplatonist Proclus, F. called his magnum opus the Theologia Platonica. (3) The ascent to God proceeds through the vita contemplativa. The mind of man may approach and comprehend God in philosophical contemplation. Departing from Plotinus, F. does not distinguish in principle between knowledge of God and other acts of knowledge. In Plotinus, human thought cannot directly approach the divine (the One), because it is beyond thought

FICINO,

MARS!

LIO

and being. Thought, to Plotinus, is only the preparation for the actual experience of God, which can only be gained by mystical means. To F., conversely, the Christian creator-god, who is regarded as a person, is not beyond thought and being, but represents their highest potential. Hence, philosophical contemplation is indeed capable of reaching God. The divine mind realizes itself in the individual through contemplation, so that it is a natural aspiration of a man to become God 13• Vol. 2, 247]. (4) In his commentary on Plato's Symposium 171, F. calls the love of God amor Socraticus. Love is defined as the "desire for beauty" (desiderium pulchritudinis). In Eros, which seeks to comprehend beauty (= the divine), the metaphysical world enters the world of sensual perception, even manifesting itself in bodily or material beauty, which consists in the harmony of individual elements (concinnitas). Harmony in the diversity of visible things is a reflection of divine beauty. Man can thus ascend to God through the contemplation of earthly beauty. Platonic love forms a bridge between the world of perception and the world of the mind. It also forms the unifying bond of friendship among men of common mind. The now-current trivialized notion of 'Platonic love' as love without sex only emerged in the 16th cent., from Baldassare Castiglione's II libro de/ Cortegiano. The divine beauty for which the act of Platonic love strives is best realized, for F., in art (on which, in detail, (3. Vol. 2, Book 13)). Artistic design is a manifestation of the supreme faculty of the man of gifted mind. True art is a realization of an idea in a work of art. The artist must comprehend the nature (forma substantialis) of a thing in thought, and depict it in material (to this extent, F. can designate art as an ars ratonalis (3. Vol. 2, 160); on which (131). Art is not primarily a problem of aesthetics, but of philosophical contemplation. The artist imitates the creative process of God, by fashioning the material into an artistic form by designing it according to the ideal nature. This is a facility peculiar to thinking man, as distinct from the animals. Since F. sees representations of divine ideas in a true work of art, such a work of art can, in his philosophy, conversely lead the human viewer back to God. Art rooted in philosophy, to F., becomes a form of psychagogy, and hence constitutes a form of practical theology. INFLUENCE

F. was a considerable influence in his own lifetime, and his relations with leading Humanists, such as Cristoforo • • Landino, Angelo • Poliziano and --► Pico della Mirandola were friendly. He enjoyed close and rewarding ties

FICINO,

MARSILIO

with Piero de' Medici and Lorenzo ii Magnifico. His influence on Pico della Mirandola and others was formative and their discussions lively. His theories on 'Platonic love' in particular struck a chord, resonating not least in the poetry of Lorenzo de 'Medici and in the 16th cent. with Castiglione, whose Cortegiano represented the ideal nobleman according to F.'s ideas. His influence extended to Spain and France ( 101, and Cambridge Platonism also referred to F.'s Christian Platonism. German Idealism (Hegel) in some ways followed on from F. F.'s astrological writings were particularly influential in Germany. However, he slipped out of the limelight when Plato became directly accessible, especially in the translation by Friedrich Schleiermacher, and F.'s Latin versions became superfluous. F.'s philosophy aimed to arrive at an idea of man rooted in metaphysics. He based his work on the philosophy of Plato, which he examined in the form of the Platonic treatises and the writings of the later Neoplatonists (and Dionysius Areopagites), and which he made the basis of his own ontology. As a Renaissance philosopher, F. brought to his essentially metaphysical outlook a mind that was open to earthly beauty, which he saw as divine creation and regarded favourably in its design by men inspired with the spirit of God.

Ficin, 1958 [15) U. OF.HUG, Die philosophische Begriindung der Kunst bei Ficino, 1992. CLEMENS ZINTZEN

Ficoroni, Francesco de' Italian archaeologist and antiquarian. Born 1664 in Lugnano Valmontone/Labico (Latium), died January 1747 in Rome. Lived and worked in Rome all his life. Excavations between 1705 and 1710 on the via Appia in the Vigna Moroni; 1731-1732. excavations at San Cesareo; from 17 14 corresponding member for coins and inscriptions at the Academie royale des inscriptions et medailles in Paris; member of the Royal Society in London (14. 302. f.]. WORK

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INFLUENCE

F.'s antiquarian activities were centred on Rome and its environs. He was well known as a tour guide for visitors to the city (as were Francesco • Bianchini and Ridolfino .. Venuti). For instance, he guided Philipp von --+ Stosch around the city Ir 41 and often accompanied British travellers (e.g. Joseph -+ Addison and Sir Andrew Fountaine). F. was also a central figure in the 18th-cent. Roman antiquities trade [ 1 5. 13 1 I. He conveyed gemstones and sculptures to England (e.g. to the Duke of Carlisle) I 16. 92. f.] and in 172.8 organized the sale of the sculptures from the Chigi Collection to the court at WRITINGS I 1] Opera omnia, 2 vols., Basel 1 576 (reiss. Dresden [13. 1011. F. himself owned a substan1983) (2I Supplementum Ficinianum, 2 vols., ed. tial collection of small-scale ancient art, of which 1937 (reiss. 1973) [3] Theologie P. 0. KRISTELLER, he donated the most famous piece, the so-called platonicienne, 3 vols. (Latin-German),ed. R. MARCEL, Ficoroni Cista, to the Museo Kircheriano at Rome 1964-1970 (Latin-English: Platonic Theology, ed. (today at the Villa Giulia) [13); (15. 144-146]. J. HANKINS et al., trans. M. J. B. Al.I.ENet al., 6 vols., F.'s scholarly output was mostly concerned 2001-2006) (4) The Philehus Commentary (LatinI 6 ); with topography I I I; [9 ), new excavations English), ed. M. J. B. Al.I.EN, 1975 (5) Marsilio 131 and small-scale Roman art (4); [7], and it Ficino and the Phaedran Charioteer (Latinreflects his practical work as a tour guide and English), ed. and trans. M. J. B. ALLEN, 1981 collector. Of particular interest are his first work, (6) Icastes. Marsilio Ficino's Interpretation of Plato's Sophist (Latin-English), ed. M. J. B. ALLEN,1989 the Osservationi I1 ), in which he lists manv [7I Commentary on Plato's Symposium on Love, errors made by Dom Bernard de • Montfauco~ trans. S. JAYNE,1 2000. in his Diarium ltalicum, and Le vestigia e rarita di Roma [8[. This is a topographical guide to the SECONDARY LITERATURE monuments of the city, and tells of the antiquities (8] Marsilio Ficino, Index nominum et index that were unearthed, destroyed and sold during geographicus, ed. D. GAIL, P. RIEMER et al., his lifetime. His scholarly interest in gemstones 2 vols., 2003 (9) W. BflF.RWAI.TF.S, Marsilio is apparent from his work on theatrical masks Ficinos Theorie des Schonen im Konrext des I 5 J. F. had largely completed a treatise on his Platonismus, in: W. BEIF.RWAI.TF.S, Fussnoten zu own collection of gemstones with inscriptions by Plato, 2011, 231-278 I 10] J. FESTUGIERE, La phi1736, but it was only published posthumously in losophic de l'amour de Marsile Ficin et son influence sur la litterature franOT, Philosophic als Lebensform. Geistige 0bungen in der Antike, 1991 (French 1981) I 11] P. HADOT,0berlegungen zum Begriff der 'Selbstkultur', in: F. EWALD/ B. WALDENFELS (ed.), Spiele der Wahrheit. Michel Foucaults Denken, 1991, 219-228 [12) F. HARTOG,Le miroir d'Herodote. Essai sur la representation de l'autre, 1980 ( 1 2001) (13) C. KAMMLER et al. (ed.), FoucaultHdb. Leben, Werk, Wirkung, 2008 (14) D. H. J. LARMOUR et al. (ed.), Rethinking Sexuality. Foucault and Classical Antiquity, 1998 (15) M. RUOFF, Foucault-Lexikon. Entwicklung, Kernbegriffe, Zusammenhange, 2007 (16) P. SARASIN, Michel Foucault. Zur Einftihrung, 2005 (17) T. S. ScHEER,Griechische Geschlechtergeschichte, 2011 (18) T. SCHMITZ,Bildung und Macht. Zur sozialen und politischen Funktion der zweiten Sophistik in der griechischen Welt der Kaiserzeit, 1997 (19) P. VEYNE,Foucault. Der Philosoph als Samurai, 2009 (French 2008) (20) H.-U. WEHLER, Die Herausforderung der Kulturgeschichte, 1998. CLAUDIAHORST

Foy-Vaillant, Jean French antiquarian and numismatist. Born Jean Foy, Beauvais, 24. 5. 1632, died Paris 23. 10. 1706. Studied philosophy at College de Beauvais. Lawyer in Paris, then procureur general fiscal at Beauvais. Medical doctorate 1655. From 1675, travelled to Southern Europe, Egypt and Asia to buy coins and conduct research. From 1684, curator of the royal coin collection at Paris. CAREER

After the death of his father (1635), F.-V. was brought up by his great-uncle, Nicolas Vaillant. He completed his studies in philosophy at the College de Beauvais at the age of 14. At 17, WRITINGS he became a lawyer at the Parlement de Paris, [ 1) Folie et deraison. Histoire de la folie a l'iige clasand soon afterwards procureur general fiscal at sique (diss. Paris), 1961 (2) Les mots et les choses. Une archeologie des sciences humaines, 1966 Beauvais. He took his doctorate in medicine at (English: The Order of Things: An Archaeology of 23. His marriage to Antoinette Adrian (from the Human Sciences, 1970) (3) Surveiller et punir. 16 54) produced five children. After Antoinette's La naissance de la prison, 1975 (English: Discipline death, he received a Papal dispensation to marry and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, 1977) 141Histoire de la sexualite, Vol. 1: La volonte his sister-in-law Louise Adrian in 1664. A find of coins near Beauvais kindled his de savoir, 1976 (English: History of Sexuality Vol. 1: The Will to Knowledge, trans. R. HURLEY, interest in numismatics. The Paris collector Pierre 1978) Is] Histoire de la sexualite, Vol. 2: L'usage Seguin supported F.-V., introducing him to the Marquis de Colbert, who sent him to Italy, Sicily des plaisirs, 1984 (English: The History of Sexuality Vol. 2: The Use of Pleasure, trans. R. HURLEY, and Greece to add to the collection of Jean1988) (6) Histoire de la sexualite, Vol. 3: Le souci Baptiste Gaston, Duke of Orleans, which the de soi, 1984 (English: The History of Sexuality duke had presented to the King of France. On his Vol. 3: The Care of Self, trans. R. HURLEY, way to Rome, on 14. 3. 1675, F.-V. was taken 1988) (7) L'hermeneutique du sujet, 2001 (lec- by pirates and held for four and a half months, ture 1981-1982) (English: The Hermeneutics of the the prisoner of the Bey of Algiers. On his release, Subject, ed. F. GRos, trans. G. BURCHELL, 2005). he was threatened by privateers, but escaped unscathed. The ancient gold coins, which he had

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JEAN

swallowed to keep them safe, reached France unharmed. Further journeys ensued: to Egypt, Persia and Asia Minor, where F.-V. acquired rare coins, and for purposes of study to Italy (twelve times), England and Holland (twice each). He was put in charge of the royal collection in Paris in 1684, and in July 1701, he was elected to the Academie des inscriptions et belles-lettres. From 1702. he was its pensionnaire. F.-V. was buried in Saint Benoit in Paris in 1706. WORK

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loquentibus ex omni modulo percussa, Paris 1 698 [9] Historia Ptolemaeorum Aegypti regum, Amsterdam 1701 II o] Discours sur une medaille de l'Empereur Trajan, in: Memoires pour l'histoire des sciences et des beaux arts, 1702., 11-2.8 (Fevrier) [11) Nummi antiqui familiarum Romanarum perpetuis interpretationibus 1703 [12] Arsacidarum illustrati, Amsterdam imperium sive regum Parthorum historia (Vol. 1) and Achaemenidarum imperium sive regum Ponti, Bosphori et Bithyniae historia (Vol. 2.), ed. C. DE VALOIS,Paris 172.8 (posthumous).

INFLUENCE

F.-V. produced a series of reliable coin catalogues. The catalogue of Roman republican coins [ 1 1) is particularly outstanding for the 102. excellent plates. The catalogues of Imperial coinage generally begin with Caesar and end with Gallienus, Saloninus II or Postumus [1]; [4); [8[. Although a third volume up to Heraclius was advertised, the later period is only included in the catalogue of medallions [7[. The Numismata imperatorum [8) contains sections on the privileges of individual cities (e.g. urbes metropoleis, urbes sacrae, urbes liberae, urbes neocorae), gods and heroes, city founders, dignitaries, festivals, etc. The Seleucidarum historia [2.I offers a quite new form of historical reconstruction, with its evaluation of literary, epigraphic and numismatic material. The Historia Ptolemaeorum [9) does the same, as do the posthumous volumes on the Arsacids and Achaemenids [12.[. However, these works are littered with erroneous coin attributions, and arguments are frequently speculative. Four lectures to the Academie, also published posthumously, consider the date of Christ's birth, neokoria, a coin of Zenobia and Vabalathus. The publications on Roman numismatics were reprinted many times up to the end of the 18th cent., and were highly praised, e.g. by Johann Joseph Hilarius • Eckhel. They remained the standard works for citation until the publication of Henry • Cohen's catalogues in 1857 and 1880. WRITINGS (1) Numismata

imperatorum Romanorum praestantiora a Julio Caesare ad Posthumum et tyrannos, Paris 1674 [2) Seleucidarum imperium sive historia regum Syriae, Paris I 681 [3] Selecta numismata antiqua ex museo Petri Seguini, Paris 1684 [4) Numismata aerea lmperatorum Augustorum et Caesarum in coloniis, municipiis et urbibus iure Latio donatis ex omni modulo percussa, Paris 1688 (5) Ad totius Europae antiquarios, Paris 1689 [6) (ed.),Johannes Harduinis ... Antirrheticus de nummis antiquis coloniarum et municipiorum, Paris 1689 [7] Selectiora numismata in aere maximi moduli e museo illustrissimi D. D. Francisci de Camps ... concisis interpretationibus illustrata, Paris 1694 [8] Numismata lmperatorum Augustorum et Caesarum a populis Romanae ditionis Graece

SECONDARY

I 13 I C.

LITERATURE

Les hommes illustres du departement de l'Oise, 1858 {14) C. DEKESEL,Jean FoyVaillant (1632.-1706). The Antiquary of the King, in: P. BERGHAUS(ed.), Numismatische Literatur 1500-1864. Die Entwicklung der Methoden einer Wissenschaft, 1995, 47-55 (15] M. DuPON"rWHITF.,Notice sur Foy-Vaillant, celebre anriquaire. ne a Beauvais, in: Bulletin de la Societe des anti361-370. quaires de Picardie 1, 1841-1843, 8RAINE,

PETER FRANZ

MITrAG

Fraenkel, Eduard German-British classical philologist. Born Berlin 17. 3. 1888, died Oxford 5. 2.. 1970. School in Berlin; studies at Berlin and Gottingen. 1912. doctorate in Gottingen. 1913-1915 assistant on the Thesaurus Unguae tatinae in Munich; 1917 habit. in Berlin. 192.0 prof. ext. there. 192.3 prof_ ord. in classical philology at Kiel; 192.8 prof. ord. at Gottingen; 193 1 prof. ord. in Frei burg. Emigrated to Britain 1934; 1935 prof. ord. at Corpus Christi College, Oxford. CAREER,

WORKS

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INFLUENCE

F. came from a family of Jewish

businessmen. His uncle was the renowned medievalist and palaeographer Ludwig • Traube. While F. was still a schoolboy, his mother, Edith, took him to the public lectures of Ulrich von F. attended the • Wilamowitz-Moellendorff. Askanisches Gymnasium in Berlin, where he "obtained a thorough education in the ancient languages, ancient history, Greek art and mythology, because teaching there at the time were several outstanding scholars, such as Adolf Busse, the editor of ancient commentaries on Aristotle, and Otto Gruppe, specialist in Greek mythology and religious history" (14. 106 f.]. In 1906, after his Abitur, F. began studying law at the Univ. of Berlin, because, being a practising Jew (in his resume he wrote fidem profiteor mosaicam [ l 2.)), he believed a univ. career in classical philology to be unattainable and he did not want to teach in a Gymnasium. He did attend Wilamowitz' univ. lectures during his studies. In spite of his initial misgivings,

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tion), 1950 141 Horace, 1957 lsl Beobachtungen he changed to classics in 1907, his teachings zu Aristophanes, 1962 161 Kleine Beitrage zur including Hermann • Diels, Eduard • Norden, Klassischen Philologie, 2 vols., 1964 [7) Leseproben Wilamowitz and Wilhelm Schulze, to whom he aus Ciceros Reden und Cato (trans.), 1968. would later dedicate his great work on Latin accentuation [2]. In 1909, F. went to Gottingen, SECONDARY LITERATURE where his teachers included Max • Pohlenz, [81 M. BuwRA, Application to the Electors to the Jacob -• Wackernagel and especially Friedrich Corpus Christi Professorship of Latin from Eduard • Leo. He dedicated his thesis, on the history of Fraenkel, 1934 [9) W. M. CALDERIII, Seventeen Roman comedy, to Leo, whose Kleine Schriften Letters of Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff he edited and published decades later. After his to Eduard Fraenkel (with text), in: Harvard doctorate and a stay in Italy, F. worked for two Studies in Classical Philology 8 1, 1977, 2 75-297 Fraenkel, Eduard, in: DBC 1, 2004, [ 10) M. DEUFERT, years as an assistance on the Thesaurus Unguae 334-337 In] P. DRAGER,Zwolf Briefe (1907Latinae in Munich. Among the products of this 1921) Eduard Fraenkels an Ulrich von Wilamowitzperiod was the article Fides, an exemplary work Moellendorff (with transcription and comm.), both in its clarity of exposition and the concepin: Gottinger Forum for Altertumswissenschaft tual and historical thoroughness of its presenta10, 2007, 107-145 (with lit.) [12] U. MAAS, tion of material. Verfolgung und Auswanderung deutschsprachiger 1922 saw the appearance of one of F.'s most Sprachforscher, 2010, 202-203 (13) J. MAUTZ, important books, on Plautus I I J: it made his Die Klassische Philologie, in: E. WrRBEI.AUER (ed.), name. Although written in the tradition of Leo, Die Freiburger Philosophische Fakultat 1920(141 c. WEGEI.ER,' ... wir 1960, 2006, 305-316 it modifies Leo's theories, for F. was able to show sagen ab der internationalen Gelehrtenrepublik'. where the originality of the Plautine comedies, Altertumswissenschaft und Nationalsozialismus. as distinct from Greek comedy, lies. He later Das Gottinger Institut fur Altertumskunde 1921wrote works on Aeschylus (3) and Aristophanes 1962, 1996, 106-112. [15) G. WILLIAMS,Eduard (5), and on Roman literature of the 1st cent. BC Fraenkel, 1888-1970, in: Proc. of the British Acad. and the 1st cent. AD, especially on Horace 141, 56, 1972, 415-442. Cicero and Cato (7]. From the 1920s, F. made HANS-ULRICH BERNER / MAYYA PAIT himself into one of the world's leading Latin scholars [6). His students in Germany included Frank, Tenney Ulrich Knoche, Otto Skutsch, Heinz Haffter and Wolf-Hartmut Friedrich. While director of American classical philologist and ancient histhe Philological Seminar at Gottingen, he also torian. Born 19. 5. 1 876 on a ranch near Clay brought about interdisciplinary projects: with Center, Kansas (USA), died Oxford 3. 4. 1939. Wolfgang ► Kunkel, appointed to Gottingen in Studied classical philology at the Univ. of Kansas, 1929 as prof. ord. in Roman and civil law, he Lawrence; 1 898 Bachelor of Arts; 1899 Master organized seminars for philologists and jurists. of Arts; thereafter studied at Univ. of Chicago. Because of his Jewish background, F. was sus1901-1904 instructor in Latin there; doctorate pended from his teaching work in 1933. "Until 1903. 1904-1909 associate in Latin; 1909-1912 1934, he stayed at Freiburg, quite isolated both associate prof. and 1912-1919 prof. of Latin, from his students and from his colleagues, like Bryn Mawr College; 1919-1939 prof. of Latin Wolfgang Schadewaldt, who broke off contact at Johns Hopkins Univ. in Baltimore; 1916/J7 with him" [14. 111). In 1934, he emigrated to annual prof., 1922/23 and 1924/25 prof. in Great Britain, and went to Oxford at the invicharge at American School of Classical Studies tation of Gilbert • Murray, becoming a prof. in Rome; various guest professorships. ord. at Corpus Christi College. There, he influenced generations of British philologists. After SCHOLARLY BACKGROUND his retirement in 1953, F. continued to teach F. moved to Kansas City, Missouri m 1890 not only at Oxford, but also as a guest prof. m with his parents, who were from a Swedish Germany, Switzerland and Italy. background. He studied classical philology with LW: JRS 66, 1977, 200-206. Arthur T. Walker at the Univ. of Kansas and E: Oxford, Corpus Christi College and William G. Hale at the Univ. of Chicago, where Bodleian Library. he took his doctorate in 1903. He taught Latin A: [15. pl. XXVI]. at Bryn Mawr College, initially as an associate prof., then from 1912 as prof. During a WRITINGS European tour in 1910/11, he attended lectures (1) Plautinisches im Plautus, 1922 (reiss. 2000; on ancient history at the univs. of Gottingen English: Plautine Elements in Plautus, trans. and Berlin, hearing Eduard -► Meyer and othT. DEVIKOVSKY and F. MUECKE,2007) [z.] lktus und ers. Having studied geology as a sideline, he Akzent im Latin Sprechvers, 1928 [3] Aeschylus, Agamemnon. With a Commentary, 3 vols. (ediused his stays at Rome as prof. at the American

FRANK, TENNEY

:Z.08

School of Classical Studies (between 1916 and 1925) to make geological surveys of Roman building materials. In 1919, he was appointed prof. of Latin at Johns Hopkins Univ. Guest professorships and endowed professorships took F. back to Bryn Mawr in 1929 and on to the Univ. of California at Berkeley in 1929/30, then in 1932 to the British Academy in London. He was the first American philologist to be awarded a guest professorship by the George Eastman Foundation at the Univ. of Oxford; he took the post in 193 8. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

F. initially focused on philological studies, following up his diss. on syntax in early Latin I1] with several articles on Latin and Nordic linguistics, but his range widened from around 1909 to include research on political, social and economic aspects of Roman history. He also worked on Roman poetry and architecture. F.'s book on Roman imperialism attracted attention in 191 4: he portrayed the Roman policy of conquest as defensive in nature, i.e. a reaction to external aggression (2). His Roman history (5) of 1923 became a standard work. F.'s analyses of building materials [6) facilitated the new dating of buildings from the time of the Roman Republic. Biographies of Virgil [4), Catullus and Horace (7) were followed in 1930 by a study of the social and cultural milieu of the Roman authors [8). In his Roman economic history (3), F. examined the period up to the end of the Republic. He reacted to the publication of Michael • Rostovtzeff's Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire (1926) by expanding the second edition of his own book (1927) to include a chapter on the Imperial Period and planning his five-volume Economic Survey of Ancient Rome with two volumes written by himself (9). F. was one of the leading North American historians of the first half of the 20th cent., especially in Roman social and economic history. His Economic Survey, the first international collaborative work of ancient historiography to emerge from the United States, was regarded as groundbreaking with its compilation and evaluation of a plethora of literary, epigraphic, numismatic, papyrological and archaeological testimonies from all parts of the Roman Empire. Subsequent research has rendered some aspects obsolete, e.g. the chronology of coinage (introduction of the denarius probably 211 BC). F.'s views on Rome's policy of expansion remained controversial. His most important students included John Day, Lily Ross ➔ Taylor and Thomas R. S. • Broughton. LW: E. H. Clift, in: American Journal of Philology 60, 1939, 280-287.

WRITINGS

[ 1I Attraction of Mood in Early Latin, 1904 (reiss. 2.009) (2) Roman Imperialism, 1914 (reiss. 192.5, 1972., 2.009) (3) An Economic History of Rome to the End of the Republic, 1920 (•1927, reiss. 1962., 2.005) (4) Vergil. A Biography, 192.2 (reiss. 1965, 2.009) Is) A History of Rome, 192.3 (reiss. 1951, 1966) (6) Roman Buildings of the Republic. An Attempt to Date Them from Their Materials. 192.4 (7) Catullus and Horace. Two Poets in Their Environment, 192.8 (8) Life and Literat\lre in the Roman Republic, 1930 (reiss. 1956, 1965, 1971) (9) (ed.), An Economic Survey of Ancient Rome, 5 vols., 1933-1940 (vols. 1 and s also as author). SECONDARY

LITERATURE

[10} H. W. BENARIO,Frank, Tenney, in: W. 'W. BRIGGS(ed.), Biographical Dictionary of North (11) T. R. American Classicists, 1994, 196-197 S. BROUGHTON, Tenney Frank, in: BRIGGS/ CALt>ER 68-76 (12.I N. W. DEWITT, Tenney Frank, in: American Journal of Philology 60, 1939, 2.732.80 (131 E. C. KoPFF, History and Science in Tenney Frank's Scholarship, in: The Occidental Quanerly 5/4, 2.005, 69-81 (14] J. L1NoERs1c.1. Frank, Tenney, in: American National Biography 8, 1999, 367-368 (15) R. SALLER, American Classical Historiography, in: A. MoLHo / G. S. Wooo (ed.), Imagined Histories. American Historians Interpret the Past, 1998, 2.2.3-2.2.5. MAlTHIAS

BAQ.TH

Frankel, Hermann German-American classical philologist. Bom Berlin 7. 5. 1888, died Santa Cruz, California, 8. 4. 1977. School in Berlin; studies at Berlin. Bonn and Gottingen. 1915 doctorate, 192.0 habil. i:935 Gottingen. 1925 prof. ext. at Gottingen. emigration to USA and prof. at Stanford; i:953 retirement; 19 57 honorary prof. at Frei burg. CAREER,

WORKS

AND

INFLUENCE

F. was born into a family of Jewish scholars. His father, Max F., archaeologist and classical philologist, was librarian of the Konigliche Museen at Berlin, took part in the production of the Corpus lnscriptionum Graecarum and was a friend of Ulrich von ---+ WilamowitzMoellendorff's. F.'s mother Johanna was the daughter of the Orientalist Ferdinand Benary. F. attended the Joachimsthalsches Gymnasium in Berlin and began his studies in classical philology with Hermann ➔ Diels and Ulrich von ► Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, completing them at Gottingen, after intervening semesters at Bonn. with Friedrich ➔ Leo, Max -➔ Pohlenz, Jakob • Wackernagel and Paul Wendland. In 190~. while attending .. Leo's seminar, F. met his future friend and colleague Eduard -.. Fraenkel (whose sister Lili he married in 1915). A lung

2.09 condition forced him to interrupt his studies several times, and he only gained his doctorate in 1915, with a diss. project suggested by Wilamowitz-Moellendorff: a commented edition of the Hellenistic poet Simias of Rhodes (3rd cent. BC) [ 11- In spite of his fragile health, F. volunteered for army service, and took part m the Russian campaign as a cavalryman. After the war, F. completed his habil. at Gottingen ( 1920) with a thesis on similes in Homer [3]. He categorized them by subject and studied their meaning and function as text elements, regarding them as essentially decorative. In 1923, F. became an assistant at the lnstitut at Gottingen, then prof. fur Altertumskunde ext. in 1925, while still retaining his assistant's position. In 1924, he published a study on concepts of style and its function in early Greek literature [4), also investigating "its transformation into the structured edifice of argumentation in early Greek prose" [15. 101 f.]. He negotiated on appointments to three German univs. in 1930-1933: Hamburg, Magdeburg and Rostock. These failed for reasons of explicit or implicit racism. As a war veteran, the exception clause of the so-called 'law for the rehabilitation of the civil service' (Gesetz zur Wiederherstellung des Beamtentums) that came into force in 1933 and required the dismissal of Jews from public sector posts did not apply to him, but when the directorate of his institution tried to extend his contract in 1935, the application was refused. F. emigrated to the United States in 1935, teaching and researching until 19 37 at Stanford Univ. with the support of the Rockefeller Foundation. From 1937 on, he was prof. at Stanford. After his retirement ( 19 53 ), he took various guest professorships, one of them at the Univ. of Freiburg (1955-1957). Following several attempts at nomination, F. was finally recognized as an emeritus at the Univ. of Gottingen in 19 57. F. spent several decades working on the Argonautica of Apollonius of Rhodes. He studied the manuscript transmission during his Gottingen days, but the completed edition was only published at Oxford (81. His scholarly interests were not confined to classical philology. In 1921 he published a study on end-rhyme [2]. This work, written on the basis of his thorough knowledge of OHG poetry, is among other things striking for its patriotic overtones. F. looks for the "German essence" in OHG poetry, and calls "its downfall at the end of the early Middle Ages ... nothing short of a national ea tastrophe" [2. 62, 64); [13. 207). In 1931, F. began his most substantial work, a history of Greek literature from Homer to Pindar. Its publication came only in 19 51 in the United States, as Vol. 13 of Philological Monographs, in German as F. had

FRAZER, JAMES GEORGE

planned it at Gottingen (7). In his late work (10), F. presented his own systematic concept of grammatical theory. WRITINGS [1) De Simia Rhodio (diss. Gottingen), 1915 [2] Aus der Fruhgeschichte des deutschen Endreims, in: Zs. for deutsches Altertum und deutsche Literatur 58, 1921, 41-64 (3) Die homerischen Gleichnisse (Habit. thesis Gottingen), 1921 (reiss. 1977, with lit.) [4) Eine Stileigenheit der fruhgriechischen Literatur, 2 vols. (Nachrichten der Gesellschaft der Wiss. Gottingen, Philolisch-Historische Klasse), 1924 Is) Parmenides-studien, 1930 [6) Ovid: A Poet between Two Worlds, 1945 (7) Dichtung und Philosophie des fruhen Griechentums (Philological Monographs 13), 1951 (J1969; English: Early Greek Poetry and Philosophy, trans. M. HADAS and J. WILLIS, 1975) (8) Apollonii Rhodi Argonautica (edition), 1961 (•1964) [9) Noten zu den Argonautika des Apollonios, 1968 [ 10] Grammatik und Sprachwirklichkeit, 1973. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

K. BOCHNER, Hermann Frankel, in: Freiburger Universitatsblatter 29, 1977, 7-10 [12) K. VON FRITZ, Hermann Frankel, in: Gnomon 50, 1978, (with illustrations) [ 13] U. MAAS, 61 8-620 Verfolgung und Auswanderung deutschsprachiger 1933-1945, 2010, 206-207 Sprachforscher (14] A. SZABO,Vertreibung, Ruckkehr, Wiedergutmachung. Gottinger Hochschullehrer im Schatten 2000, 348-356 des Nationalsozialismus, (15] C. WEGELER, ' ... wir sagen ab der internationalen Gelehrtenrepublik'. Altertumswissenschaft und Nationalsozialismus: Das Gottinger Institut fur Altertumskunde 1921-1962, 1996, 98-106. HANS-ULRICHBERNER/ MAYYA PAIT [ 11)

Frazer, James George British classical philologist, religious scholar and social anthropologist. Born Glasgow, 1. 1. 1854, died Cambridge 7. 5. 1941. 1869-1875 studied classics at Glasgow, from 1876 at Cambridge, where he took doctorate in 1879. Fellow at Cambridge until his death. 1907 honorary prof. of social anthropology at Univ. of Liverpool. Knighted 1914. CAREER,

WORKS

AND

INFLUENCE

After gaining his MA at the Univ. of Glasgow ( 1 874), F. continued his studies of classical philology at Trinity College, Cambridge. He quickly mastered an immense reading list and took the tripos in 1878 with the second-best result at the univ. [8. 19-23). His diss. on Plato's doctrine of ideas [7] in 1879 gained him the distinction of a Fellowship at Trinity College; after three extensions he remained a Fellow there for life. In 188 3, F. met the theologian and Semitic scholar William Robertson Smith, who introduced him

FRAZER,

JAMES

2.10

GEORGE

to anthropology. The reputation he gained in this subject won F. a call to the Univ. of Liverpool in 1907, as well as numerous honours, e.g. the establishment and naming after him of the Frazer Lectureship in Social Anthropology at the Univs. of Oxford, Cambridge, Glasgow and Liverpool in 1921 (9. 27-29]. F. lost his sight in 1931. F. is well-known firstly for The Golden Bough [2], his magnum opus, much reprinted and translated (he himself substantially expanded it twice (4)), and for his works on totemism and exogamy (1]; [5]. Although his underlying premises are largely outmoded today, these works are regarded as milestones of religious studies, anthropology and scholarly history, and they exerted a great influence on others, notably the so-called Cambridge Ritualists, including Jane Ellen ➔ Harrison and Francis ~ Cornford (8), but also younger generations of ethnologists, including Claude Levi-Strauss [II. 85-89]; (101. F.'s works on classical philology, e.g. his commentaries on Pausanias [3] and Ovid's Fasti (6), are also marked by his interest in ethnology. LW: (9. 129-135). WRITINGS

(1) Totemism, 1887 (2) The Golden Bough. A Study in Comparative Religion, 2 vols., 1890 131 Pausanias's Description of Greece, 6 vols. (trans. with comm.), 1898 (et al.) 141The Golden Bough. A Study in Magic and Religion, 12. vols., '1907-1915 (et al.) Is) Totemism and Exogamy. A Treatise on Certain Early Forms of Superstition and Society, 3 vols., 1910 16I P. Ovidii Nasonis Fastorum libri sex, s vols. (edition with trans. and comm.), London 192.9 (et al.) (7) The Growth of Plato's Ideal Theory, 1930 (orig. diss. Cambridge 1879).

cillor Michel Marescot; from 1642. prof. of politics and rhetoric at Univ. of Uppsala. From 1647/48 Court Librarian and Court Historian to Queen Christina, Uppsala. Returned to Germany 1652; from 1656 honorary prof. at Univ. of Heidelberg. CAREER,

WORKS

AND

INFLUENCE

While at Strasbourg, F. published editions of Florus (Strasbourg 1632) and Curtius Rufus, and supplements on the lost parts, especially the first two books (1639, 1640 et al.); also a paraphrase of Tacitus (2). His largest and most important works were the supplements on all the lost books of Livy (Stockholm 1649, continued Strasbourg 1654; complete edition Paris from 1679 (81). ihe text of Livy, thus completed, was de facto the first modern European work of universal history, which won renown as a first-rate historiographic achievement far beyond its reconstruction of the ancient text, and enjoyed a long reception as such. F. was one of the most important members of the Strasbourg Historical School of Matthias • Bernegger. His works on Curtius Rufus and Livy in particular were still being read in the 19th cent. He took a keen part in the patriotic upsurge in German poetry, as a member of the Strasbourg Aufrichtige Tannengese/lschaft founded by Jesaias Rompler von Lowenhalt in 1633 (101, and he himself composed a German of Saxepanegyric epic to Duke Bernhard Weimar [1]. LW: (15); (14]. WRITINGS

I1) Teutscher Tugentspiegel von den Stammen und Thaten des Alten und Newen Teutschen Hercules. Strasbourg 1639 12) Specimen paraphraseos Cornelianae, Strasbourg 1641 (3) Oratione-s SECONDARY LITERATURE XXIII in Suetia habitae cum quibusdam declama18) R. ACKERMAN, James George Frazer. His Life tionibus, Frankfurt/Main 1655 141 Dissertatione-s and Work, 1987 19) R. A. DOWNIE,Frazer and the Golden Bough, 1970 [10) B. MAI.INOWSKI, academicae, Strasbourg 1658 Is) Orationes cum quibusdam declamationibus, Strasbourg 1662 Sir James George Frazer. Eine biographische 161 Phaedri Fabulae (edition), Strasbourg 1664 Wiirdigung (1942.), in: 8. MALINOWSKI, Eine wis171 lnstitutiones politicae. Accesserunt disserta• senschaftliche Theorie der Kultur und andere Aufsatze, 1975 (English 1944) (11) H. WISSMANN, tiones politicae ad selecta veterum historicorum James George Frazer (1854-1941), in: A. MICHAELS loca et Libellus memorialis ethicus, Strasbourg 1674 [8) Titi Livii Patavini Historiarum libri qui extant (ed.), Klassiker der Religionswissenschaft. Von (with comm. by JOHANNES DUJATIUS / DOUAT), 5 F. Schleiermacher bis M. Eliade, 1997, 77-89. vols., Paris 1679--1682. 191 Briefwechsel mit LISASOPHIECORDES M. Bernegger, in: E. KELTERet al., Beitrage zur Gelehrtengeschichte des 17. Jh.s, 1905, 1-72. Freinsheim, Johannes Also Freinsheimer, Johannes Caspar; German historian and philologist. Born Ulm 16. 11. 1608, died Heidelberg 31. 8. 1660. After studying at the Univs. of Marburg (1625), Gissen and Strasbourg ( 1627 ), he was an assistant in the home of Matthias • Bernegger in Strasbourg, and married Bernegger's daughter Elisabeth. 1633-1635 in the service of the French coun-

...

SECONDARY

LITERATURE

1101 M. BorP, Die 'Tannengesellschaft'. Studien zu einer Strasbourger Sprachgesellschaft von 16 3 3 bis um 1670 (diss. Munich), 1998, 53-59 (11) C. SONGER, Matthias Bernegger. Ein Bild aus dem geistigen Leben Strassburgs zur Zeit des Dreissig jiihrigen Krieges, 1893, 32.0-331 [12) C. CALLMER, Konigin Christina, ihre Bibliothekare und ihtt Handschriften, 1977, 43-45 (13) M. DtssELKAMP,

2.11

FRIEDERICHS,

Barockheroismus. Konzeptionen 'politischer' Grosse und Traktatistik des 17. Jh.s, 2002, 250-260 (14) G. DONNHAUPT, Personalbibliographien zu den Drucken des Barock, Vol. 3, 1991, 1578-1588 (15] B. Low, Freinshem [sic] (Freinshemius), Johan, in: Svenskt biografiskt handlexikon, I 964, 359 (16) P. G. SCHMIDT,Supplemente lateinischer Prosa in der Neuzeit (diss. Gottingen), 1964, 17-36. WILHELM

Fremersdorf,

KOHLMANN

Fritz

German classical archaeologist and art historian. Born Mainz 14. 1. 1894, died Cologne 2.5. I. 1983. Studied archaeology, history and ► Winter, history of art at Bonn with Franz Conrad Cichorius and Paul Clemen, 1922 doctorate there. 192.3 assistant in the Roman Dept. in Cologne. of the Wallraf-Richartz-Museum 19 3 5 director of the Roman and Germanic Depts. there. 1946 director of the RomischGermanisches Museum in Cologne. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

F. already chose a provincial Roman theme for his diss. at Bonn [ 1 ). Thereafter, he worked for the city of Cologne, establishing the systematic preservation and care of archaeological monuments there on the basis of Prussian excavation legislation. He conducted many excavations in Cologne from 1925, initially at St. Severin (where he proved the existence of early church buildings). From 1926/2.7 he unearthed a villa rustica (3) and a Frankish cemetery [4) in the Cologne suburb of Miingersdorf. He investigated the Roman naval camp of Atteburg in Cologne-Marienburg and the fort of Deutz, and directed excavations in the Roman cemeteries in the surroundings of the Roman town and studies of Roman commercial enterprises (glass kilns, potteries). During the construction of a wartime bunker in 1941, he unearthed a 'peristyle house' with Dionysus mosaic [ 5 [. His personal speciality was Roman glass (6]; [7); (8(. F. acquired important collections for the Romisch-Germanisches Museum: in 1934, the C. A. Niessen Collection, with more than 9,600 pieces of small-scale art and archaeological finds, mostly from Cologne; in 19 35 the outstanding collection of Baron Johannes von Diergardt of jewellery from the Age of Migrations, obtained against the wishes of Heinrich Himmler, who wanted to use it as "viewing material for the training of the SS"; in 1939, the H. Wollmann Collection of 3,500 clay lamps, mostly from 300 writings, ~ome._ F. published almost mcludmg Denkmaler des romischen Koln (2) with inventories of the Romisch-Germanisches Museum. He edited the Koiner Jahrbuch fur

KARL

Vor- und Fruhgeschichte from 19 5 5. In 19 50, he founded the Archaeological Society of Cologne. LW: [10]. WRITINGS

I 1 I Romische Bildlampen (diss. Bonn), 1 9 2.2. [2.) (ed.), Denkmaler des romischen Koln, 9 vols., 1928-1984 (3) Der romische Gutshof 1933 [4) Das frankisKoln-Mungersdorf, che Reihengraberfeld Koln-Mungersdorf, 1955 Is] Das romische Haus mit dem Dionysos-Mosaik vor dem Sudportal des Koiner Domes, 1956 [6] Romisches Buntglas in Koln, 1958 [7] Die romischen Glaser mit Schliff, Bemalung und Goldauflagen aus Koln, 1967 (8) Antikes, islamisches und mittelalterliches Glas sowie kleinere Arbeiten aus Stein, Gagat und verwandten Stoffen in den Vatikanischen Sammlungen Roms, 1975. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

[9) H. BoRGER,Fritz Fremersdorf, gest. 25. Januar 1983, in: Museen der Stadt Koln. Bulletin, 1983, 35-36 [10) C. G0RTI.ER-Hotz,Zusammenstellung

der Veroffentlichungen von Fritz Fremersdorf, in: Analecta archaeologica. FS F. Fremersdorf, 1960, 271-284. FRIEDERIKE

NAUMANN-STECKNER

Friederichs, Karl German archaeologist. Born Delmenhorst 7. 4. 183 1, died Berlin 19. 10. 1871. Gymnasium in Bremen and Oldenburg; studies at Gottingen and Erlangen; doctorate 18 5 3 at Erlangen; habit. there 18 5 5. From 1858 assistant to the director of the Berliner Museen; from 1868 director of the Berlin Antiquarium. 1869/70 journeys to the Mediterranean, France and Britain. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

Although F. died at the age of only 40, he left a striking number of important publications. Taking his doctorate with a diss. in classical philology, his main field from 1 8 5 5 was nonetheless archaeology. During his first period at Berlin, Eduard -► Gerhard was a formative influence. The main focus of F.'s work was in the field of ancient, especially Greek sculpture. This was the focus of his Erlangen habil. thesis, in which he attached ethnic characteristics to specific features of the artistic landscapes in Greek sculptures I1 ]. Over the years that followed, he succeeded in making important identifications in statuary: in 18 59 he recognized copies of the Athenian monument to the tyrannicides (2], and four years later he identified Polyclitus' Spear-Bearer, again in a copy [3]. As well as a number of minor publications, F. was particularly noted for producing a catalogue of the Berlin cast collection. This volume of 576 pages, published in 1 868, was also intended as

FRIEDERICHS,

KARL

2.12.

a historical survey of ancient sculpture (4). The arrangement of the works was made according to criteria of stylistic history (for the Archaic Period also artistic landscapes). A text is inserted introducing each period. F.'s second, equally highly-regarded catalogue of Berlin antiquities appeared posthumously; it covers all the museum's ancient bronzes (5). WRITINGS

(1) Nationum Graecarum diversitates etiam ad artis statuariae et sculpturae discrimina valuisse scripsit, 1855 [1.) Harmodios und Aristogeiton, in: Archaologische Zeitung 17, 1859, 65-72 (3) Der Doryphoros des Polyklet (Programm zum Winckelmannsfeste der Archaologischen Gesellschaft zu Berlin 23), 1863 [4) Berlins antike Bildwerke, Vol. 1: Die Gypsabgiisse im Neuen Museum. Bausteine zur Geschichte der griechisch-romischen Plastik, 1868 (addenda 1873; ed. P. WOLTERS,•1885) (5) Berlins antike Bildwerke, Vol. 2: Gerathe und Broncen im Alten Museum. Kleinere Kunst und Industrie, 187 I. SECONDARY

Roman games for the Handbuch der Romischen Alterthumer [3) created the basis for his magnum opus, which was frequently reprinted and translated into many languages: Darstellungen aus der Sittengeschichte Roms (4) (translated as Roman Life and Manners under the Early Empire). Here, material that had previously been explored in the field known as 'antiquities' was presented in the new and highly readable form of a cultural history. Eight editions during F.'s lifetime attest to its sensational public success. Thanks to its great abundance of material, this work remains indispensable to this day. M: (8). E: Marburg, Hessisches Staatsarchiv.

LITERATURE

[6) C. BuRSIAN, Friederichs, Karl, in: ADB 7, 1878, Carl Friederichs, in: LuLLIES/ 391-392 [7) R. LuLLIES, ScHIERING Arch. 57-58 [8] G. RoDENWALDT, Zurn hundertsten Winckelmannsfest, in: Winckelmannsprogramm der Archaologischen Gesellschaft zu Berlin 100, 1940, 12-13. DETLEVKREIKENBOM

WRITINGS

[ 1] Ueber den Kunstsinn der Romer in der Kaiserzeit, 1852 [1.) Die Homerische Kritik von Wolf bis Grote, 1853 [3) Die Spiele, in: W. BECKER/ J. MARQUARDT (ed.), Hdb. der romischen Alterthiimer. Theil 4: Der Gottesdienst, 1856, 471-568 [4] Darstellungen aus der Sittengeschichte Roms in der Zeit von August bis zum Ausgang der Antonine, 3 vols., 1862-1871 (ed. G. W1ssowA,4 vols., 9 19191921 et al.; English: Roman Life and Manners under the Early Empire, 4 vols., 1968) Is) M. Valerii Martialis epigrammaton libri (edition with comm.), 2 vols., 1886 (et al.) (6) Petronii Cena Trimalchionis (edition with comm. and trans.), 1891 (et al.) (7) D. Junii Juvenalis Saturarum libri V (edition with comm.), 2 vols., 1895 (et al.) (8) Erinnerungen, Reden und Studien, 1905.

Friedlander, Ludwig SECONDARY

German classical philologist and art historian. Born Konigsberg 16. 7. 1824, died Strasbourg 16. 12. 1909. Studied classics at Konigsberg and Leipzig; 184 5 doctorate at Konigsberg; I 84 7 habil. there. 1856 prof. ext., 1858 prof. ord. there. CAREER,

WORKS

AND

INFLUENCE

F., born into a Jewish commercial family, was a pupil of Karl -+ Lehrs. He spent his entire academic life and career at Konigsberg, interrupted only by a period of study with Gottfried -> Hermann at Leipzig in 1843/44 and a stay in Italy in 1853/54. Because he was baptized a Protestant, he was able to attain a professorship, which would otherwise have been impossible at Konigsberg prior to 1866 (10. 430 f.). He was the first philologist there to combine his subject with archaeology. Along with a monograph on the development of the 'Homeric question' in the first half of the 19th cent. [2), he published many works attesting to his interest in bringing together the history of literature and issues of cultural history. In his later years, he published commented editions of Martial [ 5), Petronius [6] and Juvenal (7]. The section he wrote on the

LITERATURE

[9) 0. HIRSCHFELD,Ludwig Friedlander, in: 0. HIRSCHFELD,K. S., 1913, 92.3-92.5 [10) M. KoMOROWSKI, Jiidische Studenten, Doktoren und Professoren der Konigsberger Universitat im 19. Jh., in: M. F. BROCKE et al. (ed.), Zur Geschichte und Kultur der juden in Ost- und Westpreussen, 2000, 425-444 [II) M. LossAu, Ludwig Friedlander ( 1824-1909 ), in: D. RAUSCHNING/ D. VON NER£E(ed.), Die Albertus-Universitat und ihre Professoren, 1995, 303-308 [12) A. LuoWICH, Ludwig Friedlander, in: Biographisches Jb. fiir die Altertumswissenschaft 34, 1911, 1-24 (the notes effectively give a bibliography). WILFRIED

Friedlander,

NJPPEL

Paul

German classical philologist. Born Berlin 2 1. 3. 1882, died Los Angeles 10. 12. 1968. School in Berlin. Studied at Bonn and Berlin; 1905 doctorate Berlin. 1909 Gymnasium teacher in Berlin, 1911 habil. there. 1915 prof. ext. at Berlin; 1920 prof. ord. at Marburg; 1932 prof. ord. at Halle. Dismissed from post 1935 because of his Jewish background; thereafter private scholar in Berlin. 1939 emigration to USA. Researcher at Johns Hopkins Univ. in Baltimore; 1940 assistant prof.

FRITZ,

2.13

at Univ. of California in Los Angeles; 1945 full prof. there, emeritus 1949. CAREER,

WORKS

AND

INFLUENCE

F. was the son of a businessman. He attended the Friedrichs-Gymnasium in Berlin, and began studying classical philology and archaeology at the Univ. of Berlin in 1900. His teachers included Hermann ._.,Diels, Johannes Vahlen and Richard -,, Kekule von Stradonitz. In 1902, F. went for two semesters to Bonn, where he studied with Franz --+ Biicheler, Hermann .. Usener and Georg Loeschcke. It was to Loeschcke that F. owed the insight fundamental to his work, that "art history is part of history". Another influential figure was his Berlin teacher Ulrich von -+ Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, since F. mostly worked as a Hellenist with a focus on Classical and Imperial literature and its legacy. F. took his doctorate with Wilamowitz-Moellendorff in 1905 with a study of the history of legend (Argolica). He took his habit. in 1911 with a commented edition of the ecphrases in the poetry of John of Gaza and Paulus Silentiarius [2). Two volumes of his highly esteemed wrok on Plato appeared in 1928 and 1930 [3]; [4]. F.'s students included Friedrich • Klingner, Georg Rohde and Gunther Zuntz. F. volunteered as an officer in World War I and won the Iron Cross. Nevertheless, in 193; he was dismissed from his professorship at Halle as a •Non-Aryan'. In 1938, he was arrested in the wake of the Kristallnacht and deported to the concentration camp of Sachsenhausen. However, he was released after a few weeks with the help of the theologian Rudolf Bultmann. In 1939, F. and his family emigrated to the United States, where he taught initially at Baltimore, then from 1940 at the Univ. of California in Los Angeles. F. never returned to Germany, and spent the last years of his life in poverty. E: Los Angeles, Univ. of California, Research Library Special Collections. WRITINGS

II)

Herakles. Sagengeschichtliche Untersuchungen, (2]Johannes von Gaza und PaulusSilentiarius. Kunstbeschrei bungen justinianischer Zeit, 1912. (reiss. with corrections and additions 1969) [3) Platon: Eidos, Paideia, Dialogos, 192.8 [4) Die platonischen Schriften, Berlin 1930 (5) Platon, 3 vols., '1964-1975 (English: Plato, trans. [6] Studien H. MEYERHOFF,3 vols., 1958-1969) zur antiken Literatur und Kunst, 1969. 1907

SECONDARY

LITERATURE

(7) W. BOHi.ER, Paul Friedlander, in: Gnomon 41, 1969, 619-62.3 (with illustrations) 18) W. M. CAI.DER Ill, Friedlander, Paul, in: W. W. BRIGGS (ed.), Biographical Dictionary of North American Classicists, 1994, 2.00-2.02. (also online)

KURT

VON

19) W. M. CAI.DERIll / B. Huss (ed.), 'The Wilamowitz in Me'. 100 Letters between Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff and Paul Friedlander (1904-1931), 1999 [10) Mensching Nug. 13, 2.003, 82.-93.

HANS-ULRICH BERNER/ MAYYAPAIT

Fritz, Kurt von

German classical philologist. Born Karl Albert Kurt von F., 25. 8. 1900 in Metz, died 16. 7. 1985 at Feldafing am Starnberger See. 1919/20 studied classical philology at Freiburg im Breisgau, 1920-1923 in Munich; doctorate 1923 and habil. 1927, both Munich. 1931 priv.doz. and assistant at Hamburg; habil. relocated there. 1933-1935 prof. ext. in classical philology at Rostock; 1936 stipendium at Corpus Christi College, Oxford. 19 3 6 guest prof. at Reed College in Portland, Oregon. 19 3 7 visiting associate prof. at Columbia Univ., New York, 193819 54 prof. there. 19 54-19 5 8 prof. ord. at Freie Univ. Berlin; 19 58-1968 prof. ord. in Munich. Various international distinctions and academic memberships across a range of disciplines. BIOGRAPHY

AND

CAREER

As the son of a Prussian royal lieutenantcolonel of the Metz garrison who had been raised to hereditary nobility, F. was intended for a career as an officer, and therefore attended the Kadettenschule at Karlsruhe from 1912 to 1914. In 1915, however, he switched to the Rea/gymnasium in Freiburg (Abitur 1918). He taught himself Greek in 1919, passed an additional Abitur in it and began his studies of classical philology. At Freiburg, F. attended lectures by Otto Immisch, Ludwig Deubner and the ancient historian Ernst -.. Fabricius. His greatest influence was Eduard .. Schwartz, whom he followed to Munich in 1920/21. While there, as well as attending presentations by Walter -+ Otto (ancient history) and Fritz Hommel (Arabic studies), he heard a lecture on Greek logic by Ernst Kapp, with whom he struck up a friendship. Schwartz awarded F. his doctorate in 1923 for a diss. on Diogenes Laertius that followed on from his work I1). After his state teaching examination he worked as a tutor in Silesia for just a year before Schwartz invited him back to Munich, where he took his habil. in 1927 with a study of the epistemology and ethics of Democritus. In 1931, he relocated his habil. to Hamburg in order to take a post with Ernst Kapp. F. became prof. ext. in Greek at Rostock as planned in April 1933, but two years later he was suspended and permanently retired for refusing to swear an oath of loyalty to Adolf Hitler. He and Karl Barth were the only German univ. teachers to refuse to take this oath. F. retired

FRITZ,

KURT

VON

to Bavaria, but was denounced at Munich and forbidden to use the library there. Still in 1935, Eduard • Fraenkel arranged a teaching post for him at Corpus Christi College, Oxford. In the autumn of 1936, F. accepted an invitation to a guest professorship at Reed College, in Portland, Oregon. In 19 3 7 he went to Columbia Univ ., where he taught until 1954. From 1948, he held guest readings and lectures at various German univs. until in 1954 he became prof. of classical philology at the Freie Univ. Berlin. However, when Rudolf • Pfeiffer's chair at Munich fell vacant in 1958, F. moved there. He continued to work at Munich after his retirement in 1968. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

Over the course of his career, F. covered a wide spectrum of subjects, but several main themes can be discerned in his substantial oeuvre of 260 publications. His diss. [ 1 I already shows his interest in philosophy (e.g. (91). His study (71 shows that his interests transcended disciplinary boundaries (cf. also [41; (81; (9)). After his emigration, he also turned more often to political and historical subjects (5). An example of this is his work on the mixed constitution (2), in which he analysed the political theory of Polybius while casting a comparative eye on modern concepts of the constitution. He also explored the relationship between personal guilt and moral responsibility in his works on ancient drama 141-F. always paid attention to the possibilities and limitations of his speciality. He sought to position classical philology in context in the history of scholarship, arguing that only its exploration and study of ancient sources could provide the material that made possible an understanding of the fundamental concepts of European thought (3 ]. F.'s particular achievement was constantly to bring antiquity to bear upon modernity by reflecting on the one in the light of the other. In relation to the methodology of classical philology, he emphasized the importance of the subjective in the face of adherence to a purely materialistic approach. He was also convinced of the need for interdisciplinarity. His students included Martin Ostwald and Gerhard .Jager. LW: (13). WRITINGS

( 1] Quellenuntersuchungen zu Lehen und Philosophic des Diogenes von Sinope (Philologus, Suppl. Vol. 18.2.), 192.6 [2I The Theory of the Mixed Constitution in Antiquity: A Critical Analysis of Polybius' Political Ideas, 19 54 [3] Ziele, Aufgaben und Methoden der Klassischen Philologie und Altertumswissenschaft, in: Deutsche Vierteljahresschrift fiir Literaturwissenschaft und (4I Antike Geistesgeschichte 33, 1959, 507-528

Neun Abhandlungen. moderne Tragodie. I5] Die griechische Geschichtsschreibung, Vol. 1: Von den Anfangen bis Thukydides., 1967 l6I Platon in Sizilien und das Problem 1968 (7] Platon, der Philosophenherrschaft, Theaetet und die antike Mathematik, •1969 (orig. in: Philologus 87, 1932) [8] Grundprobleme 1971 der Geschichte der antiken Wissenschaft, (9] Schriften zur griechischen Logik, 2. vols., 1978.

und

1962.

SECONDARY

LITERATURE

I IOI W. BERNARD,Der verweigerte

Eid. Der Grazistikprofessor Kurt von Fritz, in: G. BoECK / H.-U. LAMMEL (ed.), Die Universitat Rostock in den Jahren 1933-1945 (Rostocker Studien 2.1 ), 201 2, 71-.,0 zur Universitatsgeschichte I 11 I M. HosE, Kurt von Fritz, in: Akademie Aktuell 3, 2.005, 16-29 I 12IC. H. KAHN,Fritz, Karl Alben Kurt von, in: W. W. Briggs (ed.), Biographical Dictionary of North American Classicists, 1994, 2.03-205 l13I W. LUDWIG, In memoriam Kun von Fritz 1900-1985. Gedenkrede. Mit einem von G. Jager zusammengestellten Schriftenverzeichnis., 1986 I 14I S. Mou.ER, Der nicht geleistete Eid des Rostocker Griechisch-Professors Kurt von Fritz auf Adolf Hitler - 'preussisch-starre Haltung' oder staatshiirgerliche Verantwortung von Wissenschaft?, in: Zeitgeschichte regional. Mitteilungen aus Mecklenhurg-Vorpommern 9/2., 2.005, 67-r, I 1 s I E. VoGT, Kurt von Fritz, in: Jb. der Bayrischen Akademie der Wissenschaften 1987, 1988, 24 72.53 [ 16) C. WF.GEI.ER, ' ... wir sagen ab der internationalen Gelehrtenrepublik'. Altertumswissenschaft und Nationalsozialismus. Das Gottinger Institut fur Altertumskunde 192.1-1962, 1996. STEFFEN

KAMMLER

Fuhrmann, Manfred German classical philologist. Born Hiddesen (Detmold) 23. 6. 1925, died Oberlingen (Lake Konstanz) 12. 1. 2005. After his Abitur at the Gymnasium Leopoldinum at Detmold, he studied music, classical philology, Romance studies, law and philosophy at Basel, Freiburg. Leiden, Gottingen and Marhurg; 19 5 3 doctorate at Freihurg in Latin, Greek and Roman law (diss. with Karl • Buchner on the religiosity of Horace). After six years as an assistant at the Law Seminar and the Institute of Classical Studies at the Univ. of Gottingen, habit. 19 59 in Freiburg. 1962-1966 prof. ord. in Latin philology at Kiel. Specialities: ancient rhetoric and poetics; Roman literature; Latin literature of late antiquity and the early Middle Ages. 1966-1990 (retirement) prof. at Univ. of Konstanz. Member of the Heidelberg and Dutch Academies of Science; 1990 Johann Heinrich Voss Prize from the Deutsche Akademie fur Sprache und Dichtung; 2004 honorary doctorate of law from Univ. of Freiburg.

FURTWANGLER,

215

WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

In his accession speech at Konstanz I I I, F. already insisted that Latin and Greek studies must open themselves to modern literary criticism. F.'s lasting achievement is the "conceptual way in which he decisively broadened the general understanding of 'Roman literature'" I 13. 7 j. From early on, his legal training drew his interest to the technical authors, counterbalancing a "narrow focus on 'beautiful' literature". He also revealed late antiquity as an important period in 'classical philology' I71-F. "exerted an influence as an advocate of late-antique literature and a promoter of the study of late antiquity" [ 1 3. 8]. He wrote biographies of Cicero and Seneca, showing "his gift for synoptic depiction of a period and the synthesis of character" [ 13. 8 IHis prolific translation work led him to reflect on the purpose and methods of translation [ 12). His publication with commentary of Christoph Martin -> Wieland's translation of Horace "brought back to life an epoch-making work of translation" [13. 81. Specialities of F.'s work included ancient rhetoric and poetics f 5 ], Roman literature [9 j and Latin literature of late antiquity and the early Middle Ages. F. was also constantly in dialogue with related disciplines (e.g. Germanic studies, history, educational science). He stood up for the ancient tradition, as received through the Middle Ages, Renaissance, Humanism and the Enlightenment, against excessive "decluttering" of school curricula, which he argued would bar access to the foundations of European culture. He repeatedly drew attention to the dangers of what might be lost in lectures and highly readable books (9j. Following German reunification in 1990, he helped with the work to rebuild classical studies in the new federal states of the former East Germany. A constant characteristic feature of F.'s work is his high regard for the importance of school Latin teaching I 11 I - in this respect his position is comparable to that of Werner ► Jaeger, who worked tirelessly for school Latin. F. took part in educational debates through many essays and lectures f3 I. He wanted to see Neo-Latin literature brought to the heart of Latin tuition, i.e. authors such as ► Erasmus of Rotterdam and Thomas More. From there, lines of tradition should be traced back to the Middle Ages and antiquity and down to the pupil's own present day. F. called Latin as a school subject the "key subject of the European tradition" [4. 68). This approach has lastingly influenced not only all German Latin curricula and textbooks, but also univ. syllabuses.

ADOLF

WRITINGS

I 1) Die Antike und ihre Vermittler. Bemerkungen zur gegenwartigen Situation der Klassischen Philologie, 1969 Ii) Cicero, 7 vols., 1970-1982 (trans. of all speeches) (3) Casar oder Erasmus? Oberlegungen zur Latin Lektiire am Gymnasium, in: Gymnasium 8 1, 1974, 3 94-407 [4 J Alte Sprachen in der Krise?, 1976 151 Aristoteles, Poetik (edition with trans.), 1982 16) Cicero und die romische Republik, 1989 ( 5 :z.005; English: Cicero and the Roman Republic, trans. W. E. Yun.I., 1992) [7 J Rom in der Spatantike, 1994 18) Der europaische Bildungskanon, 1999 (expanded new edition :z.004) 191 Geschichte der romischen Literatur, 1999 (•:z.005) 110] Latein und Europa. Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts in Deutschland von Karl dem Grossen bis Wilhelm II., :Z.001 (•2005). SECONDARY

LITERATURE

[11) A. FRITSCH,Casar oder Erasmus? Zurn Tod von Manfred Fuhrmann, in: Forum Classicum 48, [ul N. MtNDT, Manfred Fuhrmann 2.005, 4-5 als Vermittler der Antike. Ein Beitrag zu Theorie und Praxis des Obersetzens (diss. Berlin), 2008 I 13) T. Potss / W. ROSI.ER,Zurn Tod von Manfred Fuhrmann, in: Forum Classicum 48, 2005, 6-9. ANDREAS FRITSCH

Furtwangler, Adolf German classical archaeologist. Born Johann Adolf Michael F., Freiburg, 30. 6. 1853, died Athens 10. 10. 1907. School at Freiburg; studied classical philology and archaeology there, also in Leipzig and Munich, doctorate Munich 1874. Habit. Bonn 1879. 1880 assistant at Skulpturensammlung, 18 82-1894 Antiquarium, both Berlin. 1884 prof. ext. at Berlin; 1894 prof. ord. in classical archaeology at Munich; 1896 director of Antiquarium. Excavations at Olympia, Orchomenus and Aegina. SCHOLARLY

CAREER

F. was the son of the Freiburg headmaster Wilhelm F., who himself had worked in archaeology in Greece as a young man. In 1874, F. took his doctorate on Eros in vase-painting with Heinrich von ► Brunn, before completing teaching practice for his secondary teacher's certificate and military service at Freiburg. He received the DAI travel bursary from 1876 to 1878, and during this period he took part in the German excavations at Olympia, led by Ernst C. _. Curtius. After his habit. in 1 879 at Bonn with Reinhard ► Kekule von Stradonitz, he worked from 1880 at the Berlin museums, and also taught at Berlin Univ. In 1885, he married the painter Adelheid Wendt. Their eldest son was the conductor Wilhelm F. In 1894, F. became prof. of classical archaeology at Munich, succeeding Brunn, and in 1 896 he became director of the Antiquarium.

FURTWANGLER,

2.x6

ADOLF

In 1907 he fell ill with dysentery during excavations on Aegina, and died at Athens. WORKS

F. may have been the most productive German classical archaeologist of all time. He worked in all the genres of ancient art then known. During his travel scholarship, he was already participating in scholarly work to open up the newly-discovered field of Mycenaean pottery [2.]; (6), working with Georg _. Loeschcke on the first fragments discovered at Mycenae and Argos, classifying them according to technical and stylistic criteria and emphasizing their Greek origins. At Olympia, too, when the excavators to their disappointment made abundant finds of 'artless' artefacts of the early Iron Age, F. was able to deduce more from the discoveries than they did. He coined the term 'Geometric' to denote this period. His study of the early small finds appeared in 1890, one of the first conclusive Olympia publications (7). The results he achieved here, on the classification and relative chronology of Geometric bronzes, remain unsurpassed. F.'s study of the catalogues of various private collections [4] and the collections of vases and gemstones at the Berlin Museums [ 5]; [9] won him a prodigious knowledge of materials, which he applied in seminal monographs. Die antiken Gemmen [I 3] provided a quite new view of ancient glyptics, understanding of which had until then been clouded by countless early modern reproductions and pseudo-ancient pieces. At Munich, working with the artist Karl Reichhold, he began his series on Greek vase-painting [14]. During new excavations of the precinct of the Temple of Aphaea on Aegina, finally, he was also able to make decisive corrections to the traditional reconstruction of the Archaic pediment figures from the temple in the Munich Glyptothek [1 5]; [ 16), which were distorted by the interpolations of Bertel Thorvaldsen. F.'s method and mode of inquiry were much indebted to the historical positivism of the Wilhelmine period, but he did not break with traditional Neoclassicist norms. Hence, probably his best-known book, Meisterwerke der griechischen Plastik [8), is also his most conventional in terms of inquiry and value judgments. F. here brings the identification of works of art known from ancient literature with their surviving Roman copies, as practised by Johann Joachim --+ Winckelmann and F.'s own teacher ► Brunn, to its apogee and logical conclusion. The new medium of photography proved extremely helpful here, and he made systematic use of it in his other publications too. The vigorous dispute [2.2.. 8) with Reinhard --+ Kekule von Stradonitz triggered by F.'s book also had the unintended

consequence of drawing attention to the value in their own right both of anonymous Greek originals and of the Roman reception of Greek works, both fields that would interest later generations. F. had no understanding of new theoretical developments like the Kunstwollen of Alois -. Rieg!. INFLUENCE

The achievement of F.'s life consisted in his exploration and classification of genres of antiquities either newly discovered or hitherto neglected. He impressed both by the rigour and scrupulousness of his method and by the sheer volume of material he controlled. His catalogues and thematic monographs remain to this day works of reference for all comparable work in archaeology and the history of art. LW: [19. 158-174). E: Berlin, DAI. WRITINGS

I

Intermezzi. Kunstgeschichtliche Studien Mykenische Thongefiisse, 1879 (with G. LoESCHCKE)[3] Der Goldfund von Venersfelde, 1883 141 Die Sammlung Sabouroff, 2. vols., 1883-1887 Is) Beschreibung der Vasensammlung im Antiquarium, Konigliche Museen zu Berlin, 1885 (6) Mykenische Vasen, 2. vols., 1886 (with G. LoESCHCKE)(7) Olympia, Vol. 4: Die Bronzen und die iibrigen kleineren Funde aus Olympia, 2. vols., 1890 (81 Meisterwerke der griechischen of Greek Plastik, 1893 (English: Masterpieces der Sculpture, 1895 et al.) [9] Beschreibung geschnittenen Steine im Antiquarium, Konigliche Museen zu Berlin, 1896 [10) Ober Statuenkopien im Alterthum, in: Abh. der Bayerischen Akad. der Wissenschaften 2.9, 1896, p.5-588 1899 [ 11) Neuere Fiilschungen von Antiken, [ 12] Beschreibung der Glyptothek Konig Ludwigs I. zu Miinchen, 1900 [13] Die antiken Gemmen, 3 vols., 1900 I14) Die griechische Vasenmalerei, 2.vols., 1904-1905 (with K. REICHHOLD) (15) Agina. Das (16) Die Heiligtum der Aphaia, 2. vols., 1906 Aegineten der Glyptothek Konig Ludwigs I. nach den Resultaten der neuen bayerischen Ausgrabung, 1906 (17] K. S., 2. vols., ed. J. SIEVEKING/ L. CuRnus, 1912.-1913 (18) Briefe aus dem Bonner Privatdozentenjahr 1879/80 und der Zeit seiner ed. Tatigkeit an den Berliner Museen 1880-1894, 1965. A. GREIFENHAGEN, [1

(2 I

SECONDARY

LITERATURE

M. FLASHAR(ed.), Adolf Furtwiingler, der Archiiologe. Exhibition catalogue Freiburg, 2.003 (.2.0) G. LIPPOLD,Funwangler, Johann Adolf (2.1) R. LULUES., Michael, in: NOB 5, 1961, 738-740 in: LuWES / Adolf Furtwiingler, 1853-1907, SCHIERINGArch. 110-1 I 1 (.2.2.] V. M. STROCKA (ed.), Meisterwerke. lnternationales Symposion von Adolf anliisslich des 1 50. Geburtstages Furtwiingler, 2.00 5. MATHIAS RENt HOFTER (19]

2.17

FUSTEL

Furumark, Arne

Swedish archaeologist. Born Christiania (Oslo) 2.6. 9. 1903 as Josef Arne Gert F., died Uppsala 6. 10. 1982.. Attended economic school; from 192.5 studied ancient languages and archaeology Univ. of Uppsala; doctorate 1939. 1939 prof. ext., 1951-1970 prof. ord. in classical archaeology, Uppsala. 1956/57 head of the Swedish

Institute at Athens. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

F., born to Swedish parents m Norway, at first worked like his father as a businessman in Oslo and London. However, after visiting the British Museum, he decided to study classics at Uppsala. He took his doctorate there in 1939 with a thesis on the antecedents of Mycenaean pottery [1]. His academic home remained the Univ. of Uppsala until his retirement in 1970. F.'s main contributions to archaeology were his pioneering and much-reprinted works on the stylistic development of Mycenaean pottery [3); [2.); [9]. These works still form the basis for the typological and chronological classification of this genre. F. drew historical inferences from his profound knowledge of pottery, and wrote a substantial contribution to historical developments in the Late Bronze Age Aegean I6). He was also deeply engaged in studies of the Linear A [8 I and Linear B writing systems, and was one of the first to acknowledge Michael • Ventris' decipherment of Linear B (7). Outside the Aegean, F. also took an interest in the Etruscan world [ 5 ]. He conducted excavations at Sinda (Cyprus) in 1947/48 [10) and San Giovenale (Tuscany) in 1962./63. His students included Robin Hagg, Carl Nylander and Gisela Walberg. LW: R. Hagg, The Published Writings of Arne Furumark, in: Opuscula Atheniensia 8,

DE COULANGES,

NUMA

DENIS

et al., 1992. I10) Swedish Excavations at Sinda, (with C. M. Cyprus. Excavations ... 1947-1948 ADELMAN), 2.003. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

R. HAGG, Furumark, Arne (1903-82.), in: EHCA 1, 1996, 476 [12.] C. NYLANDER,Arne Furumark, in: Kungliga Vitterhets historie och antikvitets akademien arsbok, 1983, 34-39. ANN-LOUISESCHALLIN [II)

Fustel de Coulanges, Numa Denis French ancient historian and medievalist. Born Paris 18. 3. 1830, died Massy 12.. 9. 1889. studied at the Ecole normale 1850-1853 superieure (ENS) in Paris; 1853-1856 at the Ecole franfaise d'Athenes; doctorate 1858 at Sorbonne. From 1860, prof. of history at Univ. of Strasbourg, from 1870 at ENS in Paris; from r 87 5 prof. of ancient history at the Sorbonne. From 1878 prof. of medieval history; 1880-1883 director of the ENS. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

The first work by F. d. C., composed during a stay on Chios, was a history of the islan~ from antiquity to the author's own day [r]. His major French these de doctoral was on Polybius I2], and his minor Latin these was on the cult of Vesta [3], anticipating his best-known book, La cite antique [4), in which F. d. C. examines the sacred flame as an elementary component of the ancient belief system. After his return to Paris, he wrote his second major work, on the history of political institutions in ancient Gaul and the early medieval Frankish kingdom [5]. His aim here was to show the Germanic kingdoms as continuations of the Roman Empire. He reacted to criticism of this by returning to the subject in six more books [6); [7); [8); [9); [10); [u]. 1968, 2.13-2.17; 15, 1984, 195. He took his account forward to the reign of Charlemagne, but his death prevented him conWRITINGS tinuing to 17 89, as he had intended [ 1 5. 114 ]. [1] Studies in Aegean Decorative Art. Antecedents To F. d. C., the social order and its politiand Sources of the Mycenaean Ceramic Decoration cal institutions were the real business of histo(diss. Uppsala), 1939 [2) The Chronology of Mycenaean Pottery, 1941 (Mycenaean Pottery. Vol. 2.: riography (L'histoire est la sociologie meme) [9. V], but historiography also looks behind these Chronology, •1972.) (3) The Mycenaean institutions in search of the "human soul" (4. Pottery: Analysis and Classification, 1941 (•1972.) [4] The Mycenaean IIIC Pottery and Its Relation 103). In [4], he describes the connection between to Cypriot Fabrics, in: Opuscula archaeologica religion and the social or political order. In his 3 (Skrifter utgivna av Svenska institutet i Rom history of Gaul and the Frankish kingdom, he 10), 1944, 194-2.65 lsl Det aldsta ltalien, 1947 examines political power, administration, law, (6] The Settlement at Ialysos and Aegean Hi~tory taxation, the military, the church, the feudal c. 1550-1400 B. C., in: Opuscula archaeolog1ca 6 (Skrifter utgivna av Svenska institutet i Rom 1 5), system and social relations and dependencies, 1950, 150-2.71 171Agaische Texte in griechis- for each period and with great precision. In doing so, he followed the example of Franc;ois cher Sprache, in: Eranos 51, 1953, 103-12.0 (and Guizot and Alexis de Tocqueville. His students in 52., 1954, 18-60) [8) The Linear A Tablets from Hagia Triada. Structure and Function, 1976 included the sociologist Emile Durkheim and the (9) Mycenaean Pottery, Vol. 3: Plates, ed. P. AsTROM historians Paul Guiraud, Gustave Bloch, Camille

...

FUSTEL

DE COULANGES,

NUMA

DENIS

-> Jullian, Gustave Glotz and Stephane Gsell. Through them, his influence continued into the • Piganiol and Jerome generation of Andre • Carcopino, and through these in turn to that of Claude Nicolet and Robert Turcan, who would still consider themselves students of F. d. C. (17). This influence also extends to his style: he was a master of combining the seriousness of historical scholarship with the great moralistic tradition of French literature.

WRITINGS

(1) Memoire sur l'ile de Chio, 1857

[2I Polybe ou la Grece conquise par les Romains. These presentee a la faculte des lettres de Paris, 18 58 131Quid Vestae cultus in institutis veterum privatis publicisque valuerit. Thesim proponebat Facultati litterarum Parisiensi, 1858 141La cite antique, 1864 ( 7 1878; English: The Ancient City, 1873 et al.) Is) L'Empire romain. Les Germains. La royaute merovingienne (Histoire des institutions politiques de l'ancienne France, Vol. 1), 1875 (61La monarchic franque (Histoire des institutions politiques de l'ancienne France, Vol. 3), 1888 (7) L'alleu et le domaine rural pendant l'epoque merovingienne (Histoire des institutions politiques de l'ancienne France, Vol. 4), 1889 (81 Les origines du systeme

2.18

feodal. Le benefice et le patronat pendant l'epoque merovingienne (Histoire des institutions politiqucs de l'ancienne France, Vol. 5), 1890 [9) L'invasion germanique (Histoire des institutions politiques de (10) La Gaule l'ancienne France, Vol. 2), 1891 romaine (Histoire des institutions politiques de ( 11] Les transl'ancienne France, Vol. 1 ), 1891 formations de la royaute pendant l'epoque carolingienne (Histoire des institutions politiques de l'ancienne France, Vol. 6), 1892. (1:1) Nouvelles recherchers sur quelques problemes d'histoire, ed. and expanded by C. jULLIAN, 1891 (reiss. 1964) (13) Recherches sur quelques problemes d'histoire, '1893 (reiss. 1894) (14] Questions contemporaines, '1919. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

P. Gu1RAUD,Fustel de Coulanges, 1896 (with bibliography) (16) C. jULLIAN, Extraits des historiens fran'rais du XIX• siecle, 1 891 (17) A. MoMIGI.IANo,La cite antique de Fustel de Contr., 5, 1975, 159Coulanges, in: MOMIGI.IANO 178 (18I C. N1coLET, La fabrique d'une nation. La France entre Rome et les Germains, 2.003 (especially chapter 9 ). (15)

FRAN Jaeger; Ludwig -> Curtius). The six great Miletus volumes [1]; [3); [4]; [6]; (7]; (8) remain essential works today, as does G.'s monograph on the theatre of Priene [2]; all played a crucial part in the establishment of ancient architecture as a subdiscipline within classical studies in Germany. G.'s book on the ancient city [5] was already a groundbreaking contribution on topography and urban studies. G. also took an explicitly political scholarly position in his well-known 1924 polemic on architectural research in Germany (10. 9-13], contributing in no small measure to the foundation of the Koldewey-Gesellschaft as a professional association for architectural historians. Some of his articles on Roman subjects are still relevant in discourse today, e.g. his works on the urban plan of Pompeii (9] and the population tally of Rome [10. 296-330). However, the excavation technique of rapidly stripping away large areas of surface that he was still implementing at Olympia has since been superseded by more refined stratigraphic methods. LW: (10. 459-463]; [11. XVIIf.]. E: Berlin, DAI.

2..2.8

WRITINGS

I I I Milet, Vol.

1/4: Der Poseidonaltar bei Kap Monodendri, 191 s [l.) Das Theater von Priene als Einzelanlage und in seiner Bedeutung fur das hcllenistische Bi.ihnenwesen (diss. Berlin), 1921 (3) Miler, Vol. 2'1: Das Stadion, 192.1 [4) Milet, Vol. 1/6: Der Nordmarkt und der Hafen an der Lowenbucht, 192.2 (5) Griechische Stadtanlagen. Untcrsuchungen zur Entwicklung des Stadtebaus im AlterTUm (diss. Greifswald), 192.4 [6] Milct, Vol. 1/8: Kalabaktepe, Athenatempel und Umgebung, 192.5 [7) Milet, Vol. 1/9: Thermen und Palaestren, 192.8 (8) Milet, Vol. 2'3: Die Stadtmaucr, 1935 (9) Der (10) Von antikcr Stadtplan von Pompeji, 1940 Architektur und T opographie. Gesammcltc Aufsatze, 1959. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

[u) F. W. Deichmann, Armin von Gerkan 18841969, in: Romische Mitteilungen 77, 1970, VIIXVIII [12) T. FR6HLICH, Armin von Gerkan (1884-1969), in: G. BRANDS/ M. MAISCHBERGER

(ed.), Lebensbilder. Klassische Archaologen und der Nationalsozialismus, Vol. 1, 2.012., 91-106 [13) R. NAUMANN,Armin von Gerkan, in: LULLIES / ScHIERINGArch. 1988, 2.2.6-2.2.7. THOMAS FROHLICH

Gernet, Louis-Jules

Born French Hellenist and anthropologist. Paris 2.8. 11. 1882, died there 2.9. x. 1962. 1902.-1906 studied classical philology and law at studthe Ecole normale superieure; 1907-1910 lecturer ied at the Fondation Thiers. 1910-192.0 at military school at La Fleche; 192.1-1948 prof. ord. in classical philology at Algiers. 1949-1954 lecturer in legal sociology at the Ecole pratique des hautes etudes in Paris; 1950-1952. president of the lnstitut franfais de sociologie, and 19491961 director of the Annee sociologique. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

Influenced by the historical school of Numa --. Fustel de Coulanges, G. 's first works were strongly sociological in alignment [7]. He worked on the Annee sociologique from 1906, and shared with Emile Durkheim the ideas of a non-Marxist socialism. The Recherches [ 1] explore the origins of law in Greece and its development in the polis society. G. here undertakes semantic studies after Ferdinand de Saussure, e.g. on the concepts of hybris and adikia, and demonstrates changes of mentality and significance, all the while remaining within the developmental framework established by Durkheim. His sociological approach often left G. isolated among scholars [5. 4 5-5 5 ]. Even his richly commented editions of the Athenian orators (Antiphon, 192.3; Lysias, 192.4-192.6 [2.]; Demosthenes, 1954-1960) did not suffice to win him general recognition as a philologist.

2.2.9

G. revised his original dogmatic socialism in the light of his exchange of views with figures including the ethnologists Marcel Mauss and Maurice Granet, and from 1928 with Ignace Meyerson, founder of historical psychology. From here sprang G. 's interest in the origins of law, religion, myth and the imaginary in preClassical Greece (5). He accomplished the shift from a traditionally Humanist view of antiquity to a historical anthropology by incorporating the subject matter of Greek society into a comprehensive interpretation of social development. His main concern was to analyse the transition from prehistoric Greece to the polis, and from a world-view guided by myth and religion to one guided by reason and criticism. He thus made a decisive contribution to a reorientation of classical studies. His studies written during World War II in Algeria pointed to the dangers of the ever-present possibility that civilization might regress from reason to barbarism - with a topical eye not only on the French Resistance but also on French collaboration with the National Socialists [6). G.'s true importance was only recognized with the posthumous publication of his collected essays, edited by Jean-Pierre • Vernant 15). Like other representatives of the so-called Ecole de Paris, and like Claude Levi-Strauss and Rene Girard, Vernant built on the work of G. LW: (5. 306-3281 E: Pisa, Archives Gernet.

GESNER, JOHANN MATTHIAS 8. 1761. Studied at Jena from 1710. 1715-1729 deputy rector of the Gymnasium at Weimar, also administrator of the ducal library and coin collection; 1729/30 rector of the Gymnasium at Ansbach. 1730-1734 rector of the Leipzig Thomasschule. From 1734, prof. of poetry and eloquence at Gottingen, and librarian of the Univ. Library.

CAREER G. was born into a Franconian family of the clergy and civil service. After attending the Ansbach Gymasium, he began his studies at the Univ. of Jena in 1710, where the theologian Johann Franz Buddeus gave him intensive support. In 171 5, he was appointed deputy rector of the Weimar Gymnasium. While there, G. gained the confidence of the privy councillor and Hofmarscha/1 Friedrich Gotthilf von Marschall, through whose agency he was also appointed in 1723 to manage the ducal library and coin collection alongside his school duties. After a short interval as rector of his old school at Ansbach in 1729, G. became rector of the Leipzig Thomasschule in 1730. Over the following four years, he renewed and improved the physical and organizational condition of the school and the teaching it provided, with the energetic help of his deputy Johann August • Ernesti and in collegial collaboration with the school's cantor, Johann Sebastian Bach !48); [39); as a result it acquired an outstanding reputation. WRITINGS When tensions with the profs. of Leipzig Univ. [ 1) Recherches sur le developpement de la pensee meant that he was denied an academic position juridique et morale en Grece. Etude semantique there, G. in 1734 accepted an invitation to (diss. Paris), 1917 (2.) Lysias. Discours. Vol. 1: become prof. of poetry and eloquence at the 1-15; Vol. 2.: 16-35 and fragments (edition and newly-founded Univ. of Gottingen. The job also trans., with M. B1zos), 192.4-192.6 (et al.) (3) Le entailed acting as inspector of learned schools in genie grec dans la religion (with A. BouLANGER), Braunschweig-Ltineburg, and he became the first 1932. (•1969 et al.) [4) Droit et societe dans la librarian of the Gottingen Univ. Library. His colGrece ancienne, 1955 (et al.) Is) Anthropololeagues at the univ. included Albrecht von Haller gie de la Grece antique, ed. J.-P. VERNANT,1968 (et al.; English: The Anthropology of Ancient Greece, and Johann Lorenz Mosheim. G. founded the first trans. J. D. B. HAMILTON and B. NAGY, 1981). philological seminar on teacher training. In 173 8 he founded the Gottingen branch of the Deutsche SECONDARY LITERATURE Gesellschaft on the model of the Leipzig society (6) R. DI DONATO, L'antropologia storica di founded by Johann Christoph Gottsched (30]. Louis Gernet, in: R. D1 DONATO,Per una antro- On the foundation of the Konigliche Societat der pologia storica del mondo antico, 1990, 1-130 Wissenschaften zu Gottingen in 17 5 1, he became (7) S. C. HUMPHREYS, The Work of Louis Gersecretary of the historical and philological class. net, in: History and Theory 10, 1971, 172.-196 In 1753, he succeeded Haller as president. (8) A. TADDEI,Louis Gerner e le tecniche del diritto ateniese. ttudes sur la technique du droit athenien EDITIONS a l'epoque classique, 2.001, As early as 1714, G. had shown prowess in SOTERA FORNARO textual criticism with his first philological treatise, an investigation into the authenticity of Gesner, Johann Matthias Lucian's Philopatris [ 1 ), which was followed in 1715 by a text edition [3]. Nonetheless, textual German philologist and pedagogue. Born Roth (Nuremberg) 9. 4. 1691, died Gottingen 3. criticism is regarded as G.'s weakness [41. 12.),

GESNER,

JOHANN

MATTHIAS

2.30

if his work is compared, for instance, with the revision resemble those in his editions: subordination to the overriding purpose of compreheninnovative achievements in the field of Richard sion, hence simplification and concentration on • Bentley [32.. 4.5). G.'s edition of the Roman essential rudiments of knowledge. These works agrarian authors I10), with a somewhat convenare intended to be used as aids accompanying tional commentary overburdened with punditry reading [42. 21-22). and amplification, still stood in the Baroque tradition. His Livy edition is a flawless reprint of that LEXICOGRAPHY of J. LeClerc (1710) [11), and his Horace edition In 1726 16) and 173.5, to begin with, G. pub[22) an almost unaltered copy of the edition by lished improved new editions of Basilius Faber's W. Baxter (172.5), itself no match for the epochThesaurus eruditionis scholasticae ( i: 5 7 i:). making edition of Bentley (1711) [42. 17). G.'s other editions are cut from the same cloth. They However, rather than use this as the basis for include Quintilian's lnstitutio Oratoria [12), the probably his most famous work ( 3 7. 3 5 i: ], the letters and Panegyricus of Pliny the Younger Novus linguae et eruditionis Romanae thesaurus l14 ), the Lucian edition prepared in collabora- (1749) 12.1), he drew on the new edition of the Dictionarium, seu l,atinae linguae thesaurus (first tion with Tiberius Hemsterhuis [17), Claudian ed. Paris 1.53 1) by Robert ~-. Estienne, revised (2.5) and the Orphic Hymns and Fragments (27). This last work, of which G. was particularly by British scholars and published in London proud, is viewed as his weakest piece of textual G. 's in 17 34. The innovations that distinguish criticism [31. 277). thesaurus from its predecessors changed scholCritical acuity and philological erudition, arly lexicography and continue to guide it however, were far from G.'s prime concern. In today: restriction to ancient sources; absence the preface to his Livy edition, G. contrasted of German equivalences, on the basis that the the traditional procedure in teaching, which he meaning should be apparent from the evidence called 'statary' reading (statarische Lekture), of the original; finally, a strictly chronological with 'cursory' reading (kursorische Lekture). In systematization by history of word and meaning. the former method, according to G., a section of These are principles that continue to be applied text is analysed many times, down to the utmost in the Munich Thesaurus Linguae Latinae to this detail, and accordingly liberal annotations made. day. Conversely, the additional factual informaInstead, he argued, entire texts or at least longer tion, which compared to his predecessors G. sections should be read with the primary purpose certainly reduced but still considered necessary, of recognizing content, language and style - not would strike an anachronistic note in a modern stopping to attend to every difficulty and detail, lexicon [42. 23 f.[. However, the comprehensive which would diminish pleasure in reading and information he provides on philological, hisprevent rapid progress. The aforementioned edi- torical and antiquarian works of the previous tions follow this principle. From the Livy edition two centuries, e.g. commentaries on the ancient onwards, the countless notae variorum are dis- authors, are priceless to the history of scholarship pensed with. G.'s own commentary is brief and [37. 3.53 f.). mainly serves to assist understanding and underPEDAGOGICAL WRITINGS line the aesthetic, as he explains in the preface to In the lnstitutiones ( 1749) [2), written at the his Claudian edition. In this sense, what G. did was essentially to found the style of 'handy com- suggestion of Guilielmus • Budaeus, G. presmentary' that is still in use today [42. 19). ents an original pedagogical programme, albeit For texts nonetheless in need of being read one influenced by educational reformers such as slowly and carefully, i.e. subjected to 'statary' Wolfgang Ratichius, Johann Amos Comenius and readings, G. introduced chrestomathies that were John Locke. It was intended both for the learned particularly popular in schools. These are col- schools and the univs. G. describes firstly the natural talents, scholarly expertise, proficiencies lections of short, self-contained texts by Cicero (4), Pliny the Elder (5), Greek prose authors (7) and qualities of character necessary for working and tragedians [26). Other collections are the as a teacher, then goes on to present his princiEnchiridion of Roman authors [19) and [20] ples for the education of the young (for instance already suggesting a form of streaming) (45. with texts of certain orators. 42 f.). He also examines then-important issues of private and school education and the education GRAMMAR AND STYLE Although G. wrote no original works in the of princes, and makes a detailed didactic and field of grammar and style, his adaptations of methodological study especially of the teaching the Latin grammar of Christoph • Cellarius [ 1 .5I of languages and mathematics. G.'s pedagogical principles are discernible from the Schulordnung and the Latin style of Johann Gottlieb Heineccius [ 13 ), to which were appended provisions for the [16) are to all intents and purposes new works by virtue of his many changes. G.'s principles of establishment of a philological seminar, from

2.31 some of his minor writings I2.31 and many forewords, but especially from the Primae lineae isagoges [2.4); they included the combination of factual and linguistic tuition, and the great importance of the natural sciences in the school curriculum.

GESNER,

JOHANN

MATTHIAS

Davidem Ruhnkenium, Leipzig 1762. 134- Vol. 1, 277-3381. LW: J. N. Eyring, Descriptio operum Jo. Matthi. Gesneri, (34. Vol. 3, 289-496J. E: Gottingen Universitdtsbibliothek(manuscripts). WRITINGS

INFLUENCE

From the perspective of modern philology, G.'s philological works, with the exception of his lexicography, have had little impact. At most, his 'edition types' (handy commentary, chrestomathy) have lived on 142.. 2.11- However, their importance at the time, and their influence on intellectual history, are a different matter. With his Latin chrestomathies, G. superseded inadequate Neo-Latin works in the syllabus, and reintroduced ancient authors, while the Chrestomathia Graeca replaced the New Testament as the basis for Greek reading - G. claimed to have re-established the study of Greek in German schools. The teaching of ancient languages and its methodology were fundamentally reformed through his editions and his works on grammar, style and lexicography. He replaced the old ideal of education, that of imitation, and the "grammar drill of the old Humanist schools" [38. 32.J with reading, comprehension and intel· lectual reception of the exemplary ancient authors, the intended result of which was to be intellectual, moral and aesthetic improvement. This same principle also determined G.'s pedagogical writings and his work at schools and univs. His philological seminar was the decisive driving force behind not only the professionalization of teaching, but also the organization of univs. (i.e. the seminar as an organizational and administrative form), and especially the establishment of philology as an independent scholarly discipline [44. 11-171. G., whose renown among his contemporaries at home and abroad was great - as his many forewords to the works of others attest - should thus be seen not only as an antecedent or pioneer of Neu-Humanism, but as its 'father', founder or first leading figure. In this sense, G.'s influence extended by way of Johann August -• Ernesti and his student Christian Gottlob ► Heyne to Friedrich August ► Wolf and Wilhelm von • Humboldt. Furthermore, thanks to his efforts in the cause of the German language and his emphasis on the particular importance of realia, modern languages, mathematics and the natural sciences, representatives of philanthropic education like Johann Bernhard Basedow and Ernst Christian Trapp would also cite him as an authority l4ol, M: J. D. Michaelis, Memoria J. M. Gesneri, Gottingen 1761 [34. Vol. 1, 245-2.761; J. A. Ernesti, Narratio de Jo. Matthia Gesnero ad

I I J De aerate et auctore dialogi Lucianei qui Philopatris inscribitur, Jena 1714 (.21 lnstitutiones rei scholasticae, Jena 171 5 [3 J Philopatris dialogus Lucianeus (edition), Jena 1715 141 Chrestomathia Ciceroniana, Weimar 1717 (et al.) 15I Chrestomathia Pliniana, Jena 172.3 (et al.) [6I Basilii Fabri Sorani Thesaurus eruditionis scholasticae (new ed.), Leipzig 172.6 (et al.) 171 Chrestomathia Graeca, Leipzig 1731 (et al.) [8] Leges Scholae Thomanae, Leipzig 1733 191 C. Plinii Caecilii Secundi Panegyric us (edition), Gottingen 173 5 I I o I Scriptores rei rusticae veteres Latini, 2. vols. (edition with comm.), Leipzig 1735 (et al.) I11] Titi Livii Patavini Historiarum libri qui supersunt (ediM. Fabii Quinctition), Leipzig 1735 (et al.) (1.21 liani de lnstitutione oratoria libri XII (edition with 1738 113] Schul-Ordnung comm.), Gottingen vor die Churforstlich Braunschweig-Liineburgische Lande, Gottingen 173 8 I 14 I C. Plinii Caecilii Secundi epistolarum libri X, eiusdem gratiarum actio sive Panegyricus (edition with comm.), Leipzig 1739 (et al.) [15] Christoph Cellarii erleichterte Lateinische Grammatic (new ed.), Gottingen 1740 (et al.) [16] lo. Gott!. Heineccii fundamenta stili cultioris (Neubearbeitung), Leipzig 1743 (et al.) I 17 I Luciani Samosatensis Opera (edition), Amsterdam 1743 118] Opuscula minora varii argumenti, 2.vols., Breslau 174 3 I19] Enchiridion sive prudentia privata ac civilis, Gottingen 1745 [.20I Primae lineae artis oratoriae, Jena 174 5 (et al.) (.21J Novus linguae et eruditionis Romanae thesaurus, 4 vols., Leipzig 1749 l.2.2I Q. Horatii Flacci eclogae (edition), Leipzig 1752. (et al.) l.23I Kleine Deutsche Schriften, Gottingen and Leipzig 1756 1.24]Primae lineae isagoges in eruditionem universalem, Jena 1756 (et al.) [.25[ Cl. Claudiani quae extant (edition with comm.), Leipzig 1759 l.26) Chrestomathia tragica, posthumous ed. J. N. EYRING, Gottingen 1762. (.27[ Orphei Argonautica, hymni, libellus de lapidibus et fragmenta, posthumous ed. G. C. HAMBERGER(edition with comm.), Leipzig 1764 [.28I Thesaurus epistolicus Gesnerianus, 2. vols., posthumous ed. C. A. KLOTZ, Halle and Magdeburg 1768-1770. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

I.29[ E. BERNER, Philologische Reformen im

1 8. Jh. Eine Vorgeschichte?, in: Zs. for padagogische Historiographie 1, 2.002., 58-63 [30I D. CHERUBIM / A. WALSDORF,Sprachkritik als Aufklarung, 2.004, 105-145 131] F. A. ECKSTEIN, Gesner (Johann Matthias), in: J. S. ERSCH / J. G. GRUBER (ed.), Allgemeine Enzcyclopadie der Wissenschaften und Kiinste 64, 1857, 2.71-2.79 13.2I F. A. ECK· STEIN, Gesner's Wirksamkeit for die Verbesserung der hoheren Schulen. Schulprogramm Leipzig, 1868 1331F. A. ECKSTEIN,Gesner, Johann Matthias, in:

GESNER, JOHANN MATTHIAS

2.32.

ADB 9, 1879, 97-103 (34) J. N. EYRING,J. M. no impact in Britain, but won him renown in Gesneri Biographica Academica Gottingensis, 3 vols., France. While staying at Paris in 1763, he met 1768 (35) R. FRIEDRICH,Johann Matthias Gesner. leading figures of the French Enlightenment. He Sein Leben und sein Werk (Rother Miniaturen 2.), then prepared at Lausanne for a tour of Italy 1991 (36) T. GERICKE,Johann Matthias Gesners (April 1764-April 1765) with a prodigious pround Johann Gottfried Herders Stellung in der gramme of literary study. Geschichte der Gymnasialpadagogik (diss. ErlanFrom 1763, G. was at work on his History of gen), 1911 (37] M. LAUREYS,A Treasure of Latin the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire [2.]. Lexicography Reopened, in: Neulateinisches Jb. Journal of Neo-Latin Language and Literature 10, The first volume was published in 1776, volumes 2008, 349-354 (38) P. LUNDGREEN,Schulhuma2. and 3, to the end of the Roman Empire in nismus, padagogischer Realismus und Neuhumanisthe West, in 178 1. After losing his Parliamentary mus. Die Gelehnenschule zur Zeit j. S. Sachs, in: seat, he lived from 1784 at the home of his U. LEISINGER/ C. WOLFF (ed.), Musik, Kunst und friend Georges Deyverdun at Lausanne. There, Wissenschaft im Zeitlalter Johann Sebastian Sachs, he finished his history through to the end of the 2005, 25-38 (39]F. MOLLER,MatthiasGesner. Zur Byzantine Empire. The three volumes were pubWiederkehr seines 2.50. Gebunstags, in: Neue Zs. fiir Musik 108, 1941, 442.-444 (40) K. POHNERT, lished together in 1788. Thereafter, he worked mostly on his memoirs, which remained unfinished. Johann Matthias Gesner und sein Verhaltnis zum Philanthropinismus und Neuhumanismus, 1898 WORKS [41) H. SAUPPE,Johann Matthias Gesner. Schulprogramm Weimar, 1856 (42.) U. SCHINDEL, G.'s 'works' consist m fact of one work Johann Matthias Gesner, Professor der Poesie und alone, his monumental, 3,2.00-page history of Beredsamkeit 1734-1761, in: CLASSENGott. 9-26 the Roman Empire (2.j. He originally planned to (43] U. SCHINDel,Gesner,Johann Matthias, in: NOB, write a history of the city of Rome, hut came to 1964, 348-349 (44] U. SCHINDEL,Die Anfange the view that there was little prospect of scholder Klass. Philologie in Gottingen, in: R. Lauer history of (ed.), Philologie in Gottingen. Sprach- und Lite- arly achievement here. A narrative raturwissenschaft an der Georgia Augusta im 18. the Roman Empire from the mid-2.nd cent. AD, on the other hand, provided him with a subject und beginnenden 19. Jh. (Gottinger Universitatsneither covered by a coherent ancient account, schriften: Serie A, Schriften, Vol. 18), 2.001, 9-2.4 [45] U. SCHINDEL,Johann Matthias Gesners aufgenor adequately treated in modern historiograklarte Padagogik, in: u. LEISINGER/c. WOLFF,(ed.), phy. He aimed to do justice both to the conMusik, Kunst und Wissenschaft im Zeitlalter Johann temporary ideal of 'philosophical history' and Sebastian Sachs, 2.005, 39-49 (46( L. ScHROEDEL, to history as sophisticated literature, as well as Johann Matthias Gesner, in: G. ROGER (ed.), 900 to incorporate into his work the findings of the Jahre Roth, 1960, 197-2.02 (47) F. SENFF,Schul'antiquarian' research so despised by the French reform und Schulorganisation bei Johann Matthias Enlightenment [ 1 3 j. Gesner (1691-1761), in: Pharus 16,192.5, 52.1-533 G. found himself ever more preoccupied with (48) F. SMEND,Johann Sebastian Bach und Johann the question of why the Roman Empire, whose Matthias Gesner, in: Gymnasium 57, 1950, 295-2.98. MARCELNUSS immense size made its fall inevitable, endured for

Gibbon, Edward British ancient historian. Born 8. 5. 1737 (or 27-4- according to the Julian Calendar still in force in Britain at the time) in Putney (Surrey), died London 16. 1. 1794. 1752 student at Magdalen College, Oxford. 1753-1758 at Lausanne; tour of Italy 1764/65. 1774-1780 and 1781-1783, Member of Parliament (House of Commons). CAREER

As a 15-year-old student at Oxford, G. made an intensive study of the literature of theological controversy on the early Church, and converted to Catholicism, which would have excluded him from a career in Britain. His father, a wealthy businessman and gentleman, sent him to a pastor in Lausanne for 're-education', and his reconversion to Protestantism was duly accomplished. G.'s Essai sur l'Etude de la Litterature [1] was intended to win him a diplomatic career. It made

so long. An explanation could only be found, he believed, through reconstructing the endless interplay of factors of decline, compensation and transformation. The carefully chosen title Decline and Fall left open the possibility of continuing this history beyond the end of the Western Roman Empire, which G. decided to do after the great success of the first three volumes. He now also examined the history of the Eastern Roman Empire (including the history of Italy) up to the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 14 5 3. G.'s history is of a new type not strictly bound to chronology. It consists of an interweave of history of structure and event, both secular and ecclesiastical. This compositional technique enabled G. to suggest certain interpretations without having to commit himself to theories of causality. For example, in Volume 1, he initially disregards Christianity until the personal rule of Constantine I (AD 3 2.4), before returning in Chapter 1 5 to recount the rise of the movement from its beginnings. He emphasized

GIBBON, EDWARD

233

the construction of an ecclesiastical organization that increasingly came to resemble a state within a state, so that the sporadic persecutions described in the ensuing chapters appear provoked by the Christians themselves. Because these two chapters conclude the volume, they also give the impression that Christianity is being held responsible for the fall of the empire. This triggered many outspoken reactions from a range of confessional camps. G. did not respond to attacks on his orthodoxy, but probably did respond to a treatise accusing him of tendentious use of sources I 1 5. Vol. 5, 313-371 I. His Vindication 131 represents the credo of an objective analytical historian, who treated ecclesiastical history on the same terms as secular history, according to the example of the Protestant Johann Lorenz Mosheim, and therefore made grateful use of source editions from Catholic scholars (Maurists and Bollandists). G. showed that he was no 'English Voltaire' in his criticism of the religious policy of Julian (Chap. 23), the great hero of Enlightenment critics of Christianity. Considering how deeplyrooted Christianity now was, G. argued, Julian's policy could achieve nothing but further destabilization. Moreover, it was itself a manifestation of the same religious fanaticism that G. always castigated in whatever form and at whatever period it arose, whereas he would look kindly on the church where its influence was a stabilizing one. He regarded the late-antique church as a force that on the one hand was leaching ever more resources away from the state, but on the other hand was compensating for the deficiencies of the state with its own organization, ultimately even becoming a last refuge of freedom in an increasingly despotic world. G. sees this despotism kindled even in the Principate of Augustus, whose re-establishment of the Roman constitution he regards as no more than a mirage. G.'s paean to the Antonine Period as the happiest time in the history of humanity (Chap. 3) is an ironic play on familiar opinions. To G., the virtues of Marcus Aurelius and the vices of his son Commodus were inextricably linked, both being expressions of a system that depended solely on the personal qualities of its ruler, and lacked any control mechanisms that might safeguard freedom. INFLUENCE

G.'s Decline and Fall is the sole work of history of the 18th cent. which, as its countless editions and translations attest, continues by virtue of its literary and scholarly qualities both to attract a broad readership and to pose challenges to specialist scholars. It was a crucial catalyst to the scholarly study of late antiquity and the Byzantine Empire. Many of G.'s assess-

ments - and detailed discoveries - have been confirmed either in their result or in terms of methodological approach by subsequent scholarship. In the 19th cent., there was on the one hand some reluctance to enter into literary competition with G., and on the other hand a certain sense of superiority in view of the progress that had since been made in opening up historical sources. Since the late 20th cent., G.'s work has been analysed both as an inexhaustible source on the history of scholarship [ 1 5) and in respect of its narrative techniques. Pertinent quotations from his work continue to crop up regularly in fiction and scholarly literature. The fact that this is often without regard to context - and devoid of G.'s sense of irony - is an unmistakable symptom of his status as a classic. M: Memoirs of My Life, ed. G. A. Bonnard, 1966.

LW: [II]. WRITINGS

I I I Essai sur l'etude de la litterature, l 761 (English: An Essay on the Study of Literature, 1764; reiss. of both editions 1994) [2] The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 6 vols., 1776-1788 (seminal ed. by D. WoMERSLEY1994) [3] A Vindication of Some Passages in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Chapters of the History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 1779 (reiss. in: Decline and Fall, ed. D. WoMERSLEY,Vol. 3, (4) Miscelleaneous Works of 1994, 1108-1184) Edward Gibbon, with Memoires of His Life and Writings, ed. LoRD SHEFFIELD, 1796 (1 1814) Is] Gibbon's Journal to January 28th, 1763, ed. DAVID M. Low, 1929 (6] Le Journal de Gibbon a Lausanne, 17 aout 1763-19 avril 1764, ed. G. A. BoNNARD, 1945 (7] Miscellanea Gibboniana, ed. G. R. DE BEER/ G. A. BoNNARD,1952 18] The Letters of Edward Gibbon, ed. J. E. NORTON, 3 vols., 1956 191Gibbon's Journey from Geneva to Rome. His Journal From 2.0 April to 2 October 1764, ed. G. A. BONNARD,1961. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

[10] P. B. CRADDOCK, Young Edward Gibbon. Gentleman of Letters, 1982 [u] P. B. CRADDOCK, Edward Gibbon. A Reference Guide, 1987 (with bibliography of secondary literature) [12] P. B. CRADDOCK, Edward Gibbon. Luminous Historian, 1772-1794, 1989 (13] A. D. MOMIGLIANO, Gibbon's Contribution to Historical Method, in: Historia 2, 1954, 450-463 (14) W. NIPPEL, Der Historiker des Romischen Reiches. Edward Gibbon (1737-1794), in: E. GIBBON, Verfall und Untergang, Vol. 6, 2003, 7-114 (Foreword, with bibliography of secondary literature) (15] J. G. A. PococK, Barbarism and Religion, 5 vols., 19992010 [16] D. WoMERSLEY,The Transformation of the 'Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire', 1988 (17] D. WoMERSLEY,Gibbon and the 'Watchmen of the Holy City'. The Historian and His Reputation, 1776-1815, 2002. WILFRlEDNlPPEL

GIGON,

OLOF

Gigon, Olof

2.34

of a 'Socratic poetry' [4[. In Roman literature, G. took a particular interest in Cicero and his Swiss classical philologist and historian of function as a communicator of philosophy [ 1 o ). philosophy. Born 2.8. 1. 1912, died Athens 18. In late antiquity, another area of interest to G. was the confrontation between ancient paganism 6. 1998. Studied classical and Oriental philology at Munich and Basel. Doctorate in Greek 1934, and Christianity (7[; [8]. habil. 1937, both Basel. 1939 prof. of classical Although he founded no school, G. took philology at Fribourg; 1946-1948 guest prof. in part in the editing and initiation of imponant scholarly projects and periodicals. He wrote over Munich. 1948-1982 prof. ord. at Bern; 1966/67 rector there. Corresponding member of the 100 articles for the Lexikon der A/ten Welt (he Academies of Sciences at Munich, Gothenburg, was also part of the editorial team). In I 944, Uppsala and Athens. he took part in the foundation of the Museum Helveticum, the Swiss specialist periodical, and WORK AND INFLUENCE he edited various series (Schweizerische Beitri:ige, The son of a Swiss prof. of medicine and Texte und Kommentare). G. also panicipated a Swedish chemist, G. attended the Humanist in the establishment of the Fondation Hardt Gymnasium in the city of his birth, Basel, and I 14. 94 ). A characteristic quality of much of his with studied classical and Oriental philology there, the work is his interweaving of philological former with Kurt --+ Latte, Harald Fuchs, Jacob philosophical interpretation in language of great .. Wackernagel and especially Peter von der lucidity. This may well explain the many reisMiihll (who later supervised his doctorate), the sues of his translations and the translations of latter with Rudolf Tschudi (G. learned Arabic, his philosophical history monographs into other Turkish and Persian, among other languages). languages. Most of his essays are collected in In 1932./33, during his studies, G. went for a (9); (12); Volume 39 of Museum Helveticurn year to Munich to study with Rudolf • P£eiffer, was dedicated to him in celebration of his 70th Eduard ➔ Schwartz, Johannes Stroux and Albert birthday in 1982. Rehm. Returning to Basel, he took his doctorLW: [12. 584-587). ate in 1934 with a thesis on Heraclitus (1). He moved for two years to Paris to study palaeograWRITINGS I I I Untersuchungen zu Heraklit (diss. Basel), 19 3 5 phy, Near Eastern studies and medieval philoso12ITheophrast, De ventis (edition with intro. and phy, then returned once more to Basel to present comm.; typescript), 1938 131Der Ursprung der his habil. thesis (1937!), a commented edition of griechischen Philosophie. Von Hesiod bis ParmeTheophrastus' On the Winds [2]. After periods nides, 1945 (1 1968) (4) Sokrates. Sein Bild in at Fribourg and Munich, G. became prof. ord. in Dichtung und Geschichte, 1947 Is) Kommentar classical philology (specializing in Latin studies zu Xenophons Memorabilien. Vol. I on Book t, and ancient philosophy) at Bern, a position he Vol. 2. on Book 2., 1953-1956 (6) Grundprobleme held until his retirement. He spent his last years der antiken Philosophie, 1959 (7) Die antike Kulat Athens. tur und das Christentum, 1966 (81 Erwagungen eines Altphilologen zum Neuen Testament, 1972. G. was active firstly as a researcher devoted 19IStudien zur antiken Philosophie, ed. A. GRAESER, above all to ancient philosophy and its con1972. I I o I Cicero und die griechische Philosophic, ceptual and terminological history [3); (6), and in: ANRW U4, 1973, 2.2.6-261 [II) Gegenwarsecondly as a translator and editor of many von Piatigkeit und Utopie. Eine Interpretation ancient texts (e.g. Plato, Aristotle, Epicurus, tons Staat, Vol. 1: Books 1-4, 1976 [1.2) Die Cicero), which, especially in the context of the antike Philosophic als Massstab und Realitiit, ed. Bibliographie der A/ten Welt, he brought to a L. STRAUME-ZIMMERMANN, 1977 (13) Aristotelis wider public. Although the spectrum of his scholOpera. Librorum deperditorum fragmenta (ediarly output was very broad, the writings of Plato tion), 1987. and Aristotle and the members of their respective schools are a constant feature in his work. SECONDARY LITERATURE However, important works, such as a commen(14I H. FLASHAR,Olof Gigon, in: Gnomon 73, :z.001, 93-95 (15) E. VOGT, Olof Gigon, in: Jb. der tary to Xenophon's Memorabilia (Books 1-2) Bayerischen Akad. der Wissenschaften, 1999, 2.56. [5], a commentary on Plato's Republic (Books HANS-ULRICHBERNER/ OLIVER SCHELSKE 1-4) (11) and his edition of Aristotle fragments [ 13 ), were either never completed or not properly Gildersleeve, Basil Lanneau received (14. 95). Within these fields of research, G. showed a particular interest in historical and American classical philologist. Born philosophical problems of the figure and tradition of Socrates. He was largely responsible for Charleston, South Carolina, 2 3. 1 o. 1831, died creating the (not uncontroversial) idea of a his- Baltimore 9. 1. 1924. 18 5 3 doctorate at Gottingen. 1856-1876 prof. of Greek at the Univ. of Virginia torically inaccessible Socrates as the protagonist

GIPHANIUS, 0BERTUS

235

in Charlottesville, 1861-1 867 prof. of Latin there; 1876-191 5 prof. of Greek at Johns Hopkins Univ., Baltimore. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

Giphanius, Obcrtus Hubert van Giffen; Dutch philologist and jurist. Born Buren (Gelderland) 1534, died Prague 1604. Studied philology at Leuven, jurisprudence at Orleans, Bourges (under Jacques ► Cujas) and Paris. 1571-1582 prof. of ethics, logic and lnstitutiones at Strasbourg; 1583-1590 prof. of pandectics and philology at the Academia Norica in Altdorf near Nuremberg. From 1599, assessor at the Aulic Council in Prague.

G. began learning Greek aged just five, in order to read the New Testament. His graduation from Princeton ( 1849) was followed by where his a period in Germany (1850-1853), teachers at the Univ. of Gottingen included August • Boeckh, Friedrich Wilhelm ► Ritschl and Friedrich Wilhelm Schneidewin. Three years LIFE AND WORKS after his Gottingen doctorate I 1 ), in 1856, G. G. came from a family of Protestant landowntook the first chair of Greek at the Univ. of Virginia. After serving in the American Civil ers in the Dutch province of Gelderland. While still a student in r 566, he published an edition of War on the Confederate side, he was appointed Lucretius' De rerum natura that was exemplary in 1 876 as prof. of Greek to the newly-founded Johns Hopkins Univ. at Baltimore, where he for its day (although Joseph • Scaliger branded it plagiarism). Following his doctorate in law, he taught until his retirement in 191 5. G. wrote several books that became standard went twice to Italy. In 1571 he was appointed to works and were reprinted many times I3 I; 151- Strasbourg, where he read Aristotle (his commentaries on the Ethics (4 I and Politics [5] were pubHis many writings covered subjects from many lished after his death) and took part in editorial areas of ancient philology, especially grammar projects at the Rihel publishing house (Josephus (2) and syntax [5]. An important and enduring Flavius, Homer, Cicero lexicon, translation of contribution was his energetic commitment to Livy). He allowed himself to be drawn into the the establishment and development of classical philology in North America (e.g. founding the disputes between the Reformer Johannes Sturm and the Lutheran Johannes Marbach, taking the American Journal of Philology 1880 and editing it until 1920). G.'s aim was not just to estabside of the latter, his father-in-law. In 1575, he lish American classical philology as the equal of published additions to Johannes Sleidanus' histhe European, but independent and superior 19- tory of the Reformation. Unsubstantiated assertions in this work of persecution of Protestants 27-35, 42-49). In almost 60 years of teaching, he trained three generations of American philolat Vienna earned G. several months of investigaogists (including Kirby Flower Smith and John tive custody. In 1583, he accepted an appointment to the Academia Norica in Altdorf (which Adams Scott). G. already enjoyed great honours during his would only be made a univ. in 1622), where, lifetime (e.g. honorary doctorates from Oxford, partly as an opponent of the anti-Aristotelian Cambridge and various American univs.). Ramism, he had a formative influence on the curriculum and earned himself an outstanding LW: [7. 326-3361. E: Baltimore, Johns Hopkins Univ., Gilderreputation as a Humanist jurist. However, he sleeve Archive (9. 62-rn5). soon came into conflict with Hugues ► Doneau, whose appointment to Altdorf G. had himself WRITINGS engineered, and in 1 590 he moved to the pre[ 1) De Porphyrii studiis Homericis capitum trias dominantly Jesuit Univ. of lngolstadt. Here, he (diss. Gottingen), 1853 (2) Latin Grammar, 1867 converted to Catholicism. Probably spurred by (3) Pindar. The Olympian and Pythian Odes, 1885 personal and professional problems, he accepted (4) Essays and Studies. Educational and Literary, an honorific position at Prague, where he died. 1890 Is) Syntax of Classical Greek. From Homer As a pupil of Cujas, G. followed the mos to Demosthenes, 2 vols. (with C. W. E. MILLER), Gallicus and stood for close alignment with the 1900-1911 (6) Hellas and Hesperia, or the Vitality of Greek Studies in America, 1909 [7] Selec- ancient legal sources, which presupposed a solid knowledge of Latin and Greek. His legal lectures ted Classical Papers, ed. W. W. BRIGGS,1992.. from his time at Altdorf, mostly published after his death on the basis of transcripts made by his SECONDARY LITERATURE (8] Introduction, in: W. W. BRIGGSJR., Soldier audience [6 I, attest to this programme. In parand Scholar. Basil Lanneau Gildersleeve and the ticular, G. defended the system and the inner Civil War, 1998, 1-2.3 l91 W. W. BRIGGSJR. / coherence of the books of the Corpus iuris civilis H. W. BENARIO(ed.), Basil Lanneau Gildersleeve. (cf. his Oeconomia [3]). His students included An American Classicist, 1986. Konrad Rittershausen and Kaspar -► Schoppe. GREGORBITTO

GIPHANIUS,

OBERTUS

opus maximum

(3). Subsequent research has, however, made corrections to G.'s approach of pretum quorundam, maxime glossographorum, in absolute chronology. theses aliquot coniectis, Altdorf 15 86 [2) ComThe second half of G.'s life was devoted to mentarii in titulum Digestorum de diversis regustudy of the early history of Rome (1957-197:l. lis iuris antiqui perutiles ac necessarii, Frankfurt/ in a professorship specially created for him at Main 1606 (3) Oeconomia iuris sive dispositio Lund for this). Grave and building finds, stratimethodica omnium librorum et titulorum iuris ancl material civilis, Frankfurt/Main 1606 (4] Commentarii in graphic surveys, archaeological written sources are all presented and assessed in decem libros Ethicorum Aristotelis ad Nicomachum, Frankfurt/ Main 1608 Is] Commentarii in terms of cultural history in the six volumes of his Politicorum opus Aristotelis, Frankfurt/Main 1608 Early Rome (4). G.'s chronology of early Iron (6) Enarrationes et commentarii in VIII libros codiAge grave finds has also attracted criticism (anct cis Iustiniani leges celebriores et difficiliores, ed. should certainly be corrected to an earlier date)~ J. GIPHANIUS,Cologne 1614 (7) Ad Wilhelmum as has his postulation of a very late date for the Landgravium Hassiae Epistulae XXXVII, de 1571foundation of the city of Rome (around 575 BC) 1577, ed. G. MoLLAT, 1885. and for the Roman Monarchical Period. His monographs include a series of articles on probSECONDARY LITERATURE lems connected with early Rome. After 1973~ (8) M. AHSMANN,Giphanius, Obertus, in: M. STOLG. returned to his Cypriot studies, works includLEIS(ed.), Juristen. Ein biographisches Lexikon von ing a handbook on imports of Greek Geometric der Antike bis zum :z.o.Jh., 2.001, 244-2.45. DOROTHEEGALL and Archaic pottery to the island. His students included Paul Astrom, Par Goran Gierow anci Carl-Gustaf Styrenius. Gjerstad, Einar LW: (10. Part 1, 5-8). E: Los Angeles, Getty Research Institute. Swedish classical archaeologist and ancient historian. Born Ore bro 30. 1 o. 1 897, died WRITINGS Lund 8. 1. 1988. Studied classical archaeology [ 1 I Studies on Prehistoric Cyprus (diss. Uppsa la), at Uppsala; 1923 and 1924, first excavations 192.6 (2) The Swedish Cyprus Expedition, 4 vols., (mainly prehistoric) on Cyprus; doctorate 1926 1934-1972. [3) The Swedish Cyprus Expedition, in Uppsala. 192 7-19 31 organizer of Svenska and Vol. 4.2: The Cypro-Gcometric, Cypro-Archaic Cypernexpeditionen (the Swedish Cyprus Cypro-Classical Periods, 1948 (4] Early Rome, Expedition; with Alfred Westholm, Erik Sjoqvist 6 vols., 1953-1973 Is) Pottery-Types. Cyproand John Lindros). 1935 director of Svenska Geometric to Cypro-Classical, in: Opuscula Atheni(6] Legends and Facts of ensia 3, 1960, 105-12.2 Institutet i Rom (Swedish Institute at Rome). Early Roman History, 1962. (7) Cultural History of 1940-1972 prof. of classical archaeology at Early Rome, in: Acta Archaeologica 36, 1965, 1-41 Lund. During World War II, a Red Cross del(8) Greek Geometric and Archaic Pottery Found in egate to Greece. Leading role in the foundation Cyprus, 1977 (9) Ages and Days in Cyprus, 1980. of Svenska Institutet i Athen (Swedish Institute at Athens, 1948). WRITINGS

(1) Commentarius de divisionibus iuris novis inter-

SECONDARY

WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

G. studied with Axel W. Persson at Uppsala, and through his agency found his way to Cyprus, where primarily as a result of the work of the Swedish Cyprus Expedition (Svenska Cypernexpeditionen) he initiated (following on from the work of John Linton Myres), which investigated over 20 find sites of periods ranging from the Neolithic to the Roman, he became the de facto founder of systematic, scholarly archaeology on the island. The classification and nomenclature of Cypriot pottery and sculpture still in use today, as well as the periodization of Cypriot Bronze and Iron Age cultural history, are owed to him and his colleagues. The published volumes of the Swedish Cyprus Expedition [2] are standard works. G.'s contribution to the series, on the span from the Geometric to Classical Periods, deserves recognition as an

LITERATURE

(10) Scripta minora 1977-1978 in honorem Einari Gjerstad, 1977 [ 11) P. AsTROM et al., 'The Fan-

tastic Years on Cyprus'. The Swedish Cyprus Expedition and Its Members, 1994 (ul P. AsTR.OM / K. Nvs (ed.), The Swedish Cyprus Expedition. 80 Years, 2.008 [13) G. COLONNA,Gjerstad e la Roma arcaica, in: G. COLONNA, Italia ante Romanum lmperium, Vol. 1.2., 2.005, 465-467 (14] E. Rvsnn (ed.), The Swedish Cyprus Expedition. The Living Past, 1994 [15) C.-G. STYRENIUS,Einar Gjerstad, in: Medelhavsmuseet Bulletin 13, 1988, 3-8 [16] M.-L. WINDBLADH (ed.), An Archaeological Adventure in Cyprus. The Swedish Cyprus Expedition, 1997. HARTMUTMATTHAUS

Glareanus, Heinrich

Loriti, Heinrich; Swiss poet, musicologist and philologist. Born June 1488 at Mollis (canton of Glarus), died Freiburg im Breisgau 27.'2.8. 3·

G0BL, ROBERT

2.37 1510 MA at Cologne. 2.5. 8. 1512. poet From 1514, language teacher at Basel; 1517-15 2.2. teaching at College de France in Paris. From 15 2.9, prof. of poetics and theology 1563.

laureate.

at Freiburg. CAREER,

WORKS

AND

INFLUENCE

G. worked as a musicologist (5), teacher, poet [2.]; [4) and geographer [1]. Born into a wealthy family, he attended the Stiftsschule at Bern from 1497, then from 1501 the school of Michael Rubellus (Roteli) at Rottweil am Neckar. from l 507 to 1510 he studied theology, mathematics and music at Cologne, and also made a study of Greek. In 151 2., Emperor Maximilian I crowned him poeta laureatus. Expelled from Cologne in 1514 in the course of the ► Reuchlin dispute, G. settled at Basel, where he worked as a teacher of Latin and Greek. This was where he began his lifelong friendship with ► Erasmus of Rotterdam. From 1 517 to 15 2.2., supported by a grant from King Franc;:ois I, he taught at the College de France in Paris. Initially sympathetic to the Reformation, G. later criticized its implementation and anti-intellectualism, but he did maintain contacts with its leading figures (Martin Luther, Huldrych Zwingli). From 152. 7 he was living in Catholic freiburg, where he took the chair of poetry in 152.9. Here he wrote not only his chief works of musicology [ 5 ), but also most of his philological output, which is devoted to comprehension of classical Latin texts and includes some editions and especially Annotationes to many Latin texts, from Horace's Ars poetica ( 1 5 33) and Ovid's Metamorphoses (1534) to Caesar (1538; his interest in geography is apparent here), Sallust (1538) and Livy (1540), to Terence (1540), Boethius (1546), Lucan ( 1550/51) and Suetonius ( 1 560). At each of his places of residence, G. founded and led hostels whose inhabitants governed themselves according to the model of the Roman Republic, with himself as consul. His important library passed via his student Egolf von Knoringen to the Univ. Library and Bavarian State Library at Munich [10); [11).

reanus, in: P. G. B1ETENHOLZ / T. B. DEUTSCHER (ed.), Contemporaries of Erasmus, Vol. :z., 1986, 191J. CASTNER, De obitu incompara105-108 bilis viri D. Henrichi Loriti Glareani, Basel 1 563 [10) I. FENLON, Heinrich Glarean's Books, in: J. KMETZ (ed.), Music in the German Renaissance. Sources, Styles and Contexts, 1994, 74-102. I 11] I. M. GROOTE,Blicke iiber den Seitenrand. Der Humanist Heinrich Glarean und seine Bucher (exh. cat.), :z.010 [12] T. MILLER,Glareanus, in: Biographisch- bibliographisches Kirchenlexikon 2.3, :z.004, 530-537 (13) H. SCHREIBER,Heinrich Loriti Glareanus, seine Freunde und seine Zeit, 183 7. ANJAWOLKENHAUER

Gobi, Robert Austrian numismatist. Born Vienna 4. 8. 1919, died 8. there 8. 12.. 1997. After school, army and war service 1938-1947, then a prisoner of war. 1948-1950 studied ancient history and archaeology, doctorate 1950, habil. 1955, all Vienna. From 1965 prof. ext., from 1971 prof. ord. in ancient numismatics and pre-Islamic Central Asian history. 1965-1987 director of the lnstitut fur Numismatik. 1963 corresponding member and 1971 full member of the Austrian Academy of Sciences. Retired 1989. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

G.'s formative influence was Karl Pink, whose principles developed in Roman numismatics G. applied to other fields of coinage. Through Franz ► Altheim, he discovered pre-Islamic Near Eastern numismatics, and he wrote works on the seals [3] and coinage of the Sassanids [2.] and of the Kushan Empire of Central Asia and India [ 5 ]. In 1962., through the agency of Roman Ghirshman, he organized the coin collection at Kabul, and at Peshawar he discovered inscriptions that provided useful information on chronology. The establishment of an absolute mint date for the Kushan King Kanishka I (c. AD 2.30) is G.'s achievement. The numismatic institute at the Univ. of Vienna (since 2.000 the lnstitut fiir Numismatik und Geldgeschichte), founded in 1965, was shaped by the influence of G., its first prof. Here, he devoted himself intensively to teaching and WRITINGS rI I Descriptio de situ Helvetiae, Basel I 514 [:z.)Ad wrote several textbooks [4 ]. In his late work [6], Divum Maximilianum ... panegyricon, Basel 1515 he presents numismatics as a source discipline [3] De ratione syllabarum, Basel 1516 141Duo for other branches of scholarship [6]. elegiarum libri, Baseh 516 Is) Dodekachordon, M: Robert Gobi, in: H. Baltl et al. (ed.), Recht Basel 1547. und Geschichte. Ein Beitrag zur osterreichischen Gesellschaftsund Geistesgeschichte unserer SECONDARY LITERATURE Zeit. Zwanzig Historiker und Juristen berichten [6) H. ALBRECHT,Glarean(us), Heinrich, in: F. BLUME aus ihrem Leben, 1990, 59-74. (ed.), Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart, Vol. LW: Numismatische Zs. rn6/rn7, 1999, 5, 1956, 2.15-2.21 (7) R. AscHMANN et al. (ed.),

Der Humanist Heinrich Loriti genannt Glarean 1488-1563, 1983 [8] F. BOSSER, Henricus Gia-

..

9-2.0.

G0BL, ROBERT WRITINGS (1) Dokumente zur Geschichte der iranischen Hunnen in Baktrien und Jndien, 4 vols., 1967 (2) Sasanidische Numismatik, 1968 131Sasanidischer Siegelkanon, 1973 (4) Antike Numismatik, 1978 (5) System und Chronologie des Kusanreiches, 1984 (61 Numismatik. Grundriss und wissenschaftliches System, 1987 (7) Die Miinzpriigung des Kaisers Aurelianus (2.70-275), :z.vols., 1993.

dramatische Dichtung, 'On Epic and Dramatic Poetry', written in collaboration with ~riedric~ Schiller, or the essay Nachlese zu Ar,stoteles Poetik, 'Re-reading Aristotle's Poetics') and his publishing activities (the periodical Propyliien. 1798-1800, the collection Winckelmann und se,n and his Century·, Jahrhundert, 'Winckelmann 1805, the periodical Ober Kunst und Altert!7um. 'On Art and Antiquity', 1816-1832), he aligned himself with antiquity. He also had a direct and SECONDARY LITERATURE concrete interest in specialist issues of archaeol(8) M. ALRAM, Robert Gobi, in: Almanach der Osterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften ogy and philology. 148, 1998, 42.5-432. 191 M. ALRAM, Robert After attempting Homeric translations several Gobi, in: Studia Iranica 2.7/2, 1998, 2.79-2.88 times in the 1770s, G. while in Italy wrote a short (10) M. ALRAM,Gobi, Robert, in: E. YARSHATER study on a Homeric textual problem [ 1 ]. Over (ed.), Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. 11 .1, 2.003, the following decades, three figures in particular 2.5-2.7 [n) W. SzArVERT,Robert Gobi, in: Geldwould stimulate him to further ideas of his own: geschichrliche Nachrichten 33, 1998, 100-101. HELMUTSCHUBERT Johann Heinrich • Voss with his t~ansl~tion of Homer; Friedrich August -• Wolf with his a~uing of the 'Homeric Question', and. Gottfried Goethe, Johann Wolfgang • Hermann with several works of philology. G., who met Voss in 1794, made an intensive_ German poet. Born Frankfurt am Main 28. 8. study of his translation of the lliad, and himse_lt 1749, died Weimar 22. 3. 1832. Privately edutranslated several passages from the Homeric cated from 1753 by his father and several tutors. epics into German in the mid-1790s. From 1765-1768 studied law at Leipzig, 1770/71 at 1795, he grappled with Wolfs. Prolegomen:1 Strasbourg. Doctorate (licensiate) of law at ad Homerum, and interpreted its themes m Strasbourg. 1771-1775 worked as lawyer in regard to his own poetry. The problems of the Frankfurt. 1772 trainee at Reichskammergericht Prolegomena preoccupied him again in 182oh1, in Wetzlar. Moved to Weimar 1775. From when on the basis of Voss' translation he wrote a 1776, working in the civil service of the Duchy substantial 'Excerpt from the Iliad' (Auszug aus (later Grand Duchy) of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach. der l/ias) 115). In his Materialien zur Geschichu 1776 Geheimer Legationsrat (Privy Legation der Farbenlehre ('Materials for the History of the Councillor) and member of the Privy Council, Theory of Colour') (2), G. referred frequently to 1778 Geheimer Rat (Privy Councillor); ennobled ancient authors, as he did in the last decade of 1782. 1786-1788 first journey to Italy; 1788 his life to treatises and editions of Hermann (4). relieved of all governmental duties while retainIn the dispute between Hermann and Voss on the ing his seat and vote on the Privy Council (and a one hand and Georg Friedrich --+ Creuzer on the portfolio covering artistic and scientific matters). other, he supported those opposed to Creuzer's 1791-1816 director of the Weimar Theatre. romantic theory of myth. From 1809, held the Oberaufsicht uber die In the course of his duties with the Uni,.-. unmittelbaren Anstalten fur Wissenschaft und of Jena, G. worked on issues of ad~in!stration Kunst ('Superintendence of the State Institutes and publication and library and ed1tonal matof Science and Art') at Weimar and Jena. ters together with their respective representaStaatsminister (Minister of State) from 1815. tives, Christian Gottfried Schutz, Heinrich Karl Abraham Eichstadt and Karl Wilhelm Gottling. WORK AND INFLUENCE and he greatly furthered the academic career of G., the most important German poet and one the last of these [ 11 ]. of the great figures of world literature as w~II as M: Dichtung und Wahrheit, 1811-1833; being one of the leading lights of German intelItalienische Reise, 1816/17 and 1829. lectual life around 1800 as a theoretician of art, 1965, LW: H. Pyritz, Goethe-Bibliographie, scientist and statesman, was guided in his life 48-131; Deutsches Literaturlexikon 6, 1978. and work by his comprehensive knowledge and 489-500. . deep respect for Greek and Roman ~nti~uity, E: Weimar, Goethe- und Schi/ler-Arch,v; and in this respect too he exerted a lastmg influFrankfurt a. M., Freies Deutsches Hochsti#; Diisence on the intellectual climate in Europe. He Deutsches seldorf, Goethe-Museum; Marbach, took up ancient themes in several of his poetic Literaturarchiv; Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin, Preusworks (e.g. Prometheus, Iphigenie auf Tauris, sischer Kulturbesitz. Achilleis, Pandora, Faust II), and in his theoretical works too (e.g. the study Ober epische und

GOETZE,

2.39 WRITINGS

( 1) Versuch eine homerische, dunk le Stelle zu erklaren, 1787 (publ. 1901) [2.) Materialien zur Geschichte der Farbenlehre, 1810 (English: Goethe's Color Theory, trans. H. AACH, 1971) 131 Die tragischen Tetralogien der Griechen, 1823 [4] Phaethon, Tragodie des Euripides, 1823 [5] Philoktet, 182.6 (publ. 1907) (6] Samtliche Werke, Briefe, Tagebiicher und Gesprache (Frankfurt edition), 198 5 (ff.; especially vols. 18, 2.1, 2.2., 2.3/i ).

WORK

AND

ALBRECHT

INFLUENCE

G., the son of a psychiatrist, fought in World War I and won the Iron Cross. With Bedrich Hrozny's decipherment of Hittite in 1915, a new discipline of ancient Near Eastern studies was horn, and G. who resumed his studies after the war, was soon a leading figure in it. His publication of Hittite texts that had found their way into various collections through the trade in antiquities [ 1] displays his particular flair for epigraphy. His masterly command of the writSECONDARY LITERATURE ten and archaeological material, combined with [7] M. BEETZ, 'In den Geist der Alten einzudringen'. Altphilologische Hermeneutik als Erkennta precise style, culminated in his history of Asia nis- und Bildungsinstrument der Weimarer Klassik, Minor I2) from the earliest times to the Hellenistic in: K. RICHTER / J. ScH6NERT (ed.), Klassik und Period. In 1933, G. was dismissed from his post Moderne, 1983, 27-55 (8] BuRSIAN Geschichte as "politically unreliable" because of his active 592.-607 [9] G. GOETZ, Geschichte der klassischen political opposition to the National Socialists. Studien an der Universitat Jena von ihrer Griindung An invitation to the Univ. of Copenhagen bis zur Gegenwart, 192.8, 2.2.-67 I ro] E. GRUMACH, from the linguist Holger Pedersen saved him Goethe und die Antike. Eine Sammlung, 1949 from arrest and certain death. Invited to Yale (11) G. MOLLER,Yorn Regieren zum Gestalten. Goethe und die Universitat Jena, 2.006 [ 12.] V. RIEDEL, in 19 3 4 by the Hittitologist Edgar Sturtevant, G. remained there for the rest of his academic Goethe und Homer (1999), in: V. RIEDEL, 'Der Beste der Griechen' - 'Achill das Vieh'. Aufsiitze career. From then on, he published only in und Vortrage zur literarischen Antikerezeption II, English. He became an American citizen in 1940. 2.002., 12.3-143 [13] V. RIEDEL, Goethes BezieWith Sturtevant, he published The Hittite Ritual hung zur Antike (1998), in: V. RIEDEL, 'Der of Tunnawi (3), and he wrote an important study Beste der Griechen' - 'Achill das Vieh'. Aufsiitze on Hittite geography 14). Working with his Yale und Vortriige zur literarischen Antikerezeption II, colleague Ferris J. Stephens, G. from 1941 cata2002, 63-89 [14[ V. RIEDEL, Die Bedeutung der logued around 3,000 clay tablets that were disAltertumswissenschaften fur Weimarer und Jenaer persed around various collections throughout the Schriftsteller um I 800, in: V. RIEDEL, Literarische United States and Canada. The most important Antikerezeption zwischen Kritik und Idealisierung, 2.009, 2.2.9-2.4 7 I 15 I V. RIEDEL, Ein 'Grundschatz were published posthumously IS). This project aller Kunst'. Goethe und die Vossische Homerstimulated his interest in Sumerian administrative Obersetzung (2.002.), in: V. RIEDEL, Literarische documents (from late 3rd millenium BC), a subAntikerezeption zwischen Kritik und ldealisierung, ject on which he published important studies. In 2.009, 188-2.2.8 [ 16] SANDYSHist., Vol. 3, 69-70 1947, he, Abraham Sachs and Thorkild Jacobsen (17) E.-R. SCHWINGE,Goethe und die Poesie der founded the f ournal of Cuneiform Studies. He Griechen, 1986. VOLKERRIEDEi. contributed a significant number of articles for its first 23 volumes. In 1948, G. was appointed annual prof. of the American School for Oriental Goetze, Albrecht Research in Baghdad. An outstanding outcome of this was his edition of a Babylonian law book German-American ancient Near Eastern just discovered during excavations [6), and of 50 scholar, especially Hittitologist. Born Albrecht Old Babylonian letters [7 ]. His book of brilliant Ernst Rudolf Gotze, Leipzig 11. r. r 897, died copies of Old Babylonian omen texts from the Garmisch 15. 8. 1971. Studied (with interruplibrary of an expert in divination [ 5] was semition for service on the Western Front in World nal, facilitating a crucial expansion of knowledge War I) classics, Semitic studies, lndo-European of Babylonian divination. studies, linguistics and Assyriology at Berlin, Besides his position as one of the leading figLeipzig, Munich and Heidelberg. 1921 doctorate ures in ancient Near Eastern studies, G. played at Heidelberg and assistantship with Carl Bezold· a key role among the German Orientalists in 1922 habil., 1927-1930 prof. ext. there. Fro~ exile, whose scholarly rigour and productivity 1930, prof. ord. in Semitic languages and ancient were formative in the development of Oriental Near Eastern history at Marburg; dismissed for Studies in the United States at this time (e.g. political reasons 1933. 1934-1936 visiting prof. Hans ... Giiterbock, Benno ➔ Landsberger, at Yale Univ., New Haven, Connecticut. 1936 ➔ Oppenheim). A. Leo MA there. American citizen 1940. 1936-1956 LW: J. J. Finkelstein, Bibliography of A. Goetze, William M. Laffan Prof. of Assyriology, 1956in: Journal of Cuneiform Studies 26, 1974, 2-15. 196 5 Sterling Prof., both Yale. Emeritus 196 5.

GOETZE, ALBRECHT

E: New Haven (Connecticut, USA), Yale Univ. Archives, Goetze Collection; Yale Univ., Babylonian Collection. WRITINGS

[1] Verstreute Boghazkoi-Texte (edition), 1930 (2.) Kleinasien (Hdb. der Altertumswissenschaften 3.1.3.), 1933 (•1957) [3] The Hittite Ritual of Tunnawi (edition; with E. STURTEVANT),1938 [4) Kizzuwatna and the Problem of Hittite Geography, 1940 ls] Old Babylonian Omen Texts (edition), 1947 (6) The Laws of Eshnunna (edition), 1956 [7) Fifty Old Babylonian Letters from Tell Harmal (edition), in: Sumer 14, 1958, 3-78 (8) Cuneiform Texts from Various Collections (Yale Oriental Series. Babylonian Texts 15) (edition), ed. B. FOSTER,2.010.

('Hymns to the Diadem of the Pharaohs', 1911) and Vasily Vasilievich Struve published another mathematical papyrus held at Moscow. Alan • Gardiner made use of an encyclopaedic papyrus from G.'s collection for his Onomastica. The epigraphic fruits of G.'s excursion into the Wadi Hammamat paved the way for the later publication of the texts by Couyat and Montet. G. was also interested in Mesopotamia. He published Cappadocian texts from his collection (2), and was the first to describe the Assyrian antiquities in the Hermitage. LW: T. N. Saveljeva, in: Drevniy Egipet, 1960, 9-11; Bulletin of the Faculty of Arts, Fouad I Univ., 12, Part I, 1951. WRITINGS

SECONDARY

LITERATURE

(9) J. J. FINKELSTEIN, Albrecht Goetze, 1897-1971, in: Journal of the American Oriental Society 92., 1962., 197-2.03 [10) T. JACOBSEN,Albrecht Goetze ( 1897-1971 ), in: Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 2.06, 1972., 3-6 [II) A. SACHS (ed.), Special Volume Honoring Professor Albrecht Goetze (Journal of Cuneiform Studies 2.1), 1969. BENJAMIN READ FOSTER

Golenishchev, Vladimir Also Golenischeff, Vladimir Semyonovich (foneHHI.UeB,Bna,llHMHpCeMeH0BHlf).Russian Egyptologist. Born 30. 1. 18 56 in St. Petersburg, died Nice 5. 8. 1947. Began studies 1875 in St. Petersburg; travels to Egypt, collection of Egyptian antiquities, especially inscriptions. Worked at museums in St. Petersburg, Moscow and Cairo. After 1917 Revolution, private scholar at various places outside Russia, notably Nice.

[1] Die Metternichstele in der Originalgrosse (edition), 1 877 [2) Vingt-quatre tablettes cappadociennes de la collection W. Golenischeff (edition), 189 I [3] Papyrus hieratique de la collection W. Golenischeff, contenant la description du voyage de l'Egyptien Ounou-Amon en Phenicie (edition), in: Recueil de travaux relatifs a la philologie et a l'archeologie egyptiennes et assyrienncs 2.1, 1899, 74-102. (4] Les papyrus hieratiques nr. 1115, II 16A et I II 68 de l'Ermitage imperial a St. Petersbourg (edition), 1913 Is) Papyrus hieratiques. Fasc. I, No. 58001-58036 (Catalogue general des antiquites egyptiennes du Musee du Caire 53, Edition), 192.7. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

[61Golenischeff, Vladimir Semionovitch, in: WWE, 170 (7) W. W. STRUVE,Importance de W. S. Goleni scheff pour l'egyptologie, in: W. W. STRUVE (ed.), Drevniy Egipct, 1960, 1 5-60. REINHARDGRIESHAMMER

Gomperz, Theodor WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

G.'s wealthy background allowed him to travel to Egypt more than sixty times, to acquire a comprehensive and important collection, which he donated in 19 1 1 to the Moscow Museum of Fine Arts, and to live a financially independent life as a private scholar. G. made an inventory of the holdings of the Egyptian department at the Hermitage in St. Petersburg, and catalogued the Hieratic papyri in the Cairo museum and published part of it (3). His first major work was to publish one of the most important pieces of evidence for late Egyptia magic: the Metternich Stele [1]. His name is particularly synonymous with publications and editions of important literary papyri, e.g. the 'Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor', the 'Instruction to King Merikare', the 'Prophecy of Neferti' [4] and the 'Journey of Wenamun to Byblos' [3]. Adolf --+ Erman published a literary papyrus from G.'s collection in his Hymnen an das Diadem der Pharaonen

Austrian classical philologist. Born Brunn (now Brno, Moravia, Czech Republic) 2.9. 3. 1832, died Baden (Vienna) 2.9. 8. 1912.. Son of the Jewish banker Philipp G., father of the phiat losopher Heinrich G. Attended Gymnasium Brunn 1843-1847 (without taking final examination), and from 1847 to 1849 the Philosophische Lehranstalt (Philosophical Teaching Academy) classical there. 1849 studied law, 1850-1853 philology, especially under Hermann Bonitz (no graduation) at Univ. of Vienna. 1853-1869 private scholar while working as a journalist for Grenzboten (ed. Gustav Freytag) in Leipzig (1854/55), study trips to Rome, Naples, 1867 Paris, Oxford, London and elsewhere. habit. at Vienna for his works on the Corpus Hippocraticum and the Herculaneum Papyri (no doctorate). 1868 doctor honoris causa at Univ. of Konigsberg; 1869 prof. ext., 1873-1901 prof. ord. in classical philology at Vienna. 188 2

GORI, ANTON 10 FRANCESCO

member of the Academy of Sciences there. 1901 member of the Herrenhaus (Upper House of the Austrian Reichsrat) (10]; r9l. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

G. ~as i~itially influenced in his thinking by the ph1lolog1cal methods of Historicism (textual criticism and detailed explanation), to which he added approaches of literary theory and history. Along with the Greek tragedians and Herodotus (4. Vol. 1, 3-164; Vol. 2, 3-1761, the main benefic_iaries of this were the Herculaneum Papyri, which he analysed in articles on the basis of the Apographa Oxoniensia, with notable results r I]; (5. XII); (8). In rejecting the fetish for athetesis and conjecture, G. paved the way for modern , . conservative textual philology. However, he was denied recognition among papyrologists, because on the whole he worked only with copies, and he tended to pick and choose only the 'juiciest' papyri. G. diverged more sharply still from the textual philology of his day, however, in his openness to modern philosophy, towards which philologists at the time tended to cultivate an attitude of hostility or indifference. He found the positivism of the English philosopher John Stuart Mill (2) in particular, with its scepticism towards religion and metaphysics, to be a tool of hermeneutics for Greek thought and its evaluation, and he asserted consonances in ancient and mod~rn thought, although this was not always consistent with a historical approach - a flaw that earned his great work Griechische Denker ~3] a cool reception among scholars, in spite of its great public success. Nonetheless, the attempt to understand Greek thought on the basis of a unifying principle was a noteworthy one, and one that Werner ► Jaeger would later emulate with his principle of paideia. G.'s prolific scholarly correspondence (10); (7) and the FS for his 70th birthday, containing articles by 56 scholars [6], confirm the high esteem in which he was held both at home and abroad. M: Essays und Erinnerungen, 1905. LW: [4. Vol. 1, VII; Vol. 2, 11lf.] (selection); [5. 265-268) (Herkulanische Schriften). E: Cambridge (Massachusetts), Harvard Univ. Library: H. and T. Gomperz, Briefe und Aufzeichnungen, Vol. 2 (1869-1883) and Vol. 3 (1884-1912), unpubl.; Los Angeles, Univ. of Southern California, Hoose Library of the School of Philosophy: letters to T. G. WRITINGS

I1] Herkulanische Studien, 2 vols., (2] J. S. MILL, System der deduktiven

186 5-1866

und indukt~ven Logik (trans. by T. GOMPERZ of the English ed. of 1843), 1872 (3] Griechische Denker. Eine Geschichte der antiken Philosophie, 3 vols.,

•1903-1912 (•1922-1931; English: Greek Thinkers: A History of Ancient Philosophy, 1905-1912) (4) Hellenika. Auswahl der Kleinen Schriften 2 vols., 1912 (5] Eine Auswahl herkulanische; Kleiner Schriften, ed. T. DoRANDJ, 1993.

SECONDARY LITERATURE (6] FS Theodor Gomperz. Dargebracht zum siebzigsten Geburtstag, 1902 (reiss. 1979) [7) M. BRAUN et al., Philology and Philosophy: The Letters of H. Diels to Th. and H. Gomperz, 1995 (8] T. DoRANDI, Theodor Gomperz, in: M. CAPASSO(ed.), Hermae: Scholars and Scholarship in Papyrology, 2007, 29-43 [9] H. GoMPERZ (ed.), Th. Gomperz, Briefe 1936 und Aufzeichungen, Vol. 1 (1832-1868), (10) R. A. KANN(ed.), Th. Gomperz. Ein Gelehrtenleben im Burgertum der Franz-Josef-Zeit. Auswahl seiner Briefe und Aufzeichnungen 1869-1912, 1974. HANS-ULRICHBERNER/ MANFREDLANDFESTER

Gori, Antonio Francesco Italian antiquarian, scholar of gemstones and antiquities. Born Florence 9. 11. 1691, died there 20. 1. 175 7. Holy orders and entry into monastic order 1726; from 1730 prof. of profane and sacred history at the Studio Fiorentino. 1735 co-founder of the Societa Colombaria now the Accademia toscana di scienze e lettere' Florence. From 1737, member of the Accademia' della Crusca there. From 1743, reviser of written works published at Florence. From 1746 provost at the Baptistry of S. Giovanni there. From 1755, member of the Academie des inscriptions (Paris) and the Royal Society (London). CAREER

G., a pupil of the Florentine Hellenist Antonio Maria Salvini, and a priest in minor orders from 1726, followed Thomas --► Dempster's expanded new edition of Filippo Buonarroti's history of Etruria ( 17 24) in pursuit of further evidence of Etruscan culture, which he duly published, from 1?27, as a comprehensive epigraphic compendmm (1). His first publications [1]; [2] early in a productive career already earned G. a chair at the Studio Fiorentino. He was in close contact with the art collector and benefactor Philipp von -► Stosch as from the latter's arrival in Florence in 17 3 1. From 17 42, Stosch supported the Giornale de' letterati, on which G. was working, after withdrawing from Giovanni Lami's Nave/le letterarie [7]. In 1735, G. was one of the founders of the Florentine Societa Colombaria, promoting its presences at Palermo and Livorno. He also took part in the activities of the Accademia etrusca of Cortona. He was an active participant in the work of the Accademia de/la Crusca, the oldest European language society in Florence, and he was also a member of the Accademia degli Apatisti and the Accademia

GORI,

ANTONIO

FRANCESCO

del Vangelista, for which he probably wrote comic scenarios [7]. He was also elected to the British Royal Society and the French Academie des inscriptions. As the Florentine civil service was opened up to the laity, the Grand Duke in 1738 gave the post of antiquarian at the Uffizi not to G., but to the doctor Antonio Cocchi, in spite of the urging of the Apostolic Nuncio Domenico Passionei. In 1743, G. became censor-in-chief of printed works in Florence, then in 1746 provost of S. Giovanni. On his death, he left a notoriously verbose will [10], which gave rise to ironic comment. His correspondence [ 1 2 ], which is held at the Biblioteca Marucelliana (Florence), is mostly published online, while his collection of books mostly went to the Univ. Library of Pisa. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

The Inscriptiones antiquae [ 1], well received by Lodovico Antonio -• Muratori and others, enabled G. to publish the columbarium (storage place for funerary urns) of the household of Livia on the via Appia with numerous documents and illustrations [2] that had not been available to its first publisher Francesco • Bianchini. G. also benefited here from Filippo Buonarroti's contacts at Rome, and his good relations with the Marchese Alessandro Gregorio Capponi [7]. Illustrations for the volume were by the painter Girolamo Odam. They offered a reconstruction of the monument, and would be referred to by Giambattista ➔ Piranesi. If G.'s architectural presentation seems more superficial than that of Bianchini, the volume does illustrate finds that had previously only been described. In 1731, G. also published epigraphic drawings made a century before at the Barberini court by Giovanni Battista Doni [7]. He also published Doni's correspondence in 1754, as an appendix to Doni's biography by his student Angelo Maria Bandini. Doni's treatise on Greek music, Lyra Barberina, was published in 1763 by G.'s collaborator of many years, Giovan Battista Passeri. In 173 1, G. began publishing his Museum Florentinum [3] on the model of Buonarroti, a major prestige project to publish the Florentine antiquities collections, sponsored by a consortium of aristocrats (often the owners of the collections concerned). The first volumes are devoted to glyptics, a genre of antiquities G. had already explored in his Inscriptiones antiquae [ 1]. Here, he presented gemstones with engraved named of their cutters - the influence of Baron Philipp von ➔ Stosch [15] is apparent. G. seems to have increasingly refined his method for classifying gemstones: from a focus on the subject, as he had learned from Buonarroti and as is still typical of the 1731 volumes, to paying closer atten-

tion to typology, as in the Thesaurus gemmarum antiquarum astriferarum, which he published in 17 50 with Passeri. Handwritten testimony shows that G. was planning a major work on the ancient cameo cutters. Volumes IV-VI of the Museum Florentinum (1740-1742) (3), devoted to coins, received a critical reception for their rather crude classification according to materials and dimensions. In 1733, G. published his Italian translation of the treatise attributed to Longinus 'On the Sublime' (Peri hypsous); it was reprinted many times in the century that followed, contributing to the circulation of a reference text that was of great importance to 1 8th-cent. poetics ( 7 ]. Publication of the first volumes of the Museum Etruscum [4] on the Etruscan antiquities, from 1739, led to a long dispute with Scipione • Maffei [ 11 ]. He criticized G. for his understanding of the Etruscan alphabet derived from Louis Bourguet, but also for accepting pieces of dubious ancient credentials, for his chronologies and his confusing iconographic interpretations, according to which every votive bronze depicted a god [8]. Of G.'s 34 gods, precisely four survived the scrutiny of Annibale degli Abbati Olivieri in 1740, and they lived on for Luigi Lanzi in 1782 as no more than "a beautiful dream". G.'s correspondence reveals that as early as 1744 there was a plan for a volume (initially intended for the Museum Florentium) on painted ancient vases. It may have been this process that sowed doubts in G.'s mind as to the Etruscan origins of vases from Naples and Sicily with Greek inscriptions [ 14 ]. He busied himself with various editorial projects in the 1740s, notably the poetry of the Genoese Giovanni Bartolomeo Casaregi - like G.'s celebrated correspondent Pietro Metastasio a member of the Accademia Crusca and the Accademia Arcadia - and the catalogue of Oriental (i.e. Arabic, Aramaic, etc.) manuscripts from the Greek East in the Biblioteca Laurenziana (1742) [16). G. then also published Casaregi's Italian translation of Jacopo Sannazzaro's De partu Virginis, with medieval illustrations and commentary, as the first volume of a series (which came to nothing) on medieval Tuscan art. He also published other works by Florentine literati like the brother of his teacher, Salvino Salvini. This Tuscan bias was also seen in the 1746 publication of the new edition and commentary of the Vita di Michelangelo Buonarroti by Ascanio Condivi. He also compiled sources, some hitherto unpublished, on the history of his homeland, and the collection was published in 17 5 5. From 1748, he issued the Symbolae litterariae, a publication in 20 volumes of his articles, writings and new editions [ 5]. Following in the footsteps

GOTHOFREDUS, JACOBUS of Ridolfino . • Venuti, he puhlished the discoveries from Herculaneum in 1752 161. G.'s collection of antiquities and works of medieval and Renaissance art, which is now dispersed, reflects the interests he developed in the course of his studies (9). Ten years after his death, Giovan Battista Passeri published G.'s work on the Etruscan vase-paintings under his own name (Picturae etruscorum in Vasculis, 1767) [14]; in 1759 he had also issued the collection of late-antique diptychs on which G. had worked after 1749. The Museum Florentinum enjoyed wide circulation, also in abridged French and German versions. Among those inspired by it was Lorenz .. Natter for his Museum Britannicum, and even • Reinach could still draw on in 1895, Salomon it, albeit only for illustrations. His immense collection of material and his presentation of minor collections that have since been dispersed assure G.'s work of lasting value.

Anton francesco Gori, :z.003, 59-71 I 15 I M. E. MICHELI, 'Gemmae antiquae caelatae' di Anton Francesco Gori, in: Prospettiva 47, 1986, 38-51 [ 16 [ I.. VANNI NI, Gori, Anton Francesco, in: DBI 58, 2.00:Z.,2.5-2.8. LUCIAFAEDO Gothofredus,

Jacobus

Godefroy, Jacques; Swiss jurist, politician and publisher. Born Geneva 13. 9. 1587, died there 22. 6. 165 2. Studied law at Bourges and Geneva. 161 9 prof. of law at Geneva Academy; 163 2-163 6 Staatsschreiber (secretary-general of the cantonal administration). Syndic of the city of Geneva in 1637, 1641, 1645 and 1649 . Teaching career at Academy resumed alongside political activities after 163 8.

LIFE AND WORKS G. was born into a family of Genevese scholars. Among the publications of his father, the jurist Denis Godefroy, was a comprehensively WRITINGS annotated version of Dionysius • Lambinus' [x) Inscriptiones antiquae in Etruriae urhibus extanedition of the complete works of Cicero, which tes, 3 vols., Florence 17:z.7-1743 [:z.[ Monumenwas much reprinted in the 17th cent. His son tum sive Columbarium libertorum et servorum Liviae Augustae et Caesarum, Romae detectum in Jacques made a career as a jurist and a politivia Appia anno 17:z.6,Florence 17:z.7 [3) Museum cian of the city of Geneva, while also teaching at Florentinum exhibens insigniora vetustatis monuthe Geneva Academy (predecessor of the Univ. of menta quae Florentiae sunt, 3 vols., 1731-1743 Geneva). He published some writings on juridi(4) Museum Etruscum exhibens insignia vetecal and political practice (of which (2.) and [4) rum Etruscorum monumenta, 3 vols., 1737-1743 are important). He wrote on the history of schol[5) Symbolae litterariae. Opuscula varia philologica scientifica antiquaria, signa, lapides, numis- arship too: his commented edition of the Codex published in mata, gemmas, et monumenta Medii Aevi nunc Theodosianus (6), posthumously 1 66 5, long remained the standard version and primum edita, 2.0 vols., Florence/Rome 1748-1754 was reprinted several times. His commentary [6] Admiranda antiquitatum Herculanensium descripta is still occasionally cited today. In the field of et illustrata ad annum 17 so, Rome 17 s:z.. antiquities research, G. also accomplished the reconstruction of ancient legal texts. His ediSECONDARY LITERATURE [7) s.BRUNI,Anton Francesco Gori, Carlo Goldoni e la tion of the fragments of the Leges Duodecim famiglia dell'antiquario. Una precisazione, in: Symbo- Tahu/arum was the most important step forlae antiquariae 1, :z.008, 11-69 (81 C. CAGIANELLI, ward in its study in the 16th and 17th cents. Bronzi a figura umana (Monumenti, musei e gal- [71. G. also studied the Julian Marriage Laws of lerie pontificie. Museo Gregoriano Etrusco), 1999, Augustus (Lex Julia et Papia 151). In 162.6, he 44-52. (9) C. CAGIANELLI,La collezione di antipublished the Editio princeps of Tertullian's Ad chita di Anton Francesco Gori. I materiali, la (with annotations) [ 1 ). He also edited nationes dispersione ed alcuni recuperi, in: Atti e memorie dell'Accademia Toscana di scienze e lettere La some speeches of Libanius [3). Colombaria 71, 2.006, 99-167 (10I C. CAGIANELLI,La scomparsa di Anton Francesco Gori, tra WRITINGS cordoglio, tributi di stima e veleni, in: Symbolae (•I Q. Sept. Florentis Tertulliani ad nationes lihri duo (edition), Geneva 16:z.s [2.[ Le Mercure antiquariae 1, 2.008, 71-119 [11I M. CRISToFANI, La scoperta degli Etruschi. Archeologia e Jesuite, ou Recueil des pieces, concernants le progres des Jesuites, leurs escrits et differents, 2. vols., antiquaria nel '700, 1983, 51, S3, 7S, 81, 89-92. ( 12.)C. DE BENEDICTJS/ M. G. MARZI (ed.), L'epistolario Geneva 16:z.6-1630 [3I Libanii Sophistae, seu di Anton Francesco Gori, 2.004 (13) Y. KAGAN, oratoris Antiocheni orationes quatuor ... (edition), Engraved Gems in the Writings and the IconoGeneva 1631 [4] De imperio maris deque iure graphy of Antonio Francesco Gori, in: M. BuoRA naufragii colligendi, Geneva 1637 [5) Fontes qua(ed.), Le gemme incise nel Settecento e Ottocento. tuor iuris civilis in unum collecti, Geneva 1653 Continuita de Ila tradizione classica, 2.006, 81-99 [6] Codex Theodosianus, 6 vols. (edition), Lyon [14) M. E. MASCI,Documenti per la storia del colle1665 (reiss. of 1736 ed.: :z.006). zionismo di vasi antichi nel XVIII secolo. Lettere ad

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GOTHOFREDUS,

JACOBUS

SECONDARY LITERATURE (7) H. E. DIRKSEN,Obersicht der bisherigen Versuche zur Kritik und Herstellung des Textes der Zwolf-Tafel- Fragmente, 1824 (8) A. DUFOUR, Godefroy, Jacques, in: Historisches Lexikon der [9] B. SCHMIDLIN/ Schweiz 5, 2.006, 508-509 A. DUFOUR (ed.), Jacques Godefroy (1587-1652.) et l'humanisme juridique a Geneve, 1991. J0RGEN LEONHARDT

Graevius, Johann Georg Grave, Johann; German philologist. Born Naumburg 29. r. 1632, died Utrecht rr. r. 1703. After attending school at Pforta, studied law at Leipzig, then philology with Johann Friedrich -+ Gronovius at Deventer and Alexander Morus and David Blonde) at Amsterdam. 1656, prof. of eloquence at Duisburg. 1657 succeeded Gronovius at Deventer; prof. of eloquence there 1661, also of history and politics from 1667. Court historian to Stadholder Willem III of Orange. Refused many appointments, notably to Padua. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

G. emerged as an editor and commentator on ancient writers and a publisher of collections of the classical studies literature of his day. His publications of most lasting usefulness were the Thesaurus antiquitatum Romanarum (1694-1699) (5), still today the most comprehensive collection of early modern writings on classical studies, and the Thesaurus antiquitatum et historiarum Italiae (8), a similar compilation of writings on Italy, which Pieter -+ Burmann the Elder completed. Together with the Thesaurus antiquitatum Graecarum of Johann Frie~ri~h -+ Gronovius, both collections appeared agam m 1732./33 at Venice in 33 monumental folio volumes. G.' editions of ancient works are always collections of existing commentaries (cum notis variorum). His most substantial works of original research are the Lectiones Hesiodeae as a commentary on his edition of Hesiod [ 1) and his notes on the letters [2]; (3) and speeches of Cicero (4) and his De officiis ((6), together with

(3) M. Tullii Ciceronis epistolarum libri XVI ad T. Pomponium Atticum, 2. vols. (edition with comm.), Amsterdam 1684 (4) Ciceronis De officiis libri tres (edition with comm.), Amsterdam 1688 ls) (ed.), Thesaurus Romanarum antiquitatum, 12 vols., (6) M. Tullii Ciceronis orationes Lyon 1694-1699 (edition with comm.), Amsterdam 1695-1699 [ 71(ed.), Syntagma variarum dissertationum rariorum, et Utrecht 1702. [8) (ed.), Thesaurus antiquitatum historiarum ltaliae, 9 vols., Leiden 1704-1723. SECONDARY LITERATURE [9) P. BuRMANNUS,Oratio funebris in obitum J~_annis Georgii Graevii, 1703 (10) K. HALM, Grave, Johann Georg, in: ADB 9, 1879, 612-613. J0RGEN LEONHARDT

Graham, Alexander John British ancient historian. Born Lowestoft 9· 3. 1930, died Cambridge 26. 12.. 205. Studied law and classical philology at Cambridge 19491952; 1955-1957 assistant lecturer in classics at Bedford College, London. 1957-1977 prof. of 1977ancient history at Univ. of Manchester; 1995 prof. at Univ. of Pennsylvania. CAREER, WORKS AND INFLUENCE

G., who came from a wealthy family of Suffolk Quakers, went to the renowned King's College, Cambridge, where his teachers included Sir Frank Adcock. He went on to lecture at the Univ. of Munich and the British School at Athens. While assistant lecturer at Bedford College, London, he was awarded the Cromer Greek Prize of the British Academy for a study of the foundation decree of Cyrene. In 1977, after 20 years as prof. of ancient history at the Univ. of Manchester, G. accepted an invitation to the Univ. of Pennsylvania, where he worked until his retirement in 199 5, from 1982. as chairman of the Department of Classical Studies. He then returned to Britain. Besides Adcock, the formative academic influences on G. were Victor -+ Ehrenberg and John 0. Burtt. In 1965, he published with Karl Friedrich Stroheker the volume Palis und Laelius de amicitia, Cato maior de senectute, Imperium, with important writings of his teacher Paradoxa Stoicorum and Somnium Scipionis). G. Ehrenberg. His own research focused on Greek also provided his own annotations in his editions history and in particular on Greek colonization of Lucian's Pseudosophistes ( 1667), Justin us (r); [2); (3). He wrote the relevant articles for (1668), Suetonius (1672)_ and Florus (168~). the Oxford Classical Dictionary and the essay on His editions of Catullus, T1bullus and Propert1us Greek colonization in the second edition of the (1680) and of Caesar contain only compilations Cambridge Ancient History (2). His 1964 study of existing commentaries. ( 1) became a standard work. Thanks to his proLW: (9). digious knowledge of epigraphy and archae?logy, G. presented a concise and compre~en~1ve WRITINGS view of the conditions of Greek colomzat10n (1) Hesiodi Ascraei quae extant (edition with comm.), Amsterdam 1667 (2) M. Tullii Cice- in many other publications too. He supervised numerous dissertations, preferably on subjects ronis epistolarum libri XVI ad familiares, 2. vols. within his primary field of research. In 2002, his (edition with comm.), Amsterdam 1676-1677

GREGOIRE., HENRI

2.45

students honoured him with the publication the collection Oikistes.

of

WRITINGS [1] Colony and Mother City in Ancient Greece, 1964 (2) The Colonial Expansion of Greece, in: J. BOARDMAN / N. G. L. HAMMOND (ed.), The Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. 3/3: The Expansion of the Greek World, 1982., 83-162. (3) Collected Papers on Greek Colonization, 2.001. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

[4] M. OSTWALD, Prof. A. J. Graham, Historian of Greek Colonisation, in: The Independent, 11 January 2.006. HOLGERSONNABEND

Grant, Michael British ancient historian. Born 2.1. 11. 1914, died 4. 10. 2.004. School at Harrow; Studies (classics) and research fellowship at Trinity College, Cambridge. 1939 War Office. 1940-r945 worked for British Council in Ankara. Diss., Cambridge, on Imperial numismatics (published 1946). 1948 prof. of Latin studies at Edinburgh; 1956 Vice-Chancellor of the Univ. of Khartoum (Sudan); 1959 Vice-Chancellor of Queen's Univ., Belfast; from 1966, freelance author in Gattaiola (Tuscany). WORKS

G. acquired a reputation as a historian with a speciality in numismatics. From an early age, he felt it his life's vocation to tend the flame of classical, Jewish-Israelite and Christian antiquity without actualization or interpretation. This determination produced more than 50 books that are packed with information, but clear and readable; they have been translated into many languages. They include accounts mostly of the history of the Roman Imperial Period (e.g. (7J; [19); (31]; [34)) and on popular themes (gladiators (6), Pompeii [12.)), a later Greek history in three volumes [2.5]; [2.7]; [2.3), biographies (e.g. Caesar [ 8); Cleopatra [ 14 J; Herod [ I 3 ); Jesus [2.0]; Paul [ 1 8 ); Nero [ 10 J), surveys of literature and mythology [ 5]; [ 1 5], translations (Cicero; Tacitus' Annales), lexicons and learning aids. His works also found a ready market in Germany in the 1970s and 1980s. His last books, however repet1t1ve and ignoring recent research destroyed G. 's scholarly reputation. G. was president and later an honorary member of the Royal Numismatic Society. M: My First Eighty Years, 1994. WRITINGS

(1) From Imperium to Auctoritas. A Historical Study of aes Coinage in the Roman Empire 49 BC-

14 AD, 1946 [2] Roman Anniversary Issues, 1950 [3] Roman Imperial Money, 1954 [4) The World of Rome, 1960 (5] Myths of the Greeks and Romans, 1962. [6) The Gladiators, 1967 (7) The Climax of Rome AD 161-337, 1968 [8] Caesar, 1969 [9) The Ancient Mediterranean 1969 [10) Nero, 1970 [11) The Ancient Histo~ rians, 1970 [12) Cities of Vesuvius. Pompeii and Herculaneum, 1971 [13) Herod the Great, 1971 f 14) Cleopatra, 1972. [15) Who's Who in Classical Mythology (with J. HAZEL), 1973 I 16) The Twelve Caesars, 1975 [17) Ancient History Atlas, 1976 [ 18 I Saint Paul, 1976 [ 19) The Fall of the Roman Empire, 1976 [2.0) Jesus, 1977 f21J The History of Rome, 1978 [22) The Etruscans, 1980 (23) From Alexander to Cleopatra. The Hellenistic World, 1982. [24] The History of Ancient Israel, 1984 [25)TheRiseoftheGreeks,r9R7 [26)(ed.), Civilization of the Ancient Mediterranean. Greece and Rome, 3 vols. (with M. KtTZtNGER), 1988 [27) The Classical Greeks, 1989 [28] The Visible Past, 1990 [29 J A Short History of Classical Civilization, 1991 (30) Greeks and Romans. A Social History, 1992. [31[ The Antonines, 1994 [32) Art in the Roman Empire, 1995 [33) Greek and Roman Historians. Information and Misinformation, 1995 [.14) The Severans, 1996 [35) From Rome to Byzantium. The Fifth Century AD, 1998 [36[ The Collapse and Recovery of the Roman Empire, 1999 [37[ Sick Caesars, 2.000. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

[38) MtCHAELGRANT(obituary), in: The Times, 13 October 2.004. UWEWALTER

Gregoire, Henri Belgian Byzantine scholar. Born Huy 2.1. 3. 1881, died Rosieres (Brussels) 2.8. 9. 1964. Studied from 1898 at the Univ. of Liege, teachers including Leon Parmentier and Charles Michel, 1901 Docteur en philosophie et lettres. 1902./3 continued studies at Munich with Karl Krumbacher and in Berlin with Ulrich von -► Wilamowitz-Moellendorf and Adolf von • Harnack; 1903/o4 in Paris. Appointed in 1904 by his uncle Edmond Janssens, chairman of the Congo Commission of the King of the Belgians, as secretary of that commission, with the task of investigating the accusations of ruthless exploitation in the so-called Congo Free State. 1904/5 in the Congo [2.6). The critical final report [ 1] initially hampered G.'s academic career [24. 2.96 f.]. 1905/6 research trip to the Sinai and Jerusalem. 1906-1909 foreign member of the Ecole franfaise d'Athenes; 1907, at the suggestion of Franz --+ Cumont, epigraphic and topographic field research in Asia Minor [3); [4]. From 1909, lecturer in Greek philology at Univ. Libre de Bruxelles, from 1911 prof. ext. and from 1914 prof. of ancient and medieval

GRfGOIRE,

HENRI

history there. 1925-1928, comm1ss1on from arship, following Jacob • Burckhardt in seeing King Fuad to supervise the establishment of the Constantine's religious policy in solely political Faculte de Philosophie et Lettres at the Univ. of terms. Hans-Georg Beck, writing of G.'s works Cairo. 1938 guest lecturer at New School for on Byzantine heroic epic (e.g. [ 11 )), declared that Social Research, then Sather Prof. at Univ. of "the epic world of the Byzantines has been sigCalifornia, Berkeley. Settled permanently in the nificantly illuminated" by G. (19. 183]. Alongside his scholarly writings, G. must also USA late in 1940, from there editing the periodical Byzantion. 1940-1942 prof. at New School be assessed for his accomplishments in establishfor Social Research in New York. Founded Ecole ing Byzantine studies as a scholarly discipline. Byzantine Congresses libre des hautes etudes de New York jointly with Separate international Henri Focillon and Jean Perrin, president of the were inaugurated on the initiative of Nicolae school from 1944. Returned to Univ. of Brussels lorga after the section on Byzantine history that G. directed at the 1923 Congres historique de 1946. Alongside academic work, also active as Bruxelles. The first such congress took place at a translator [5); [7) and journalist [6]. From Bucharest in 1924; the seventh, organized by G., 1918, editor (with Oscar Grojean and Anatole was held at Brussels in 1948. G. was a founderMuhlstein) of the periodical Le Flambeau - member and president of the Association interRevue Beige des questions politiques et litteraires nationale des etudes byzantines (1948). He was founder or editor of several periodicals (Revue [20. 141 f.]. Prix Rene Jauniaux for G.'s account beige de philologie et d'histoire, from 192.2; of his 1947/48 journey in civil war-torn post-war Byzantion, from 1925; L'Antiquite classique, Greece [14]; [20. 150). from 1932; Annuaire de l'institut de philologie et d'histoire orientales et slaves, 1932-1985; La WORK AND INFLUENCE The gift of a book - the first volume of nouvelle Clio, 1949-1962), and he organized Gustave Schlumberger's L'epopee byzantine a la and directed the Seminaire byzantin et neo-grec fin du X• siecle - kindled the 17-year-old G. 's (founded 1928) and, in 1930/31, its governinterest in Byzantine literature and history, and ing lnstitut de philologie et d'histoire orientales inspired him to study ancient languages, after (... et slaves appended in 1934) at the Univ. of an interest in contemporary Greece had already Brussels. In 19 5 6, the Belgian Centre national led him to learn Modern Greek [24. 294]. de recherches byzantines was founded on his Proceeding always from strict criticism of the initiative. sources, and hence combining philological and G.'s memberships included the Academie historical work, G. advanced research in a great Royale de Belgique (corresponding from 1930, many spheres of ancient and Byzantine history, full from 1936), the Academie des inscriptions and opened new perspectives within it, all with et belles-lettres in Paris (corresponding from a mastery of many languages and an intensity 19 3 6, Membre associe from 19 5 1 ), correspondof scholarly activity that earned him an almost ing member of the Bayerische Akademie der legendary reputation even during his lifetime (cf. Wissenschaften. Honorary doctorates: Algiers e.g. (21. VII]); his student Roger Goossens called (1935), Athens (1937), Sofia (1939), Parishim the "Proteus of philology" [20. 135). Sorbonne ( 1949) et al. G.'s scholarly oeuvre includes works on early LW: [20. 177-262) (1900-1975). Greek poetry and Greek tragedy (especially Euripides, the subject of G.'s diss. [21. 153] WRITINGS I• I Rapport de la Commission d'Enquete a M. and whom he also translated [7); [9]; [17]), the le Secretaire d'Etat, in: Bulletin Officiel de l'Etat history of Greek religion [16] and the Roman Independant du Congo 9/I o, 190 5, 13 3-2.8 5 Imperial Period (including an important work on [1.) Saints jumeaux et dieux cavaliers. Etude hagiothe persecutions of the Christians [18], which G. graphique, 1905 (3] Rapport sur un voyage considered had been minor in extent), but esped'exploration dans le Pont et en Cappadoce, in: cially on Byzantine history from late antiquity to Bulletin de Correspondance hellenique 3 3, 1909, the 14th cent. by way of the Crusades. He stud1-170 141 Studia Pontica 111.Receuil des Inscripied the manuscripts of Sinai, the topography and tions du Pont et de l'Armenie (with F. CUMONT and Greek Christian inscriptions of Asia Minor [8], J. ANDERSON),1910 ls) Les perles de la poesie slave (Lermontov, Pouchkine, Mickiewicz). TranByzantine ecclesiastical history [ 1 5] (especially scription en rimes fram,aises, 1918 [6) La nation the history of the Paulicians), the hagiographic armenienne, in: Le Flambeau 2., 1919, 381-411 texts of the Byzantine Period [2], and Modern [7] Les 'Bacchantes' d'Euripide. Traduction en vers Greek poetry and language. G.'s critical scrutiny fram,ais, in: Le Flambeau 4, 191.1, 313-349, 509of Constantine (12) and the emperor's "inven543 (8] Recueil des inscriptions grecques chretition" of his 'vision of Apollo' in AD 310 [ 10); ennes d'Asie Mineure, 191.2. (only fasc. I published) [ 13) was a powerful influence on classical schol[9) Euripide, Iphigenie en Tauride (edition and

GRENFELL, BERNARD PYNE trans.; with L. PARMENTIER), in: Euripide, Tragedies, Vol. 4, 1925, 112-170 1101 La 'conversion' de Constantin, in: Revue de l'Universite de Bruxelles 36, I 9 30-193 1, 231-2.72 I 11I Byzantinisches Epos und arabischer Ritterroman, in: Zs. der Deutschen Morgenliindischen Gesellschaft 88, 1934, 214-2.32. (with R. GoossENS) [1.21La vie de Constantin par Eusebe n'est pas authentique et Constantin ne s'est pas converti en 312, in: Ryzantion 13, 1938, 561583 [13) La vision de Constantin 'liquidee', in: Byzantion 14, 1939, 341-351 1141 Dans la montagne grecque. Septembre 1947-juillet 1948, 1948 (15) The Byzantine Church, in: N. H. BAYNES/ H. S. L. B. Moss (ed.), Byzantium: An Introduction to East Roman Civilisation, 1948, 93-143 (reiss. 1962) [ 16] Asklepios, Apollon Smintheus et Rudra. ~tude sur le dieu a la taupe et le dieu au rat clans la Grece et dans l'lnde, 19 50 (with R. GoossENS and M. MATHIEU) I 171 Euripide, Helene (edition and trans.; with L. MERIDIER and F. CHAPOUTHIER),in: Euripide, Tragedies, Vol. 5, 1950, 47-120 (18) Les persecutions dans l'Empire Romain (with P. 0RGELS,J. MOREAUand A. MARICQ), 1950 (•1964).

he studied with Thomas Hodge Grose, Edward Mewburn Walker and Albert Curtis Clark. 1892 degree in literae humaniores. After one year studying economics in 1893, awarded Craven travel scholarship to study the newly-discovered papyri. Many journeys to Egypt to participate in digs from 1893/94. From 1894, research fellowship at Queen's College, 1908 prof. of papyrology there, taking a chair specially created for the purpose, the first ever in the subject. Nervous breakdown 1909; work thereafter hampered by health problems. 1916 honorary prof., 1919 joint prof. at Oxford. 1921 relapse; stay at sanatorium in St. Andrews, thereafter, until his death, at the Murray Royal Hospital, Perth. Fellow of the British Academy from 1905. Corresponding member of the Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften and the Accademia dei Lincei, honorary doctorates from the Univs. of Dublin and Konigsberg and the faculty of law at Graz. CAREER,

WORKS

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INFLUENCE

G. 's father John Granville G. was a classicist SECONDARY LITERATURE and headmaster. G.'s wife Alice published on (19) H.-G. BECK,Henri Gregoire, 21. 3. 1881-28. Egyptian scarabs. G. was a pioneer of papyrol9. 1964, in: Jb. der Bayerischen Akad. der Wissenogy. He organized the first papyrus excavations, schaften 1965, 1966, 182.-184 120] C. DELVOYE, Notice sur Henri Gregoire, Membre de l'Acad., in: and with Arthur Surridge ► Hunt he developed Acad. Royale de Belgique. Annuaire 1990, 1990, the technique of editing and presentation, with 133-262 (with bibliography) 121I P. GoossENS, precise text transcript, translation and brief comHenri Gregoire par un temoin de sa vie scienti- mentary, that would characterize all future papyfique, in: Melanges Henri Gregoire, Vol. 1: Pan- rus editions. G. was closely involved in the great karpeia (Annuaire de l'institut de philologie et papyrus finds of the Faiyum and Oxyrhynchus. d'histoire orientates et slaves 9), 1949, VII-XXIX His outstanding achievement was his rapidly [22) C. HAMBURGER,L'reuvre de M. Henri Gre- prepared editions of literary, Biblical and docugoire, in: Byzantina kai Metabyzantina. A Journal mentary papyri from the Hellenistic, Roman and for Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies 1, 1946, 1-16 (23) M. MATHIEU,Bibliographie, in: Melan- Byzantine Periods. During his first stay in Egypt, in 1893/94, he ges Henri Gregoire, Vol. 2. (Annuaire de l'institut learned techniques of excavation from Flinders de philologie et d'histoire orientates et slaves I o), ► Petrie at Koptos (Qift). Petrie entrusted him 1950, V-LXVII (addenda in Vol. 11, 1951, VIIscroll of tax laws of IX; Vol. 12, 1952, V-VIII !total 575 entries]) with a recently-acquired [241 N. G. MAVRIS,La 'prehistoire' d'Henri Gre- Ptolemy II for editing I2 ). 1896 also saw the goire, in: Byzantina kai Metabyzantina. A Journal publication of the volume I 1) of literary and for Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies 1, 1946, documentary papyri. The two works are among IX-XIV (reiss. in: Le Flambeau 47, 1964, 2.93-303; the earliest papyrus editions, and they estabByzantion 35, 1965, V-XIV) 125) C. PR£Aux, lished G.'s reputation as an editor. In 1 897, Henri Gregoire, in: Acad. royale de Belgique. Bulletin de la classe des lettres et des sciences morales et 13] followed, the first to be prepared jointly politiques, 5e serie 50, 1964, 2.66-272. (commemo- with his only slightly younger colleague Hunt. rative address of 5. 10. 1964; reiss. in Le Flambeau Thereafter, almost all the publications of the so-called 'Oxford Dioscuri' were collaborative 47, 1964, 307-314) 1261J. STENGERS, Le role de la Commission d'Enquete de 1904-1905 au Congo, works. They spent the winters excavating papyri in: Melanges Henri Gregoire, Vol. 2 (Annuaire de in Egypt and the summers working up their finds l'institut de philologie et d'histoire orientates et at Queen's College. slaves 10), 1950, 701-726. Following G. 's first systematic excavation, supHEINRICHSCHLANGE·SCH6NINGEN ported by D. G. Hogarth, of various locations in the Faiyum (Karanis/Kom Aushim, Bacchias/Kom Grenfell, Bernard Pyne el-Atl) in the 1895/96, he began the campaigns at Oxyrhynchus in 1 896/97 with Hunt. Their sensaBritish papyrologist. Born Birmingham 16. tional finds led in 1 897 to the foundation of the 12. 1869, died Perth 18. 5. 1926. Scholarship Graeco-Roman Branch of the Egypt Exploration to Queen's College, Oxford from 1888, where Fund (later the Egypt Exploration Society), which

GRENFELL, BERNARD PYNE

sponsored excavations and editions. The search of the Faiyum continued from 1898/99 to 1902, particular success being achieved at Tebtynis [6); (8). Meanwhile, G. and Hunt were also editing papyri bought from Lord Amherst (7). In 1902, they went to EI-Hibeh [9 ], before returning to Oxyrhynchus in the winter of 1902'03. The campaigns up to 1906 brought enormous quantities of papyri to light, and these were published in quick succession in the Oxyrhynchus Papyri 1-16 (5). In 1907, health problems forced G. to abandon the Egyptian expeditions. Regardless, he continued to bear the main burden of editing the Oxyrhynchus Papyri during World War I, while Hunt was on military service. WRITINGS [1) An Alexandrian Erotic Fragment and Other Greek Papyri Chiefly Ptolemaic (= P.Grenf. I) (edition; with A. S. HUNT), 1896 [2.) The Revenue Laws of Ptolemy Philadelphus (edition), 1896 [3] New Classical Fragments and Other Greek and Latin Papyri(= P.Grenf. II) (edition; with A. S. HUNT), 1897 [4) Sayings of Our Lord from an Early Greek Papyrus (edition; with A. S. HuNT), 1897 [s) The Oxyrhynchus Papyri, vols. 1-6; 10-16 (edition; with A. S. HUNT), 1898-1924 [61 Fayum Towns and Their Papyri (= P.Fay) (edition; with A. S. HuNT and D. G. HOGARTH), 1900 (7) The Amherst Papyri, 2 vols. (= P.Amh. I and II) (edition; with A. S. HUNT), 1900-1901 [8) The Tebtunis Papyri (= P.Tebt. 1-11),vols. 1-2 (edition; with A. S. HUNT), 1902-1907 (9) The Hibeh Papyri (P.Hibeh), Vol. 1 (edition; with A. S. HUNT et al.), 1906. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

[10) H. I. BELL, Bernard Pyne Grenfell, in: Dictionary of National Biography, 1922-1930, 1937, 362 [11] A. S. HUNT, B. P. Grenfell 1869-1926, in: Proc. of the British Acad. 12, 1926, 357-364 [12) A. S. HuNT, B. P. Grenfell, in: Aegyptus 8, 1927, 114-116 [13) L. LEHNUS, Bernard Pyne

Grenier, Albert French archaeologist. Born Paris 22.. 4. 1878; died there 23. 6. 1961. Studied at the Ecole normale superieure (ENS) in Paris; 1902. Agregation (state teaching certificate). 1904-1907 member of the Ecole franfaise de Rome (EFR). From 1906, schoolteacher Constantine (Algeria), then teacher and (after 1912 habit.) from 1913 prof. ext. in Latin literature and national antiquities prof. at Univ. of at Univ. of Nancy. 1919-1932 Strasbourg; 1936-1948 prof. of national antiquities at College de France, Paris, while also ( 19 3 71948) director of studies at Ecole pratique des hautes etudes (EPHE), Paris. 194 5-19 5 2. director of EFR and the Algerian antiquities service. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

G. made his name primarily as the author of a handbook of Gallo-Roman archaeology (7). Yet, leaving aside a first study of Gaulish houses and Roman villas in Lorraine [ 1 ], he began his scholarly career with the Etruscans (3), especially in connection with his excavations at Bologna in 1905 [2] while working at the EFR. His main interest at first was in early Rome; French antiquities only attracted him later, while working at Nancy and Strasbourg. At the urging of Camille .. Jullian, G. agreed to succeed Joseph Dechelette by continuing the Manuel d'archeologie he had begun in 1908 into the Gallo-Roman Period. G., a philologist of archaic Latin (3] and historian of the Genie romain [5], thus embarked on this major archaeological enterprise with no training as a field archaeologist. His election to the College de France in 1936 made G. the patron of national archaeology, and when Commission XV of the Centre national de la recherche scientifique was founded in 1942., Jerome -+ Carcopino made him its secretary. G. organized the archaeological districts, and in 1943 founded the periodical Gallia to publish the by now obligatory excavation reports. After liberation from the German occupation, this organizational structure and the legal ban on unauthorized excavations were reaffirmed. Ever since his eulogy to the regional learned societies in 1931, G. always emphasized the importance of institutions. His work for the Manuel [7] displayed his facility for comprehensive summary and his detailed knowledge of the archaeological finds on French soil (cf. his Notes in the Revue

Grenfell e Arthur Surridge Hunt, in: M. CAPASSO (ed.), Hermae. Scholars and Scholarship in Papyrology, 2007, 115-141 [14) J. G. MILNE, Bernard Pyne Grenfell, in: Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 12, 1926, 285-286 (15) D. MONTSERRAT,'No Papyrus and No Portraits'. Hogarth, Grenfell and the First Season in the Fa yum, 189 5-6, in: Bulletin of the American Society of Papyrologists 33, 1996, (16) D. MONTSERRAT,News Reports. 133-176 The Excavations and Their Journalistic Coverage, in: A. K. BOWMANet al. (ed.), Oxyrhynchus. A City and Its Texts, 2.007, 28-39 (17) R. PINTAUDI, Grenfell - Hunt e la papirologia in Italia, in: Quademi di storia 75, 2012, 2.05-298 (18) U. WILCKEN, des Etudes Anciennes, 1932.-1945). Bernard P. Grenfell, in: Gnomon 2, 192.6, 557-560. "History comes from topography," BERNHARDPALME

he declared in his accession speech at the College de France. In the still-useful Manuel too, he emphasized the methods of archaeology and showed himself to be open to new techniques, such as the evaluation

GRIMAL, PIERRE

of aerial photographs. Without doubt, the robustness of his work was also a product of his pragmatism, which helped assure its enduring value.

cultural studies here for over thirty years from 1952.

G., who was conversant with many areas of classical philology and cultural history, left an unusually diverse body of work. He was notable WRITINGS for many studies on Roman authors in which he (1) Habitations gauloises et villes latines dans la paid attention to the historical and cultural concite des Mediomatrices, 1906 [2] Bologne villanotext (e.g. Tacitus (16); (26), Virgil [23), Horace vienne et etrusque (VIII•-IV• s. av. notre ere; diss. I8 ), Cicero [24] and Petronius I 19 ); particular Paris), 191:z. [3] Etude sur la formation et l'emploi focus on Seneca [6); I21 ); (28)), but also for his des composes nominaux dans le Latin archa·ique, work on Greek literature (e.g. Chariton, Lucian, 1912. [4] Les Gaulois, 192.3 [sl Le genie romain Philostratus). G.'s particular achievement lay clans la religion, la pensee et l'art, 192.5 (English: in introducing ancient and especially Roman The Roman Spirit in Religion, Thought, and Art, trans. M. R. DOBIE, 192.6) (6) Quatre villes culture to a wider audience. Thus, besides his works for specialists, he also wrote popular (in romaines de Rhenanie. Treves - Mayence - Bonn Cologne (Etudes d'archeologie rhenane), 192.5 the best sense) textbooks for an interested lay [7] Manuel d'archeologie prehistorique, celtique et readership (e.g. [2]; (4]; (10); (11]), and, after gallo-romaine, 4 vols. (Archeologie gallo-romaine his retirement, even a number of historical novels 5-8), 1931-1960 (et al.) (81 Camille Jullian. Un (e.g. [291). Almost all his books enjoyed several demi-siecle de science historique et de progres franeditions and many were translated. ~ais, 1880-1930, 1944 19) Les religions etrusques Another focus of G. 's output was on culet romaines, 1948. tural history not confined to Rome. His book on Pompeii is a standard work [30]. As well as SECONDARY LITERATURE publications on Roman history, e.g. the age of [10] P. CHANTRAINE, Eloge funebre de M. Albert Grenier, in: CRAI 105/2., 1961, 2.12.-2.15 Augustus [ 1 5] and that of the Scipiones [3 ), G. also considered themes of Roman everyday life, [11] Grenier, Albert, in: DBA 842.-843 (12.I P.-M. such as architecture I5) and garden architecture DUVAL, Albert Grenier, in: Gallia 2.0, 1962., 1-3 (13) A. MERLIN, Notice sur la vie et les travaux de 141, mythology and religion [1); [2.2.]and theatre M. A. Grenier, in: Recueil de l'Institut de France, [ 2.0 ), to name a few. His masterpiece is consid1962., 381-390. ered to be his Roman cultural history (10]. He PIERREPINON turned to the reception of antiquity in his collection of texts on Erasmus of Rotterdam (9 ]. Grima), Pierre He was also active as a publisher of volumes on the ancient Mediterranean as part of the FischerFrench classical philologist. Born Paris 21. Weltgeschichte I 12.]. Besides classical studies, he r r. 1912, died there 1 r. 10. 1996. 19 33-19 35 worked to preserve and nurture the French lanstudied at the Ecole normale superieure, graduguage as a member of the Comite d'honneur de ating with teaching degree in classical languages /'Association pour la sauvegarde et /'expansion (agregation); 1935-1937 member of the Ecole de la langue franfaise (ASSELAF). Latin teacher franf(lise de Rome; 1937-1941 LW: Titres et travaux de Pierre Grimal, 1973. at Lycee de Rennes. 1941-1945 prof. of Latin prof. of philology at Univ. of Caen; 1946-1952 WRITINGS Latin philology at Univ. of Bordeaux; from 1952 (1) (ed.), Dictionnaire de la mythologie grecque prof. of Latin philology and Roman culture at et romaine, 19 51 (et al.; English: The Dictionary of Classical Mythology, trans. A. R. MAXWELLthe Sorbonne, Paris. 1964 chevalier de la Legion HYSLOP, 1996 et al.) [2.) La vie a Rome dans d'honneur; from r 97 5 member of the Academie

des inscriptions et belles-lettres. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

After graduating in classical languages, G. at first worked as a Latin teacher at Renner, before taking his first professorship at a French univ. in 1941. In 19 3 5 he went to Rome and the Ecole franfaise; its director from 1 9 3 7 was the French historian Jerome -+ Carcopino, whose biography G. published in 1981. After working at the Univs. of Caen and Bordeaux, G. was invited to the prestigious Sorbonne, where, following Carcopino, the French philologist Jean Bayet also worked. G. taught Latin and Roman

l'Antiquite, 1953 [3] Le siecle des Scipions, 1953 (4) L'art des jardins, 1954 (as from 2.nd, expanded ed.: Les jardins romains) Is] Les villes romaines, 1954 [6) Seneque, sa vie, son reuvre, avec un expose de sa philosophie, 1957 (7) (ed.), Dictionnaire des biographies, 2. vols., 1958 [8) Horace, 1958 (et al.) [9] (ed.), Erasme. Collections de textes latins commentes, 1959 (10] La civilisation romaine, 1960 ('2.007; English: The Civilization of Rome, trans. W. S. MAGUINNESS,1963) [II] L'amour a Rome, 1963 (English: Love in Ancient Rome, trans. A. TRAIN JR., 1986) [12) (ed.), Fischer Weltgeschichte, vols. 6-7: Die Mittelmeerwelt im Altertum, 1965-1991 [13] (ed.), Histoire mondiale de la femme, 4 vols., 1965 (et al.) [14) La litterature latine, 1965 [15) Le siecle

GRIMAL, PIERRE d'Auguste, 1965 (161 Tacite et le destin de !'Empire, 1966 [17) Essai sur l'art d'Horace, 1968 [18) Memoires de T. Pomponius Atticus, 1976 [19] La guerre civile de Petrone dans ses rapports avec la Pharsale, 1977 [20] Le theatre antique, 1978 (2.1) Seneque, ou la conscience de l'Empire, 1978 [22] La mythologie greque, 1983 (et al.) [23) Virgile ou la seconde naissance de Rome, 1985 [24] Ciceron, 1986 (et al.) (25] Etudes de linguistique generale et de linguistique latine, 1987 [26] Tacite, 1990 [27] Marc Aurele, 1991 [28) Seneque et la prose latine, 1991 [29) Les memoires d'Agrippine, 1992. [30) Pompei, demeu1992. [31] Le res secretes (with E. KossAKOWSKI), proces de Neron, 1995.

250

a view his violent disputes with figures such as Raffaele • Fabretti, Jacob Perizonius, Johannes Clericus and Lorenz ► Beger tend to support (7. 2.02. f.l; [12.J; (10. 986-989]. WORKS,

GENERAL

Besides philological wntmgs (7. 2.01 f.], G. published important antiquarian works. In his Latin translation of the Gemme antiche figurate of Leonardo • Agostini [1], the gems are arranged in an order slightly altered from the Italian original, although G. used the engravings from it. The order is based on the antiquarian concept that goes back to Varro, who divided ancient Roman culture into antiquitates publiSECONDARY LITERATURE cae, privatae, sacrae et militares ("public, private, [32) J. LECLANT, Pierre Grimal, in: J. LECLANT (ed.), sacred and military antiquities"). This concept Le second sieclede l'Institut de France, 1895-1995. was revived by Flavio . • Biondo in his Roma Recueil biographique et bibliographique, 1999, Grima(, Pierre, in: triumphans (1459), which examined Roman cul602.-603 (33] J.-M. PA!LLER, C. AMALVI(ed.), Dictionnaire biographique des ture from its gods and cults to public institutions historiens fram,ais et francophones, 2.004, 136 and the army before turning to Roman private Allocution a l'occasion du deces de life and the triumph [II. 2.89 ]. The gemstones [34) P. TOUBERT, M. PierreGrimal,in: CRAI 140/4, 1996, 1089-1091. are arranged under the headings of gods and ANTONIA WENZEL heroes, famous men, priests and Eastern kings, etc. [8. 45]. The edition was reprinted in 1694 Gronovius, Jacobus and 1699 to meet public demand. 1609 saw the publication in Antwerp of Gronow, Jacob; Dutch historian, gemmolothe first work entirely devoted to gemstones, gist and antiquarian. Son of the philologist Abraham Gorlaeus' presentation of his own colJohann Friedrich --+ Gronovius. Born Deventer lection. The new edition prepared by G. and 10. 10. 1645, died Leiden 2.1. 10. 1716. 1658 published in 1695 \2.) has new engravings to studied philology and law at Leiden, 1668 studillustrate the first part, with explanatory texts ies at Oxford and Cambridge. 1670 refused an to each illustration written by G. In the second appointment at Deventer. From 1672. prof. of part, G. greatly expanded the number of gems Greek at the Univ. of Pisa; from 1679 prof. of [3 ), and gave explanations of all illustrations, Greek and history at the Univ. of Leiden. From citing ancient authors and contemporary anti1702. geographer at the Academy in Leiden. quarian literature and comparing the gemstone Refused invitations to Kiel and Padua. images with those on ancient coins. G. thereby accomplished the task Gorlaeus had set himself CAREER when publishing his gemstone collection, but to During his time in England, G. made the which he had found himself unequal: to create a acquaintance of Edward Pococke, John Pearson scholarly work [ 14. 7 ]. Another edition appeared and Meric Casaubon, friends of his father's. in 1707, with some Roman rings added to the In 1671 he travelled on to Paris, where he first part. met the Orientalist Barthelemy d'Herbelot de Molainville, the natural historian and philologist THESAURUS GRAECARUM ANTIQUITATUM Mekhisedech Thevenot, the philologist Henri Between 1697 and 1702., there appeared the Valois (Valesius) and the author Jean Chapelain. Thesaurus Graecarum antiqtwelve-volume He then went on to visit Spain and Tuscany. uitatum, published by G. It was intended as At the behest of the Grand Duke of Tuscany, a complement to the likewise twelve-volume Cosimo III de' Medici, he was made prof. of Thesaurus antiquitatum Romanarum by Johann Greek at Pisa in 1674. Two years later, he went Georg • Graevius. It contains some 300 treato Venice and Padua, before returning to Leiden tises on ancient history, geography and literain 1676. In 1 679, he took his father's professorture, and on public and private monuments. ship at Leiden. In 1702., he was also appointed Numismatic and archaeological treatises are also geographer at the academy there. There were included (6). four children from his marriage to Anna van The first three volumes, written by G., conVredenbusch, including the jurist and botanist tain, as the title suggests, a Greek iconography Johan Frederik and the philologist Abraham. G. (4]. The first volume ranges from the creation of was regarded as hot-tempered and belligerent,

GRONOVIUS, JOHANNES FREDERICUS

251

mankind by Prometheus, and the early heroes, to the mythical figures of the post-Trojan period. The second is devoted to images of famous Greek men (viri illustres) from the earliest times to the Hellenistic Period, and the third volume deals with leading figures of the Roman Republic. G.'s iconographic composition here connects the idealized world of the Greek heroes with a history of portraiture, which Lorenz • Beger harshly criticized ( 12.. 142.-14 7 j. The long title of the fourth volume 151 gives the themes of the ensuing folios. Volume 4 deals with the geography of Greece and the general principles of the polis constitutions, Volume 5 covers Athens and Sparta, including their respective spheres of influence. Public traditions and coinage are the preserve of Volume 6. The seventh folio is devoted to Greek religion and cult. It also includes Oriental cults, but not those of ancient Egypt. The eighth volume deals with theatre, tragedy and comedy, music and wedding rituals. The ninth covers festivals in the public calendar year, insignia and jewellery, dining customs and baths, vessels and especially the arts. Volume 10 brings together essays on philosophy, rhetoric, poetry and science, and also contains special studies in religion. The eleventh volume is mainly concerned with military subjects: the army, cavalry and horse-rearing, the navy and shipping. Volume 12 deals with funerary monuments and customs. The organization of the Thesaurus is based on Varro (see above). Because of this wide focus on cultural history as a whole, the antiquarian studies of the Thesaurus seldom consider individual objects. There are almost no treatises on statuary sculpture, reliefs or architecture, because the real rediscovery of Greece, and hence of its architectural monuments, still lay in the future (13. 30-341, INFLUENCE

G.' accomplishment in the Thesaurus was to show that Greek antiquities were just as important as the Roman, even though Greece really had yet to be rediscovered. The ambitious project of reissuing hundreds of classical studies treatises of the 16th and 17th cents. in a single, monumental compilation was wholly justified in that many of the older authors had only sporadically been superseded by their successors and their works remained seminal (9. 3001. Moreover, it plainly served a need: both the Thesaurus of Johann Georg -• Graevius and that of G. were reprinted (the title slightly altered to Thesaurus antiquitatum Graecarum) at Venice, firstly by Bartholomaeus Javarina, then Giovanni Battista Pasquali (1732-1737). There were also four new volumes of supplements ( Utriusque the-

sauri antiquitatum

Romanarum

Graecarumque

nova supp/ementa), also published in Venice by Giovanni Poleni from 1737 to 1757. WRITINGS

[ 1I Gemmae et sculpturae antiquae depictae ah Leonardo Augustino Senensi addita earum enarratione (Latin trans. and intro.), Amsterdam 1685 (et al.) [.1I Abrahami Gorlaei Antverpiani Dactyliothecae, seu annulorum sigillarium ... pars prima, cum explicationihus Jacobi Gronovii, Leiden 1695 (•1707) 131 Ahrahami Gorlaei Antverpiani Dactyliothecae. Pars secunda, seu variarum gemmarum ... cum succincta singularum explicatione Jacobi Gronovii, Leiden 1695 (•1707) 141(ed.), Thesaurus Graecarum antiquitatum, in quo continentur effigies virorum ac foeminarum illustrium ... , adjecta brevi descriptione singulorum ... , vols. 1-3, Leiden 1697-1698 Is) Thesaurus Graecarum antiquitatum, continens libros erudite & operose per varias aetates scriptos ... vols. 4-11.h, Leiden r 699-170.1. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

(61 M. DALYDAVIS,Thesaurus Antiquitatum Romanarum Graecarumque. Autoren- und Sachregister der 'Thesauren- Corpora' (Venice 1732.-1737), in: fONTES 4, 2.007 (online, Univ.-Bibl. Heidelberg) 171J. A. ECKSTEIN, Gronovius, Johann Friedrich, in: J. S. ERSCH/ J. G. GRUBER(ed.), Allgemeine Enzyklopadie der Wissenschaften und Kunste, Erste Section, 92.. Theil, 1872.,2.00-2.03 181V. HEENES, Antike in Bildern. lllustrationen in antiquarischen Werken des 1 6. und 1 7. Jh.s (diss. Berlin), 2.003 l9I HERKI.OTZCas. 300 (10) P. C. MoLHUYSEN et al. (ed.), Nieuw nederlandsch biografisch woordenboek, 1974 [ 11] A. MoMIGUANO,Ancient History and the Antiquarian, in: Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 13, 1950, 2.85-3 15 I 1.1] H.-D. SCHULTZ,Ad oraculum decurrendum est. Lorenz Begers Rezeption von Jacob Gronovius' Griechischen Ikongraphie, in: H. WREDE/ M. KUNZE(ed.), 300 Jahre 'Thesaurus Brandenburgicus', 2.006, 135-152. (13I H. WREDE,Die 'Monumentalisierung' der Antike um 1700, 2.004 I 141 P. ZAZOFF,Die antiken Gemmen (Hdb. der Archaologie, Vol. 6), 1983. VOLKER HEENES Gronovius, Johannes Fredericus Gronow, Johann Friedrich; German-Dutch jurist and classical philologist. Born Hamburg 5. 1 1. 16 II, died Leiden 20. 12.. 1671; father of Jacobus • Gronovius. 1631-1633 studied law and Humanist studies at Altdorf; 1633-1639 private teacher in Netherlands. Legal doctorate at Angers 1640. From 1641, prof. at Athenaeum illustre in Deventer; from 165 8 prof. of Greek and history and from 1665 librarian at Univ. of Leiden; rector several times.

GRONOVIUS,

CAREER,

JOHANNES

WORKS

AND

FREDERICUS

INFLUENCE

2.52. rum pecuniae veteris libri IV, Deventer 1656 (other

(3) Decentesieds. Amsterdam 1656, Leiden 1691) After attending school at Bremen and mis usuris et foenore unciario. Antexegesis adversum Hamburg, G. studied law and ancient literature theologistorico-philosophologum. Accessit manat Altdorf (near Nuremberg), taught by Wilhelm tissa pecuniae veteris, Leiden 1661 (4) L. Annaei Ludwell, Georgius Noesler, Georg Rittershausen Senecae tragoediae (edition), Amsterdam 1662. and Michael Virdung. Having met Hugo (et al.) Is) M. Acc. Plauti comoediae (edition), ➔ Grotius in Hamburg in 1633, G. travelled to Leiden 1664 (et al.) [6] C. Plinii Secundi Natuthe Netherlands and was a private teacher in ralis historia, 3 vols. (edition), Leiden/Rotterdam Leiden, Groningen, The Hague and Amsterdam. 1668-1669 (et al.) [7] C. Cornelii Taciti opera quae exstant (edition), Amsterdam 1672. (et al.). In this period, he made the acquaintance of leading classical scholars of the day, including SECONDARY LITERATURE Isaac -. Vossius, Petrus Scriverius, Claudius (8) J. W. BtERMA,Gronovius, Johannes Fredericus, -. SalmasiusandNicolaus ➔ Heinsius. From 1639, 1, in: Nieuw Nederlands Biografisch Woordenboek he visited all the important libraries of England, 1911,989-992. [9) S. E.W. BuGTER,J, F. Gronovius France and Italy - except for the Bodleian at en de Annales van Tacitus, 1980 (10] P. D1BON Oxford, to which he was denied access. While in et al., lnventaire de la correspondance de JohanFrance, he was awarded a doctorate of law at the nes Fredericus Gronovius, 1631-1671, 1974 Univ. of Angers, on 2.8. 2.. 1640. In Florence, G. I II I P. D1soN / F. W AQUET, Johannes Fredericus met the aged Galileo Galilei. Shortly thereafter, Gronovius, pelerin de la Republique des lettres. in 1641, he returned to the Netherlands, where Recherches sur le voyage savant au XVII• siecle, 1984 he took a position at the Athenaeurn illustre of ( u) L. MOLLER, Geschichte der Klassischen Philo( 13) SANDYS logie in den Niederlanden, 1869,41-44 Deventer, succeeding Marten Schoock as prof. of Hist., Vol. 2., 319-32.0. ancient literature, rhetoric and history. JAN PAPY During his years at Deventer, G. was able to publish the materials he had collected on his travels. After his new version of the philologi- Grote, George cal Observationes (Deventer, 1652.), based on an British historian. Born Clay Hill near earlier edition [1 ], and several editions of Latin Beckenham (Kent), 17. 11. 1794, the grandson authors (Livy, Seneca, Gellius, Statius), he published his only monograph, a study on ancient of Andreas G., an emigre merchant and banker numismatics [2.]. Salmasius accused him of pla- from Bremen, died London 18. 6. 1871. School at Charterhouse; worked in his father's bank giarism; Schoock too was critical. G. responded from 1810; self-taught historian. Influenced by to these attacks with [3]. Having declined several posts at other univs., James Mill and Jeremy Bentham, G. was politiG. in 1658 accepted the chair of history at Leiden cally active, writing as a utilitarian liberal [ 1 ]; [2.]; Member of Parliament for the City of London formerly held by Daniel ➔ Heinsius and Marcus from 1833. Retired from politics 1841, and from Boxhorn. In 1665, on the death of Anthonius Thysius, he also became univ. librarian. During the bank in 1843; thereafter a private scholar. this phase of his life, G. published an impressive Honorary doctorates from Oxford in 18 5 3 and tally of editions, among which those of Seneca's Cambridge in 1861. Vice-Chancellor of the Univ. tragedies [4], Plautus [5], Pliny's Natura/is his- of London from 1862. until his death. President toria [6] and Tacitus [7]; [9] - all including of University College, London from 1 868. excerpted or complete commentaries by earlier WORKS philologists (cum notis variorum) - long served Working against the prevailing anti-Athenian as standard editions. current in British classical studies at the time, G. G. was regarded as one of the leading philologists of his time. A range of great intellectu- reflected his political convictions by emphasizing als and scholars, including Nicolaus -+ Heinsius, the value of the democratic traditions of Athens. sought personal contact or correspondence with His history of Greece [3 ], published in twelve him. Students from all over Europe came to volumes from 1846 to 1856, was soon translated attend his courses at Deventer and Leiden. His into German, French and Italian, and it was editions of Latin texts - his only Greek edition widely read. It remains in print in abridged and was of Hesychius ( 1668) - are products of out- edited versions. In 186 5, G. published a three-volume study of Plato and his age [4], which earned standing linguistic brilliance, but also of broad cultural knowledge and a mind both acute and him recognition across Europe as the "greatest nineteenth-century Plato scholar" [13. 420]. The well-versed in textual criticism. work pays attention to German scholarship as it does to the British philosophical discourse on WRITINGS empiricism and idealism in metaphysics, and on (1) Observationum libri III, Leiden 1639 (reiss. Amsterdam, 1662.) (2.) De sestertiis seu subsecivoutilitarianism in politics. A work on Aristotle

GROTEFEND, GEORG FRIEDRICH

followed; humously

it remained unfinished and was postpublished in two volumes ( 5 (.

debates in classical studies and new finds of antiquities connected with writing and scripts made in Central and Southern Europe and the Near WRITINGS East. As a founder-member of the Frankfurter [ 1] A Statement on the Question of Parliamentary Gelehrten-Verein fur Deutsche Sprache, G. made 182.1 (2) Essentials of Parliamentary Reform, the acquaintance of • Goethe, Jacob Grimm, Reform, 18 3 1 [3] History of Greece, 12. vols., Alexander von Humboldt and others. His interest 1846-1856 (4] Plato and the Other Companions in ancient history led him to join the Gesellschaft of Sokrates, 3 vols., 1865 [5] Aristotle, 2. vols., fur altere deutsche Geschichtskunde, where he 1872 (6] The Minor Works of George Grote, ed. encouraged the establishment of the Monumenta A. BAIN, 1873. Germaniae historica. In I 802, G. started work on the cuneiform SECONDARY LITERATURE inscriptions from Persepolis recently made avail(7) W. M. CALDERIll/ S. TRZASKOMA,George Grote able in autographs; he deduced approximately a Reconsidered, 1996 (8) M. L. Ct.ARKE, George Grote: A Biography, 1962. [9) K. N. DEMETRIOU, third of the characters of Old Persian cuneiform. [ 10) K. N. DEME- His results were only officially published in 180 5 Grote, George, in: DBC, 399-403 TRIOU (ed.), Classics in the Nineteenth Cen(2), and word of these first successes seems to tury: Responses to George Grote, 4 vols., 2.004 have spread only slowly. On several occasions (11) H. GROTE, The Personal Life of George over the years that followed, G. gave his views (12] A. MOMIGLIANO,George Grote Grote, 1873 on problems of decipherment not only of Old and the Study of Greek History, 1952. (reiss. in: Persian, but of other variants of cuneiform [ 1 o ]. Studies on Modern Scholarship, 1994, 15-31 However, these works and others on Assyrian (13] M. SCHOFIELD,Plato, in: E. CRAIG(ed.), Routand Babylonian antiquities f 1 5] enjoyed little ledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Vol. 7, 1998, influence. G. was keenly involved in linguistic 399-421. KAI BRODERSEN discussions on Italic-language antiquities [5]; (7) and Italic history [7). A Latin grammar, its fourth impression published in 182 3/24, attests Grotefend, Georg Friedrich to G.'s pedagogical commitment [4]. German classical philologist and linguist. Born WRITINGS Hannoversch-Miinden 9. 6. 1775, died Hannover [ 1] Commentatio de pasigraphia sive scriptura 1 5. 12.. 1 8 53. Studied theology and classical universali. FS C. G. Heyne, 1799 (2) Ober die philology at Gottingen from 179 5; 1797-1 802 Erklarung der Keilschriften, besonders der Inschrifsubstitute teacher at Gottingen Gymnasium; 1 803ten zu Persepolis, in: A. H. L. HEEREN,Ideen i.iber 182 I schoolteacher and prorector at Stadtisches die Politik, den Verkehr und den Handel der vorFrankfurt. 1812-1814 prof. at Gymnasium nehmsten Volker der alten Welt, Part 1: Asiatische Lyceum Carolinum, Landesuniversitat Frankfurt. Volker; Sect. 1: Einleitung. Perser, 1805, 931-959 1821-1849 director of Hannover Lyzeum. (3) Anfangsgri.inde der deutschen Prosodic, 1815 [4) Lateinische Grammatik, WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

G. was a pioneer of historical study of the ancient Near East. His great achievement was to develop a systematic approach to deciphering Old Persian cuneiform, which enabled him to become the first substantially to decipher any form of cuneiform script [nl; [13); (18]; [17]; [19). The main focus both of his academic training and his professional work lay in theology and classical antiquity, but he was interested in new source material and hitherto unknown writings and languages. At Gottingen, G. attended lectures by, among others, the historian Arnold H. L. Heeren, the ancient philologist Christian Gottlob -• Heyne and the theologian and Orientalist Thomas Christian Tychsen. A particular interest in writing soon emerged in an early work on a universal script' [I). Alongside his academic training, G. worked as a teacher in Gottingen, Frankfurt and Hannover. Although he had not embarked on an academic career, he took a keen interest in

:z. vols., •182.3-182.4

Is) Rudimenta Linguae Umbricae, 8 vols., 18351839 [6) Ober die Erklarung der Keilschriften, und besonders der lnschriften von Persepolis. Neue Beitrage zur Erlauterung der persepolitanischen Keilschrift, 1837 [7] Rudimenta Linguae Oscae, 1839 (8) Neue Beitrage zur Erliiuterung der babylonischen Keilschrift, 1840 (9) Zur Geographic und Geschichte von Altitalien, 1840-1842. (10) Praevia de cuneatis quas vocant inscriptionibus Persepolitanis legendis et explicandis relatio (Nachrichten der Koniglichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften und der Georg-Augusts-Univ. zu Gottingen), 1893 (orig. 1802; facsimile in R. BORGER et al. 197 5; unaltered reprographic reiss. 197:z.). SECONDARY

LITERATURE

(11] R. BORGER,Grotefend, in: RLA 3, 1971, 655 [ 12) R. BORGERet al. (ed.), Die Welt des Alten

Orients. Keilschrift - Grabungen - Gelehrte. Zurn 2.00. Geburtstag Georg Friedrich Grotefends, 1975 ( 1 1975) [13) R. BORGER, Die Entzifferungsgeschichte der altpersischen Keilschrift nach Grotefends ersten Erfolgen, in: Persica 7 (1975-1978), 1978, 7-19 I14) D. 0. EozARD, Grotefend,

GROTEFEND,

GEORG

FRIEDRICH

Georg Friedrich, in: NDB 7, 1966, 164-165 those it influenced were Pierre Corneille and Nachlass [15) J. FLEMMING, Der literarische Latin John Milton. G. also wrote sophisticated Grotefend's, in: Beitrage zur Assyriologie und odes and other poems. A first anthology was semitischen Sprachwissenschaft 1, 1890, 80-9 3 published as early as 1617 (3). [161 C. FosSEY, Manuel d'assyriologie, Vol. 1, As a historian (from 1601, he was provincial 1904, 102-117 [17) H. GROTEFEND, Grotehistorian at the States of Holland), G. wrote a fend, Georg Friedrich, in: ADB 9, 1879, 76 3-76 5 treatise on the Dutch struggle for liberation [ 7 ]; (18) S. A. PALLIS, The Antiquity of Iraq, 1956, its title and Latin style recall T acitus. It was (19) R. WERNER, Zurn zweihundertsten 99-103 completed in 1612., and further revised later, Geburtstag von Georg Friedrich Grotefend, in: Persica 7 (1975-1978), 1978, 21-24. but first publication came only in I 6 5 7, after EVACANCIK-KIRSCHBAUM G.' death. G.' hopes from this work, however,.

Grotius, Hugo Dutch teacher of constitutional law, polymath and statesman. Born Delft 10. 4. 1583, died after a shipwreck in the Baltic Sea at Rostock, 28. 8. 1645. Studied as an 11-year-old at Univ. of Leiden; 1607 advocaat-fiscaal to the States of Holland. Syndic of the city of Rotterdam 1613. Follower of the Dutch statesman Johan van Oldenbarnevelt, who was executed in the course of the so-called Remonstrant Dispute of 1619; arrested that same year and sentenced to life imprisonment. Escaped 1621, with his wife's help, hidden in a crate of books. Thereafter in France, mostly working as a writer. Working for Sweden from 1632; from 1635 ambassador to France of the Swedish Queen Christina, with an important role in negotiations surrounding the Thirty Years' War. Released as ambassador 1645. CAREER

AND

WORKS

Aged just 16, G. published an edition of De nuptiis Mercurii et Philologiae by Martianus Capella [1]. His father owned a manuscript of the work, from which he prepared a new printed edition. His philological contribution here was the extremely comprehensive but very generalized commentary published as an addendum under the title Februa ('purificatory offering'). Shortly thereafter, G. edited Aratus' Phainomena with its Latin translation, in which he himself completed Cicero's version, which survives only in fragments [2]. He made other translations, e.g. of substantial excerpts from Greek plays (including fragments of lost works) (6) and the poetic quotations in the excerpts of Stobaeus (4). He also wrote commentary notes on the works of Tacitus [16] and Lucan [20]. Perhaps G.' most brilliant achievement was his translation of all 2,400 epigrams of the Anthologia Planudea into Latin. However, it was only published (alongside the original Greek text) from 1795 [9]. Of his three Latin Biblical plays Adam exu/ (1601), Christus patiens (1608) and Sophompaneas (on the story of Joseph in Egypt, 16 3 5 ), the second in particular was read widely across Europe in the 17th cent. Among

were high. On his deathbed in Rostock, he is said to have expressed the hope that it would earn him immortality. G. also wrote a study De antiquitate republicae Batavicae ( 1610) [II], and many theological works. It was through his writings on constitutional law that G. attained world renown that endures to this day. His Mare /iberum (1609) [12.), a partial publication of the study that would first be published in full in the 19th cent. as, De iure praedae, became one of the pillars of modern maritime law. But G.' magnum opus is De iure be/Ii ac pacis (162.5) (5], greatly influential even today. It made G., alongside especially Francisco de Vitoria, Francisco Suarez, Samuel von Pufendorf and Christian Wolf, one of the most important founders of modern international law. Familiarity with this work remains a sine quJ non for theoreticians of international law to this day. Even in G.' lifetime, four editions were published, each of which he revised anew. These have been followed by around 40 more editions to date of the Latin text. De jure be/Ii ac pacis was already translated into Dutch, English and French in the 17th cent., and a German translation followed in 1707. These translations too appeared in numerous editions. Immediately upon its publication, the Catholic Church placed the work on the Index of forbidden books. Only in 1899, when the Vatican was barred from the first Peace Conference at the Hague for this reason, was the ban lifted. In its overall approach. De ;ure be/Ii ac pacis demonstrates the authority still held by antiquity in the 17th cent.: G. supports his arguments almost entirely with reference to the Bible and ancient Greek and Latin literature. INFLUENCE

G., though in his day one of the most profound connoisseurs of ancient literature, was unlike contemporaries like Daniel -• Heinsius or Janus .. Gruter - not a classicist in the strict sense. After his youthful de but work of 1599, he contributed little in the way of work on the manuscript record. His philological achievements consist of masterly and, as far as poetry is concerned, virtuosic translations, and brilliantly perceptive observations on the ancient texts, all

GRUBEN, GOTTFRIED based on a very precise reading I 161. In this conceptual interest in the ancient authors, concerned primarily with the present rather than history, he is comparable rather with politically-minded ► Freinsheim or even his scholars like Johannes ► Bernegger. What marks him coeval Matthias out from the latter, however, is his brilliant mastery of ancient poetry and his great interest in theological matters. LW: [17). WRITINGS

(1) Martiani Minei Felicis Capellae Carthaginiensis

Gruben, Gottfried German classical archaeologist and architectural historian. Born Genoa 21. 6. 1929, died Bad Aibling (Upper Bavaria) 24. 11. 2003. 19491951 studied at Frankfurt, then 1951-1956 in Munich; doctorate Munich 1960. 1958-1966 consultant at DAI Athens. 1966-1994 prof. ord. in architectural history at Technische Hochschulel Universitat Munich. CAREER,

WORKS

AND

INFLUENCE

G. studied classical archaeology with Guido viri proconsularis Satyricon (edition), Antwerpen ► Kaschnitz von Weinberg and philosophy 1599 [2) Syntagma Arateorum. Opus poeticae with Hans-Georg Gadamer at Frankfurt, and et astronomiae studiosis utilissimum, Antwerpen they shaped his fundamental view of the impor1600 (3) Poemata collecta, ed. W. GROTE,Leiden tance of antiquity. He studied architecture at 1617 (4) Dicta poetarum quae apud Jo. Stohaeum exstant, Paris 162.3 IsI De jure belli ac pacis libri the Technische Hochschule in Munich, includtres, Paris 162.5 (English: Hugo Grotius on the ing architectural history with Friedrich Krauss. Law of War and Peace, trans. S. C. NEFF, 2.012.) As consultant on architectural research at the DAI in Athens, his tasks included working on (6) Excerpta ex tragoediis et comoediis Graecis tum quae exstant tum quae perierunt, Paris 162.6 the Dipylon in the Kerameikos excavation. His (7] Annales et Historiae de rebus Belgicis, Amster· accession lecture at Munich, on research into dam 1657 IS] Opera omnia theologica, 3 vols., the Archaic Temple of Apollo at Didyma 131, Amsterdam 1679 (reiss. 1972.) 191 Anthologia was already impressive for the exactness of the Graeca (with Latin trans.), 5 vols., ed. H. DE survey, the gift for spatial imagination and the BoscH, 1795-182.2. (10[ Opera theologica, Vol. 1, ed. E. RABBIE, 1990 [ 11 I The Antiquity of the capacity for clarifying historical contexts: G. was Batavian Republic, ed. and trans. J. WASZINK,2.000 accordingly appointed prof. ord. in architectural history in 1966. From Munich, even after his [12) Mare Liberum 1609-2.009 (Latin/English), ed. retirement ( 1994), he continued to conduct funR. FEENSTRA,2.009. damental research on Greek Cycladic architecture l4I; lslSECONDARY LITERATURE (131 Grotiana. A Journal under the Auspices of the G.'s specialist subject was Greek sacred archiFoundation Grotiana, 1980 (ff.) [ 14[ The World tecture, from his dissertation ( 1 I to numerous of Hugo Grotius. Proc. of the International Collo- essays [3]; (41; 151to his standard reference work quium (Rotterdam 1983), 1984 [15) H. W. BLOM/ 12). Bur his output of essays also included articles L. C. WINKEL (ed.), Grotius and the Stoa, 2.004 on current issues such as restaurants and tourism [161 C. DAMON, 'Tritus in eo lector'. Grotius's (61.G.'s refined method of historical architectural Emendations to the Text of Tacitus, in: Grotiana research depended on a precise survey raking 2.9, 2.008, 133-149 I 171 .J.TER MEULEN/ P. J. J. account of material and deformation, followed DIERMANSE,Bibliographic des ecrits imprimes de by an accurate scale drawing to form the basis Hugo Grotius, 1950 (reiss. 1995) [181 J. MILLER, of all interpretation. His students working in Grotius and Stobaeus, in: Grotiana 2.6-2.8, 2.0052.007, 104-12.6 (191 M. VANOosTERHOUT,Hugo monument conservation applied this method to Grotius' Occasional Poetry (1609-1645). Een still-standing buildings of historic importance (d. wetenschappelijke proeve op hat gebiet van de Let- e.g. M. Schuller, Building Archaeology, 2002), teren (diss. Nijmegen), 2.009 [2.01 M. D. R1Nc6N thereby paving the way for correct and accurate GONZALEZ,Hugo Grotius, editor de Lucano, in: restorations. G.'s energetic lectures gave a whole S. GROSSE / A. SCHONBERGER (ed.), Dulce et generation of Munich TU graduates a thorough decorum est philologiam colere. FS D. Briesemeister, history, and infused Vol. 2., 1999, 1843-1850 [2.11 B. STRAUMANN, knowledge of architectural Hugo Grotius und die Antike. Rom. Recht und them with enthusiasm for it. LW: (6. 302. f.]. rom. Ethik im friihneuzeitlichen Naturrecht (diss. Zurich), 2.007 (22) J. WAsZINK,Tacitisme in Holland. De 'Annales et Historiae de rehus Belgicis' WRITINGS van Hugo de Groot, in: De Zenventiende Eeuw. [1) Die Kapitelle des Heratempels auf Samos (diss. Cultuur in de Nederlanden in interdisciplinair perMunich), 1960 [2) Tempel und Heiligtiimer der spectief 2.0, 2.004, 2.40-2.6 3 [ 2 3] J. WASZINK,ShifGriechen (with H. BERVE),1961 ( 12.001: Griechische ting Tacitisms. Style and Composition in Grotius's Tempel und Heiligtiimer; English: Greek Temples, Annales, in: Grotiana 2.9, 2.008, 85-132.. Theatres, and Shrines, 1963) [3) Das archaische J0RGENLEONHARDT Didymaion, in: Jb. des Deutschen Archaologischen [4] Naxos und Paros, 4. Instituts 78, 1963, 78-177

GRUBEN,

GOTTFRIED

vorlaufiger Bericht iiber die Forschungskampagnen 1972.-1980, in: AA, Sonderheft, 1982., 159-2.2.9 [5) Naxos, das Heiligtum von Gyroula bei Sangri (with V. LAMBRINOUDAKIS et al.), in: Antike Welt (6) Klassische Bauforschung 33, 2.004, 387-406 (Gesammelte Aufsatze), ed. I. RING and W. KOENIGS, 2.007. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

[7] W. KOENIGS, Gottfried

Gruben,

76, 2.004, 477-479.

in: Gnomon

Gruterus, Janus/Gruytere, Jan de; FlemishGerman classical philologist, historian and archaeologist. Born 3. 12. 1560 in Antwerp, died Heidelberg 20. 9. 1627. 1577 matriculation at Cambridge, and the same year at Leiden. 1584 doctorate (Dr. jur.) Leiden. 1586 matriculation at Rostock, 1588 at Konigsberg; 1590/91 prof. of history at Wittenberg, from 1592 at Heidelberg; from 1602 also electoral librarian there. BACKGROUND

WORKS

G., who was also productive as a poet, an poetry and a publisher of historical chronologies, as a classical philologist was chiefly concerned with the editing of Latin authors. His focus in doing so was on the constitution of the text, for which he drew in particular on manuscripts at Heidelberg (the most important editions: Seneca 1 5 9 2/9 3; Florus 1 5 9 5; Senecan tragedies 1604; Livy 1607-1612.; Sallust; Tacitus; Velleius Paterculus and Panegyrici veteres 1607; Historia Augusta 1610'11; Pliny's Epistolae 16u; Cicero's Opera omnia 1618'19; Plautus 1621). The Varii discursus (6), a discussion of political Tacitism, was a special case. G. could be distinctly pugnacious. Even his first work, the Suspiciones [ 1 ], triggered a dispute with Dionysius Gothofredus over the latter's Seneca edition (Basel 1590) - a controversy that G. also pursued in his own editions. The interminable Plautus dispute with G.'s student Johann Philipp ➔ Pareus was conducted with the utmost vitriol on both sides, again partly in the form of an edition of the text. It seems that the editorial issues were no more than a superficial pretext for the fight, the real motives for which are unknown. Conversely, G. could not have completed his edition of Roman inscriptions [4] without carefully-cultivated friendly international contacts.

WOLF KOENIGS editor of Neo-Latin

Gruter, Jan

SCHOLARLY

of religious differences - in his editorial work. The defeat and occupation of the Palatinate forced G. into temporary exile (to Bretten and Tiibingen) in 1620, and he suffered the loss of his library. Parts of it were taken with the Bibliotheca Palatina to Rome and incorporated into the Bibliotheca Apostolica Vaticana.

The son of an Antwerp merchant temporarily living in England as a Protestant refugee, G. entered Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge in 1577, but decided that same year to go to the newly-founded Univ. of Leiden, where he attended lectures by Justus ~_.Lipsius, Janus Dousa the Elder and Hugues ---.Doneau, among others, and was awarded his doctorate (Dr. jur.) in 1584. In 158 5, G. fled Antwerp as Spanish forces invaded, and embarked on an uncertain nomadic life in northern Germany. He is known to have spent time at the Univs. of Rostock (from 1586) and Konigsberg (1588), with his family in Danzig (1588) and as a guest of the patron and Royal INFLUENCE Danish governor of Schleswig-Holstein, Heinrich As evidenced by their publishing history, G.'s Rantzau. In 1590, he was appointed prof. of hisworks enjoyed a wider reception in his lifetime tory at the Univ. of Wittenberg, where he joined world, especially a circle of secretly Calvinist scholars at the Univ. outside the German-speaking His edition of the electoral Saxon court and the Gymnasium at in France and the Netherlands. Cicero was still received long after his death by Zerbst. He was forced to relinquish the profesEnlightenment philologists, such as John Davies sorship in 1591 because of his refusal to adopt and Johann August -. Ernesti. G.'s notes on orthodox Lutheranism. In 1 592, in the face of opposition from the Seneca were reprinted by Nicholas F.loi Lemaire in his edition (Paris 1827-1830). Although his univ., G. was appointed prof. ext. in history at Heidelberg, and in 1602 he was also made edition of the Roman inscriptions (4] was added until electoral librarian. He strategically expanded the to many times, it was not superseded Theodor ---. Mommsen's Corpus lnscriptionum holdings of the Bibliotheca Palatina, most notably acquiring the Plautus manuscripts C and D Latinarum (Berlin, from 1863). One lasting legfrom the estate of Joachim ---. Camerarius. At acy of G. is the still-conventional division of the Heidelberg, G. was the focus of a circle of schol- works of Livy and Tacitus into chapters. {15. 532-536). LW: {18. u8-121); ars that included Georg Michael Lingelsheim, E: Rome, Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Julius Wilhelm Zincgref and the young Martin Cod. Pal. !at. 1733, 1821, 1906-1909. Opitz. He maintained a Europe-wide correspondence network, which supported him - regardless

2.57 WRITINGS

[ 1) lani Gruteri

susp1c10num libri IX ... In quibus varia scriptorum loca praecipue vero Plauti, Apuleii et Senecae Philosophi emendandi, illustrandi conatus, Wittenberg 1591 (2) Theophylacti Simocati opera (edition), Heidelberg 1 598-1 599 (3) Lampas sive Fax artium liberalium: Hoe est thesaurus criticus ... ex otiosa bibliothecarum custodia erutus et foras prodire iussus, Frankfurt am Main 1602-1607 141Inscriptiones antiquae totius orbis Romani (edition), Heidelberg 1603 Is) Notae Romanorum veterum quibus litera verbum facit Tullii Tyronis Ciceronis liberti, et Annaei Senecae (edition), Heidelberg 1603 [6] Varii discursus sive prolixiores commentarii ad aliquot insigniora loca Taciti atque Onosandri, 1604-1605 (7) Florilegium ethico-politicum, Frankfurt am Main , 6101612 (8) Orationes politicae Dinarchi, Lycurgi, Lesbonactis, Herod is, Demadis, Hanau 161 9.

GSCHNJTZER,

WORK

AND

FRITZ

INFLUENCE

G. was born into a Tyrolean family of scholars, and was the son of the jurist, politician and author Franz G. Chronologically, his research ranged from the Mycenaean Period to late antiquity; he also studied the Persian kingdom I 1 ]; [ 5] and the Phoenicians and Carthaginians. In terms of subject, he focused on the political, social and legal dimensions of the relationship between authority and freedom. He also published works on the history of religion [8. Vol. 1, 294-299; Vol. 2, 145-152] and studies on historical geography (8. Vol. 1, 335-348; Vol. 2, 2.4-50, 1 89-202, 30 5-3 11, 4 5 5-469 ]. G. was particularly interested in the emergence and the various forms and institutions of municipal liberty, in the conditions in agrarian history that favoured the freedom of farmers as the typical agents of local independence, and in the charSECONDARY LITERATURE (9) J.-U. FECHNER,Das Schicksal einer Heidelber- acteristics of Greek slavery [3]. His method was ger Professorenbibliothek. Jan Gruters Sammlung often to use forms of language, topographical und ihr Verbleib, in: Heidelberger Jbb. 11, 1967, formations, legal institutions and social or legal 98-u7 (10) J.-U. FECHNER,Ein Besuch in der terminologies as the starting-point for investigaBibliotheca Palatina 1608. Thomas Coryate in Hei- tions into their genesis and contexts. Using not delberg und bei Janus Gruter, in: Bibliothek und Wis- only the traditional methods of source criticism, [11) L. FORSTER, Janus senschaft 20, 1986, 73-92 but also linguistic and epigraphic approaches, G. Gruter's English Years, 1967 [ 12] L. FORSTER, opened new perspectives on important historical 'Virtutis atque eruditionis consortium'. Janus Gruters Plautus-Ausgabe von 1621 und der Heidel- problems, such as the issue of continuity between berger Dichterkreis, in: B. BECKER-CANTARINO / the Bronze Age and the Homeric Period, the J.-U. FECHNER (ed.), Opitz und seine Welt. FS underlying forms of political and social order in G. Schulz-Behrend, 1990, 173-184 [13) V. HART- Greece (8. Vol. 2., 2.03-253], the characteristics MANN, Gruter/Gruterus, Janus, in: W. Kuhlmann and roles of tribal and municipal communities, et al. (ed.), Kilty Literaturlexikon 4, 2009, 479-481 the emergence of the polis (8. Vol. 1, 2.33-248] (14) C. HEESAKKERS,Das Stammbuch des Janus and its institutions, and ancient historiography Gruterus, in: Bibliothek und Wissenschaft :z.i, (8. Vol. 2, 3-50, 32.2.-348]. 1987, 68-113 [15) W. K0HLMANNet al. (ed.), Die deutschen Humanisten. Dokumente zur OberWRITINGS lieferung der antiken und mittel- alterlichen Litera[ 1) Die Gemeinden Vorderasiens zur Achaimenidentur in der Friihen Neuzeit. Sect. 1: Die Kurpfalz, zeit (unpubl. diss. Innsbruck), 1951 (2) Abhangige Vol. 1'2: Janus Gruter, 2005 (16) E. LEF~VRE, Orte im Altertum, 1958 (3) Studien zur griechiDaniel Heinsius' Elogen auf Janus Gruter, in: Neuschen Terminologie der Sklaverei, 2.vols., 1964-1976 [17[ W. Luolateinisches Jb. 9, 2007, 193-202. 141(ed.), Zur griechischen Staarskunde, 1969 Is) Die WIG, Janus Gruters Florilegium ethico-politicum. sieben Perser und das Konigtum des Dareios. Ein Die Erneuerung einer antiken Dichtungsform und Beitrag zur Achaimenidengeschichte und zur Herodie ethische Funktionalisierung der antiken Litedotanalyse, 1977 (6) Griechische Sozialgeschichte, ratur, in: W. Luow1G, Supplementa Neolatina. 1981 (7) Eine persische Kultstiftung in Sardeis Ausgewahlte Aufsatze 2003-2.008, 2008, 97-129 und die 'Sippengotter' Vorderasiens, in: W. MEID (18) G. SMEND,Jan Gruter. Sein Leben und Wirken, / H. TRENKWALDER (ed.), lm Bannkreis des Alten 1939. Orients. Studien zur Sprach- und Kulturgeschichte VOLKERHARTMANN des Alten Orients und seines Ausstrahlungsraumes. (8) K. S. zum FS K. Oberhuber, 1986, 45-54 Gschnitzer, Fritz griechischen und romischen Altertum, 2. vols., ed. C. TR0MPY/ T. SCHMITT,2.001-2.003. Austrian ancient historian. Born Innsbruck 6. 1. 192.9, died Neckargemiind 2.7. 11. 2008. SECONDARY LITERATURE studied classics, ancient Near 1947-1951 [9) A. CHANIOTIS,Der Althistoriker Fritz Gschnitzer, in: F. GscHNJTZER,K. S. zum griechischen und Eastern studies and Inda-European studies at romischen Altertum, ed. C. TR0MPY/ T. SCHMITT, 1951 and habit. Univ. of Innsbruck; doctorate Vol. 1, 2.001, lX-Xll. 1956 Innsbruck. 1956-1961 univ. lecturer at TASSILOSCHMITT Innsbruck, 1961-1997 prof. of ancient history at Univ. of Heidelberg.

GUARINO DA VERONA Guarino da Verona Giovanni Guarini, also Guarino Veronese; Italian Humanist. Born Verona 1374/75, died Ferrara 4. 12. 1460. Studied at Verona and Padua; 1403-1408 at Constantinople with Manuel ➔ Chrysolaras. From 14 12, prof. of Greek and Latin at Florence; from 14 r 4-1419, headmaster at Venice; 14 19-14 29 prof. of rhetoric at Verona. From 1429 at Ferrara; princes' tutor and headmaster there 1430-1435, from 1436 prof. of Greek. Took part in Council of Ferrara/Florence 14 3 8. CAREER G. grew up in Verona, where he acquired the basis of his Humanist education. At Padua, he and Niccoli> ➔ Niccoli studied with Giovanni Conversini (John of Ravenna). In 1403, after briefly working as a teacher of grammar in Venice, he followed the Byzantine diplomat and scholar Manuel -+ Chrysolaras, whom he revered throughout his life, to Constantinople, spending five years as his pupil and servant in order to perfect his knowledge of Greek. Returning to Italy in 1408, G. spent some time in Bologna, where he made the acquaintance of Gianfrancesco -+ Poggio Bracciolini and Leonardo Bruni. In 1410 he moved on to Florence, where he taught Greek and Latin at the univ. from 1412. His increasing estrangement from Niccoli> Niccoli may be the reason why he soon (1414) left for Venice, where he opened a private school. In 1418, he married Taddea Cendrata di Niccoli> of Verona. The couple had 13 children. G. held the chair of rhetoric offered to him in 1419 in his home city of Verona for ten years, alongside the rectorship of a school he founded. Then, however, he accepted an invitation to Ferrara and the court of Niccolo III d'Este, where he became tutor to Prince Leonello d'Este, who by this time was already 23 years of age. He held the post until the prince's marriage in 1435, whereupon G. once more devoted himself to a private school. From 1438, he also worked as translator for the Greek-speaking participants at the Council of Ferrara/Florence. G. was in contact with many of the Humanists of the day. His students included: at Venice, George Trapezountios, Francesco Barbaro and ➔ Vittorino da Feltre, at Verona, Ermolao ➔ Barbaro and Bartolomeo Facio, at Ferrara Peter Luder, Lodovico Carbone and his own son, Giovanni Battista Guarini [4]. WORK AND INFLUENCE G.'s importance rests on three pillars: his collection of manuscripts; his commitment to school education, and his work as a translator, editor and commentator. He is said to have brought

some 50 Greek manuscripts to Italy from Constantinople in 1408. His find of a (now lost) manuscript (1419, Verona) that forms the archetype for the transmission of eight books of Pliny (Books 1-7; 9) was also important, as was his rediscovery of the then-unknown work of Aulus Cornelius Celsus (1427). He may have been inspired to his school foundations by Gasparino • Barzizza, who was a friend of his. Like Barzizza, G. aimed to combine moral and Humanist education for his pupils [7]. According to the testimony of his son Battista (De ordine docendi et studendi, 1459 [81), G. implemented a three-stage course, beginning with basic grammar, continuing to fundamental issues of grammatical organization, prosody and metre. and concluding with rhetorical teaching. G. used his own Regulae as his textbook; it draws in particular on Priscian and the Doctrinale Pueroruni of Alexander of Villedieu. The Greek textbook he used was his own epitome of-+ Chrysolaras• Erotemata, which he had also translated into Latin. The rhetoric classes studied Cicero and Quintilian (6]. At Constantinople, G. translated Plutarch 's Life of Alexander and Lucian's De Calumnia into Latin, then later other Plutarch lives, some of Lucian and Isocrates and - his most important achievement - the complete work of Strabo (into Latin and the vernacular) [6]. He also made critical text editions of Caesar, the speeches of Cicero, Pliny the Elder, Gellius and Servius. his conjectures on Cicero's Brutus and Horace were highly regarded. He wrote commentaries on Cicero's speech Pro Sexto Roscio [ 1] and Persius. Much material from his lectures (e.g. on Cicero's De officiis and Cato maior, the Rhetorica ad Herennium and Plautus' Amphitryon) is preserved in transcripts made by his students. the so-called Collectae [6). G. in his day was a highly-esteemed and outstandingly wellconnected philologist. He left Carmina [3], a substantial correspondence (2) and many speeches. WRITINGS [1] M. Tulli Ciceronis oratio pro Sex. Roscio Amerino (edition), Paris Is SI [2] Epistolario, 3 vols .• ed. R. SABBADINI,1915-1919 (reiss. 1967) [3) Carmina, ed. A. MANETII,1985. SECONDARY LITERATURE l4]G. BERTON1,Guarinoda Verona fra letteratiecortigiania Ferrara ( 142.9-1460),192.1 [SIR. SABBADINI, Vita di Guarino Veronese, 1891 (reiss. 1964) [6[ R. SABBADINI, La scuola e gli studi di Guarino GuariniVeronese,1896(reiss.1964) [7] R.ScHWEYU-. Guarino Veronese. Philosophic und humanistische Padagogik, 1973 [8] W. H. WOODWARD.Vittorino da Feltre and Other Humanist Educators. 1897, 159-178. DOROTHEEGALL

G0NTHER, RIGOBERT

Gunther, Rigobert German ancient historian. Born Magdeburg 18. 5. 192.8, died Leipzig 2. 4. 2000. Publisher's assistant until 1948. Matriculation examination 1949 at preliminary studies institute at Halle an der Saale. Studied at Halle until c9 5 3, 1953-1955 at Halle-Wittenberg; 1957 doctorate at Univ. of Leipzig; habil. there 1962. Lecturer from 1962.; prof. from 1965; 1968-1991 prof. ord. in ancient history at Leipzig. Member of the Academy of Sciences of the German Democratic Republic. CAREER

AND

WORKS

According to his own testimony, G. came from a working-class family 12. 114 f.). From 1945, he was a member of the Freier Deutscher Gewerkschaftsbund (Free German Trade Union Federation), from 1947 a member of the Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands (SEO; German Socialist Unity Party), and from 1948 of the Gesellschaft fur Deutsch-Sowietische Freundschaft (Society for German-Soviet Friendship). G. first read history and English studies, then history, Latin and prehistory at Halle. After graduating ( 19 5 3 ), he was an assistant for the Central Committee of the SEO at the Marx-Engels-Lenin-Stalin Institute in Berlin, with the status of an extraordinary Aspirantur (postgraduate). He took his examinations in social science and Russian in 1954. From 1953 to 1955, he attended ancient history lectures at the Martin-Luther-Univ. of Halle-Wittenberg [14. 96-98); [16. 44 f., 72); He received an Aspirantur in Leipzig in 19 55, with the aim of achieving a doctorate and establishing Marxist ancient history at the Univ. of Leipzig I 11. 47, 70-73, 91-97); [14. 99). Even before his doctorate, G. published an essay outlining a future programme of ancient history study controlled by the Party I 1 ). His dissertation, supervised by Franz • Altheim and approved by Werner Peek and Franz • Dornseiff, claimed to demonstrate the applicability of the principles of historical materialism to Roman antiquity (2.. 77); 114. 100) and developed the concept of the ancient slaveholder society using the example of Rome between the period of Etruscan rule and late antiquity. Altheim also supervised and approved G.'s habil. thesis on the religious history of the late Roman Republic 13IV]; [14. 101). G. became a lecturer at Leipzig, then in 196 5 a prof., in 1968 a prof. ord. in ancient history. He was a member of the praesidium of the East German society of historians, and in the 1960s he was director of the department of history, director of the protohistory / ancient history section and in the 1980s director

of the history section and member of the committees for classical and historical studies at the East German Ministry for Higher and Vocational Education [12); (14. 102.); (16. 121 f.]. INFLUENCE

G. was the author of influential school and univ. textbooks in use in the GOR (4]; (5). He continued his work after the peaceful revolution in the GOR ( 1989 ), and wrote textbooks of religious criticism for school use 19); (10). He held his professorship until its abolition in 1991. G.'s work was typified by an orthodox Marxist interpretation of antiquity as characterized by slave ownership and class struggle, a system of historical periodization sometimes influenced by the works of Arkady L. Sidorov, and the idea that religion functions as an instrument of mobilization for protagonists of this class struggle. G. exerted an influence on the training of new generations of scholars and teachers, and was one of the GOR's guiding interpreters of antiquity and its legacy. His partisanship against the West and NATO and his anti-bourgeois and anti-Western ideology can probably only be understood in the light of the experiences of a single generation that grew up in the immediate aftermath of World War II and the beginning of the Cold War, and had become disillusioned with the "outwardly and morally wrecked institutions of bourgeois education" [14. 106 f.). WRITINGS

I1) Der Beschluss des ZK der SED 'Die Verbesse· rung der Forschung und Lehre in der Geschichts· wissenschaft der DDR' und das Studium der Alten Geschichte, in: Zs. fiir Geschichtswissenschaft 3, 1955, 904-907 12I Sklaverei, Wirtschaft und Stiindekampf im iiltesten Rom (unpubl. diss. Leipzig), 1957 131 Der politisch-ideologische Kampf in der romischen Religion in den letzten zwei Jahrhunderten vor unserer Zeit (unpubl. Habil.schrift Leipzig), 1962. 141 Geschichte. Lehrbuch fiir Klasse 6 (with H. WERMEs), 1967 ( 11 1977) lsl Romische Geschichte (with R. DIETER), 1981 16I Review of M. I. FINLEY,Ancient Slavery and Modern Ideology, 1980, in: Gnomon 54, 1982., 2.02-204 171 Klassen, Stiinde und Schichten in der antiken Gesellschaftsordnung, in: SB der Siichsischen Akad. der Wissenschaften Philosophisch-historische Klasse 13o/4, 1990, 3-17 18I Review of M. WILLING, Althistorische Forschung in der DDR, 1991, in: Zs. fiir Geschichtswissenschaft 42., 1994, 937-938 l91Die Entstehung des Christentums. Methodische Handreichung zur Gestaltung des Ethikunterrichts, 1998 [10] Hosianna dem Sohn Davids. Kurze Geschichte des friihen Christentums, 1998. SECONDARY [ 11

der

LITERATURE

I V. DrnczuNEIT, Geschichtswissenschaft Universitiit

Leipzig. Zur

Entwicklung

an des

G0NTHER, RIGOBERT

2.60

F~ches Geschichte von der Hochschulreform 19 5 1 G. already demonstrated in his diss. (1), on a bis zur 'sozialistischen Umgestaltung' 1958, 1993 subject suggested by Landsberger, that he was (12.] G. HEITZ,Rigobert Gunther 60 Jahre, in: Zs. perfectly at home not only with the Hittite trafiir Geschichtswissenschaft 61, 1988, 438-439 dition but also the Sumerian and Akkadian_ [13) 1.-S. KowLCZUK,Legitimation eines neuen Political developments dashed all his hopes of Staates. Parteiarbeiter an der historischen Front. an academic career in Germany, but like many Geschichtswissenschaft in der SBZ/DDR, 1945opponu1961, 1997 (14) B. MEISSNER, Die Alte Geschichte other scholars of Jewish background, an der Karl-Marx-Universitat Leipzig. Anmerkun- nities arose for him in Turkey, where he began gen zum Geschichtsbild Rigobert Giinthers, in: teaching alongside his own teacher Landsberger I. STARK(ed.), Elisabeth Charlotte Weiskopf und at the Univ. of Ankara from 19 3 5. He finally die Alte Geschichte in der DDR, 2.005, 90-107 followed Landsberger to the Oriental Institute at Das Lexikon der DDR-Historiker, Chicago in 1949, with which he maintained (15) L. MERTENS, very 2.006, 2.52.-2.53 (16) M. WILLING,Althistorische close contacts for the rest of his life. Forschung in der DDR. Eine wissenschaftsgeAs a teacher, G. influenced a whole generation schichdiche Studie zur Einfiihrung der Disziplin Alte of younger Hittitologists. With Heinrich Otten Geschichte vom Ende des Zweiten Weltkriegs bis and Emmanuel -+ Laroche, he was one of the zur Gegenwart (1945-1989), 1991. BURCKHARD MEISSNER most important figures not only in Hittitology but also in Assyriology, and he played a considerable part in the establishment of the disciGiiterbock, Hans Gustav pline as an independent element of ancient Near German ancient Near Eastern scholar and Eastern studies. G.'s scholarly oeuvre includes works mostly of Hittitologist. Born Berlin 2.7. 5. 1908 in Berlin, philology but also history and art history, and he died Chicago 2.9. 3. 2.000. Gymnasium in Berlinof Zehlendorf, Abitur 192.6; studied Oriental philol- did not entirely limit himself to the boundaries ancient Anatolia. As well as his notable contribuogy at Univs. of Berlin, Marburg and Leipzig again; languages, employee at tions on Hittite and its neighbouring doctorate 1933 Leipzig. 1933-1935 he was also an acknowledged expert on Hittite Pergamon Museum in Berlin. 1933-1936 parseals and Hieroglyphic Luwian. In his work on ticipant in the Bogazkoy excavations (ljattusa). Academic career impossible in Germany because the Kumarbi Cycle [4], he was quick to point out correlations between the Near Eastern and Greek of race laws. 1936 appointed prof. of Hittitology It at Univ. of Ankara. 1948 guest lecturer at Univ. traditions (especially in Hesiod's Theogony). was also mostly thanks to his balanced judgof Uppsala; from 1949 at Oriental Institute ment that the question of whether the Greeks Chicago, from 1956 as prof. and 1969 as Tiffany and Margaret Blake Distinguished Service Prof. are attested in Hittite texts came to be discussed with greater objectivity [9). G.'s editions and of Hittitology. 1962. president of the American to Hittite president of the revisions of texts and his contributions Oriental Society; 1968-1977 historiography and literature often remain stanAmerican Research Institute in Turkey. Retired dard works. As a co-editor of the Chicago Hittite 1976. From 1976, editor of the Chicago Hittite Dictionary. Member of the Bavarian Academy Dictionary, he was a leading figure in one of the of Sciences, the American Academy of Arts and most important projects in Hittitology. LW: H. A. Hoffner, Jr.lG. M. Beckman (ed.) Sciences and the American Philosophical Society; Kanissuwar. A Tribute to Hans G. Giiterbock corresponding member of the British Academy. on _His Seventy-Fifth Birthday, May 2.7, 1983, Honorary doctorates from Univs. of Uppsala Chicago 1986, 185-188. (1977), Ankara (1997) and Berlin (Freie Univ.) (1998); many prizes and honours. WRITINGS (1) Die historische Tradition und ihre literariWORK AND INFLUENCE sche Gestaltung bei Babyloniern und Hethitem G. was the son of the private scholar and bis 12.00, in: ZA 42., 1934, 1-91 (2) Siegel aus patron of scholarship Bruno G., sometime secBogazkoy, Part 1: Die Konigssiegel der Grabungen retary of the Deutsche Orientgesellschaft; his bis 1938, in: AfO, Beiheft 5, 1940 (3) Siegel aus father introduced him to cuneiform research at Rogazkoy, Part 2.: Die Konigssiegel von 1939 und die i.ibrigen Hieroglyphensiege\, in: AfO, Beiheft an ear\y age. During his studies, he was in con7, 1942. \4\ Kumarbi. Mythen vom churritischen tact with the \eading Orienta\ists, Semitic scho\Kronos aus den hethitischcn Fragmenten zusamars, historians and ancient phi\o\ogists of the mengestellt, iibersetzt und erklart (lstanbuler Schrifday, including Eduard -+ Meyer and Ulrich von ten 16), 1946 ls] The Deeds of Suppiluliuma as -+ Wi\amowitz-Moellendorff. His formative influTold by His Son, Mursili II, in: Journal of Cuneiences, however, were his teachers Hans Ehelolf, form Studies 10, 1956, 41-68, 75-98, 107-130 Benno -+ Landsberger and Johannes Friedrich. [6] Hethitische Literatur, in: W. ROLLIG (ed.),

---

G0TERBOCK,

261

Altorientalische Literaturen, 1978, :z.11-:z.53 [7} (ed.), Hittite Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the Univ. of Chicago (with H. HOFFNER), 1980 (ff.) (8) Hittite Historiography: A Survey, in: H. TADMOR IM. WEINFELD (ed.), History, Historiography and Interpretation. Studies in Biblical and Cuneiform Literatures, 1983, :z.1-35 19I Hittites and Akhaeans: A New Look, in: Proc. of the American Philosophical Society 118, 1984, 114-1:z.:z..

SECONDARY

HANS

GUSTAV

LITERATURE

I 101 K. BnTEL et al. (ed.), Anatolian Studies Presented to Hans Gustav Giiterbock on the Occasion of His 65th Birthday, 1974 (11] H. A. HOFFNERJR. I G. M. BECKMAN(ed.), Kanissuwar. A Tribute to Hans G. Giiterbock on His Seventy-Fifth Birthday, May :z.7, 1983, 1986 [u] J. RENGER, In memoriam Hans-Gustav Giiterbock, in: lstanbuler Mitteilungen SI, :z.001, 7-10 (13] K. A. YENER/ H. A. HOFFNER(ed.), Recent Developments in Hittite Archaeology and History. Papers in Memory of Hans G. Giiterbock, :z.oo:z.. JCIRG KLINGER

H Hadas, Moses

WRITINGS

American classical philologist. Born Atlanta Georgia 25. 6. 1900 (family Jewish Russian immigrants), died Aspen Colorado 17. 8. 1966. School at Atlanta; studied classics at Emory Univ. (BA 1922); rabbinical training to 1926 at Jewish Theological Seminary, Columbia Univ., New York. Also continued classical studies at Columbia Univ., where he took MA 19:z.5 and doctorate 1930 (diss. on Sextus Pompeius (2)). Lecturer in ancient languages at Columbia from 1925, at Cincinnati 1928-1930. Worked for Office of Strategic Services during World War 11, including contact with Greece resistance groups. From 1946, assistant and assoc. prof., from 19 5 3 full prof. of Greek and Latin at Columbia Univ., then Jay Prof. of Greek and Latin LanHonorary doctorates guages there 1956-1965. including Emory Univ. 1941 president of Classical Association of the Atlantic States.

[ 1) Oriental Elements in Petronius, in: Ameri.:an Journal of Philology 50, 192.9, 378-385 (2.) Sexrus Pompey(diss.Columbia), 193o(reiss.1966) [3)The Social Revolution in Third Century Sparta, in: Classical Weekly 2.6, 1932.-1933, 65-76 (4) The Religion of Plutarch, in: Review of Religion 6, 1942., 2.70-2.81 Is) From Nationalism to Cosmopolitanism, in: Journal of the History of Ideas 4, 1943, 105-111 (6) A History of Greek Literature, 1950 17I The Epistle of Aristeas to Philocrares (edition with trans.), 1950 (8) A History of Latin Literature, 195 2. 191 The Third and Fourth Book of the Maccabees (edition with trans.), 1953 (10) A History of Rome. From Its Origins to A.D. 52.9, As Told by the Roman Historians, 19 5 8 [ I 1) Plato in the Hellenistic Fusion, in: Journal of the History of Ideas 19, 1958, 3-13 [12) The Sroic Philosophy of Seneca (trans.), 1958 I 13) Hellenistic Culture. Fusion and Diffusion, 1959 (14) Humanism. The Greek Ideal and Its Survival, 1960 (15) Old Wine, New Bonles. A Humanist Teacher at Work, 1962. (16I Imperial Rome, 1965 [17) Introduction to Classical Drama, 1966.

WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

H. was celebrated as an outstanding teacher, winning several distinctions for his work ( 20. 92]. He translated many ancient texts (e.g. Sophocles, Aristophanes, Cicero, Seneca ( 12), Tacitus) into English (his history of Rome ( 10) also consists largely of translated source texts). As univ. courses were established in which classical authors were examined in translation, he pursued the goal, controversial at the time and at his univ., of conveying ancient literature to a broader readership unable to read ancient languages ( 19. 236). His editorial and translation work also extended to ancient Jewish writings [9] and to works of modern history (e.g. Jacob • Burckhardt's Die Zeit Constantins des Grossen, 1949; Elias • Bickermann's Geschichte der Makkabiier 1947). As he sought to popularize antiquity, H. was one of the first to talk about his subject in radio and television appearances [:z.o. 93). Some of his writings are also aimed at encouraging wider knowledge of classical material beyond specialist circles. For example, H. wrote major surveys of the history of ancient literature (6]; [8] and the history of Rome (16], both ranging across a broad chronological span, and an introduction to Greek intellectual and cultural history [ 14). His book on Hellenistic culture [ 13] was well-received; in it, he explores the extent of cultural exchange between the various population and language groups of the Hellenistic states. M: [15).

SECONUARY

LITERATURE

[18I H. W. BENARIO, Hadas, Moses, in: W. ~·BRIGGS,Biographical Dictionary of North American Classicists, 1994, 244-2.45 [19) W. M. CALDER III, Hadas, Moses, in: Dictionary of American Biography, Suppl. VIII, 1988, 2.35-2.37 (20) G. H1GHET, Moses Hadas, 1900-1966, in: Classical World 60, 1966-1967, 92.--93. HEINRICH SCHLANGE·SCH◊NINGEN

Halbherr, Federico Italian epigraphist and classical archaeologist. Born Rovereto, South Tyrol, Austria (now Trentino, Italy) 1 5. 2. 1857, died Rome 17. 7. 1930. 1876-1880 studied at the philosophical faculty at the of the Univ. of Rome, then 1880-1882 Istituto di Studi Superiori in Florence. 188 5 took Italian citizenship. 1 888 lecturer, 1891 prof. ext., from 1904 prof. ord. in Greek epigraphy at the Univ. of Rome. 1899 director of the Italian Archaeological Mission on Crete. From 1910, Italian government officer in charge of archaeological exploration in Libya (Tripolitania and Cyrena'ica); 191 2 organization of the archaeological service in the Italian colonies there. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

Having necessarily, as an epigrapher engaged in field studies, become an archaeologist, H. achieved renown as a pioneering researcher of ancient Crete and an exemplary scholar on behalf of institutions. His teacher, Domenico

HALLER VON HALLERSTEIN,

2.63

Comparetti, sent him to Crete in 1 884 to collect inscriptions. No sooner had H. arrived than he made the sensational find of the great Archaic law inscription at Gortyn, which was then published by Ernst -• Fabricius. H.'s Cretan activities were closely connected with Italian interest in the eastern Mediterranean in the 1 890s. The study of the island (1893/94), financed by the Archaeological Society of America, with epigraphic results ultimately published as lnscriptiones Creticae (ed. Margherita Guarducci), came thanks to him, as did the foundation of the Missione Archeologica Italiana a Creta ( 1899), and in 1909 foundation of the Scuola Archeologica Italiana di Atene (SAIA). H. embodied the Italian presence on Crete with a flair that went far beyond archaeology. He investigated the ldaean Cave [ 1] and began the great Italian excavations on the island (Gortyn [31; 141, Phaistos, Aghia T riada [ 5 ]; [6 ]). The encounter between Italian and local culture was his constant concern, as was the appreciation of the Venetian heritage on Crete. Even so, he left for North Africa as early as 1909, achieving, under extremely difficult conditions but in accord with the nationalist aims of the Italian government, the successful implementation of its archaeological plans in its new colonial possessions. Increasingly politically involved in the fight for a stronger Italy, H. concentrated after World War I on organizing the Italian Archaeological Mission on Crete, and he left the excavations and research he had previously done unpublished. In particular, the Minoan culture, of which he had unearthed such important remains, seems to have remained fundamentally alien to him. Sir Arthur • Evans' brilliant 'invention' of this culture ultimately led to the Palace of Knossos becoming one of the great mythical sites of world culture (especially in the Anglo-Saxon world), which the British presence on the island made into a matter of categorical national importance. The personal and scholarly nature of H., a rather reserved man with a distaste for media popularizations, without doubt played a part in the marginalization of the great Italian discoveries on Crete, and led to the overshadowing of his scholarly achievements by those of his British colleague, with whom he enjoyed a close working relationship 18. 2.13-2161; 191WRITINGS

(1) Scavi e trovamenti nell'antro di Zeus sul monte Ida a Creta, in: Musco italiano di Antichita classica 2., 1888, 689-766 (2.I Scoperte nel santuario di Hermes Craneo, in: Musco italiano di Antichita classica 2., 188 8, 913--9 1 6 I3 I Relazione sugli scavi del tempio di Apollo Pythio in Gortyna, in: 141 RelaziMonumenti Antichi 1, 1890, 9-76 one sui nuovi scavi eseguiti a Gortyna presso ii

CARL

Lethco, in: Monumenti Antichi 1, 1890, 561592. lsl Resti dell'eta micenea scoperti ad Haghia Triada presso Phaestos, in: Monumenti Antichi 13, 16) Haghia Triada nel periodo tardo1903, 5-74 palaziale (with E. STEFANIand L. BANTI),in: Annuario della Scuola Archeologica di Atene 5 5 (N.S. 39), 1977, 9-2.96. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

171 I.a figura e l'opera

di Federico Halbherr. Atti del Convegno di Studio (Rovereto), 2.000 l81 B. MAURINAet al. (ed.), Orsi, Halbherr, Gerola. L'archeologia italiana nel Mediterraneo, 2.010, 1692.97 l91 N. MoMIGLIANO, Federico Halbherr and Arthur Evans. An Archaeological Correspondence ( 1894-191 7), in: Studi micenei ed egeo-anatolici 44/2., 2.002., 2.63-318 (10) G. ScHINGO, Halbherr, Federico, in: DBI 61, 2.003, 640-643. ANNALUCIAD'AGATA

Haller von Hallerstein, Carl German archaeologist and draughtsman. Born Hiltpolstein (Upper Franconia) 10. 6. 1774, died Ampelakia (Thessaly) 5. 11. 1817. 1792-1794 architecture studies at Karlsschule in Stuttgart, 1798-1805 at Berlin Bauakademie. 1806 architectural inspector at Nuremberg; 1808-1817 travels to Rome, Greece and Constantinople. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

H. was horn into a leading patrician family of Nuremberg. Finding a position as architectural inspector in his home city unsatisfying, he set out on a tour to Rome in 1808, continuing from there in 181 o to Greece in the company of Otto Magnus von • Stackelberg and Peter Oluf • Brnndsted. They planned to publish a multi-volume illustrated work on Greek cultural landscapes, hut it never came about. The most spectacular find was made by H., who was joined at Athens by the British architect Charles Robert Cockerell, in 181 1 on Aegina: the pediment sculptures of the Temple of Aphaea. H. drew all the fragments with great care and noted their exact find locations. This enabled him to sent the first reconstruction drawings of the pediment fields to the Bavarian Crown Prince Ludwig, still in 1811, with the successful plea to acquire these extraordinary sculptures for the Munich Glyptothek. It was also in 1811 that the two architects and Stackelberg discovered the near-intact inner frieze of the Temple of Apollo at Bassae, which went to the British Museum through the efforts of Cockerell, and the important early Corinthian capital of the cella. H.'s drawings I 1] of this unique piece, which was later destroyed by vandalism, are of enormous importance in architectural history.

HALLER VON HALLERSTEIN,

CARL

H.'s field work (also on the Athenian Acropo- and politically liberal. He was a lifelong painter, lis and at the Theatre of Melos) is recorded with pursuing the style of the European •orientalists'. meticulous drawings that give precise documenIn 1884 he initiated the ban on the export of tation of find locations, stratigraphic contexts, archaeological objects from Turkey. colour residues, etc. H. also exercised the greatThe establishment of a new archaeological est responsibility in regard to archaeological museum at Istanbul was hastened by his disfinds. Dismantling, • Elgin-style, horrified him, coveries in the necropolis at Sidon, because the as attested by his urgent plea to Crown Prince many sarcophagi, decorated with reliefs of high Ludwig to drop his wish for a k6re from the quality (including the so-called 'Alexander sarcophagus') needed a suitable place of exhibition. Erechtheum for his planned Glyptothek. M: H. Haller von Hallerstein, ... und die Erde H. made sure that his new Museum of Archaeology in Istanbul became a scholarly institution gebar ein Uicheln, 1983. E: Niirnberg-Grossgriindlach, Frhr. van of international repute. He kept in contact with Hallersche Familienstiftung; Strasbourg, Biblio- leading European archaeologists, and, not being theque nationale et universitaire; Berlin, Staatli- an archaeologist himself, sought their advice. che Museen zu Berlin, Kunstbibliothek: collection of hand drawings. WRITINGS [11 Le tumulus de Nemroud Dag (with 0. EFFENDI), 1883 [21 Une necropole royale Sidon (with T. REINACH), 2. vols., l 892.

a

WRITINGS

(1) Le temple de Bassae. Releves et dessins du Bassae, conserves la Bibliotemple d'Apollon theque nationale et universitaire de Strasbourg, ed. G. Roux, 1976.

a

a

SECONDARY LITERATURE [2) H. BANKEL(ed.), Carl Haller von Hallerstein 1986 (with details in Griechenland (1810-1817), of the estate) [3) C. R. COCKERELL,The Temples of Jupiter Panhellenius at Aegina and of Apollo Epicurius at Bassae Near Phigaleia in Arcadia, 1860 (4) K. FRXssLE, Carl Haller von Hallerstein (1774-1817) (diss. Freiburg), 1971 [sl J. ZIMMER, Die Aegineten in Berlin, in: Jb. der Berliner Museen 46, 2.005, 1--98. HANSGEORGSANKEL

Hamdi Bey, Osman Turkish art historian and museum founder. Born Constantinople/Istanbul 30. I 2. 1842, died there 24. 2. 1910. 1857-1869 studied law and painting in Paris. 1867 and 1873, director of the Turkish Pavilion at the World Exhibitions of Paris and Vienna respectively. 1869-1878 leading positions in the Ottoman Foreign Ministry and the civil service; from 188 1 founder of the Turkish museum service. I 887 excavator of the royal tombs of Sidon (now Lebanon). Founder of School of Fine Arts (Sanayi-i Nefise Mektebi) (!883) and Istanbul Museum of Archaeology (Istanbul Arkeoloji Muzesi) (1892.-1908), of which he was also director. Recipient of numerous international honours.

SECONDARY LITERATURE (3) W. RADT, Carl Humann und Osman Hamdi Bey, in: lstanbuler Mitteilungen 5 3, 2003, 491-507. WOLFGANG RADT

Hampe, Roland German classical archaeologist. Born Heidelberg 2. 12. 1908, died Wiirzburg 23. 1. 1981. Studied law at first, then classical archaeology at Munich. Doctorate in classical archaeologist 1934, Munich. 1936 assistant at DAI Athens. 1939 habil. at Wiirzburg. From 1946 prof. ord. at Univ. of Kiel. From 1948 prof. ord. at Univ. prof. ord. at Univ. of of Mainz. 1957-1975 Heidelberg. WORK

AND INFLUENCE

H. was the son of the historian Karl Hampe. He studied with Ernst - • Buschor and had contact with the Stefan George Circle. Towards both, he subsequently maintained an attitude both of recognition and distance. His scholarly approach was aimed at furthering a broad cultural history to supersede aesthetic intellectual history in archaeology. H.'s main specialities were Greek mythology and religion. His diss. [1) was an early foray in research into Greek mythical images. Together with Erika --+ Simon, he gained acceptance for the insight that the reception of Greek myths in early Etruscan an of was based on an independent interpretation their meaning [ 5]. In the last years of his life, WORK AND INFLUENCE H., the son of an ambassador (to Vienna and H. was a founder and director of the German Berlin), was a painter, patron of the arts, lawyer department of the international Lexicon lconoand cultural politician. He was among one of the graphicum Mythologiae Classicae (LIMC). In collaboration with the ceramicist Adam figures influential in opening up Ottoman Turkey to Western art and culture. As a member of a Winter, H. provided an important stimulus to the research of ancient pottery techniques. His studies wealthy family, he was financially independent,

HANFMANN, GEORGE

with contemporary potters and brickmakers in Greece, Southern Italy and Cyprus are an important record of the tradition of ancient manufacturing techniques and their associated social structures, shortly before they were extinguished by industrialization [4. 6 j. In myth, religion and way of life, H. saw considerable continuity between the Bronze Age and the Greek Archaic Period, publishing an account of the process in the field of visual art together with Simon [7J. H. made use of his background in classical philology and his pronounced poetic sense to produce metrical translations of the Iliad and Odyssey, in which he strove especially to reflect the material culture and its poetic impact [6). LW: D. Renner, in: Tainia. Roland Hampe zum 70. Geburtstag am 2.. Dezember 1978 dargebracht von Mitarbeitern, Schulern und freunden, 1980,

531-537.

E: Berlin, DAI. WRITINGS

[ 1) Friihe griechische Sagenbilder in Bootien (diss. Miinchen), 1936 [:z.JDie Gleichnisse Homers und die Bildk unst seiner Zeit, 1 9 5 :z. [3) Antrittsrede, in: Jb. der Heidelberger Akad. der Wissenschaften, 1959-1960, :z.1-:z.6 [41 Bei Topfern und Topferinnen in Kreta, Messenien und Zypern (with A. WINTER), 1962. Is) Griechische Sagen in der friihen etruskischen Kunst (with E. SIMON), 1964 (6) Homer, Ilias und Odyssee (trans.), 1979 (7) Tausend Jahre friihgriechischer Kunst (with E. SIMON), 1980 (English: The Birth of Greek Art, 1981) [8) Antikes und modernes Griechenland, 1984. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

[9] T. He>LSCHER,Roland Hampe, in: Gnomon 53, 1981, 6:z.0-6:z.4. TONIO H6LSCHER

Hanfmann,

George

Russian-American archaeologist and art historian. Born Maxim Anossov H., St. Petersburg, 2.0. 1 1. 19 r r, died Watertown, Massachussetts, 1 3. 3. 1986. Studied at Jena, Munich and Berlin, doctorate in classical archaeology 1934, Berlin. Emigrated to USA in 1934, American citizen 1940. 19 3 5 PhD at Johns Hopkins Univ. (Baltimore) and junior fellow, from 1956 prof. in fine arts at Harvard Univ. 1949-1974 also curator of ancient art at Fogg Art Museum there. 1958-1976 director of the Harvard-Cornell excavations at Sardes. CAREER

AND

WORKS

H. was born in St. Petersburg, from where his family emigrated to Lithuania in 192.1. After taking his Abitur at Jena, he studied there, then with Ernst ► Buschor and Hans Diepolder at

....

Munich, before taking his doctorate with Gerhart ► Rodenwaldt in Berlin with a thesis on early Etruscan sculpture (1). In 1934, he and his wife fled National Socialism to the United States, where he took a second doctorate, with David M. Robinson at Johns Hopkins Univ. (PhD). He was elected a junior fellow at the Harvard Society of Fellows in 1935. During World War II, he was director of the German-speaking department at the American Broadcasting Station in London. He was a faculty member at Harvard until his retirement in 1982.. In 1978 he was awarded the gold medal of the Archaeological Institute of America, and in 1982. he received an honorary doctorate from the Freie Univ. in Berlin [ 10]. In the United States, he focused his attention on Roman art. He played an important part in the introduction of Etruscan and Roman art to the curricula of American univs. As director of the excavations at Sardes [6]; [7]; (9]; [11), this renowned historian also made a name for himself as a field archaeologist. Sardes became one of the most important excavation sites of the post-war era. From his perspective of art history, H. took a particular interest in processes of cultural exchange, both in ancient Asia Minor [81 and among the Etruscans [1]; [2.) and Romans [ 5 ]. He was particularly celebrated for his works on Roman sarcophagus art [3 I and portraiture (4). LW: [16. XII-XX]; [12.]. E: Cambridge (Massachusetts), Harvard Univ. Archives. M: [10]. WRITINGS [ 1 I Altetruskische Plastik (diss. Berlin), 1936 [:z.JThe Etruscans and Their Art, 1940 [3) The Seasons Sarcophagus at Dumbarton Oaks, 1951 [4) Observations on Roman Portraiture, 1953 [s) Roman Art, 1964 (illustr. ed. 1975) (6J Letters from Sardis, 197:z. (7) A Survey of Sardis and the Major Monuments Outside of the Walls (with J. C. WALDBAUM),1975 [8) From Croesus to Constantine: The Cities of Western Asia Minor and Their Arts in Greek and Roman Times, 1975 [9] Sculpture from Sardis: The Finds through 1975 (with N. H. RAMAGE),1978 [10) Die 'Berliner Schule': Archiiologie und Archiiologen in Berlin und USA., in: Ehrenpromotion Georg M. A. Hanfmann am Fachbereich Altertumswissenschaften der Freien Univ. Berlin am 2.1. Mai 198:z. (Universitiitsreden 3), 1983, 13-34 [11] Sardis from Prehistoric to Roman Times, 1983.

SECONDARY

LITERATURE

[12] J. BLOOM, Bibliography of George M. A. Hanfmann, 1971-1986, in: American Journal of Archaeology 91, 1987, 2.64-2.66 [13J A. BoRBEIN, George M. A. Hanfmann, in: LULLIES / Sctt1ERINGArch. 313-314 [14] C. GREENEWALT,

HANFMANN, GEORGE George Maxim Anossov Hanfmann, in: Yearbook of the American Philosophical Society, 1986, 12.0112.26 (15) M. J. MELLINK,George M. A. Hanfmann, 1911-1986, in: Bulletin of the Asia Institute 1, 1987, xiii-xiv [16) D. G. MITTENet al. (ed.), Studies Presented to George M. A. Hanfmann, 1971 (17] D. G. MITTEN,George Maxim Anossov Hanfmann 1911-1986, in: American Journal of Archaeology 91, 1987, 259-266 (18) M. PALLOTTINO,George M. A. Hanfmann, in: Studi Etruschi SS, 1987-1988, 531-533. STEPHEN L. DYSON Harder, Richard German classical philologist. Born Tetenbiill (Northern Friesland) 19. 1. 1896, died Zurich 4. 9. 1957. Attended Kiel Gelehrtenschule, Abitur 1914; studied at Heidelberg (theology), Kiel and Berlin (classical philology); doctorate 1924 at Berlin; habil. 1927 at Heidelberg. From 1927 prof. of classical philology at Konigsberg; 1930 invited to Kiel; 1941-1944 prof. at Munich and head of the 'Institute for Indo-Germanic Intellectual History' (lnstitut fur lndogermanische Geistesgeschichte). After World War II, initially worked as private scholar (at Possenhofen am Starnberger See); then 1952 appointed to chair of Greek studies at Munich. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

After briefly studying theology at Heidelberg (until the outbreak of World War I), H. began studying classical philology at Kiel, his teachers including Werner ➔ Jaeger. When Jaeger was appointed to Berlin in 1921, H. followed him there, taking his doctorate in 1924 on the pseudo-Pythagorean author Ocellus Lucanus l 1). In 1925, Jaeger entrusted H. with the editorship of the newly-founded periodical Gnomon. He remained editor until 1938, becoming joint editor-in-chief 1930-1944. His habit. followed in 1927, in Heidelberg with Otto Regenbogen [3]; shortly afterwards, H. was appointed to Konigsberg, then in 1930 to Kiel. In 1941 he became director of the so-called 'Institute for Indo-Germanic Intellectual History' at Berlin; initially it was to be called the 'Institute for Aryan Intellectual History' (lnstitut fur Arische Geistesgeschichte), but H. lobbied successfully to change the name (9). This institute was in the general orbit of Alfred Ernst Rosenberg's 'Advanced School of the NDSP' (Hoher Schule der NSDAP), an elite univ. for national socialist research, teaching and education that was never fully implemented. H.'s relations with national socialism have been thoroughly studied [7); [8]; [ 10). Classified as a 'follower' (Mitliiufer) in Denazification, he was initially not permitted able to work in his subject, but he was allowed

2.66

to publish. His former Greek student Hannah Arendt wrote of H. to Uwe Johnson on 17- 9. 197 4 that he was "the only one of all of them I knew who ... could never forgive himself for any of it" ("der einzige von alien, die ich kenne,

der . .. sich selber die ganze Sache nie hat verzeihen konnen") (6. 139). He was reappointed to Munich in 1952. H. translated many Greek and Latin works into German (Plato, Ovid, Tyrtaeus), and worked on many aspects of classical philology, including Greek writing and inscriptions, and early Greek poetry (5). One clear speciality was Greek philosophy (especially the history of Platonism and Plotinus) and its reception by Cicero (2.). H. was one of the most important German scholars of Platonism in the 20th cent. He rendered great and lasting service to the reception of Plotinus with his complete translation (4), which remains highly regarded, in the German-speaking world and beyond. WRITINGS

(1) Occellus Lucanus, Text und Kommentar (diss. Berlin), 1926 (2) Die Einbiirgerung der Philosophie in Rom, in: Die Antike S, 1929, 2.91-316 (reiss. in K.S., 1960, 33F.HORST (ed.), Bausteine einer ji.idischen Geschichte der Universitat Leipzig, 1006, 169-28 5 [ 1 o] E. REINER,An Adventure of Great Dimension. The Launching of the Assyrian Benno Dictionary, 2002 [11) W. SALLABERGER, Landshergers 'Eigenbegrifflichkeit' in wissenschaftsgeschichtlicher Perspektive, in: C. Wu.CKE(ed.), Das geistige Erfassen der Welt im Alten Orient, 1007, 63-82. JOACHIM

OELSNER

Langlotz, Ernst

German archaeologist. Born Ronneburg (Thuringia) 6. 7. 1895, died Bonn 4. 6. 1978. School at Leipzig; studied at Leipzig and Munich. Doctorate Leipzig 192.0/2.1. 192.2./2.3assistant at Univ. of Heidelberg; 192.3/2.4 DAI travel scholarship. 1925-1931 assistant and conservator in Wi.irzburg. at Martin-van-Wagner-Museum 192.5 habil. at Wi.irzburg; 1931-1933 prof. ext. at Jena; 19 33-1940 prof. ord. at Frankfurt; from 1941 prof. ord. in Bonn; 19 54 vice-president of DAI; retired 1966. WORK

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INFLUENCE

L.' diss. on issues in the dating of Archaic art was a fundamental study of lasting value [ 1 ). His perspective, going beyond genre, was pioneering in method, implying parallel developments of style in sculpture and vase-painting. After his diss. L. initially remained within the latter branch of study as he worked on Franz Botho Graef's publication of the Acropolis vases. In 1932. he and Walter Hahland published a catalogue of vases in the Wi.irzburg collection (3]. He still occasionally wrote on vase-painting later in his career [7). But the main focus of his academic work was Greek sculpture. Sculpture of the Archaic Period was the subject as he studied the Korai as part of the project led by Hans Schrader to publish the Athenian Acropolis sculptures (4]. He attempted several times to contribute to the reconstruction of lost works of Classical Greek sculpture by combining a number of parts of copies, e.g. in a treatise on the type of the Athena Medici [ 5].

LANGLOTZ,

ERNST

L.' most important work was his hahil. thesis, in which he attempted to pinpoint regional and local idiosyncrasies of Greek sculpture of the 6th and early 5th cent. BC [2. ). Controversial since its appearance, this nonetheless highly-regarded study suggests that particular places influenced particular schools of art, and that these were reflected in the somatic design of monuments. L. attributed the diversity to a blend of social, cultural and genetic conditions, and some of his metaphors, e.g. "Artung des Blutes'" ("properties of blood"), are difficult to comprehend today [ 1 5 ). L. continued to take an interest in the definition of artistic centres and landscapes later in his career, especially in two monographs from the 196os/J97os [6); I10). L. belonged to a tendency that went heyond Philhellenism in its broader sense to a veneration of Greek culture and art that was almost religious. He particularly sacralized High Classicism. He explained the 'image of man' manifest in Classical sculpture as emanating from its religious context, contrasting this with the atheistic Humanism of the Romans [ 1 1 [. His focus on Classicism presumably had early roots in his life; he read Adolf ► Furtwiingler's Meisterwerke as a schoolboy. The idealization of Greek Classicism also recalls the context of the Stefan George Circle, with which L. came into contact, firstly while an assistant at Heidelberg, then later at Frankfurt. On the other hand, he was indifferent to Hellenistic art and hostile to Roman. However, in the last years of his life, he also turned to late-antique, early Christian architecture and the Western reception of ancient art [8); (9). With Ernst ► Buschor, L. was a leading proponent of a movement of renewal inspired by Lebensphilosophie in German classical archaeology between the wars, seeking ethical orientation in engagement with the Archaic and Classical art of the Greeks. This impulse exerted a lasting influence through the work of some of his rather few students (who included Adolf H. Borbein and Hans Lauter). WRITINGS

[ 1) Zur Zeithestimmung der strengrotfigurigen Vasenmalerei und der gleichzeitigen Plastik 1920 I21 Friihgriechische (diss. Leipzig), Bildhauerschulen (habil. thesis Wiirzburg), 1927 (3) Griechische Vasen (Martin-von-WagnerMuseum der Univ. Wiirzburg, Bildkataloge 1; with W. HAHLAND),1932 (4) Die Koren, in: H. SCHRADER (ed.), Die archaischen Marmorbildwerke der Akropolis, Vol. 1, 1939, Part 1, 3-184 Is] Die Repliken der Athena Medici, in: Madrider [61 Die Kunst der Mitteilungen 1, 1960, 164-173 Westgriechen in Sizilien und Unteritalien, 1963 (English: Ancient Greek Sculpture of South Italy and Sicily, trans. A. HICKS, 1965) [7] Der Sinn attischer Vasenbilder, in: Wissenschaftliche Zs. der

Wilhelm-Pieck-Universitiit Rostock. ~tls.:-hafrsReihe wissenschaftliche 1 6, 1967, ,t-:- .l-,48"' (81 Der architekturgeschichtliche UrsprungJerchristlichen Basilika (Rheinisch-westfalische Akademte der Wissenschaften, Geisteswissenschaft't'rt• 16.in,.j conference), 1971. (9) Griechische l(iJflSt in heutiger Sichr (Das Ahendland, N. F. j ). i9- ~ I I o I Studien zur nordostgriechischen KUt\s'• I 9- ~ SECONDARY

LITERATURE

I• 1 I A.

H. BRREIN, Die Klassik-Diskussio!I in 1.kr Klassischen Archaologie, 1.30-233 [ 1 .i) A. H.. BoRRl'.IN,Ernst Langlotz, in: Gnomon s i. I 9-~ 706-711 [131 W. GFOMINY/ D. PlNK'IX'wenklau, Hans; Johannes Amelsburnus (the family came from Amelsbiiren near Munster in Westphalia). German philologist, historian and jurist. Probably born in July 1541 at Coesfeld, probably died June 1594 at Vienna. From 15 5 5, studied at Wittenberg, from 1 562 at Heidelberg (1563 as alumnus ;uris) and I 56(,/67 at Basel 16]. Various missions from I 565. CAREER,

WORKS

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L., who was born into modest circumstances showed an early inclination to travel. He visited the Baltic in his youth, probably with his teacher Heinrich Henning. He expanded on his family's contacts with influential Crypto-Calvinist circles as a student of Philipp • Melanchthon and Wilhelm at Wittenberg • Xylander (Holtzmann) at Heidelberg. This led to the failure of his attempt to succeed Xylander in his professorship at Heidelberg in 1576. L.' works were put on the Papal Index in 1 596 and again in 1758. From 1 565, L. undertook missions on behalf of. various patrons that took him to Turin , Vienna, Istanbul, Ferrara and various German cities, mostly to compile political reports or nurture contacts with fellow Protestants. In 1 594, accompanying the governor of Moravia, Karl von Zierotin, he took part in the siege of Gran in Hungary, where he contracted a fatal illness. Several fellow travellers, including Friedrich Sylburg and Paul 'Melissus' Schede, wrote tributes to him. L.' philological achievements include especially his editions and Latin translations of works of important Greek ancient authors (e.g. Xenophon, complete edition Basel 15 69 and 1594; Plutarch, Basel 1 565), early Christian authors (Gregory of Nazianzus, Basel 1571; Gregory of Nyssa, Basel 1 571) and Byzantine authors (Michael Glykas, Constantine Manasses) (6). As a histoWRITINGS rian, L. strove for objectivity even transcending [1) Die Latin Adjektiva auf -lis (diss. Strasbourg), religious reservations. In the foreword to his Homerische Worter, 1950 1917 (2) Latin translation of the pagan historian Zosimus (3) Morphologische Neuerungen im altindischen Verbalsystem, 1952. (4] K. S. (FS), ed. H. HAFITER (2), he defends the ancient author's criticism of Constantine I and denies that the Christian et al., 19 59 IsI LEUMANN-HOFMANN-SZANTYR: Lateinische Grammatik, Vol. 1: Lateinische Lautemperor was in any way superior to the pagan und Formenlehre (Hdb. der Altertumswissenschaft emperors, although he does not give Constantine

LEUNCLAVIUS,

JOHANNES

the sole blame for the downfall of Rome. In the light of the 1453 collapse of the 'New Rome' (Constantinople) and the looming Turkish threat to Europe, L. wrote several works on Ottoman history (e.g. [3 )) [5. 98-110). His legal studies assisted the interpretation of Justinianic law by reference to secondary Byzantine sources 17. uo-114; 264-267). L.' editions of the Ecloga (Eklogi) (1) (now known as the Synopsis maior) and Ius Graeco-Romanum (4] mark the beginning of research into Byzantine legal history.

WORK

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A classical philologist by training, L. became an archaeologist and field researcher through his studies with the SAIA (led by Alessandro _. Della Seta) at excavations in Greece. Sent for training to the SAIA by Federico -+ Halbherr, L. gained substantial excavation experience in his first years the in Greece. Above all, in 1924, he explored necropoleis of the early Archaic city of Arkades, near Afrati in east central Crete (2). The resumption of SAIA activities and Italian excavations on He Crete after World War II was his achievement. WRITINGS resumed the excavations at Phaistos as early as [1] LX librorum basilikon, id est universi 19 50, discovering extraordinarily well-preserved iuris Romani ... Graecam in linguam traducti, remains of the older palace on the southern slope ecloga sive synopsis, Basel 1575 (2) Zosimi of the hill there. This project, which continued Comitis... Historiae novae libri VI ... Quibus addi- without interruption until 1967, was the subject tae sunt Historiae Procopii Caesariensis, Agathiae of l.'s magnum opus [6). He undertook other Myrrinaei, Jornandis Alani (Latin trans.), Basel important excavations at Kamilari (Bronze Age 1576 (3) Historiae Musulmanae Turcorum, de monumentis ipsorum exscriptae libri XVIII, round tombs), on the Acropolis of Gortyn and in Frankfurt/Main 1591 [4] luris Graeco-Romani the Minoan 'villa' of Kannia-Mitropolis. L.'s scholarly and cultural horizons were tarn canonici quam civilis tomi duo (edition), postremarkably broad, ranging from the Etruscan humous ed. M. FREHER, Frankfurt/Main 1596. and Graeco-Roman spheres (where his great SECONDARY LITERATURE work on the mosaics of Antioch [3], written [s] S. MAZZARINO, Das Ende der antiken Welt, during his exile in the United States, is especially 1961 (Italian 1959) (6) D. MITZI.ER,Johannes worthy of note) to the Mesopotamian, Minoan Lowenklau, in: R. STUPPERICH (ed.), Westfalische and Mycenaean cultures. Inspired by the idea Lebensbilder 13, 1985, 19-44 [7) H. E. TROJE, of a cultural continuity between the Minoan Graeca leguntur. Die Aneignung des byzantinischen Rechts und die Entstehung eines humanis- and early Greek worlds (4], he saw the island tischen Corpus iuris civilis in der Jurisprudenz des of Crete as a venue for the reception and transmission of Eastern influences. His idealistic and 16. Jh.s, 1971. elitist cultural profile, with little fondness for hisSONJA SCH0NAUER torical 'synopsis', not infrequently caused him to seem a contradictory figure, as e.g. in his dispute Levi, Doro with Arthur + Evans, the excavator of Knossos issues Italian archaeologist. Born Teodoro L., [10). L. was cool towards methodological of excavation technology, and the innovations Trieste, 1. 6. 1898, died Rome 3. 7. 1991. promoted in the 'New Archaeology'. The idio1920 graduated in philology from Florence. syncratic style of his publications in which 192r-1926 working at the Scuola Archeologica excavation data, find descriptions, observations ltaliana di Atene (SAIA); 1926 inspector of the and cultural and historical conclusions are inexSoprintendenza alle antichita dell'Etruria. 1931 tricably intertwined - reflects his rather literary lecturer in Greek and Roman archaeology and art history at Univ. of Florence. 193r-1933 par- view of his work, dependent more on intuition than transparent argument. This may be the reaticipated in first Italian archaeological mission in Mesopotamia and excavation at Kiliz. 193 5- son why Crete as a subject and the SAIA itself have long since played only a rather marginal 1938 prof. of archaeology and Graeco-Roman role in Italian archaeology. art history at the Univ. of Cagliari and interim LW: [11. 183-197); (8. 359-374]. superintendent of works of art and antiquities for Sardinia. Following dismissal from teaching WRITINGS post because of Fascist racial legislation, emi[r] Le cretule di Haghia Triada e di Zakro, in: grated 1938-1945 to USA; fellow at Institute Annuario della Scuola archeologica d'Atene e for Advanced Study in Princeton. 1947-1977 delle missioni italiane in Oriente 8-9, 192.5-1926, director of the SAIA; 19 50 resumed excava71-201 (2) Arkades. Una citta cretese all'alba della tions of Phaistos (Crete); 1960 initiated Italian civilta ellenica (Annuario della Scuola archeologica excavations at Carian Iasos (Turkey). Member di Atene e delle missioni italiane in Oriente 10-12., of the Accademia dei Lincei and the Athenian 1927-1929), 1931 (3) Antioch Mosaic Pavements, 2 vols., 1947 (4] Continuita della tradizione micenea Academy. nell'arte greca arcaica, in: Atti e memorie del I

LIETZMANN,

HANS

Congresso internazionale di Micenologia, 1968, 185-21 5 Is) Festos. Metodo e criteri di uno sea vo archeologico, 1968 [6) Festos e la civika minoica, 2 parts in 6 vols., 1976-1988.

George Circle (Ernst Kantorowicz, Waldemar von -➔ Uxkull-Gyllenband, Friedrich Gundolf). From the time of his British captivity, L. worked intensively on Plato. His diss. on this subject was part of the broad academic (Paul ➔ Friedlander, SECONDARY LITERATURE Werner • Jaeger, Karl ➔ Reinhardt, Hans(7) Antichita cretesi. Studi in onore di Doro Georg Gadamer) and Georgean (Kurt Singer, Levi, 2 vols., 1973-1974 (8) Giornata lincea in Edgar Salin, Kurt Hildebrandt) Platonic 'relecricordo di Doro Levi, Roma 7 marzo 1995, in: Atti ture' movement of the 1920s. dell' Accademia nazionale dei Lincei. Rendiconti, It was to the credit of the director of the Berlin classe di scienze morali, storiche e filologiche ser. coin cabinet, Kurt Regling, that he appointed L. 9, 9, 1998, 309-374 19I P. BELi.i/ L. VAGNETTI (ed.), Eymeneia. Omaggio a Doro Levi, 1990 to the collection in 1927 as it were 'through the (10) F. CARINCI,Doro Levi and Minoan Archaeology back door'. L.'s essay on the coinage of Octavian (1950-1980). History of a Heresy without Stakes, was ground breaking [ 1], and it is a matter of in: Creta Antica 8, 2007, 401-417 7(11] P. CAssoLA regret that he did not take on a 'major' book GUIDAI E. FLOREANO(ed.), MV11µ£tov.Ricordo trion Augustus. Plans for a habil. in this direction estino di Doro Levi, 199 5 I12) V. LA RosA, Levi, were discussed with Eduard ➔ Fraenkel at Kiel, (13) F. Lo Teodoro, in: DBI 64, 2005, 796-800 but came to nothing. L.'s most important student SCHIAVO(ed.), Omaggio a Doro Levi (Quaderni della Soprintendenza archeologica di Sassari e was Hans Ulrich Instinsky, who after World War II saw to it that L.'s book on Phidias [3), which Nuoro 19), 1995. was destroyed while being typeset, could be pubANNA LUCIAD'AGATA lished posthumously in 19 52. Lieg)e, Josef Theodor WRITINGS

German philologist and numismatist. Born Schwiibisch Gmiind 12. 6. 189 3, lost near Berlin 1945. After his Abitur at Pforzheim in 1912/13, began study of architecture at Kiinigliche Technische Hochschule zu Berlin, then from summer semester 19 r 3 studied classical philology and history at Friedrich-Wilhelms-Univ. there. Moved to Heidelberg 1914 (teachers including Franz Boll). Soldier on the Western Front from January 1915. 1916-1919 prisoner of war in British captivity. Continued studies 1919/20 with Otto Weinreich, Ludwig • Curtius and Alfred von ➔ Domaszewski. 1922 examination for teaching in higher education; doctorate with Franz Boll at Heidelberg with a diss. on the Platonic forms of life. Thereafter a private teacher. Moved to Berlin 1927. Worked at coin cabinet of the Kaiser-Friedrich-Museum in Berlin, initially as 'ancillary' (Hilfskraft), then 'assistant' (Hilfsarbeiter); curator there from 1929. 19 3 6 named prof. Called up in the autumn of 1944, he disappeared in the last days of the war during the Battle of Berlin. WORK

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L. began as a passionate translator (Euripides' Bacchae, 1921; Sophocles' Oedipus, 1922; Monumentum Ancyranum, 1926). The highlight of this work was his translation of Virgil's Aeneid. L. 's translations were praised for their precision and their "beauty of diction, imagery and me/os" ("Schonheit in Wortwahl, Bildlichkeit und Melos") [4. 19]. There seems to be an echo in them of his encounter with Stefan George and his friendship with various members of the

[ 1) Die Milnzpriigung Octavians nach dem Siege von Actium und die augusteische Kunst, in: Jb. des Deutschen Archaologischen Instituts 56, 1941, 91-119 [2] Euainetos. Eine Werkfolge nach Originalen des Staatlichen Milnzkabinetts zu Berlin ( 101. Winckelmannsprogramm der Archaologischen Gesellschaft zu Berlin), 1941 (3] Der Zeus des Phidias, 1952- [4] Litterae Augustae. Augusteische Dichtungen und Texte des Princeps in deutscher Obersetzung, ed. A. KERKHECKER, 2007. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

Is) B. KLUGE,Das Milnzkabinett - Museum und Wissenschaftsinstitut, ScHIERING Arch. 333.

2004,

103

(6)

LULLIES/

KAY

EHLING

Lietzmann, Hans German theologian and ecclesiastical historian. Born Dusseldorf 2. 3. 1875, died Locarno 25. 6. 1942.. Abitur at Wittenberg; studies at Jena and Bonn; doctorate in theology at Bonn 1896. Staatsexamen 1898; habil. Bonn 1900. 1905 prof. ext. in church history, 1908 prof. ord. at Jena; 192.4 prof. ord. at Berlin. WORK

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INFLUENCE

L. studied Protestant theology and classical philology. His main teachers were the philologist and religious historian Hermann ➔ Usener and the New Testament scholar Eduard Grafe at Bonn, where L. took his doctorate with a diss. on the title of the 'Son of Man' in the New Testament [2], then his habil. with a study on Apollinaris of Laodicea in ancient ecclesiastical history, Patristics and the text and canonical

LIETZMANN,

37o

HANS

history of the Greek Bible (3). L. reached the pinnacle of his career as he succeeded Adolf von ➔ Harnack at Berlin. His many offices and distinctions made him one of the most influential theologians and academic politicians of the Weimar Republic and the Third Reich. He kept his distance from the National Socialist regime (he was a member of the schismatic Bekennende Kirche, 'Confessing Church'), but certainly maintained contact with students and colleagues who were close to the regime. At first, he grossly underestimated the dangers posed by the regime, but later emphatically stood up for persecuted colleagues. L.'s importance lay in the fields of New Testament exegesis, Patristics and Christian archaeology in equal measure. In Bible studies, his aim was the thorough philological and historico-critical training of his students. This was the aim of the commentary series Handbuch zum Neuen Testament which he founded, and for which he wrote the arguments on several of the epistles of Paul ( 1 ). During his Jena period, he also developed an interest in liturgical and archaeological issues, among others. However, L.'s most important work is his (unfinished) Geschichte der A/ten Kirche (6], in which he broke new ground with his arguments on ancient Christian denominations, the history of church architecture and divine service, and popular piety, all written with a combination of narrative mastery and fulsome reference to sources. L.'s most important students included Kurt Aland and Wilhelm Schneemelcher. M: Selbstdarstellung, in: E. Stange (ed.), Die Religionswissenschaft der Gegenwart in Selbstdarstellungen, Vol. 2., 192.6, 77-117 (abridged reiss. in: (7. Vol. 3, 331-368)).

E: Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin Preussischer Kulturbesitz. WRITINGS

(1) Kommentare im Hdb. zum Neuen Testament zu Rom (1906), I Kor (1907), II Kor (1909), Gal (1910) (et al.) l2I Der Menschensohn. Ein Beitrag zur neutestamentlichen Theologie (diss. Bonn), 1896 [3) Apollinaris von Laodicea und seine Schule, 1904 (reiss. 1970) [4] Petrus und Paulus in Rom, 1915 (•1917) Is) Messe und Herrenmahl. Eine Studie zur Geschichte der Liturgie, 1916 (•1967) [6) Geschichte der Alten Kirche, 4 vols., 1931-1944 ( 5 1975; reiss. 1999; English: A History of the Early Church, 1 vols., 1993) l71 Kleine Schriften, 3 vols., 1958-1961. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

(8) K. ALAND (ed.), Glanz und Niedergang der deutschen Universitat. 50 Jahre deutsche Wissenschaftsgeschichte in Briefen an und von Hans 1979 (with bibliograLietzmann (1891-1941), phy) [9] C. ANDRESEN, Lietzmann, Hans, in: NDB

14, 1985, 544-546 l10] W. KINZIG, Evangelische Patristiker und christliche Archaologen im 'Dritten Reich'. Drei Fallstudien: Hans Lietzmann, Hans von Soden, Hermann Wolfgang Beyer, in: Naf AA 535-619 (11] W. KINZIG,Hans Lietzmann (18751941), in: R. ScHMIDT-ROSTet al. (ed.), Theologie als Vermittlung. Bonner evangelische Theologen (1.2.) H.-U. des 19. Jh.s im Portrat, 2.003, 2.2.0-2.31 RosF.NBAUM,Lietzmann, Hans, in: BiographischBibliographisches Kirchenlexikon, Vol. 5, 1993, 46-54 [13) W. ScHNEEMELCHER, Lietzmann, Hans in: TRE 2.1, 1991, Karl Alexander (1875-1942.), 191-196. WOLFRAM

KINZIG

Ligorio, Pirro Italian painter, architect and antiquarian. Born Naples, 1 512. or 151 3, died Ferrara 2.6. 10. 1583. Painter at Rome from c. 1534. 1548 member of the Congregazione dei Virtuosi al Pantheon; from 1549 antiquarian in the service of Cardinal Ippolito II d'Este and a participant in the excavations of the villa Hadriani at Tivoli. From 1561 architect to Pope Pius IV, succeeding Michelangelo in 1 564 as chief architect at the Fabbrica di San Pietro (new construction of St. Peter's Basilica). From 1568, antiquarian and architect at the court of Alfonso II d'Este in Ferrara. CAREER

AND

WORKS

In his first years at Rome, L. was engaged as a pittore neapolitano, mostly working on the frescos on palace fa(j,ades, but he rapidly came into contact with the centres of antiquarian scholarship. In his writings he claims to have been a member of an Accademia de/lo Sdegno (or degli Sdegnati), which may have derived its name from the anger of its members at the destruction of ancient remains for lime burning lu]; [12.). Acquainted with the ideas of the Accademia de/la Virtu, which aimed to connect the philological study of ancient sources with scrutiny of the ruins, he saw every ancient fragment as an object of relevance to research. He drew them and sought to explain them by the study of ancient texts. L.'s studies and drawings were recorded in over 40 manuscript volumes, in which he examined almost all fields of antiquities research: epigraphy, topography, numismatics, iconography and mythology. Twelve volumes were written at Rome and were sold in 1567, with his collection of ancient coins, to Cardinal Alessandro Farnese (now in the Biblotheca Nazionale, Naples). Of the remaining 30 volumes, which L. wrote at Ferrara, 18 arrange the material alphabetically into an encyclopaedia of antiquity (now in the Archivio di Stato, Turin). Only a few excerpts of his writings were published during his lifetime,

LINACRE,

37 1 including the Libra de/le antichita di Roma of 15 53 Ir] with the Paradosse, in which he takes a critical view of Roman topography past and present (9). L.'s cartographic work was crowned with great success. Many maps, including his three plans of Rome (1552, 1553 and 1561) (2), were published during his lifetime [ 5 ]. Commentaries of the time already reflect the mixed feelings that L.'s antiquarian material would evoke among recipients. The Spanish Humanist Antonio Agustin praised the profusion of drawings but warned of a lack of faithfulness to the original [ 10. 3 2]. Unlike other draughtsmen of the day, L. did not draw the ancient pieces in their fragmentary state, but assembled the remains, using comparison with similar objects and his study of the sources to present them as reconstructions of statues or buildings, intended to evoke the brilliant of a lost ancient age [10). INFLUENCE

Well into the 1 8th cent., there was intensive study not only of L. 's published volume but also of his manuscripts that were available for consultation in the Palazzo Farnese at Rome. The painter Nicolas Poussin, keenly interested in antiquity, often included motifs from L. 's great map of Rome (Venice 1561) in his paintings [5). Many prints from his Antichita di Roma were used in later publications, including Joachim von -► Sandrart's Teutsche Academie (1675-1679). Archaeologists from the late 19th cent., especially Christian • Htilsen [8) and Hermann • Dessau [7], established the image of L. as a forger of antiquarian materials in their writings. Since the 19 50s, beginning with the studies of Erna Mandowsky and Charles Mitchell [ 1 o ), this assessment has begun to be challenged, with L. 's role in the development of the archaeological sciences enjoying some rehabilitation. E: Oxford, Bodleian Library (MS canon. Italian r 3 8 ); Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale (Cod. Italian 1129); Naples, Biblioteca Nazionale (MS XIII, B 1-10); Turin, Archivio di Stato (MS a.II.1-17, MS a.III.3-15). WRITINGS

[ 1] Delle antichita di Roma, nel qua le si tratta de' circi, theatri, & anfitheatri, con le Paradosse del medesimo auttore, quai confutano la commune opinione sopra varii luoghi della citta di Roma, Venice 15 53 (FONTES 9: electronic resource) [2) Anteiquae [sic] Urbis imago accuratissime ex vetusteis monumenteis [sic] formata, Rome/ Venice 1561 [3] Libri degli eroi e uomini illustri dell'antichita, ed. B. PALMAVENE11Jca, 2005 (4) Libro dell'antica citta di Tivoli e di alcune famose ville, ed. A. TEN, 2005.

SECONDARY

THOMAS

LITERATURE

Is! H. BURNS,Pirro Ligorio's Reconstruction of Ancient Rome. The Antiquae Urbis Imago of 1 561, in: R. W. GASTON(ed.), Pirro Ligorio, Artist and Antiquarian, 1988, 19-92 [6) D. R. CornN, Pirro Ligorio. The Renaissance Artist, Architect and Antiquarian, 2004 [7] H. DF.ssAu,Romische Reliefs beschrieben von Pirro Ligorio, in: SB der Preussischen Akad. der Wissenschaften 1 5, l8J C. HUEl-~F.N,Die Hermen1883, 1077-1105 inschriften beruhmter Griechen und die ikonographischen Sammlungen des XVI. Jh.s, in: Romische Mitteilungen 16, 1901, 123-154 l91 M. LAUREYS I A. SCHREURS,Egio, Marliano, Ligorio, and the Forum Romanum in the 16th Century, in: Humanistica Lovaniensia. Journal of Neo-Latin Studies 4 5, 1996, 3 8 5-40 5 II o) E. MANDOWSKY I C. MncHF.1.1.,Pirro Ligorio's Roman Antiquities. The Drawings in MS XIII. B. 7 in the National Library in Naples (Studies of the Warburg Institute 28), 1963 [ 11 I A. ScHRF.URS,Antikenbild und Kunstanschauungen des neapolitanischen Maiers, Architekten und Antiquars Pirro Ligorio ( 151 31583), 2000 112] G. VAGENHl:.IM, Les 'Antichita Romane' de Pirro Ligorio et I'Accademia degli Sdegnati, in: M. DF.RAMAIX / P. GAi.AND-HALLY (ed.), Les Academies clans !'Europe humaniste. Ideaux et pratiques, 2008, 99-128. ANNASCHREURS

Linacre, Thomas Lynaker, Thomas; English physician and philologist. Probably born 1460, Canterbury or surroundings, died 20. 10. 1524. Schooled at Canterbury, studied at Oxford. 1487-1499 journey to Italy with stays at Florence, Rome, Venice and Padua. 1488-1490 studied at Florence with Angelo -·► Poliziano and Demetrios Chalkokondyles. 1496 awarded a diploma of medicine at Padua. Returned to London c. 1499, where he worked as prince's tutor at the English court and as a physician. 1 5 18 founded the Royal College of Physicians. 15 20 holy orders. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

Not all phases of L. 's life are clearly attested. What is certain is that he was one of the first Englishmen to study for a significant period in Italy; he had clearly made the academic preparations for this at Oxford. At Venice, he was in contact with Aldus ► Manutius, and was a member of the Neacademia. His work as tutor at court may have been the stimulus for his three Latin grammars: De emendata structura Latini sermonis 131 and the two grammars originally written in English, Progymnasmata ( 1517) [ 1) and Rudimenta [ 2] ( 1523; translated with many corrections into Latin 152 5 and 153 3 by George Buchanan). These works were regarded at the time as difficult but highly competent.

--LINACRE,

THOMAS

In 1499, L. emerged for the first time as a translator from Greek, with his Latin version of Pseudo-Proclus' De sphaera. His fame as a Humanist and physician was based above all on his later Latin translations of the Greek medical writers: Galen's De sanitate tuenda ( 1517), Method us medendi ( 1519 ), De temperamentis (after 1 52 1 ), De inaequali intemperie (after 1521), De pulsuum usu (1522 or 1524), De naturalibus facultatibus (1523). His Latin translations of Galen's De symptomatum differentiis and De symptomatum causis appeared posthumously in 1524 and those of De victus ratione quolibet anni tempore utili and De diebus criticis by Paul of Aegina posthumously in 1526 and 1528. With these major translation projects, L. was adding his contribution to the efforts of earlier scholars, such as Lorenzo Lorenzi (Lorenzano), Giorgio ➔ Valla, Niccolo --,. Leoniceno and Wilhelm Kopp (Copus), with their translations of the works of Galen and Hippocrates. Like them, he hoped to free medicine from its medieval reliance on the Arabic transmission and trace it back to the original Greek sources themselves. The foundation of the Royal College of Physicians ( 151 8 ), a project initiated by L and supported by Henry VIII and Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, was part of the same programme: an academically legitimized medical profession, trained in the Humanist tradition, would now distinguish itself from 'mere practitioners' (barbers and surgeons).

37.2.

Dresden; 1738 appointment at the Hauptzeughaus there. 1739 drawing master to the royal pages. 1763 refused a professorship at Gottingen; from 1764 administrator and prof. of antiquities at Dresden Kunstakademie [12. 13). WORKS

Although L. 's training was primarily practical, he acquired a prodigious knowledge of ancient sources and art works by self-study. Inspired by glass pastes from Italy and sulphur prints from the Praun'sches Kabinett in Nuremberg. L. devoted his scholarly energy to editing a collection of outstanding gemstone prints and casts [6. XVI). After a first publication of prints as a simple list (1747/48), he issued in 1753 the first of what would be three editions of his work comprising 1,000 sequentially-numbered gemstone cases with mythological scenes, and volume a Latin index [ 1 ]. The accompanying was arranged in table form, and along with the sequential numbering, it contained information on the motif, type of stone, owner and references to the literature. In 1755, L. published a second edition as Dactyliotheca universalis, as the first part in a series ordered by mythological and historical pictorial subjects (.2.). The second and third batches of a thousand cases each followed in 1756 (3) and 176.2. (4]. Johann Friedrich ➔ Christ provided the accompanying Latin texts for the first two volumes, and Christian Gottlob _. Heyne wrote them for the third. The third WRITINGS edition came in 1767 (5) as an extract from the [1] Progymnasmata grammatices vulgaria, London second, and a supplement volume appeared in (South Side) 1512. (2] Rudimenta grammatices, 1776 (6). The accompanying texts to these, writLondon 152.3 (or 152.5) [3] De emendata structen in German by L. himself, were furnished with tura Latini sermonis, London 1524. cross-references to facilitate their use in conjunction with the casts in the earlier editions. SECONDARY LITERATURE Since L. never travelled beyond the environs [4] J. FREIND,The History of Physick. From the of Dresden, he only knew the originals in the Time of Galen, to the Beginning of the Sixteenth collections kept there. However, he received Century, 172.5, 41er415 Is] J. N. JoHNsoN,The Life of Thomas Linacre, 1835 [6) F. MADDISON many additional impressions through his correspondence with other scholars (e.g. from Johann et al. (ed.), Essays on the Life and Work of Thomas -• Winckelmann from the Italian Linacre (c. 146er152.4), 1968 [7] W. OSLER, Joachim Thomas Linacre, 1908. collections). DOROTHEE GALL L. was the first ( 17 5 5) to use the term dactyliotheca, which in antiquity was mostly used Lippert, Philipp Daniel for physical collections of cut stones, to refer to collections of gemstone prints, and the usage German draughtsman and gemmologist. Born became established (2). He created an original Meissen 29. 9. 1702, died Dresden 28. 3. 1785. system of classification with his presentation Short school education. From 1719, apprenof the materials in classes. L. 's work was encytice to a glassmaker at Pirna. Employment as clopaedic in nature and sought to present the a scribe in Dresden while attending the draw- whole spectrum of the ancient world of images. ing school of Heinrich Christoph Fehling in Although his works were initially aimed at scholthe city. Trained as a porcelain painter in the ars and the educated lay public, the edition of Meissen manufactory. Opened a drawing school 1767 was specifically intended for artists [ 5]. For instance, L. deliberately contrasted some at Meissen. From 1736, teacher at the Akademie fur lngenieurskunst, Artillerie und Architektur in ancient pieces with imitations by early modern

373 gem-cutters like Lorenz -• Natter 18, 65, fig. 4J. Besides his scholarly reception, mainly in works on mythology, L. and his works, which were also reissued posthumously, also had a great influence especially on the educated middle classes (e.g. in schools), offering as they did an incomparable abundance of illustrations of ancient pictorial works (9. 64-67). INFLUENCE

L.'s work appeared at a time of change in the study of ancient gemstones, as scholars increasingJy turned away from what were now seen as unreliable engravings and preferred to judge w?rks by prints, which reproduced the originals without loss of quality. In this context, it was the first comprehensive 18th-cent. collection of gemstone prints with German commentary. However, L. did not achieve his aim of confining his collection to ancient materials [5. XXj. Because his experience with originals was more limited than that of, s~y, Philipp von • Stosch, many early m~dern pieces found their way into it [ 12.. 16 J. It 1s characteristic of his scholarly approach that he preferred direct inspection of the pieces or d_etailed s~ruti~y of prints to philological exegesis. Especially m the text of the German edition this frequently leads to assessments at varianc; ~ith _those o~ other scholars, as attested e.g. by his dispute with Gotthold Ephraim - ► Lessing on the portrayal of Death (8. 63 f.].

LIPPOLD,

ADOLF

Gotter und Caesaren aus der Schublade (exh. [11] ZAZOFF GG 153-16 4 cat.), 2006, 76-77 ( 12) E. ZWIERLFJN-DIEHL, Glaspasten im Martinvon-Wagner-Museum der Universitiit Wtirzburg, Vol. 1: Ahdrticke von antiken und ausgewiihlten nachantiken Intagli und Kameen, 1986, 13-17. JORN

LANG

Lippold, Adolf German ancient historian. Born Erlangen 23. 1o. 19 26, died Regensburg 11. 6. 200 5. Son of the archaeologist Georg • Lippold. Studied history, classical philology and philosophy at Univs. of Erlangen and Gottingen; 1952 doctorate at Erlangen with Johannes - ► Straub. From 19 5 3, academic councillor at the Univ. of Bonn, habit. there 1960. 1968-1994 prof. ord. in ancient history at Univ. of Regensburg (1980 refused appointment to Univ. of Bonn). WORKS

After his doctorate with a diss. on Orosius' portrayal of the barbarians [ 1], L. followed the work on prosopography and social history • Gelzer, Friedrich - ► Munzer by Matthias and Thomas R. S. • Broughton by turning to the elite of the Roman Republic. He wrote his habit. thesis on the internal politics of the 3 rd cent. BC, a subject previously little studied. Here he sought to demonstrate the emergence of an individualistic 'ideal of nobility' in place of 'collective morality', and to trace the politiWRITINGS cal and religious consequences of this develop[1] Gemmarum anaglyphicarum et diaglyphicarum ment [2]. Later his chief interest was once again ex .~raecipuis Europae museis selectarum ectypa Late Antiquity, as he wrote a monograph on M[1ha], Dresden 1753 (2( Dactyliothecae univerTheodosius I (3) and hundreds of articles for the salis signorum exemplis nitidis redditae Chilias sive sc~ini~m milliarium prim um ... (with J. F. CHRIST), Kleine Pauly, the Reallexikon fur Antike und Le1pz1g 17 5 5 (3] Dactyliothecae universalis ... mil- Christentum, the Lexikon der Antiken Welt and liarium secundum, Leipzig 1756 (41 Dactyliothecae the Realenzyklopiidie, here e.g. on the emperors universalis •.. milliarium tertium, Leipzig 176 2 Theodosius I and Theodosius II (RE Suppl. 13, [s] Dactyliothec. Das ist Sammlung geschnittener 1973). He also translated Orosius' Historia adverSteine der Alten aus denen vornehmsten Museis sus paganos into German (1985/86). A particular in Europa. Zurn Nutzen der schonen Kiinste und foc~s of his work was the Historia Augusta, to Ktinstler, Leipzig 1767 (6) Suppl. zu Phil. Dan. which he devoted many essays and articles (colLipperts Dacktyliothek bestehend in Tausend und lected in [5]) and a major commentary on the Neun und Vierzig Abdrticken, Leipzig 1776. vitae of the elder and younger Maximinus [4]. Contra Hermann _. Dessau and his followers SECONDARY LITERATURE L. believed the work to have been written durin~ [7] Leben des im vorigen Jahre zu Dresden verstorbenen Hrn. prof. Lipperts, in: Neue Bibliothek der the reign of Constantine [4. 35-37]; cf. [6]. schonen Wissenschaften und freyen Ktinste 3 2./1, LW: (8. XI-XVIII) (for 1952-1992).

1?86, 22-37 (8] C. KERSCHNER, Philipp Daniel und seine Daktyliothek zum Lippert (1702-1785) 'Nutzen der schonen Ktinste und der Ktinstler', in: D. GRAEPLER/ V. KocKEI. (ed.), Daktyliotheken. Gotter und Caesaren aus der Schublade (exh. cat.), 2006, 60-75 [9] H. KNOPPEL,Daktyliotheken. Konzepte einer historischen Publikationsform, 2009, 61-67 [10) V. KocKEL,Vorlii.ufige Liste der nach~ewiesenen Exemplare Lippertscher Daktyliotheken, m: V. KocKEL / D. GRAEPLER (ed.), Daktyliotheken.

WRITINGS

[1] Rom und die Barbaren in der Beurteilung des Orosius, 1952 (typescript, diss. Erlangen) [.2) Consules. Untersuchungen zur Geschichte des romischen Konsulates von 264 bis 201 v. Chr. (Antiquitas. Reihe 1, 8; habil. thesis Bonn), 1963 [3] Theodosius der Grosse und seine Zeit 1968 (•1980) (4] Kommentar zur Vita Maximini Duo der Historia Augusta (Antiquitas. Reihe 4,

LIPPOLD,

ADOLF

Serie 3, 1 ), 1991 IsI Die Historia Augusta. Eine Sammlung romischer Kaiserbiographien aus der Zeit Konstantins, ed. G. H. WALDHERR, 1998.

374

Gemiildekopien [6) was His monograph less influential. This study lacked the other's coherence, because surviving ancient pieces of two-dimensional art resist such a typological SECONDARY LITERATURE classification, even where they are interdepen[6) J.-P. CALLU,Le commentaire de 'La vie des dent in motif or iconography. Moreover, Greek Maximins' par A. Lippold. Reactions critiques, monumental paintings are almost all lost, which in: Historiae Augustae Colloquium Maceratense, prevents critical stylistic and typological cross1995, u9-138 [7) CHRIST,RomGG 1982., 2.87 checking. [8) K. DIETZ et al. (ed.), Klassisches Altertum, L.'s most important work was his Griechische Spatantike und friihes Christentum. Adolf Lippold zum 65. Geb. gewidmet (FS), 1993. Plastik [ 5 I, designed as a handbook. Dense in HEINRICHSCHLANGE-SCHONINGENlanguage, this is a comprehensive, clearlystructured history of ancient sculpture. Keeping indications of location, descriptions of objects Lippold, Georg and citations to a minimum made it possible German classical archaeologist. Born Mainz to include countless pieces. This handbook 2.1. 2.. 1885, died Erlangen 2.3. 7. 1954. Studied was a constant work of reference in the latter at Munich and Berlin; doctorate Munich 1907. half of the 2.oth cent., and the Handbuch der Archiiologie still only partially replaces it. L. 's Romisch-Germanisches 1908 volunteer at Zentralmuseum Mainz; 1909/io DAI scholar- catalogue of the Vatican collections, continuing the work of Walther • Amelung, also set new ship to Greece and Turkey. 1910/11 volunteer at Martin-van-Wagner-Museum Wiirzburg; 1912. standards with its exceedingly careful research and thorough investigation of the monuments habit. in Munich. 1919 prof. ext. at Munich; [4]. This interest in Greek sculpture focusing on from 192.0 prof. ext. and from 192.5 prof. ord. in classical archaeology at Erlangen. From individual objects was also brought to bear in 1948 member of the Bavarian Akademie der L.'s texts to the volumes of plates on which he worked from an early age, and which he conWissenscha(ten. Father of the ancient historian tinued after Paul Julius + Arndt and Walther Adolf -+ Lippold. Amelung. More than 300 reviews by L. attest to the constant critical attention he paid to ongoing WORK AND INFLUENCE research. His great scholarly productivity also L., a student of Adolf + Furtwiingler, played a central role in the development of research into manifested itself not only in a range of individual studies, but also in a likewise large number ancient sculpture in the 2.oth cent. His treatise of lexicon entries on ancient artists. As well as Kopien und Umbildungen (3) was a pioneering achievement. He had a few years earlier investi- large sculptural works, L. was also interested in gated issues of ancient copying [ 1], but this was ancient gemstones. This speciality was reflected especially in one monograph (2.). the first attempt to make a properly historical analysis of the phenomenon of ancient adaptaWRITINGS tion and to reflect the complexity of the relations [ 1) Zur Arbeitsweise romischer Kopisten, in: between model and copy in an adequate catalogue 32., 1917, 95-117 Romische Mitteilungen of criteria. A comparison with Furtwiingler's [2] Gemmen und Kameen des Altertums und der Ober Statuenkopieen im Alterthum ( 1896) brings Neuzeit, 192.2. [3) Kopien und Umbildungen the progress in methodology into sharp relief. griechischer Statuen, 1923 (4] Die Skulpturen However, L.'s differentiation of categories proved des Vaticanischen Museums, Vol. 3/i and 3'2, difficult to use, so that the terms he introduced 1936-1956 [5) Die griechische Plastik (Hdb. der were later simplified. L.'s graduated terminology Altertumswissenschaften 6/3; Hdb. der Archaologie was intended to denote the particular degree 3), 1950 [6[ Antike Gemaldekopien (Abh. der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, of dependence of an adaptation on its model. Philosophisch-Historische Klasse, N. F. 33, 1951. Although the focus was on the original (which was usually lost and had to be reconstructed), his SECONDARY LITERATURE graded classification of copy, variant, rework(7) M. BIERER,Necrology, in: American Journal of ing, etc. did replace the simplistic view that saw Archaeology 59, 195 5, 63-64 (8) E. BOEHRINGER, adaptations merely as reproductions. L. thus laid Vorwort, in: G. L1rro1.0, Die Skulpturen des the foundations for a gradual recognition of the Vaticanischen Museums, Vol. 3'2, 1956, IX-XI intrinsic worth of retrospective Hellenistic and (9) W. GRONHAGEN, Lippold, Georg, in: NDB 14, Roman idealized sculpture through the latter 1985, 668-669 [10) R. LUI.LIES,Georg Lippold. half of the 2.oth cent., a process accomplished 22.8-2.2.9 (11) ZAZOFFGG, 236-239. especially by the studies of Hellmut Sichtermann, OETLEV KREIKENBOM Paul Zanker, Brunilde Sismondo Ridgway and Caterina Maderna.

375

LIPSIUS,

Lipsius, Justus

Joest Lips; Dutch philologist, ancient historian and philosopher. Born Overijse (Hemish Brabant) 18. 10. 1547, died Leuven 23.h.4. 3. 1606. 1 5 59-1 564 trained at the Jesuit college at Cologne, then studied at the Collegium Tri/ingue at Leuven until 1568, as well as travelling. 1 5721574 prof. of history at Univ. of Jena; 1 576 licentiatus iuris at Leuven. 1 577-1 591 prof. of history, from 1 579 also of law at Leiden; from 1592. prof. of history and Latin at Univ. of Leuven. From 159 5, royal court historian of the Spanish Netherlands. CAREER

AND

WORKS

At the Jesuit college Bursa Nova Tricoronata in Cologne, which he attended from 15 59 to 1564, L. took the novitiate hut was ordered back by his father. He took the baccalaureate in law at the Univ. of Leuven, but went on to study further at the Collegium Tri/ingue in Leuven, especially with the Latinist Cornelius Valerius. He went to Rome late in August 1 568, and while there he met Marcus Antonius ► Muretus, Fulvio - + Orsini, Paulus Manutius and Cardinal Guglielmo Sirleto. He was named secretary to Cardinal Granvelle in May 1 569, and dedicated his first publication to him 121,After returning to the Netherlands in April 1 570, he resumed his studies of law, but soon moved to Liege, where Carolus Langius introduced him to Stoic philosophy. In June 1572, L. went to Vienna. There he met members of the Humanist circle at the court of Maximilian II, including Ogier Ghislain de Busbecq, Joannes • Sambucus and Stephanus • Pighius. In October 1 572, he took the chair of history at the Lutheran Univ. of Jena. After his marriage in Cologne in 1 573 and his departure from Jena in March 1574, L. dedicated to Maximilian II his text edition of Tacitus' Historiae and Annales. The next year he was back at Leuven. Only in 1576 did he finally graduate there as Licentiatus iuris and begin teaching on Livy and the Roman institutions. After the publication of l4], in 1 577, Janus Dousa invited him to the newly-founded Univ. of Leiden. L. taught history there as prof. for thirteen years, later also law, and published what he himself regarded as his most important works of philology, philosophy and antiquarian studies: the satirical dialogue Somnium ( T 581) I 51, in which he attacked contemporary philology, the commentary on Tacitus' Annales ( 158 1 ); the Saturnalium sermonum libri II ( 1582, a monograph on the Roman gladiatorial games); his highly successful De constantia /ibri II ( 1584, a Christian-Stoic dialogue in the style of Seneca that sought to spread consolation amid the chaos

JUSTUS

of European war); De amphitheatro /iber ( 1 584, on the Roman amphitheatre); the collection of his philological works 161;the dialogue on the correct pronunciation of Latin [7) and the Epistolica institutio on the art of letter-writing 191(based on a lecture of 1587); finally in 1589 his highly influential and much-reprinted political philosophy I8], in which he espoused the idea of prudentia civilis and expressed views on religious tolerance that provoked much opposition. L. left Leiden in March 1591 because of the relentless criticism of his religious and political views by the theologian Dirck Coornhert, and he returned to the Catholic Southern Netherlands. After stays at Spa and Liege, where Humanist friends like Dominicus Lampsonius welcomed him gladly, he was appointed prof. of history and Latin at the Univ. of Leuven in 1 592. His first publications in the Spanish Netherlands were the dialogue De cruce ( 1 594) on crucifixion in antiquity, and De militia Romana on Roman warfare and the structure and discipline of the Roman armies ( 1595 ). L. was named royal historian in 1 5 9 5. Over the following years, he investigated Roman weaponry and ballistics I rn], the grandeur of Rome [ 11 ), the ancient libraries [ I2) and the cult of Vesta at Rome [ 13 ). In the last years of his life, L. provided a complete commentary for his important (though unfinished) Seneca edition (1605) (16). He dedicated this impressive folio to Pope Paul V, but only after having presented a fundamentally Neo-Stoic reading of Seneca the Roman Stoic in 1604 in two handbooks attempting a symbiosis of Christianity and Stoicism, the first on moral philosophy I 14 ), the second on Stoic physics and cosmology I 1 5 ]. His two Counter-Reformatory treatises on the miracles of the Virgin at Halle (Diva Virgo Hallensis, and Scherpenheuvel 1 604; Diva Sichemiensis sive Aspricollis, 1605) attracted much attention. Both unleashed savage criticism from Protestant scholars and theologians. Although L. wrote no comprehensive history of the Duchy of Brabant while royal court historian, he did at last publish a history of the city of Leuven and the univ. there (Lovanium, sive opidi et academiae eius descriptio, 160 5 ). L. fell ill in March 1606 and died some days later. APPRAISAL

AND

INFLUENCE

Even during his lifetime, L. was already regarded as a philological phenomenon. He wrote annotations of textual criticism on works of Cicero, Propertius and Varro [ 1) for Christopher Plantin's internationally-renowned Antwerp publishing house [ 19 I in 1 569, when he was still a student and just twenty years of age; these pieces admitted him to the international Humanist elite. He later revised these works and added to his

LIPSIUS,

JUSTUS

fame with his 1575 Antiquae Lectiones (3) and his 1577 Epistolicae quaestiones [4 ), rivalling the achievements of great scholars of his day such as ➔ Mureus, ➔ Orsini and Paulus Manutius and demonstrating his wide-ranging expertise in the whole spectrum of Latin studies by correcting texts of Ennius and Plautus, Livy and Varro. In addition, his commented or annotated editions of Tacitus (1574), Livy (1579), Caesar (1585), Valerius Maximus (1585), Velleius Paterculus (1591) and Seneca (1605) [16) attest to his unique philological 'feel' for the intuitive reconstruction and correction of corrupt or obscure passages, as well as the perspicuity of his historical criticism in the reading and interpretation of ancient texts. For instance, L. was the first to show that the Annales and Historiae of T acitus were separate works. Some 264 of his emendations to T acitus are still accepted as valid today [2 5]. However, L. did not accept the theory of Martin Antonio Delrio's Syntagma tragoediae Latinae ( 1 59 3 ), that the younger Seneca was the author both of the tragedies and the philosophical works that bear his name. L. stood out not only as a Latinist and an exceedingly well-read expert in ancient literature, but also through his Neo-Latin style, which took inspiration from T acitus, Plautus and Seneca and hence consciously departed from the thendominant Ciceronian style. [n this he exerted a far-reaching influence on intellectuals and writers throughout Europe in the early 17th cent. Not only his 'Lipsian' style but also the Neo-Stoic programme (2.1) laid out in his literary dialogue De constantia, and the published collection of his Humanist letters (the so-called Centuriae) found much resonance in Baroque Europe, inspiring artists like Peter Paul ➔ Rubens [2.3), as well as writers and philosophers. His political programme, which he presented in his 15 89 Politica [8), and which he adapted to Roman Catholic requirements in later editions, was crucial in the training of princes and rulers in the 17th cent., and functioned as a fundamental text in the development of absolutism. L.' prominence among European Humanists and scholars of the second half of the 16th cent. (18) is reflected in his prodigious correspondence: over 4,300 letters survive that were either written by or to him between 1564 and 1604. Apart from the collections of letters (Centuriae) that he compiled for publication himself and that were intended to show his Humanist persona in the correct light, there are hundreds of his handwritten letters in libraries worldwide, especially many of them in the Museum Lipsianum at the Univ. Library of Leiden. Other collections were published after his death at Offenbach (Epistolarum praetermissarum decades sex, 1610)

and Harderwijk (Epistolarum (quae in Centurijs non extant) decades XIIX, 1621). However, the most important posthumous collection is in the Sy/loge by the Leiden prof. Petrus Burmannus the Elder [ 17). A modern edition of all his letters (lusti Lipsi Epistolae), with commentary, is currently in preparation at the Royal Belgian Academy. WRITINGS

( 1) Variarum lectionum libri Ill, Antwerp 1569 (.2.) Variarum lectionum libri IIII, Antwerp 1569 (3) Antiquarum lectionum commentarius,

tributus in libros quinque, in quibus varia scriptorum loca, Plauti praecipue, illustrantur aut emen(4) Epistolicarum dantur, Antwerp 1575 (1 1585) quaestionum libri V, Antwerp 1577 (5] Satyra Menippaea. Somnium. Lusus in nostri aevi criticos, Antwerp 1581 (6] Opera omnia quae ad criri(7) De recta cam proprie spectant, Antwerp 1585 pronunciatione Latinae linguae dialogus, Antwerp 1586 ( 8) Politicorum sive civil is doctrinae libri VI, Antwerp 1589 (et al.; English: Politica: Six Books of Politics or Political Instruction, ed. and trans. J. WASZINK,2.004) 19) Epistolica institutio, Leiden 1 591 (et al.; English: Principles of Letter-Writing, ed. and trans. R. V. YOUNGand M. Th. HESTER, 1996) (10) Poliorceticon, sive de machinis, tormentis, telis libri quinque, Antwerp 1596 [ 11) Admiranda sive de magnitudine Romana libri quatuor, Antwerp 1598 [ 1.2.) De bibliothecis syntagma, Antwerp 160.2. ( 1 1607; English: A Brief Outline of the History of Libraries, trans. J.C. DANA,1907) [ 13) De Vesta et Vestalibus syntagma, Antwerp 1603 (14) Manuductio ad Stoicam philosophiam, Antwerp 1604 [15) Physiologia Stoicorum, Antwerp 1604 (16] L. Annaei Senecae Opera, quae exstant omnia (edition with comm.), Antwerp 1605 ( 17] P. BURMAN(ed.), Sylloges epistolarum a viris illustribus scriptarum tomi quinque, Leiden, 172.7 (electronic resource). SECONDARY

LITERATURE

[ 18) J. De LANDTSHEER et al. (ed.), Justus Lipsius (1547-1606). Een geleerde en zijn Europese netwerk (exh. cat.), 2.006 [19] J. De LANDTSHEER

/ P. DELSAERDT (ed.), lam illustravit omnia. Justus Lipsius als lievelings- auteur van het Plantijnse Huis, 2.006 (.2.0] K. ENENKEL/ C. HEESAKKER~ (ed.), Lipsius in Leiden: Studies in the Life and [.2.1) J. LAGRtE, Works of a Great Humanist, 1997 Juste Lipse et la restauration du sto1cisme, 1994 [.2..2.)M. LAUREYS et al. (ed.), The World of Justus Lipsius: A Contribution towards His Intellectual Biography, 1998 [.2.3) M. MORFORD, Stoics and Neostoics: Rubens and the Circle of Lipsius. 1991 (.2.4) C. MoucHEL (ed.), Juste Lipse ( 154 71606) en son temps (Actes du colloque de Strasbourg 1994), 1996 [25) J. RuYSSCHAERT, Juste Lipse et les Annales de Tacite. Une methode de critique textuelle au XVI• siecle, 1949 (.2.6) G. TouRNOY et al. (ed.), Lipsius en Leuven, 1997 (.2.7) G. TouRNOY et al. (ed.), Europae lumen et columen (Proc. of the International Colloquium, Leuven 1997), 1999. JAN

PAPY

LOESCHCKE,

377

Lobeck, Christian

Au~ust

German classical philologist and linguist. Born Naumburg 5. 6. 1781, died Konigsberg 2.5. 8. 1 860. 1797 studied law at Jena, then theology until 1799 and classical studies at Leipzig; 1802. philology habil. at Wittenberg. Adjunct of the faculty of philology and curator of the Univ. Library until 1807, then deputy rector and rector of the Lyzeum at Wittenberg. From 1814, prof. of classical philology, archaeology and ancient history at Konigsberg [6. r 67-181 1W o R K AND INFLUENCE At the Univ. of Leipzig, L. studied with Gottfried -+ Hermann, with whom he shared the conviction that language was the key to understanding antiquity and the study of sources was the best method of approaching it. In the field of Greek language research, he published a seminal edition of Phrynichus [ 1 I and treatises on morphology [4J; [51. In the history of religion, he was a lifelong critic of Georg Friedrich ➔ Creuzer, from his scathing review of his Symbolik und Mythologie der a/ten Volker (from 18IO) (6. 182.-186] to his ironic Aglaophamus [2.I. Here he demolished the symbolic interpretation of Greek mythology, Orientalism and contempora~ mysticism (e.g. Johann Georg Hamann). With extraordinary linguistic virtuosity he analysed the sources on Orpheus, the Orphic Hymns and the Mysteries of Eleusis and Samothrace. Although he succeeded in showing that the 'sym_bolists' of. his day were relying on allegorical mterpretat1ons from antiquity, the Middle Ages and early modern period (cf. Athanasius ... Kircher), and applying a na'ive comparatism [6. 188-210), he did not recognize - unlike his teacher -. Hermann - that the issue of the 'ori~ins'. o~ symbolic thought cannot be solved by lmgmst1c research. The mutations in religious thought in ancient texts also eluded him, as he analysed such texts with linguistic acuity but was weaker at interpreting them, for which Karl Otfried --➔ Muller (K. S., Vol. 1, 184 7, 2.94-3 12.) and later Friedrich ➔ Nietzsche ( Was ich den A/ten verdanke, 1889) criticized him. In his comments on history and politics (e.g. against Napoleon), L. displayed the same irony as in his scholarly polemics. WRITINGS

(_1] Phrynichi Edogae nominum et verborum (edition)~ I 82.0 [2.] Aglaophamus sive de theologiae myst1cae Graecorum causis libri tres, 182.9 (reiss. 1961) (3] Paralipomena grammaticae Graecae 1837 (reiss. 1967) [4] Pathologiae Graeci sermo~ nis prolegomena, 1843 (et al.) [5] Pathologiae sermonis Graecae elementa, 2. vols., 18 53-1862. (Vol. 2. ed. C. F. W. MOLLER) [6I Mittheilungen

L

GEORG

aus Lobecks Briefwechsel, ed. L. FRIEDLANDER, 1861 171 Ausgewahlte Briefe von und an Ch. A. Lobeck und K. Lehrs, ed. A. LuDWICH,1 894. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

I81L. FRIEDLANDER, Gedachtnisrede,

in: Mittheilungen aus Lobecks Briefwechsel, ed. L FRIEDLANDER, 1861, 1-3 2. 19) L. FRIEDLANDER, Lobeck, Christian August, in: ADB 19, 1884, 2.9-35 [10) F. GRAF, K. 0. Muller, 'Eleusinen' ( 1840), in: W. M. CALDER Ill / R. SCHLESIER (ed.), Zwischen Rationalismus und Romantik. K. 0. Muller und die antike Literatur, 1998, 2.17-2.38 [II[ c. HUMPHREYS, The Strangeness of Gods. Historical Perspectives on the Interpretation of Athenian Religion, 2.004, A. Lobeck als akade2.11-2.14 I12.] A. LEHNERDT, mischer Redner, in: A. LEHNERDT (ed.), Auswahl aus Lobecks akademischen Reden, 1865, 2.9-70.

s.

SOTERA FORNARO

Loeschcke, Georg German classical archaeologist. Born Penig (Saxony) 2.8. 6. 18 5 2., died Baden-Baden 26. 11. 191 5. School at Plauen; studied at Leipzig and Bonn, doctorate Bonn 1 876. 1877-1879 DAI travel bursary. 1879 prof. of classical philology and archaeology at Dorpat; 1889 prof. ord. at Bonn; 1909/io rector of the univ. there; from 191 2 prof. ord. at Berlin. CAREER,

WORKS

AND

INFLUENCE

L. initially studied history and philology at Leipzig, but soon turned to archaeology under the influence of Johannes • Overbeck. After moving to Bonn, his teachers included especially Reinhard • Kekule van Stradonitz and Arnold --• Schaefer, who supervised his doctorate on Attic inscriptions. His travel bursary took him to Greece, where he and Adolf -• Furtwangler, a friend since his Leipzig days, worked up the M~ce~aean vases and sherds disregarded by Hemnc~ • Schliemann. The pair successfully used this often nondescript find material to understand the historical dimension of the newlydiscovered Mycenaean culture [1]; (2.). While L. enjoyed a decade of leisure for research at Dorpat, at Bonn, where he succeeded . • Ke~ule as he would again at Berlin, he taught intensively, gathering a large international circle of students who would go on to become noted sch_ol~rs (including Hans ➔ Dragendorff, Georg Hemnch ➔ Karo, Richard .... Delbrueck Carl Watzi_nger, August Frickenhaus and Mar~arete ➔ Bieber). He devoted himself with much energy to the extension and expansion of the archaeological institute and the Akademisches Kunstmuseum, which he enlarged greatly, mostly by acquiring originals (4). L.'s interest in provincial Roman archaeology led to his participation in the systematic study

LOESCHCKE,

GEORG

of the Roman limes running from the Rhine to the Lahn, in which his studies repeatedly demonstrated the importance of an exact observation of the find and the ceramic evidence in clarifying historical contexts [3]. He took part in the foundation of the Romisch-Germanische Kommission of the DAI in 1901, and expedited the excavations at the Roman cohort camp at Haltern and the Imperial baths at Trier. At his last place of work in Berlin, he succeeded in greatly enlarging the institute and arranging the transfer of the cast collection from the Konigliche Museen to the Univ. LW: [4. 219-2.20).

out as a running text commentary, it functions as an introduction to the lexis and syntax of late Latin, and contains historical linguistic observations on all phases of the Latin language. His magnum opus is the Syntactica [4], published in two parts. The first part deals with issues of Latin nominal syntax, while the second contains individual studies on (mostly verbal) syntax and style. A masterly feel for style and a much-admired richness of material make the Syntactica a standard work of classical philology. The Vermischte Studien [5] (a revision of the 1908 Spatlateinische Studien [2)) function as a supplement. L.'s work established the so-called 'Swedish School', to which philologists such as WRITINGS Dag Norberg, Aarne Henrik Salonius and Josef (1) Mykenische Thongefasse (with A. FURTWANGI.ER),Svennung belonged. 1879 [2.]Mykenische Vasen (with A. FuRTWANGLER), E: Stockholm, Kungliga Biblioteket. 1886 [3] Die Streckenbeschreibung, in: E. FABR1c1us LW: E. J. Knudtzon, Bidrag till en bibliograf et al. (ed.), Der obergermanisch-ratische Limes des i over professor Einar Lofstedts skrifter 1904Romerreiches, Vol. 1, 1936, 59-u8. 1945, in: Eranos 43, 1945, 357-376. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

(4] J. KINNE, Das Akademische Kunstmuseum der Universitat Bonn unter der Direktion von Georg Loeschcke von 1889 bis 1912. (diss. Bonn), 2.004 ls) E. LANGLOTZ,Georg Loeschcke, in: Bonner Gelehrte. Beitrage zur Geschichte der Wissenschaften in Bonn, 1968, 2.33-2.38 (6] W.-R. MEGow, Georg Loeschcke, in: LULLIES / ScHIERING Arch. 106-107. HUBERT SZEMETHY

Lofstedt, Einar

WRITINGS [ 1 I Beitrage zur Kenntnis der spateren Latini tat 1907 (2.) Spatlateinische (diss. Uppsala), Studien, 1908 [3] Philologischer Kommentar zur Peregrinatio Actheriae. Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der Latin Sprache, 1911 (reiss. 1962. et al.) 141 Syntactica. Studien und Beitrage zur historischen Syntax des Lateins, 2. parts, 192.8-1933 (expanded reiss. of Part 1, 1942.; reiss. 1956) Is) Vermischte Studien zur Latin Sprachkunde und Syntax, 1936.

SECONDARY

Swedish classical philologist and Latinist. Born Einar Harald L., Uppsala, 1 5. 6. 1880, died Stockholm 10. 6. 1955. Son of the Greek scholar of the same name. Studied at Uppsala. Study trips to Bonn ( 1904) and Gottingen ( 1909 ); 1 907 doctorate at Uppsala; 1913-1945 prof. of Roman eloquence and poetry at Lund. 1939-1945 rector of the univ. there. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

L. studied Latin and Greek philology with Olof August Danielsson and Per Persson. Study trips brought him into contact with German classical philologists including Franz • Bticheler, Friedrich -• Leo and Eduard • Norden. He spent the remainder of his academic life at the Univ. of Lund. He turned down a post as editor-in-chief of the Thesaurus Linguae Latinae in Munich in 1912. and an invitation to the Univ. of Breslau. L. confined his research almost entirely to Latin studies. His main fields of work were historical syntax, stylistics and semasiology. He won great international renown with his work on the Peregrinatio Aetheriae ( 1911) [3 ]. Laid

LITERATURE

(6] P. PoccErn (ed.), Einar Lofstedt nei percorsi della linguistica e della filologia latina, 2007. RALPH

LATHER

Lonigo v. Leoniceno, Niccolo Loafs, Friedrich German ecclesiastical historian. Born Hildesheim 19. 6. 18 5 8, died Halle an der Saale 13. 1. 192.8. School at Hildesheim; studied Protestant theology at Leipzig, Tiibingen and Gottingen 1877-1880; doctorate (Dr. phil.) 1881 and licentiate in theol. at Leipzig 1882; habil. 1882., then taught there ( 1886 prof. ext.). 1887 prof. ext. at Halle; 1888-192.6 prof. ord .• 1907/08 rector there. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

L. was strongly influenced by Adolf von • Harnack (a lifelong friend) and Albrecht Ritschl in his scholarly ethos, but in terms of theology he can only with reservations be counted part of Cultural Protestantism because of his Neo-Lutheran views. He gained his habil. in the

LORA UX,

379

history of church and dogma. His main interest was issues of dogmatic history (especially the doctrine of the Trinity and Christology) in the ancient church, and he wrote several monographs in this area. Particularly seminal were his works on Paul of Samosata I 12,Iand Nestorius [8); (9). He also worked with Reformation doctrine of justification (especially in Luther) ( 11] and themes of confessional studies 17J. He opposed Ernst Haeckel (and others) and monism in debates of the time I 5 J.His busy teaching gave rise to the widely-read Leitfaden zum Studium der Dogmengeschichte (4). L. was also active in many ecclesiastical and municipal offices and as a preacher. M: In: E. Stange (ed.), Die Religionswissenschaft der Gegenwart in Selbstdarstellungen, Vol. 2., 192.6,

I

19-160.

E: Universitiits- und Landesbihliothek Anhalt, Halle a. d. S.

Sachsen-

NICOLE

Beitriige zur Geschichte der Theologischen Fakultiit der Universitiit Halle, 2.005, 137-141 l.u I J. UtRICH (ed.), Friedrich Loofs in Halle (Arbeiten zur Kirchengeschichte 114), 2.01o. WOLFRAM KINZIG Loraux, Nicole French antiquarian and anthropologist. Born Paris 2.6. 4. 194 3, died Argenteuil 6. 4. 2.003. Studied at Ecole normale superieure de Sevres; Agregation de Lettres classiques 196 5; 1970-1975 assistant in Greek history at Univ. of Strasbourg, then assistant at Ecole des hautes etudes en sciences sociales (EHESS); 1977 These de doctoral with Jean-Pierre • Vernant. 19811994 Directeur d'etudes and from 1987 prof. of history and anthropology of the Greek polis at EHESS. Severe stroke 1994. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

L. was one of the leading figures in French historical anthropology. She was influenced by the ( 1] Zur Chronologie der auf die frankischen research of the school of Jean-Pierre -► Vernant, Synoden des hi. Bonifatius bezi.iglichen Briefe der bonifazischen Briefsammlung (diss. Leipzig), Pierre • Vidal-Naquet and Marcel Detienne. In 1881 [2.] De antiqua Britonum Scotorumque accordance with the principles of this school, she ecclesia (habit. thesis Leipzig), 1882. 131 Leontius strove in her work for a synthesis of philology, von Byzanz und die gleichnamigen Schriftsteller philosophy, mythology, historiography and psyder griechischen Kirche, 1 887 141 Leitfaden choanalysis. The result was a series of pioneering zum Studium der Dogmengeschichte, •1 890 and original, but idiosyncratic works on Greek (orig. 1889 under the title: Leitfaden fi.ir seine antiquity, which remained her preferred field of 7 Vorlesungen i.iber Dogmengeschichte; 1968) research until her early death after long illness. [s) Anti-Haeckel. Eine Replik nebst Beilagen, 1900 ('1906) (6) Grundlinien der Kirchengeschichte. In In all of her six monographs, L. succeeded in der Form von Dispositionen fi.ir seine Vorlesungen, illuminating new facets of familiar scenarios and 1901 ( 1 1910) 171 Symbolik oder christli- established ideas of Greek culture by a shift of che Konfessionskunde, Vol. 1, 1902. 18I Die perspective and interpretation. In her first work Oberlieferung und Anordnung der Fragmente des on the 'invention of Athens' I 1 ], she already Nestorius, 1904 19I Nestoriana. Die Fragmente implements her principle of not neglecting the des Nestorius, 1905 I10] Wer war Jesus Christus? symbolic content of the sources or their context, Fi.ir Theologen und den weiteren Kreis gebildeter Christen, 1916 (•192.2.) I 1 r) Der articulus stanris et taking the example of the funeral eulogy. In cadentis ecclesiae, 1917 I12I Paulus von Samosata. her last book on the 'divided city' (6] she again Eine Untersuchung zur altkirchlichen Literatur- breaks new methodological ground, diagnosing und Dogmengeschichte, 192.4 II 3) Theophilus a culture of forgetfulness in the Athenians in the von Antiochien adversus Marcionem und die time after the Peloponnesian War. anderen theologischen Quellen bei lrenaeus, 1930 In her other four monographs, L. considered [14I Patristica. Ausgewahlte Aufsiitze zur alten the role of women and gender relations in their and J. ULRICH,1999. Kirche, ed. H. C. BRENNECKE political dimension. She thereby became one of classical studies' proponents of 'gender studies'. SECONDARY LITERATURE A characteristic feature here was the category [15) S. BITTER,Loofs, Friedrich (1858-192.8), in: of the 'imaginary' developed in the 'Children (16I K. KIENZI.F.R, Loofs, TRE 2.1, 1991, 464-466 of Athena' (2.) and elaborated in [4]. By this, Friedrich, in: Biographisch-Bibliographisches Kirchenlexikon 5, 1993, 2.19-2.2.1 (17) A. KRAUSE, she referred to the ritual practices and symbolic Religionsphilosophische Denker. Martin Kahler, actions of the Greeks as read in their sources and Friedrich Loofs, Wilhelm Li.itgert, Paul Tillich und their complex reality. In [3], L. set new stanErnst Benz, 2.004, 49-82. [18) G. MOHLPFOROT,dards in the historical interpretation of Greek Der Spirituskreis, Vol. 1: 1890-1945, 2.001, tragedy. In (5), she deduced the social roles of 2.47-2.66 (19I G. 0. NEUHAUS, Friedrich Loofs, man and woman from the manner and customs Theologe. 150. Geburtstag, in: Mitteldeutsches of public mourning. L. gained an audience far Jb. fi.ir Kultur und Geschichte 15, 2.008, 2.11-2.13 beyond France with her innovative questions and [z.o) C. STEPHAN, Die stumme Fakultiit. Biographische approaches, e.g. in the English-speaking world WRITINGS

LORAUX,

NICOLE

especially with her theories on eulogy at Athens, which were also translated into English. LW: 19, 13-16).

As a philologist, orator and poet of diverse gifts (2), L. was in contact with the leading Humanists of his day, including --. Salutati, Leonardo Bruni (who dedicated two works WRITINGS to him), Gian Francesco - .. Poggio Bracciolini, [ 1) L'invention d' Athenes, 1981 (English: The + Biondo, Francesco Barbaro and Flavio Invention of Athens: The Funeral Oration in the Francesco ~ Filelfo. L.'s philological interests 1 986) I2) Les were mostly directed towards Roman rhetoric. Classical City, trans. A. SHERIDAN, enfants d' Athena, 1981 (English: The Children He translated Quintilian's Declamationes into the of Athena: Athenian Ideas about Citizenship and vernacular and wrote commentaries on speeches the Division between the Sexes, trans. C. LEVINE, of Cicero of which he had manuscripts. This 1993) [3) Fa\ons tragiques de tuer une femme, lnquisitio (1395, first published Venice 1477) 1985 (English: Tragic Ways of Killing a Woman, trans. A. FoRSTER,1987) (4) Les experiences de ( 1) combines exegesis of the speeches of Cicero on rhetoric that L. Tiresias, 1989 (English: The Experiences of Tiresias: with systematic explanations The Feminine and the Greek Man, trans. P. W1ss1NG, derived from ancient rhetorical texts (Cicero and 1995) [5) Les meres en deuil, 1990 (English: Quintilian). The commentary thus to some extent Mothers in Mourning, trans. C. PACHE,1998) functions as a rhetorical handbook [6. 151-154). (6) La cite divisee, 1997 (English: The Divided City: Following the model of Quintilian, he also himOn Memory and Forgetting in Ancient Athens, self wrote Declamationes controversiales, as well trans. C. PACHE and J. FoRT, 2001). as a verse tragedy (Achilles, around 1390 ( 4]) and Epistolae metricae. The lnvectiva in Florentinos SECONDARY LITERATURE ( 1 397), in which he accuses Florence of acting (7) J. Au.Aux et al. (ed.), Les voies traversieres against the interests of the people in its resisde Nicole Loraux. Une helleniste a la croisee des sciences sociales (EspacesTemps, Les Cahiers tance to the Visconti claim to power, damaged his relations with Salutati, who, along with Cino 87/88. Clio, Histoire, Femmes et Societes), 2005 (8) N. R. E. FISHER, review of: Loraux, L'invention Rinuccini, replied with a counter-invective. d'Athenes, in: Classical Review 34, 1984, Hommage 80-83 191 J. PAPADOPOULOU-BELMEHDI, WRITINGS a Nicole Loraux (1943-2003). De l'humanisme a ( 1) lnquisitio super XI orationes Ciceronis ad fral"ame de la cite', in: Kernos 16, 2.003, 9-16. trem suum optimum, ed. G. SQUARCIAFICO, Venice HOLGERSONNABEND 1477 (2) Carmina quae supersunt fere omnia, ed. G. DA SCHIO, Padua 1858 (3) Prosatori latini del Quattrocento, ed. E. GARIN, 1952., 7-37 Loriti v. Glareanus, Heinrich (4) 'Achilles' in Humanist Tragedies, trans. G. R. GRUND,2.011, 48-109. Loschi, Antonio Luschus, Antonius; Italian Humanist, philologist and rhetorician. Born Vicenza 136 5 or 13 68, died there 1441. Studied at Florence from 1386, at Pavia from 1388. Working from 1391 in the chancellery of Gian Galeazzo Visconti. Missions on behalf of Venice to Popes Innocent Vil and Gregory XII. 1409-1436 Apostolic Secretary at Rome. CAREER,

WORKS

AND

SECONDARY

[5] C.

LITERATURE

J. CLASSEN, Antike Rhetorik im Zeitalter des

Humanismus, 2.003 [61 F. CosSlITTA, Gli umanisti e la retorica, 1984 (7) G. DA ScHIO, Sulla vita e sugli scritti di Antonio Loschi, vincentino, uomo di lettere e di stato, 1858 (8) P. MACK, A History of Renaissance Rhetoric 1380-162.0, 2.011, 33-34 [9) R. G. WITT, 'In the Footsteps of the Ancients'. The Origins of Humanism from Lovato to Bruni, 2.000, 372.-391. DOROTHEE

INFLUENCE

L., son of the notary Ludovico di Niccolo, who was in the service of Antonio della Scala, briefly studied at Florence with Coluccio --,. Salutati before going to Pavia in 13 88, where he read grammar and rhetoric with Giovanni Travesi, probably as a fellow student of Gasparino • • Barzizza. He then entered the service of the Duke of Milan, Gian Galeazzo Visconti, agitating in poetry, letters and invectives for the duke's claim to rule over all of Northern Italy. In 1409, he was called to Rome to serve as Apostolic Secretary in the Papal Curia, holding office under Gregory XII, Alexander V, John XXII, Martin V and Eugene IV.

Lowenklau,

Hans v. Leunclavius,

GALL

Johannes

Lowy, Emanuel Austrian classical archaeologist. Born Vienna 1.9.1857, died there 11. 2.. 1938. Studied classics at Univ. of Vienna from 1876, scholarship 1878, 1880-1882 librarian of the archaeological-epigraphic seminar there, 18 8 2. doctorate. Extensive travels and participation in excavations in Greece. 1887 habil. at Munich. 1889 prof. ext. in archaeology at Rome, establishin~ a cast collection there. 1901 prof. ord. at Rome.

LOWY,

EMANUEL

Naturwiedergabe (the 'rendering of nature') I6]. L. also took note of theories of the psychology of perception in his research - he was a good friend of Sigmund Freud's, advising him on the BIOGRAPHY AND SCHOLARLY CAREER acquisition of antiquities - and he attentively folL., the son of a Jewish Viennese businessman, lowed the methods of Italian protohistory and was introduced to the study of classical philol- ethnology. His particular interest lay in the early ogy by Wilhelm Hartel and studied at the Vienna phases of art. Here, he hoped to derive fundaSeminar fi.ir Archaologie und Epigraphik with mental principles of formal perception, memory Alexander + Conze, Otto ► Hirschfeld and Otto and reproduction and the gradual development -+ Benndorf as his principal teachers. He took of the human capacity for the pictorial renderhis doctorate, supervised by Benndorf, in 1882, ing of a concept. Inspired by the new finds of with a diss. on the history of Greek artists based early Greek sculpture on Crete, L. developed on a study of artists' signatures; he concentrated the hypothesis, in his study on Typenwanderung on the sculptors mentioned by Pliny the Elder ('migration of types') I71, that the elaboration and Pausanias [ 1 ]. Even before his viva voce, he and spread of the repertoire of types of Archaic took part in excavations in Lycia that culminated sculpture across the whole Greek world had in the acquisition of the sculptures from the emerged from so-called 'Daedalian' sculpture. Heroeum of Golba~1-Trysa. L. went to Munich From the mid- 1920s, he focused mainly on in 1884 to study with Heinrich von ► Bri.inn. themes of Roman, Etruscan and New Attic art 188 5 saw the publication of his seminal book and Greek painting I10); [ 11 ]. on the Greek sculptor inscriptions I2), inspired At the dawn of the 20th cent., L. set himby Benndorf when the two travelled together to self the task of bringing Italian archaeology up Olympia in 1880. After another period in Greece to the (then German) state of the art by makending in July 1886, L. took his habil. at Vienna ing the 'archaeology of art' the core of his teachin 1887. In 1889, he applied for the newly-estabing and devoting highly original research to it lished professorship of archaeology and ancient I 14 ). His efforts to promote the works of Franz art history at the Univ. of Rome, winning the ► Wickhoff and Alois ► Rieg! kindled the post in competition with Paolo ► Orsi. debate on Roman art in Italian archaeology (cf. In his accession address as prof. ext., L. Ranuccio • Bianchi Bandinelli). L. 's approach declared his intention of connecting the tradition involving the psychology of perception was also of archaeological studies from Johann Joachim an influence on Viennese art history, especially •• Winckelmann to Ennio Quirino • Visconti Julius von Schlosser and Ernst Gombrich [ 16). with the forthcoming work of Italian field LW: (13. 9-14); [15. 22-28]. research on Crete. He became prof. ord. a full decade later, delayed by the objections of colWRITINGS ( 1) Untersuchungen zur griechischen K i.instlergeleagues including Luigi --► Pigorini and Karl Julius schichte (diss. Vienna), 1883 (2] lnschriften • Beloch. From his appointment, L. focused all griechischer Bildhauer, 188 5 (3) Antike Sculpturen his energy on an ambitious project: creating an auf Paros, in: Archaologisch-epigraphische archaeological cast collection on the German 11, 1887, Mitteilungen aus Osterreich-Ungarn model as an instrument of academic teaching. 147-188 (4) Griechische lnschrifttexte fur akaBy the end of the 19th cent., this collection had demische Obungen, 1888 (5) Lysipp und seine already grown to some 700 pieces I 12). Stellung in der griechischen Plastik, 1891 (6) Die Italy's entry into World War I in 1915 comNaturwiedergabe in der alteren griechischen pelled the Austrian L. to leave the country and Kunst, 1900 (7) Typenwanderung, in: Jahreshefte des Osterreichischen Archaologischen Institutes in return to Vienna, where he took a titular profesWien 1 2., 1909, 2.43-404 [8) La scultura greca, sorship in 1918. Students (including Alessandro 1911 [9) Die Anfange des Triumphbogens, • Della Seta and Giulio Quirino Giglioli) tried 192.8 I10) Polygnot. Ein Buch von griechischen to persuade him to return to his Roman profesMalerei, 192.9 (II] Der Beginn der rotfigurigen sorship, but he had settled well into the univ. Vasenmalerei, 1938. atmosphere of Vienna. He even continued to lecture after his retirement in 1928. His heirs, his SECONDARY LITERATURE sister Klara and his brother Ernst, died in the [12] M. BARBANERA, Museo dell'Arte classica. concentration camp at Theresienstadt. L.'s estate Gipsoteca, 1995, 1-19 [13) F. BREIN(ed.), Emanuel has consequently almost entirely been lost. Lowy. Ein vergessener Pionier, 1998 [14) M. M. 1915 returned to Austria on Italy's entry into World War I; 1918 titular prof. ext. in classical archaeology at Univ. of Vienna. Retired 1928.

WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

L. 's scholarly project from the turn of the century was to overcome the Winckelmann development model, especially in the matter of

DONATO,'Archeologia dell'arte'. Emanuel Loewy all'Universita di Roma (1889-1915), in: Ricerche di Storia dell'arte 50, 1993, 62.-75 [ 15) G. Q. G1Guou, Commemorazione di Emanuele Loewy, in: Atti della Pontificia Accademia Romana di archeologia.

LC>WY,

EMANUEL

Rendiconti 14, 1938, 19-28 (16( E. H. GoMBRICH, Kunstwissenschaft und Psychologie vor ftinfzig Jahren, in: Akten des 25. lnternationalen Kongresses filr Kunstgeschichte Wien 1983, Vol. 1, 1984, 99-104 [17) H. KENNER, Lowy, Emanuel, in: NDB 15, 1987, 114-II5 (18) c. PRASCHNIKER, Emanuel Lowy, in: Almanach der Osterreichischen Akademie der Wiss. 88, 1938, 306-319. MARCELLO BARBANERA

M Maas, Paul German classical philologist and Byzantine scholar. Born Frankfurt 18. 11. 1880, died Oxford 15. 7. 1964. 1898 Ahitur at Freiburg; then studied classical philology and Byzantine studies at Berlin and Munich; doctorate Munich 1903. Habil. 1910 Berlin; 1920 prof. ext. there. 1930 prof. ord. in classical philology Konigsberg. Forced to retire 1934; thereafter private scholar, Konigsberg. 19 39 emigration, then private scholar at Oxford. From 1955, corresponding member of the Akademie der Wissenschaften at Berlin (East); 196 3 accepted Bundesverdienstkreuz in Oxford. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

The son of the banker and private scholar Maximilian M. and Henriette (nee OppenheimerPrins), M. attended the city Gymnasium in Frankfurt until 1894 (the director was the father of Karl • Reinhardt) and completed his Ahitur at 17 in 1898 at the Lyceum in Frei burg. He went on to study classical philology and Byzantine studies for nine semesters, alternating between Berlin (three) and Munich (six semesters). M. himself in his diss. lists his teachers as Wilhelm von Christ, Hermann • Diels, Adolf • Furtwangler, Ulrich von -+ Wilamowitz-Moellendorff (whose Kleine Schriften he co-edited), Eduard von Wolfflin and Karl Krumbacher. The last of these had a key role in kindling M.' interest in the young discipline of Byzantine studies. In classical philology, M. won lasting renown as the author of short but informative studies on Greek palaeography [ 5] and metre (4J (the companion piece on Byzantine metre is lost) and a groundbreaking work on text criticism [ 6) in which, among other things, he solved the problem of the so-called Leitfehler ('significant error'). The 'Maasian' concision of his publications became proverbial. His other fields of work were Byzantine literature and lexicology. Although his 1903 doctorate was achieved with a study of Latin metre [ 1] (with archaeology and Byzantine studies as other subjects), M. mainly worked with Greek literature, especially Pindar (3) and the Epidaurian Hymns [7]. He succeeded in completing many fragments of early Greek poetry (Sappho, Pindar, Bacchylides). Nothing certain is know about his 1910 Berlin habil. It was probably connected with his work on early Byzantine church poetry [2]. M. received the venia legendi for Byzantine studies and - through and the agency of ➔ Wilamowitz-Moellendorff Eduard --. Norden and in the face of opposition

• Diels - another for classical from Hermann philology. While still a student, M. (himself a keen pianist) had studied the oeuvre of the Byzantine hymnographer Romanus ( 5th/6th cents.), whose works he edited at Oxford with Konstantinos Athanasios Trypanis (8) (on the preliminary work partially lost during M.' escape from Germany [ 13. 99 f.J). M. was forced to retire because of his Jewish background in 19 34, and he was arrested at Konigsberg on 11. 11. 1938 in the wake of the Reichskristallnacht. At the last possible moment, and with the help of Bruno • Snell and others, he escaped from Hamburg in August 1939 and reached Oxford. Although not involved in univ. structures, M. maintained contact with many colleagues when in Britain, as well as keeping up his intensive lifelong correspondence, e.g. with his old Konigsberg colleague Willy Theiler. He had made the acquaintance of Gilbert • Murray in 1909 (and had played a key part in his reissue of his Aeschylus edition), and in Oxford he met the young Hugh Lloyd-Jones (12]. He kept in regular touch with them and with other exiles, including Eduard • Fraenkel and Rudolf • Pfeiffer. At first, his most important source of income at Oxford was as consultant for the Clarendon Press, which successfully petitioned for his early release from British internment in 1940. M. thereafter concentrated on his collaboration on the supplement to the Greek-English Lexicon of Henry George Liddell and Robert Scott (ed. E. A. Barber, 1968) and on major projects of other scholars, including Pfeiffer's two-volume edition of Callimachus ( I 949-19 53 ). The best survey of M.' wide-ranging publications is in the collection (9 J compiled by his student Wolfgang Buchwald. LW: (9. 677-694] (illustrated). WRITINGS

I 1) Studien zum poetischen Plural bei den Romern, in: Arch iv fur Latin Lexikographie und Grammatik 1 2., 1902., 4 79-5 so(reiss. self-published 1903) (2.)Fri.ihDie byzantinische Kirchenpoesie, 1910 (•1931) 131 neuen Responsionsfreiheiten bei Bakchylides und Pindar, 2. vols., 1914-1921 (4) Griechische Metrik (Einleitung in die Altertumswiss. 1/7), 1923 (J1929; English: Greek Metre, trans. H. LLOYD-JONES, 1962) [5] Griechische Palaographie (Einleitung in die Altertumswiss. 1/9), 1924 16) Textkritik (Einleitung in die Altertumswiss. 1/6), 1927 (•1960; English: Textual Criticism, trans. B. FLOWER, 1958) (7) Epidaurische Hymnen, 1933 [8] Sancti Melodicantica, 2 vols. (edition, with K. A. TRYPAN1s), 1963-1970 191K. S., ed. W. BUCHWALD,1973.

MAAS,

PAUL

SECONDARY

LITERATURE

[10) K. BAR, Maas, Paul, in: DBC 2., 2.004, 599602. [u) H. LLOYD·]ONES, Paul Maas, in: Gnomon 37, 1965, 2.18-2.2.1 [u) H. LLOYD·]ONES,Paul Maas ( 1880-1964), in: W. SUERBAUMet al. (ed.), E. Vogt, 1993, 2.55-2.61 (13) E. MENSCHING,

~s

Ober einen verfolgten deutschen Altphilologen. Paul 1987 [14) P. WIRTH, Maas, Maas (1880-1964), Paul, in: NDB 15, 1987, 59 7 . HANS-ULRICH BERNER / OLIVERSCHELSKE

Mabillon, Jean French historian. Born Saint-Pierremont (Ardennes) 2.3. 11. 1632., died Saint-Germaindes-Pres (Paris) 2.7. 12. 1707. After attending school at Rheims, entered the seminary of the Benedictine Congregation of Saint-Maur; 16 54 took the oath of the order, then living at the Abbey of Corbie (1658) and 1663 in SaintDenis, where he made a study of Merovingian documents. 1664 until his death, living at SaintGermain-des-Pres as a publisher and historian. Travelled through Europe looking for documents: from 1672. Flanders, 1682. Burgundy, 1683 five months in Germany, 1685/86 tour of Italy, returned with over 3,000 documents and books. 1701 elected honorary member of the Academie des inscriptions et belles-lettres. CAREER,

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rejected, having no use for gifts of this kind. In Italy, where he went in 1685 on behalf of the Archbishop of Rheims, Charles Maurice Le Tellier, to search for documents on French ecclesiastical history for the Bibliotheque du Roi, he was not granted a Papal audience. However, the congregation responsible for the Index consulted him on works on biblical chronology. M. was critical of the excessive veneration of religious relics he had observed in Italy; his treatise on the subject was published anonymously [5 ). He overtly (in 1701 in the Praefatio genera/is to the Maurist edition of Augustine) called for reconciliation between the Jansenists and Jesuits. The stimulus for M.'s Traite des etudes monastiques [4); [6. 365-62.5) was criticism launched by Armand-Jean de Rance, new founder of the Cistercian abbey of La Trappe, against scholarly studies written by monks. M. rebutted this firstly by discussing the history of monasticism and the Benedictine Order. The second part of the treatise is a programme of study for young monks. There is a notable programmatic emphasis here on the primacy of scripture work and the study of the patristic tradition. The treatise is the "most beautiful testimony to Benedictine Humanism" [11. 165) in its aspiration of cultural education and its undogmatic reading recommendations, which not only include Jansenist and Jesuit authors without discrimination, but also commend Protestant Bible commentaries and Cartesians like Nicolas Malebranche (selection). M. rejected the study of ancient Latin literature as an end in itself, but considered it useful for the acquisition of skills in language and rhetoric, and therefore recommended Latin historians. His discussion of philosophy reveals his clear preference for Cicero (especially De officiis). In logic, apart from the Jansenist variant of Antoine Amauld (1662.), M.'s only reading recommendation was Cicero's Academica. The treatise on monasticism was reprinted many times and translated, including three versions in Latin [7. 507].

Appointed in 1664 as assistant on the historical source collection (Spicilegium) of Luc d'Achery at Saint-Germain-des-Pres, M. became one of the most renowned Maurist scholars through his publication of the works of Bernard of Clairvaux [1]. His edition was circulated in the 19th cent. by Jacques-Paul -• Migne, like other editions of 'Maurist Fathers', and has only recently been superseded. M.'s chief works are his edition of all the acts of the Benedictine saints (6th-nth cents.) [2.] and the Annals of the Benedictine Order with chronology of the Merovingian Period from documents alone. He ordered the original documents chronologically and added introductions on the state of the sources and historical context. He explained and justified his method in De re diplomatica [3). With this work, M. founded historical diplomatic and palaeography. His renewal of medieval source criticism was an influence especially on historians of the early Italian enlightenment (e.g. Ludovico Antonio ➔ Muratori, Scipione -• Maffei). Although he was soon taken under the wing of the king and the leading church politician Jacques-Benigne Bossuet, M. remained primarily devoted to the Maurist ideals of scholarship [12.] and sought to maintain critical independence and positions of compromise. The finance minister Colbert, dedicatee of De re diplomatica, offered M. a pension of 2.,000 livres, which he

WRITINGS

I1] Sancti Bernardi Abbatis primi Claraevallensis opera omnia, 2. vols. (edition), Paris 1667 (•1690~ English: Life and Works of Saint Bernard. Abbot of Clairvaux, ed. and trans. S. J. £ALES, 4 vols .. 1889-1896) [2) Acta Sanctorum ordinis San~--ri Benedicti in saeculorum classes distributa, 9 vols. [3] De re diplo(edition), Paris 1668-1701 matica libri VI, Paris 1681 (•1709, J1789, Suppl. 1704) [4] Traite des etudes monastiques, Paris 1691 (•1692.; English: Treatise on Monastic Studi~. trans. J.P. McDONALD, 2.004) (5) Eusebii Romani ad Theophilum Gallum epistola de cultu sancto· rum ignotorum (edition; anonym erschienen), Paris 1698 (•1705) [6] CEuvres choisies, ed. 0. HUREL. 2.007 (with introductory biography) (7) Ober das Studium der Manche, ed. C. SCHAFER, 2008 (French orig. 1691).

•

,ZL.._...

MACHIAVELLI,

NICCOLO

At around the same time, he began writing his Discorsi [1], which he finished in 1517, but which were only published after his death, at Florence and Rome in 153 1. This is also a thoroughly political work, in which M. co-opts Livy to present the early Roman Republic to his Florentine contemporaries as an ideal state and commonwealth. He lays great emphasis on the importance of political structures as guarantees of a functioning state organism, to which - here I 53-2.09. pace Livy - the great individual personalities JOHANNES GDBEL cede importance. Two important factors in this account are the concept of freedom in the Roman Machiavelli, Niccolo Republic and the analysis of causes of war and peace. The Discorsi are thus a typical example of Florentine philosopher, politician and writer. Italian Humanism's reference to the present in its examination of ancient Roman history. Born Florence 3. 5. 1469, died there 22. 6. 1527. 1498 member of the Florentine Chancery and After his rehabilitation and reconciliation with the Medici, M. was commissioned to write a hissecretary for foreign affairs. 1498-1512 travels through Italy and Europe as Florentine emis- tory of the city of Florence. In 1525, he dedicated the Istorie fiorentine to the Medici Pope Clement sary. Arrested at Florence 1513, then banished VII. In four books, basing his work on Gian by the Medici; 1514 private retirement to Sant' Andrea in Percussina. From 151 9 again some Francesco • Poggio Bracciolini, Leonardo Bruni and Flavia -+ Biondo, he presents the history of small assignments for the Medici. 1526 military advisor and emissary for Pope Clement VII. Italy from the earliest times to the current history of the city of Florence. Historical veracity is not CAREER, WORKS AND INFLUENCE a priority. The anti-clerical tendency is, however, M. 's life and work were closely linked with notable in the account of the ecclesiastical state. the political history of the city of Florence and Besides these works of politics and history, M. the rule of the Medici [6]. Little is known for also wrote literary works in the Humanist tradicertain about his youth. He was born into a tion [13]: his prose comedy Clizia (1525), closely bourgeois Florentine family (his father was a based on Plautus' Casina, is a typical comedy of notary) and received a solid Humanist education, love, offering numerous cases of mistaken idenbut probably did not study Greek. The young M. tity and a happy ending. M. translated Terence's discovered a manuscript of Lucretius' De rerum comedy Andria into Italian - indeed, he did not natura and made a copy of it. He opposed the use Latin at all in his writings, but was already regime of Girolamo Savonarola in Florence. After writing entirely in the vernacular. Accordingly, Savonarola was burned at the stake in 1498, M. his Discorso o dialogo intorno a/la nostra lingua began his political career as head of the Second ( 1524/2 5) no longer considers the relationship Chancery of the Secretariat of the Republic of between Latin and the vernacular, but rather the question of which variant of Italian should be Florence. After the return of the Medici in r 5 r 2, he was dismissed from his positions and banned taken as the model for a transregional standard to the provinces. In 151 3 he was even arrested language. Unlike Dante Alighieri, he argues for and tortured. the Florentine dialect. The great influence of M. is founded mostly At this time, his famous work / / principe (The Prince) was published, initially under the Latin on his political treatise II principe ( 1513, first publ. 153 2), but also on the Discorsi [1]. It is title De principatibus (4. Vol. 1.1). In this political treatise, M. makes a sober analysis of the striking that in Continental Europe it was mostly mechanisms and functions of power and authorhis doctrine of authority that was received and ity, using Italy as an example. Whereas the work subjected to criticism (e.g. by Frederick the Great long had a generally bad reputation because of in his 1740 Antimachiavel (12]), while in the its cynical realism, M.'s skill at political analysis English-speaking world, it has been his repuband the republican impetus of the work tend to lican tendencies that have attracted particular be acknowledged today. M. also considers the interest [5]. theories of state of Plato and Aristotle in the work; he may have known them in the translaWRITINGS [ 1) Discorsi sopra la prima deca di Tito Livio, tions made by Leonardo Bruni. However, in the Florence 1531 (Latin version by Stupanus published Roman tradition typical of Livy, he emphasizes from 1588; English: Discourses on Livy, trans. the primacy of virtus over the influence of forP. and J. C. BoNDANELLA, 2.003) [2] Legazioni, tuna (9]. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

B. BARRET-KRIEGEL, Jean Mabillon, 1988 J. LECLANT(ed.), Dom Jean Mabillon, figure majeure de !'Europe des lettres. Acres des deux colloques du tricentenaire de la mort de Dom Mabillon (Abbaye de Solesmes, mai 2.007; Paris, decembre 2.007), 2.010 [10) H. LECLERCQ, Dom Mabillon, 2. vols., 1953-1957 (11] PFEIFFER KPh 165 [Il.] M. WEITLAUFF,Die Mauriner und ihr historisch-kritisches Werk, in: G. ScttWAIGER (ed.), Historische Kritik in der Theologie, 1980, [8] (9]

MACHIAVELLI, NICCOLO commissarie, scritti di governo, ed. F. CHIAPELLI and J.-J. MARCHAND,1971-1973 (3) Tutte le opere, ed. M. MARTEILLI, 1971 ('1992) (4) Opere, ed. R. RINALDINIet al. (Classici italiani), 19841999.

-+ Lehrs and Friedrich Wilhelm .. Ritschl. In old age, having lost his sight, M. wrote a book on the Roman state [7] (with criticism of Theodor • Mommsen) and his memoirs. M.'s students included Anders Bj0rn Drachmann, Martin Clarentius Gertz and Johan Ludvig -• Heiberg. SECONDARY LITERATURE M: Livserindringer, 1887. Is] G. BocK I Q. SKINNER(ed.), Machiavelli and Nicolai MadvigLW: E. Spang-Hanssen:Johan Republicanism, 1990 (6) J. R. HALE,Machiavelli and Renaissance Italy, 1961 (7] D. HoEGES, Bibliografi, 1966. Niccolo Machiavelli. Die Macht und der Schein, WRITINGS 2000 (8) W. KERSTING,Niccolo Machiavelli, 3 2006 (1) M. Tullii Ciceronis de finibus bonorum et (9) H. C. MANSFIELD, Machiavelli's Virtue, malorum libri quinque (edition with comm.), 1839 1996 (10) F. MEINECKE, Die Idee der Staatsraison, (2) Latinsk sproglaere til skolebrug, 1841 (English: 1924 (11) J. NAJEMY / A. R. Ascou, Machiavelli, A Latin Grammar for the Use of Schools, trans. Niccolo, in: P. F. GRENDLER (ed.), Encyclopedia of G. Wooos, 1888) (3) Syntax der griechischen the Renaissance 4, 1999, 1-1 s [u.] G. PROCACCI, Sprache, besonders der attischen Sprachform, for Machiavelli nella cultura europea dell'eta moderna, Schulen, 1847 (orig. Danish 1846; English: Syntax 1995 (13) G. SAsso, Machiavelli e gli antichi e of the Greek Language, especially of the Attic altri saggi, 2. vols., 1987-1988. PETERKUHLMANN Dialect, for the Use of Schools, ed. T. K. ARNOLD trans. H. BROWNE, '1880) (4] Emendatione~ Livianae, 1860 ('1877) Is) Titi Livii Historiarum Madvig, Johan Nicolai Romanarum libri qui supersunt, 3 vols. (edition, with J. L. Uss1NG), 1861-1866 (reiss. 1967) Danish classical philologist and politician. (6) Adversaria critica ad scriptores Graecos et Born Svaneke (Bornholm) 7. 8. 1804, died Latinos, 3 vols., 1871-1884 (7) Die Verfassung Copenhagen 12. 12. 1886. 1820-1825 studied und Verwaltung des rt>mischen Staates, 2. vols., classical philology at Copenhagen, lecturing there 1881-1882 (81 Sprachtheoretische Abhandlungen, ed. K. F. JOHANSEN,1971. from 1826, 1828 doctorate. 1829-1848 prof. of Latin language and literature, 1851-1879 prof. SECONDARY LITERATURE of classical philology at Copenhagen. 1848-1851 [9) P. J. JENSEN,Johan Nicolai Madvig. Avec une Danish Minister of Culture. esquisse de l'histoire de la philologie classique au Danemark (trans. A. NICOLET),1981. WORK AND INFLUENCE RALPHLATHER M. was one of the most important Scandinavian Latinists of the 19th cent., and a proponent of Maffei, Francesco Scipione an encyclopaedic classical discipline in the tradition of Friedrich August • Wolf and August Italian poet, historian and epigraphist_ Born ➔ Boeckh. His diss., on Asconius et al., was folVerona 1.6.1675, died there 11.2.1755. lowed by a groundbreaking edition of Cicero's Educated at Jesuit college in Parma from 1698; De finibus bonorum et malorum with a com1718-1720 Provveditore de/ Comune (govprehensive commentary providing text criticism ernment civil servant) in Verona. 1732-1736 and exegesis [ 1]. Its exemplary excellence was ancient recognized internationally. It is regarded as the travelled through Europe to collect inscriptions. Thereafter in Verona. first study of the Greek sources for this treatise.

Along with the edition of Livy [5] (prepared with his student Johan Louis Ussing) that M. completed on the basis of his pioneering preliminary studies [4], it is his most important work. M. wrote a grammar of Latin that was used as the standard work in school tuition for many decades and was translated into five languages [2]. He also wrote an equally influential syntax of Greek [3] and works on language theory [8]. His Adversaria critica [6] contain a thorough methodology of conjectural criticism and especially a plethora of contributions to textual criticism, which have often been proved correct by subsequent research. M.'s conjectures on Latin poets and Greek authors, however, were harshly criticized by contemporaries such as Karl

CAREER

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M. was the youngest of eight children of the Marchese Gianfrancesco M., and like his brother Alessandro, he was probably destined for a military career. In 1698 he travelled to Rome, where he was admitted to the Accademia degli Arcadi and wrote his first poetry. In 1704, he fought on the Bavarian side at the Battle of Donauworth during the War of the Spanish Succession. Returning to Verona, he devoted himself to the study of literature and philosophy. He made contact with Ludovico Antonio . ► Muratori. In 1710, with Apostolo Zeno and Antonio Vallisnieri, he founded the literary periodical II Giornale de' letterati d'Italia. He published his first historical

MAFFEI,

and political works from 1710 to 1712 I I I; 121. On his initiative, the ancient manuscripts that would form the core of the inventory of the Capitular Library at Verona were discovered in 1712.

M.'s tragedy Merope [3 I was a success across Europe. In 1716, he presented his ideas on the reform of Turin Univ. in his treatise Parere sul migliore ordinamento dell'Universita di Torino directed towards King Vittorio Amedeo II. He worked to establish a public museum specifically devoted to epigraphy, and in 1716 the project for a Museo Lapidario in Verona was set up. He published his museological criteria in the Notizia di un nuovo Museo Verona of 1720 14]. In 1727, a first version of the exhibition was prepared, then in 1745 the Museo Maffeiano, named after M., opened its doors. From 1720 to 1726, M. worked on epigraphy [ 19 ]. He published Cassiodorus' Comp/exiones at Florence [51 from the holdings of the Verona Capitular Library. At the invitation of the king, he founded the Museum Taurinense at Turin, and it quickly became widely renowned. Back at Verona, he devoted himself to palaeography and epigraphy [7). In 172.8, Le cerimonie was published at Venice [8), then in 1732 the history of his home city [101. M. travelled through Europe between 1732 and 173 6 collecting inscriptions. He went by way of Piedmont, Geneva, Lyon, Avignon and Aries to Nimes, where he met the young archaeologist Jean-Fram;ois Seguier, who would work as his colleague and secretary for twenty years. M. copied over 5,000 inscriptions in the South of France. During the three years or more than he spent in Paris, he was received at Versailles, met ► Montesquieu and Voltaire among others, and became an honorary member of the Academie des inscriptions et belles-lettres. Following the publication of inscriptions from Provence I 1 1 ), he wrote a work confronting Jansen ism [ 1 3 I. In 1736, M. travelled to London, Cambridge and Oxford, where he received an honorary doctorate (27. 144); [30. 1651. He reached Venice via the Netherlands, Belgium, Cologne and Vienna, returning to Verona late in 1736. There he wrote a political piece on the ideal form of government [2.0). In the same year, he published the memoirs of his brother Alessandro and founded a new literary periodical [ 12.). In 1744, M. discussed the Catholic ban on the charging of interest (14), for which he was persecuted by the Inquisition. In 1746 he worked on a collection of Greek epigraphic abbreviations [ 1 5 ). He wrote a new comedy for the Venice Carnival in 1747 [ 16). He also continued to care for his museum. In 1749 he published his handbook Museum Veronense [17). In the years

FRANCESCO

SC IP I ONE

leading up to his death, he published his poetical and theatrical works and also wrote theoretical pieces on the theatre I 181IN F LUENCE

AND

ASSESSMENT

Not all of M. 's works are published; most manuscripts are found in the Capitular Library at Verona. His wide-ranging interests led him to start many projects, many of which he never completed. His encyclopaedic knowledge encompassed history, philosophy, archaeology, philology, palaeography, epigraphy, numismatics, theology, economi~s, science and politics. His intellectual development can be traced in his correspondence with many figures of European cultural life I21 ]. M.'s interest in historical and antiquarian research seems to dominate his output. Studying the codices of the Veronese Capitular Library after their rediscovery, he made discoveries that remain valid to this day: while Jean • Mabillon and most scholars of the time argued for the existence of 'national scripts', M. proved that there was only Roman script, which had mutated and developed in different directions in different countries. His comprehensive catalogue of all extant Verona manuscripts (Bibliotheca Veronensis manuscripta) remained unfinished. His most important works appeared between 171 o and 172.0: the lstoria diplomatica I71 was intended as an introduction to critical diplomatic; in its appendix (Ragionamento sugli ltali primitivi), M. for the first time considered the Etruscans and their origins. His rival claimant to the title of founder of Etruscology would be Antonio Francesco -•Gori.The Verona illustrata [ rol, with its systematic description of the city and region, was perhaps his most famous work during his lifetime. M. 's aim with his Ars critica lapidaria I 19] (published posthumously) was to place epigraphy on a sound scholarly and didactic foundation. The first step in his methodology was classification, intended to distinguish between genuine and forged inscriptions. He published his plan for a corpus of all Graeco-Roman inscriptions in Europe as a prospectus I9 l describing the development of epigraphy as an independent science. In accordance with the literary fashion of the time, the Galliae antiquitates I 1 1] take the form of letters in which the inscriptions M. copied in the South of France are published. The Museum Veronense [ 17] is a handbook not only of Graeco-Roman epigraphy, but also one that is open to the Middle Ages and other cultures. M.'s works as a museologist was also extremely important. The Museo lapidario Maffeiano was the first museum conceived as a public institution according to scholarly criteria. M. collected

MAFFEI, FRANCESCO SCIPIONE

inscriptions and reliefs for it from all over Italy, including many Greek and Etruscan examples. M. was an important figure in the culture of the first half of the 1 8th cent. His tragedy Merope [3) marked a turning-point in the history of the Italian and European theatre. In historical and antiquarian scholarship, he in many respects initiated the development of modern disciplines. He opened up Italian antiquarianism to the study of Ancient Greek [26). With his new classification of script types, he laid the foundations of modern palaeography. M.'s contribution to epigraphy as a systematic discipline was also crucial. The Museo lapidario Maffeiano quickly became the model for new museums. The concept according to which it was established contains the fundamental essentials of modern museology: the scholarly arrangement of materials, the protection and conservation of the cultural heritage and the pedagogical function.

settecentesca, 1955 (24] G. P. MARCHI, Un italiano in Europa. Scipione Maffei tra passione anriquaria e impegno civile, 1992 (25] D. MoooNESI (ed.), Nuovi studi Maffeiani (Atti de) Convegno Scipione Maffei e ii Museo Maffeiano, Verona 1983), 1985 (26] A. MOMIGLIANO, Gli studi classici di Scipione Maffei, in: MoMIGLIANO Contr. 255-271 [27] I. PtNDEMONTE, Elogi di letterati [28] G. P. RoMAGNANI (ed.), italiani, 1829, 1-338 Scipione Maffei nell'Europa del Settecento (Atti (29] G. P. del Convegno, Verona 1996), 1998 RoMAGNANI, Maffei, Scipione, in: DBI 67, 2.007, 2.56-263 (30) G. SILVESTRI,Un europeo del settecento. Scipione Maffei, 1954. ANNA MARIA PASTORINO

Maffei, Paolo Alessandro Italian antiquarian and author. Born Volterra 1. 1653, died Rome 26. 7. 1716. Nothing is known of his education. At Rome, honorary member of the Papal Guard. 11.

WRITINGS

(1] Della scienza chiamata cavalleresca, Rome 1710 [2] De fabula equestris ordinis Constantiniani epistola, Zurich 1712 [3] Merope. Tragedia, Venice 1714 [4] Traduttori italiani o sia notizia de' volgarizzamenti d'antichi scrittori latini e greci ... , Venice 1720 Is] Cassiodori Senatoris Complexiones in Epistolas et Acta Apostolorum et Apocalypsin e vetustissimis Canonicorum Veronensium membranis nunc primum erutae, Florence 1721 (6) Teatro italiano o sia scelta di tragedie per uso della scena, 3 vols., Verona 1723-1725 [7] Istoria diplomatica che serve d' introduzione all'arte critica in tal materia, Mantua 1727 [8] Le cerimonie. Commedia, Venice 1728 [9] Prospectus universalis collectionis Latinarum veterum, ac Graecarum, ethnicarum, et Christianarum inscriptionum ... , Verona 1732 [10) Verona illustrata, 4 vols., Verona 1732 [11) Galliae antiquitates quaedam selectae atque in plures epistolas distributae, Paris 1733 (12] (ed.), Osservazioni letterarie che possono servir di continuazione al Giornale dei Letterati d'ltalia, 6 [13) Istoria teologica vols., Verona 1737-1740 delle dottrine e delle opinioni corse ne' cinque primi secoli della Chiesa in proposito della Divina Grazia del libero arbitrio e della predestinazione, Trento 1742 [14) Dell'impiego del denaro, Verona 1744 [15) Graecorum siglae lapidariae collectae atque explicatae, Verona 1746 (16) II Raguet. Commedia, Venice 1747 (17] Museum Veronense, hoe est antiquarum inscriptionum atque anaglyphorum collectio, Verona 1749 [18] Dei teatri antichi e moderni, Verona 1753 (19) Ars critica lapidaria, Verona 1765 (20) Consiglio politico finora inedito presentato al Governo Veneto nell'anno 1736, Venice 1797 [21] Epistolario (1700-175 5), 2 vols., ed. C. GARIBOTTO,1955.

CAREER

AND

WORKS

M. was the son of Paolo and Giovanna di Raffaele Maffei, members of a noble family from Volterra; one of his ancestors was the Humanist Raffaele Maffei. His family sent M. to Rome. There, he became an honorary member of the Papal Guard, having just been elevated to Knight of the Order of St. Stephen. M. undertook antiquarian studies and corresponded with many European scholars, including Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. Domenico de Rossi had already in 1 700 published notes by M. on the satires of Quintus Settanus (pseudonym of Lodovico Sergardi), giving M.'s name as Paolo Antonio [1). M. used the name in recollection of his ancestor Raffaele Maffei, who had also used it [5. 13 f.]. M.'s first work, a catalogue of ancient and modern statues, was published in 1704 [2.). De Rossi made the engravings and M. wrote the commentaries. The volume contained 163 plates illustrating, along with a few modern works, the best-known and most renowned ancient statues of Rome, arranged by location and collection. M. described the statues with indications of material, sculptor, find site and circumstances of the find. He cited ancient authors, but also referred to contemporary scholars if they had discussed the sculptures in question. There are no indications of size, missing parts or restorations - de Rossi's very highquality engravings also fail to show these. M. 's identification of works is uneven in quality. He was guided by his moral standpoint and his erudition sometimes distorts his view, but he makes SECONDARY LITERATURE some correct identifications simply by consider[22] D. FEDERICO, Studi Maffeiani. Con una ing the place where the statue was found [4]. monografia sulle origini del liceo ginnasio S. Maffei He was unable to distinguish Greek from Roman di Verona, per ii primo centenario dell'istituto, 1909 works, because style analysis as a criterion of [23) G. GASPERONI,Scipione Maffei e Verona

MAI,

attribution and dating was still unknown. A second edition appeared in 1742., published by Antonio de Rossi. 1707 saw the publication of the first part of Gemmeantiche figurate (3], which M. again puhlished in collaboration with de Rossi. Volume 1 contains portrait gems, volume 2.those on religion and mythology, volume 3 more mythological and religious images, volume 4 gemstones of miscellaneous subjects. This is a greatly enlarged and revised edition of the most important 17th-cent. work on gemstones, by Leonardo -+ Agostini and Giovanni Pietro ► Bellori, supplemented with the earliest engravings of gemstones attrihuted to Enea Vico, and pieces from the collection of Thomas Howard, Earl of Arundel, puhlished in 162.7 by Petrus Stephanus under the title Gemmae antiquitus sculptae etc. M. added to the texts written by Agostini and Bellori, and described the plates hitherto lacking explanatory notes. Each plate showed one piece, all pieces shown at the same size, all with indication of suhject and type of stone, sometimes also of owner. INFLUENCE

M.'s importance to archaeological research stems from the fact that his work on statuary sculpture was for a long time the only monograph on the subject - that by Joachim von -+ Sandrart ( 1680) being less comprehensive. This situation arose because the inventory of statues was already codified in the 1 6th and early 17th cents., setting aesthetic standards, and it was not subsequently expanded. Since the appearance of Fram.ois Perrier's Segmenta nobilium signorum et statuarum quae temporis dentem invidium evasere urbis aeternae ruinis erepta typis aeneis (1638), new finds had added only a few pieces of the highest quality had been added to the inventory of works, which was consequently now taken to be finalized, and was regarded as canonical for almost a century. New compendia served scholarly ends, but because of the many completions of the sculptures and lack of attributes, they did not interest scholars. M.'s work on gemstones enjoyed similarly high renown in its day, as the citations in the work of the most famous scholar of gemstones, Baron Philipp von --► Stosch, attest. But it did not attain the same fame as the work on statues, because the study of gemstones had yet to achieve the high profile it would attain in the 1 8th and 19th cents. WRITINGS

(1) Saryrae numero auctae, mendis purgatae et singulae locupletiores, Rome 1700 [2) Raccolta di statue antiche e moderne data in luce ... da Domenico de Rossi, illustrata colte sposizioni a ciascheduna immagine di Paolo Alessandro Maffei, Rome 1704 [3) Gemme antiche figurate date in

ANGELO

luce da Domenico de Rossi colte sposizioni di Paolo Alessandro Maffei ... , 4 vols., Rome 1707-1 709. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

141F. HASKELL/ N. PENNY,Taste and the Antique. The Lure of Classical Sculpture 1500-1900, •1994 [s) A. LOMBARDI,Storia delta letteratura italiana, Vol. 6, 1832. [6) P. PASCHINI, Una famiglia di curiali. I Maffei di Volterra, in: Rivista di storia delta Chiesa in Italia 7, 1953, 336-376 [7] ZAZOFF GG 38-40. VOLKERHEENES

Mai, Angelo

Italian classical philologist and cardinal. Born Schilpario (near Bergamo) 7. 3. 1782., died Alhano 8. 9. 18 54. Seminary in Bergamo from 1796; entered the Jesuit order in 1799; studied at Parma and elsewhere, then from 1806 at the Collegio Romano in Rome and at Orvieto; 1806 holy orders. 1810 examination. 18II-I819 clerk at the Bibliotheca Ambrosiana in Milan; 181 3 custodian. After leaving the Society of Jesus, 1819 prefect of the Vatican Library in Rome. r 8 3 3 secretary of the Congregatio de propaganda fide; I 8 3 8 cardinal. CAREER

AND

WORKS

After attending school in his home village and nearhy Clusone, M. went to the priestly seminary at Bergamo from 1796. After it closed because of the Napoleonic Wars, he joined a community of Jesuits at Colorno, in 1799. Here, and in nearby Parma, his studies included Hebrew, with Giovanni Bernardo • De Rossi; he also taught. Following the retreat in the face of the French invasion, he went to Naples - again as both student and teacher - in 1804, then to the Collegio Romano in Rome in 1806. He moved to Orvieto in the same year, and took holy orders there. While there, he was probably trained in the chemical decipherment of palimpsests by the Spanish Jesuit Rocco Menchaca. M. passed his examination in theology and philosophy at Rome in 181 o, and then went to Milan, where he became a clerk of Oriental languages at the Bibliotheca Ambrosiana. A unique career as a discoverer and publisher of manuscripts now began. His discovery and 181 5 edition of a palimpsest with letters to and from Fronto attracted particular attention. Other first editions were: fragments of and scholia to speeches of Cicero, including the hitherto unknown Pro Scauro and Pro Tullio (1814, •1817); the speeches of Symmachus; the only extant ancient manuscript of Plautus, with parts of the otherwise lost comedy Vidularia; the first speech of Isaeus, previously not known in full (all 1815 ); the 34th oration of Themistius; fragments

MAI, ANGELO of the lost second decade of Dionysius of Halicarnassus; Pophyry's treatise Ad Marcel/am (all 1816); the 14th book of the Sibylline Oracle; the ltinerarium Alexandri and the Alexander romance by lulius Valerius (all 1817); part of Philo's De specialibus legibus together with the Verona scholia on Virgil; the Armenian version of the Chronicle of Eusebius (with Johannes Zohrab; all 181 8 ); and the so-called Ilias picta together with scholia on the Odyssey ( 1819 ). With the exception of one extract ( 1819 ), M. left the publication of Wulfilas' Gothic translation of the Bible to the philologist Count Carlo Octavio Castiglione. In 181 8, M. was offered the post of prefect at the Vatican Library, and he assumed it in November 1819. As at Milan, he found numerous manuscripts here, some from the former monastery of Bobbio, and he made further discoveries. For example, he found the second part of the palimpsest of the letters of Frontus (published 1823 and 1846), the speeches of Symmachus (published 1825) and the Schvlia Bobiensia on the speeches of Cicero. His discovery ( 1819) and edition ( 1822) of large parts of Cicero's political treatise De re publica, which had been thought lost, made a sensation. He also issued a catalogue of the papyri in the Vatican Library (1825). M. even continued his editorial activities after being appointed secretary to the Congregatio de propaganda fide in 18 33 and a cardinal in 183 8. The results are resented in four major series: the Scriptorum veterum nova collectio [ 1], the Classici auctores [2], the Spicilegium Romanum [3] and the Nova patrum bibliotheca (4], the last three volumes of which were completed by Giuseppe Cozza-Luzi after M.'s death. INFLUENCE To most of his contemporaries, M. was exceedingly highly regarded because of his discoveries. Many academies admitted him to membership. Giacomo ► Leopardi even celebrated the scopritor famoso as the herald of a new era of Italian greatness in 1820 in his Canto ad Angelo

Mai quand' ebbe trovato i libri di Cicerone della Repubblica. M.'s significance tends to be viewed in a more critical light today (11]. His editions were not infrequently marred by desultoriness, only sporadically adequate even to the philological standards of the day. His Greek had marked weaknesses. The iron gall ink he used to read palimpsests often made the writing almost unreadable to later users. On the other hand, he discovered many ancient literary works and made them available to the public by his indefatigable efforts. LW: [9].

390 WRITINGS

I I I Scriptorum veterum nova collectio e Varicanis codicibus (edition), 10 vols., 182.5-18 38 [2.) Classici auctores e Vaticanis codicibus editi (edition), 10 vols., 1828-1838 131Spicilegium Romanum (edition), 10 vols., 1839-1844 141 Nova patrum bibliotheca ls] Epistolario, (edition), 10 vols., 1844-1905 1954. Vol. 1, ed. G. GERVASONI, SECONDARY

LITERATURE

161 A. CARRANNANTE, Mai, Angelo, in: DBI 67, 171 L. CORTESI/ J. RuvssCHAERT, 2006, 517-52.0

Contributi alla storia del Giovane Mai, in: Bergomum. Bollettino delta Civica Biblioteca Angelo Mai di Bergamo. Studi di storia, arte e letteratura 77 .1/2., 198 3 (with correspondence edition) l8I G.GERVASONI,AngeloMai,1954 [9] L. POLGAR, Bibliographic sur l'histoire de la Compagnie de Jesus, 1901-1980, Vol. 3, 1990, 469-473 (10) D. ROTA (ed.), Angelo Mai e la cultura del primo Ottocento, 198 5 I11) S. TIMPANARO,Aspetti e figure della cultura otto- centesca, 1980, 2.2.5-271. THOMASGERHARDT Manutius, Aldus Manuzio, Aldo Pio (Latin Pius); Italian Humanist and printer. Born Bassiano (near Rome) c. 1450/52, died Venice 6. 2. 1515. 1467-1475 studied at Rome, then Ferrara. 148o-c.1490 tutor and court librarian at Carpi. Working at Venice from 1490, from 1495 as printer. CAREER All that is known of M.' background and education is the little he himself reveals in his forewords. He worked as a Humanist and teacher until he was around 40 years old, and his career as printer of books began only in the last third of his life. M. studied from 1467 to 1475 with Domizio ► Calderini and Gaspare da Verona at Rome. It is possible, but not attested, that he may have had contact with the first German printers there, Konrad Sweynheym and Arnold Pannartz. From 1475, he studied at Ferrara with the Humanist and pedagogue Battista Guarino. For a decade or so from 1480, he worked as tutor and librarian at the court of Alberto Pio of Carpi. His friends and students included Giovanni ► Pico della Mirandola, Angelo ~ Poliziano and Ercole Strozzi. M. never explained why he moved to Venice or decided to start printing books. Leners show him at Venice in 1490, and in 1491 in the circle of Giorgio ► Valla, looking for manuscripts. He was probably working as a teacher in 1493 (first edition of his Latin grammar (2] with his future partner and father-in-law, Andrea Torresani). From around 149 5, there was in existence an association to which the Venetian patrician

MARCHESI, CONCETTO

39 1 Pierfrancesco Barbarigo and the printer Andrea Torresani contributed the money and M. the Humanist expertise; between 149 5 and 151 5 it produced no fewer than 130 editions, mostly of Greek but also Latin and vernacular texts, each in a print run of up to 3,000 copies (6). Many of the Humanists connected with the informal association of the Neacademia (a society of scholars of which M. was one of the founders) took part as editors (including • Erasmus of Rotterdam). Seeking to develop the printed type, M. sought the collaboration of Francesco Griffo, who cut for him not only the Latin antiqua and cursives, but also a series of Greek typefaces. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

M. was one of the most important printers of the Renaissance. The circulation of Greek texts and Humanist printed matter across Europe was largely the result of his work. His son and grandson continued the tradition until the end of the 16th cent. (7). M. was also highly influential as a Humanist teacher and pedagogue (4]: a first proposal emphasizing the importance of Greek in education and arguing for simultaneous tuition in Latin and Greek is found in his letter to Caterina Pio, the mother of his pupils at Carpi (before 1490 (1]). His textbooks on Latin (1493) (2) and Greek I3 I ( 1515) were also printed and used north of the Alps. In 1495, M. described the printing of Greek texts (in Constantine _.,Laskaris' Erotimata) as an attempt to preserve the humane in a world increasingly threatened by war (the so-called Italian Wars had begun in 1494 with the invasion by the armies of Charles VIII of France). With the support of figures ► Reuchlin and Johannes including Johannes Cuno, M. made various attempts between 1499 and 1505 to establish the Neacademia as a Humanist educational project as an institution under the auspices of Emperor Maximilian I, but without success f 5. 180-216]. As well as financially risky undertakings that could only be accomplished with the help of powerful patrons (e.g. the Aristotle edition in 5 folio vols.), M. produced many textbooks and lexica. The 'Aldine' editions, small-format versions of texts, especially Greek and Roman classics, were also aimed at a less moneyed public. The small format, characteristic cursive typeface and strict use of interpunction made them the model for all subsequent reading editions. A unique case in M.' output is the Hypnerotomachia Poliphilii ( 1499 ), one of the most famous Italian incunabula. M.' reticence in regard to the work (of uncertain authorship) f81, which is his most lavish in terms of typography and richly illustrated with woodcuts, stands in marked contrast to the great aesthetic impact of the book, which became famous especially after

its second impression ( 1545) and above all for its depiction of Egyptian motifs (e.g. the elephant with the obelisk). The hieroglyphs furnished with 'translations', which invited the reading of every illustration as a hieroglyph, also founded a kind of 'hieroglyphic fad', which spread across Europe and beyond the bounds of book printing. WRITINGS

I I I Musarum 12.Ilnstitutiones

panegyris, Venice c. 1490 grammaticae Latinae, Venice 1493 (3 I Grammaticae institutiones Graecae, Venice 151 5. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

141P.

F. GRENDLER, Aldus Manutius. Humanist, Teacher and Printer, 1984 [5) M. LOWRY, The World of Aldus Manutius. Business and Scholarship in Renaissance Venice, 1979 16] E. PASTORELLO, L'epistolario Manuziano, 1957 171A.-A. RENOUARD,Annalesdel'imprimerie des Aide, ou, Histoire des trois Manuce et de leurs editions, 1825 (reiss. 1953) [8) M. S!CHERL, Griechische Erstausgaben des Aldus Manutius. Druckvorlagen, Stellenwert, kultureller Hintergrund, A. WoLKENHAUER,Zu schwer for Apoll. 1997 191 Die Antike in humanistischen Druckerzeichen des 16. Jh.s, 2002 (34-52 on Aldus' presentation of himself as a printer). ANJAWOLKENHAUER

Marchesi, Concerto Italian classical philologist, politician and writer. Born Catania 1. 2.. 1878, died Rome 12. 2. 19 57. From 189 5, studied lettere at Catania; 1899 graduated (/aurea) in Florence, then worked as schoolteacher in Pisa f10). 1915-1923 prof. of Latin literature at Univ. of Messina. 19 2 1 joined the Italian Communist Party. 1923 second univ. degree, in law; 1923 appointed to Univ. of Padua; 1928 member of the Accademia dei Lincei. 193 1 took oath of allegiance to Fascism. 1943 participated in activities of anti-Fascist parties; September 1943 appointed rector of Univ. of Padua. Soon resigned, fled and called for resistance. 1 944 active fight against Fascism. 194 5 politically active until his death. 19 51 elected to Italian Parliament. WORK

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INFLUENCE

The formative influence on M. came from Remigio Sabbadini, whose commentary on the Aeneid (1950-1955) he edited. M. began by studying late medieval and Humanist transmissions of the ancient texts I1]; (2 ], but he showed little interest in textual history. He achieved outstanding results in historical and thematic interpretation, in commentaries (e.g. on Cicero, Seneca, Apuleius, Prudentius), monographs (on Martial, Petronius, Juvenal, Seneca, Phaedrus and Latin fable, Tacitus) and especially in his

MARCHESI, C0NCETTO

magnum opus, his history of Latin literature (6 ), which is comparable in the ambition of its design and intent with Francesco de Sanctis' history of Italian literature. Its most important contribution is the rehabilitation of literature of the 1st and 2.nd cents. AD. M. was in the tradition of so-called 'Romantic' criticism, which, although rooted in history, focused on the individual author and was more interested in the man (homo) than the citizen (civis), i.e. M. meant it as a polemical response to the Fascist rhetoric of Romanitas. His political convictions made M. particularly sensitive to social themes of class inequality (hence the attention he paid to Latin fable (5]). He also worked as a poet and author (4]; (10). LW: [12.). WRITINGS [1J l'Etica nicomachea nella tradizione latina medievale, 1904 (21 Paolo Manuzio e talune polemiche sullo stile e sulla lingua nel Cinquecento, 1905 [3] la liberta stoica romana in un poeta satirico del I secolo. A Persio Fiacco, 1906 (4I II libro di Tersite, 192.0 (et al.) lsl Fedro e la favola latina, 192.1 (61 Storia della letteratura latina, 2. vols., 192.5-192.7 (et al., most recently 1989) [7) La persona umana nel comunismo, 1946.

392. had the opportunity of working for the Louvre, albeit in a lowly position (he had previously been working as a teacher). He was sent to Egypt in 1850, partly to acquire Coptic manuscripts; while there, he discovered the Serapeum, the place of burial of the bulls of Apis at Memphis, and he worked on its excavation until 1854. The fame he won through this extraordinarily important discovery determined the course of the rest of his life. In 18 5 8, the Wali of Egypt, Muhammad Sa'id Pasha, appointed him director of the Travaux d'antiquites en Egypte. M. thereby became the founder of the Service des antiquites de l'Egypte (now the Supreme Court of Antiquities) and of the Egyptian Museum at Bulaq (now the Egyptian Museum at Cairo), which opened in 1863. M. set in motion an extensive operation of excavations all over Egypt, which, while not matching the standards later developed by Flinders • Petrie et al. (let alone the standards of the present day), at least put an end to the wholesale plunder by treasure-hunters of earlier times. M. published the results of his excavations and the inventories of the museum, but was out of his depth with the 1,2.00 or so inscriptions from his excavation of the Serapeum. Collaboration with Heinrich • Brugsch brought him some respite, but a systematic publication, at least of the bulk of the inscriptions that were taken to the Louvre, would have to wait more than a hundred years (9) and is still not completed. Nothing expresses the great importance of M. to the studies of ancient Egypt more strikingly than the funerary monument erected to him on 17. 3. 1904 in the courtyard of the Egyptian Museum at Cairo, consisting of a sarcophagus and a statue of M. on a high plinth.

SECONDARY LITERATURE [81 l. CANFORA, Concetto Marchesi, in: C. MARCHESI, II libro di Tersite, 1993, 189-2.12. (9) l. CANFORA, la sentenza. Concerto Marchesi e Giovanni Gentile, •2.005 [10) L. CANFORA, Marchesi, Concetto, in: DBI 69, 2.007, 587 (591) [n) A. LA PENNA,Concetto Marchesi. la critica letteraria come scoperta dell'uomo, 1980 [ 12 I M. STERI, Bibliographia marchesiana. Catalogo degli scritti di e su Concetto Marchesi posseduti dall' ACM di Cardano a Campo, 2.006 [13] P. TREVES,Ritratto critico di Concetto Marchesi. Nel decennale della sua morte, 1968. SOTERA FORNARO Mariette, Auguste French Egyptologist. Born Auguste-FerdinandFran-Gruter 1694 holy orders. From 169 5 scholarly work (1602./03). M.'s Thesaurus was later completed at Biblioteca Ambrosiana in Milan. From 1700 with additional supplements by Sebastiano director of the Biblioteca Estense in Modena. Donati (Ad Novum Thesaurum veterum inscriptionum L. A. Muratorii supplementum, 2. vols., CAREER Lucca 1765). M. came from a simple background. After studying at Modena, he entered the priesthood. INFLUENCE While working at the Biblioteca Ambrosiana in When M. assembled his Thesaurus [2.), what Milan, M. was in contact with the Italian writer epigraphy needed was not just a supplement to Carlo Maria Maggi; he devoted himself to philo- Gruter's work, but a revision of it involving

MURETUS, MARCUS ANT0NJUS

433

and Bordeaux. It was at Bordeaux that his tragedy in the tradition of Seneca, Julius Caesar, was first performed, probably in 1545. This was the first Renaissance drama to take the assassination of Caesar as its subject (adaptations by Jacques Grevin, French, 1561; Orlando Pescetti, Italian, 1 594; influence on William Shakespeare). Among his students at Bordeaux in 1547/48 was Montaigne. In Paris he aligned himself closely with the poets of the Pleiade, Joachim ➔ du Bellay, Etienne Jodelle and especially Pierre de Ronsard, on whose Amours he wrote a commentary in 15 53. M.'s early poems (luvenilia: elegies, epigrams, odes and satires) appeared in print in 15 5 2 after long preparations in manuscript ( 1 J. In 1553, M. was accused of homosexual activities and heresy in Paris, as he was later in Toulouse. In 1 5 54 in Toulouse in 1 5 54 he was WRITINGS [ 1] Antiquitates ltalicae medii aevi, 6 vols., burned in effigy for heresy. After fleeing France, 1738-1742.; •1777-1780, 17 vols. (2) Novus thehe found support in Venice, where he worked saurus veterum inscrtpt1onum, in praecipuis ear· for the printer Paulus Manutius, among others. umdem collectionibus hactenus praetermissarum, 4 This period saw the appearance of his com(3) Raccolta delle opere vols., Milan 1739-1742. mentaries on Aristotle's Nicomachaean Ethics, minori, Naples 1757 [4] Opere, 19 vols., Arezzo 1767-1773 Is) Scritti inediti di Lodovico Ant. Plato's Republic, Cicero's Cati/inarian Orations, Catullus, Tacitus' Annales, Terence, Horace, Muratori a celebrare ii secondo centenario delta Propertius and Tibullus. This was also the time nascita di lui, Bologna 1872. (61 Edizione nazionof his dispute with Joseph Justus ➔ Scaliger, to ale del carteggio di L. A. MURATORJ, 1975 (multivolume edition). whom he succeeded in passing off his own original poems, and others translated from Greek, SECONDARY LITERATURE as fragments of ancient Latin works (Trabea, (7) Ludovico Antonio Muratori nel secondo cencited by Scaliger in the first edition of his Notae tenario delta morte, 1950 [8] A. ANDREOLI, in Varronem). From 1559, M. lived at Ferrara Nel mondo di Lodovico Antonio Muratori, 1972. and Rome in the circle of Cardinal Ippolito [9] I. CALABI LIMENTANI, Epigrafia latina, •1991, d'Este. M. was one of the leading proponents p-52. [ 10) G. FALCO, Muratori e ii preillumiof a Ciceronian Latin Renaissance prose style. nismo, in: M. FUBINI (ed.), La cultura illuminis[III W. HENZEN, He was honoured for his speech in celebration tica in Italia, •1964, 23-41 of the victory at Lepanto (1571) with the title Die lateinische Epigraphik und ihre gegenwartigen civis Romanus. He turned down an invitation to Zustande. Theodor Mommsens lnscriptiones Regni the Krakow Academy in 1578. M.' substantial Neapolitani Latinae, in: Allgemeine Monatsschrift fur Wissenschaft und Literatur 2., I 8 53, 1 57-1 84 library formed the foundation of the library of (12) T. MOMMSEN, Ueber Plan und Ausfiihrung the Collegium Romanum, and today forms part eines Corpus Inscription um Latina rum, 1847 of the Biblioteca nazionale centrale in Rome.

direct physical scrutiny of the inscriptions. But such a work would have demanded a prodigious commitment of time: immensum quippe tempus exigeret, as M. says in the preface. He therefore wrote a work which, although it corresponded to his antiquarian interests, was academically inadequate. He consequently incurred the ire of the masters of epigraphy, Theodor ,. Mommsen and Wilhelm ➔ Henzen, who harshly criticized both his content and his method. M. 's Thesaurus was castigated for being careless ("not a single inscription is shown with perfect exactitude" and he included fake inscriptions and excluded genuine ones (11. 163)), redundant (13. 13 f.) and unsatisfactory ("intrinsically flawed and deficient" (12.. 1)).

[13) M. G. SCHMIDT, Einfiihrung in die Latin Epigraphik, •2ou, 8, 13-14. CAMILLACAMPEDELLI

Muretus, Marcus Antonius Muret, Marc Antoine; French Humanist and poet. Born Muret (Limoges) 12.. 4. 1526, died Rome 4. 6. 1585. From 1551, prof. of philosophy and civil law at Paris. From 1 563, prof. of philosophy, civil law and rhetoric at Rome. Holy orders 1 576; Jesuit. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

M.s is important for his poetic as for his philological work in equal measure. Self-taught, he was helped form an early age by Julius Caesar ► Scaliger, whose mediation secured him teaching posts at the colleges of Villeneuve, Poitiers

WRITINGS

[1] luvenilia, Paris 1552. (2) Opera, 5 vols., Verona 172.7-1730 [3] lulius Caesar, ed. A. HAGMAIER (with M. VIRDUNG's Brutus; with trans. and interpretation), 2.006 [41 The luvenilia of MarcAntoine Muret, trans. K. M. SUMMERS(with intro. and comm.), 2.006. SECONDARY

Is) J.

LITERATURE

BLANSDORF,Die Verwandlung der senecanischen Tragodie in Marc-Antoine Murets 'Julius (6) P. DE Caesar', in: (JCT 1, 1994, 58-74 NOLHAC, La bibliotheque d'un humaniste au xv• siecle. Catalogue des livres annote par Muret, in: Melanges d'archeologie et d'histoire de !'Ecole fram;aise de Rome 3, 1883, 2.02.-2.38 (7) SANDYS Hist., Vol. 2., 1908, 148-152.. ANJAWOLKENHAUER

MURRAY,

GILBERT

434

Murray, Gilbert Australian-British classical philologist. Born Sydney 2.. 1. 1866 as George Gilbert Aime M., died Yatscombe (near Oxford) 2.0. 5. 1957. School in Australia and London; studied at St. John's College, Oxford; from 1888 fellow at New College, Oxford. From 1889 prof. of Greek in Glasgow; 1899 retired for health reasons. From 190 5 prof. of Greek at Oxford; retired 1936. Guest prof. at Harvard 192.5/2.6; various political commitments. Refused knighthood 1912.; 1941 Order of Merit; fellow of the British Academy. CAREER,

WORKS

AND

INFLUENCE

M. was born into a politically active family of the elite of the British colony of Australia. The financial ruin of the family in 1877 led them to move to Britain, where M. was only able to study at Oxford with the support of a number of scholarships. He won several prizes there and completed his studies with distinction. He also involved himself with politics for the Liberal Party. As prof. of Greek at Glasgow, he planned a series of editions of ancient works, and through this came into contact with the future editors of the Oxford Classical Texts (OCT), David Binning Monro, Ingram • Bywater and Charles Cannan. His history of Greek literature ( 1897) I 1) was exceedingly controversial, but was reprinted several times. In 1899, on doctors' advice, M. withdrew from univ. duties and began work on an edition of Euripides (2.). This brought him into contact with Ulrich von -• Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, who would be a lifelong influence. He also wrote various translations of plays by Euripides and Aristophanes, which brought him into contact with the theatre. He corresponded with other translators and authors, including George Bernard Shaw, and wrote a number of plays himself (e.g. Andromache, 1901 ), albeit with little success. After an initial meeting of minds, M.'s work on Greek drama led to disagreement, especially with his friend Jane Ellen • Harrison (to whose Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion and Themis he had contributed). She was a leading light of the Cambridge Ritualists, who derived Greek drama from ritual, while M.'s view of Greece was a more liberal, progressive and intellectual one (6); (7 ). In 1905, M. returned to Oxford as a fellow, and in 1908 he succeeded ► Bywater as Regius Prof. of Greek. Inspired by • WilamowitzMoellendorff, he proceeded to reform and expand Greek studies at Oxford. His research once more focused on Euripides (4] and Greek epic, and he sought to mediate between the Unitarians and Analysts (3).

From the outbreak of World War I, M. became more politically active and was forced to cut back on his research. He continued to support the British Liberal Party, as well as the Suffragette Movement and the foundation of the League of Nations. As from 19 3 3, he helped German scholars to emigrate, including Eduard • Fraenkel, who joined Ludwig Radermacher and Denys ► Page in assisting him with his edition of Aeschylus (9). This edition was harshly criticized and seldom cited, and in 1972 it was replaced by Page's edition. The same fate befell his monograph on Aristophanes [8]. M.'s work at Oxford was crowned in 1936 with two FS, attesting to the breadth of his research and his many contacts in the scholarly community. He was succeeded as Regius Prof. by his candidate of choice, E. R. • Dodds. M. spent his retirement in renewed commitment to various political activities, e.g. the United Nations Association of the United Kingdom. M.'s works are distinguished less by precision than by imagination and an effort at general readability. His main interest was in communication, whether to univ. students or a wider public, and in this he succeeded magnificently. The compromises this demanded in terms of generalization and didactic reductionism were responsible in no small measure for his questionable reputation in the scholarly world, a reputation he did not entirely deserve. M: An Unfinished Autobiography, with Contributions by His Friends, ed. J. Smith, 1960. E: Oxford, Bodleian Library. WRITINGS

I1) History of Ancient Greek Literature, 1 897 (reiss. 1911, 1937, 1966 et al.) [2] Euripides, 3 vols. (edition; OCT), 1902.-1909 [3] The Rise of the Greek Epic, 1907 [41 Euripides and His Age, 1913 (et al.) (5) Essays and Addresses, 192.1 16) Five Stages of Greek Religion, 192.5 (7) The Classical Tradition in Poetry, 192.7 (reiss. 1939 et [9) Aeschyli al.) 18) Aristophanes: A Study, 1933 septem quae supersunt tragoediae (edition; OCT), 1 937•

SECONDARY

LITERATURE

(10) F. WEST, (11) D. WILSON, 1987.

Gilbert Murray. A Life, 1984 Gilbert Murray OM, 1866-1957, U, C. A. STEPHAN

Musgrave, Samuel British philologist and doctor. Born Washfield, Devon, 29. 9. 1732., died Bloomsbury, London, 4. 7. 1780. Son of a doctor. 1749-1754 studied Greek, Latin etc. at Oxford, graduating with a BA 1754-1765 Radcliffe Travelling Fellowship, primarily for France (especially Paris) and the

MUSURUS, MARCUS

435

Netherlands; 1756 MA in Oxford. 1760 member of the Royal Society, London. 1762/63 studied medicine, graduating as MD (Medicinae Doctor) from Leiden. 1763 member of the Academie des inscriptions et belles-lettres in Paris. From 1766, worked as a doctor in various English cities. 177 5 doctorate (MD) from Oxford; 1777 member of the Royal College of Physicians. Worked as a writer and scholar in London from 177 5. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

M.'s attempts ( 176 5-1770) to charge members of the British government with corruption in connection with the Treaty of Paris (1763) that ended the Seven Years' War failed, and this damaged his professional career as a doctor. From 1775, he therefore withdrew to Bloomsbury in London to work as a writer and scholar, mainly in the fields of medicine and philology, with modest earnings [5); (7). Although M. had made a certain name for himself since 17 59 in medical scholarship, especially through his articles on psychosomatics I51, his main achievement came in Greek philology in the sense of traditional Humanist textual philology. Together with Thomas Tyrwhitt, he introduced to Britain a more intensive way of working with the constitution of the texts of Euripides [1]; 12); [3) and Sophocles 141 - in opposition to Joshua Barnes, Thomas Johnson and Jeremiah Markland - and inspired the younger generation of philologists (Richard • Porson, Peter • Elmsley) to continue such work. Many of his emendations and conjectures have been adopted, especially in his still-standard Euripides editions. WRITINGS

[1) Euripidis Hippolytus (edition, with Variae lectiones, Notae ), Oxford 17 5 6 I2 I Exercitationes criticae in Euripidem, 2 vols., Leiden 1762 131Euripidis quae extant omnia (including fragments), 4 vols. (edition with Variae lectiones, Notae, lnterpretatio Latina, Scholia Graeca), Oxford 1778 (online ed . .2.004) [41 Sophoclis tragoediae septem, 2 vols. (text by T. JOHNSON, Animadversiones by S. MUSGRAVE),Oxford 1800. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

Is] A. CAMERON, Musgrave, Samuel, in: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography 39, 2004 (also online) [61 C. COLLARD, Musgrave, Samuel, in: DBC .2., a, 694-696 (7] W. P. COURTNEY, Musgrave, Samuel, in: The Dictionary of National Biography 13, 1894-1895, 423-425. MANFREDLANDFESTER

Musurus, Marcus Musuros, Markos; Greek Humanist, poet and translator. Born c. 1470 on Crete, died Rome

2.4. 10. 1517. Studied at Florence c. 1486-1494; 1505-1509 prof. of Greek at Padua. 1511-1516 prof. at Venice. 1516 titular Archbishop of

Monemvasia (Greece). WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

As a copyist, translator, philologist, teacher and poet, M. was among the most important and versatile communicators of Greek literature in Italy. Born around 1470 in Venetian Candia (now Heraklion) on Crete, he studied at Florence from around 1486 with Janus ► Laskaris. After the death of Lorenzo de' Medici, he moved to Venice, where his lifelong collaboration with Aldus ► Manutius began. He also worked for other printers (Kallierges, Giunta), and translated from the Greek and copied Greek classics, partly for his own use and partly on behalf of Venetian nobles. Over 60 manuscripts in his hand or from his estate are attested [7). From 1499 to 1 502, M. worked (as Aldus had before him) as tutor and librarian to Alberto Ill Pio of Carpi. M. was a founder member of the so-called Neacademia, a Humanist society led by Aldus. He was in contact with Pierro • Bembo, Scipione Carteromacho, Giovanni Battista Egnazio and Jean Grolier, among others. In 1505, he was appointed to succeed Lorenzo da Camerino as prof. of Greek at Padua, having already deputized for him since t 503. Among those attending his lectures were Johannes Cuno and ► Erasmus of Rotterdam, who would later call him gente Graecus, eruditione Graecissimus ("Greek by blood and the most Greek in erudition") I 1. ep. 2951- In 1511, after war had forced the closure of the Univ. of Padua in 1 509, M. took the Greek professorship at Venice. He worked from 151 3 at the Scuola de/la cancelleria ducale, and as a public translator. One of the most important Greek poems of the Renaissance is his so-called Ode to Plato ( 1513 ), a shining example of the veneration of Plato in that period. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

I 1] P. S. ALLEN (ed.), Opus epistolarum Des. Erasmi Roterodami, Vol. 2: 1514-1517, 1910 l.2.I A. CATALDIPALAU,La vita di Marco Musuro alla luce di documenti e manoscritti, in: Italia medi[3] T. B. oevale e umanistica 45, 2004, 295-369 DEUTSCHER,Marcus Musurus, in: P. G. BtETENHOLZ IT. B. DEUTSCHER (ed.), Contemporaries of Erasmus, [4] M. MANOUSSAKAs, Markos Vol. 2, 472-473 Musuros, in: Graecogermania. Griechischstudien deutscher Humanisten (exh. cat.), 1989, 61-65 Is] E. M10N1, La biblioteca greca di Marco Musuro, in: Nuovo Archivio Veneto 97, 1971, 5-.2.8 (6] A. PoNTAN1,L'umanesimogrecoa Venezia. Marco Musuro, Girolamo Aleandro e I' Antologia Planudea, in: M. F. TtEPOLO / E. TONETTI (ed.), I greci a Venezia (Atti del convegno internazionale di studio, Venedig 1998), 2002, 381-466 [7) M. SICHERL, Musurus-Handschriften, in: J. L. HELLER / J. K.

MUSURUS,

MARCUS

NEWMAN(ed.), Serta Turyniana. Studies in Greek Literature and Paleography. FS A. Turyn, 1974,

directed at the early Bronze Age settlement and necropolis of Agios Kosmas and the western 564-608. necropolis at Eleusis in two exemplary publicaANJA W0LKENHAUER tions (4 ); ( 10). But M.' name is forever primarily associated with Mycenae, where he worked from Mylonas, Georgios 1958 until his death as head of excavations for the Archaeological Society of Athens. As well as Greek archaeologist. Born Georgios his monumental publication of the excavations in Emmanuel M., Izmir, 9. 12. 1898, died Athens Grave Circle B [9], he wrote several monographs 15. 4. 1988. Studied at Athens from 1916, inter- on the history of Mycenae and Mycenaean culrupted in 1921/22 by his participation in the ture that remain seminal today [6); [7); (8); [x x). Graeco-Turkish War. 1928 doctorate at Athens. M. also made an intensive study of issues of 1929 second doctorate at Baltimore. 1933-1967 the religion, customs and values of Mycenaean assistant prof., later prof. and director of the culture, and various aspects of the Archaic and Department of Art History and Archaeology at Classical Periods [3]; [5}. He was a gifted teacher, Washington Univ., St. Louis; 1979-1988 sec- researcher and excavator. The picture we have retary-general of the Archaeological Society of now of Mycenaean culture and the importance Athens. of Mycenae is to a high degree influenced by his work. CAREER,

WORKS

AND

INFLUENCE

M. grew up in Izmir. From 1923 to 1928, he worked at the American School of Classical Studies in Athens. He also studied classics at Athens, gaining his doctorate in 1928. Just a year later, he was awarded another doctorate, by Johns Hopkins Univ. in Baltimore, for a thesis on the Neolithic finds at Olynthus (2). Between 1931 and 1933, he taught Greek archaeology at the Univ. of Illinois at Urbana. In 1933, he moved to Washington Univ. at St. Louis (Missouri), where he worked until his retirement. Between 1 9 57 and 1961, M. was the first non-American president of the Archaeological Institute of America. After returning to Greece, he took the helm of the Archaeological Society of Athens. His diss. on Neolithic Greece was the first systematic examination of the New Stone Age on the Greek mainland and Crete [1]. His publication of the Neolithic finds and discoveries at Olynthus [2.] was a pioneering achievement for the study of the protohistory of Macedonia. He presented the results of the excavations he

Writings (1) H NeoA.18uoi£1tOXllEV EU.061, 192.8 [2] The Neolithic Settlement of Olynthus, 192.9 (3) 0 np Rohde. He thereafter spent his entire career working in schools, from where he conducted research across a broad spectrum of intellectual history, especially on Greek philosophy. His first important study on Euripides as a poet of the Greek 'Enlightenment' [1] examined the poet's philosophical influences and his criticism of ideas of popular religion. N. later edited and revised Eduard ➔ Zeller's major writings on Greek phi-

WRITINGS

I Euripides. Der Dichter der griechischen Aufklarung, 1901 [2.] (ed.) E. ZELLER, Philosophic der Griechen in ihrer geschichdichen Entwicklung, vols. 1-2., 1919-192.2. (editions 6 and 7) (3) (ed.) E. ZELLER,Grundriss der Geschichte der griechischen Philosophie, 192.0-192.8 (editions 12 and 13; English: Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy, trans. L. R. PALMER, 1931) (4) Geschichte der griechischen Literatur, 2. vols., 192.3-192.4 ( 3 1963) Is) Die griechische Religiositat in ihren Grundztigen und Hauptvertretern von Homer bis Proklos, 3 vols., 1930-1934 (61 Yorn Mythos zum Logos. Die Selbstentfaltung des griechischen Denkens von Homer bis auf die Sophistik und Sokrates, 1940 (•1942.; reiss. 1975 and 1986; Greek 1999) (7] Griechische Weltanschauung in ihrer Bedeutung fur die Gegenwart, 1946 (8) Griechische Studien. Untersuchungen zur Religion, Dichtung und Philosophie der Griechen, 1948 (reiss. 1968). [1

SECONDARY

LITERATURE

(9) E. NESTLE,Nestle, Wilhelm Albrecht, in: NDB 19, 1999, 79-80 [10) A. SCHNECK, Wilhelm in: 350 Jahre Gymnasium in Nestle 1913-1919, Heilbronn, rev. A. KOLBECK,1971, 113-12.0. PETER KUHLMANN

Nettleship, Henry British classical philologist. Born Kettering (Northamptonshire) 5. 5. 1839, died Oxford 10. 7. 1893. Private (public) school, then 1857 studied at Corpus Christi College, Oxford; 1862. fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. From 1868, teacher at Harrow School in London; from 1873 fellow and lecturer at Christ Church College, 1878 prof. of Latin at Corpus Christi College, Oxford.

NEUGEBAUER,

44 1 WORK

AND

Neugebauer,

INFLUENCE

After an excellent school education, N. began his studies at Oxford with a scholarship and proceeded to win several prizes. Although his 1861 degree was not remarkable, he received further financial support and was able to remain at Oxford the following year as a fellow, coming under the powerful influence of the English scholar Mark Pattison and the Latinist John Conington. In 1862, he went to the renowned Harrow School in London as assistant master, but he was unhappy there and returned to Oxford in 1 873. He took only a passing interest in univ. politics, but he did support the Oxford reform movement. He built up important connections with German scholars, notably Moriz ➔ Haupt, whose lectures he attended during a study trip to Berlin. Unlike his teacher Conington, N. undertook little translation, but he did complete Conington's version of the Aeneid and published his editions of Persius. N.'s own works on Virgil appeared in 1875 [1] and 1879 [2.j. From 1877, he worked on a new Latin-English dictionary conceived from scratch, but finding no collaborators he was forced to abandon the project. He did, however, compile and publish the results of the research he had done for it, e.g. in [4]. He also regularly published articles in several journals on various aspects of Latin literature and the history of the subject [3]; and he showed a lively interest in music, religion and politics. N. was regarded as a particularly inspiring teacher, and he frequently and readily collaborated on joint projects with colleagues. His greatest achievement as a scholar lay in his interpretation of Virgil. He had a keen eye for details, but always kept the wider context in mind. His dictionary foundered on his lofty scholarly ideal, because he was determined not to rely on any existing lexical works, but to support his work entirely on the original ancient texts. Nonetheless, he left valuable insights resulting from this work. WRITINGS

( 1) Suggestions Introductory to the Study of the Aeneid, 187 5 [2] Ancient Lives of Vergil, 1879 [3) Lectures and Essays, 2 vols. (Vol. 2 ed. F. HAVERFIELD), 1885-1895 [4] Contributions to Latin Lexicography, 1889. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

[5] I. BYWATER, Nettleship, Henry, in: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography 40, 2004 [6) F. HAVERFIELD / T. FOWLER, Professor Nettleship, in: The Classical Review 7/8, 1893, 369-372. U. C. A. STEPHAN

OTTO

Otto

Austrian-American historian of mathematics. Born Otto Eduard N., Innsbruck, 2.6. 5. 1899, died Princeton, New Jersey, 19. 2.. 1990. Studied physics and mathematics at Graz, Munich and Gottingen; doctorate 192.6 and habit. 192.7, Gottingen. 1932. prof. ext. there, 1933 suspended by the National Socialists for refusing to take the oath of allegiance to Hitler. 1934 prof. at Copenhagen; 1939 emigration to the United States and prof. at Brown Univ. (Providence, Rhode Island), founding the Department for History of Mathematics there 1947. 1950 member of the Institute for Advanced Study (Princeton). Member of many academies and recipient of numerous prizes [5]. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

N. was first and ever a mathematician, and while still a student was already exploring the history of mathematical scholarship. He began with Egyptian mathematics, learning the Egyptian script and language in the process, and he did the same for Babylonian mathematics. He was one of the first to explain the Babylonian exercise texts In 1935, (with Fran~ois -• Thureau-Dangin). N. edited all the mathematical cuneiform texts then known [ 1]. He then turned to Babylonian astronomy. He was able to add greatly to the text material (3] and bring its understanding to a new level. In 197 5, he compiled his research in his history of ancient mathematical astronomy [4], which also contains his analysis of Ptolemy's Almagest and other Greek writings. He treated Babylonian astronomy as a separate subject on an equal footing with Egyptian and Greek. N. later also worked on ancient chronology in Ethiopian texts. N. may be argued to have been the most important historian of ancient mathematics and astronomy in the 20th cent. He placed much value on the exact philological interpretation of sources and the careful analysis of the mathematical thought processes they contained, free from cultural preconceptions. To him, the most important aspect of an ancient text was always its mathematical content, which may sometimes even have been transmitted from one culture to another. He also worked as an editor of periodicals (e.g. the Zentralblatt fur Mathematik und ihre Grenzgebiete) and series. N. had many students and colleagues who continued to apply his methods [5 ]. LW: A. J. Sachs, G. J. Toomer, Otto Neugebauer: Bibliography, 1925-1979 in: Centaurus u/4 (1978/79), 2.58-2.80.

NEUGEBAUER,

442.

OTTO

WRITINGS

[1] Mathematische Keilschrifttexte, 3 vols. (edition), 1935-1937 [2.] The Exact Sciences in Antiqu_ity, 1951 (•1969; reiss. :z.003) [3) Astr~nom1cal Cuneiform Texts (edition), 1955 [4) A History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy, 197 5. SECONDARY

Greek coins in the collection of the American Numismatic Society. E: New York, American Numismatic Society. LW: I 10. 427-432).

Newell, Edward T. American numismatist. Born Kenosha (Wisconsin, USA) 15. 1. 1886, died New York 1903 studied at Yale Univ., takCity 18.2.1941. ing his BA there 1907 and MA in 1909 (archaeology and Oriental languages). 1910 member of the council of the American Numismatic Society and its president in 1916. Member of several professional organizations. 1918 first winner of the Archer M. Huntington Medal of the American Numismatic Society; 1925 medal of the Royal Numismatic Society. WORKS

AND

The Dated Alexander Coinage of Sidon and Ake, 1916 {2.) The Seleucid Mint of Antioch, 51, 1917, in: American Journal of Numismatics 1-15:z. [3) The Coinages of Demetrius Poliorcetes, 19:z.7 [4) Royal Greek Portrait Coins: Being an Illustrated Treatise on the Portrait Coins of the Various Kingdoms, and Containing Historical References to Their Coinages, Mints, and Rulers, 1937 Is) The Coinage of the Eastern Seleucid Mints, 1938 {6) The Coinage of the Western Seleucid Mints from Seleucus I to Antiochus Ill,

{1 J

LITERATURE

{5] N. M. SWERDLOW,Otto . E. NE_UGEBA~ER (obituary), in: Proc. of the American Ph1losoph1cal Society 137, 1993, 139-165. HERMANNHUNGER

CAREER,

WRITINGS

INFLUENCE

1941. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

[7) Newell, Edward Theodore, in: The National 4 1, 19 5 6, Cyclopedia of American Biography 6:z.-63 [8) F. D. CAMPBELL, Newell, Edward Theodore, in: American National Biography 16, 1999, 334-335 [9] J. C1ccoNE, Young Edw~rd Newell, in: American Numismatic Society Magazme 3, :z.004, 3:z.-36 [10) P. A. CLEMENT, Review of the Byzantine Hoard of Lagbe by Edward T. Newell, in: The American Journal of Philology 68, 1947, 4:z.6-43:z. [11) Ch. C. TORREY, Edwar~ T. Newell in Memoriam, in: Bulletin of the American School of Oriental Research 82., 1941, 2.. STEFAN KRMNICEK

N. came from a family of industrialists who had achieved great wealth from the mass production of horse-drawn vehicles. Income from the family business, the Bain Wagon Company, and an inheritance from his mother enabled N. to Newton, Charles Thomas pursue his passion for ancient (especially Greek) coins without financial concerns (9]. He became British classical archaeologist and epigraacquainted with the remains of the ancient world phist. Baptized Clungunford (Shropshire) :15. in Europe and Egypt on travels with his pare~ts 9. 1816, died Westgate-on-Sea (Kent) 2.8. :1 :i. during his childhood, and he also began collecting 1894. Studied at Christ Church College, Oxford; coins. After graduating from Yale, N. continued 1837 BA; 1840 MA. 1840-1852. assistant in the to travel almost annually in Europe and Egypt Department of Antiquities at the British Museum until 1914 [ 11 ). The ancient coins he acquired British vice-consul at in London. 18 5 2-1860 there formed the foundation for his collection, Mytilene, 1853/54 on Rhodes; 1860 British which later amounted to over 87,000 objects. Keeper of Greek consul at Rome. 1861-1885 From 1916 until his death in 1941, N. was presiand Roman Antiquities at the British Museum; dent of the American Numismatic Society. 1880-1888 Yates Prof. of Archaeology at Univ. N.'s knowledge of vast quantities of material College, London. Honorary doctorates from the that he was able to inspect during his collectUnivs. of Oxford, Cambridge and Strasbourg. ing activities enabled him to classify and attriKnighted 1887. bute hitherto unknown types of coins. Over 20 monographs (including (4]) and many specialist CAREER AND WORKS articles (e.g. [2]) emerged from this work, always N., the son of a clergyman, graduated from with Hellenistic coinage as the focal point of Oxford to spend his entire career working at the interest (10]. Alongside his energetic publishing British Museum, initially as assistant (especially activity, N. was a key figure in the establishin the coin department) from 1 840 to 1 8 5 2., then, ment of the American Numismatic Society as an while British vice-consul on Lesbos [4 }, conductimportant professional organization. The Society ing highly productive excavations on the west also received the bequest of his collection, which coast of Turkey, finally from 1861 to 1885 as during his lifetime was the largest collection head of the newly-founded department of Greek of Greek coins in the world. Even today, N.'s and Roman antiquities. In 1 846, the museum estate still comprises more than half of all the acquired parts of the relief decoration from the

NICCOLI,

443 Mausoleum of Halicarnassus. Between 1856 and 1858, N. then succeeded in pinpointing the exact location of the building, unearthing many more sculptures at the site and sending them to London. He was also able to secure the fruits of his excavations at Didyma ( 18 57-18 59; including especially the seated statues of the Branchidae from the Archaic Period) and Cnidus (especially the late Classical sculptures of Demeter and the great funerary lion) for the British Museum 131His excavations were entirely devoted to pillaging finds, and were devoid of scientific method. N. did, however, do pioneering work introducing photography as a means of archaeological documentation. During his short term as British Consul at Rome in 1860/61, N. married the successful portrait painter Ann Mary Severn ( I 8 3 2-1866 ), who illustrated his archaeological works. As Keeper of Greek and Roman Antiquities at the British Museum from 1861, N. enhanced the collection through many purchases from major private collections (Farnese, Pourtales, Blacas, Castellani). He reorganized the exhibition of the sculptures from the Athenian Parthenon (the 'Elgin Marbles') and the Mausoleum. He was a particularly keen mentor to young women, notably Jane Ellen ➔ Harrison and Eugenie Sellers Strong. He was also one of the first supporters of Heinrich • Schliemann I 12.). Through his friend, the art critic and associate of the Pre-Raphaelites John Ruskin, N. developed an aesthetic sensibility, but he was more interested in the historical aspect of archaeology than the history of art. As an epigraphist, he published the Greek inscriptions held by the British Museum (5). He had a particular interest in the role of the museum as an institution of training and education. With his catalogues, lectures and programmatic writings l I I, he not only made the collection in his charge accessible to the public, but also more generally played a pivotal role in the emancipation of classical archaeology within British classical studies, a field that in his day was overwhelmingly the preserve of philology. LW: (9. 2..2.f.]. E: London, British Library and British Museum.

SECONDARY

NICCOLO

LITERATURE

171 D. CHALLIS,from the Harpy Tomb to the Wonders of Ephesus. British Archaeology in the Ottoman Empire 1840--1880, 2.008, 55-76 (8] S. COLVIN,Memories and Notes of Persons and Places, 1852.-1912., 192.1, 2.01-2.2.3 191B. F. CooK, Sir Charles Newton, KCB (1816-1894), in: I. JENKINS/ G. B. WAYWELL (ed.), Sculptors and Sculptures of Caria and the Dodecanese, 1997, 10--2.3 110] B. F. CooK, Newton, Sir Charles Thomas, in: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography 40, 2.004, 693-695 [u] S. L. DYSON, Newton, Charles Thomas, in: DBC, 712.-716 I 12] L. fnToN, Charles Newton and the Discovery of the Greek Bronze Age, in: Ch. MORRIS(ed.), Kiados. Essaysin Honour of J. N. Coldstream, 1995, 73-78 (13) E. A. GARDNER, Sir Charles Newton, K. C. B., in: Annual of the British School at Athens 1, 1894, 67-77 [14 ( I. JENKINS, Archaeologists & Aesthetes in the Sculpture Galleries of the British Museum 1800--1939, 1992., 168-195. STEPHEN L. DYSON Niccoli, Niccolo Latin Nicolaus de Niccolis; Florentine merchant, manuscript collector and copyist. Born Florence c. 1365, died there 2.2.. 1. 1437. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

Born into a wealthy Florentine mercantile family, N. was closely associated with Coluccio ► Salutati in the last years of the 14th cent., and became one of the first students of Manuel • Chrysolaras. His circle of friends included Gian Francesco • Poggio Bracciolini, N.'s alter ego (as Salutati called him in a letter of 26. 3. 1406) and the best source of information on his life through his letters [ 5], Lorenzo • Valla, Leonardo Bruni and ► Guarino da Verona. Vespasiano da Bisticci gives a very positive contemporary biography of N. in his Vite, but scholars increasingly point to its romanticizing tendencies I2.]. N.'s importance lies chiefly in his collecting activities and his particular fondness for antiquity as an aesthetic model. Inspired by two journeys to Rome (142.4, 142.6), he began collecting small-scale ancient art. During the Councils of Konstanz and Basel, he searched German monasteries for manuscripts, and exhorted others to WRITINGS do the same (ltinerarium for N. Albergati and (1] On the Method of the Study of Ancient Art, G. Cesarini, 1431) (I); Ambrogio Traversari 1850 [2] A Catalogue of the Greek and Etruscan and Cristoforo Buondelmonti obtained Greek Vases in the British Museum, vols. 1-2 (with manuscripts for him. N. copied many manuS. BIRCH),1851-1870 (3] A History of Discoveries at Halicarnassus, Cnidus and Branchidae (with scripts in the new Humanist script modelled R. P. PULLAN),vols. 1-2..2.,1862.-1863 [4) Travels on the Carolingian style, (especially cursive and Discoveries in the Levant, 2. vols., 1865 and the Humanist typefaces used by Aldus • [s] The Collection of Ancient Greek Inscriptions Manutius), indeed he was a key contributor to in the British Museum, vols. 1-4.2. (edition), their development (7 ). Once his personal wealth 1874-1890 [6) Essays in Art and Archaeology, was exhausted, he was supported by Cosimo de' 1880. Medici, who on N.'s death not only assumed

NICCOLI,

444

NICCOLO

ment in the face of the Napoleonic invasion. He took various financial portfolios under Stein and Karl, Baron van Hardenberg, but he left government service in June 1810 after a number of disagreements. Instead of the professorship of history at the newly-founded Berlin Univ. promised him by the King, N. received the sinecure of the position of WRITINGS [1] R. P. ROBINSON, The Inventory of Niccolo Prussian government historian. In his capacity Niccoli, in: R. P. ROBINSON, CPh 16, 192.1, as a member of the Berliner Akademie (from 2.51-2.5 5 (critical ed. of the ltinerarium). March 1810), he started lecturing on Roman history in October 1810 on Roman history. SECONDARY LITERATURE During the wars of liberation ( 1813-18 i: 5 ), he [2] D. CANFORA, Alcune considerazioni sulla worked as a political publicist, taking governbiografia di Niccolo Niccoli, in: Albertiana 6, ment assignments. From 1816 to :1823 he served 2.003, 2.:2.6-2.41 [3} M. C. DAVIES, An Emperor and conWithout Clothes? Niccolo Niccoli under Attack, in: as Prussian emissary to the Vatican cluded a concordat on the Rhenish provinces of Italia medioevale e umanistica 30, 1987, 95-148 Prussia. He used his journeys to and from Rome [4] E. GARIN, La biblioteca di San Marco, 1999 to look for unknown texts. At Verona in i: 8 i: 6 [5} P. W. G. GORDON (ed.), Two Renaissance Book Hunters. The Letters of Poggius Bracciolini he made the sensational find of the lnstitutione; to Nicolaus de Niccolis (English trans. and comm.), of Gaius, and on his return journey in :1823, he 1974 [6) B. L. ULLMAN,The Public Library of found Merobaudes' Panegyricus to Aetius at St. Renaissance Florence. Niccolo Niccoli, Cosimo Gallen. In Rome, he found fragments of Cicero's de' Medici and the Library of San Marco, 1972. speeches for Fonteius and C. Rabirius. In 1823, [7] B. L. ULLMANN,The Origin and Development N. became a member of the Prussian Staatsrat of Humanistic Script, 1960. ANJA W0LKENHAUER but from this too he resigned, in 182 5. He lee: tured on many fields of ancient history at Bonn, though his actual position was undefined. Niebuhr, Barthold Georg

his debts, but also took control of some 800 manuscripts (of which around 100 were Greek), transferring some of them to the Dominican monastery of San Marco in Florence. There, they formed the core of the first public library of early modern Europe (Biblioteca Marciana, 1444).

German ancient historian. Born Copenhagen 27. 8. 1776, died Bonn 2.

1.

1831. 1794-1796

studied history, philosophy, mathematics, physics, Roman law etc. at Kiel; thereafter private secretary. 1798/99 study trip to Edinburgh. 1804 director of the Danish national bank; 1 806 director of the Prussian national bank and the Seehandlung (Prussian Maritime Enterprise). 1810-1812 lectured on Roman history at Berlin Univ.; 1816-1823 Prussian emissary to the Holy See. Finds of Latin manuscripts at Verona and Rome. 1825-1830 lectures at the Univ. of Bonn. BIOGRAPHY

AND

SCHOLARLY

CAREER

N. was the son of the explorer Carsten N. He was regarded as a child prodigy, with a striking gift for languages, and at 15 he was already corresponding with Christian Gottlob _. Heyne about a Pindar manuscript. After studying at Kiel, he became private secretary to the Danish Minister of Finance, Ernst H. von Schimmelmann, who arranged a study trip to Edinburgh for him in 1798/99. In Danish government service thereafter, N. rose to become director of the East India trade and the Danish national bank. In 1 806, he accepted an offer from Heinrich, Baron vom Stein, to join the directorate of the Prussian national bank and the Seehandlungsgesellschaft. No sooner had he arrived in Berlin than he had to flee to East Prussia with the Prussian govern-

WORKS

Throughout his life, N. oscillated between the roles of scholar and •man of business' (Geschii{tsmann, i.e. politician). When he began lecturing on Roman history late in 18:10, he relied entirely on the considerable work he had done researching Roman land law during his time at Copenhagen [18). He sought to prove that the agrarian laws of the Gracchi were not a revolutionary redistribution of land but the restoration of ancient state property rights. In this way, he hoped to provide a precedent for the liberation of the peasants of Holstein that would not be revolutionary in the sense of Fran1rois Noel 'Gracchus' Babeuf's 'Conspiracy of the Equals' in France ( 1796). His lectures, which were attended by scholars (including Friedrich Carl von ➔ Savigny) and high officials, were a sensation, firstly because he based his account of Roman history on criticism of the literary sources, and secondly because he placed the institutions of the Republic at the forefront of his considerations. A just accommodation was achieved between the classes, he argued. A wise political elite had enacted a measured policy of reform. In t~e book version of 1811/i 2, covering the period to 3 3 7 BC [ 1], source criticism is the main focus. N. here developed his theory that Roman annalistic history was following o~ from an existing tradition derived from popular

NIEBUHR, BARTHOLD GEORG

445

epics, where the real core of historical knowledge was preserved. He attempted to close the gaps in this tradition by means of far-reaching historical comparisons and his own insights as a practical politician. N. presented Roman history as a national political history, with which he hoped to supersede the Enlightenment historians' traditional universal historical perspective on antiquity. In the new edition (1827-1832), in which an additional volume extended the period covered to the mid-3rd cent. BC 16), he corrected some errors in the hastily-published first version, but remained true to his basic position. N. developed a systematic account of the constitution of the Roman Republic in his Bonn Vortrage uber Romische Alterthumer [ 11 ], which, like the other lectures of this period 18); (9); [ 10), only came to public notice posthumously through audience transcripts. Although he had published various treatises specifically dealing with matters of source criticism and historical geography back in 1810-1813, the Bonn years were the period of N.'s greatest scholarly productivity. After the editio princeps of Cicero's De republica by Angelo -• Mai, for which N. had provided various references, he published his interpretation of the comitia centuriata (3 I, which involved him in a dispute that cemented his status as a philologist (24. 528-536). At Bonn, he was effective in his work as an academic administrator, for instance co-founding the periodical Rheinisches Museum fur Philologie and initiating the Corpus scriptorum historiae Byzantinae, for which he edited Agathias in 1828 [4). INFLUENCE

N.'s greatest influence was exerted through his Romische Geschichte, which offered modern historiography in place of what were now acknowledged to be the implausible accounts of annalistic history. The work triggered a deluge of publications now seeking to reconstruct early Rome through source criticism. While some sought to place N.'s insights - which were often gained through 'divination' - on a firmer footing, to move away from his still excessive faith in the transmission and to discredit his 'Song Theory', there were others who remained loyal to the tradition and who saw N.'s procedures as an attack on the sources - ultimately including the Bible. His claim to originality was also called into question: doubts as to the reliability of the Roman transmission had been expressed in scholarly research (which N. at first ignored) since the late 17th cent. Finally, his work was said to lack the requisite literary quality for a work of historiography. In the field of Roman constitutional law, Joseph Rubino and later especially Theodor

• Mommsen, who had mocked N.'s "brilliant imagination" as early as 1844 I20. VII], proposed a quite different approach, according to which the Roman political order could only be reconstructed from its institutional remains and the legal terminology. While N. was generally recognized as the founder of the 'historico-critical method' in historiography, his work was almost simultaneously dismissed as methodologically unsound (on the basis of a critical analysis of the sources which he himself had initiated) and as expressive of an untenable subjectivism. None of this detracts from the fact that N. provided decisive impulses for the development of Roman and Greek history (August • Boeckh, Karl Otfried + Mi.iller, George • Grote), Roman legal history (Friedrich Carl von -+ Savigny), economic history (Wilhelm Roscher) and the historicocritical study of the New Testament (Ferdinand Christian Baur). E: Berlin, Archiv der Berlin-Brandenburgischen Akademie der Wissenschaften; Bonn, Univ. archive and library. WRITINGS [1] Romische Geschichte, Part 1, 18u (•182.7) (English of [1], [2.], 131et al.: The History of Rome, 5 vols., 1844 et al.) (.2.) Romische Geschichte, Part 2., 1812. (•1830) (3) Ober die Nachricht von den Comitien der Centurien im zweyten Buch Ciceros de re publica, 182.3 [4 J Agathiae Myrinaei Historiarum libri quinque (edition), 1 82.8 IsI Kleine philologische und 1. Sammlung, 182.8 historische Schriften, (6) Romische Geschichte, Part 3, ed. J. CLASSEN, 1832. (7] Kleine historische und philologische Schriften, 2.. Sammlung, 1843 l8] Vortrage iiber romische Geschichte, an der Universitat zu Bonn gehalten, 3 vols., ed. M. ISLER, 1846-1848 191Vortrage iiber alte Geschichte, an der Universitat zu Bonn gehalten, ed. M. NIEBUHR, 3 vols., 1847-18 51 I10] Vortrage iiber alte Lander- und Volkerkunde, an der Universitat zu Bonn gehalten, ed. M. Is LER, 18 5 1 [II] Vortrage ii ber romische Alterthiimer, an der Universitat zu Bonn gehalten, ed. M. IsLER, 1858 (1.2.)Die Briefe Barthold Georg Niebuhrs, ed. D. GERHARD/ W. NoRVIN, 2. vols., 192.6-192.9 (13) Briefe. Neue Folge 1816-1830, 4 vols., ed. E. V1scHER, 1982.-1984. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

I 14) C. DEGN, Der junge Barthold Georg Niebuhr als Sozialkritiker, in: H. BooCKMANNet al. (ed.), Geschichte und Gegenwart. FS K. D. Erdmann, 1980, 577-593 [15] K. DocKHORN, Der deutsche Historismus in England, 1950 (16) C. M. GRAFINGER, Niebuhrs Studium klassischer Handschriften wahrend seines Rom-Aufenthaltes (1816-182.3), in: Quellen und Forschungen aus italienischen Archiven und Bibliotheken 80, 2.000, 657-667 (17) A. Hwss, Niebuhr und Mommsen, in: A&A 14, 1968, 1-18 (18] A. HEuss, Barthold

NIEBUHR,

BARTHOLD

GEORG

Georg Niebuhrs wissenschaftliche Anfange. Untersuchungen und Mitteilungen tiber die Kopenhagener Manuscripte und zur europaischen Tradition der lex agraria (loi agraire), 1981 [19) A. D. MoMIGLIANo, Perizonius, Niebuhr and the Character of Early Roman Tradition, in: JRS 47, 1957, 104-114 [.20) T. MoMMSEN, Die romischen Tribus in administrativer Beziehung, 1844 [2.1] W. NIPPEL, Barthold Georg Niebuhr und die Begrtindung der modernen Althistorie, in: A. M. BAERTSCHI / C. G. KING(ed.), Die modernen Yater der Antike, 2.009, 87-113 (.2.2]R. T. RIDLEY,Leges agrariae. Myths, Ancient and Modern, in: Classical (.23) S. RYTKONEN, Philology 95, :z.ooo,459-467 Barthold Georg Niebuhr als Politiker und Historiker, 1968 (2.4) G. WALTHER, Niebuhrs Forschung, 1993 (.25) G. WIRTH (ed.), Barthold Georg Niebuhr. Historiker und Staatsmann, 1984 (.26) B. C. W11TE,Der preussische Tacitus, 1979. WILFRIEDNIPPEL Niese, Benedictus German classical philologist and ancient historian. Born Jurgen Anton Benedictus N. at Burg (Fehmarn) 2.4. 11. 1849, died Halle 1. 2.. 1910. Attended cathedral school in Schleswig; from 1867 studied classical philology at Kiel (especially with Alfred von Gutschmid and Otto -• Ribbeck), spending the summer semester 1870 at the Univ. of Bonn. 1870/71 volunteer in Franco-Prussian War. Doctorate 1872. at Kiel. 1873 schoolteacher at Flens burg; 1873-1876 stay in Italy and Rome (preparing his edition of Josephus). 1876 habil. at Gottingen. 1877 prof. ext. and 1 879 prof. ord. in classical philology and ancient history at Marburg, 1881 in classical philology at Breslau, 188 5 again at Marburg, 1906 in ancient history at Halle, succeeding Ulrich • Wilcken. WORK AND INFLUENCE In his diss., N. investigated the sources for the late-antique grammarian Stephanus of Byzantium [1]. This work, together with a thesis on the Homer's catalogue of ships [2.] formed the basis in 1876 for his habit. [14. 48). Minor works on Homer [2.]; [5] and the beginnings of Greek and Roman history [4); [7]; [9] stand alongside two major historical works. The first, his Geschichte der griechischen und mazedonischen Staaten I10], examining the political history of the Hellenistic world up to the end of the Pergamene kingdom, was well received by Michael -• Rostovtzeff [ 1 5. 6 5 ), but was criticized elsewhere for being light on ideas [14. 54] and has little reception today (16. 28]. The 1889 Abriss der romischen Geschichte (8] (expanded editions 1897, 1906, 1910) was superseded by the new versions written by Ernst -+ Hohl and Hermann - ► Bengtson. N. also laid foundations in the field of classical phi-

lology. From 188 5, he published a critical edition of the writings of Flavius Josephus (6). The edition of Strabo which the Berlin Akadeniie der Wissenschaften entrusted to him in 1900 was taken over by Wolf Aly, but the project was cancelled in 1936 (17. 2.38 f.). N. was a member of the Archaeological Institute at Rome ( 18 89 ), and der a corresponding member of the Akademien Wissenschaften of Gottingen (1901) and Prussia ( 1905 ); 190 5 Geheimer Regierungsrat ( •privy councillor'). LW: K. Boysen, B. Niese, in: Bursians Jahresbericht 164, 1913, 58-63. WRITINGS

I I I De Stephani Byzantii auctoribus commentatio (diss. Kiel), 1873 (.2] Der homerische Schiffskatalog als historische Quelle betrachtet, 187 3 (3) Apollodors Kommentar zum Schiffskataloge als Quelle Strabons, in: Rheinisches Museum 31. 1877, 2.67-307 (4) Kritische Bemerkungen iiber die altere griechische Geschichte und ihre Ober[s] Die lieferung, in: HZ 43, 1880, 385-410 Enrwicklung der homerischen Poesie, 1881 (6) Flavii losephi opera, 7 vols. (edition), 188 5-189 5 (editio minor 1888-1895) (7) Die Sagen von der Grtindung Roms, in: HZ 59, 1888, 481-506 (81Abrissder R6mischen Geschichte, 1889 (expanded ed. entitled 'Grundriss der rt>mischen Geschichte nebst Quellenkunde' 1897-1910; "1913 rev. by E. HOHL) (9) Die altere Geschichte Messeniens. in: Hermes2.6, 1891, 1-32. (10] Geschichtedergriechischen und mazedonischen Staaten seit der Schlacht bei Chaeronea, 3 vols., 1893-1903 (reiss. 1963) (11) Zur Wtirdigung Alexander's des Grossen, in: HZ 79, 1897, 1-44 (12] Beitrage zur Geschichre Arkadicns, in: Hermes 34, 1899, 510-5 5 .2 (13] Ober Wehrverfassung, Dienstpflicht und Heerwesen Griechenlands, in: HZ 98, 1907, 263-301. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

(141 K. BOYSEN,B. Niese, in: Burs.Jbb., 164, 1913, 41-64 (15) CHRIST Hel. 65 [16] CHRIST Klio :z.8 (17] S. REBENICH,Zwischen Anpassung und Widerstand? Die Berliner Akad. der Wissenschaften, in: NXF AA 2.03-2.44 (18] W. WEBER, Biographisches Lexikon zur Geschichtswissenschaft in Deutschland, Osterreich und der Schweiz. Die Lehrstuhlinhaber fur Geschichte von den Anfangen des Faches bis 1970, 1984, 410-411. HEINRICHSCHLANGE-SCHC>NINGEN Nietzsche,

Friedrich

German philosopher and classical philologist. Born Rocken (Liitzen) 15. 10. 1844, died Weimar 2.5. 8. 1900. 1854-1858 Naumburger Domgymnasium; 1 8 5 8-1 8 64 Landesschule Pforta; 1864/6 5 studied classical philology and theology at Bonn. 1864-1869 studied classical philology at Leipzig; 1869-1879 prof. ext. in classical philology at Basel.

_.

NIETZSCHE,

447 BIOGRAPHY

AND

CAREER

After the death of the father, the pastor Carl Ludwig N., in July r 849, his widow moved to Naumburg with her three children (Friedrich, Elisabeth and Joseph). There, N. first attended the Domgymnasium, before winning a free place at the renowned Landesschule Pforta. His interest in philology became apparent here, and he probably already met Ulrich von ► WilamowitzMoellendorff in this period. N. began his studies of classical philology and theology in October 1864 at Bonn, attending lectures by Otto ► Jahn ► Ritschl. Both exerted a great and Friedrich influence on him, and in October I 86 5 N. followed Ritschl to Leipzig. Ritschl became his intellectual mentor in the years that followed, and it was through him that N. met Richard Wagner. His friendship with Erwin ► Rohde also began in this period. N. gave up his study of theology to concentrate solely on philology, especially Greek. In April 1869, after gaining an accelerated doctorate at Leipzig, N. went to Basel at Ritschl's suggestion to work as prof. ext. in classical philology at the univ. and to teach at the Piidagogium there. N.'s relationship with Wagner intensified at Basel, as Wagner inspired N. to the study of Greek tragedy. It was also here that he met Jacob ► Burckhardt. N. was personally and intellectually close to Franz Overbeck, who was appointed to Basel in 1 870. His acquaintance with Johann Jakob ► Bachofen at Basel may also have been important. In August r 870, N. volunteered as an orderly in the Franco-Prussian War, but illness forced him home after just a few weeks. Feeling increasingly limited by philology, he applied, without success, for a vacant professorship of philosophy at Basel as early as 1871. He had hoped that his friend Erwin ► Rohde might succeed him as prof. of philology at Basel. In 1876/77, the Basel Erziehungscollegium allowed N. convalescent leave owing to his poor state of health, but there was no conspicuous improvement. N. only held the Basel post until June 1 879, when his application for release was approved. N. spent the years that followed mostly in seclusion in Italy and the Swiss Engadine. In spite of his poor health, he continued to work on his writings, but these were only incidentally concerned with antiquity. His illness gradually worsened, until in January 1889 Franz Overbeck took him to the Basel clinic for nervous diseases, from where he was transferred to the Univ. Psychiatric Clinic at Jena a few days later. In May 1 890, N. 's mother took him to Naumburg to care for him at home. From 1893 his sister Elisabeth Forster increasingly took on this task, and it was in her home at Weimar that he died.

FRIEDRICH

WORKS

A break is evident in N.'s work coinciding at the latest with his accession to the professorship at Basel. Up to that point, his work stood in the tradition of the historico-critical method under the influence of ► Ritschl. N.'s first scholarly publication was an 1 867 study on the gnomic verses of Theognis, dating from his Leipzig student days [ 1 [; (7. Vol. 11/1, 1-58). In this, he concentrates on the problem of repetitions in the text corpus. Other noteworthy works are his treatise on the lament of Danae hy the poet Simonides [2]; (7. Vol. 11/1, 59-74] and a source history of the doxographer Diogenes Laertius [3[; (7. Vol. 11/1, 75-167]. In 1869, his accession speech at Basel, Homer und die klassische Philologie (7. Vol. 11/1, 247-269], was published, and in 1870 a paper on the Certamen Homeri et Hesiodi (7. Vol. II/r, 271-288], whose author he believed to be Alcidamas. In 1871, this work led to the first modern critical edition of the Certamen (4]; (7. Vol. 11/1, 339-364]. N.'s studies of Greek rhythmics were also of philological importance. As early as 1870/71, it was N. who first recognized the accents as musical tone indications [6]; (7. Vol. 11/3, 263-280]. Yet the book through which N. would exert his most profound influence on classical philology was the one in which he renounced it: Die Geburt der Tragodie (The Birth of Tragedy, 1872) [5]; (7. Vol. 111/r, 3-152); [9]. In this work, he described the origins of tragedy from religious roots, and emerging from the dualism of 'Apollonian' and 'Dionysian'. He also announced a rebirth of tragedy in the form of the Wagnerian music drama. The work also marked the beginning of his reckoning with historicocritical philology. The 1878 collection of aphorisms, Menschliches Allzumenschliches (Human, All Too Human) (7. Vol. IV/2, 1-380; Vol. IV/3, 1-342] also declaimed criticism of positivism and the school system of the day. In this respect, it continues on from Unzeitgemiisse Betrachtungen (Untimely Meditations, 1873-1876) [7. Vol. III/r, 152-423), in which N. contrasted 'monumental', 'antiquarian' and 'critical' history and sought to reconnect scholarship with life. The final phase of N.'s creativity produced Also sprach Zarathustra (Thus Spoke Zarathustra, 1883-1885) (7. Vol. VIII, 1-404), Jenseits von Gut und Bose (Beyond Good And Evil, 1886) [7. Vol. Vlh, 1-255), Der Anti-christ (The Antichrist, 1895) (7. Vol. Vl/3 1 r 63-252] and the autobiographical Ecce Homo (1888) [7. Vol. VI/3, 253-372]. These works also had a profound influence on the development of artistic German prose.

NIETZSCHE, FRIEDRICH INFLUENCE Nietzschean reception was delayed. With the exception of Ulrich von -• WilamowitzMoellendorff's critical review of Die Geburt der Tragodie (22); (23) and the reactions of Erwin _.Rohde (Afterphilologie, 1872) [19) and Richard Wagner [21), the book was greeted with dead silence among philologists and philosophers alike [13); [16). N.'s sister, Elisabeth Forster-N., set up an archive room at Naumburg in the winter of 1893/94, and took it with her to Weimar in 1896, where the N. archive remains to this day. The impact of N.'s works only began to be felt from the 19 20s, partly among the students of----.WilamowitzMoellendorff and Hermann ----.Usener. One of the few references to N. came in Walter F. Otto's book on Dionysus (1933), in which he compares Rohde's reading of Dionysus with that of N. N.'s influence in philosophy and literature after World War II was all the greater, especially in France (12). One of the reasons why N. was later requisitioned by the National Socialists even though he spoke out explicitly against anti-Semitism was the compilation Der Wille zur Macht (The Will to Power, 1906), which Elisabeth Forster-N. edited and passed off as one of his major works; in places, it is her outright forgery of N. WRITINGS [1] Zur Geschichte der Theognideischen Spruchsammlung, in: RhM 2.:2., 1867, 161-2.00 [2.] Beitrage zur Kritik der griechischen Lyriker I. Der Danae Klage, in: RhM 2.3, 1868, 480-489 [3] De Laertii Diogenis fontibus 2.3, 1868, 632.-653 und 2.4, 1869, 181-22.8 [4] Certamen quod dicitur Homeri et Hesiodi e cod ice Florentino post Henricum Stephanum (edition), in: Acta Societatis philologae Lipsiensis, ed. F. RITSCHL,Vol. 1, 1871, 1-2.3 [sl Die Geburt der Tragodie aus dem Geiste der Musik, 1872. (many trans.: English: The Birth of Tragedy, trans. D. SMITH,2.008) [6) Zur Theorie der quantitierenden Rhythmik, in: NIETZSCHE'SWerke, Abt. 3, Vol. 18/2.: Philologica. Unveroffentlichtes zur Litteraturgeschichte, Rhetorik und Rhythmik, ed. 0. CRusrns, 1912., 2.81-2.92. [7] Werke. Kritische Gesamtausgabe (KGW), ed. G. COLLI, M. MoNTINARIet al., 1967 (ff.; over 40 vols. to date) [8) Briefwechsel. Kritische Gesamtausgabe (KGB), ed. G. COLLI, M. MoNTINARIet al., 1975 (ff.) [9] Die Geburt der Tragodie. Schriften zu Literatur und Philosophie der Griechen, ed. and comm. M. LANDFESTER, 1994. SECONDARY LITERATURE [10] H. CANCIK,Der Einfluss Friedrich Nietzsches auf Klassische Philologen in Deutschland bis 1945, in: Flashar Alt.wiss. 381-402. [11] H. CANCIK, Nietzsches Antike. Vorlesung, 1995 [12.] G. DELEUZE,Nietzsche et la philosophie, 1962. [13] K. GR0NDER (ed.), Der Streit um Nietzsches 'Geburt der Tragodie'. Die Schriften

von E. Rohde, R. Wagner, U. v. WilamowitzMollendorff, 1989 (1 1969) (14] E. HowALD, Friedrich Nietzsche und die Klassische Philologie, 192.0 [15) W. KAUFMANN, Philosoph-PsychologeAntichrist, 1981 (16) J. LATACZ, Fruchtbares der Tragodie' Argernis. Nietzsches 'Geburt 1998 und die grazistische Tragodienforschung, (17) H. OTTMANN,Nietzsche-Hdb. Leben - Werk Wirkung, 2.000 (18) K. REINHARDT,Die Klassische Philologie und das Klassische, in: K. REINHARDT, Vermiichtnis der Antike. Gesammelte Essays zur Philosophie und Geschichtsschreibung, 1960, 334-360 [19) E. RoHDE, Afterphilologie (1872.), in: K. GR0NDER (ed.), Der Streit um Nietzsches 'Geburt der Tragodie'. Die Schriften von E. Rohde, R. Wagner, U. v. Wilamowitz-Mollendorff, 1969, 65-111 (reiss. 1989) (20) M. VOGEL, Apollinisch und Dionysisch. Geschichte eines genialen lrrtums, 1960 [21) R. WAGNER, An Friedrich Nietzsche. Offener Brief in der Norddeutschen Allgemeinen Zeitung vom 2.3. Juni 1872, in: K. GR0NDER (ed.), Der Streit um Nietzsches 'Geburt der Tragodie'. Die Schriften von E. Rohde, R. Wagner, U. v. Wilamowitz-Mollendorff, 1969, 57-64 (reiss. 1989) [22.) u. VON WJLAMOWITZMoELLENDORFF,Zukunftsphilologie! Eine Erwidrung auf Friedrich Nietzsches ord. prof. der classischen Philologie zu Basel 'Geburt der Tragodie', 1872. (23) U. VONWILAMOWITZ-MOELLENDORFF, Zukunfstsphilologie! Zweites Stiick ( 1873 ), in: K. GR0NDER (ed.), Der Streit um Nietzsches 'Geburt der Tragodie'. Die Schriften von E. Rohde, R. Wagner, U. v. Wilamowitz-Mollendorff, 1969, 113-135 (reiss. 1989). STEFFENKAMMLER Nilsson, Martin Persson Swedish classical philologist, historian of religion and archaeologist. Born Ballingslov, southern Sweden, 12. 7. 1874, died Lund 7. 4. 1967. School at Kristianstad, then studied classical philology at Univ. of Lund from 1892., taking doctorate there in 1900. 1900 lecturer in Greek language and literature; 1909-1939 prof. of classical archaeology and ancient history at Lund; rector 1936-1939. WORK AND INFLUENCE N.'s rural background gave him an interest in the folklore of his homeland, and his research was therefore characterized by a comparative approach. He was a keen disciple of the 19thcent. religious theories developed by Wilhelm Mannhardt, Edward Tylor and James ..... Frazer, with their agrarian and evolutionary tendencies, but he was less interested in the design of theories than in the analysis of materials and sources. To N. as to his teacher Samuel Wide. archaeology and epigraphy were of equal status with philology. His only forays into archaeological fieldwork came in 1905-1907 (Rhodes).

NISSEN,

449

His affinity with German classical studies is attested by his friendships with Ulrich von --+ Wilamowitz-Moellendorff and Ludwig Deubner and his editorial work for the Archiv

Nilsson 100-103 335-340.

HEINRICH

in memoriam, in: Gnomon 40, 1968, I141 J. MEJER, Martin Persson Nilsson, ROLANDBAUMGARTEN

fur Religionswissenschaft. N.'s dissertation on the Attic Dionysia [ 1) already displays his interest in rituals and cultic phenomena. His monograph on the non-Attic Greek festivals [2] is an indispensable companionpiece to Deubner's Attische Festen (d. introduction to the third edition). Another seminal work, on Minoan-Mycenaean religion [ 5 ], emerged from a sometimes critical engagement with Arthur --+ Evans, and heralded several works seeking to demonstrate the persistence into Greek culture of religious ideas from the Minoan era (e.g. (6) and (5)). In spite of necessary revisions - N. himself in the second edition of (5) backed away from equating Minoan religion with Mycenaean much of this work has prevailed as communis opinio to the present day (14. 3361. The main fruit of N.'s work on Greek religion is the twovolume Handbuch der Altertumswissenschaft [8]. Systematic introductory chapters precede chronological sections here as they also do in Walter Burkert's handbook, which has largely superseded N.'s first volume as a work of reference today. However, the second volume, on Hellenistic religion, remains unsurpassed. N. also published works on the Greek calendar [3) and alphabet [4), on the Hellenistic education system [ 1 o] and Greek linguistics. LW: E. J. Knudtzon/C. Callmer, A Complete Bibliography, in: Scripta minora Regiae Societatis humaniorum litterarum Lundensis I, 1967-1968, 29-139. WRITINGS

I Studia de Dionysiis Atticis (diss. Lund), 1900 (2) Griechische Feste von religioser Bedeutung mit Ausschluss der attischen, 1906 ( 1 199 5 with intro. [1

by F. GRAF) [3] Die Entstehung und religiose ~deutung des griechischen Kalenders, 1918 [4] Die Obernahme und Entwicklung des Alphabets durch die Griechen, 1918 [5) The Minoan-Mycenean Religion and Its Survival in Greek Religion, 192.7 (•1950) [6] The Mycenean Origin of Greek Mythology, 1932. 171 Greek Popular Religion, 1940 [8] Geschichte der griechischen Religion, 2. vols. (Hdb. der Altertumswissenschaft 5.2..1-5.2..2..), (Vol. 1: '1967; Vol. 2.: •1961; English: 1941-1950 A History of Greek Religion, trans. F. J. FIELDEN, •1956) [9) Cults, Myths, Oracles, and Politics in Ancient Greece, 19 5 1 [ 1 o) Die hellenistische Schule, 1955 [II] The Dionysiac Mysteries of the Hellenistic and Roman Age, 1957. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

[ 12] W. M. CALDER III (ed.), Further Letters 1994, of Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, (13] E. GJERSTADT, Martin Persson 151-178

Nissen, Heinrich Danish-German ancient historian. Born Haderslev (Denmark) 3. 4. I 8 3 9, died Bonn 29. 2. 1912. Born into a family of ropemakers. 18 56 Abitur at Meldorf (Dithmarschen). Studied classical philology and history at Kiel; 18 59/60 moved to Berlin; 1862 doctorate at Kiel [ 1 J. 1 863-1 866 in Italy; 1867 habil. in ancient history at Univ. of Bonn. From 1870 prof. ord. at Marburg, from 1877 at Gottingen, from 1878 at Strasbourg. 1884 succeeded Arnold ➔ Schaefer as prof. of ancient history at Bonn. 1 894/9 5 rector; 1911 retired. 1886 Prussian Geheimer Regierungsrat ('privy councillor'); 1900 representative of the Univ. of Bonn at the Prussian court and member of the Preussische Akademie

der Wissenschaften. WORKS

N.'s tour of Italy was arranged by Theodor Mommsen, who also inspired him to write a handbook of Italic chorography, but with whom he had disputes on matters of dating and methods of source criticism. N. taught only ancient history, regarding it as an independent discipline with a universal historical claim; he attempted to release it from its dependence on classical philology. He thus redefined the position of the subject and its methodological foundations. His incorporation of other disciplines, such as mathematics, astronomy, historical regional studies [4], geography and epigraphy took the discipline in new directions. His Italische Landeskunde, an objective analysis of all literary and epigraphic sources [5), was seminal. N. worked in provincial Roman archaeology (7), where he was a founder of the Reichs-Limeskommission and achieved renown with his study of the Roman Rhineland (excavations at Neuss and Urmitz). He donates some of his large collection of ancient finds (especially ancient glasses) to the Saalburgmuseum. ->

WRITINGS

[ 1) Belli quod Romani contra Antioch um Magnum gesserunt historia critica, 1862. (expanded to: Kritische Untersuchungen i.iber die Quellen der 4. und 5. Decade des Livius, 1863) [2) Das Templum. 1865 [3) Antiquarische Untersuchungen, Pompeji, 1867 [4) Pompejanische Studien zur Stadtekunde des Altertums (with R. ScHONE), 1877 [5] ltalische Landeskunde, 2.vols., 1883-1902. (reiss. 1967) [6) Griechische und romische Metrologie, in: I. VON MOLLER (ed.), Hdb. der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft, Vol. 1/i, 1886, 665-709

NISSEN,

HEINRICH

(7) Zur Geschichte des romischen Koln, in: Bonner Jbb. 98, 1895, 1-144 (8) Orientation. Studien zur Geschichte der Religion, 3 vols.,

(•1892.)

1906, at the hehest of Ulrich von • WilamowitzMoellendorff and others, he - rather than Friedrich • Leo - was appointed to replace 1906-1910. Adolf • Kirchhoff at the Berlin Univ., teaching classical philology (specializing in Latin language SECONDARY LITERATURE and literature). He worked there until the win[9] Die Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universitat ter semester of 1934/35, receiving many honund ihre Rektoren und beri.ihmten Professoren, ed. Rektor und Senat, 1943, 180 (10) P. E. ours, including election in 19 1 2. to the Deutsche Archiiologische Gesellschaft and the Preussische H0BINGER, Das Historische Seminar der Akademie der Wissenschaften, where he lllanRheinischen Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universitat zu aged the Thesaurus Linguae Latinae. Bonn, 1963, 116-n8 (11) E. KIRSTEN,Heinrich Nissen (1839-1912.), in: Bonner Gelehrte. Beitrage Although N. was a German nationalist and had zur Geschichte der Wissenschaften in Bonn, Vol. 6: no particular objection to Hitler, taking the oath Geschichtswissenschaften, 1968, 190-2.08. of loyalty to him in 1934, the National Socialist EGON SCHALLMA YER seizure of power proved to be a watershed in his life, forcing him to emigrate and plunging Norden, Eduard him into deep depression. N. found his dismissal from his posts in consequence of the race laws German classical philologist. Born Emden 2 1. profoundly humiliating. He was forced to retire 9. 1868, died Zurich 13. 7. 1941. 1876-1886 at the end of the winter semester of 19 34'3 5, school in Emden; 1886-1890 studied classics, and he was deprived not only of his duties but Germanic and Romance philology and history also of his right to lecture. He was expelled from at Bonn and Berlin. 1891 doctorate in Bonn and the Preussische Akademie der Wissenscha~en in Staatsprufung (teaching certificate). 1891 assistant October 1938. The Reichskristallnacht of 9/ro. at the Univ. of Strasbourg, 1892 habit. there. 11. 1938 convinced N. and his wife to emigrate 1893 prof. ext. in Greifswald, 189 5 prof. ord. in to Zurich, where he arrived in July 1939. He classical philology, 1898/99 dean of the philo- lived until 194 1. He spent the last two years of sophical faculty there. 1899-1906 prof. ord. in his life here in seclusion; incapable of working, Breslau; 1906-1935 prof. ord. in Berlin, 192.7'28 he never resumed his research. rector. 1939 emigrated to Switzerland (Zurich). Member from 1912 of many European academies WORK AND INFLUENCE and associations. Several honorary doctorates. During N.'s time at Greifswald, he wrote his Antike Kunstprosa (2.), an account of the BIOGRAPHY AND SCHOLARLY CAREER development of rhythmical prose from Greek N., the son of a doctor, was born into an antiquity, through the Latin Middle Ages to the assimilated Jewish family. He converted to Renaissance. In it, N. also studies the influence Protestantism before his Abitur. At first, he of Humanist Latin on the prose of the modern wanted to become a doctor, but under the influ- languages in the 16th and 17th cents. This work ence of his teacher Philipp Kohlmann, he decided won him immediate international recognition. to study classics, Germanic and Romance philol- He achieved another milestone at Breslau, this ogy and history, going to Bonn and for a time to time in textual philology, with his commentary Berlin. His most important teachers at Bonn were on Book 6 of the Aeneid (3). N. and Alfred Hermann • Usener and Franz • Biicheler, and Gercke (until 192.0) published the Einleitung in at Berlin Hermann • Diels and Johannes Vahlen. die Altertumswissenschaft (4) between 1910 and N. was a close associate of Richard ► Heinze 192.7, an account of the most important constitand Hugo Rabe, with whom he was a mem- uent disciplines of the subject with an overriding ber of the 'Bonn Circle' and the 'Philologischer focus on methods and problems. N. wrote for it a Verein', He took his doctorate in 1891 at Bonn, survey of the entirety of Latin literature, which he supervised by Biicheler, with a thesis on Varro's regarded as heavily dependent on Greek literature. Menippean satires [ 1), and he then took the state In 1913, N. crossed strict interdisciplinary teaching qualification in Greek, Latin, German boundaries into the field of .Judeo-Christian literand history. Still in 1891, N. was appointed as ature with his book Agnostos Theos (5). In 1915, a priv.-doz. to the Univ. of Strasbourg, where he documented the reliance of Virgil on Ennius, he took his postdoctoral habit. in 1892.. While and offered many new interpretations of the latthere, he was invited to take a post as prof. ext. ter's Annales (6). Between 1914 and 192.0 he in Greifswald in 1893. He advanced to prof. ord. was working on Tacitus' Germania [7], drawing in 1895, and in 1898/99 became dean of the fac- also on passages from Caesar's De be/lo Gallico, ulty of philosophy. the Natura/is historia of Pliny the Elder and the In the summer semester of 1899, N. suc- history of Poseidonius. N. returned to Virgil in ceeded Richard Forster in Breslau. Finally, in 1923 for his Geburt des Kindes (8): in the fourth

NORDEN, EDUARD

45 1

Eclogue, he argued, Virgil adapted ancient Egyptian religious prophecies. He traced their development through into the Hellenistic Period. He was also engaged here in the reconstruction of ancient Messianic ideas. Over the following eight years, N. returned to Germanic studies. He compiled his studies of the history of tribes and names in a volume entitled Alt-Germanien f9 ), his last publication in Germany. His last major work was published in October 1939 as part of a series published by the Kungliga Humanistiska i J,und at Lund Univ. Vetenskapssamfundet [ 10); in it, he studies the so-called 'augural formulae' cited by Varro (De lingua latina 7,8) and the Carmen Arvale, which survives only as an inscription, and arrives at the controversial theory that the latter is an early Roman text in which no Greek influence is evident. N. was unquestionably one of the great personalities among the humanities scholars of the 2.oth cent. His work is characterized by a broad spectrum of research that goes beyond the confines of philology. His commentary to the sixth book of the Aeneid and his Kunstprosa remain standard works today. As was the case with many of his Jewish colleagues, the National Socialist terror put an end both to his creative powers and his creative opportunities.

WRITINGS I1) In Varronis saturas Menippeas observationes selectae (diss. Bonn), 1891 [21 Die antike Kunstprosa vom 6. Jh. v. Chr. bis in die Zeit der Renaissance, 2 vols., 1 898 (many times reiss. to 1983 et al.) 131 P. Vergilius Maro, Aeneis Buch VI. (text and comm.), 1903 (11927, 4 1957; many times reiss. to 1995) 141 (ed.) Einleitung in die Altertumswissenschaft (with A. GERCKE), 1910-1933 Is) Agnostos Theos. Untersuchungen religii>ser Rede, 191 3 zur Formengeschichte aus 161 Ennius und Vergilius. Kriegsbilder Roms grosser Zeit, 1915 171 Die Germanische Urgeschichte in Tacitus Germania, 1920 181 Die Geburt des Kindes. Geschichte einer religi6sen Idee, 1924 191 Alt- Germanien. Volker- und namengeschichtliche Untersuchungen, 1934 1101 Aus altromischen Priesterbiichern, 1939. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

I 11 I B. KYTZLERet al., Eduard

Norden ( 1868-1941 ). deutscher Gelehrter jiidischer Herkunft, 1994 I 12) M. NORDEN, Erinnerungen aus Eures Vaters Leben, des Professors Dr. Eduard Norden, ed. E. MENSCHING, in: Latein und Griechisch in 1131 W. A. SCHRODER, Berlin 36, 1992, 122-194 Der Altertumswissenschaftler Eduard Norden ( 1868-1941 ), Das Schicksal eines deutschen Gelehrten jiidischer Abkunft, 1999. ANGELIKALOZAR Ein

0 Oertel, Friedrich German ancient historian. Born Leipzig 2.1. 1. 1975. School, then studies of classical philology, modern history and economics at Leipzig. 1911 doctorate on Egyptian administrative liturgy, then assistant to Karl Julius ➔ Beloch. Served in World War I, then from 1918 assistant to Johannes _. Kromayer at Leipzig, 192.0 habil there. 192.2.-192.9 prof. ord. in ancient history at Univ. of Graz. He turned down appointments to Cologne ( 192.6), Freiburg im Breisgau (192.6) and Prague (192.7). From 192.9 prof. ord. in ancient history at Bonn, succeeding Conrad Cichorius. During the Weimar Republic, 0. was a member of the Deutsche Nationafe Volkspartei (DNVP). Stripped of his office as dean in 1936; participated in the reestablishment of the Univ. of Bonn 1945-1947 in various posts including dean once more. Retired 19 52.. 1964 Grosses Bundesverdienstkreuz. 5. 1884, died Bonn 15.

WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

0. made his name with studies of Hellenistic and Roman economic, social and administrative history. Encouraged to work on the papyri by Ulrich -. Wilcken and Ludwig -• Mitteis, he ascertained the foundations of the public offices and government of Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt in his study on the 'liturgy' (leitourgia, i.e. 'public service') [1 ]. His research focused on the interplay between public and social order and the problem areas of 'socialism', 'capitalism', 'slavery' and 'class struggle', as he sought to establish a terminological and phenomenological view of the economic conditions in antiquity. References to the pressing problems in the Weimar Republic with which he engaged in many journalistic publications are unmistakable. His revision of Robert von ➔ Pohlmann's monumental work on socialism, to which 0. added an important appendix [2.), established his reputation as a social historian, and his articles for the Cambridge Ancient History [3]; [4] showed his masterly command of the sources and made his name as an economic historian. Wide-ranging preliminary work for an economic history that was to appear in the Handbuch der Altertumswissenschaften was destroyed in World War II. In addition to special studies and substantial reviews in these fields, he also wrote works on Alexander [5 ], the Gracchi and Hannibal. LW: H. Braunert, Studien zur Papyrologie und antiken Wirtschaftsgeschichte (FS), 1964, 1-4.

1965) [2) Anhang, in: R. VON P?H_LMAN~, Geschichte der sozialen Frage und des Soztahsmus m der antiken Welt, Vol. 2., '1925 [3] The Economic Unification of the Mediterranean Region. Industry, Trade and Commerce, in: Cambridge Ancient History 10, 1934, 382.-42.4 (4) The Economic Life of the Empire, in: Cambridge Ancient History 12., 1939, 2.32.-2.81 Is) Alexander der Grosse, 1943 (6) Herodots agyptischer Logos und die Glaubwurdigkeit Herodots, 1970 [7) K. S. zur Wirtschafts- und Sozialgeschichte des Altertums (ed. H. BRAUNERT), 1975. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

(8) H. BRAUNERT, Friedrich Oertel, in: Gnomon 48, 1976, 97-100 (9] CHRIST Hel. 2.32.-2.34 (11] H.-P. (10) CHRIST, RomGG 157-159

H6PFNER,Die Universitat Bonn im Dritten Reich. Akademische Biographien unter nationalsozialistischer Herrschaft, 1999, 3 8 5-3 87 • BERNHARDPALME Oldfather, William Abbott American classical philologist. Born Urmia, Persia (now Iran) 2.3. 10. 1880, died Homer, Illinois, 2.7. 5. 1945. 1902. MA in classical philology from Harvard, then teaching at Evanston, Illinois. Doctoral studies at Munich from 1906, taking his doctorate in 1908 in classical philology. From 1909 associate prof., then prof.; 192.6-194 5 director of the Department of Classics at Univ. of Illinois, Urbana. 1937/38 president of the American Philological Association. CAREER,

WORKS

AND

INFLUENCE

0., the son of a Presbyterian missionary, was born into a family of Austrian origin, originally Altvater. His mother was related to the American pioneer hero Daniel Boone. On their return to the United States, the family parents settled at Hanover, Indiana. After studying for his BA at the local college, 0. entered Harvard College, where he took a second BA in 1901 and the MA in 1902.. He studied there under William Watson Goodwin, Charles Burton Gulick and Herbert Weir Smyth. He became instructor at Northwestern Univ. in Evanston, Illinois, and perfected his knowledge of German. In 1906, he entered the Univ. of Munich for doctoral study. He wrote his dissertation there on the Locrica, supervised by Otto Crusius [1), and studied under Friedrich Vollmer in Latin, Adolf --. Furtwangler in archaeology and Robert von -• Pohlmann in ancient history. After another year at Northwestern Univ., 0. in 1909 joined the faculty of the Univ. of Illinois WRITINGS at Urbana, where he remained the rest of his (1] Die Liturgie. Studien ~ur ptolemiiischen und life. He became associate and then full prof. of kaiserlichen Verwaltung Agyptens, 1917 (reiss.

OPPENHEIM,

453

ADOLPH

LEO

(with H. V. CANTERet al.), 1938 (reiss. 1956) the Classics, as well as head of his department (7) Studies in the Text Tradition of St. Jerome's from 1926 to 1945. He arranged the purchase Vitae Patrum, 1943. of the personal libraries of the German scholars Johannes Vahlen and Wilhelm ► Dittenberger. SECONDARY LITERATURE Thanks to this initiative, the Urbana research (8] K. ABBOTT et al., Classical Studies in library has now become one of the three best in Honor of William Abbott Oldfather (FS), 1943 the United States. 0. was a pioneer in imposing [9] M. ARMSTRONG,A German Scholar and the scientific German research university upon the Socialist in America. The Career of William Abbott American imitation of the Oxbridge 'finishing Oldfather, in: The Classical Journal 88, 1992.-1993, school' intended to have gentlemen turn the sons Oldfather, William 2.35-2.53 [ 10) M. ARMSTRONG, of gentlemen into gentlemen. Thanks to him and Abbott, in: W. W. BRIGGSJr. (ed.), Biographical Dictionary of North American Classicists, 1994, several colleagues at other universities, all with 459-461 [uJ W. M. CALDER III, Ulrich von German doctorates, Americans took on the docWilamowitz-Moellendorff to William Abbott toral programme with its emphasis on publicaOldfather. Three Unpublished Letters, in: The tion and research. This has exerted incalculable 72., 1976-1977, 115-12.7 Classical Journal influence on American higher education. 0. was [ 12] C. A. FORBES,William Abbott Oldfather, in: a gifted teacher able to attract the finest stuThe Classical Journal 41, 1945, 8-11 (13] S. N. dents to his subject. He directed the work of 46 GRIFFITHS,Doctoral Dissertations Completed at the doctoral students I 13 ), including Aubrey Diller, Univ. of Illinois under William Abbott Oldfather, in: Richmond Lattimore and Revilo P. Oliver. These The Classical .Journal 74, 1978-1979, 149-153. WILLIAM M. CALDERIll in turn did much to shape American higher education in the German mode. O.'s publications - almost 250 articles, reviews Oppenheim, Adolph Leo and books as well as some 500 articles for the Realenzyklopadie (including many geographical Austrian-American Assyriologist. Born Adolf lemmata, e.g. [3]) - covered a wide spectrum of Leo 0., Vienna, 7. 6. 1904, died Berkeley, subjects. He much enjoyed collaborating, espe- California, 21.7.1974. Studied Oriental studies at cially with his doctoral students. He preferred Univ. of Vienna, with doctorate 1933. Assistant at books that lasted and hence produced fundamenOriental institute there. Dismissed on racial tal indices verborum, including those on Seneca grounds 1938; emigration (via France) to United Tragicus [2J, Apuleius [5] and Cicero's Epistulae States (parents murdered at Theresienstadt). 1941/ (6) and Rhetorica. He is best remembered today 42 worked at New York Public Library, then for his lasting contributions to Harvard's Loeb 194 5 at Johns Hopkins Univ. in Baltimore, 194 5/ Classical Library, e.g. his editions (with transla46 at Dropsie College in Philadelphia, 1944-1947 tion) of Aeneas Tacticus (1923) and Epictetus (2 at the Asia Institute in New York. 1947 research vols., 1926-1928). His bibliography of Epictetus associate at Oriental Institute of the Univ. of (4) remains essential. Experts regularly consult Chicago, 1949 assistant prof., 19 50 associate his textual studies of Jerome (7). The breadth prof., 1954 full prof. there. Retired 1973. 1971 of O.'s interests and expertise can only win our corresponding member of the British Academy. admiration. 0. has been called a "dynamic, even overWORK AND INFLUENCE whelming teacher" [ 10. 460). He was energetic, 0. had an inspirational impact on Assyriology. learned and took almost a paternal interest in the In 1960, he published the programmatic artiwelfare of his students, who remained loyal to him cle Assyriology - Why and How? and it was throughout their lived. He drowned in a canoereprinted in his book Ancient Mesopotamia, ing accident during an excursion with students. which appeared a short time later [3). His Through his students he did much to encourage approach was to apply matters at issue in other German scholarship among Americans. disciplines to the cuneiform material and hence to open up new perspectives for Assyriology, WRITINGS which by virtue of its command of the cunei[1) Lokrika. Sagengeschichtliche Untersuchungen, form languages could provide other scholars in: Philologus 67, 1908, 412.-472. (2) Index ver- with access to an important culture. In his book, borum quae in Senecae fabulis necnon in Octavia 0. gives many examples of such an understandpraetexta reperiuntur, 3 parts (with A. PEASE et al.), 1918 (reiss. 1964 et al.) [3] Lokris, in: ing of previously unusual positions. One point (revision of the diss.) that caused much discussion was his fundamenRE 13, 192.6, u35-12.88 (4) Contributions toward a Bibliography of tal doubt as to whether it was possible at all Epictetus, 2. vols. (with facsimile ed. of J. SCHENCK's to describe Mesopotamian religion, because it was so alien to us. His translations of selected trans., Basel 1534), 192.7 (reiss. 1952.) Is] Index Apuleianus (with H. V. CANTERet al.), 1934 (reiss. letters [4 J also shed new light on the history of 1979)

(6] Index verborum Ciceronis Epistularum

OPPENHEIM,

ADOLPH

LEO

Mesopotamia and triggered a debate of principle on the translation of texts from a vanished culture. 0. applied issues of psychology in his edition of a cuneiform dreambook [2.I, and studied economic history in order to understand Mesopotamian legal documents or the administration of Babylonian temples. Much of O.'s output has today become part of the accepted canon of Assyriology, e.g. the concept of the 'stream of tradition' for the text copied and hence passed down by Mesopotamian scribes in the course of their training, a body of documents that also contains most of what Western readers would call literature. 0. devoted much attention to scribes and scholars [5); (8}; (9). O.'s greatest achievement lies in the thousands of pages of material he assembled for the Chicago Assyrian Dictionary [ 1). The collections for this lexicon of Assyrian and Babylonian were initiated at the Oriental Institute in 192. 1. World War II interrupted the project. lgnace J. ► Gelb (cf. also Thorkild • Jacobsen) was the driving force behind its revival [ 10. XI) and was appointed editor-in-chief, but he was overly preoccupied with questions of principle, and the project made no discernible progress. In 1954, 0. took over the editorship. In spite of differences of opinion with colleagues, he succeeded in instigating and sustaining publication [12). In the process, he accepted minor omissions and the occasional concession of the impossibility of translating a word. On the other hand, he laid particular emphasis on contexts of cultural history, so that the Dictionary became a kind of encyclopaedia of Mesopotamian culture. Around half of the lexicon was complete at the time of O.'s death, and he had written large parts of it personally. The project was continued in his spirit by Erica Reiner; it is now complete [12.j. LW: Studies Presented to A. L. Oppenheim,

454

in Mesopotamian Society, in: B. I. SCHWARTZ (ed.), Wisdom, Revelation, and Doubt. Perspectives of the First Millennium B. C. (Daedalus 104/2.), 1975, 37-46 (91 Man and Nature in Mesopotamian Civilization, in: Dictionary of Scientific Biography 15, 1978, 63-4-666. SECONDARY

( 10) I.

LITERATURE

J.

GELB, Introduction, in: The Chicago Assyrian Dictionary N1, 1964, VII-XXIII ( 11 I H. HIRSCH, Nachruf Leo Oppenheim, in: AfO 25, 1974-1977, 347-349 (12) E. REINER, An Adventure of Great Dimension. The Launching of the Chicago Assyrian Dictionary, 2.002.. HERMANN

HUNGER

Oppert, Jules German-French ancient Near Eastern scholar. Born Julius Samuel 0., Hamburg, 9. 7. 182.5, died Paris 2.1. 8. 1905. 1844-1847 studied law and lndo-European and Semitic linguistics at in Heidelberg, Bonn and Berlin; 1846 doctorate law at Kiel. I 84 7 moved to France. 1848-18 50 German teacher at Lycee in Laval, then at Reims. 1852.-1854 expedition to Mesopotamia. French citizen 18 54, 18 5 5 study trip to British Museum, London; 1856 Croix de la Legion d'honneur. 1857 prof. of Sanskrit and comparative linguistics at Ecole des langues, Paris [8]. 1863 prize award of 2.0,000 francs for his achievements from the Academie des beaux-arts. 1874 prof. of Assyrian philology and archaeology at College de France; from 1881 member of the Academie des inscriptions et belles-lettres. President of the Societe des etudes juives; 188 3 director of studies at Ecole des hautes etudes in Paris. 1884 cofounder of the Revue d'Assyriologie; from 1886 co-editor of the Zeitschrift fur Assyriologie. 1890 vice-president, 1891 president of the Academie

des inscriptions et belles-lettres.

1964, 195-2.00; [7]. CAREER,

WORKS

AND

INFLUENCE

0., who came from a Jewish family, studied law, Hebrew and Arabic, specializing at first (11 (ed.) The Chicago Assyrian Dictionary (CAD), 1955-1973 (21 The Interpretation of Dreams in comparative lndo-European linguistics, then in the Ancient Near East, with a Translation Semitic linguistics. der He took his doctorate of of an Assyrian Dreambook, 1956 (3] Ancient law at Kiel in 1846 with a thesis on De ;ure Mesopotamia. Portrait of a Dead Civilization, Indorum criminali. His first publication on the 1964 ( 1977 newly ed. and expanded by E. REINER ancient Near East came in 1847, and following (et al.I; French 1970, Russian 1980) 141 Letters on from the work of Georg .. Grotefend, it was from Mesopotamia: Official, Business, and Private a study of the Old Persian script [ 1 ). In it, he Letters on Clay Tablets from Two Millennia succeeded in establishing the reading of several (trans. with intro.), 1967 (5] Divination and characters (implemented in (2.)). After moving Celestial Observation in the Last Assyrian Empire, (6) Glass and in: Centaurus 14'1, 1969, 97-13S to France, 0. made contact with the French Glassmaking in Ancient Mesopotamia: An Edition Eugene Burnouf, Julius Orientalists Mohl, of the Cuneiform Texts which Contain Instructions Louis-Felicien de Saulcy and Adrien Prevost de for Glassmakers with a Catalogue of Surviving Longperier. In 1 8 5 2., he joined the expedition to Objects, 1970 (7) Essays on Mesopotamian Khorsabad, Nineveh and Nimrud led by Fulgence Civilization. Selected Papers, ed. E. REINER and J. RENGER,197 4 (8 J The Position of the Intellectual Fresnel as epigrapher. While there, he also went

WRITINGS

ORLANDOS,

455

to Babylon, where he drew a plan of the ruin, and then to Birs Nimrud, which he identified as the ancient Borsippa. His time in the Near East and his subsequent assignment to study the clay tablets of Nineveh at the British Museum in London enabled 0. to decipher Akkadian, which he called Anarien or Assyrian [3 J. He pinpointed the phonetic value of certain syllabic characters and was the first to identify the lists that clarify the reading of difficult characters by splitting them into two simpler ones [6]. He prepared a list of characters and used it to establish the names of several kings. 0. realized that these characters were facilitating the pronunciation of a non-Semitic language that was older than Akkadian but could not yet be identified. He published the transcription and translation of an inscription of Nebuchadnezzar II commemorating the reconstruction of the ziggurat at Borsippa 16]. In 1857, the Royal Asiatic Society in London commissioned him, William H. Fox Talbot, Henry • Rawlinson and Edward Hincks to translate a prism inscription of TiglatPileser I that had been excavated at Assur. The four scholars' translations were read and evaluated by a special committee. They demonstrated such a degree of agreement that Akkadian was officially pronounced deciphered. Between 1860 and 1870, 0. published several works on the role of Mesopotamian texts the history of Israel; these are collected e.g. m [ 13 ]. He also pursued his investigations into the as yet unknown language of the characters which in 1872 he called 'Sumerian'. He trans~ texts into lated bilingual Sumerian-Akkadian French ( 1873 ). But at first it was impossible to co~plete _the work, and there were disputes, especially with Joseph Halevy, who read the ideograms as a cryptic rendition of Akkadian. Only with further finds of bilingual texts from Nineveh and Girsu some 20 years later was the existence of this language - and hence of the Sumerians themselves - proven. 0. was also interested in the decipherment of Elamite [ I 5] and Median I 1 4 J. His publications (over 400 titles in all) show his comprehensive interest in a broad spectrum of royal inscriptions, astronomical texts, legal and administrative documents I 1 2 I and religious and magical texts. Today he is remembered above all as one of the pioneers in the decipherment of Akkadian and Sumerian. LW: W. Muss-Arnolt, The Works of Jules Oppert, in: Beitriige zur Assyriologie und vergleichenden semitischen Sprachwissenschaft 2,

!n

1894, 523-556. WRITINGS

[I) (2)

Das Lautsystem Les inscriptions

des Altpersischen, 1847 des Achemenides (edition

ANASTASIOS

and comm.), 1851 131 Ecriture anarienne, 1855 141 Chronologie des Assyriens et des Babyloniens, 1856 I5 I Rapport adresse a son Excellence M. Fortoul, Ministre de ('Instruction publique et des Cultes, 18 56 l6) Etudes assyriennes, in: Journal Asiatique 5/9, r 8 57, 12.6-209, 490-548 (continued in: 5/Jo, 168-12.6) [7) (ed.) Expedition scientihque en Mesopotamie, vols. 1-2, 18 59-1863 18I Grammaire sanscrite, 1859 [9] Elements de la gram ma ire assyrienne, I 860 rIOI Histoire des Empires de Chaldee et d'Assyrie d'apres les monuments, 186 5 II r J Etudes sumeriennes, in: Journal Asiatique 7/5, 1875, 2.67-318, 442-500 [12) Doctrines juridiques de l'Assyrie et de la Chaldee (with J. MENANT), 1877 [ 13) Salomon et ses successeurs, 1877 (14[ Le peuple et la langue des Medes, 1879 I 15) La langue des Elamites, 188 5. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

I 16I J. BAUMGARTEN, Jules Oppert et la naissance de l'assyriologie, in: Histoire, epistemologie, Iangage 23/11, 2.001, 77-99 1•71 B. HAUSSOULLIER, Notice sur la vie et les cruvres de M. Jules Oppert, membre de l'Academie, in: CRAI 50/9, 1906, 567-592. (18I B. LION/ C. MICHEL, Jules Oppert et le syllabaire akkadien, in: B. LION / C. MICHEL (ed.), Histoires de dechiffrements. Les ecritures du Proche-Orient a l'Egee, 2.009, 81-94. BRIGITTELION/ CECILEMICHEL

Orlandos, Anastasios Greek archaeologist.

Born Athens

23.

12.

1887, died there 6. 10. 1979. Studied at Athens Technical Univ.; 1915 doctorate at faculty of philosophy of Univ. of Athens. 19.2.0-1958 direc-

tor of department for the restoration of ancient monuments. 1919-1940 prof. ord. in architecture at Athens Technical Univ.; 1939-1958 prof. ord. in Byzantine archaeology at Univ. of Athens. Member of many scholarly associations and academies. 1946-1956 secretary, 1950 president of the Athens Academy of Sciences; 1951-1979 secretary of the Archaeological Society at Athens. Many prizes and distinctions, including Grand Cross of the Greek Order of the Palm in 19 3 6 and Chevalier de la Legion d'honneur in 1947. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

0. was one of the most versatile and productive figures in Greek classical studies, working simultaneously as an architect, surveyor, Byzantine scholar and excavator as well as holding positions at univs. and in the Greek archaeological service. He rook his doctorate with a dissertation on the pediment of the Temple of Poseidon at Cape Sounion [ 1 ], but subsequently did not confine himself to the classical realm alone, but also explored Byzantine architecture [.z.J; (4), attempting to emulate it in many of his own buildings. 0. attended lectures of and collaborated with leading scholars including

ORLANDOS,

ANASTASIOS

Wilhelm ---+ Dorpfeld, Georg Heinrich • Karo, Rudolf Heberdey, Anton von . • Premerstein and Alfred Brueckner. One of the main venues of his work was the Athenian Acropolis, where for many years he took part in the restoration work directed by Nikos Balanos (1910-1917) before becoming director himself, in the process acquiring profound knowledge of the monuments of the entire Greek cultural sphere. LW: Charist~rion eis Anastasi on K. Orlandon (FS), 1965, Vol. 1, ia'-16' (11-44).

CAREER,

WORKS

AND

INFLUENCE

At just 16 years of age, in 1875. 0. became an assistant in archaeology and entomology at the town museum of Rovereto, where he remained active all his life (1879-1935) as an honorary conservator, and to which he bequeathed his collection of antiquities and coins. While still a young man, he conducted epigraphic, topographic and prehistoric studies of Trentino (especially Caldaro, Colombo di Mori). Positivist in his academic sympathies, he was politically active in efforts to detach his homeland from WRITINGS the Habsburg Empire. In 1884, after graduating (1) To CX£tooµatO'\l £V !o'\lVtOO VCXOU tO'\l noo£lOO>VO Fraenkel and Paul -• Maas), the large inventory of Callimachus papyri held at Oxford, and the support of the Clarendon Press. He spent the years 1949-1953 completing his magnum opus, the aforementioned two-volume Callimachus edition (5). This is regarded as an exemplary work both in its command of the wealth of material and the care of its textual emendations. P. soon returned to the Univ. of Munich, in 1951, and he worked there in collaboration with his Latinist colleague Friedrich ➔ Klingner, among others. In his old age (after retiring in 1957), P. produced his history of his specialist discipline of classical philology, surveying it (following preliminary studies) for the periods of Greek antiquity [7) and the age of Humanism up to the 19th cent. (8). Considerations of time compelled him to skip late antiquity and the Middle Ages. Although P. was unable to complete the work (the second volume contains considerable gaps and does not meet his own high standards), the History of Classical Scholarship is a milestone in the development of the subject as a discipline in its own right. Thanks to his patient, receptive and convivial nature, P. was held in great affection by many colleagues in Germany and Great Britain. His students included Ludwig Voit, Rolf Ibscher, Wolfgang Hormann, Hans Farber and Max Treu. LW: (6. 292-297) (with illustration); [10. 409 f.].

E: Munich, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek; vately owned.

pri-

WRITINGS (1] Fragmenta nuper reperta. Kleine Texte for Vorlesungen und Obungen, 19:z.1 (2) Kallimachosstudien (habil. thesis Munich), 19:z.:z. (3) Callimachi fragmenta nuper reperta (edition), 19:z.; (4) Humanitas Erasmiana, 1931 (5) Callimachus, 2 vols. (edition), 1949-1953 (6) Ausgewahlte Schriften. Aufsatze und Vortrage zur griechischeo Dichtung und zum Humanismus, ed. W. BOHLER, 1960 (7) History of Classical Scholarship from the Beginnings to the End of the Hellenistic Age, 1968 (•1978) [8] History of Classical Scholarship from 1300 to 1850, 1976. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

(9) K. BAR,Pfeiffer, Rudolf, in: DBC :z., :z.004, 765769 [10) W. BOHLER,Rudolf Pfeiffer, in: Gnomoo 5:z., 1980, 402-410 (11) M. LAUSBERG(ed.), Philologia Perennis. Colloquium zu Ehren von Rudolf Pfeiffer, 1996 [u) H. LLOYD-JONES,Rudolf Pfeiffer, in: Proc. of the British Acad. 65, 1979, 771781 [ I 3) M. SCHREIBER,Altertumswissenschaften im Nationalsozialismus. Die Klassische Philologie ao der Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitat, in: E. KRAUS (ed.), Die Universitat Miinchen im Drinen Reich. Aufsatze, Vol. 1, :z.006, 181-:z.48 [14) H. TRANKLE. Rudolf Pfeiffer, in: Historisches Jb. 101, 1981, 506-512. HANS-ULRICH

BERNER / U. C. A. STEPHAN

Pflaum, Hans-Georg German-French jurist and ancient historian. Born Berlin 3. 6. 1902, died Linz 26. 12. 1979. Studied law at Breslau and Heidelberg; 1925 doctorate of law at Breslau. 1929-1933 studied ancient history and classical philology at Berlin. Emigrated 1933; 1933-1937 studied ancient history at the Sorbonne in Paris. From 1956, academic director of the Centre national de la recherche scientifique in Paris; from 1961 also of the F.cole pratique des hautes etudes in Paris. BIOGRAPHY

AND

SCHOLARLY

CAREER

P. was born into a Jewish family of entrepreneurs. His father owned a Berlin textile business. In terms of vocation, the young P. initially leaned towards law. After legal studies, he took his doctorate at Breslau in 1925 with a thesis on maintenance agreements between spouses. After that, he initially worked mostly for his father's company, but with its financial collapse in 1929, he went to Berlin Univ. to study ancient history. His teachers included Ulrich • Wilcken, Wilhelm ~♦ Weber and Ernst • Stein. The National Socialist seizure of power forced P. to emigrate as early as 1933. Until 1937, he continued his studies at the Sorbonne in Paris with Jerome -• Carcopino. His career in classical studies was

PFUHL,

interrupted several times following the outbreak of World War II. The German occupation of France heralded a period of life-threatening peril for P., involving internment and life in hiding. Nonetheless, even under these difficult conditions, he worked on his book on the equestrian procurators, which he was only able to submit as his Paris these in 194 7. It founded his scholarly reputation. With his material circumstances secured after the war by his appointment to leading positions in the Ecole pratique des hautes etudes and Centre national de la recherche scientifique (CNRS) in Paris, P. rapidly forged a brilliant career, ascending to the first rank of European ancient historians. This is attested by numerous distinctions, such as honorary doctorates from the Univs. of Bern and Freiburg, membership of the British Academy, the Akademie der Wissenschaften in Gottingen and the DAI. P. was also closely associated with the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, and he held the office of secretary-general of the Association internationale d'epigraphie grecque et latine. From 1966 to 1978 he co-edited the Annee epigraphique. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

Because of the difficult circumstances of his life, P. only came to public notice in 19 50 with his first publication on ancient history. A study on the Roman Imperial post had been published anonymously in 1940 [2.]. His work on the lateantique procurators [4] set new standards both of method and content, and no serious work of scholarship since has been able to neglect them. The prosopographic approach was not an end in itself to P., but an instrument for researching the social and structural history of the Roman Empire. The analysis of the Roman elite by prosopography remained a favourite area of research for him thereafter. In 1960/61, P. published a detailed four-volume compilation and historical evaluation, over 1,500 pages in length, of the public careers of individual procurators [ 5 ). This was followed, in the same methodological spirit, by studies of the Roman senatorial class and individual careers in the Roman provinces (6). His research methods gave important new impulses to French classical studies in particular. P. also made a name for himself as a publisher of epigraphic editions. The research areas of main interest to him here were Roman North Africa and Roman Gaul. His two books on the Latin inscriptions of Algeria contain over 7,000 inscriptions [ 1]. He published important essays presenting new inscriptions or new interpretations of texts already published. One early example is his publication on the 'Marble of Thorigny' (3 ]. His broad spectrum of activity was rounded

ERNST

off with contributions on ancient onomastics and numismatics. This zealous scholar also spoke out on problems of Historia-Augusta research. For the Propylaen- Weltgeschichte, P. was the author of the chapter on the Roman Empire (7j. LW: M. Clauss, Pflaum, Hans-Georg, in: Arheoloski Vestnik 28, 1977, 235-244 (Nachtrage: 31, 1980, 32.9-330). WRITINGS [1I

Inscriptions

latines d' Algerie, Vol. 2./i-2., (2) Essai sur le cursus publicus sur le Haut-Empire romain, 1940 [3) Le marbre de Thorigny, 1948 141Les procurateurs equestres sous le Haut-Empire romain, 1950 [sl Les carrieres pro1937-1976

curatiennes equestres sous le Haut-Empire romain, 4 vols., 1960-1961 (6] Deux families senatoriales des II' et Ill• siedes, in: Journal des Savants, 1962., 108-12.2. 17) Das romische Kaiserreich, in: G. MANN I A. HEuss (ed.), Propylaen Weltge18) Les sodales schichte, Vol. 4, 1963, 317-42.8 Antoniniani de l'epoque de Marc-Aurele, 1966 [9] Une lettre de promotion de l'empereur Marc Aurel pour un procurateur ducenaire de Gaule Narbonnaise, in: Bonner Jb. 171, 1971, 349-366 f 10) Quelques reflections sur l'interpretation prosopographique de l'histoire romaine, in: RhM II 5, 1972., 318-3 2.1 ( 11] La Romanisation de I'Afrique, in: Akten des 6. lnternationalen Kongresses fiir Griechische und Lateinische Epigraphik 1972., 1973, 55-72. 112.I Le progres des recherches prosopographiques concernant l'epoque du HautEmpire durant le dernier quart du siecle (19451970), in: ANWR 2./1, 1974, 113-135. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

(13) G. ALFdLDY, Hans-Georg Pflaum, in: Gnomon 52., 1980, 2.03-2.06 [14] S. DEMOUGIN(ed.), H.-G. Pflaum, un historien du XX• siecle, 2.006 [ 15) T. ZAWADZKI,Un vrai europeen: Hans-Georg Pflaum (1902.-1979), in: W. APPEL (ed.), Magistri et discipuli, 2.002., 101-113.

HOLGERSONNABEND

Pfuhl, Ernst German archaeologist.

Born Berlin 17. 11. 1895-1900 studied classics in Berlin, doctorate there 1900. 1905 habil. in Gottingen. 1909 prof. ext., 1911 prof. ord. of classical archaeology at Basel. 1876, died Basel 7. 8. 1940.

WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

P., son of the Berlin sculptor Johannes P., studied classics at Berlin with the philologists Ulrich von -+ Wilamowitz-Moellendorff and Hermann ➔ Diels. His archaeology teachers were August Kalkmann and Reinhard -• Kekule von Stradonitz. P.'s fondness for philology is reflected in his dissertation on the Athenian processions [ 1 ). Four years spent travelling in the Mediterranean ( 1900-1904) proved a formative experience.

PFUHL,

ERNST

In Rome, P. joined Richard ► Delbrueck to develop a concept of Hellenistic art history that also incorporated Roman art. At Athens, he took over the excavations of the Archaic burials on Thera (Santorini) from Friedrich Hiller von Gartringen [3]. As a prolegomenon to a corpus of Eastern Greek funerary reliefs, he published the funerary reliefs of Alexandria [2.). P.'s masterpiece is his comprehensive survey of Greek painting and drawing [ 5 ]. Initially planned to form part of the Handbuch der Archiiologie, it presented the current state of knowledge of Greek two-dimensional art, still fully convinced of the evidential value of vase and wall-paintings in conjecture regarding the lost Greek panel paintings. P. contributed to the field of Hellenistic art with several preparatory studies for the funerary relief corpus [4]; (9] and two essays in which he used portrait coins and ruler portraits for the stylistic dating of Hellenistic works of art [7); [8). A treatise on early Greek portraiture that was seminal in its day is still subject to reception today (6). P. was unable to complete publication of the Eastern Greek funerary reliefs [ 10). P. differed from the most successful structural researchers of his day in his more pronounced historical perspective. To him, developments in artistic form were always connected with school or regional traditions. Artistically insignificant monuments, funerary reliefs in particular, were also important to him as a means of understanding the ancients. E: Basel, Univ. Library.

Picard, Charles French classical archaeologist. Born Arnay-leDuc 7. 6. 1883, died Paris 15. 12.. 1965. 1905 Ecole normale superieure (ENS) Paris; 1908 Agrege des lettres (teaching certificate); 1922 doctorate. 1909-1913 member, 1913/14 secretary-general of Ecole fran,;aise d'Athenes (EFA). 1914-19 1 8 war service. 1919/2.0 lecturer in Greek and Latin antiquities at Univ. of Bordeaux; 1919-192.5 director of EFA. 1925-1927 prof. of archaeology at Univ. of Lyon; 1927-1934 prof. of ancient Greek history, 1934-195 5 of ancient art history at Sorbonne in Paris; 1937-1961 director of lnstitut d'art et d'archeologie there. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

After studies at the ENS and acceptance into the EFA, P. undertook research expeditions to the Chersones (Crimea), Thrace and Macedonia, and took part in the excavations at Clarus in of Ionia [ 1 ). Even before taking the directorship the EF A, he was more active as an archaeologist, -► Holleaux 1911 ever since in 1911 Maurice had entrusted him with organizing an excavation on Thasos under the direction of Gustave Fougeres. Under P.'s leadership, the Athenian institute expanded its operations to Crete with the excavations at Malia, as well as into Peninsular Greece and lonia, Thrace and Macedonia. P. was active in Greece during both World Wars, both as a soldier and a scholar. His work was devoted in equal measure to the origins of Greek religion I 1 ]; I 5]; (7] and - as the five volWRITINGS umes of his monumental Manuel (6]; [8] attest (1] De Atheniensium pompis sacris (diss. Berlin), to sculpture (2.]. On his return to France, P. was 1900 (2) Alexandrinische Grabreliefs, in: Atheactive in promoting the public role of classi[3] Der nische Mitteilungen 2.6, 1901, 2.58-304 cal archaeology and he became one of its most archaische Friedhof am Stadtberge von Thera, renowned public figures. Besides his teaching at in: Athenische Mitteilungen 2.8, 1903, 1-2.90 the Sorbonne and the ENS, he was also known [4] Das Beiwerk auf den ostgriechischen Grabrefor his role in the foundation of the lnstitut d'art liefs, in: Jb. des DAI 2.0, 1905, 47-96; 12.3-155 et d'archeologie at the Sorbonne, and for his [5) Malerei und Zeichnung der Griechen, 192.3 (Engprominent role in the Excavations Commission lish: Masterpieces of Greek Drawing and Painting, at the Foreign Ministry. trans. J. D. BEAZLEY,192.6) (6) Die Anfange der griechischen Bildniskunst, 192.7 (7) Ikonographilike his P.'s son Gilbert-Charles (1913-1998), sche Beitriige zur Stilgeschichte der hellenistischen father a prof. of classical archaeology at the SorKunst, in: Jb. des DAI 45, 1930, 1-61 [8] Stil bonne, specialized in Roman North Africa. His und Zeit der Nike von Samothrake, in: Jb. des DAI son Olivier ( 1940-), in turn a prof. there since 47, 1932., 69-76 (9) Spationische Plastik, in: Jb. 1993, is active as an archaeologist and numisma[10) Die ostgriechischen des DAI 50, 1935, 9-48 tist and was director of the EFA from 198 1 to Grabreliefs, 4 vols., ed. H. MOB1us, 1977-1979. 1992.. P.'s daughter Yvonne (192.0-1943), a philosopher and member of the French Resistance, SECONDARY LITERATURE died at Auschwitz. [11] K. ScHEFOLD,Nachruf auf Ernst Pfuhl, in: Gnomon LW: [10. IX-XLIII]; [13. 121-151]. 17, 1941,47-48 I12.)K. SCHEFOLD,Ernst Pfuhl, in: [13] K. SCHEFOLD,Ernst Basler Jb., 1943, 84-100 Pfuhl, in: LULLIES/ ScHIERING Arch. 192.-193. STEFANSCHMIDT

WRITINGS

[1) Ephese et Claros. Recherches sur les sanctuaires et les cultes de l'Ionie du nord, 192.2. {2] La sculpture antique, 2. vols., 192.3-192.6 (3) Sculptures grecques de Delphes, 192.7 [41 L'Acropole

PICCOLOMINI,

d'Athenes, 2 vols., 1929-1932 lsl Les ongmes du polythcisme hellenique, z. vols., 19 3 0-19 3 z. (61 Manuel d'archeologie grecque. La sculpture, vols. 1-3, 1935-1948 171 Les religions prehclleniques (Crete et Mycenes), 1948 [8) Manuel d'archeologie grecque. La sculpture, vols. 4-5,

ENEA

SILVIO

was performing duties for the Council of Basel, acquiring great renown through his speeches and sometimes functioning as the spokesman of the Council, which reached the zenith of its power in 1438 with its deposition of Pope Eugene IV. It was a logical step in P.'s career to enter the 1963-1966. service of the Pope elected at the Council, Felix V. When the vigour of the Council flagged, howSECONDARY LITERATURE ever, he switched to the side of King Friedrich IV 191Picard, Charles (1883-1965), in: DBA, 518(the future Emperor Friedrich III), whom he now 529 (10) Melanges d'archeologie et d'histoire offerts a Charles Picard a l'occasion de son 6 5e served as secretary, orator and diplomat. anniversaire, 2 vols. (Revue archeologique, ser. Undertaking diplomatic missions for Friedrich 6, 31/32), 1949 luJ Picard, Charles Pierre, in: IV across the whole of Europe, P. played a key J. LEcLANT (ed.), Le second siede de l'lnstitut de role in the design of European political life, iniFrance, 1895-1995. Recueil biographique et hibliotiating the recognition of Pope Eugene IV by the graphique des membres, associes etrangers, correHoly Roman Empire in 1446/47, the Vienna spondants fram;ais et etrangers des cinq academies, Concordat of 1448, the expulsion and abolition Vol. 2, 2001, 1144-1145 112) F.C:HAMoux,Notice sur la vie et les travaux de M. Charles Picard, in: of the Council of Basel in 1449, the marriage of Friedrich to Eleonora of Portugal in 1452 and CRAI 131.2, 1987, 460-474 1131 P. DEMARGNE, the Imperial coronation of Friedrich at Rome. Charles Picard, in: Revue archeologique 2, 1965, I I 1-119. Eugene IV rewarded him by making him a subtVE GRAN-AYMERICH deacon and then a deacon (1447), before the new Pope Nicholas IV named him Bishop of Trieste Piccolomini, Enea Silvio ( 144 7) and Siena ( 1450). His successor Callixtus III make P. Cardinal-Priest of Santa Sabina (17. 12. 1456), camerlengo (26. 1. 1457) and Aeneas Sylvius Piccolominus; Italian HumanBishop of Ermland (12. 8. 1457). Between 1446 ist, writer, diplomat and Pope. Born Corsignano (lacer Pienza), 18. 10. 1405, died Ancona 1 5. 8. and 1458, P. placed his outstanding political and diplomatic gifts at the disposal of Popes Eugene 1464. Studied law at Univ. of Siena 1423-1428 IV, Nicholas V and Callixtus III. and Florence 1429-1430, also classical studies A decisive event came late in May 1453, secretary to various and rhetoric. 1432-1444 bishops, Cardinal Albergati and Antipope Felix with the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople. V. 1436-1442 scribe, abbreviator and provost of P. argued passionately for a Crusade against the the colleague of abbreviators at the Council of Turks. He undertook many diplomatic missions on behalf of Callixtus III to prepare the ground Basel. 1436-1458 numerous diplomatic missions. for it. But, when Callixtus died before the plan Crowned poeta laureatus 144 2 at the Frankfurt was accomplished, P. was elected his successor, Reichstag. 1442-145 5 secretary and diplomat in on 19. 8. 1458. As Pius II, he followed his sucthe service of the German King (rex romanorum) cessor in making the Crusade against the Turks Friedrich IV. From 1446, ecclesiastical career. the chief project of his Pontificate, although the r 446 deacon; r 44 7 holy orders; 1447 bishop; lukewarm success of the Congress of Mantua in 1456 cardinal; 1458-1464 Pope (Pius II). 14 59 made it all but impossible to implement. It is one of the ironies of history that P. had finally CAREER P., the eldest son of rural noble Silvio Pic- just succeeded in assembling an expedition fleet colomini, did not complete almost ten years of when he died, in the port of Ancona. study of law and classics with a degree, but did WORKS make an impression with his wealth of knowlP.'s oeuvre, written entirely in Latin, displays edge, his outstanding memory and his rhetorical abilities. Cardinal Domenico Capranica, while a broad spectrum of interests and content, much passing through in 1432, engaged him as his innovation and a pronounced literary and scholarly ambition. Some of his works are in a strictly personal secretary and took him to the Council of Basel. This position gave P. access to the net- literary vein, e.g. the volume of elegies Cinthia, works of the leading clerics and intellectuals of dedicated to Propertius, a collection of epigrams, the novella De Eurialo et Lucretia, the epistoEurope, and determined the course of his career. When Capranica left the Council, P. entered the lary satire of court criticism De miseria curialium ( 1444) I5) and the comedy Chrysis ( r 444). service of other leading clergymen, including But most of his works are devoted to politics, Cardinal Niccolo Albergati, for whom he undertook delicate diplomatic missions, including an historiography, cultural and religious history, embassy to Scotland. Between 1436 and 1442, P. geography and ethnography. With his integrative

PICCOLOMINI,

ENEA SILVIO

approach that dispensed with traditional generic boundaries, P. was always exploring new literary and scholarly territory. His commentaries on the Council of Basel [9] present a fascinating mix of political, religious and dogmatic history combined with autobiographical memoir. De viris illustribus (1450) (10) is a memorable portrait gallery of famous figures of his day (crowned heads, politicians and intellectuals), in the form of a biographical series. He constantly subverts the discursive rules of biographical series already established in antiquity, with autobiographical digressions and personal comment, especially acerbic criticism. The Historia Austria/is [ 1 5] is a historical and political memoir for Emperor Friedrich III (expanded several times; autograph of the third redaction 14 58 ), in which he presents the Emperor with a gripping narrative of his eventful reign and offers a political interpretation of it, seasoned with national history and geography [15. 28). The Historia Bohemica (1458) (12) was probably the first Humanist history of a country north of the Alps. In it, P. succeeded in describing a hitherto almost unknown country and, beyond that, achieving a fully integrated account of its politics, early history, contemporary and cultural history, ethnography and geography. In De Europa (1458), he continued his newfangled 'Geography' [ 13 ); d. [ 16). Using the form of a periegesis, he describes a geographical and historical tour of Europe, beginning in the east with Hungary and in the west with Portugal, ending in the south with Italy. In its geographical sections, the work displays a thoroughgoing revision of the ancient geographies of Ptolemy, Strabo and Pliny the Elder, enriched with political and religious reports, personal experiences and anecdotes. It is not impossible that it was already conceived together with De Asia ( 1461) as part of a universal Cosmographia [ 1). De Europa is also an ideological treatise, proposing a defensive community founded on common culture and religion against the approaching Turks and Islam. This descriptive perspective also infuses De Asia [14], and it is no coincidence that it is also the central theme of the Commentarii, the memoirs of P.'s Pontificate [ 11 ], which was devoted to preparations for his hoped-for Crusade against the Turks [18]. In it, P. minutely and vividly describes the landscapes, cities and rulers of Italy that he encountered on his journey from Rome to the Crusade Congress he convened at Mantua. Last but not least, his 600 or more Latin letters are important for the variegated picture P. paints not only of his private life, but of 15th-cent. politics, religion and culture [4].

INFLUENCE

P.'s works and his two-decade personal presence exerted a wide-ranging and longlasting influence in the Holy Roman Empire in particular. This is attested in 700 surviving manuscripts, and a number of incunabula and German translations of his writings (by Niklas Wyle, Johannes Steinhowel et al.). Georg Voigt already rightly called P. the "Apostle of Humanism" in Germany (27). Among P.'s most influential works were his Latin letters and speeches, in which he provided an early demonstration in style and content of the Humanist modes of communication in the public and private spheres. The manuscript anthologies compiled from these functioned as collections of model letters and speeches (especially the Reichstag Speech and the Turks Speech), guiding style in univ., school and private use. The various provenances and types of these manuscripts show that P. was an established presence in all fields of intellectual life in Germany (jurists, medical writers, theologians) from around 1460. His Germania [8) offered inspiration to a new, proto-nationalist identity formation that would become a distinguishing feature of German Humanism in the first half of the 16th cent. (e.g. Conrad • Celtis, Ulrich von Hutten). P.'s speeches on the Turks ( 3] dictated the way the Turks were thought of in the German Empire. In Italy, P.'s influence was restricted to Rome and the northern Italian princely courts, and rather than his letters and speeches, it was exerted mainly by his works of geography and history. WRITINGS (1) Cosmographia Papae Pii (with i.a.: De Asia, De Europa, Historia Bohemica), Venice 1 503 (2.) Opera quae extant omnia, Basel 1551 (reiss. 1967) [3) Pii 11... orationes politicae et ecclesiasticae, 3 vols., ed. G. MANSI, 17 5 5-17 5 9 (4) Der Briefwechsel des Eneas Silvius Piccolomini, 3 vols., ed. R. WOLKAN, 1909-1918 Is] De curialium miseriis epistola, ed. W. P. MUSTARD, 1928 (6] De liberorum educatione, ed. J. S. NELSON (Studies in Medieval and Renaissance Latin 12.), 1940 [7] Ausgewahlte Texte, ed. and trans. B. WIDMER, 1960 (8) Germania (De ritu, situ, moribus et conditione Theutoniae) an J. Wimpfeling und dessen responsa et replica, ed. A. SCHMIDT, 1961 [9] De gestis concilii Basiliensis commencariorum libri duo, ed. and trans. D. HAY and W. K. SMITH, 1967 (corr. reiss. 1991) [10) De viris illustribus, ed. A. VANHECK, 1991 [11) Commentarii rerum memorabilium quae temporibus suis contigerunt, 1 parts, ed. I. BELLUSand I. BoRONKA, 1991-1993 [12.) Historia Bohemica, 3 vols., ed. J. HEJNIC and H. ROTHE, 1998-1005 (first edition Rome 1475) (13) De Europa, ed. A. VAN HECK (Studi e testi 398), 2.001 (14) De Asia, ed. N. CASELLA, 2.004 (15) Historia Austrialis, ed.

PICO DELLA MIRANDOLA, M. WAGENDORFER /

J.

KN()DLER (MGH,

GIOVANNI

SRG

appear before the committee appointed by Pope Innocent VIII to validate their orthodoxy, and published an apologia against the judgment that SECONDARY LITERATURE 13 of the theses were heretical. Papal Bull of 4. (16] B. BALDI, Enea Silvio Piccolomini e ii 8. 1487 condemned all the theses as heretical. 'De Europa' Umanesimo, religione e politica, in: Left Rome, arrested at Lyon. Released 1488 and Archivio storico italiano 161, 2.003, 619-683 returned to Florence under the protection of [17) K. ENENKEL,Die Erfindung des Menschen. Die King Charles VIII of France. Lived at Florence, Autobiographik des fri.ihneuzeitlichen Humanismus von Petrarca bis Lipsius, 2.008, 2.66-366 I18) J. HELMRATH, Fiesole and Ferrara. Joined forces from 1492 Pius II. und die Ti.irken, in: 8. GuTHM0LLER / with the radical preacher Girolamo Savonarola; 1 8. 6. 149 3 sanctions imposed by Innocent VIII W. K0HLMANN (ed.), Europa und die Ti.irken in der I19) J. HELMRATH, lifted by Pope Alexander VI. Renaissance, 2.000, 79-137 N. S. 2.4), 2.009.

Enea Silvio Piccolomini als Apostel des Humanismus, in: J. HELMRATH et al. (ed.), Diffusion des Humanism us, 2.002., 99-14 I [2.01 C. KREBS, Negotiatio Germaniae. Tacitus' Germania und Enea Silvio Piccolomini, 2.005 [:u) H. MOLLER, Enea Silvio de' Piccolominis literarische Tatigkcit auf dem Gebiet der Erdkundc und dessen Eintluss auf die Geographen der Folgezeit, 1903 [2.2.IG. PAPARELLI, Enea Silvio Piccolomini. L'umanesimo sul soglio di Pierro, •1978 (2.3 I L. ROTONDISECCHITARUGI(ed.), Pio Ile la cultura del suo tempo, 1991 [2.41M. Som/ A. ANTONIUTTI (ed.), Enea Silvio Piccolomini (atti del convegno internazionale, Rome 2.005), 2.007 (2.5] A. STRNAD, Die Rezeption der italienischen Renaissance in den osterreichischen Erblanden der Habsburger, in: G. KAUFMANN(ed.), Die Renaissance im Blick der Nationen Europas, 199 r, 1.35-2.2.6 (2.6] M. A. TERZOLI, Enea Silvio Piccolomini. Uomo di lettere e mediatore di culture, 2.006 (2.7] G. Vo1GT, Enea Silvio de' Piccolomini, als Papst Pius II., und sein Zeitalter, 3 vols., 18561863 (reiss. 1967) (2.81 M. WAGENDORFER,Studien zur 'Historia Austrialis' des Aeneas Silvius de Piccolominibus, 2.003 [2.91 P . .J. WEINJG, Aeneam suscipite, Pium recipite. Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini. Studien zur Rezeption eines humanistischen Schriftstellers im Deutschland des 1 5. Jh.s, 1998 (30] G. ZIPPEL, Enea Silvio Piccolomini e ii mondo germanico, in: La Cultura 19, 1981, 2.67-350. KARLA. E. ENENKEL

Pico delta Mirandola,

Giovanni

Italian Humanist, theologian and philosopher. Born Mirandola (Emilia-Romagna) 24. 2. 1463, died Florence 17.11.1494, buried there in Savonarola's Dominican friary of San Marco. Educated by his mother after the death of his father ( 1467), prepared for a career in the Church. 1477 began studies of canon law at Bologna; 1479 switched to study humaniora at Ferrara, where he learned Greek. From 1480 studied philosophy at Padua. 1483 moved to Florence and entered the circle of the Neoplatonist Marsilio • Ficino that Lorenzo de' Medici supported. July 148 5 to March 1486, studied scholastics in Paris. From 1486, learned Arabic, Hebrew and Chaldaean, and studied the Qabbalah in Perugia. Published 900 philosophical and theological theses at Rome on 7. 12. 1486. Refused to

CAREER

AND

WORKS

P. was born into a wealthy family, which enabled him to pursue his studies without restriction and independently. With his profound knowledge of ancient Greek and Latin literature, his studies of philosophy were not limited to (Neo-)Platonism, but also extended to scholasticism (of an Averroist persuasion), and he was the first Christian not of Jewish descent to make an intensive study of Qabbalistic literature. His work is therefore characterized by consideration given to all available knowledge, an approach of eclecticism and syncretism. P.'s first appearance on the Italian stage dates from 14 8 5 and a letter he wrote to Ermolao • Barbaro, in which P. polemically responds to the latter's criticism of the 'barbaric', dry and technical speech of scholastic philosophers with an assertion of the primacy of the text content over pleasing phraseology [3. Vol. 1, 351-358); [51- However, this letter, which is entitled De genere dicendi philosophorum, is so linguistically and rhetorically sophisticated in its use of numerous classical ancient models that it seems instead to be propagating a combination of philosophical depth and refinement of form [ 12). Philipp • Melanchthon published the correspondence in the 153 9 edition of his Elem enta rhetorices, giving some glosses in which he inveighs energetically against P.'s arguments 18. 343-439). P.'s commentary on an erotic canzone by his friend Girolamo Benivieni (2. 451-581]; (3. Vol. 1, 714-759); (6) displays the extent to which he had become involved with Ficinian Platonism. The manuscripts, however, also contain criticisms of his teacher (9. 8 3-103 ). P.'s 900 theses (also 1486) (3. Vol. 1, 6 3-11 3 ]; [ 11] display the syncretism of his fields of knowledge in the service of Christian doctrine. For, regardless of their condemnation by the Church, it seems that P. was searching for a confirmation of Christian doctrine in ancient (especially Platonic, scholastic and Qabbalistic) literature [16. 77), not attaching himself to the views of individual sources, but citing them only in confirmation of his own and adapting them

PICO

DELLA MIRANDOLA,

490

GIOVANNI

for his purpose - not infrequently by the typical medieval strategies of metaphorical or allegorical reading [ 10. 142). His ambitious project of publishing his theses and discussing them at Rome with an international elite of philosophers and theologians also followed medieval traditions, namely those of the academic disputation, the creation of collections of sententiae and the practice of conventional dialectics ( 10. 13 2). P. defended his project both in the Apologia (1486/87) (3. Vol. 1, 114-240) and in his bestknown work, now one of the most famous texts of the Renaissance, the so-called Oratio de dignitate hominis (1486/87, posthumously published in 1496) [1); (2. 101-165); (3. Vol. 1, 313-331); (4). While its first part was long taken in isolation and argued to be a programmatic treatise for an early modern Humanist anthropology, promoting the idea of a free and unpredestined Man at the centre of Creation, the indeterminate figure (P. uses the terms naturae species and forma) that characterizes Man in the Oratio is today shown rather to be a metaphysical precondition for the possibility of Man's ascending to divine nature by means of philosophy and theology, without in the process losing his human nature [10. 132-146]. A discussion with Lorenzo de' Medici and Angelo ➔ Poliziano, held late in 1490 or early in 1491 and concerning the reconcilability of Plato and Aristotle, gave rise to the treatise De ente et uno (2. 385-449); (3. Vol. 1, 241-310); (7), in which P. discusses and argumentatively abolishes various aspects of the differences between Aristotle and the Platonists in respect of Being and the One. The treatise, however, was probably meant only as a preliminary study to a comprehensive work on the reconcilability of Plato and Aristotle, to be called Concordia Platonis et Aristotelis, which P. mentioned in March 1490 in a letter to Baptista Mantuanus (3. Vol. 1, 369) and in the dedication to Poliziano (3. Vol. 1,241); (7. 3) (7. XV-XXV). The distance he clearly keeps from astrology in his late work, the ten books of Disputationes in astrologiam divinatricem I3. Vol. 1, 411-732), as compared to his attitude in the theses and the commentary to the creation history Heptaplus [2. 167-383); (3. Vol. 1, 1-62) can probably mostly be attributed to the influence of Savonarola [ 1 5 ]. INFLUENCE We are unusually well-informed about the external circumstances of P.'s life thanks to his biography, written by his nephew Gianfrancesco Pico delta Mirandola (3. Vol. 1, "'3r-"'8r) and translated into English by Thomas More [1. 21-41). The abundance of editions dating from the 1 5th and 16th cents., and again from

the second half of the 20th cent., attests to the interest in his work in these periods [ 14 ). To • Erasmus of Rotterdam, P. was one of the outstanding Italian Humanists, alongside Barbaro and Poliziano. His Latin style was regarded as exemplary. In France, Jacques ~• Lefevre d'Etaples adopted P. 's views on Plato and Aristotle, and in Germany Johannes -• Reuchlin pursued his Qabbalistic studies [ 1 3 ]. WRITINGS 11) Ober die Wiirde des Menschen. Nebst einigen Briefen und der Lebensbeschreibung Pico della Mirandolas, trans. and ed. H. W. ROSSEL, 1940 (et al.) 12) De hominis dignitate. Heptaplus. De ente et uno. E scritti vari, ed. E. GARIN, 1942 (3) Opera omnia, :z.vols., intro. and ed. E. GARIN, 1971 141Oratio de hominis dignitate, ed. E. GARIN, 1994 (English: Oration on the Dignity of Man, ed. and trans. F. BoRGHESI,M. PAPIO and M. RIVA, 2012) [sl Filosofia oeloquenza? (with E. BARBARO), ed. F. BAus1, 1998 [6I Kommentar zu einem Lied der Liebe (Italian-German), ed., trans. and intro. T. BORKLIN,2001 [7) Ober das Seiende und das Eine (Latin-German), trans., comm. and ed. P. R. BLUMet al., 2006. SECONDARY LITERATURE [8 I P. MELANCHTHON, Elementa rhetorices, ed., trans. and comm. V. WELs, 2001 l91 M. J. B. ALLEN, The Birth Day of Venus. Pico as Platonic Exegete in the Commento and the Heptaplus, in: M. V. DouGHERTY (ed.), Pico della Mirandola. New Essays, 2008, 81-113 [10) M. V. DOUGHERTY, Three Precursors to Pico della Mirandola's Roman Disputation and the Question of Human Nature in the Oratio, in: M. V. DOUGHERTY(ed.), Pico della Mirandola. New Essays, 2008, 114-151 111) S. A. FARMER,Syncretism in the West. Pico's 900 Theses, 1998 112) J. KRAYE, Pico on the Relationship of Rhetoric and Philosophy, in: M. V. DOUGHERTY (ed.), Pico della Mirandola. New Essays, :z.008,13-36 (13) M. LAUREYS, The Reception of Giovanni Pico in the Low Countries, in: G. C. GARFAGNINI (ed.), Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (Convegno internazionale di studi, Mirandola 1994), 1997, 625-640 (14) L QUAQUARELLI/ Z. ZANARDI,Pichiana. Bibliographia delle edizioni e degli studi, 2005 115) S. J. RABIN, Pico on Magic and Astrology, in: M. V. DOUGHERTY(ed.), Pico della Mirandola. New Essays, 2008, 152.-178 I16) M. SUDDUTH,Pico della Mirandola's Philosophy of Religion, in: M. V. DOUGHERTY(ed.), Pico della Mirandola. New Essays, 2008, 61-80. BEATEHINTZEN Piganiol, Andre French historian. Born Le Havre 17. 1. 1883, died Paris 23. 5. 1968. School and baccalaureat at Le Havre; 1903 entered Ecole normale superieure in Paris; 1906 agregation (teaching qualification) in history and geography; 1906-

491

l'IGHIUS,

1909 member of Ecole fran(aise de Rome; 1909-1919 schoolteacher in Alen~on, SaintQuentin and Chambery. 191 6 doctorate (doctorat-es-lettres) at Univ. of Paris; from 191 9 prof. of Roman history at Univ. of Strasbourg, from 192.8 at Sorbonne; 1942 prof. of civilisation romaine at College de France, Paris. Retired 1954. Corresponding member of the Akademien der Wissenschaften at Mainz (1951) and Munich (1952.); honorary doctorate from Univ. of Ghent ( 1 953).

CAREER

Rene • Cagnat, who introduced him to Latin epigraphy and interested him in Roman taxation policy (later the subject of his diss.). While here, P. forged what would be lifelong friendships with students of the sociologist Emile Durkheim, in particular Henri Hubert, Marcel Mauss and Henri Levy-Bruh!. At the renowned Ecole franfaise de Rome, whose director, the ecclesiastical historian Louis Duchesne, was a powerful influence on him, P. worked from 1906 to 1909 mostly in urban and provincial Roman archaeology. Returning to France, P. taught in schools, and also - already in 1914 - taught ancient history at the Univ. of Lille. After gaining his doctorate, he was appointed prof. of Roman history at the Univ. of Strasbourg in 19 19. There he made contact with Marc Bloch and Lucien Febvre, founders of the Annales school. P. crowned his career in 1942. by taking the chair at the College de France. AND

INFLUENCE

P. was one of the last universal historians in the field of Roman history, and commanded an unusually diverse range of skills and expertise across a very wide spectrum of classical studies. He worked on all periods of Roman history, although his particular interests lay in the early Roman Republic (diss. [ r]) and the late Empire (These complementaire (21) [5]; [7); (9). P. was both a generalist whose surveys of Roman history enjoyed lively reception [4); (61; [71, as well as a specialist who published careful individual studies of various subjects. He studied the epigraphy and archaeology of Gaul and the Roman West (e.g. the cadasters of Orange I8 I), as well as themes of economic, social and religious history [1]; [2.]; [3]. Much of his work is characterized by a structural historical approach, attesting to his close association with members of the Durkheim and Annales schools. P. was one of the leading French ancient historians of the 20th cent. His surveys of Roman his-

.....

VJNANDUS

tory have become dated and are largely obsolete. But his book on the Christian Roman Empire of Late Antiquity has (in its second edition revised by his student Andre ➔ Chastagnol) continues to be relevant (7 ), and some of his special studies have also remained useful. His prodigious output won P. much acclaim in France and abroad. He was elected to the Academie des inscriptions et he//es-lettres in 1945, and in 1950 he was made an Officier de la Legion d'honneur. LW: I 10. Vol. 1, 11-241. WRITINGS

P., who came from a wealthy background, studied humanities at the elite Ecole normale superieure in Paris. His lecturers there included

WORK

STEPHANUS

II I

Essai sur les ongmes de Rome (diss. Paris), 1916 (21 L'impot de capitation sous le BasEmpire Romain, 1916 131 Recherches sur les jeux romains. Notes d'archeologie et d'histoire religieuse, 1923 141 La conquete romaine, 192.7 lsl L'empereur Constantin, 1932. (61 Histoire de Rome, 1939 17I L'empire chretien (325-395), 1947 (•1972. rev. A. CHASTAGNOL) 181 Les documents cadastraux de la colonie romaine d'Orange, 1962. 191 Le sac de Rome, 1964. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

1101 R. CHEVALLIER(ed.), Melanges d'archeologie et d'histoire offerts Andre Piganiol, 3 vols., 1966 [ 11 I J. HEURGON, Notice sur la vie et les travaux d'Andre Piganiol, in: CRAI 114, 1970, 572.-584. ANDREASGUTSFELD

a

Pighius, Stcphanus Vinandus

Pighe/Pigge, Steven Wynants/Winand, Latin Piggius; Dutch Humanist and antiquarian. Born 1520 in Kampen, died Xanten 16.10.1604. Studied ancient languages at Leuven, doctorate there. 1547-1555 antiquarian studies in Italy. Secretary to Cardinal Marcello Cervini; from 15 5 5 at Brussels, in the service of Cardinal Antoine Perrenot de Granvelle. 1571-1575 travelling companion of the Crown Prince of Kleve (Cleves), visiting Vienna and Rome. Following the death of the Prince ( 1575) went to Xanten as a canon. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

P. studied classical languages at Leuven, where he also took his doctorate. He spent the years 154 7-155 5 in Italy, where he devoted himself with great enthusiasm to ancient remains, and recorded buildings and inscriptions in sketches and copies. Cardinal Marcello Cervini (the future Pope Marcellus II) took him into his service and suggested the idea of the inscription collection. After his death in 15 5 5, P. returned to Brussels as secretary and librarian to the powerful cardinal and minister Granvelle. In 1564, when King Philip II recalled Granvelle, who was increasingly detested in the Netherlands, P. remained in Brussels and devoted himself to his studies. In

PIGHIUS,

STEPHANUS

VINANOUS

1 571, in the employ of Wilhelm, Duke of JulichKleve-Berg, P. travelled to Italy, accompanying Crown Prince Karl Friedrich. During a three-year stay in Vienna he befriended Justus ➔ Lipsius. P. spent his final years as a canon in the diocese of Xanten. P.' collection of ancient inscriptions and drawings of ancient buildings and works of art has survived in manuscript (Cod. Pighianus, Berlin, MS Latin fol. 61 ). At Brussels, he produced an edition of Valerius Maximus (1567); here too appeared his short monographs Mythologiae ei~ ta~ropa~ [1] (on an ancient silver vessel in which P. wrongly believed to have detected symbols of the seasons) and Themis dea [2] (on an ancient herm). Both are indebted to the concept of the theologia prisca, which acknowledge Christian soteriological truth in the pagan texts, and P. also transposed this allegorical approach to the iconography of ancient works of art. His time with the Crown Prince of Cleves bore literary fruit in the Hercules Prodicius [3] (1587), an account of his life and their journey together; Franciscus Schottus later revised it into a highly popular travelogue, especially on the ancient sites of Italy. At Xanten, P. completed the Annales magistratuum Romanorum [4], which he had begun in Rome. It is a history of the city based on the Fasti Capitolini.

andus Pighius, in: M. H. CRAWFORD (ed.), Antonio Agustin between Renaissance and Counter-Reform. 1993, 189-110.

DOROTHEE GALL

Pigorini, Luigi Italian prehistorian. Born Fontanellato died Padua 1.4.1925. 1865 (Parma), 10.1.1842, laurea in political and governmental science at Parma. 1 867 director of the ArchaeologiGenerale cal Museum there. 1875 Direzione dei Musei e degli Scavi d'Antichita de/ Regno a Roma at the Ministry of Education (Ministro de/la Pubblica lstruzione). 1876 founder-director of the Museo Preistorico Etnografico di Roma; 1877 prof. of prehistory there. Retired 19 I 7. 1912 Senator of the Kingdom of Italy. Honorary doctorate from Univ. of Heidelberg. CAREER,

WORKS

AND

INFLUENCE

P.'s main interest at first was numismatics. and he gained his first experience in prehistory with Bartolomeo Gastaldi, whom he met in 1860 at Parma. Together with older scholars. such as Pellegrino Strobel and Gaetano Chierici. P. began to collect and study large quantities of find materials from the Po Valley Terramare, trapezoidal Bronze Age settlements secured with earthworks and ditches [ 1 ]. This work rapidly earned him recognition across Europe. After he WRITINGS was appointed director of the Archaeological [1] Mythologiarum ei~ ta~ropa~ vel in anni parMuseum of Parma, his skilful publicity work and tes commentarius primus, Leuven/Antwerp 1568 many international contacts made him one of the [2.] Themis dea, seu de lege divina. Item mythologia ejusdem in quatuor anni partes, ab auctore organizers and key figures of the Fifth Internarecognita, Antwerp 1568 (reiss. 1990) [3) Hercutional Congress for Anthropology and Archaeolles Prodicius seu principis iuventutis vita et pereogy at Bologna ( 1871 ). With Strobel and Chierici, grinatio. Historia principis adolescentis institutrix, he founded the first prehistory journal in Italy & antiquitatum, rerumque scitu dignarum variein 1875, the Bullettino di Paletnologia ltaliana, tate non minus utilis quam iucunda, Antwerp 1587 for which he wrote countless short articles. That [4] Annales magistratuum Romanorum, 3 vols., same year, he received permission to found the Antwerp 1599-1615 (vols. 2. and 3 posthumous Museo Preistorico Etnografico di Roma; it bears ed. A. ScHOTI, 1615). his name today [7]. In 1877, he was appointed to the newly-founded chair of prehistory at the SECONDARY LITERATURE [5] R. HocHE, Pighius, Stephan Vinandus, in: ADB Univ. of Rome. From then until his death, P. 16, 1888, ll.6-ll.7 [6I J. H. joNGKEES,Stephanus remained a leading figure in Italian prehistoric Winandus Pighius Campensis, in: Mededelingen van studies, thanks to his exemplary museum conhet Nederlands Historisch Instituut te Rome 8, 1954, cept and his untiring scholarly activity. ll.0-185 [7] J. H. joNGKEEs, De brieven van SteP.'s best-known work is his monograph on the phanus Pighius, in: Bijdragen voor de Geschiedenis Terramare of Castellazzo di Fontanellato (2.). In l8I M. LAUder Nederlanden 16, 1961, u8-143 REYS,Lipsius and Pighius. The Changing Face of several works, he examined the history of prehistoric archaeology in Italy [3]; (4). However, his Humanist Scholarship, in: Filologie en literatuurgeschiedenis 68, 1998, 319-344 19IM. LAUREYs, most important contribution was the vast quantity of data he provided for Wolfgang ___.Helbig's Stephanus Pighius' Hercules Prodicius, in: Myricae. Essays on Neo-Latin Literature in Memory of Jozef book Die ltaliker in der Poebene (1879), which ljsewijn (Supplementa Humanistica Lovanensia 16), describes a sequence of migrations from Central 1000, 169-301 [10] T. MoMMSEN, Die Sammand Eastern Europe to northern and later cenlung von Briefen von und an Pighius, in: Monatstral Italy in the late Neolithic and through the berichte der Koniglich Preussischen Akademie Bronze Age. der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1866, 419-4 36 LW: (5. 57-70); (8). [ 1 I] H. WREDE,Die Them is Dea des Stephan us Vin-

PIRANESI, GIAMBATTISTA AND FRANCESCO

493 E: Padua, Cultural i.

Univ.,

Dipartimento

dei

Beni

WRITINGS

[1] Die Terramara-Lager der Emilia. Erster Bericht (with P. STROBEL),in: Mitteilungen der Antiquarischen Gesellschaft in Zurich 14, 1863, 131-140 [.2] La terramara di Castellazzo di Fontanellato nella provincia di Parma, in: Monumenti antichi [31 (ed.) Bihliogradei Lincei 1, 1869, 121-154 fia paletnologica italiana dal 1850 al 1871, 1871 [4] Preistoria, in: Cinquanta anni di storia italiana. 1860-1910, Vol. 2, 1911, 1-72. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

[5) Un maestro di scienza e d'italianita. In onore 1925 (6) Le terredi Luigi Pigorini (1842-1925), mare si scavano per concimare i prati (exh. cat.), 1994 [7] M. G. LERARJO, II Museo Luigi Pigorini. Dalle raccolte etnografiche al mito di nazione, 2005 (8) C. MARCHESEITJ,Commemorazione di Luigi Pigorini, in: Archeografo triestino ser. 3, 12, [9) R. PERONI, Preistoria e Proto1925, 326-352 storia. La vicenda degli srudi in Italia, in: M. ANGLE et al. (ed.), Le vie delta preistoria, 1992, 9-70. ALESSANDRO GUIDI

Pilato, Leonzio

Leontinus/Leo Pilatus; Italian Humanist and translator. Date of birth unknown; died on a sea voyage to Venice 13 66. 1341 in Naples, c. 13 501358 on Crete. Translating Homer from 1358. 1360-136.2 prof. of Greek at Florence. Travelled to Constantinople 1363. LIFE

AND

WORKS

P. grew up in Calabria, where a few pockets of the Greek language had survived, but he described himself as a Greek of Thessaly. His teacher was Barlaam of Calabria. He spent some time at Naples around 1341, where he had contact with Paolo da Perugia, librarian to Robert of Anjou, King of Naples. He seems to have spent several years living on Crete from around 13 50, probably working as a teacher and improving his Greek. In 13 5 8, after returning to Italy, P. met ► Petrarch in Padua, and spent the next few years fulfilling Petrarch's request to him to translate Homer's Iliad and Odyssey into Latin (Petrarch owned a Greek manuscript, but he did not know Greek and so could not read it) (31. In 1360, P. was appointed on the initiative of Petrarch and Giovanni -+ Boccaccio to the newly founded chair of Greek at the Univ. of Florence, holding the post for two years. During this time, he also translated Justinian's Digest and Euripides' Hecabe into Latin. However, the gruff and physically uncultivated P. could not thrive in Florence for long, and he also lost the support of Petrarch. He left for Constantinople in 136 3, where he

searched for manuscripts as yet unknown in the West and was able to acquire some of Sophocles and Euripides, among others. On the return voyage, he was killed by a lightning strike aboard ship, just before putting into Venice. With his knowledge of Greek, P. had the good fortune to be one step ahead of most of his contemporaries who were interested in Humanist learning in Italy. He thus acted as a conduit for Greek literature, and Petrarch and Boccaccio in particular gladly made use of him. Boccaccio refers repeatedly to him in his mythological compendium, the Genealogia deorum gentilium libri. P.'s translation of Homer, while unassumingly adopting the strategy of an interlinear gloss, paved the way for later translations of the 15th cent. (e.g. by Carlo Marsuppini and Angelo --► Poliziano).

II JA. FYRJGOS,Leonzio Pilato e ii fondamento bizantino del preumanesimo italiano, in: R. MAISANO/ A. ROLLO (ed.), Manuele Crisolona e ii ritorno de] greco in Occidente, 2002, 19-30 [2] M. PADE, Leonzio Pilato e Boccaccio. Le fonti del De montibus e la cultura greco-latina di Leonzio, in: M. FEo et al. (ed.), Petrarca e ii mondo greco (Quaderni petrarcheschi 12), 2007, 257-276 (1 1979) [3 I A. PERTUSI,Leonzio Pilato fra Petrarca e Boccaccio, 1964 (•1979). DOROTHEEGALL Piranesi, Giambattista and Francesco GIAMBATTISTA

PIRANESI

Italian engraver, etcher, architect and graphic artist. Born Magliano (Venice) 10. 4. 1720, died Rome 11. 9. 1778. From 1740 studying at Rome; from 1743 active in Venice, from 1745 in Rome. CAREER

P. was trained at Venice as a painter (and painter of theatrical sets) by the Valeriani brothers and his uncle Matteo Lucchese. He went to Rome in 1740 with a Venetian mission, and devoted himself while there to the study of Roman architecture (first publication already 1743 [1]). Giuseppe Vasi introduced P. to the engraving of vedute, but financial circumstances forced P. to leave Rome in 1743, and he went to work in the Venice workshop of Giovanni Battista Tiepolo. Contacts with the German engraver and publisher Joseph Wagner enabled him to return to Rome in 1745, where P. set up a workshop on the Corso, initially as agent and salesman for Wagner. P. was also working for other publishers, enjoying increasing artistic and commercial success and attracting wealthy sponsors, notably Lord Charlemont (with whom he broke in the course of the publication of his

PIRANESI,

GIAMBATTISTA

AND

Antichita Romane (8)). In 1757, P. was elected a member of the Society of Dilettanti. From 176 I, he published his own works, and later even had his own print shop. He travelled widely, visiting Etruria, excavation sites in Latium and the new Bourbon excavations at Pompeii, Herculaneum and Paestum. WORK

AND INFLUENCE

AS ARCHAEOLOGIST

By means of his Carceri [4) and Vedute di Roma in particular, works which appeared from 1747 onwards and ultimately expanded to form a high-quality series of single sheet prints, mostly in landscape format, P. manipulated contemporary Roman tourism and made artistic and commercial use of the serial manufacturing process like no other. P.'s importance as an artist has often been celebrated (27); (28); (31); [32), but his importance as an archaeologist has only begun to be discussed in recent decades (29). With his Antichita romane [7), P. left the veduta business behind him and pursued the idea of a 'truthful' depiction of Roman antiquities (27. 166-179); [32. 48-69). The 252 illustrations (some with substantial commentaries), published in four volumes, often combine different modes of depiction - there are front views, plans or ground plans, top views, reconstructions, sections and pictures of architectural, structural and sculptural details - in an illustrative syntax familiar from present-day architectural publications but to which the mid-18th cent. was unaccustomed. However, it is difficult to say how far P. was a pioneer in this regard. There are already important rudiments of this style of portrayal found in the early 1 8th cent. in the work of Francesco • Bianchini [30. 107-133), which would certainly take the shine off P.'s position as a breaker of new ground. P. explored above all the technical aspects of Roman architecture, especially architectural engineering. But his reconstructions, especially those in the fourth volume of the Seine Antichita romane (e.g. the hypothetical section through the Ponte Sant' Angelo) and the exaggeration of the details of the paving of the via Appia in the third, had increasingly little to do with ancient structural realities, and came more and more to take on the guise of an art form in their own right, entering the realms of architectural fantasy. It may well be, therefore, that the influence of P. on late 1 8th-cent. and early 19thcent. archaeology, which was increasingly seeing itself as a science, was less pronounced than has sometimes been assumed. ANTITHESIS

OF GREEKS

AND

494

FRANCESCO

ROMANS

The dispute over the question of how far ancient Roman culture should be seen as autonomous and how far dependent on a 'superior'

Greek culture escalated in the 17 50s with the growing knowledge of Greek architectural remains. The fires were stoked initially by MarcAntoine Laugier's Essay sur /'architecture ( I 7 5 3 ), then by Alan Ramsey's Dialogue of Taste ( I 7 5 5) and finally Julien-David LeRoy's Les ruines des plus beaux monuments de la Grece ( I 7 5 8 ). In this quarrel, P. was one of the most steadfast and active defenders of Rome [26. 259-266]. His 1761 treatise Della magnificenza ed architetin Latin tura de' Romani (it also appeared (9)) is to be understood as a polemic directed against LeRoy. In plates frequently occupying double pages and sometimes reaching I 20 cm in extent, P. not only conjured the supremacy of the Etruscans and Romans in architectural engineering, but even juxtaposed some illustrations from LeRoy's work with his own portrayals of Roman structural ornamentation to demonstrate the poverty of the Greek forms. P. also published other works in the context of this controversy ( I OJ; (II); ( 14); [ I 3). Pierre-Jean Mariette criticized P.'s standpoints in a 15-page letter published in the Gazette Litteraire de /'Europe of 4. 11. 1764. P. reacted to this scarcely a year later, with a highly ironic book in three parts 116); cf. (25]. As a Neoclassicism based on Greek models took general hold, P. found himself ultimately on the losing side in this battle, another possible reason why he was held in little regard in the fledgling archaeological sciences, as they coalesced around 1 800. FRANCESCO

P!RANESI

As Giambattista's eldest son, Francesco P. (born Rome c. 1758, died Paris 23. I. I810) took over his studio on his death, continued his work and became his executor and heir. In this role, he quickly proved himself a master of the evaluation, systematization and commercial exploitation of the estate (e.g. adding a further two volumes to the Antichita romane, publishing the Teatro di Ercolano ( 19) from existing drafts with his own additions and finally, in the Antiquites de la Grande Grece [24], combining his father's work with his own in three large folios). He had accompanied his father and worked with him since 1776. Even in the year of his death, Francesco was still at work, completing and publishing the Paestum vedute [17). Francesco P. is especially notable in archaeological history for his publication of overview plans of contemporary excavations. His 1781 plan of Hadrian's Villa is based on his father's drafts. Three complementary overview plans of Pompeii (versions of 1785, 1788 and 1792 (29]) were based on thorough, personal inspection. In their style of portrayal, these follow Giambattista's plan of Rome probably originally published in

PIRCKHEIMER, WILLIBALD

495 1774 [2.7. 2.97 f.), which Francesco P. appended to the bound copies of the Vedute di Roma from 1780. WRITINGS

rI I

Prima parte di architetture e prospettive, 1743 [2) Alcune vedute di archi trionfali, ed altri monumenti inalzati da parte de quali si veggono in Roma, e pane per l'ltalia, 1748 131 Antichita romane de' tempi della repuhhlica e de' primi imperatori, 1748 I4) Carceri, 1750 (English: The Prisons, 197.3) f5 I Opere varie di architettura, prospettiva, groteschi, antichita, 4 vols., 1750 f6) Trofei Ottaviano Augusto innalzati per la vittoria ad Actium e conquista dell'Egitto con varii altri ornamenti diligentemente ricavati dagli avanzi piu preziosi delle fahbriche antiche di Roma utili a pittori, scultori ed architetti, 1753 (7) Le antichita romane, 1756 181 Lettere di giustificatione scritte a Milord Charlemont e a di lui agenti in Roma, 1757 (9) De Romanorum magnificentia et architectura, 1761 I 101 Le rovine del castcllo dell' Acqua Giulia situato in Roma presso S. Eusehio e falsamente detto dell' Acqua Marcia colla dichiarazione di uno de' celehri passi del comentario frontiniano e sposizione della maniera con cui gli antichi romani distrihuivan le acque per uso della citta, 1761 [II] Campus Marti us antiquae urhis, 1762. (12) Lapides Capitolini sive fasti consulares triumphalesque Romanorum ah urhe condita usque ad Tiberium Caesarem, 1762. I 13] Antichita d' Albano e di Castel Gandolfo, 1764 I14] Antichita di Cora, 1764 I 15 I Della introduzione e del progresso delle helle arti in Europa ne' tempi antichi, 176 5 I16] Osservazioni ... sopra la lettre de Monsieur Mariette aux auteurs de la Gazette Litteraire de !'Europe, 1765 (English: Ohservations on the Letter of Monsieur Mariette, trans. C. BEAMISH and D. BRrrr, 2.002.) I17) Differentes vues de quelques restes de trois grands edifices qui subsistent encore dans le milieu de l'ancienne ville de Pesto autrement Possidonia qui est situee dans la Lucanie, 1778 118] Raccolta de' tempi antichi, prima parte, che comprende i tempi di Vesta madre, ossia della Terra, e della Sibilia, amhedue in Tivoli, e dell'Onore, e della Virtu fuori di Porta Capena, ed. F. PIRANESI, 1780 f 19) II teatro d'Ercolano, ed. F. PtRANESI, 1783 f20) Monumenti degli Scipioni, ed. F. PtRANESI, 1785 121) Choix des meilleurs statues antiques, ed. F. Pt RANESI, 1786 (22] Raccolta de' tempi antichi, seconda parte, che contiene ii celebre Panteon, ed. F. PIRANESI, 1790 [23) Choix de costumes civils et militaires des peuples de l'antiquite, leurs instrumens de musique, leurs meubles, et les decorations interieures de leurs maisons, d'apres les monumens antiques, 2. vols., 1798 (with N. X. WILLEMIN) [24] Antiquites de la Grande Grece, aujourd'hui royaume de Naples, 1807 [25J The Polemical Works (Rome 1757, 1761, 1765, 1769), ed. and intro. J. WtLTONELY, 1972. SECONDARY LITERATURE [26) M. BAUMGARTNER, Griechen-Romer-Antithese, in: DNP 14, 2.000, 2.53-2.66 [27[ C. HOrER (ed.),

Giovanni Battista Piranesi. Die poetische Wahrheit (exh. cat.), 1999 12.81C. HOPER/ S. GROTZ (ed.), Giovanni Battista, Laura, Francesco und Pietro Piranesi. Samtliche Radierungen, 2.003 129] V. KocKEL, Archaologie und Politik. Francesco Piranesi und seine drei Pompeji-Plane, in: Rivista di Studi Pompei r 1, 2.000, 33-46 [30] V. KoKKEL/ B. SoELCH (ed.), Francesco Bianchini (1662.172.9) und die europaische gelehrte Welt um 1700, 2.005 I31] P. LAMERS-ScHOTZE, Giovanni Battista Giovanni BatPiranesi, 2.006 [32) J. W1LTON-ELY, tista Piranesi, I 978. CHRISTOPHHOCKER Pirckheimer,

Willibald

German Humanist. Born Eichstiitt 5. 12. 14 70, died Nuremberg 22. 12. 1530. Initial tuition from his father, the Nuremberg patrician Johann P.; 1487 courtly and military training at the court of the Bishop of Eichstiitt, Wilhelm von Reichenau. 1488/89-1495 studied law in Padua and Pavia, Greek at Padua with Laurentius Camers. 1496-1502 and 1505-1523, town councillor (Ratsherr) of the Free Imperial City of Nuremberg and participant in many embassies. 1499 Captain (Hauptmann) of the contingent of Nuremberg troops in the Swabian War of Maximilian I. Maximilian appointed him Imperial Councillor (Kaiserlicher Rat) in 1 506, an appointment confirmed in 1526 by his successor, Karl V. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

At his father's insistence, P.'s studies in Italy concentrated on law, and he went on to embark on a municipal career at Nuremberg l28j. Although his Humanist predilections soon emerged in his educational policies (support for the Nuremberg Poetenschule 1496-1 509; reform of the Lateinschulen of St. Lorenz and St. Sebald 1509), his own studies, especially his self-taught exploration of Greek, only came to the fore after his father's death in 1502. He only began publishing ten years later, but he now already began forging relationships with outstanding Humanist figures. Besides the Nuremberg Circle (including Hartmann Schedel), he also established contact with Conrad + Celtis, Johannes ► Reuchlin and ► Erasmus of Rotterdam in particular. He also enjoyed the close friendship and collaboration (e.g. Trionfo and Ehrenpforte for Maximilian I) of Albrecht Diirer, on whose death he wrote an elegy 115. Vol. 7, 30 f.]. As a strident advocate of Humanism in Germany, P. unambiguously took sides against late scholasticism in numerous conflicts, and he often used the forewords to his translations for this purpose. This is apparent both in his partisanship during the Reuchlin dispute (e.g. in the Epistola apologetica [2.1) and in the beginnings

......

PIRCKHEIMER, WILLIBALD of the Reformation (20]. Even his contemporaries guessed that he was the author of the pseudonymous Eccius dedolatus (3 ), a satirical polemic in the vein of Lucian and Aristophanes against Luther's opponent Johannes Eck, in the style of the 'Letters of Obscure Men' (Epistolae obscurorum virorum); it earned P. a Papal ban [16]. For all his early sympathy for the Reformation, however, P. turned against it, especially in the light of the radical Reformatory agitation at Nuremberg (cf. his polemic against Johannes Oekolampadius (9 )). P. attained outstanding significance among German Humanists by his translations and editions of Greek works, which also influenced his own literary writings. His choice of works for translation and editing betrays his interest in moral didacticism. He translated several of 1523) and diaPlutarch's Moralia (1513-1518, logues of Lucian (1517-1520) [4); (5), which also inspired his paradoxical encomium Lob der Gicht ('In Praise of Gout') [6], Aristophanes' Plutus (unpublished) and various Pseudo-Platonic dialogues and Hora polio's Hieroglyphica ( 151 4, unpublished). He produced the first edition and translation of Theophrastus' Characters in 152 7 (10]. In his last years, he also translated Ptolemy (8) - inspiring him to collect and identify German geographical names [11] - and Xenophon (13) and the speeches of Gregory of Nazianzus [12). In 15 29, P. also supported Gregor Haloander's edition of the Corpus iuris civilis. WRITINGS

[ 1) Beatissimi Parris Nili episcopi ... Sententiae morales (Latin trans.), Nuremberg 1516 (2) Luciani

Piscator, seu Reviviscentes (edition; Latin trans.); with: Epistola Apologetica, Nuremberg 1,517 (3) Eccius dedolatus, (published under pseudonym), Erfurt 152.0 (4) Luciani Fugitivi (Latin trans.), Nuremberg 152.0 Is) Luciani Rhetor (Latin trans.), Hagenau 152.0 (6) Apologia seu podagrae laus, Nuremberg 152.2 (7) Dialogi Platonis (Latin trans.), Nuremberg 152.3 (8) Claudii Ptolemaei Geographicae enarrationis libri octo (Latin trans. with comm.), Strasbourg; also Nuremberg 1 5:z.5 (9) De vera Christi came ... ad Joan. Oecolampadium responsio I et :z.,Nuremberg 1 5:z.7 [10) Theophrasti Characteres (edition with Latin trans. and comm.), Nuremberg 152.7 (11) Germaniae ex variis scriptoribus perbrevis explicatio, Nuremberg 1530 [u) Gregorii Nazianzeni Orationes XXX (Latin trans.), Basel 1531 [13) Xenophon, Grecarum rerum libri septem (Latin trans.), Nuremberg 1532. (14) Opera politica, historica, philologica et epistolica, ed. M. GoLDAST,Frankfurt a. M. 1610 (reiss. 1969) (15) Briefwechsel: vols. 1-2., ed. E. REICKE;Vol. 3, ed. D. WUTTKE; vols. 4-7, ed. H. SCHEIBLE, 1940-2.009 [16) Eckius dedolatus (Latin/German), ed. N. HoLZBERG, 1983 (17) Der Schweizerkrieg/ De bello Suitensi sive Elvetico (Latin/German), ed.

F. WILLE, 1998 (18) 'Apologia seu podagrae Ein Kommentar, ed. U. WINTER, 2.002.. SECONDARY

laus'.

LITERATURE

[ 19) E. BERNSTEIN,Willi bald

Pirckheimer und Ulrich von Hutten. Stationen einer humanistischen Freundschaft, in: S. FOSSEL (ed.), Ulrich von Hutten. 1488-1988, 1989, 11-36 [20] G. DORNER. Reuchlins Mann in Ni.imberg. Willibald Pirckheimer und seine Epistola apologetica, in: W. KOHLMANN(ed.), Reuchlins Freunde und Gegner. Kommunikative Konstellationen eines frilhneuzeitlichen Medienereignisses, 2.01 o, 2.I 3-240 (21) B. EBNETH,Pirckheimer, Willibald, in: NDB 2.0, 2.001, 475-476 [22) F. FUCHS (ed.), Die Pirckheimer. Humanismus in einer Nurnberger Patrizierfamilie, 2.006 [2.3] K. B. GLOCKet al. (ed.), Willibald Pirckheimer 14 70'1970. Dokumenre - Studicn Perspektiven (exh. cat.), 1970 (24) N. HOLZBERG, Willibald Pirckheimer. Griechischer Humanismus in Deutschland, 1981 [2.5) N. HoLZBERG, \X/illibald Pirckheimer, in: S. FOssEL (ed.), Deutsche Dichter der fri.ihen Neuzeit (1450-1600). 1hr Leben und Werk, 1993, 2.58-2.69 (2.6) B. KONNEKER. Willibald Pirckheimer, in: P. G. BIETENHOLZ / T. B. DEUTSCHER (ed.), Contemporaries of Erasmus, [27] H. RuPPICH, Die dcutVol. 3, 1987, 90-94 sche Literatur vom spaten Mittelalter bis zum Barock (1370-1570), Vol. 1: Das ausgchende Mittelalter, Humanismus und Renaissance, •1994 ( 1 1970) (2.8) H. SCHEIBLE,Willibald Pirckheimer als praktizierender Jurist, in: F. FucHs (ed.), Medizin, Jurisprudenz und Humanismus in Niirnberg um 1500, 2.010, 339-368. ROSWITHA

SIMONS

Plethon, George Gemistos Also Pletho, Georgios Gcmistios. Greek philosopher. Born Georgios Gemistos, Constantinople, c. 1360, died Mistra 26. 6. 1452. According to the testimony of his enemy, Gennadios II Scholarios, he was the pupil of a Jewish scholar named Introduced Elisaios around 13 80 at Adrianople. to Zoroastrianism. Around 1390, he was probably a pupil of the translator of Thomas Aquinas and Catholic convert Demetrius Cyclones. Moved to Mistra some time between 1407 and 1414. 1438/39 member of the Byzantine delegation to the Council of Ferrara-Florence. During his stay in Italy, he adopted the archaizing synonym P. (ITM0rov) for Plato. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

Neoplatonist philosopher and perhaps the most famous figure of late Byzantine intellectual life (6. 24 f.], P. (with Erasmian pronunciation the name evokes that of Plato) wrote not just works of philosophy but also treatises on music, as well as rhetoric and grammar [12.. XVI-XIX], a History of Islam (c. 1400), an Exhortation to the Despot Theodore (between 1407 and 1416),

POEBEL, ARNO

497

the Address to the Emperor Manuel (1418) and the Summary of the Doctrines of Zoroaster and Plato (c. 1450). His Laws (after 1440) I 12. 3223 56], based on Plato's Laws, are preserved only in fragments, because his enemy Gennadios II Scholarios had the work burned [1 ]. P. was a "political philosopher" 13• 755], who in the light of the decline of the Byzantine Empire and the growing power of Islam developed a theory of state to revive the true power of Byzantine civilization [3 ]. His philosophy, which envisaged a state consisting of three classes, and his detachment from Christianity and advocacy of polytheism, triggered violent theological controversies [8]; [12]. In 1438/39, P. took part in the Council of Ferrara-Florence as part of the delegation of Emperor John VIII Palaeologus, and he did so as a critic of the unification of the Churches, with Basilios . • Bessarion, Isidore II Scholarios and Marcus of Kiev, Gennadios Eugenicus. During the Council, P. sought out the company of Humanists rather than clerics, and from these contacts there emerged his 1439 work asserting the primacy of Plato, De differentiis [2], which provoked counterblasts from the Aristotelians Gennadios II Scholarios and the Aristotle translator Theodore • Gazes I 12. 191-321]. A report by Marsilio ... Ficino's demonstrates P.'s influence on the Italian Humanists: it was through the influence of P., he writes, that Cosimo de' Medici set up the Platonic Academy in Florence around 1460 I 5 I; I7 J.

Poebel, Arno German ancient Near Eastern scholar and Sumerologist. Born Eisenach 26. 1. 1881, died Chicago 3. 3. 1958. 1900-1904 studied theology and classical philology at Heidelberg, Marburg, Zurich and Jena; 1905/06 scholarship to Univ. Museum in Philadelphia. 1906 doctorate from Philadelphia, 1910 habil. at Breslau. 1911-1913 taught in Baltimore at Johns Hopkins Univ. 1919 prof. ext. in Rostock, 1925 prof. ord. there. From 192.8 research associate at Oriental Institute in Chicago, 1930-1946 prof. of Assyriology and Sumerology there.

WORK AND INFLUENCE While on a scholarship in 1905/6, P. had his first experience of working with Sumerian legal documents in the Univ. Museum of Philadelphia. The resultant major publication [ 1], which included his dissertation, already displayed the fields of what would be his greatest scholarly achievements: the copying of cuneiform texts, the philologically-based discussion of Sumerian language and idiom and the minute reconstruction of the early history of Mesopotamia (cf. [6] ). The copies of clay tablets with inscriptions, chronicles and lexical lists, made by P. in Philadelphia in 1912-1914 [2) are unsurpassed masterpieces of extraordinary precision. The same meticulousness is apparent in the philological analyses of texts and grammatical studies of Sumerian (which he had taught himself) that he WRITINGS produced in connection with these copies and [ 1) Plethon, Traite des lois, ed. c. ALEXANDRE, over the ensuing years. With his magnum opus, trans. A. PELLISIER,i-858 (reiss. 1966) [2J Le 'De the first grammar of Sumerian [3 ), published in differentiis' de Plethon d'apres l'autographe de la 1923, P. founded the discipline of Sumerology. Marcienne, ed. B. LAGARDE,in: Byzantinion 43, His later, more detailed studies of the historical 1973, 321-343. phonology of Sumerian (4] in particular still enjoy reception today, and his Sumerian grammar was SECONDARY LITERATURE translated into English as recently as 2005. From [3) H.-G. BECK, Kirche und theologische Lite1933 to 1946, after the death of Edward Chiera, ratur im byzantinischen Reich, 1959, 754-755 P. was editor of the Chicago Assyrian Diction(4) W. BLUM,Georgios Gemistos Plethon. Politik, Philosophie und Rhetorik im spatbyzantinischen ary (CAD), and therefore also began to work on grammatical and phraseological aspects of i:~88 Is) A. FIELD,The OriReich (1355-1452), gins of the Platonic Academy of Florence, 1988 Akkadian [5]. Among his Sumerology students, [6) H. HUNGER,Die ltochsprachliche profane Lite- Samuel N. • Kramer and Thorkild -• Jacobsen ratur der Byzantiner, Vol. 1, 1978 (7) P. 0. KR1- were outstanding figures in the development of STELLER,Die platonische Akademie von Florenz, in: the discipline. P. 0. KRISTELLER,H umanismus und Renaissance, Vol. 2.: Philosophie, Bildung und Kunst, 1976, WRITINGS 101-114 [8) F. MASSA!,Plethon et le platonisme (1) Babylonian Legal and Business Documents de Mistra, 1953 [9) J. M0NFASANI,Platonic Pagafrom the Time of the First Dynasty of Babylon, nism in the Fifteenth Century, in: M. A. di CESARE Chiefly from Nippur (edition), 1909 (2) Histori(ed.), Reconsidering tlte Renaissance, 1992, 45-61 cal and Grammatical Texts (edition) (Publications (10] F. SCHULTZE, Georgios Gemistos Plethon of the Babylonian Section, Univ. of Pennsylvania und seine reformatorischen Bestrebungen, 2 vols., Museum), 1914 (3) Grundzi.ige der sumerischen 1874 (11] G. WEISS, Plethon, in: LMA 7, 1999, Grammatik, 1923 [4] The Sumerian Prefix Forms 19-2.0 [12] C. M. Woo0HOUSE, George Gemistos e- and i- in the Time of the Earlier Princes of Plethon. The Last of che Hellenes, 1986. Lagas, 19 3 r Is] Studies in Akkadian Grammar, FOTEINIK0LOV0U

POEBEL,

ARNO

1939 (6] The Second Dynasty of lsin According to a New King-List Tablet, 1955. SECONDARY LITERATURE (7) D. 0. EDZARD, Poebel, Arno, 593

(8) E.

1959-1960,

WEIDNER,

in: RLA 10, 2.004, Arno Poebel, in: AfO 19,

2.64-2.65. WALTHER SALLABERGER

Poggio Bracciolini, Gian Francesco Poggius, Johannes Franciscus (Florentinus). Italian Humanist. Born Terranuova (Arno Valley) 11. 2. 13 80, died Florence 30. 10. 14 ~9From 1397, studying law at Florence, graduating as a notary in 1402. In Papal service from 1403. 1414-1418 participant in the Council of Ko~stanz before spending the years 1418-1423 m Engl;nd. 1423-1453 secretary to Popes Martin V, Eugene IV and Nicholas V at Rome. 14531458 Chancellor of Florence. BIOGRAPHY

AND

CAREER

While studying law, P. met Coluccio • Salutati, and worked for him as a copyist. It was at his recommendation that P. was taken into Papal service in 1403. While working for the Pope, he also copied a volume of writings of Cicero for Salutati. Wide-ranging travels exploring libraries in his youth brought him many discoveries of manuscripts (13); (9]. In 1416 at St. Gallen,_ he made the first discovery of complete manuscnpts of Quintilian's Institutiones oratoriae and Valerius Flaccus' Argonautica, as well as nine speeches of Cicero. In Fulda in 1417 he found the history of Ammianus Marcellinus and Lucretius' De rerum natura. He discovered Statius' Silvae, Silius Italicus' Punica and Columella's De re rustica at Cologne. In 1418, after the Council of Konstanz, he accompanied Henry Beaufort, Bishop of Winchester, to England, but he felt culturally isolated there and returned to Italy 1423, where he worked from that year until 1453 as secretary to successive Popes. In 1453, P. became Chancellor of Florence, but soon became disenchanted. When his rule already came in for severe criticism in 1456 [14. 288 ff.] - and after failing in his attempts to return to the Roman Curia - he retired from public life. He was buried in Florence, in the church of Santa Croce. His tomb has been lost, but is said to have been located behind the chancel [14. 416]. There were 14 illegitimate children from his relationship with Lucia Panelli, and six legitimate offspring from his 1436 marriage to the 18-year-old Selvaggia dei Buondelmonti [ 14. 162 ff.]. His son Jacopo was executed in 1478 as a co-conspirator of the Pazzi against the Medici.

EPISTLES,

INVECTIVES

AND

ESSAYS

As the Humanists were wont to do, P. left a substantial corpus of correspondence [2. vols. 3 and 4]; (41; (14]. These letters, and especially his correspondence with Niccolo Niccoli [4. Vol. 1 ], give a clear impression of his literary interests. They record private matters, but also and especially the interest of the Humanist in the emergent culture. The correspondence with Niccoli from the years 1420-1429 sheds light on his intensive search for manuscripts, but also shows his quest to make use of the knowledge and wisdom he found in practical living. The mentality and self-confidence of the Humanist P. is brought into sharp relief by the sometimes bizarre and often personally hostile confrontation he pursued in the years around 1452 with Lorenzo ► Valla [16. 59 ff.]: Compared with the orthodox cadences of Valla's Latin inspired by Cicero and Quintilian, P.'s Latin is freer with grammar and vocabulary and echoes the linguistic development of vernacular Italian. This annoyed Valla. In his invectives, he has Guarino Veronese's cook exclaim that P. must have learned his Latin from a cook, because he speaks 'the !Latin] language of the kitchen' (vocabula culinaria). Full-blown single combat in invective ensued (P.'s texts [:z.. Vol. 1, 188-25 1 ); Valla 's invectives in his Opera omni':, Vol. 1, 1962., 252-366). P. had attacked Colucc10 ➔ Salutati in a similar way for his veneration of • Petrarch I 14. 32 ff.). This kind of invective suited the mindset of the Humanists. Scholarly competitiveness was the natural consequence of their shared ambitions of appropriating antiquity and communicating its messages to the contemporary world. Their ambitions made them rivals. In 1428, P. wrote the essay De avaritia, in which he condemns the greed of the clergy (text [2. Vol. 1, 2.-31); [61). In 1431/32, his De varietate fortunae depicts the transience of happiness and takes up the contemporary debate on Fortuna (text [2. Vol. 1, X); (5)). In 1436, on the occasion of his marriage, he wrote An seni sit uxor ducenda, weighing the advantages and disadvantages of wedlock 12. Vol. 1, XI]. In 1440, he wrote the dialogue De vera nobilitate (2. Vol. 1, 64-83], taking up a popular I 5th-cent. theme: Lorenzo, the elder brother of Cosimo de' Medici, tends to prefer the hereditary nobility because they are of more use to the state. Niccolo Niccoli, meanwhile, argues for the nobility of virtue and achievement (11. 89 ff.]. 1455 saw the appearance of the two books De miseria conditionis humanae, in which P.'s pessimism is on display (text [:z..Vol. 1, 88-13_1]~ on this cf. (14. 305 ff.]). P. and Matteo Palm1en are conversing by the bedside of Cosimo, who is

499

POGGIO

B RACC 10 LIN I, GIAN

FRANCESCO

icle of Filippo Villani was Bruni's Historiae Fiorentini populi, which ends in 1406 and therefore overlaps with P.'s work for the years from 13 50 (revealing comparison of the two versions in [ r 5. 131 ff.I). P. also made use of Flavio • Biondo's Historiarum Romanarum decades tres (written 1439-1453). He must have been very well acquainted with Biondo personally, since he was a Papal secretary from r 444. Unlike Bruni's comprehensive account, P.'s history focuses entirely on the confrontations between Florence and Milan. While Bruni takes his lead in terms of style and arrangement from Livy's annalistic approach, P. aligns himself more with Sallust's monographs. His view of history is also influenced by Sallust. Like Sallust, he sees the causes of decline as avaritia and praedae cupiditas ('avarice' and 'love of plunder'). ExterfACETIAE nal security brings internal disorder and discord Beginning in 1438, P. started wntmg spir- to states. The quest for power is, as the example ited short stories that he ultimately compiled in of the Visconti shows, the motivation for all political action. It is characteristic, and also Sal1452 under the title Facetiae [3J. In his closing remarks to the work, he explains how the stories lustian in influence, that P. uses moral categories came about. The Papal secretaries at the Vati- to evaluate all enterprises. Moral excursions are can would meet in a hall known as the Rugiale particularly prominent in the speeches. More to relax after the business of the day, and they markedly than in Bruni, the psychological reactook much delight in telling these kinds of amustions of P.'s political actors to external events ing and often frothily superficial stories. They are portrayed as being the driving force behind take an ironic and critical view of everyday life. action. In direct opposition to Bruni's view, P. Imbeciles are appointed cardinals by Popes; doc- sees the present in a negative light. His belief in tors are distinguished by conspicuous dimness of Fortuna (dominatio fortunae) is also more pronounced than Bruni's. Overall, P.'s view of hiswit. They feature foolish and clever Florentines, confessors singularly unsuited to the task, hypo- tory here is coloured by the pessimism of old age critical judges, notaries and farmers - in sum, that is also apparent in his other late works. This work, which has received little attention P. holds up a multifaceted mirror of criticism to contemporary society, in a work notable for from scholars, was not completed. However, P. left behind many developed treatises which his its prominent eroticism and occasional obscenity ( 14. 262 ff.). As the foreword explains, the son Jacopo incorporated into the text that he stories are deliberately written in Latin in order published in Italian translation in 1476 [r4. 310, to demonstrate that the language is also flexible 322) (cf. Fubini in (2. Vol. r, X]). The first ediand expressive when used in literature on every- tion (Venice 171 5) is by G. B. Recanati. day themes. ill with gout, discussing the unhappiness of individual men and entire nations that is apparent throughout history, and the true cause of which, as in Sallust, is avarice (avaritia). Such miseria is the fundamentum vitae nostrae, but through history it has also brought about the downfall of states (account espe..:ially in Book 2). Rome itself is called flagellum non so/um Italie, sed totius orbis - "scourge not only of Italy but of the whole world". The treatise, which should also be seen in the context of the fall of Constantinople ( r 4 53 ), displays much of the fundamental medieval mentality that Innocent III had presented in his 119 5 treatise of the same title. Nor can the optimistic sentiments espoused by Cosimo in this work do anything to assuage P. 's evident pessimism.

INFI.UENCE TRANSLATIONS

AND

HISTORICAL

WORKS

P. sometimes translated Greek texts into Latin, e.g. Xenophon's Cyropaedia, Diodorus Siculus' Bibliotheca historica 1-V. However, in the case of the Diodorus text, P. produced more of a paraphrase than an exact translation, apparently not trusting his Greek. In 1449, Pope Nicholas V therefore commissioned Pier Candido Decembrio to make corrections to it. During the last years of his life, inspired by the example of Leonardi Bruni, P. wrote the eight books of his Historiae Fiorentini populi (text (2. Vol. 2, 1-384), edited by Giovanni Battista Recanati under the title Historia Florentina in 1715). The work covers the period from 1350 to 14 5 5. Its main source apart from the Chron-

P. 's legacy was diverse. He was known for his beautiful and legible handwritings, and in the first decade of the 15th cent. he developed what became known as the 'Humanist script', a particularly refined form of the Lettera antica. His invectives give an impression of the kinds of controversies he engaged in with the learned world around him. He achieved instant influence, in spite of the criticism they attracted, for his Facetiae, in which he gave expression to his narrative powers learned from Giovanni -• Boccaccio. The Council of Trent placed the Facetiae on the Index and in 1545, Konrad Gessner denounced them as an opus turpissimum ("a most repulsive work") (14. 322]. Nonetheless, narrative literature across Europe drew on these texts, which

POGGIO BRACCIOLINI, GIAN FRANCESCO proved popular not least for their lasciviousness and their ribald humour. They circulated widely and their content was copied in many similar collections in France and Germany. P.'s renown as a discoverer of many manuscripts was already firmly established during his lifetime. Editions of large parts of his oeuvre appeared in 1497/98 at Lyon, in 1510 and 1513 at Strasbourg and in 1538 as Opera omnia in Basel (1). Over the centuries that followed, his scholarly influence would recede considerably behind that of his opponent Lorenzo -+ Valla who was highly regarded for his language and his critical philology. Vespasiano da Bisticci included him in his collection of biographies of great men, and placed him alongside Leonardo Bruni for his historiography. From a present-day perspective, it can be seen that P. was very free with the ancient tradition. His translations tended to be paraphrases and he did not merely conserve the Latin language in the style of Cicero and Quintilian like Valla, but also regarded it as a living mode of communication and incorporated influences of the vernacular in it. His attitude to antiquity was not that of a conservative archivist. Rather, he saw it as a way of life that should be implemented in the present. His many letters show P. to have been a highly erudite scholar who was interested in culture and politics but who, as he grew older, fell into resignation. The observation he makes to Niccolo --+ Niccoli in a letter of 21. 2. 1421 is significant: "Always putting together wood, stones and cement may seem an exceedingly stupid thing to do if one builds nothing from them" (Nam congregare semper ligna, lapides, cementa, stultissimum videri potest, si nihil edifices ex illis (4. Vol. 1, 10)).

500

(ed.), Komische Gegenwelten. Lachen und Literatur in Mittelalter und Fri.iher Neuzeit, 1999, Le scoperte di codici 79-101 (13) R. SABBADINI, latini e greci nei secoli XIV e XV, 1905 (reiss. 1967, 1996) [ 14] E. WALSER, Poggius Florentinus. Leben und Werke, 1914 (reiss. 1974) [15] D. J. WILCOX,The Development of Florentine Humanist Historiography in the Fifteenth Century, 1969 (16) C. ZINTZEN,Amicitiae - Inimicitiae. Bemerkungen zu Lorenzo Valla und Poggio Bracciolini, in: C. ZINTZEN,Vom Menschenbild der Renaissance, 2.009, 5 5-67. CLEMENSZINTZEN Pohlenz, Max German classical philologist. Born Hanchen died Gottingen 5. I. 1962. (Cottbus) 30.7.1872, Studied classical philology at Erlangen, Berlin and Gottingen; 1895 Staatsexamen (teaching certificate). Schoolteacher in Berlin from 1897; doctorate there 1898. 1906 prof. ext. in Gottingen; 1909 personal prof. ext. in Gottingen; 191 6 prof. ord. in classical philology at Gottingen. 1937 retirement, though he returned to teaching at the institute in the course of its post-war reconstruction, from 194 7 into the 19 5os.

AND INFLUENCE P. studied classical philology at Erlangen, where his teachers included lwan von Muller and Adolf Romer, at Berlin (Hermann --+ Diels, Adolf ➔ Kirchhoff and Johannes Vahlen) and Gottingen (Friedrich --+ Leo and Ulrich von ---+ Wilamowitz-Moellendorff). His specialist interests ranged from textual criticism of Plato [ 1 ], editions of Cicero (2) and Plutarch (10], to studies of ancient political theory (3 ]. He also explored ancient intellectual [ 11) and cultural history [ 6] and produced works of popular scholarship (8]. However, his greatest achievement, which folWRITINGS (1] Poggii Fiorentini oratoris et philosophi opera, lowed a number of detailed studies [ 1 2 ), was a collatione emendatorum exemplarium recognita, comprehensive survey of the ancient Stoa [7 ), for Basel 1538 (2) Poggio BraccioliniOpera omnia, 4 which he also compiled a collection of texts (9 ): vols., ed. R. Fus1N1,1964-1969 [3] Facezie, intro. "A sensibility focused again and again by precise E. GARIN,ed. M. C1ccuTo, 1983 (4] Lettere, 3 analysis has brought back to life from the ruins vols., ed. H. HARDT,1984-1987 (5) De varietate fortunae, ed. 0. MERISALO,1993 (6) Dialogus of the tradition both the conceptual edifice of contra avaritiam (De avaritia), transcribed, trans. the Stoa and the individual personae of its advoand comm. G. GERMANO, 1994 [7] De infelicitate cates" [15. 55). P.'s interpretations in the course of this work were not infrequently nationalistic 1998. principum, ed. D. CANFORA, and conservative in inspiration [14. 179 f.]. His decades of influence at Gottingen shaped a genSECONDARYLITERATURE (8) E. CocHRANE,Historians and Historiography eration of classical philologists, most of whom in the Italian Renaissance, 1981 (9] E. FLORES, would work as schoolteachers. His students Le scoperte di Poggio e ii testo di Lucrezio, included Hermann -.. Frankel, Wilhelm Luther, 1980 (10] E. B. FRYDE,Humanism and Renais- Heinrich Dorrie and Rudolf Stark. sance Historiography, 1983 [u] T. JORDE,CriLW: Kleine Schriften, ed. H. Dorrie, Vol. 1, stoforo Landinos De vera nobilitate. Ein Beitrag 1965, XIII-XXVIII (with illustrations). zur Nobilitas-Debatte im Quattrocento, 1995, E: Gottingen, Staats- und Universitatsbibliothek. 77-91 [12] W. ROCKE,Witz und Offentlichkeit. Die Kunst der Fazetien,in: W. ROCKE/H. NEUMANN WORK

P6HLMANN,

501 WRITINGS

J Aus Platos Werdezeit.

Philologische Untersuchungen, 1913 121 M. Tulli Ciceronis Tusculanae disputationes (edition), 1918 (reiss. 1976) [3] Staatsgedanke und Staatslehre der Griechen, 192.3 141 Die griechische Tragodie, 1930 (•1954) Is] Herodot, der erste Geschichtsschreiber des Abendlandes (Neue Wege zur Antike ll.7/8), 1937 ('1973) [61 Der hellenische Mensch, 1946 [7] Die Stoa. Geschichte einer geistigen Bewegung, 2. vols., 1948 (7th/6th eds., 1990-1992.) (8 I Gestalten aus Hellas, 19 50 I9 I Stoa und Stoiker. Die Grunder: Panaitios, Poseidonios (intro. and German trans.), 1950 (•1964) (101 Plutarchi moralia, Vol. 6.2. (edition), 1952. (ed. R. WESTMAN, •1959) [II] Griechische Freiheit. Wesen und Werden eines Lebensideals, 195 5 (English: Freedom in Greek Life and Thought, trans. C. LoFMARK, 1966) [121 K. S., ed. H. D6RRIE, 2. vols., 1965. [1

SECONDARY

LITERATURE

[13] H. D6RRIE, Max Pohlenz, in: Gnomon 34, 1962., 634-636 [141 S. KIPF, Herodot als Schulautor. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Griechischunterrichts in Deutschland vom 1 5. bis zum 2.0. Jh., 1995, 179-180 (15J 0. LuscHNAT, Review of 'Die Stoa', in: Deutsche Literaturzeitung 72, 1951, 49-57 [16J W. UNTE, Pohlenz, Max, in: NDB 20, 2001, 588-589 (with bibliography) [17) C. WEGELER,' ... wir sagen ab der internationalen Gelehrtenrepublik'. Altertumswissenschaft und Nationalsozialismus: Das Gottinger Institut fi.ir Altertumskunde 192.1-1962., 1996, 84-88, 177-140. HANS-ULRICHBERNER/ STEFANKIPF

Pohlmann, Robert von German ancient historian. Born Nuremberg 31. ro. 1852, died Munich 27. 9. 1914. School in Nuremberg. Studied history, classical philology and economics at Munich, Gottingen and Leipzig. 1875 doctorate in medieval history at Gottingen; I 879 habit. in ancient history at Erlangen. From 1884 prof. of ancient history at Erlangen, from 1901 at Munich. Ennobled 1909 ('von P.'). CAREER

AND

WORKS

From the outset, P.'s scholarly career and output were characterized by his wide-ranging historical interests and his great openness to new issues and currents of thought. He took his doctorate at Gottingen in 1875 with the medievalist Georg Waitz, writing a dissertation on Emperor Heinrich VII. This was followed in 1878 by a prize essay on the economic politics of the Florentine Renaissance [ 1]. His habit. thesis was then devoted to a topic of ancient history, namely Greek views of the geographical conditions of history [2]. P. soon turned to issues of social history with his study of overpopulation

ROBERT VON

in major ancient cities [3]. For the Handbuch der Klassischen Altertumswissenschaft, he wrote a Grundriss der griechischen Geschichte, which was repeatedly revised and reprinted until 1914 [ 5]. P. achieved widespread recognition. When the first chair of ancient history at the Univ. of Munich was established in 1901, P. was appointed (9). Having been a full member of the Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften since 1901, he was elected secretary of the historicalphilological class there in 1907. He was then ennobled in 1909. The highlight of P.'s scholarly oeuvre is his two-volume Geschichte des antiken Kommunismus und Sozialismus (4). According to this ancient socialism came about as a result of a development that led to the creation of a capitalist economic order in Archaic and Classical Greece, and hence of large-scale capitalist enterprises. The contrast between the impoverished proletariat and the wealthy holders of capital was expressed in social movements aiming at a redistribution of wealth. P. characterized these internal conflicts as social revolution. Alternatives to the conditions of the 5th and 4th cents. BC were formulated and discussed in political theory and utopias. P. attempted to show that many texts of Greek literature and philosophy display a tendency of opposition to property and wealth, and hence anticipate elements of modern socialism. P.'s position accords in many respects with the modernist views of Eduard -_. Meyer and Karl Julius -• Beloch. Besides the transposition of modern terminology to consideration of the ancient world, he also attempted to argue for structural correspondences. However, the emphasis he placed on the social issue and the 'class struggles' of antiquity in no way indicated a left-wing political position. Rather, P. was concerned with keeping antiquity relevant to the present day, in the light of contemporary criticism of the Humanist Gymnasium. By demonstrating these correspondences, P. hoped to show the importance of antiquity to the education system and especially in political training (6. 1-51; 385-438). INFLUENCE

P.'s theories on ancient social relations and class conflicts were soon rejected by ancient historians (10. 42 f.]. Even Max --+ Weber spoke of "untenable interpretations, devoid in particular of economic precision" [II. 284). Friedrich --+ Oertel, in his appendix to the 3rd edition of [4), subjected P.'s account to a thoroughgoing critique and established that there was no largescale capitalist industry in ancient Greece and

PCIHLMANN,

ROBERT

50:z.

VON

that ancient manifestations of the labour question were different in form from those in modern states because of ancient slavery. Accordingly, the conditions for an ancient socialism were not present I 10. 4e>-98I. Still, it remains to P.'s credit that he so emphatically drew attention to social conflicts and distribution disputes in ancient Greece in particular. Karl -• Christ recollected P. as a committed 'non-conformist' in his works on the history of scholarship (7. 2.01-2.471; (8. 12.5-148). WRITINGS

[ 1) Die Wirtschaftspolitik der florentiner Renais1878 sance und das Prinzip der Verkehrsfreiheit, (reiss. 1968) [21 Hellenische Anschauungen iiber den Zusammenhang zwischen Natur und [3[ Die Geschichte (habil. thesis Erlangen), 1879 Obervolkerung der ant. Grossstadte im Zusammenhange mit der Gesamtentwicklung stadtischer (4[ Geschichte des Civilisation, 1884 (reiss. 1967) antiken Kommunismus und Sozialismus. Geschichte der sozialen Frage und des Sozialismus in der anti( 1 1925; reiss. 1984) ken Welt, :z. vols., 1893-1901 Is I Grundriss der griechischen Geschichte. Griechische Geschichte und Quellenkunde (Hdb. der Klassischen Altertumswissenschaft 3/4), • 1896 (' 1914; first published 1889 under the title Geographic und politische Geschichte des klassischen Altertums) [6) Aus Altertum und Gegenwart. Gesammelte Abhandlungen, •1911 ('1901).

1919, he went to Vienna, where he wrote articles (Der Osterreichische for a financial newspaper Volkswirt) from 192.4. Between 1933 and I 947, P. worked in Britain, including for the '\Xrorkers' Educational Association. He then received a scholarship from the Rockefeller Foundation (1941-1943). While in the United States, he wrote The Great Transformation (Ten (1 )_- His professorship in economic history at Colu m hia Univ. enabled P. to continue and intensify his research on the economies of pre-modern Se>cieties. After 1953, he devoted himself to an interdisciplinary programme studying markets, trade in and money in primitive and archaic societ:ies a comparative perspective, hoping in this vvay to help clarify issues of economic history that had been raised in TGT. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

In TGT, P. traces the modern market econ(5. omy back to the Industrial Revolution 68 J. Pre-modern societies, he argues, were not orgahut nized on the basis of market economics~ other mechanisms of distribution of goods were in operation - P. borrows from ethnology to cite reciprocity and redistribution, with production for own consumption as the third principle [ 5. 71-87I. P. certainly did not deny the existence of markets (5. 87-101 I, but he saw local markets as "merely a concomitant phenomenon of economic life". The pre-modern economy was not SECONDARY LITERATURE yet "exclusively controlled, regulated and gov(7) CHRIST Gib. 197:z. [8) CHRIST Hel. 1999 wfrh (9] J.-U. KRAUSE,Robert von Pohlmann, in: J. SEI- erned by markets" (5. 102.I. In connection his study of long-distance trade, P. developed BERT(ed.), 100 Jahre Alte Geschichte an der LudwigMiinchen ( 1901-:z.oo 1 ), Maximilians-Universitat the concept of the "port of trade", the place at ( 10] F. OERTEL, Kleine Schriften zur :z.002, 41-45 which the exchange of goods between two sociWirtschafts- und Sozialgeschichte des Altertums, eties was organized in such a way as to minimize 1975 (11) M. WEBER, Agrarverhaltnisse im Alterconflict between the parties to the trade and to tum, in: Handworterbuch der Staatswissenschaften minimize contact between members of the two 1, •1909, 5:z.-188 (reiss. in: Gesammelte Aufsatze societies I 10. 8-2.51- Ancient long-distance trade 1-:z.88, and zur Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte, was thus not left to traders, but was subject to in the complete works, ed. J. DEININGER, Vol. regulation hy the political institutions of the cit1/6) (12) H. WoLFF, Pohlmann, Robert von, in: ies ('administered trade'). As an example of this. NDB :z.o, :z.001, 5 59-560. HELMUTSCHNEIDER he cites the Athenian grain trade in the 5t:h and 4th cents. BC (4. 2.04-2.06, 2.16-2.2.0, 2.2.5-.2..2.8}. P.'s theory that, whereas in the ITlodern Polanyi, Karl economy market mechanisms society, govern in ancient societies the economy was embedAustrian-American economic and social histoded within society, has played a crucial role in rian. Born Vienna 2.1. 10. 1886, died Pickering reception of his work (6. 12.9-148I. His central (near Toronto) 2.3. 4. 1964. Studied at Budapest; category of 'embeddedness' draws attention to in Vienna from 1919, then politically and jourhow in pre-modern societies, commercial trade nalistically active in Britain from (emigration in) was firmly set within a system of social norms 1933. 1947-1953 prof. of economic history at and institutions, and of itself exerted no defining Columbia Univ. in New York. influence on society. At Columbia Univ., Moses • Finley ~-as CAREER closely associated with the circle around P. The Born in Vienna, P. grew up in Budapest, World of Odysseus (1954) by Finley already the son of a Jewish businessman. He imbibed socialist ideas and theories from a young age. In displays reception of P .'s theories with i t:s ref-

►

PO LIZIANO, ANGELO

erences to the exchange of gifts and the oikos. In The Ancient Economy ( 1973 ), Finley referred to P.'s view that modern economic theory was inapplicable to antiquity. P.'s anthropological approach was much acclaimed 19]; [ 11 ]; I 12]; it was emphasized here that reception of his works was expected to yield many new insights on the ancient economy and society. The category of the 'port of trade' is the basis for a recent monograph on Naucratis I 10]. However, certain assertions by P. on the Athenian economy in particular provoked much criticism, not least from Finley, who called "the primitive models [of P.] all but useless" [8. 1171; d. [12. 140].

CAREER

II Poliziano (called after the town of his birth, in Latin Mons Politianus) lost his notary father Benedetto in 1462 when he was murdered in the course of political disputes. By 1469 at least, P. was living with relatives in Florence. His teach► Landino, Demetrios ers included Cristofaro Chalkokondyles, John •-► Argyropoulos and Andronikos Kallistos. At an early age, P. already stood out as a writer of elegant odes, epigrams and elegies in Latin and Greek and as a translator of Homer's Iliad into Latin hexameters (P. translated Books 2-5; Book I had already been translated by Carlo Marsuppini). This work, which P. began in 14 70 and completed in 1473, attracted the attention of Lorenzo de' WRITINGS [1) The Great Transformation. The Political and Medici to the 17-year-old, and he supported him Economic Origins of Our Time, 1944 (et al.) until his death in 1492. (2) (ed.), Trade and Market in the Early EmpiIn Medici circles, P. was in close contact with res: Economies in History and Theory (with Marsilio ► Ficino and Sandro Botticelli, whose C. M. ARENSBERGand H. W. PEARSON), 1957 pictorial programmes may have been indebted (3) Primitive, Archaic, and Modern Economies, ed. to his knowledge of myth and allegory (Birth of G. DALTON, 1968 141The Livelihood of Man, Venus; Primavera). P. also played a decisive part 1977 [sl The Great Transformation, 1978 (et al.) (61 Okonomie und Gesellschaft, ed. and intro. in Giovanni • Pico della Mirandola 's entry to the Medici coterie in 148 3. The Stanze cominciate S. HUMPHREYS, 1979 (•2.008). per la giostra de/ Magnifico Giuliano de' Medici, which P. began in 1475, are a magnificent paean SECONDARY LITERATURE (7) G. DALE, Karl Polanyi. The Limits of the of praise to Lorenzo's younger brother Giuliano Market, 2.010 (8( M. I. FINLEY, Anthropology and his lover Simonetta Cattaneo. In the course and the Classics, in: M. I. FINLEY, The Use and of the Pazzi conspiracy against the Medici, which 191S. C. HUM· came to a head on 26 April 1478, and to which Abuse of History, 1975, 102.-119 PHREYS, History, Economics and Anthropology: Giuliano fell victim, P. saved the life of Lorenzo the Work of Karl Polanyi, in: S. C. HUMPHREYS, in Florence Cathedral. He described the events Anthropology and the Greeks, 1978, J 1-7 5 (et al.) of the conspiracy and its suppression in his his[ 1 oj A. M6LLER, Naukratis. Trade in Archaic tory Coniurationis commentarium 141, written Greece, 2.000, 8-2.5 I 11) W. N1PPEL, Sozialanthropologie und Alte Geschichte, in: Ch. MEIER / the same year and based on Sallust's De coniuJ. ROSEN (ed.), Historische Methode, 1988, 300- ratione Catilinae. 318 [ 12.] W. N1PPEL, Okonomische AnthropoThere was a brief chill in relations between logie und griechische Wirtschaftsgeschichte, in: P. and Lorenzo (probably brought about by W. N1PPEL, Griechen, Barbaren und 'Wilde'. Aire Lorenzo's wife Clarice) in 1479. P. did not take r 990, 1 2.4Geschichte und Sozialanthropologie, part in II Magnifico's important diplomatic mis151 [13) B. D. SHAW / R. P. SALLER, Editors' sion to Naples, but travelled only to Verona, Introduction, in: M. I. Finley, Economy and Society Venice, Padua and Mantua. At Mantua in 1480, in Ancient Greece, 198r, XIX. he had his Fabula di Orfeo performed. A drama HELMUTHSCHNEIDER in 401 lines (first published 1490), it heralded the rebirth of vernacular stage poetry. Also in 1480, Poliziano, Angelo and with Lorenzo's consent, he took the professorship of Greek, Latin and rhetoric at the Univ. Agnolo Ambrogini, Latin Angelus Politianus; of Florence, and from then on devoted himself Politian. Italian Humanist and poet. Born Monto intensive philological studies. It is not certain tepulciano 14. 7. 1454, died Florence 29. 9. 1494. whether he died of disease (perhaps plague) or, Studied Humaniora in Florence from 1469; supas has been inferred from recent bone analyses, ported from 1473 by Lorenzo de' Medici, who by poison (arsenic). An inscription commemotook him into his household in r 4 7 5 as tutor rates him in the Church of S. Marco in Florence. and private secretary. Holy orders 1477; thereafHis most important students were Johannes ter various ecclesiastical appointments (e.g. 1485 ➔ Reuchlin, Thomas --► Linacre and Pietro canon at Florence Cathedral). 14 79/80 sojourn in northern Italy; 1480 appointed prof. of Latin, Crinito. Greek and rhetoric at Florence.

POLIZIANO, ANGELO WORKS P.'s philological works consist of translations of Greek authors into Latin (Epictetus, Herodian, works from the corpus of Galen and Hippocrates, Plutarch's Eroticus, Plato's Charmides), commentaries, poets' lives and critical studies of texts (Virgil's Georgics [ 11 ], Ovid's Fasti [ 12] and Her. 15, the epistle of Sappho to Phaon [ 5 ], Suetonius [9 ], Homer [ 1 5], Statius' Silvae (8), Persius (10), Terence's Andria (7). Much is based on his lectures, and during his lifetime would have been in circulation only in the form of student transcripts. After P.'s death, Crinito collected most of it and published it in 1498 with Aldus --. Manutius (1). P.'s own Silvae (actually occasional poetry) [13) occupy a middle ground between poetry and philology. As praelectiones (introductory lectures) in Latin hexameters, they served as appealing openings to P.'s lectures on Virgil's Eclogues (1482.: Manto), Hesiod, Virgil's Georgics (1483: Rusticus) and Homer (1485: Ambra). The last hexametric praelectio, from 1486, bears the title Nutricia (the 'nurse's wage': the 'fed child' P. pays the 'nurse', i.e. 'ancient poetry', her wage). Here, P. explores the doctrine of inspiration and tradition, and gives an overview of Greek and Roman literature. P.'s most important philological work, the Miscellaneorum centuria prima, is the fruit of considerable labours studying manuscripts, e.g. in the Vatican Library. It is a collection of 100 short essays on ancient texts (Florence 1489). Here, P. presents his manifesto for re-examining the relationship with the Graeco-Roman tradition: in place of reception focused on intellectual and cultural history, he proposed the securing of the body of the text on the basis of the comparison of different manuscripts. His explanations of the text and his conjectures, offered not without some personal bile, brought P. considerable and well-earned acclaim, but there were also critics of his plan, with Giorgio Merula in the vanguard, accusing P. of plagiarism and of writing archaizing Latin. P.'s confrontation with Merula occupies much of Book XI in the collection of his Latin correspondence, which P. largely edited himself, but which was only completed after his death by his students (the last letters already attest to P.'s death). P.'s turn towards Aristotle and the Roman technical authors (including Pliny the Elder) in his lectures of the 1490s may have been a critical reaction to the growing interest of his friends --. Ficino and --. Pico della Mirandola in mystical and hermetic texts as they fell under the influence of the Dominican monk Savonarola. In the (prose) praelectio, Lamia ('The Witch'), P. defended his competence in the field of philosophy, which critics had questioned. The Mis-

cellaneorum centuria secunda is, in comparison to the first centuria, much more focused on the study of realia, as P. in particular distils details on ancient life from the texts (clothing, festivals, botanic names, etc.). This work remained unfinished, and was only edited from P.'s estate in 1972. (6). From 1492. at least, P. was working on legal writings. His edition of the Digesta was dedicated to Ludovico Sforza, the Duke of Milan. INFLUENCE

As a poet and philologist, P. was one of the most important figures of the age. He was not a political animal, but he did intervene successfully in intellectual discourses of the day. He was the first precisely and consistently to argue for the scholarly value of textual criticism. In the controversy over Ciceronianism, the debate over the 'correct' Latin style, he stood for a stylistic independence based on eclecticism. He did not want to be a second Cicero, but to express himself (me tamen, ut opinor, exprimo: Epist. 8, 1 6, undated, addressed to Paolo Cortese). Although not really a philosopher himself, he sided with contemporary critics of scholasticism, knowing that he could himself facilitate new approaches to ancient philosophy through the primary sources (Epist. 2.,4). WRITINGS [I] Omnia opera ... edita ab am1c1s & praecipue ab Alexandro Sartio Bononiensi, Venedig 1498 (2) Opera, Basel 1553 [3] Poesie latine e greche edite e inedite, ed. I. DEL LUNGO, 1867 (reiss. 1976) [4] Della congiura dei Pazzi, ed. and comm. A. PEROSA,19 58 ls] Com men to inedito all'Epistola Ovidiana di Saffo a Faone, ed. E. LAZZERI, 1971 (6) Miscellaneorum centuria secunda, 4 vols., ed., intro. and comm. V. BRANCA and M. PASTORE-SToCCHI, 1972 [7) La commedia antica e L' Andria di Terenzio, appunti inediti. ed. R. LATTANZIROSELLI,1973 (8] Commento inedito alle Selve di Stazio, ed. L. CESARINIMARTINELLI,1978 [9) Una ignota expositio Suetoni del Poliziano, ed. V. FERA,1983 [10) Commento inedito alle satire di Persio (Praelectio in Persium), ed. A. MARTINELLI and L. CESARINI, 1985 [ 11] Commento inedito alle Georgiche di Virgilio, ed. L. CASTANOMus1co, 1990 [12) Commento inedito ai Fasti di Ovidio, ed. F. Lo MONACO, 1991 (13] Silvae, ed. F. BAus1, 1996 (English: Silvae, trans. C. FANTAZZI,2004) [14] Letters. ed. and trans. S. BUTLER,Vol. 1: Books I-IV, 2006 (15] Oratio in expositione Homeri, ed. P. MEGNA,2007 [16) Lamia, trans. with intro. C. S, CELENZA,2010. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

[17) V. BRANCA,Poliziano e l'umanesimo delta parola, 1983 [18] P. CoLILLI, Poliziano's Science of Tropes, 1989 (19] V. FERA / M. MARTELLI

P0L0TSKY,

505 (ed.), Agnolo Poliziano. Poeta, scrittore, filologo, 1998 [2.0) P. GoDMANN, from Poliziano to Machiavelli. Florentine Humanism in the High Renaissance, 1998 [2.r) P. HALLYN-GALAND,Politico (Ange), in: C. NATIVEL (t:d.), Centuriae Latinae. Cent une figures humanistcs de la Renaissance aux Lumieres, FS J. Chomarat, 1997, 623-628 [2.2.)I. MAYER,Ange Politien. La formation d'un poete humaniste, 1966 [2.'J) M. MARTELLI,Angelo Poliziano. Storia e metastoria, 1995 l2.4J P. ORVIETO, Poliziano e l'ambiente mediceo, 2009 12.5] G. B. P1corr1, Tra ii Poeta ed ii Lauro. Pagina della vita di Agnolo Poliziano, in: Giornale storico della letteratura italiana 65, 1915, 263-303 (continued [2.6) R. RIBUOLJ, La collain 66, 1915, 52-104) zione polizianea del codice Bembino di Terenzio, 1981 [2.7) L. ROTONDI SECCHITARUGI(ed.), Poliziano nel suo tempo, 1996 12.81 A. SCAGLIONE, The Humanist as Scholar and Politian's Conception of the Grammaticus, in: Studies in the Renaissance 8, 1961, 49-70 12.9) F. TATEO, Lorenzo De' Medici e Agnolo Poliziano, 1972 1301 P. Vm (ed.), Pico, Poliziano e l'umanesimo di fine Quattrocento, 1994 131] A. WASCHBOSCH, Angelo Poliziano, 1972.. D0R0THEE GALL

Polotsky, Hans Jakob Israeli Egyptologist, Coptologist and linguist. Born Zurich 13. 9. 1905, died Jerusalem 10. 8. 1991. 1924 Abitur in Berlin; 1924-1928 studied Egyptology and Semitic studies at Berlin and Gottingen; 1928 doctorate at Gottingen; 192619 30 assistant on Septuagint project there. 1930-1934 assistant in the publication of Coptic Manichaean papyri Berlin. 1934-1948 instructor for Egyptology at Hebrew Univ. in Jerusalem; 1948-1972 prof. of Egyptian and Semitic linguistics there. 19 59 founder member of the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities; 1967-1968 prof. of Egyptology at Copenhagen. CAREER

P., the son of Russian Jewish parents, had a particular interest in languages even as a schoolboy. He was drawn to study Latin and Greek, and he also learned Hebrew, Arabic and Egyptian. After his Abitur, he studied Egyptology at Berlin with Kurt -• Sethe, as well as Semitic studies, and later at Gottingen he specialized in Semitic studies with Mark Lidzbarski. What interested him now and henceforth was languages and texts, not classical studies per se. He took his doctorate in Egyptology in 1928 with Hermann Kees , then assisted Alfred Rahlfs at Gottingen on the Septuagint project, and Carl Schmidt at Berlin on the publication of Manichaean papyri, specializing in Coptic texts. The unpleasant political conditions of the period led him in 1934 to move to Jerusalem,

HANS JAKOB

but he also hoped to make a career at the young Hebrew Univ., which had been founded in 1925. For more than decade to begin with, he was a humble 'instructor of Egyptology', before finally being appointed prof. of Egyptian and Semitic languages in 1948. By then, his main interest was in Ethiopian and Semitic languages. Only with his seminal 1960 treatise on the Coptic Con;ugation System (3. 238-268] did he signal a return to the Egyptian and Coptic sphere. He was disappointed with the lack of reception of one of his most important discoveries in the field of Egyptology, the function of the 'emphatic forms' of early Egyptian. Thoroughly described in the Etudes de syntaxe copte of 1944 (3. 102-207), and reiterated in 1957 [3. 43-51], this innovative approach only started taking firm and rapid hold from 196 5, with the reception of his Egyptian Tenses [3. 71-96]. SCHOLARLY ACHIEVEMENT

Anything that P. published was built on a solid philological foundation and was formulated rigorously and effectively according to the standards of contemporary methodology - so effectively, indeed, that the reprinting without revision of his dispersed writings in new compendia (3]; [6) is still found worthwhile decades later. His monographs, not reprinted, are no less enduring in their value, for instance his debut work, a short but weighty Egyptology dissertation [ 1 ], his publication of Coptic Manichaean texts (2] and the work of his old age on Coptic syntax (4]. Although he worked intensively with Semitic languages and the study of Manichaeism owes him a debt for his seminal work, the real focus of his career was in Egyptian Coptic grammar, in which he founded a tradition (the 'Jerusalem School'). His concept of Egyptian verbal syntax based on the 'emphatic forms', finally formulated in his Transpositions du verbe en egyptien classique (1976) [6. 55-104], was celebrated as tantamount to a 'standard theory'. If objections have been raised to it today, this is mainly for two reasons. Firstly, its initial philological observations are in need of expansion, and secondly the validity of the linguistic method P. followed, that of structuralism, has been questioned. Whatever the ultimate results of the still inconclusive discussion of the linguistic issues, it is irrefutably to P.'s credit that the new discussion is taking place at all, since he initiated it at a time when the prevailing view in Egyptian studies was that the decades of work done by Adolf -• Erman and his 'Berlin School', of which Alan • Gardiner can also be counted a member, had achieved a consolidated inventory of knowledge to which only marginal amendments, if any, would ever be needed.

POLOTSKY, HANS JAKOB WRITINGS

I1] Zu den Inschriften der 11. Dynastic (diss. Gottingen), 192.9 [1] Manichaische Homilien, Vol. 1 (edition), 1934 (3) Collected Papers, 1971 (4) Grundlagen des koptischen Satzbaus, 2. vols., 1987-1990 Is) Ausgewahlte Briefe, ed. E. ULLENDORFF,1992. [61 Scripta Posteriora on Egyptian and Coptic, ed. V. M. LEPPERand L. DEPUYDT, 2.007. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

[7J S. HOPKINS,H. J. Polotsky, 1905-1991, in: Rassegna di Studi Etiopici 34, 1992., n 5-12.5 I8] J. OSING, Hans Jakob Polotsky, in: Zs. fur agyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde 12.0, 1993, In memoriam Hans III-V [9] A. SHISHA-HALEVY, Jakob Polotsky (1905-1991 ), in: Orientalia 61, 1992., 2.08-2.13 (10) E. ULLENDORFF,H. J. Polotsky (1905-1991). Linguistic Genius, in: Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. Ser. 3/4, 1994, 3-13. WOLFGANG SCHENKEL Porson, Richard British classical philologist. Born East Ruston (Norfolk) 25.12.1759, died London 25.9.1808. Schooled at Eron and elsewhere; 1778-1782 studied at Trinity College, Cambridge, 178 5 MA, 1782-1792 fellow there. From 1792, Regius Prof. of History at Cambridge. Lost fellowship (for refusing to take holy orders) 1792 and moved to London. Worked as private scholar there. From 1806, librarian of the so-called London Institution (antecedent of the Univ. of London).

most of which were only published in collected form by various students after his death (2.]; (3). Like his predecessors, P. gave not a single lecture at Cambridge while Regius Prof. of Greek. He was also a prominent London society figure. WRITINGS [ 1] Euripidis

tragodiae, editio m Germania altera correctior et auctior (edition with comm.), r 807 [1] Adversaria. Notae et emendationes in poetas Graecos ... , ed. J. H. M. MONK and C. J. BLOMFIELD, 1812. (posthumous; reiss. 1982.l [3J Tracts and Miscellaneous Criticisms, ed. T. Kmo, 1815 (posthumous; •192.6). SECONDARY

LITERATURE

141M. L. CLARKE,Richard Porson. A Biographical Essay, 1937 lsl P. MAAs, Greek Metre, 1962., 5, 35 161 P. G. NAJDITCH,The Library of Richard Porson, 2.011 171C. 0. BRINK,Klassische Srudien in England, 1997, 135-157 (English 1986) (81 D. L. PAGE, Richard Porson (1759-1808), in: Proc. of the British Academy 45 (1959), 1960, 2.2.1-2.36 (9) C. STRAY,The Rise and Fall of Porsonianism. in: Proc. of the Cambridge Philological Society (The Cambridge Classical Journal 53), 2.006-2.007, 4MER,Gedachtnisrede auf Eduard Schwyzer, in: Jb. der deutschen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1946-1949, 2.2.1-2.38. HANS-ULRICHBERNER/ MANFRED LANDFESTER

Seeck, Otto Baltic German ancient historian. Born Riga 2. 2.9. 6. 1921. After briefly studying natural sciences at Dorpat, and under • Mommsen's the influence of reading Theodor RiJmische Geschichte, changed to study history [ 1 ); at Univ. of Berlin. Doctorate there 1872. and habit. 1878, for an edition of the works of Symmachus [3]. 1881 appointed to Greifswald (also thanks to Mommsen's patronage). Taught only Roman history there until 188 3 (departure of thereUlrich von • Wilamowitz-Moellendorff); after also Greek history. Moved to Munster 1907. 2.

1850, died Munster

WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

Contrary to the custom at the time, S. specialized to a high degree, and his subject was Late Antiquity. He had a high profile in this field with important editions, some of which are still standard works today (e.g. [2]; [7]). He also published a fundamental work of reference in the regesta of the emperors and Popes (8), as well as writHis ing many articles for the Realenzyklopadie. major work on the decline of the Roman world. written for a wider public, was and remains much more controversial [6]. It presents a comprehensive, richly referenced history of Late Antiquity that is essentially orientated towards

SEPULVEDA,

events and individual personalities and is rooted in a biologistic model of inverse Darwinism. His key concept is the 'eradication of the fittest' that supposedly characterized the late Roman Empire for various reasons - a fate that S. considered essentially avoidable. S.'s work on the Odyssey remained an exception (4) in that its main purpose was to extend his teaching qualification to include Greek history. His engagement with art history was more consistent, and it earned him the i1enia legendi at Greifswald for a time. He was also very ready to address a broader public and on broader themes [5]; increasingly in an annexationist spirit of Pan-Germanism, so that it comes as no surprise that his specialist research also moved in a popular direction. WRITINGS

[1) Quaestiones de notitia dignitatum (diss. Berlin), 1872. [2.) Notitia dignitatum (edition), 1 876 (reiss. 1983) (3) Q. Aurelii Symmachi quae super-

sunt (Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Auctores antiquissimi 6.1; Edition), 1883 (reiss. 2.001 et al.) [4) Die Quellen der Odyssee, 1887 (•1898) Is] Zeitphrasen, 1892. (•1 896) 16I Geschichte des Untergangs der antiken Welt, 6 vols., 1895-192.0 (reiss. 2000 et al.) (7] Die Briefe des Libanius, zeitlich geordnet (edition), 1906 (reiss. 1966) I8) Regesten der Kaiser und Piipste for die Jahre 3 11 bis 476 n. Chr. Vorarbeit zu einer Prosopographie der christlichen Kaiserzeit (with edition), 1919 (reiss. 1964), SECONDARY

JUAN GINES

Pozoblanco when his theories were condemned in the same year. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

As a Greek scholar, S. translated Aristotle's Politics 121and worked on a revision of the text of the Greek New Testament. from 1522, he was also translating a number of other minor writings of Aristotle (8) and the commentary on the Metaphysics by Alexander of Aphrodisias [1 ]. His support for Alberto Pio brought him into ever more strident conflict with ► Erasmus of Rotterdam, in the course of which, in his 1532

Antapologia pro Alberto Pio Comite Carpensi in Erasmum Roterodamum, he accused the Humanist of undermining the foundations of the Catholic rite under pretence of rational argument. Opposing the Leyes Nuevas of 1542, which outlawed the forcible conversion of the native Americans, he wrote his Democrates alter and De ;ustis belli causis apud Indios, in which, combining Aristotelianism with Machiavellianism, he defended the right to subject the Americas on the basis of the cultural inferiority and un-Christian customs of the populace, and of the Christian mission of Spain. In 1 5 50, this led to a dispute between S. and Bartolomeo de las Casas. The Bishop of Segovia ultimately condemned S.'s treatise. S. was important as a historian of the Spanish Crown. His works on contemporary history, Ciceronian in style l4J;13];(6), bear important witness to the self-conception of the Spanish ruling elite as it was at the time.

LITERATURE

(9) H. LEPPIN,Ein 'Spading der Aufkliirung'. Otto Seeck und der Untergang der antiken Welt, in: (ed.), lmperium Romanum. V. LosEMANN / P. KNEISSI. Studien zu Geschichte und Rezeption. FS K. Christ, 1998, 472.-491 [10J S. LoRENZ,Otto Seeck und die Spatantike, in: Historia 5 5, 2006, 2.2.8-2.43 rI I) s. RERENICH,Seeck und die Notwendigkeit, Alte Geschichte zu lehren, in: M. W. CAt.0ERet al. (ed.), Wilamowitz in Greifswald, 2.000, 2.62.-2.98. HARTMUT I.EPPIN

Sepulveda, Juan Gines Spanish Humanist, historian and philosopher. Born Cordoba or (more probably) Pozoblanco (Province of Cordoba) 1489/90, died Pozoblanco 1573. Initial studies in Cordoba and, from 15 ro, at Alcala de Henares; r 5 1 5 travelled to Bologna, entering the Dominican Order and studying (artes, philosophy, law and Greek) there until 1523. 1535, after staying in various places in Italy (including Rome, Naples), returned to Spain. Tutor to the future King Philip II. r 5 3 6 named Imperial historian. 1 5 50 dispute with Bartolomeo de las Casas on the legitimacy of the Spanish conquest of the New World. Returned to

WRITINGS

I1) Alexandri Aphrodisiei commentaria in duodecim Aristotelis libros de prima philosophia (Latin trans.), Rome 15 2.7 [2] Aristotelis de Republica libri octo (Latin trans.), Paris 1548 (3] De Orbe Novo, ed. A. RAMIREZ DEVERGER, 1993 (4JObras completas, Latin-Spanish, ed. E. RODRIGUEZ Peregrina, 1995-2.003 (Historia de Carlos V.: Vol. 1, 2., 10; Democrates Segundo: Vol. 3; Historia de Felipe II.: Vol. 4) Is) Epistularum libri septem, ed. J. J. VALVERDE ABRIi.,2.003 (61 De hello Africo, Latin-Spanish, ed. M. TRACASAS CASARES, 2.005. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

171 Sepulveda, Juan Ginez, in: P. G. BREITENH01.z I T. B. DEUTSCHER, Contemporaries of Erasmus, Vol. 3, 1987, 240-2.42. (81 A. CoROI.EU, Estudios sobre Juan Gines de Sepulveda. Sus traducciones latinas de Arist6teles, 1993 191 L. HANKE,All Mankind is One, 1974 (10) A. LosADA,Juan Gines de Sepulveda a traves de SU Epistolario, 1949 I I I I F. c. URBANO, Juan Gines de Sepulveda (14901573), 1000,

NIK0I.AUS THURN

SESTINI,

DOMENICO

Sestini, Domenico Italian numismatist, antiquarian and traveller. Born Florence c. 17 50, died there 183 2.. 177 41778 in Catania (Sicily), 1778-1780 travelled via Budapest and Vienna to Constantinople, where he ~tayed until 179_4•1804-1810 in Berlin, 1810 Pans, 1810-1814 m Florence, 18 16-18 18 travelled to Hungary. CAREER,

WORKS

AND

INFLUENCE

Many journeys took S. to various appointments as antiquarian, librarian and numismatist, e.g. with Ignazio Paterno Castello, Prince of Biscari in Catania [ 1 ]; with the British ambassador Richard Ainsley in Constantinople; with Lorenz ---+ Beger and others in Germany at the Munzkabinett in Berlin; in Florence from 181 o to 1814 with Elisa Baciocchi, sister of Napoleon Bonaparte [10]; finally from 1816 to 1818 with the Hungarian Count Mihaly Viczay in Hedervar (successor in this position to Joseph Hilarius ---+ Eckhel). Returning home, his final post was with Ferdinand III, Grand Duke of Tuscany, who made him an honorary prof. at the Univ. of Pisa. S. left many descriptions of his travels, in which he also described ruins [4 ); [ 5 ), monuments, collections [1] and inscriptions. However, it has been shown that at least some of his itinerary through Wallachia, Transylvania and Hungary [ 5) and a number of excursus are almost verbatim Italian translations of earlier works (e.g. Johann Lehmann's Reise von Pressburg nach Hermannstadt in Siebenburgen, Leipzig, 178 5; Sylvester Douglass: An Account of the Tokay and Other Wines of Hungary, London 1773) (9. 563). A universal scholar, S. also took an interest in geology and agrarian sciences, and in other fields, including zoology [6]; cf. [7]. His main interest in numismatics [2) was in the problem of forgeries. WRITINGS

[1] Descrizione del museo di antiquaria e del gabinetto di storia naturale del principe di Biscari, Florence 1776 (2) Lettere e dissertazioni numismatiche, 9 vols., Livorno/Rome/Berlin 17861806 [3) Viaggio da Costantinopoli a Bassora fatto dall'abate Domenico Sestini accademico etrusco, Yverdun 1786 (4) Descrizione del viaggio fatto da Vienna per ii Danubio insino a Rusciuk, e di la insino a Varna, e quindi per ii Mar-Nero a Costantinopoli, Berlin 1807 Is) Viaggio curiososcientifico-antiquario per la Valachia, Transilvania e Ungheria fino a Vienna, Florence 181 5. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

[6) H. KuMERLOEVE, Domenico Sestini (1750183 2.). Aus der Frtihzeit zoologischer Forschung im Bosporus-Raum (Tiirkei), in: Annalen des Naturhistorischen Museums in Wien 88/89, 1986,

(7) C. LuPPI,Vite di illustri Numismatici 345-350 ltaliani. VII. Domenico Sestini, in: Rivista ltaliana di Numismatica 3, 1890, 473-480 [8] B. PACE, Per la storia dell'archeologia italiana in levante. Viaggi dell'abate Domenico Sestini in Asia Minorc (1779_1792.),in: Annuario della Regia Scuola Archeologica m Atene e delle Missioni italiane in Oriente 3, 1916-192.0, 2.43-2.52. 191M. PETO, 'Lettera della Pannonia'. I dati di Domenico Sestini sulla storia dell'archeologia e del collezionismo in Unghcria, in: A. SZABO/ E. T()rn (ed.), Pannonica provincialia et archaeologica, 2003, 563-576 [10) F. M. VANNI PEcCATORI,Un opera inedita di Domenico Sestini. II catalogo della collezione numismatica di Elisa Baciocchi, in: Bollettino di numismatica 4, 1987, 2.61-2.84. MARCUS HEINRICH

HERMANNS

Sethe, Kurt German Egyptologist. Born Berlin 30. 6. 1869, died there 6. 7. 1934. Studied Egyptologv at Tu bingen and Berlin; doctorate 1892., habil. 189 5, both Berlin. From 1900 prof. ext. in Egyptology, from 1907 prof. ord. at Gottingen~ from 1923 prof. ord. at Berlin. 1932. full member of Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

S.'s main teacher at Berlin was Adolf ---+Erman and with Erman he was the main exponent of the so-called 'Berlin School' of Egyptology (cf. also Elmar • Edel). From a perspective that was essentially philological, S. created a scholarly oeuvre that provided decisive impulses in all fields and periods of the language, culture and history of Ancient Egypt. His three-volume work on the Egyptian verb [2) achieved a final and decisive breakthrough in the reconstruction of the grammar of Egyptian. Exhibiting a matchless work ethic, S. produced text editions of lasting value. His editions, commentaries and translations of the Pyramid texts [5]; [10) are still standard works today. His volumes on the Egyptian documentary transmission [3); [4] made comprehensive bodies of texts accessible. Works like his treatise on the execrations (7) and the letters to the dead (with Alan • Gardiner) [8) shed new light on significant fields of the Ancient Egyptian text tradition. S. was a key figure at all stages of the genesis of Er~~m•s and Hermann Grapow's Worterbuch der Agyptischen Sprache. Bevond the confines of philology and linguistics: his work touched on many issues of (cultural) history, but his rigid positivism also sometimes led him astray, as in his theories on the succession of the 18th Dynasty [ 1] and Egyptian protohistory [9). S. demonstrated his mastery of his specialist subject in his Gottingen accession address [6). LW: A. Biedenkopf-Ziehner, Kurt Sethe (1869-1934). Verzeichnis Kurt Sethe, in: Enchoria 5, I 97 5, 13 5-1 50.

SHOREY, PAUL temporary methods, also attempted to open up Die Thronwirren unter den Nachfolgern archaeology to the emerging information techKonig Thutmosis' I., 1896 12] Das aegyptische nologies [8 J. Verbum im Altaegyptischen, Neuaegyptischen und Notebooks found in S. 's estate at Neuchatel Koptischen, 3 vols., 1899-1902. (3) Urkunden [9] give an insight into his scholarly approach in des Alten Reichs (edition; with G. STEINDORl'F), Greece (Thasos and Samothrace) and the Levant, 1903 (•1933) (4) Urkunden der 18. Dynastie, and into his lively, always keen curiosity, which 4 vols. (edition; with G. STEINDORFF), 1906extended from the detailed level of objects in 1909 (5) Die altaegyptischen Pyramidentexte, 4 museums and collections to the monuments as vols. (edition), 1908-192.2. (6] Die Agyptologie. Zweck, Inhalt und Bedeutung dieser Wissenschaft a whole, and elicited illuminating connections und Deutschlands Anteil an ihrer Entwicklung, between different genres of (often unedited) 192.1 (7) Die Achrung feindlicher Fiirsten, Volker documents. Inscriptions, coins [3) (his collection und Dinge auf altagyptischen Tongefassscherben later went to enrich the museum in Beirut and des Mittleren Reiches (edition), 192.6 (8] Egyptian the Paris Cabinet des medailles) and tesserae [2) Letters to the Dead (edition; with A. H. GARDINER),would contribute to a clearer understanding of 192.8 (9) Urgeschichte und alteste Religion der Agypter, 1930 (10) Obersetzung und Kommentar the history of institutions and cults, especially zu den altagyptischen Pyramidentexten, 4 vols., of Baalbek and Palmyra [4]. Always striving for clarity and concision, S. preferred to publish 1935-1939. his results in the form of scholarly essays. The resultant collections [ 1 ); [5 ]; [6] are valuable SECONDARY LITERATURE [11) Sethe, Kurt, in: WWE, 385 I 12) H. KEES, tools that clearly display the intrinsic coherence Kurt Sethe, in: Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften of S. 's research. zu Gottingen, Jahresbericht 1934/35, 1935, LW: G. Le Rider, Henri Seyrig 1895-1973, in: 66-74 [13) A. SCHARFF, Kurt Sethe, in: Jh. der Revue numismatique, ser. 6, 15, 1973, 11-2.9. Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1934E: Neuchatel; Paris, Bibliotheque nationale, WRITINGS

(1]

1935, 32-39.

STEPHAN SEI0LMAYER

WRITINGS

Seyrig, Henri French archaeologist and numismatist. Born Hericourt 10.11.1895, died Neuchatel 21. 1. 1973. School in Mulhouse, Normandy and Oxford; fought at Verdun and Thessaloniki in World War I. Studied in Paris. 1922 assistant, of the Ecole franthen 1928 secretary-general ~aise d'Athenes; from 1929 Directeur-general des Antiquites de Syrie et du Liban at Beirut. 1941-1945 exile in Mexico and Washington as representative of General De Gaulle. Return to Beirut 1945, 1946-1967 director of the lnstitut fran~ais d'archeologie du Proche-Orient (IFAPO). Emigrated to Switzerland 1967. WORK

AND

Cabinet des medailles.

INFLUENCE

As a senior official of the former mandate power of France after 1945, S. ensured a smooth and amicable transition in the antiquities administration of the newly independent states of Syria and Lebanon. To safeguard the cultural heritage in their territory (Baalbek, Palmyra and Krak des Chevaliers) in perpetuity, he worked to arrange new excavations under the auspices of various nations. He had a gift for obtaining the services of outstanding colleagues, notably the architects Robert Amy, Pierre Coupel and especially his student, friend and successor Daniel Schlumberger, who traced the encounters between the Greek world and the cultures of the Orient farther east as far as Central Asia. S., familiar with con-

[ 1) Antiquites syriennes, 4 vols., 1934-1966 [2) Recueil des tesseres de Palmyre (with H. INGHOLT, J. STARCKY and A. CAQUOT), 1955 [3] Tresors du Levant anciens et nouveaux, 1973 [4) Le temple de Bel a Palmyre (with R. AMY/ E. WILL),1975

Is] Scripta varia. Melanges d'archeologie et d'histoire, 1985 [6) Scripta numismatica, 1986.

SECONDARY

LITERATURE

(7] Seyrig, Herni Arnold, in: J. LECLANT (ed.), Le second siecle de l'Institut de France, 1895-1995. Recueil biographique et bibliographique des membres, associes etrangers, correspondants fran~ais et etrangers des cinq academies, 1999 (ff.) [8) J.-C. GARDIN,Une archeologie moderne. Les initiatives d'Henri Seyrig, in: CRAI 140/3, 1996, 1013-1018 [9) D. KNOEPFLER, De la Grece au Proche-Orient avec Henri Seyrig. Un Athenien atypique au tournant de sa carriere ( 192.2.-192.9), in: Bulletin de correspondance hellenique 1 2.0, 1996, 2.85-309 (10) E. W1LL,Henri Seyrig (10 novembre 1895-2.1 janvier 1973), in: Syria 50, 1973, 2.59-2.65 (11) E. WILL,Notice sur la vie et Jes travaux de Henri Seyrig, in: CRAI 137/2., 1993, 385-397 [12) E. WILL,Cinquante ans d'histoire. De l'Institut fran~ais d' Archeologie de Beyrouth a l'Institut fran~ais d'Archeologie du Proche-Orient, in: CRAI 140/3, 1996, 993-1001. JEAN-MARIE 0ENTZER Shorey, Paul American classical philologist. Born Davenport, Iowa, 3.8.1857, died Chicago 24.4.1934. From

SHOREY,

PAUL

586

1874, studied classical philology, history and philosophy at Harvard Univ. From 1878 studied law. Studies in Germany and Athens 1881-1883; 1884 doctorate at Munich. 1884-1 892 prof. at Bryn Mawr College, Pennsylvania, 1901/02 at American School of Classical Studies at Athens· 1892-1927 prof. of Greek at Univ. of Chicago'. 1913 exchange prof. in Berlin. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

After studying at Harvard, Leipzig ( 1881/82), Bonn (1882.) and Athens (1882/83), S. took his doctorate in 1884, supervised by Wilhelm von Christ at Munich. His Latin dissertation, a systematic account of Plato's doctrine of ideas emphasizing the importance of 'concepts' or 'notions' in Platonic epistemology [ 1 ), was based among other things on the assumption that Aristotle's criticism of Plato was unconvincing. After his doctorate, S. taught Latin and philosophy at Bryn Mawr College. In 1892, he became prof. of Greek at the Univ. of Chicago, then in 1 896 chair of the Department of Classics, where he continued to teach even after his retirement. S. was one of the founders of the periodical Classical Philology and he was its managing editor from 1908 until his death. This provided him with a platform for his ideas, and made him after Basil __. Gildersleeve and William ► Oldf~ther into one of the great formative influences o~ North American classical philology. Crucial to his position was his 1911 article 'American Scholarship' (3), with its vigorously argued plea for an independent American discipline of classical philology distinct from the German tradition [8]. In 1913, S. became Roosevelt Exchange Prof. in Berlin. It is indicative of the tense atmosphere there that Ulrich von ► WilamowitzMoellendorff forbade S. to hold a seminar on Plato's Republic. S.~sstudents included Harold Cherniss, George Norlin and Leonardo Taran ( 5 ). His publications on classical philology and other subjects (including politics and philosophy) amount to over 800 pieces. He gave the Sather Lectures at the Univ. of California three times. S. was a member of the American Philosophical Society, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the American Institute of Arts and Letters, was a guest lecturer at Harvard and elsewhere, and he received several honorary doctorates. Although S. published in almost all fields of classical philology I5], Plato was the main focus of his research. He held the view, still controversial today, that Plato was a Unitarian, and considered him to belong to that class of thinkers "whose philosophy is fixed in early maturity I.••) rather than to the class of those who receive a new revelation every decade" (2.. 88).

LW:

J. F.

Latimer, in: Classical Philolo gy

1986, 1-31.

81,

E: Univ. of Chicago (also online). WRITINGS I 1) De P~at~nis idea rum

doctrina atque rnentis huma88 nae not1ontbus commentatio (diss. Mu · h) • I 4 . wit. h E,ng 1·1sh trans. in: Ancient nic (re1ss. Philosophv 2., 1982.,_ 1-59) (2) The Unity of Plato's Thoughi, ~903 (re1ss. ~968, 1980) [3) American Scholarship. (-4) Platonism m: :he Nation 92., 1911, 466-469 Ancient and Modern, 1938 Is) Selected Papers, 2. vols., ed. L. TARAN, 1980. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

J?•~,

[6) A. Un . platonisant d'Amerique. Paul Sho~ey, m: Bulletin de l'Association Guillaume ~ude, 192.9, 3-2.1 [7) E. C. KoPFF, Shorey, Paul, m:_ BRIGG~/ CAI.DER 44 7-4 S3 I8 I E. C. KoPFF, W1lamow1~zand Classical Philology in the USA. An [9) G. J. LAING Shore lnterpretataon, 558-580 Paul, in: Dictionary of American Biog;aphy ;: 1963, u5-12.6. CHRISTOPH

HELMIG

Sigonius, Carolus Sigonio/Sigone, Carlo. Italian Humanist and died there philologist. Born Modena 1522'24, 27. 8. 1 584. Initial legal training at Modena with Lodovico Castelvetro and Lodovico del Monte also studying Greek with and Francesco Porto'. I 5 3 8-154 2. studied philosophy and medicine at Bologna and Pavia. Succeeded Porto as prof. of Greek at Modena in 1 546, 15 5 2 prof. at the Scuola di San Marco in Venice. 156 0 prof. of rhetoric at Padua; prof. at Bologna from 1 563 until his death in 1584. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

S.' philological and historical works which circulated and were admired thr~ughout Europe, attest from the outset to his interest as a constitutional historian in the emergence and development of legal and political institutions since Antiquity. Prior to and during his time in Venice, S. initially concentrated on the history of the_ Ro~~n magistracies and Roman law (3]; (4), his ed1tton of the Fasti [ 1 ), which he frequently revised and to which he added a comment~ry in 15 56, and his edition of Livy with schoh~ and a new Chronologia (2.]. As prof. of r~etoric a~ Padua, where he became entangled in v10lent ph1lological disputes, for instance already in 1 5 54 with Francesco ➔ Robortello, his work ~n the sp~~ches of Cicero inspired him to publish an ed1t10n of Cicero fragments, De Dialogo (5). S. came under pressure on several occasions f~om the censor in Papal Bologna because of his subsequent important work on the history of the Western Roman Empire and Italy from

SNELL, BRUNO

the Imperial Period 171; pq, which indirectly touched on the problem of the status of the Church within the secular world. Towards the end of his life, his defence of the authenticity of the Pseudo-Ciceronian Consolatio (pub I. 158 3 ), whose author was repeatedly declared to be S. himself (e.g. by Justus • Lipsius), tarnished the reputation of this renowned Humanist. WRITINGS

( 1] Regum, consulum, dictatorum ac censorum Romanorum fasti (edition with comm.), 4 vols., 1550-15 59 (2) T. Livii Patavini Historiarum ab urbe condita libri (edition, with scholia), Venice 1555 (et al.) [3] De antiquo iure civium Romanorum libri II, Venice 1560 (4) De antiquo iure Italiae libri 111,Venice 1 560 IsI De dialogo liber, Venice 1562 (6) De republica Atheniensium libri 1111, Bologna 1 564 171 Historiarum de regno Italiae libri XX, 4 vols., Venice 15741591 [81 Historiarum de occidentali imperio libri XX, Bologna 1578 [9[ De republica Hebraeorum libri VII, Bologna 1582. [1 oj Historiae Bononiensis libri VI, Bologna 1582. [11I Opera omnia edita, et inedita, cum notis ... et ejusdem vita, ed. L. A. MURATORII P. ARGELATIJS, 6 vols., Milan 1732.1737 [12) Del dialogo, ed. and trans. F. PIGNATI'I, 1993. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

G. BARTOLUcc1,La repubblica ebraica di Carlo Sigonio. Modelli politici dell'eta moderna, 2.007 (141 W. McCRAIG, Carlo Sigonio. The Changing World of the Late Renaissance, 1989. ROSWITHASIMONS [13)

specialisms. He argued for a religious diversity in Judeo-Christian antiquity alongside all orthodoxies. S. achieved fame with his discovery of a letter from Clement of Alexandria containing two fragments of a 'secret Gospel of Mark', on which he offered interpretations, which scholars mostly rejected (81; 19). Rumours of forgery rumbled on after S.'s death, and in 2005 they were systematically substantiated I 13). However, there are many scholars who still accept the authenticity of the Secret Gospel. WRITINGS [ 1 I Tannaitic Parallels to the Gospels (diss. Jerusalem), 1951 [2) Palestinian Judaism in the First Century, in: M. DAVIS(ed.), Israel: Its Role in Civilization, 1956, 67-81 [3) The Description of the Essenes in Josephus and the Philosophoumena, in: Hebrew Union College Annual 2.9, 1958, 2 7 3-3 13 [4 I The Image of God: Notes on the Hellenization of Judaism, in: Bulletin of the John Is) Heroes Rylands Library 40, 1958, 473-p2. and Gods (with M. HADAS),1965 [61 Palestinian Parties and Politics That Shaped the Old Testament, 1971 171 Zealots and Sicarii: Their Origins and Relations, in: Harvard Theological Review 64, 1971, 1-19 [81 Clement of Alexandria and a Secret Gospel of Mark, 1973 [9) The Secret Gospel: The Discovery and Interpretation of the Secret Gospel According to Mark, 1974 (10] Jesus the Magician, 1978 [II) Jewish Religious Life in I L. fINKEL'ITEIN the Persian Period, in: W. D. DAVIES (ed.), The Cambridge History of Judaism, Vol. 1: The Persian Period, 1984, 2.19-2.78 (121 Studies in the Cult of Yahweh, 2. vols., ed. S. J. D. COHEN,

1996.

Smith, Morton SECONDARY

American ancient historian and religious scholar. Born Philadelphia 29. 5. 1915, died New York 11. 7. 1991. From 1936, read New Testament studies, Jewish studies and GraecoRoman religion at Harvard and Jerusalem; 1948 doctorate in Jerusalem; 19 57 doctorate in theology at Harvard. 19 50-19 5 5 assistant prof. at Brown Univ., Rhode Island, 1956/57 at Drew Univ., New York; 1957-1985 prof. at Columbia Univ ., New York. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

After training as a scholar of religion, S. worked in four fields: ancient Israel, the New Testament, ancient Judaism and ancient magic. The results of his research were original and often disputed. S. argued that ancient Judaism was subject to a profound Greek influence [2); (4). He attempted a new approach to Flavius Josephus and his description of the Essenes 13) and sought to establish a new role for magic as the linking element between the ancient religions (and hence also Christianity) I 10). S. saw the ancient world as a whole, and opposed

LITERATURE

[13) S. C. CARI.SON,The Gospel Hoax. Morton Smith's Invention of Secret Mark, 2.005 (14) S. J. D. CoHEN, In Memoriam Morton Smith. Morton Smith and His Scholarly Achievement, in: F. PARENTE/ J. SIEVERS(ed.), Josephus and the History of the Greco-Roman Period, 1994, 1-10 [15) G. D. STROUMSA(ed.), Morton Smith and Gerhom Scholem. Correspondence 1945-1982., 2.008. ERNSTBALTRUSCH

Snell, Bruno German classical philologist. Born Hildesheim died Hamburg 31.10.1986. 1914 Abitur at Gymnasium Johanneum in Liineburg; 1918-1922/23 studied (mostly classical philology) at Leiden, Gottingen, Berlin and Munich. 1922 doctorate at Gottingen; 1925 habil. at Hamburg. From 1931 prof. ord. in classical philology at Hamburg. Retired 1960. 18.6.1896,

CAREER

AND

WORKS

S. began studying law and economics at Edinburgh shortly before the outbreak of World

SNELL,

588

BRUNO

War I, and was interned in Britain when hostilities began. After an exchange took him to Leiden, he was able to resume his studies there in 1918, now in classical philology. He continued studying in this field from 1919 at Gottingen, Berlin and Munich. He also read history, philosophy and English studies. He took his doctorate in 1922 at Gottingen with the philosopher Georg Misch [ 1 ), and gained his habil. at Hamburg in 192 5 [2]. In 1931, S. was appointed to a professorship in classical philology at the Univ. of Hamburg. During the Third Reich, he maintained a position of integrity, keeping his distance from the regime. For instance, with no thought for himself, he helped Kurt ➔ Latte, who was persecuted as a Jew. S., who received prestigious honours (including the 'Peace Class' of the Order Pour le merite), was greatly valued as a person and a scholar both at home and abroad. S.'s work displays two areas of interest: editorial and lexicographic work and his articles on Greek intellectual history. His profound knowledge of papyrology served S. well in his editions of Bacchylides (3] and Pindar [5]. He also initiated the five-volume new edition of the fragments of the Greek tragedians (TrGF) to follow on from the 1 8 5 2 work of August --> Nauck. S. wrote the first volume, with the Didascaliae and fragments of the minor tragedians [9 ], and the first half of the second, with the fragmenta incerta preserved in literary works [10). He was also the founder and first editor of the Lexikon des fruhgriechischen Epos (LfgrE) [7 ], which aimed to collate the entire vocabulary of early Greek literature and to catalogue the changes in word meanings by means of precise interpretations of the evidence. Both of these major projects instigated by S. remain indispensable tools for Greek scholars today. A question central to S.'s study of intellectual history was to what extent Western configurations of consciousness that seem self-evident today but that were unknown to the early Greeks may have first emerged in the course of historical development in Greece. Thus, S. attempted in his habil. thesis to demonstrate that human action was first understood as being motivated by free and spontaneous decision in Greek tragedy - but not in Homer or Archaic lyric poetry [2.]. The highlight of his studies came with his essay collection Die Entdeckung des Geistes [4), in which S. argued, among other things, that Homer did not know the concepts of human 'body' and 'soul' as integral entities. Rather, in the Homeric view there were only physical and psychic organs that performed particular functions. The lack of a unifying individual entity was the reason, he argued, that people attributed their actions not to their own decisions but to the influence of the gods.

INFLUENCE

S.'s theories on intellectual history still provoke debate today. He assumed that the lack of a particular Greek word in the texts permitted the inference that the concept such a word signified was also absent from the thought of the period in which the text was written. This and other fundamental assumptions of S.'s have encountered criticism. The British philosopher Bernard Williams, for instance, has subjected them to a concise critique ( 1 5. 60-66]. Nonetheless, S.'s ability to combine terminological acuity with linguistic subtlety in asserting semantic nuance set a lasting standard. His text editions and the LfgrE remain outstanding achievements. LW: [8. 2.13-2.2.5). E: Munich, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Ana 490. WRITINGS

( 1) Die Ausdriicke fiir den Begriff des Wissens in der vorplatonischen Philosophic (diss. Gottingen), 192.4 (2) Aischylos und das Handeln im Drama (habit. thesis Hamburg), 1928 (3) Bacchylidis carmina cum fragmentis post F. Blass et G. Suess (edition; Teubneriana), 1934 ( 10 1970) (4) Die Entdeckung des Geistes, 1946 ('1955; s1980; English: The Discovery of the Mind: The Greek Origins of European Thought, trans. T. G. RosF.NMEYER,1953) Is] Pindari carmina cum fragmentis (edition; Teubneriana), 1953 ('1959 et al.; 1987-1989 rev. H. MAEHI.ER) (6) Griechische Metrik, 1 1955 (4 1982.) (7] (ed.) Lexikon des friihgriechischen Epos. Vol. 1, nos. 1-3, 1955-1959, 1-512. [8) Gesammelte Schriften (with foreword by H. ERSSE),1966 (9) Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta, Vol. 1: Didascaliae tragicae, catalogi tragicorum et tragoediarum, testimonia et fragmenta tragicorum minorum (edition), 1971 (•1986, with addenda by R. KANNICHT) [10] Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta, Vol. 2.: Fragmenta adespota. testimonia (edition; with R. KANNJCHT),1981. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

(11) H. ERSSE,Bruno Snell, in: Gnomon 59, 1987, [12] A. LESKY,review of Bruno Snell, 770-775 22, Die Entdeckung des Geistes, in: Gnomon 1950, 97-106 [13) G. LOHSE,Bruno Snell, 18961986, in: Hamburgische Lebenshilder. Die Wissenschaftler, Vol. 8, 1994, 43-73 (14) G. LOHSE,

Geistesgeschichte und Politik. Bruno Snell als Mittler zwischen Wissenschaft und Gesellschaft, in: A&A 43, 1997, 1-2.0 (15) B. WILLIAMS, Understanding Homer. Literature, History and Ideal Anthropology, in: B. WILLIAMS, The Sense of the Past, 2.006, 60-68. TOBIAS JOHO

Soden, Wolfram von German Assyriologist. Born Berlin 19. 6. died Munster 6. 10. 1996. School in Berlin and Marburg; studied Assyriology and 1908,

SODEN,

Semitic languages at Marburg, Munich and Leipzig. Doctorate 19 3 1 Leipzig. 1 9 33 ha bi I. Gottingen. From 1934 lecturer, from 1936 prof. ext. at Gottingen. 1940 prof. ord. in Berlin, but did not take up his teaching post because of war service (ending as a Lieutenant and interpreter). 1945 teaching at Gottingen; 1954 prof. ord. in Assyriology at Vienna. 1961 prof. ord. at Munster in ancient Semitic philology and Near Eastern antiquities. 1957 (corresponding) member of the DAI. 1957 member of the Osterreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1969 of the Akademie der Wissenschaften und Literatur at Mainz; 1973 of the Akademie der Wissenschaften at Heidelberg; 1981 of the the British Academy in London and the Akademie der Wissenschaften at Gottingen. CAREER,

WORKS

AND

INFLUENCE

S. came from a renowned family of scholars deeply influenced by Protestantism. His grandfather, Baron Hermann von Soden, pastor and prof. ext. in Berlin, had published the Greek New Testament in four volumes, and his father Hans von Soden was 191 8 prof. of ecclesiastical history, ecclesiastical law and Christian archaeology at Breslau, then from 19:z.4 at Marburg, where he was also rector and active in the Confessing Church (Bekennende Kirche). S.'s studies in Leipzig were formative for his career. The famous 'Leipzig School' of ancient Near Eastern studies had established itself there in the wake of Heinrich Zimmern and Franz H. Weissbach, through scholars such as the Assyriologist Benno • Landsberger, the Hittitologist Johannes Friedrich and the legal historian Paul • Koschaker, and it produced a number of important new graduates such as Wilhelm Eilers, Adam • Falkenstein and Herbert Petschow. S.'s scholarly work was particularly profoundly influenced by the revolutionary (but often unpublished) ideas of Landsberger. This is especially true of the cuneiform sources in the Akkadian (Babylonian-Assyrian) language, for which his works on the syllabary (51, grammar [ 6) and vocabulary [9 J are fundamental reference works for modern Assyriology. In a plethora of other publications, S. promoted the understanding of the religion, culture and history of the ancient Near East through translations and interpretations of content. His starting-point was generally his exemplary observation of the historical development of cuneiform palaeography and orthography, which often gave rise to a new interpretation and improved understanding of the source material, but also led to a dispute lasting many years with Erich Ebeling over his book Tod und Leben nach den Vorstellungen der Babylonier (193I) and the cuneiform text editions it includes.

WOLFRAM

VON

The preliminary work on an Assyrian dictionary by Bruno Meissner, to which S. fell heir, would be of incalculable help in his ongoing work. Over more than 2 5 years, S. expanded this material into his magnum opus, the Akkadisches Handworterbuch (9). The earlier sections of the resultant work surpassed, in both the quality and quantity of source evaluations, the approximately simultaneous rival project of the :z.6-volume Chicago Assyrian Dictionary (cf. Adolph Leo • Oppenheim), which was produced at much greater expense, and S. thus also indirectly contributed to the improvement of that work. In his latter years, S. turned more frequently to Hebrew studies ( 13 ]. In spite of diminishing energy, he remained active and productive as a scholar until his death. The last of his 180 or more articles were published posthumously. LW: (201. WRITINGS

f 1) Der hymnisch-epische Dialekt des Akkadischen, in: ZA 40, 1931, 163-2.2.7 (continued in 41, 1933, 90-183) (2.) Die akkadischen Synonymenlisten (edition), 1933 (3) Der Aufstieg des Assyrerreiches als geschichtliches Problem, 1937 (4) Arabische wehrkundliche Ausdrucke, 1942. (•1990) [5] Das akkadische Syllabar, 1948 (•1991) [6] Grundriss 1952. ( 1 1995) der akkadischen Grammatik, 171Sumerische und akkadische Hymnen und Gebete (edition; with A. FALKENSTEIN), 1953 (8] Herrscher im Alten Orient, 1954 [9] (ed.) Akkadisches [ 10] ZweisprachigHandworterbuch, 1959-1981 keit in der geistigen Kultur Babyloniens, 1960 [ 1 1) Leistung und Grenze sumerischer und babylonischer Wissenschaft, 1965 (1 1974) [11.] Sprache, Denken und Begriffsbildung im Alten Orient, 197 3 [ 13] Bibel und Alter Orient. Altorientalische Beitrage zum Alten Testament, ed. H.-P. MOLLER, 1985 f 14] Einfohrung in die Altorientalistik, 1985 (English: The Ancient Orient, trans. D. G. SCHLEY, 1994) [15J Aus Sprache, Geschichte und Religion Babyloniens, ed. L. CAGNI, 1989 (16] Das Gilgamesch- Epos (trans.; with A. SCHOTT), 1989 (17) Der Aire Orient. Eine Einfohrung, ed. and with a postscript by M. P. STRECK,2.006 (expanded reiss.). SECONDARY

I18)

LITERATURE

R. BORGER, Wolfram von Soden, in: AfO 44/45, [19) M. DIETRICH (ed.), Vom 1997-1998, 588-594 Alten Orient zum Alten Testament. FS W. Soden, 1995 [20) D. 0. EDZARD,Wolfram, Freiherr von Soden (with bibliography), in: ZA 87, 1997, 1631 80 [21) J. RENGER,Altorientalistik, in: J. ELVERT I J. NIELSEN-SIKORA (ed.), Kulturwissenschaften und Nationalsozialismus, 2.008, 469-502. (especially 481-484) (2.1) W. R0LUG / M. DIETRICH(ed.), Lisan mitburti. FS W. Freiherr von Soden, 1969. KARLHECKER

SOLMSEN,

FRIEDRICH

Solmsen, Friedrich German-American classical philologist. Born Friedrich Heinrich Rudolf S., Bonn, 4. 2. 1904, died Chapel Hill, North Carolina, 30. 1. 1989. Studied classical philology at Bonn, Heidelberg and Berlin. Doctorate Berlin 1928 and habil. there 1929. 1929-19 3 3 priv .-doz. in Berlin; emigrated to Britain 1933. From 1933 at Trinity College, Cambridge. Moved to United States 1937, initially to Olivet College in Michigan. From 1940, prof. of classical philology at Cornell Univ. (Ithaca, New York). Various guest professorships in USA and Europe, including 1968 in Heidelberg. American citizen 1943. 1962-1974 prof. Univ. of Wisconsin in Madison. Continued as private scholar after retirement, also teaching in Chapel Hill, North Carolina. Member of several academies (e.g. Dutch Royal Academy, American Academy of Arts and Sciences, British Academy). CAREER

AND

WORKS

The son of a prof. of lndo-European languages, S. studied classical philology at Bonn, Heidelberg and Berlin, his teachers at Berlin including Ulrich von ► Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Eduard • Norden and especially Werner • Jaeger. S. took his doctorate in 1928 with a thesis on the logic and rhetoric of Aristotle I 1 ]. After his habil., he worked as a priv.-doz. in Berlin from 1929 and 1933. The child of Jewish parents, S. left Germany in 1933 following his dismissal under the National Socialist race laws, and went to Cambridge, where he took his second doctorate (PhD) in 1936. Because of the political situation in Britain, he went to the United States in 1937. From 1937 to 1940, S. taught philosophy at Olivet College in Michigan. From 1940, he was assistant prof. at Cornell Univ. in upstate New York, later becoming full prof. of classics and dean in 1953. From 1962, with interruptions for guest professorships, he worked at the Institute for Research in the Humanities at the Univ. of Wisconsin at Madison until his retirement in 197 4. S. published many books and over 1 50 articles [6) (including on Greek epic, Greek tragedy and philosophy, Hellenistic poetry, poetics and rhetoric, Roman philosophy and the philosophical ~orks of Cicero). In his studies of Antiphon, he discovered a forensic system of proof [9. 57). As a teacher, S. enjoyed an outstanding reputation I10). His lasting achievement was to help improve relations between German and American univs. after World War II. Moreover, his interest as a scholar always extended to a wide chronological spectrum of Greek literature.

590 WRITINGS

I I J Die Entwicklung der aristotelischen Logik und Rhetorik (diss. Berlin), 192.9 (2) Antiphonstudien. 1931 (3I Hesiod and Aeschylus, 1949 141 Aristoteles' System of the Physical World, 1960 lsl Electra and Orestes, 1967 (6) K. S., 3 vols., 1968-1982. (7) Intellectual Experiments of the Greek Enlightenment, 1975 (8) Isis among the Greeks and Romans, 1979. SECONDARY

l91 K.

LITERATURE

Eine Revolution der griechischen Wissenskultur. Gorgias, Antiphon, die Dissoi Logoi und der Historiker Thukydides. in: J. FRIED / TH. KAIi.ER (ed.), Wissenskulturen. zu einem forschungsstrategischen Beitrage Konzept, 2.003, 57-71 (10) H. FLASHAR / S. VOGT, Friedrich Solmsen, in: FLASHAR Alt.wiss. 91-92 I11 J W. LuowtG, Friedrich Solmsen, in: Wiirzburger Jbb. 12., 1986, 2.32. (12.) E. MENSCHING, Zur Berliner Philologie in der spateren Weimarer Zeit. Ober Friedrich Solmsens Berliner Jahre ( 19221933), in: l.atein und Griechisch in Berlin und Brandenburg 33, 1989, 2.6-76 I13) E. MENSCHING, Friedrich Solmsen, in: Latein und Griechisch in Berlin und Brandenburg 46, 2.002., 122.-130 I 14J H. F. NoRTH, Friedrich Solmsen, in: Gnomon BRtNER, Wilhelm Siiss, in: Gnomon 42., 1970, 638-640. PETER KUHLMANN

WRITINGS I 1) Numismatique de la Crete ancienne, accompagnee de l'histoire, la geographic et la mythologie de l'ile, 1890 [2) Epµ11vEiat(J)VµV11µEi(J)v tou EA.£\lOlVlalCO\l µuotllCO\lIC\)l(AQ\) Kal to1toypacp11Cci EA.£uoivoc;Ka\ A0rtvcov, 1901 [3] Das Athener (4) Ta Nationalmuseum, 3 vols., 1903-1937 voµioµata tO\l Kpatouc;t Orsini, Giovanni Pietro ► Bellori and Lorenz ~-> Beger, old notes made by Stosch, and the advice of the experienced numismatist, Cardinal Alessandro Albani, and the gem experts Ridolfino ----+ Venu~i, V. and Nicolo Galeotti, whom he consulted m person, Winckelmann succeeded in identifying by name the subjects of many of the pieces in the Stosch collection I1 5). V. donated his collection to Pope Benedict XIV, and it was incorporated into the Museo Sacra, where V. was appointed in 1757 as the first curator. Some of these collection objects are

633

now held by other museums I 1 4 I; I •6. 79, 1 16 I. His substantial library became part of the Biblioteca Palatina in Mannheim I • 11-Although V. was in regular contact with scholars of his day, such as Paolo Maria ► Paciaudi in Parma (with whom V. had a legal dispute I 12. 87)) and Antonio Francesco ➔ Gori in Florence, contemporary scholars rank him far below these contemporaries. One of his works 131 presents a scholarly dispute (discorso) with Gori on numismatic matters. In 1739, V. published a work on gemstones, the Dissertatio glyptographica (4), whose very title signals its scholarly approach; it rapidly became well-known in its day. In this, V. did not merely present a collection, but investigated problems of glyptology (the study of engraved gems) as a whole. In accordance with this purpose, he included background information in the book, including lists of ancient and, in the tradition of Giorgio Vasari's biographical lexicon of artists, Le Vite de' piu eccellenti architetti, pittori, et scultori italiani, da Cimabue infino a' tempi nostri ( 1 5 50), modern glyptographers. These lists were continued in 17 50 by Pierre-Jean Mariette.

VETTORI,

PIERO

[ 1.JI C. GASPARRI, Collezioni archeologiche, in: G. Puu.1EsE CARRATELLI et al. (ed.), Enciclopedia dell'arte antica classica e orientale, Suppl. 2., Vol. 2., 1994, 192.-2.2.5 [14) J. SPIER,Late Antique (15) ZAZOFF and Early Christian Gems, 2.007 Die antiken GG, 1 2.1 [ 16) E. ZWIF.RLEIN-DIEHL, Gemmen und ihr Nachleben, 2.007. MARCUS HEINRICH

HERMANNS

Vettori, Piero Petrus Victorius; Italian Humanist, philosopher and philologist. Born Florence 1499, died there 8. 1 2. 158 5. Studied mathematics and ancient languages in Florence. Before 1530, various positions in the service of the Republic of Florence; 15 30-153 8 studied philology and philosophy in San Casciano in Val di Pesa. 1538158 3 prof. of Latin and Greek at Florence. LIFE

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WORKS

V. came from a noble Florentine family. He studied mathematics, astrology, physics and Greek in the city with Andrea Dazzi. He had begun studying law at Pisa in 1514, but broke off for health reasons. In 15 22, he went to Spain in the company of a relation who was to accomWRITINGS pany the newly-elected Pope, Hadrian VI, on his [I) Veteris gemmae ad Christian um usum exsjourney from Toledo to Rome. While in Spain, calptae brevis explanatio ad academicos Etruscos he collated ancient inscriptions. Between 1523 Cortonenses, Rome 1732. 12)Nummus aereus veterum Christianorum commentario in duas partes dis- and 1 5 29, V. assumed various offices and diplomatic missions in the service of the Republic tributo explicatus, Rome I 7 37 (3) II fiorino d'oro of Florence, and rose to the considerable rank antico illustrato, Florence 1738 [41 Dissertatio glyptographica sive gemmae duae vetustissimae of a Gonfaloniere di Compagnia. From 1527 to emblematibus et Graeco artificis nomine insignitae, I 5 29, he was in the vanguard of the republican quae exstant Romae in Museo Victorio, explicarae movement opposed to the rule of Alessandro et illustratae, Rome 1739 Is) Animadversiones de' Medici (8. 9-13); (5). When Alessandro was in lamellam aeneam vetustissimam Musei Victorii restored as Duke in 153 1, V. retired to his estate hujus moduli, Rome 1741 (61 Sanctorum septem at San Casciano, where he undertook intensive dormientium historia, ex extypis Musei Victorii expressa, Rome 1741 171Epistola ad virum cla- philological and philosophical studies. In 153 8, Cosimo I de' Medici appointed him in Florence rissimum Paullum Mariam Paciaudi ... de Musei initially as prof. of Latin; he later also taught Victorii emhlemate et de nonnullis numismatibus Alexandri Severi ... , Rome 1747 18) Dissertatio Greek and ethics (i.e. Aristotle). In 1555, sumapologetica de quibusdam Alexandri Severi numis- moned by Pope Marcellus II, he took up resimatibus, Rome 1749 [9) Dissertatio philologica dence in Rome, but he returned to Florence in qua nonnulla monumenta sacrae vetustatis ex Museo the same year when Marcellus died. His students Victorio depromta aeri incisa tabula vulgantur, included Benedetto Varcchi, Iacopo Corbinelli expenduntur, illustrantur, Rome 175 1 I10] Del and Fulvio • Orsini. culto superstizioso di Cibele, detta dagli antichi La V. left speeches and Latin poems, as well Gran Madre, dissertazione ... coll a qua le s'illustra una statuetta di marmo Pario, che si conserva in as a substantial correspondence (3), documenting his network of contacts across Europe. He Roma nel Museo Vettori. Del culto di Cibele presso became famous as the last great Florentine gli antichi, Rome 1753. Hellenist, and as one of the leading textual philologists of his day. Between 15 34 and 1584, SECONDARY LITERATURE [ 11 I E. DE TIPALDO,Biografia degli Italiani illustri he edited and wrote commentaries on works by nelle scienze, lettere ed arti del secolo XVIII e de conPlato, Aeschylus, Euripides, Aristotle (Rhetoric, [12.] E. FINO, Poetics [2 ]; ( 7 ], Politics, Nicomachaean Ethics), temporanei, Vol. 4, 1837, 2.99-301 II carteggio tra Anton Francesco Gori e Paolo Xenophon, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Porphyry Maria Paciaudi: ricostruzione e studio, in: C. and, among the Roman authors, Terence, Cato, De BENEDICTJS / M. G. MARZ! (ed.), L'epistolario Varro, Cicero, Sallust, Columella and Gellius. 2.004, 8 5-100 di Anton Francesco Gori,

VETTORI,

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634

He collated some manuscripts of Sophocles. 1553 saw the publication of the first fruits of his studies and lectures in the form of a collection of his Variae lectiones (a title soon copied by Marcus Antonius ~• Muretus and Justus • Lipsius) in 25 books, with another 13 books added in 1569 (1). V. here compiled conjectures, definitions and translations of Greek expressions into Latin. He also edited the Latin writings of his friend Giovanni della Casa ( 1 564). One vernacular piece is V.'s didactic prose treatise about the olive tree (Trattato delle Lodi et de/la colti-

vazione degli ulivi, 1 569). WRITINGS

[1) Variarum lectionum libri XXV, Florence 15 53 (et al.; 1569 included 13 new books, with reiss.) (2) Commentarii in primum librum Aristotelis De arte poetarum, Florence 1 560 (reiss. 1967) (3) Epistolarum libri X, Orationes 14 et Liber de laudibus Joannae Austriacae, Florence 1586 (new ed. of Epistolarum libri 1991, ed., trans. and comm. G. PoMPELLA). SECONDARY

LITERATURE

[4) L. CESARINI MARTINELLI, Pier Vettori e gli umanisti tedeschi, in: Firenze e la Toscana dei Medici nell'Europa del Cinquecento, Vol. :z., 1983, 707726 [5) S. Lo RE, La crisi della liberta fiorentina. Alie origini della formazione politica e intellettuale di Benedetto Varchi e Piero Vettori, 2006 [6) R. MoUREN,La lecture assidue des classiques. Marcello Cervini et Piero Vettori, in: P. G1LLJ (ed.), Humanisme et eglise en Italic et en France meridionale, :z.004, 433-463 [7) A. PoRRo, Pier Vettori editore di testi greci. La 'Poetica' di Aristotele, in: Italia medioevale e umanistica 26, 198 3, 307358 (8] W. R0DIGER,Petrus Victorius aus Florenz. Studien zu einem Lebensbilde, 1896. DOROTHEE GALL

Victorius, Petrus v. Vettori, Piero Vidal-Naquet, Pierre French ancient historian. Born Paris 23. 7. 1930, died Nice 28. 7. 2006. Attended the elite Paris Lycee Henri-IV. Parents murdered 1944 en route to Auschwitz. Studied at the Sorbonne in Paris. Doctorate and history teaching certificate 1952 (Docteur es lettres and Agrege d'histoire). After teaching at Orleans ( 19 55 ), assistant 1956-1960 at Univ. of Caen and 1961/62 Litle. 1962.-1964 researcher at Paris Centre national de la recherche scientifique (CNRS). 1964-1966 Maitre de conferences (lecturer) at Univ. of Lyon. 1966-1969 Sous-directeur de recherche at Ecole pratique des hautes etudes (EPHE) in Paris. From 1969, Directeur de recherche at EPHE, where the sixth faculty separated in 1975 to form the Ecole des hautes etudes en science sociales (EHESS).

1989-1997 head of Centre Louis Gernet EHESS. Of/icier de la Legion d'honneur. WORK

AND

at

INFLUENCE

V.-N.'s academic work took place at a time when historical studies in France were undergoing a profound methodological upheaval. The so-called nouvelle histoire was seceding in a deliberately radical break from traditional narrative history, and emphasizing the crucial importance of long-term structures and major cyclical trends. In enforcing this concept, there was an intensive and defining effort to include the results of research in the allied disciplines of social science, such as sociology and ethnology. Since the study of ancient societies could not draw on comprehensive and quantifiable source materials, such as were available for other periods, 'historical anthropology' tended to turn to comparative analysis in an effort to shed light on the lives of ancient peoples via the structural factors they displayed in common with other cultures. This trend in research was brought into focus at the Centre Louis Gernet, to which V.-N. belonged for many years, and whose director he was between 1989 and 1997. Some of his own studies were written in collaboration with Jean-Pierre -. Vernant (9 ]; [ 7] and Michel Austin (3 ). His analyses of Greek society, of which the compendium The Black Hunter (10] became the most famous, led the way in incorporating the results of ethnological research (inspired in France at the time above all by the structural anthropology of Claude Levi-Strauss) in studies of ancient history. At the same time, however, V.-N. repeatedly warned that the structural analysis of ancient societies must never overshadow the peculiar dynamic of the specific historical situation. In the light of the meagre inventory of quantifiable sources, he drew attention to the necessity of keeping in mind the historical individuality of the particular social situation alongside the emphasis on common anthropological factors [10. 319-334). Alongside his work in classical studies, which included writings on myth [6] as well as history (e.g. [3); (9); [ 12]), V.-N. became known to a wider public above all with his campaign against the brutal methods of French colonial rule in Algeria. As early as 1958, he published a book on this subject, detailing the fate of the communist mathematician Maurice Audin, who had been tortured to death by the French authorities [ 1 ]. The fight against torture and the abuse of state power remained an important theme to V.-N. (4], whose parents had been murdered by the Nazis. V.-N. thus became a shining example of a historian who always saw the analysis of

VISCONTI,

ENNIO

QUIRINO

former cultures in terms of its relevance to the world of the present. M: Memoires, 2 vols., 1995-1998.

his doctorate ( r 771 ), he increasingly assisted his father, who in r 768 had succeeded Johann • Winckelmann as Papal prefect of Joachim antiquities. With his father, V. compiled the first volume of the catalogue of the Vatican Museo WRITINGS (1) L'affaire Audin, 1958 121Clisthene l'Athenien, Pio-Clementina, which appeared under his 1964 (3) Economies et societes en Grece ancienne father's name Ir I- From 177 5, V. was in the ser141La torture vice of Pope Pius VI. In 178 3, he was appointed (with M. AUSTIN), 1972 ( 1 2007) clans la Republique. Essai d'histoire et de polivice-curator of the Vatican Library. V. lost his 1954-1962., 1972. lsl Les tique contemporaines, posts following a conflict with his father. In Juifs, la memoire et le present, 2. vols., 198 1-1991 178 5, he became librarian to Prince Sigismondo (6] Mythe et tragedie en Grece ancienne (with Chigi, and in the same year, he published the J.-P. VERNANT),1986 (English: Tragedy and Myth second volume of the museum catalogue, now in Ancient Greece, trans. J. Li.ovn, 198 1) 171 under his own name [2]. Travail et esclavage en Grece ancienne (with J.-P. I8 I La democratic grecque vue VERNANT),1988 Following the death of his father in 1785, V. d'ailleurs, 1990 (reiss. 1996) 19I La Grece anci- finally resigned from his position at the Vatican enne, 3 vols. (withj.-P. VERNANT),1990-1992. (10) Library, which he had resumed since the quarrel. Le chasseur noir. Formes de pensee et formes de Although the position of director and prefect of societes clans le monde grec, '1991 (', 9 H,; English: antiquities intended for V. was now passed to The Black Hunter: Forms of Thought and Forms his brother held Filippo Aurelio, V. continued his of Society in the Greek World, trans. A. SZEGF.OYwork on the museum catalogue (Volume 3, 1788 MASZAK, 1986) (11) Le monde d'Homere, 2.000 I 2 ]). In 1788, he became curator of the Museo [ 12. I Les Grecs, les historiens, la democratie, 2.000 Capitolino, and in 1790 he was named Director [13) Le miroir brise. Tragedie athenienne et politique, 2001. of Antiquities there [91. During these years, he was also active at the Accademia dell'Arcadia, SECONDARY LITERATURE forging friendships with Vincenzo Monti, II 4) F. HARTOGet al. (ed.), Pierre Vidal-Naquet, un Francesco • Piranesi and Francesco Milizia, and historien clans la cite, 1998 [ 15 I M.-M. MAcroux, frequenting the literary salons of Rome. Un Passeur de verite, in: Pierre Vidal-Naquet. With the proclamation of the Roman Republic Dialogues d'histoire ancienne 32., 2.006, 9-12. by the army of Napoleon in February 1798, V. (16) 0. MONGIN / J.-P. PEYROlll.OU, Pierre Vidaltook the office of Minister of the Interior, and Naquet, un intellectuel hors pair, in: Esprit. Revue shortly afterwards became one of the five Consuls, internationale 6/345, 2.008, 6-44. but he was deposed in the same autumn. During BERNHARD LINKF. the lifetime of the Republic, he was responsible for antiquities as member (with Georg --► Zoega Visconti, Ennio Quirino and Gaetano Marini), then president of the lstituto Nazionale. In the Italian archaeologist and politician. Born French-appointed 1799, he fled to Paris in the face of autumn of Rome 30. 10. 175 r, the son of the archaeolothe Neapolitan occupation of Rome. In Paris, he gist Giovanni Battista Visconti, died Paris 7. 2. Surveillant des Antiques du Musee rose to become 1818. 1771 doctorate in Rome (Dr. iur.). 1775 valet to Pope Pius VI. 1783 vice-curator of the Central d'Art in the Louvre, which became the Musee Napoleon [9 ]. In 1 800, he made lists of Bibliotheca Vaticana; late 1783-1785 librarian antiquities in the possession of the Medici, to be to Prince Sigismondo Chigi. From 1788, curashipped to Paris. In 1803, V. was elected to the tor of the Capitoline Museum and from 1 790 lnstitut de France and the Academie des beaux Papal Direttore antiquario. 1798, Minister of arts, then in the following year to the Academie the Interior and then one of the five Consuls of des inscriptions et belles-lettres. In 181 4, Lord the Roman Republic. 1799 emigrated to Paris. • Elgin invited him to London as one of the There, from 1799, Surveillant des antiques du internationally renowned experts to assess the Musee central d'art in the Louvre. 1803 member Parthenon Sculptures [ 14. 219-229]. Falling ill of the lnstitut de France. 1817 invited to London to assess the 'Elgin Marbles'. Chevalier de la in 1816, V. died in Paris in 1818. Bon-Joseph Legion d'honneur; member of the Academies of Dacier and Antoine-Chrysostome + Quatremere de Quincy gave the funeral orations. Berlin, Gottingen and Munich. BIOGRAPHY

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CAREER

V.'s early, extraordinary success in studies moved his father to publish the didactic methods used. As a youth, V. translated Euripides' Hecuba and wrote occasional poetry. Following

WORKS

OF THE

ROME

YEARS

V. succeeded in developing his diverse education, which was characterized by a profound understanding of the sources and documentary evidence of antiquity, into an overview of the

VISCONTI,

ENNIO

QUIRINO

ancient world without the need for overarching theories. He planned (but never accomplished) an encyclopaedic work on antiquity [ 16] with Joseph Hilarius • Eckhel, Gaetano Marini, Georg • Zoega and Luigi Lanzi. His early interest in Greek literature and its translation - Euripides' Hecuba was followed by Pindar's Olympian Odes, in which he seems to have distanced himself from the aesthetic of the Accademia dell'Arcadia - continued in his work with the Italian translations of the Iliad by Vincenzo Monti and of Callimachus by Dionigi Strocchi, as well as in a critical comparison of Alfieri's Antigone and that of Sophocles (on which he lectured at Rome in 1782.). The study Lo stato attuale de/la romana letteratura ( 17 8 5) reflects the atmosphere in the Chigi circle. V. here emphasized the negative effects of the publishing market, political regime, censorship and financial dependence on authors. He supported the first Roman edition of Dante's Divina Commedia ( 179 1), which he discussed with its commentator, Baldassarre Lombardi. Antiquity and its visual arts were always at the heart of V.'s interests, and he sought a historical approach to it. Some of his writings of the last two decades of the 18th cent. attest to his discourse with collectors such as Cardinal Stefano Borgia, Marcantonio Borghese, Agostino Chigi, Girolamo Zulian, Stanislas Poniatowski and Thomas Jenkins. The first six volumes of the catalogue of the Museo Pio-Clementina appeared between 1782. and 1796 (1]; (2.). The last, on which his brother Filippo and Vincenzo Pacetti also collaborated, only appeared in 1810 (dated 1807). In this seminal work, V. proposed a thoroughly organized, systematic classification, in which genres (statues and portraits, reliefs and mosaics) and subjects (gods, heroes and demigods, history of antiquity, natural history, arts and crafts) were cross-referenced. The spatial arrangement of the museum should be organized in the same way. The combined effect of the catalogue and museum should be to use the surviving Roman antiquities to create an integrated representation of the ancient world. The first volume already displays V.'s innovative application of the philological method to the study of ancient art [15]. Examination of the ancient sources and direct study of the works themselves, in accordance with the precepts of Joseph -• Addison, Jonathan ➔ Richardson and Pierre-Jean Mariette, showed that these were not originals, but copies. In his account, V. follows the register of known replicas with a detailed description of the work under scrutiny, which he now discusses in terms of its evidence of a lost original and the presumed conception of that original, or interprets as an imitation in order then to arrive at an approxi-

mate idea of the original piece. Indeed, in many cases he was able to clarify the iconography and meaning of a piece by a comparative analysis of statues with gemstones, coins, reliefs and texts. V. also drew on literary sources for his attributions - some of which remain accepted today in which he considered not only the provenance of the copies, but also the materials (8]; [ 15 ]. As a result, we have him to thank for the identification not only of the Discus-Thrower of Myron, but also of the Eirene bearing the infant Plutus by Cephisodotus the Elder, Eurychides' Tyche and Boethus' Boy and Goose, as well as for the correct interpretation of the so-called 'Vatican as Cleopatra' as Ariadne, the 'Dying Gladiator' a Dying Gaul, the so-called 'Dying Seneca' as a Fisherman and the interpretation of the so-called Dionysus Sardanapalus and Menelaus supporting the body of Patroclus (the so-called Pasquin). V.'s study of the Tomb of the Scipios in the Antologia Romana soon after the excavations ( 1780) also discussed the linguistic difficulties raised by the epitaph of Scipio Barbatus (reprinted 1785 with illustrations by Francesco Piranesi). In the 1790s, V. studied the antiquities of the Borghese Collection. In 1794, he examined the Greek inscriptions from the Triopium of Herodes Atticus, even proposing an exhibition project with the painter Franz Sebald Unterperger in 1791. In 1796/97, V. worked for Marcantonio Borghese on the catalogue of ancient sculptures held in the villa on the Pincio, and on that for the finds from Gabii [13]. In these catalogues, V. dispensed with the method of presentation used in the Museo Pio-Clementina, but he returned to it in a folio volume of selected Borghese antiquities (publ. posthumously 182.1). In these years, V. also made some contributions to the Monumenti antichi inediti of Giuseppe Antonio Guattani. WORKS

OF THE

PARIS

YEARS

In Paris in 1803, Napoleon commissioned V. to assemble a volume of portraits of the great men of antiquity (recueil de tous les portraits des grands hommes) (10]. He then organized an extremely lavish campaign for new pictorial documentation, and in June 1810 was able to present Napoleon with an Iconographie grecque [4). The main section was devoted to Alexander the Great, who seemed to prefigure Napoleon in the establishment of his empire. Napoleon probably reserved sole rights to the work for gift purposes, but in 1810 Aubin-Louis Millin produced an epitome of the text and in 1811, a low-cost edition was in circulation. The companion volume, the lconographie Romaine [5], was published in 1817, now adorned with the image of Louis XVIII (10]. After a short guide written back in 1801, V. and Toussaint-Bernard Emeric-David issued the

VISCONTI, ENNIO QUIRINO

third and fourth volumes of the Musee fran,;ais (3). In this was seen a striking innovation departing from -+ Winckelmann: the continuity of the visual arts from Classical Greece up to the reign of Hadrian. Otherwise, his view of Hellenistic and Hadrianic art was reflected in the latter two catalogue volumes of the Museo Pio- Clementina (2); (8); [15). In the Musee fran,;ais, he espoused a positive view of the esprit d'imitation in modern art too, a view also expressed in his comments on the Elgin Marbles. In spite of his relentless work in this period, which is documented in a series of Memoires de l'institut, V. found time to write an article about some of the Aztec illustrations published in Alexander von Humboldt's Vue des Cordilleres

and bibliography of his writings was published in 1848/49 (7J. The 20th cent. recognized his importance to the culture of his time, and emphasized his innovative contributions in the field of philology, in overcoming Winckelmann's periodization and achieving accurate iconographic readings and what are now undisputed attributions [8]; [17); (15). LW: (7). WRITINGS [ 1 I II Museo Pio-Clementino descritto da G. B. Visconti, Vol. 1: Statue del Museo Pio-Clementino, Rome 1782. (et al.) l.2) II Museo Pio-Clementino descritto da E. Q. Visconti, vols. 2.: Statue; Vol. 4-5: Bassorilievi; Vol. 6: Busti, 1785-1796 (Vol. 7, 1807 [de facto 1810): Miscellanea, with addenda and corrections) (3 I Musee Fran~ais, vols. 3-4 (with T. B. EMl:Rtc-DAVID),Paris 1804-1809 (4) Iconographic ancienne, ou recueil des portraits authentiques des empereurs, rois, et hommes illustres de I' Antiquite. 1: Iconographic grecque (3 vols.), Paris 1808 (1 1811; et al.) IsI konographie ancienne, ou recueil des portraits authentiques des empereurs, rois, et hommes illustres de l'Antiquite. 2.. konographie romaine (4 vols.), Paris 1817-182.6 (et al.) [6] Le opere di Ennio Quirino Visconti, 19 vols., ed. [7) Florilegio visG. LABUS,Milan 1818-1835 conteo, o sia estratto della principale erudizione delle opere d'Ennio Quirino Visconti, 3 vols., ed. G. C. Ross,, 1948-1949.

et monumens des peup/es indigenes de l'Amerique (1812). When invited to London to assess the Parthenon sculptures in 1814, V. dismissed the disdainful verdict of Richard .. Payne Knight and other members of the Society of Dilettanti who were unable to see the value of these fragmentary pieces and considered them mediocre works in the Hadrianic style [ 14 J. V. did not content himself with demonstrating their superb quality, confirming their attribution to Phidias and his workshop [ 8), but also affirmed the decisive role of Phidias within the development of Greek art. However, V., whose meticulous attention had been trained in Roman sculpture, was not able to reconstruct this in critical terms. His statement of opinion, presented after a few months at the lnstitut de France, was printed by Lord Elgin in 181 6 I 1 4 J and reprinted on the initiative of V.'s widow in 1818, to assert V.'s primacy over Antonio Canova. APPRAISAL

AND

INFLUENCE

V. already enjoyed an international reputation during his lifetime, with his contemporaries recognizing his greatness. Carlo ► fea, in his 1784 commentary on Winckelmann's work, already includes an appreciation of V.'s wide-ranging competence and his intimate familiarity with the sources. Aubin-Louis Millin called him "the fairest conquest that ever France made in Italy", and Camillo Ugoni's Storia de/la letteratura italiana (1820) accords him a cultural role of the highest importance. However, the appearance of the Milan edition of his works [6] also provided the occasion in 1821 for the publication in Italian translation of the harsh criticisms of Heinrich Karl Kohler (director of the department of antiquities at the Hermitage in St. Petersburg) in the periodical Biblioteca italiana, placing V. below ➔ Winckelmann and ---. Zoega. During the 19th cent., V. 's achievement was often viewed in a negative light because of his political orientation (e.g. by Giacomo -+ Leopardi) I 1 5), but a compendium

SECONDARY

LITERATURE

(8] S. FERRI, Elogio degli aspetti positivi di E. Q. Visconti, in: La critica d'arte 6, 1937, 2.2.6-2.35 [9J D. GALLO,I Visconti. Una famiglia romana al servizio dei Papi, della Repubblica e di Napoleone, in: Roma moderna e contemporanea 2., 1994, 77-90 [10) D. GALLO, L'ideologia imperiale e l'iconographie grecque et romaine di Ennio Quirino Visconti, in: Ideologie e patrimonio storico-culturale nell'eta rivoluzionaria e napoleonica. A proposito del trattato di Tolentino (Atti del convegno 1997), 2.000, ss-73 I II I G. LAeus, Notizie biografiche intorno la vita di Ennio Quirino Visconti, 1818 I 12.]A. PoTTs,Visconti, Ennio Quirino (1751-1818), in: EHCA, u73-1176 (13) 0. Rossi PINELLI, Osservare, confrontare, dubitare: Ennio Quirino Visconti e i fondamenti della Storia dell'arte antica, in: A. CAMPITELLI(ed.), Villa Borghese. I principi, le arri, la citta dal Settecento all'Ottocento (exh. cat.), 2.003, 12.3-12.8 [14) W. SAINTCLAIR,Lord Elgin and the Marbles, 1997 IIs] S. SETTIS, Da centro a periferia. L'archeologia degli italiani nel XIX secolo, in: L. PoLVERINI,Lo studio storico del mondo antico nella cultura italiana dell' Ottocento (Atti del Convegno Acquasparta 1988), 1993, 316331 [161 C. B. STARK,Handbuch der Archaologie (17) P. TREVES,Lo der Kunst, 1880, 243-244 studio dell'antichita classica nell'Ottocento, 1962., I

4-2.0.

LUCIAFAEDO

VITTORINO

DA FELTRE

Vittorino da Feltre Vittorino dei Ramboldini; Italian Humanist and pedagogue. Born Feltre 1378, died Mantua 2.. 2.. 1446. From 1396 studied in Padua, 1415/J6 in Venice, 1416 returned to Padua. 142.1/2.2.prof. of rhetoric at Padua. Founded schools 142.2. in Padua, 142.3 in Venice and Mantua, where he also worked as a prince's tutor. CAREER

AND

INFLUENCE

died Bruges 6. 5. 1540. 1 508 studied at Valencia; 1509-1512. studied philosophy and theology at Paris. Moved to Bruges 1 5 12; from 1 5 1 7 in Leuven, where he obtained a permit to teach at the Catholic Univ. in 152.0. From 152.3 Lector of Corpus Christi College, Oxford; 1 5 2.8 - after moving several times between England and the Netherlands, finally settled at Bruges, where with short interruptions he spent the rest of his life. CAREER

V., the son of a notary, studied grammar and V. was a child of Jews who had been forcliterature at Padua with Gasparino • Barzizza ibly converted. He himself remained a Catholic and Giovanni da Ravenna, and mathematand rejected the Reformation. He was an ics with Pelacani da Parma. He learned Greek acquaintance of, among others, -+ Erasmus from ➔ Guarino di Verona, whose school foun- of Rotterdam, Thomas More and Guillaume dations influenced his career. In 142.1, he suc- ➔ Bude. He was one of the most widely-read ceeded Barzizza as prof. of rhetoric at Padua, and translated authors of the r 6th and first half of the 17th cents. V. had an independent but resigned the post a year later, apparently disappointed, and turned his attention to work- attitude to those in power. When he criticized ing with younger people. His work as the schools Henry VIIl's divorce of Catherine of Aragon, he founded in Padua and Venice founded his he was placed under house arrest for a number reputation as an outstanding pedagogue. When of weeks. He thereafter left England. As well as a comprehensive commentary on Augustine's the Duke of Mantua, Gianfrancesco Gonzaga, Civitas Dei [3. Vol. 2.-6), his works were mostly entrusted him with the tuition of his children, V. accepted the prestigious post, but insisted philosophical and pedagogical. on being allowed to found another school (the WORK AND INFLUENCE so-called Ca' Goiosa) for a wider public in the precincts of the Ducal court. V.'s schools, in In De institutione feminae Christianae (Oxford 1523) (1. Vol. 6-7), V. follows brief which teachers and students lived and worked together, benefited the sons of the nobility and remarks about the education of children with gifted children of families without means, and three books on the desired roles to be played by they were also very popular with Humanists of women as virgins, wives and widows. He emphathe day. They contributed to developing a new sized here the need for women to be educated, concept of education that spread far beyond including in Latin, and distinguished harmful Italy; it propagated profound Humanist knowl- literature (e.g. Ovid, Amadis de Gau/a) from edge with the same dedication as it devoted to beneficial (e.g. Augustine, Disticha Catonis) for the Christian religious and physical education them. He followed this successful work in 1 5 3 8 of pupils. V.'s students included Federico da with De officio mariti [1. Vol. 8), a companion piece on the roles expected of husbands. From Montefeltro and Theodore ➔ Gazes. the 1 540 edition it was printed together with De ( 1) A. CASACCI,Un trattatello di Vittorino da Feltre institutione and regarded as its fourth book. De sull'ortografia latina, in: Atti del Reale lstituto tradendis disciplinis (Bruges 153 1) finally takes Veneto di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti 86, 1926-1927, education on to the ideal scholar. 911-945 [2] A.-S. G61NG, Die Lebensbilder zu De ratione dicendi (Bruges 1 5 3 2) is not a pure Vittorino da Feltre. Studien zur Rezeption einer school rhetoric textbook, but a work that places Erzieherpersonlichkeit im ltalien des 15. Jh.s (diss. rhetoric at the service of the artes and philosoWiirzburg), 1999 [3) A. GRAFTON/ L. JARDINE, phy. Against the technical language of the schoFrom Humanism to the Humanities: Education and lastics, which was felt to be remote from reality, the Liberal Arts in Fifteenth- and Sixteenth-Century Europe, 1986 (4) G. MOLLER,Mensch und Bildung V. proposed the clear argumentation of the sermo im italienischen Renaissance-Humanismus. Vittorino vulgaris (i.e. Latin learned through Cicero). The da Feltre und die humanistischen Erziehungsdenker, Exercitatio Linguae Latinae (Basel 1539), mean1984 [5) W. H. WooDWARD, Vittorino da Feltre and while, is indeed designed as a Latin textbook. Other Humanist Educators, 1897 (reiss. 1996). Its formal model was + Erasmus' Colloquia DOROTHEEGALL Familiaria. In 2.5 dialogues, life is developed from the puer to the adolescens; while the user's Vives, Juan Luis Latin vocabulary and moral education are also consolidated. The treatise In pseudodialecticos Joan Llufs, Latin Ioannes Ludovicus V.; (Leuven r 5 19) belongs to the field of philosoSpanish Humanist. Born Valencia 6. 3. 1492, phy, a critique of scholastic dialectics. De causis

VOGT,

corruptarum artium libri V/ I I 2 I and De disciplinis libri XX (Bruges 153 1) contain constructive criticism of the decline of the liberal arts (as well as medicine, historiography and law). He

JOSEPH

Vogt, Joseph

German ancient historian. Born Schechingen 23. 6. 1895, died Tiibingen (Wiirttemberg) 14. 7. 1986. 1913-1914 studied Catholic theolwar service, endogy at Ti.ibingen; 1914-1918 studied classical ing as lieutenant. 1919-1921 philology, archaeology and history at Tiibingen, 1921/2.2 at Berlin. 1921 doctorate, 1923 habit., 192.6-1929 prof. ord. in ancient history at Tiibingen, 1929-1936 prof. ord. at Wi.irzburg. 1933 joined the National Socialist Lehrerbund ('Teachers' League') and the SA, 1937 the NSDAP itself and the National Socialist Dozentenbund ('Lecturers' League'). During the Third Reich, worked 1936-1940 in Breslau, 1940-1943 in Ti.ibingen and 1944/45 in Freiburg. 1946-1962 again at Tiibingen. V. was among the 'spokesmen' of his field. In academic administration, he served at Wiirzburg as dean ( 19 34/35) and prorector (1935/36), and he was also prorector at Breslau in 1938/39. V. also later took leading roles in academic administration at Tiibingen, e.g. as dean (1954) and rector (1958/59).

is as critical here of the uncritical adoption of ancient teachings as he is of their falsification in scholasticism. In De subventione pauperum (Bruges 1 5 26) (1. Vol. 4), V. formulates ideas that in many respects derive from Thomas More's Utopia, referring both to Christian and pagan sources. The treatise is dedicated to the Council of Bruges; in two books it develops the idea of the social responsibility of the state and a programme for its implementation. The Christian obligation to love one's neighbour arose, he argues, from the indigence of mankind since the Fall - yet pagan society too knew support for those in need. V. makes proposals for alleviating poverty: a census of the poor and the distribution of aid on the one hand, and the elimination of beggary through education (including of the disabled and sick) to enable employment on the other. V. makes proposals for the financial support of hospitals and for overseeing implementation. The treatise, which was much translated and received, had a CAREER, WORKS AND INFLUENCE V. came from a Catholic farming family of practical influence on social planning in many the Schwiibische Alb. His characteristic influences Dutch cities, but its condemnation of begging met resistance among Catholic clerics. were rural life, Catholicism and a positive attiOther works worthy of note include De tude to the military and the Univ. of Tiibingen. Europae dissidiis et be/lo Turcico (Bruges, 1526), Like his friends Victor -• Ehrenberg and Fritz a traditional attack on the bickering among Taeger, he was a student of the ancient histoEuropean Christian states and call to arms against rian Wilhelm • Weber, and he always remained the Turks, the theological and philosophical treagrateful to him as his "teacher and leader" tise De anima et vita libri tres (Bruges 1538 ), (l,ehrer und Fuhrer, from the resume in his discomposed of elements of Platonism, Patristics, sertation) I1. 90 j. Succeeding Weber at Ti.ibingen scholasticism and Galen 171,and De veritate in 1 926, the inexhaustibly diligent V. identified himself in his accession address with the Roman fidei Christianae (Bruges 1 54 1- 1 54 3 ), a treatise in defence of Catholic Christianity. type of the homo novus (2). After early studies of numismatic and archaeWRITINGS ological sources in Egypt I1 ), V. settled on (1) Selected Works, 9 vols., ed. C. MATHF.EUSSEN Roman history as his specialist subject. In his (2I De account of the Roman Republic 131,he ideal(with trans. and comm.), 1987-2.008 causis corruptarum artium, ed. E. HmALGo-SF.RNA,ized Roman imperialism I21. 1 16]; a certain 1990 (3) Opera Omnia loannis Lodovici Vivis "folkish racial consciousness" is also discernValentini, 6 vols., ed. A. MESTREand F. J. Pt.REZ (2.1. 105-112]. This disposition, typical of ible DuRA, 1992.-2.010. the times, made him easy prey for the National Socialist racial doctrines after 19 3 3, as the essays SECONDARY LITERATURE Bevolkerungsruckgang ('Population decline') f4) A. BONILLAY SANMARTIN,Luis Vives y la filoIs) A. BUCK (ed.), [4 [ and Rassenmischung im romischen Reich sofia del renacimiento, 1903 in the Roman Empire') I5] Juan Luis Vives. Arbeitsgespriich, 1981 16I C. (•Miscegenation show particularly clearly - a younger generation FANTAZZI, A Companion to Juan Luis Vives, 2.008 f7) G. HOPPE, Die Psychologie von Juan Luis Vives, of historians would read these as commentar1901 (8) C. STROSETZKI (ed.), Juan Luis Vives. ies on the Nuremberg Laws [21. 208]. In 1942, Sein Werk und seine Bedeutung fur Spanien und during World War II, V. updated his idealistic Deutschland, 1995 (9) S. ZELLER,Juan Luis Vives. imperialist thinking. For the Kriegseinsatz der Wiederentdeckung eines Europiiers, Humanisten Altertumswissenschaften ('Committee for the und Sozialreformers jiidischer Herkunft im Schatten Classical Studies War Effort') led by Helmut der spanischen Inquisition, 2.006. NIKOLAUS THURN • Berve, he contributed the composite work Rom und Karthago (8], exploring the central

OGT,

JOSEPH

uestion of the 'racial confrontation'. In his own ssay for the collection, Das Puniertum und die )ynastie des Septimius Severus, V. made use both ,f ancient and modern anti-Semitic stereotypes. -le was already a corresponding member of the nstitut zur Erforschung der ]udenfrage, founded t Frankfurt by the chief National Socialist ideo:>gue Alfred Rosenberg, in 194 1. Between 1942 and 1945, V. published stud::s on Emperor Constantine I (6); (9); (10). The hoice of this speciality constitutes a "demontrative" assertion of Catholicism [ 19. 506). ~his confessional shift probably found its first xpression in the title of his Breslau seminars on ;Emperor Constantine and Christianity", held in he summer semester of 1937 [16. 89). Coming owards the end of World War II, these articles nay hint at the emergence of a post-war perspecive. In 1944, V. moved to the Univ. of Freiburg, l\lhere he was in contact with resistance groups, 1lthough without joining them. Briefly suspended 1fter the end of the war, V. resumed his teachng at Freiburg before returning for the second ime, this time permanently, to his home univ. of fiibingen in 1945/46. A useful Basel dissertation examines V. as an 'ancient historian in the Weimar Republic and he Third Reich", particularly in regard to his nvolvement in National Socialism, but unfortu1ately breaks off at 1946 (21). Yet his influence md work up to 1985 also properly belong to the :omplete picture. As in the case of his "constant :ival" (19. 505) Helmut • Berve, the problem of :ontinuity rears its head with V. In Tiibingen, V. now focused more intensively )n Late Antiquity. The monograph [II), with an 1ccent on religious history, was followed in 1965 c>yV.'s most important work on this period, Der Niedergang Roms [14]. In it, he combines his :>wn approach of cultural history with Arnold J. ➔ Toynbee's perspectives of universal history. Until the late 1960s, V. was arguing for projects of universal history, which, like his plan for an international institute of universal history and :omparative cultural studies, ultimately ended in failure. V. was more successful as an academic administrator with the project he initiated in 19 50 while head of the Kommission fur Geschichte des Altertums at the Mainz Akademie der Wissenschaften: Forschungen zur antiken Sklaverei. As his study Sklaverei und Humanitiit (12) shows, V.'s initial view of slavery in Classical Greece was highly idealistic in hue and he was accused of glossing over realities. The project included the series (co-edited by V. from 1966) Obersetzungen ausliindischer Arbeiten zur antiken Sklaverei, intended to facilitate dialogue with Soviet approaches in the West. In spite of

all criticism, it must be said that V. initiated and successfully implemented a major project of German classical studies. As for his role in the National Socialist period, V. consistently followed the tried and trusted method of sweeping it under the carpet. LW: U. Vogt, Verzeichnis der Schriften Joseph Vogts, in: ANRW 1/1, 1972 (Beilage), 15•-2.s•. WRITINGS

( 1) Alexandria. Die alexandrinischen Miinzen als Quellen einer alexandrinischen Kaisergeschichte, Part 1: Von Augustus bis T ra jan (diss. Tiibingen, typescript), 192.1 l2I Homo novus. Ein Typus der romischen Republik (accession address Tiibingen), 192.6 (3) Die romische Republik, 1932 (4] Bevolkerungsriickgang im romischen Reich, in: Vergangenheit und Gegenwart 15, 1935, 653-664 l51 Rassenmischung im riimischen Reich, in: Vergangenheit und Gegenwart 16, 1936, 1-11 (6) Die Bedeutung des Jahres 3 11 fur die Religionspolitik Konstantins des Grossen, in: Zs. fur Kirchengeschichte 61, 1942, 171-192. (again in: H. KRAFT led.]: Konstantin der Grosse, 1974, 2.47-172.) 171 Vom Reichsgedanken der Romer, 1941 l8) (ed.) Rom und Karthago. Ein Gemeinschaftswerk, 194 3 191 Streitfragen um Konstantin den Grossen, in: Mitteilungen des Archiiologischen lnstituts, Romische Abt. 58, 1943, 190-103 l10] Zur Frage des christlichen Einflusses auf die Gesetzgebung Konstantins des Grossen, in: Miinchener Beitrage zur Papyrusforschung und antiken Rechtsgeschichte 35 (FS L. Wenger), 1945, 1 18-148 I 11) Constantin der Grosse und sein Jahrhundert, 1949 I11) Sklaverei und Humanitiit im klassischen Griechenland (Mainzer Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur, Ahh. der geistesund sozialwissenschaftlichen Klasse), 19 53 (no. 4) (English: Ancient Slavery and the Ideal of Man, trans. T. W1EDERMANN, 1974) [13) Wege zum historischen Universum. Von Ranke bis Toynbee, 1961 I 14 I Der Niedergang Roms. Metamorphosen der antiken Kultur, 1965 (English: The Decline of Rome. 1967) [15) Sklaverei und trans. J. SoNDHEIMF.R, Humaniriit. Studien zur antiken Sklaverei und ihrer Erforschung (Historia, Einzelschriften 8 ), 196 5. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

(161 H. BEi.i.EN, Nachruf auf Joseph Vogt, in: Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur Mainz, Jb. 37, 1986, 87-92. [17] K. CHRIST, Joseph Vogt und die Geschichte des Altertums, in: CHRISTR Haupt, whose 1915'16 rector at Berlin. From 1902 head of the Opuscula W. would later edit [ 5 ]. Theodor Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften. Many ► Mommsen's influence came only later. international honours and memberships, e.g. from Of the scholars whom he read Friedrich Gottlieb 1899 Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften, ► Welcker exerted lasting influence on W., not 1903 Paris Academie des inscriptions et des least through his •ideal of totality' (Totalitatsideal) belles-lettres. - the principle that one must know everything in order to interpret something. Among W!s fellow SCHOLARLY CAREER AND WORKS students were men who would exert incalculable W., who was born into a wealthy Lutheran influence on subsequent scholarship through their family of landowners, showed little interest in publications and teaching in classical studies. He the military and diplomatic career his father made lifelong friends of Hermann - ► Diels, Georg planned for him. Following in the footsteps of Kaibel, Friedrich ► Leo and Carl _. Robert. His Friedrich -> Nietzsche and others, he therefore 1870 dissertation contained critical observations went to the famous Gymnasium of Schulpforta, on Greek comedy. near Naumburg. His life took its decisive turn In 1870/71, W. served as a junior officer in here, primarily through the rector Carl Peter, i~ the Franco-Prussian War. From 1872 to 1874, whose home W. lived and to whom he later dedihe lived and travelled in Greece and Italy, where cated his dissertation [ 1 ]. By present-day stanhe became the assistant and friend of Mommsen. dards the demands placed on the pupils at this Their extensive correspondence is lasting proof schooi were unimaginably high. As well as Latin of their productive friendship [22). W. became and Greek, W. learned English, French and rudi- famous overnight for his dispute with Friedrich ments of Hebrew and Italian. As a master dic- -+ Nietzsche, against whose critique of scholartated Xenophon in Greek, students had to take ship (e.g. in The Birth of Tragedy) and "intuitive down the text in flawless Ciceronian Latin. view of antiquity" [34. 36) he inveighed several times (2); [3]. From 1874 until Easter 1876, W. 1998 (first published in Attisches Museum 17991802.) [ 10) Werke. Historisch-kritische Ausgabe, ed. K. MANGERet al., 2.008 ff.

661

was a priv.-doz. in Berlin. He composed his postdoctoral habil. thesis on Euripides (it included a critical edition of the Suppliant Women) [4). Much further work on that (then neglected) tragedian would follow. W. took his first full professorship in the spring of 1 876 at Greifswald. He taught a wide range of subjects, including epigraphy, palaeography, Menander and Hellenistic poetry. He made antiquity live. Among his students were Hans von • Arnim, Bruno Keil, Wilhelm Schulze, Eduard -• Schwartz, Ludwig ► Traube and Friedrich Spiro. Among his colleagues was the church historian, Julius Wellhausen, whose work on the New Testament much influenced W.' analytical study of Homer. He would dedicate his Homerische Untersuchungen (61 to him. In 1878 in Berlin, W. married Marie, the daughter of Mommsen. His family boycotted this marriage to a commoner and, worse, the daughter of a liberal politician. Yet W. himself was a conservative German nationalist by disposition and also by action - in October 191 4, for instance, he would compose the "Declaration of the University Teachers of the German Empire" in justification of the Great War. Referring to the colours of the Prussian flag, W. called himself "black and white to my very bones" [29. 448]. In the autumn of 188 3, W. accepted the chair of classical philology at Gottingen, where he would be for 14 productive and happy years. He began a series of studies on Greek tragedy as well as translations of selected Greek plays. His repeatedly reprinted masterpiece, an edition with commentary of Euripides' Heracles (7), appeared in 1889. W.' translations are faithful to the original and therefore suitable as scripts for production. Indeed they were often performed with leading actors in Berlin and elsewhere. The discovery and publication of Aristotle's lost Constitution of the Athenians inspired his Aristoteles und Athen 19I,which has remained the authoritative critical work and most influential book on the subject. During this period, he also initiated the Thesaurus Linguae Latinae. The Prussian Minister of Culture, Friedrich Althoff, won a reluctant W. for the FriedrichWilhelms-Univ. in Berlin in 1897. He began as successor of Ernst ---..Curtius, the prof. of rhetoric. His colleagues were Johannes Vahlen and Adolf Kirchoff, but most attractive for W. was the presence of Hermann • Diels, with whom he worked closely. In 1906 they were joined by Eduard ---► Norden, and the three made their Institut fur Altertumskunde the most influential in modern history. W. continued teaching and publishing even after his retirement, until his death in 1931. He dictated his last work (21) to his daughter Dorothea from his deathbed. His

WI LAMOWITZ·MOELLENDORFF,

memoirs are indispensable modern classical philology. APPRAISAL

AND

ULRICH

VON

for understanding

INFLUENCE

To understand W.'s accomplishment, it is necessary to consult the comprehensive bibliography of work by and about him, which includes all known reviews of his books. His publications include precise critical volumes filled with new emendations and manuscript readings, and histories of Greek language and literature, especially valuable because of the unique competence, indeed genius, of the author. W. stressed the content of the great authors (e.g. Aeschylus, Euripides, Plato, Aristotle, Callimachus) and their lasting importance for understanding ourselves. W. ushered in a new age of classical studies "in order to understand the 'entire life' of antiquity through a thorough knowledge of the historical sources and to bring classical literature to life and reality by interpretation" [34. 3 6] and in this, he regarded Greek and Roman culture as one. His sixty or so books have exerted incalculable influence on subsequent scholarship, particularly since W. took part in various major and long-term projects: "the editing of papyri, the editing of Greek inscriptions and the editions of the so-called Church Fathers Commission" (Kirchenviiter-Kommission) [29. 467]. W. was a formative influence as "academic organizer" of an interdisciplinary classical studies system with the Berlin Institut fur Altertumskunde as its model (34. 44-47]. His many students, who included Eduard -• Fraenkel, Werner ---..Jaeger, Karl -• Reinhardt, Hans von --♦ Arnim, Max • Pohlenz, Richard -• Harder and Wolfgang .. Schadewaldt, bequeathed his methodology to countless later scholars. One may with certainty say that W.' was the greatest classical scholarship of modern times. W. also involved himself in issues of education. Although he denied any particular responsibility of philology for the training of teachers or teaching in schools [8. 14), he did demand, while a member of the Reichsschulkonferenz (6.-8. 6. 1900), a fundamental realignment of the teaching of the classical languages [26]. W. distanced himself from traditional Neoclassicism and allowed Hellenism primacy. "Antiquity as a single entity and as an ideal is dead. Scholarship itself destroyed this belief. Yet our eyes are now opened to a period of world culture that lasted one and a half thousand years and was not merely the foundation but, we might almost say, a type of our own, and this culture is Greek, for even the entirety of the Roman world was merely an integral province within it" ( 10. 206 f.]. Accordingly, his Griechisches Lesebuch presented a new kind of anthology of Hellenistic texts [11]. The 'Third Humanism' of

WILAMOWITZ-MOELLENDORFF,

ULRICH

VON

Werner ► Jaeger distanced itself sharply from this position. M: [2.01.

LW: Michael Armstrong et al., Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Bibliography 18671990. WRITINGS

662.

von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff und das Leiden am Grossbetrieb der Wissenschaft, in: A. BAERTSCHI / C. KING{ed.), Die modernen Yater der Antike, 2.009. 445-480 [30) W. JAEGER, Gedachtnisrede auf Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, in: Die Antike 8, 1932, 319-324 (31) H.-A. Kcx:tt, WilamowitzMoellendorff, Ulrich von, in: Deutsche Biographische Enzyklopiidie 10, 1999, 494-495 (32J S. REBENICH, Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, in: A. GRAFTON et al. {ed.), The Classical Tradition, 2010, 983984 1331K. RFJNHARDT, Ulrich von WilamowitzMoellendorff, 1841-1931, in: H. HEIMPEl. et al. {ed.), Die grossen Deutschen. Deutsche Biographie, [34) C. WEGEl.F..R,•... wir Vol. 5, 1957, 415-421 sagen ab der internationalen Gelehrtenrepublik'. Altertumswissenschaft und Nationalsozialismus. Das Gi>ttinger lnstitut fur Altertumskunde 19 2 1-1 967, 1996 {passim) 135I K.-G. WESSFJJNG,WilamowitzMoellendorff, Ulrich von, in: Biographisch-Bibliographisches Kirchenlexikon 13, 1998, 1113-1160.

[ 1) Observationes criticae in comoediam Graecam selectae (diss. Berlin), 1 870 [2 I Zukunftsphilologie! eine Erwidrung auf Friedrich Nietzsches ord. prof. der class. Philologie zu Basel 'Geburt der Tragodie', Zweites Berlin 1872 131 Zukunftsphilologie! Stuck; eine Erwidrung auf die Rettungsversuche for Fr. Nietzsches 'Geburt der Trag6die', Berlin 1873 {4) Analecta Euripidea: !nest Supplicum fabula ad codicem archetypum recognita (habil. thesis Berlin), 1875 (reiss. 1963) lsl Maurici Hauptii [61 Homerische opuscula, Leipzig 1875-1876 Untersuchungen, Berlin 1884 171 Euripides, WILLIAM M. CALDER Ill Herakles. Vol. 1: Einleitung in die Attische T ragcidie; Vol. 2: Text und Komm. (edition), 1889 {'1909, Wilcken, Ulrich reiss. 1959 et al.) [81 Philolologie und Schulreform, Gottingen 1892 19I Aristoteles und Athen, 2 vols., German papyrologist. Born Stettin (now 1893 {et al., reiss. 1966 et al.) [10I Der griechische Szczecin, Poland) 1 8. 12. 1 862., died BadenUnterricht auf dem Gymnasium, in: Verhandlungen Baden 10. 12.. 1944. Studied Oriental languages iiber die Fragen des h6heren Unterrichts, Halle 1902, 205-217 (reiss. 1972) [ 11) (ed.), Griechisches and ancient history from 1880 at Leipzig with Lesebuch, Berlin 1902 (ul Timotheos, Die Perser. Eduard ► Meyer, from spring 1882 ancient hisAus einem Papyrus von Abusir im Auftrage der tory at Tiibingen with Alfred von Gutschmid. Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft (edition), Leipzig from autumn 1882. at Berlin with Theodor 1903 [ 13 I Die griechische Literatur des Altertums, • Mommsen. 1885 doctorate at Berlin, then in: P. HINNEBERG (ed.), Die griechische und lateinische of the Literatur und Sprache (Die Kultur der Gegenwart 1 .8), working in the Egyptian Department Konigliches Museum in Berlin. 1888 habit. '1912, 3-318 ('1905) [14I Sappho und Simonides. Untersuchungen iiber griechische Lyriker, Berlin 191 3 Berlin. 1889 prof. ext., from 1891 prof. ord. in Meyer), {reiss. 1966) I Is I Aischylos-Interpretationen, Berlin ancient history at Breslau (succeeding 1914 (reiss. 1966) [16) Die llias und Homer, Berlin from 1900 prof. ord. at Wiirzburg, from 1903 1916 ('1920; reiss. 1966 et al.) [17I Platon, Vol. 1: at Halle (again succeeding Meyer), from 1 906 at Leben und Werke; Vol. 2: Beilagen und Textkritik, Leipzig (succeeding Curt Wachsmuth), from 191 2. Berlin 1919 {'1959) [181 Geschichte der Philologie at Bonn, from 191 5 at Munich and finally, from (Einleitung in die Altertumswissenschaft 1/1), Leipzig 1917, at Berlin (succeeding Otto • Hirschfeld). 1921 ('1927, reiss. 1959; 1998; English: History of Retired 1931. Classical Scholarship, ed. H. Lwvo-joNE.-., trans. A. HARRIS,1982) [19I Pindaros, Berlin 1922 {reiss. WORK AND INFLUENCE 1966) [20I Erinnerungen 1848-1914, r928 (•1929; His attention drawn by Mommsen to the English: My Recollections, trans. G. C. RICHARDS, Greek papyrus documents that were becoming 1930) [21) Der Glaube der Hellenen, 2 vols., 1931-1932 (many reiss.) (22I 'Aus dem Freund available to classicists from 1 880, W. mastered ein Sohn'. Mommsen und Wilamowitz. Briefwechsel the decipherment of the documentary papyri and 1872-1903, ed. and comm. W. M. CALDERIII, fluent knowledge of the languages of the docu2 vols., 2003. ments through self-study, making himself the

princeps papyrologorum (Matthias ► Gelzer). He played a crucial role in the development of [23) W. M. CALDERIll et al. {ed.), Wilamowitz the study and methods of papyrology and its nach 50 Jahren. Symposium aus Anlass des publications and reference works. W. was a pio50. Todestages, 1985 (24I W. M. CALDER111 neer in exploiting this new category of sources, et al. (ed.), Wilamowitz in Greifswald, 2000 setting indispensable standards in editorial tech(25] CALDERWil. (26) L. CANfORA,Wilamowitz nique (for instance paving the way for the Leiden und die Schulreform, in: Altsprachlicher Unterricht 27/4, 1984, 5-19 [271 R. L. Fowl.ER, Ulrich von Conventions of 1931) and following the maxim Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, in: BRIGGS/ CALDER that an individual document must be historically 489-522. [28) R. HARDER, Ulrich von Wilamowitzevaluated by being comprehensively set within Moellendorff, in: Gnomon 7, 1931, 557-560 its context. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

(29] M. Hosi-:,'und Pflicht geht vor Neigung'. Ulrich

663

W. carried out the systematic editing of the holdings of the Berliner Museum (Berliner Griechische Urkunden, from , 892), and the collections at Freiburg, Wiirzburg and Bremen. In 1899, he published Griechische Ostraka I1 ), a groundbreaking standard work that combines an edition of 1,624 texts (1,355 of them published for the first time) with an 800-page evaluation offering not only a diplomatic analysis of the ostraka but also a detailed history of the financial and taxation system of Ptolemaic and Imperial Egypt. Although plans to collect all the papyrus documents in a Corpus Papyrorum Graecarum were frustrated by the sheer volume of new finds, W.'s procedure for publishing and interpreting the Ptolemaic texts stayed with him for over 50 years, also forming the basis for the monumental two-volume Urkunden der Ptolemiierzeit 13I, which contains exemplary editions, especially of the Serapeum texts from Memphis and of legal and administrative documents. Seeking new texts, W. organized papyrus excavation campaigns around the turn of the century in Heracleopolis and Hermupolis. In 1902, he had a hand in the foundation of the Deutsche Papyrus-karte/1 (active until 1914), which worked to coordinate and streamline papyrus acquisitions. W. furthered his aim of establishing papyrology as a source discipline of equal status to epigraphy and numismatics with his Grundzuge [2], which still today is the standard handbook and 'chrestomathy', presenting an anthology of over 500 documents. His sharp eye for the needs of the fledgling discipline led him to organize the crucial reference aids, the Sammelbuch, Berichtigungsliste and W6rterbuch, and to found the first specialist papyrology periodical, the Archiv fur Papyrusforschung (APF). The objective and collegial style of his criticism of all editions in the Urkundenre{erat ('Document Reports') of the APF laid the foundations of an amicitia papyrologorum that W. was able to preserve through both World Wars. To W., papyrology was always part of the overall business of historical research, which he conducted as a universal history of the Mediterranean world, including the ancient Near East and Egypt, in the spirit of his predecessors and teachers, Eduard • Meyer and Theodor • Mommsen. His studies encompassed the whole of Greek, Hellenistic and Roman history up to the Arab conquest, and the papyri led him to consider issues of political order, law, institutions, cults, finance and taxation. In all his historical works, W. appears as a proponent of the inductive method, developing an overall picture on the basis of proven individual facts. His main service to historical research has been to make

WILCKEN,

ULRICH

often fragmentary or minor papyrus texts available as evidence for issues on a wider scale. W.'s abilities as an academic organizer came to the fore once more in 1921, when he succeeded Hirschfeld to become head of GraecoRoman antiquities at the Berliner Akademie, and hence took over control of the Corpus lnscriptionum Latinarum, the Prosopographia lmperii Romani and - following the death of Ulrich von -♦ Wilamowitz-Moellendorff in 193 1 - the lnscriptiones Graecae. W. was a full member of the Berliner Akademie der Wissenschaften (1921 ) as well as 13 other academies at home and abroad. He had honorary doctorates from the faculties of law at Konigsberg (1901) and Graz (1926) and a Doctorate of Letters from Oxford (1913). He held several distinguished service awards and in 191 7 he became a Geheimer Regierungsrat ('Privy Councillor'). Contemporaries praised his benevolence and simplicity. He called himself a National Liberal, opposed National Socialism and fought for the univ. as a free space of pure scholarship. WRITINGS

I 1 I Griechische Ostraka aus Aegypten und Nubien. Ein Beitrag zur antiken Wirtschaftsgeschichte, 2. vols., 1899 (reiss. 1970, with addenda by P. J. SIJPF-STEIJN) (2.) Grundziige und Chrestomathie der Papyruskunde, Vol. 1: Historischer Teil (1st section: Grundziige; 2.nd section: Chresthomathie), 1912. (reiss. 1963) 131Urkunden der Ptolemaerzeit. Altere Funde, 2. vols. (edition), 192.2.-1957 141Griechische Geschichte im Rahmen der Altertumsgeschichte, 192.4 (9 1962.) Is) Alexander der Grosse, 1931 (English: Alexander the Great, trans. G. C. RICHARDS, 1932.) 161 Berliner Akademie-Schriften zur Alten Geschichte und Papyruskunde (1883-1942.), 2. vols., ed. W. PEEK,1970. SECONDARY

LITERATURE

(7) G. AUDRING(ed.), Briefe an Eduard Meyer 1889-1930, 1994 (8) CHRIST, Hel. 176-184 [91 M. GELZER,Gedachtnisrede auf Ulrich Wilcken, in: M. GEI.ZER, K. S., Vol. 3, 1964, 336-344 I10) TH. KRUSE, Erkenntnis aus den kleinsten Einzelheiten. Der Althistoriker Ulrich Wilcken und / die Papyrologie in Deutschland, in: A. M. BAERTSCHI C. G. KIN Melanchthon and Martin Luther. In 1539 he was working as a private tutor and schoolteacher in Nuremberg, then in 1541 as a schoolteacher in Oettingen. In 1543, at the recommendation of Camerarius and Melanchthon, he took over as rector of a school in Miihlhausen in Thuringia, but in 1545 the terror of magic and malicious gossip drove him to Nuremberg, where he taught private pupils. Health problems forced him to request release from his posts at Nuremberg in April 1547. In 1548, W. travelled via Tiibingen and Strasbourg to Basel. At Strasbourg he attended lectures by Martin Bucer, among others, refusing Bucer's offer of a teaching post there. In

Basel, he made the acquaintance of the printer Johannes Herbst (Oporinus), and for two years he taught private pupils from Augsburg there, also accompanying them on a study trip to Paris in 1 5 50. Fear of religious persecution, however, led him to return prematurely to Germany. In 1551, he entered the service of Johann Jakob Fugger in Augsburg as secretary and librarian. From 1557 until his death, in spite of good offers from Konigsberg, Strasbourg and Lausanne, he remained librarian of the Free City of Augsburg and rector of the Gymnasium St. Anna there. WORK

AND

INFLUENCE

Alongside his professional duties, W., a Humanist and philologist by passion, always devoted himself to the private study of the Greek and Latin transmission, showing a particular predilection for rhetorical texts and promoting the knowledge of important Greek authors who were badly neglected at the time. In 1 548, with Oporinus in Basel, he published the first complete edition of the writings of Isocrates, then in 1549 his first edition of Demosthenes. Several revised editions of both authors followed, the last of which remained current long after W.'s death (21; (3). W. also edited Aeschines, Libanius and Epictetus, as well as the Quadripartitum of Claudius Ptolemaeus (Ptolemy). He also translated the Suda ( 1 oth cent.) into Latin and wrote commentaries on several works of Cicero, including De officiis and the Somnium Scipionis, and produced some occasional poetry based on ancient models. Working for the Fuggers, he also tackled texts by the hitherto almost unknown Byzantine historians. In 1557, he published a Greek-Latin edition of the world chronicle (to 111 8) of John Zonaras and the Histories (1117-1203) of Niketas Choniates. In 1562 he produced the Roman History rRhomaic', i.e. Byzantine history 1204-1259) of Nikephoros Gregoras, and a Latin translation of the Proofs of Histor\' (Apodeixis historian, up to 1463) of Laoniko's Chalkokondyles. Together, these made up the first corpus of a Byzantine history from the earliest times to the Fall of Constantinople [ 1]; cf. (6). W. is thus regarded as the founding father of German Byzantine studies, moreover coining the terms 'Byzantine' (which he used alongside 'Rhomaic') and 'Byzantine Empire'. In spite of his pronounced Christian faith and his close contacts with prominent figures of the Protestant Reformation, W. never presented any clear theological position, partly out of fear of persecution, partly because his personal priority was philology. Because of his relations with printing houses in Protestant centres like Basel, his complete works were placed on the Index

WOLFF,

librorum prohibitorum

of the Catholic Church

m 1559. WRITINGS

( 1) Corpus

historiae Byzantinae, in quo non solum res a Graecis imperatorihus a tempore Constantini Magni, ad Constantinum postremum, et Constantinopolim a Turcis occupatam, sed ab exordio mundi ... (loannes Zonaras, Nicetas Acominates Choniates, Nicephorus Gregoras, Laonicus Chalcocondyles; Edition), Frankfurt/Main 1568 (2) lsocratis scripta, quae quidam nunc exstant, omnia, Graecolatina (edition with Latin trans.), Basel 1571 131Demosthenis et Aeschinis principium Graeciae opera omnia, cum utriusque vita et Ulpiani commentariis ... (edition), Basel 1572. 141Der Yater der deutschen Byzantinistik. Das Leben des Hieronymus Wolf von ihm selhst erziihlt, ed. H. G. Bi-:cK,1984.

HANS

JULIUS

Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1972 honorary doctorate CAREER,

from the Univ. of Athens. WORKS

AND

INFLUENCE

W., who was born into a Jewish family and converted to Catholicism, turned to papyrology during his studies with Eduard ► Meyer, Ulrich • Wilcken and Wilhelm ► Schubart. In his fourth semester he switched to studying law in order to establish an accurate specialist understanding of legal aspects of the papyri. A particular inspiration here was the legal historian Joseph Aloys Partsch. In 1932, W. took his doctorate with Ernst Rabel (1) in Berlin. He went on to write prolifically on Roman law; his historical introduction to the subject (4) was particularly influential. W. established principles in textual research [ 16. 482) and in the field of Greek law, which was at the forefront of his research from SECONDARY LITERATURE the late 1940s and whose distinct identity sepa(s] D. HARIHN Dousa, Janus Van Eyck ·• Enzinas, Francisco de Varcchi, Benedetto Italian poet, historian (1502-1565): Vettori, Piero 633 Vasari, Giorgio Italian architect, painter (1511-1574): Sandrart, Joachim von 556; Vettori, Francesco 633 Vasi, Giuseppe Italian graphic artist (1710-1782): Piranesi, Giambattista and Francesco 493

Veblen, Thorstein American economist, sociologist (1857-1929): Finley, Moses I. 200

Veith, Georg Austrian officer, ancient historian (1875-1925): Kromayer, Johannes 338

Venator, Balthasar German late Humanist, poet (1594-1664): Pareus, Johann Philipp 466

Ventris,* Michael British architect, linguist (1922-1956): Blegen, Carl William 56; Evans, Arthur 188; Schachermeyr, Fritz 562 Venturi, Adolfo Italian art historian (1856-1941): Anti, Carlo 15 Venuti, Marcello Italian archaeologist (1700-17u): Venuti, Ridolfino 630 Venuti,* Ridolfino Italian archaeologist, antiquarian (1705-1763): Bracci, Domenico Augusto 74; Gori, Anton Francesco 486; Vettori, Francesco 243 Verbozy, Istvan ➔ Werbewcz, Stephanus de Vergerio, Pietro Paolo the Elder Italian Humanist, jurist (1370-14444/5): Chrysolaras, Manuel II 5; Petrarch 481 Vermaseren, Maarten J. Dutch ancient historian (1918-1985): Cumont, Franz 130 Vernant, * Jean-Pierre French classical philologist, anthropologist, historiographer (1914-2007): Cornford, Francis Macdonald 123; Gernet, Louis-Jules 229; Loraux, Nicole 379 Vemulaeus, Nicolaus Dutch historian (1583-1649): Heinsius, Nicolaus 274 Vespasiano da Bisticci Italian publisher, Humanist (1421-1498): Alberti, Leon Battista 5; Argyropoulos, John 16; Niccoli, Niccolo 443; Poggio Bracciolini, Gian Francesco 500 Vettori,* Francesco Italian antiquities

collector, cameo scholar, antiquarian (1692h693-1770)

632-633

Vettori,* Piero (Victorius, Petrus) Italian Humanist, philosopher, philologist (1499-1585): Stephanus, Henricus 598 Vico, Enea Italian painter, engraver, antiquarian (1523-1567): Maffei, Paolo Alessandro 3 89 Victorius, Petrus -> Vettori, Piero Vida, Marcus Hieronymus Italian poet, literary theorist (1485-1566): Scaliger, Julius Caesar 562 Vidal-Naquet, * Pierre French ancient historian (1930-2006): Loraux, Nicole 379; Vernant, Jean-Pierre 632 Vidal de la Blache, Paul French geographer (1845-1918): Jullian, Camille 316 Vien, Joseph-Marie French painter (1716-1809): Caylus, Anne-Claude-Philippe 103

742.

INDEX

Vieta, Franciscus (Viete, Frani;ois) French jurist, mathematician (1540-1603): Scaliger, Joseph Justus 560 Viete, Frani;ois ► Vieta, Franciscus Villa Dei, Alexander de (Villedieu, Alexandre de) French grammarian, poet (c. 1170-1250): Guarino da Verona 2.58 Villani, Filippo Italian historian (1325-1407): Poggio Bracciolini, Gian Francesco 499 Villedieu, Alexandre de ► Villa Dei, Alexander de Villiers, George, Duke of Buckingham English Lord Admiral, statesman, antiquities collector (1592-1628): Rubens, Peter Paul 548 Virchow, Rudolf German doctor, archaeologist, politician (1821-1902): Schliemann, Heinrich 572. Virdung, Michael German poet, professor of eloquence (1575-1637): Gronovius, Johannes Fredericus 2.5 2. Vischer, Friedrich Theodor German literary scholar, philosopher, politician (1807-1887): Zeller, Eduard 678 Visconti, Carlo Ludovico Italian archaeologist (1818-1894): Lanciani, Rodolfo 346 Visconti,* Ennio Quirino Italian antiquarian, archaeologist (175I-1818): Bernoulli, Johann Jacob 44; Bottiger, Karl August 72; Clarac, Charles Othon 117; Fea, Carlo 192; Hirt, Aloys 290; Lowy, Emanuel 381; Reuvens, Caspar 5 2.7; Zoega, Georg 3 81 Visconti, Filippo Aurelio Italian archaeologist, antiquarian (1754-1831): Visconti, Ennio Quirino 635; Zoega, Georg 681 Visconti, Giovanni Battista Italian archaeologist (1722-1784): Visconti, Ennio Quirino 635 Visconti, Pietro Ercole Italian archaeologist (1802-1880): Lanciani, Rodolfo 346 Vittorino da Feltre* Italian Humanist, pedagogue (1378-1446): Barzizza, Gasparino 24; Gazes, Theodore 22.3; Guarino da Verona 258; Tortelli, Giovanni 616 Vives,* Juan Luis Spanish Humanist (1492-1540): Bude, Guillaume 85; Melanchthon, Philipp 407 Vogt,* Joseph German ancient historian (1895-1986): Berve, Helmut 47; Christ, Karl 114; Ehrenberg, Victor 175; Finley, Moses I. 2.01; Schenk von Sta uffenberg, Alexander 567; Temporini, Hildegard 612; Weber, Wilhelm 652 Voigt, Georg German historian (1827-1891): Piccolomini, Enea Silvio 488 Voit, Ludwig German classical philologist (1906-2001): Pfeiffer, Rudolf 484 Volkmann, Hans German ancient historian (1900-1975): Wickert, Lothar 655

Vollmer, Friedrich Karl German classical philologist (1867-1923): Hofmann, Johann Baptist 2.91; Oldfather, William Abbott 452; Pfeiffer, Rudolf 483 Voltaire (Arouet, Fran~ois Marie) French writer (1694-1778): Bolland, Jean 64 Voorbroek, Jakob ► Perizonius, Jacob Voorda, Jacobus Dutch jurist (1698-1768): Burmann, Pieter the Younger 89 Voss, Jansz Gerrit/Jan Gerhard ► Vossius, Gerardus Johannes Voss,* Johann Heinrich German writer, translator, philologist (1751-1826): Boeckh, August 60; Creuzer, Georg Friedrich 126; Goethe, Johann Wolfgang 238; Heyne, Christian Gottlob 2.88; Ramler, Karl Wilhelm 517; Wieland, Christoph Martin 659

Vossius, * Gerardus Johannes (Voss, Jansz Gerrit/Jan Gerhard) Dutch scholar, Humanist, theologian (1577-1649): Conring, Hermann 121; DuCange, Charles 166; Junius, Franciscus 317; Vossius, Isaac 644 Vossius, * Isaac Dutch ancient philologist (1618-1689): Gronovius, Johannes Fredericus 252.; Heinsius, Nicolaus 274-275; Junius, Franciscus 317; Meibom, Marcus 404; Vossius, Gerardus Johannes 642 Vossler, Karl German Romance scholar (1872-1949): Poschl, Viktor 506 Vretska, Helmuth Austrian classical philologist (1935-1993): Lesky, Albin 365 Vulcanius, Bonaventura Belgian classical philologist, translator, Humanist (1538-1614): Heinsius, Daniel 272 Vultejus, Justus German pedagogue, philologist (1529-1575): Casaubonus, Isaac IOI

British archaeologist Blegen, Carl William 56 Wachsmuth, Curt (Kurt) German classical philologist, ancient historian (1837-190 5 ): Arnim, Hans von 17; Leo, Friedrich 361; Wilcken, Ulrich 662. Wachsmuth, Wilhelm German classical philologist (1784-1866): Schaefer, Arnold Wace, * Alan

(1879-1957):

564

Wackernagel, * Jacob Swiss Inda-European scholar (1853-1938): Fraenkel, Eduard 207; Frankel, Hermann 208 Waddington, William Henry British diplomat, collector (1826-1894): Babelon, Ernest 21 Wagner,"' Johann Martin von German artist, 646 art agent, archaeologist (1777-1858) Wagner, Johann Peter German sculptor (1730-1809): Wagner, Johann Martin von 646

INDEX

743

German engraver, publisher

Wagner, Joseph

(1706-1780): Piranesi, Giambattista and Francesco 493

Wagner, Richard (1813-1883): 890

German composer Nietzsche, Friedrich 447-448,

German legal historian, medievalist (1813-1886): Pohlmann, Robert von 501 Walde,"' Alois Austrian linguist, IndoEuropean scholar (1869-1924): Hofmann, Johann Baptist 291 Walker, Arthur Tappan American classical philologist (1867-1948): Frank, Tenney 207 Walker, Edward Mewburn British classical philologist (18_;7-1941): Grenfell, Bernard Pyne 247 Wallace, Robert Scottish cleric, Enlightenment scholar (1697-1771): Hume, David 303 W allot, Paul German architect ( 1841-191 2): Andrae, Walter 13 Walser,"' Gerold Swiss ancient historian Waitz, Georg

(1917-2000)

647-648

Walz, Ernst Christian German classical philologist (1802-1857): Pauly, August Friedrich 472 Walzer, Richard Rudolf German classical philologist (1900-1975): Jaeger, Werner 310 Warburg,"' Aby German art historian, cultural scientist (1866-1929): Usener, Hermann 624 Ward-Perkins,"' John Bryan British classical archaeologist (1912-1981): Wheeler, Mortimer 654 Warren, Edward Perry British collector (1860-1928): Beazley, John Davidson 28 Watt, Joachim von • VadianNadianus, Joachim Watteau, Antoine (Jean-Antoine) French painter (1684-1721): Caylus, Anne-ClaudePhilippe 103 Watzinger, Carl German archaeologist (1877-1948): Wiegand, Theodor 657 Weber, Albrecht German lndologist, IndoEuropean scholar (1825-1901): Delitzsch, Friedrich I 46 Weber, Alfred German sociologist, philosopher (1868-1958): Edelstein, Ludwig 172

Weber,* Max German jurist, sociologist, economist (1864-192.0): Finley, Moses I. 200; Hasebroek, Johannes 269; Meyer, Eduard 411; Momigliano, Arnaldo Dante 4 19; Pohlmann, Robert von 501; Rodbertus, Karl 5 3 8; Rostovtzeff, Michael 5 46 Weber, Otto German ancient Near Eastern archaeologist, museum director (1877-1928): Andrae, Walter 14 Weber,"' Wilhelm German ancient historian (1882-1948): Domaszewski, Alfred von 157;

Ehrenberg, Victor 175; Pflaum, Hans-Georg 484; Schenk von Stauffenberg, Alexander 567; Straub, Johannes 602; UxkullGyllenband, Woldemar 625; Vogt, Joseph 639 Wechel, Johann German printer, scholar (died after 16 34): Sylburg, Friedrich 606 Weidenbach, Ernst German draughtsman (1818-1882): Lepsius, Karl Richard 364 Weidenbach, Maximilian German draughtsman (1823-1890): Lepsius, Karl Richard 364 Weigert, Maria German-American classical archaeologist (1902-1994): Brendel, Otto Johannes 75 Weinreich, Otto German classical philologist (1886-1972): Liegle, Josef Theodor 369 Weinstock, Stefan Austrian-British classical philologist (1901-1971): Kroll, Wilhelm 337 Weissbach, Franz Heinrich German Assyriologist, ancient historian (1865-1944): Landsberger, Benno 348; Soden, Wolfram von 589 Weissenfels, Oskar German pedagogue (1844-1906): Menge, Hermann 408 Welcker,"' Friedrich Gottlieb German classical philologist, archaeologist (1784-1868): Bernays, Jacob 42; Brunn, Heinrich 78; Curtius, Ernst 130; Hermann, Gottfried 282; Overbeck, Johannes 459; Petersen, Eugen 4 78; Ritschl, Friedrich Wilhelm 5 34; Usener, Hermann 624; WilamowitzMoellendorff, Ulrich von 660; Zoega, Georg 681 Welcker, Johannes Wellhausen, Julius

►

Amerbach, Johannes German theologian, Orientalist (1844-1918): Jensen, Peter 314; Schwartz, Eduard 580; WilamowitzMoellendorff, Ulrich von 661 Weiser, Markus German Humanist, patrician (1558-1614): Hoschel, David 295; Rader, Matthaeus 5 16 Weiskopf-Henrich,"' Liselotte German ancient historian, writer (1901-1979) 653-654 Wenck, Johannes German philosopher, scholastic (died 1460): Cusanus, Nicolaus 1 35

German classical philologist Frankel, Hermann 208 Wenger, Leopold Austrian legal historian (1874-1953): Kaser, Max 325; Mitteis, Ludwig 418 Wengler/Wangler, Johann Philipp -• Pareus, Johann Philipp Werbewcz, Stephanus de (Verbozy, Istvan) Hungarian jurist (1458-1541): Sambucus, loannes 5 5 5 Wessely, Carl Austrian papyrologist (1860-1931): Mitteis, Ludwig 418 Wendland, Paul (1864-1915):

INDEX

Westermann, William Linn American ancient historian (1873-1954): Rostovtzeff, Michael 545

Westholm, Alfred Swedish archaeologist (1904-1996): Gjerstad, Einar 236 Westphalen, Jenny von German socialist (1814-1881): Marx, Karl 397 Weymann, Carl German classical philologist (1862-1931): Pfeiffer, Rudolf 483 Wheeler,"" Mortimer British archaeologist (1890-1976): Ward-Perkins, John Bryan 649 Wheeler, Tessa (born Vemey) British archaeologist (1893-1936): Wheeler, Mortimer 6 54 Wheler, George English botanist, travel writer (1650-1723): Chandler, Richard uo; Spon, Jacques 593 Wickert,"" Lothar German ancient historian (1900-1989): Dessau, Hermann 150; Nesselhauf, Herbert 439 Wickhoff,"" Franz Austrian classical archaeologist, art historian (1853-1909): Bianchi Bandinelli, Ranuccio 48; Lowy, Emanuel 381; Matz, Friedrich 402; Rieg!, Alois 532; Rodenwaldt, Gerhart 539 Wide, Samuel Karl Anders Swedish archaeologist, historian of religion (1861-1918): Nilsson, Martin Persson 448 Wieacker,"" Franz German ;urist, legal historian (1908-1994) 656-657 Wiedemann, Alfred German Egyptologist (1856-1936):Bissing, Friedrich Wilhelm von 54

Wiegand,"" Theodor German classical archaeologist (1864-1936): Gerkan, Armin von 227; Massow, Wilhelm von 400; Meyer, Eduard 412 Wieland,"" Christoph Martin German poet, translator (1733-1813): Fuhrmann, Manfred 215

Wiesendanger, Jakob --+ Ceporinus, Jacobus Wilamowitz-Moellendorff,"" Ulrich von German classical philologist (1848-1931): Amim, Hans von 17; Bekker, Immanuel 32; Bieber, Margarete 52; Bowra, Maurice 73; Die ls, Hermann 152; Dornseiff, Franz 159; Enmann, Alexander 178; Fraenkel, Eduard 206; Frankel, Hermann 208; Friedlander, Paul 213; Gregoire, Henri 245; Giiterbock, Hans Gustav 260; Haupt, Moriz 270; Heiberg, Johan Ludvig 271; Hertzberg, Gustav Friedrich 283; Holscher, Uvo 294; Jaeger, Werner 310; Kerenyi, Karl 327; Kirchhoff, Adolf 329; Klingner, Friedrich 330; Klotz, Christian Adolph 331; Lachmann, Karl 344; Latte, Kurt 354; Leo, Friedrich 361; Leumann, Manu 367; Maas, Paul 383; Meyer, Eduard 411; Murray, Gilbert 434; Nietzsche, Friedrich 447-448; Norden, Eduard 450; Pasquali,

744

Giorgio 469-470; rfeiffer, Rudolf 484; Pfuhl, Ernst 48 5; Pohlenz, Max 500; Porson, Richard 506; Poulsen, Frederik 509; Reinhardt, Karl 521; Robert, Carl 536; Rohde, Erwin 540; Roussel, Pierre 547; Schadewaldt, Wolfgang 563; Schlegel, Friedrich 569; Schwartz, Eduard 580; Seeck, Otto 582; Shorey, Paul 586; Solmsen, Friedrich 590; Traube, Ludwig 618; Welcker, Friedrich Gottlieb 653; Wickert, Lothar 655; Wiegand, Theodor 658; Wilcken, Ulrich 663; Ziebarth, Erich 679 Wilcken,"" Ulrich German papyrologist (1862-1944): Beloch, Karl Julius 34; Bickermann, Elias Joseph 51; Gelzer, Matthias 225; Mitteis, Ludwig 418; Niese, Benedictus 446; Oertel, Friedrich 452; Otto, Walter 458; Pflaum, Hans-Georg 484; Rostovtzeff, Michael 544; Schubart, Wilhelm 577; Weiskopf-Henrich, Liselotte 653; Wickert, Lothar 655; Wolff, Hans Julius 671 Wilhelm, Adolf Austrian epigraphist, classical philologist (1864-1950): Keil, Josef 325; Lauffer, Siegfried 354 Will, Edouard French ancient historian (1920-1997): Holleaux, Maurice 293 Williams, Bernard British philosopher (1929-2003): Snell, Bruno 588 Williams, John • Gulielmus, Janus Wilpert,,. Joseph German Christian archaeologist (1857-1944) 664 Wimpfeling (Wimpheling), Jakob (Wympfeling, Jacob) German Humanist, poetic theorist (1450-1528): Aesticampianus, Johannes Rhagius 2; Melanchthon, Philipp 405; Reuchlin, Johannes 526 Wimpina, Konrad (Koch, Konrad) German Humanist, theologian (c. 1460-1531): Aesticampianus, Johannes Rhagius 2 Winckelmann,"" Johann Joachim German archaeologist, art critic (1717-1768}: Bracci, Domenico Augusto 74; Brunn, Heinrich 78; Cavaceppi, Bartolomeo 102; Caylus, Anne-Claude-Philippe 104; Christ, Johann Friedrich n3; Furtwangler, Adolf 216; Gerhard, Eduard 226; Heyne, Christian Gottlob 288; Hirt, Aloys 291; Hugues d'Hancarville, Pierre-Fran~ois 299; Junius, Franciscus 318; Kekule von Stradonitz, Reinhard 3 26; Lehrs, Karl 3 58; Lenormant, Charles 359; Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim 366; Lippert, Philipp Daniel 372; Lowy, Emanuel 381; Meyer, Johann Heinrich 413; Montfaucon, Bernard de 42 5; Natter, Lorenz 437; Passeri, Giovanni Battista 471; Payne Knight, Richard 473; Santi Bartoli, Pietro 557; Schlegel, Friedrich 569; Stosch, Philipp von 599-600; Venuti, Ridolfino 631; Vettori, Francesco 632; Visconti, Ennio Quirino 635; Wolf, Friedrich August 669

INDEX

745

Winckler, Hugo German ancient Near Eastern scholar, Assyriologist (r863-r9r3): Hrozny, Bedi'ich 297 Wind, Edgar German art historian, philosopher (r900-r97r): Warburg, Aby 649 Windisch, Ernst German Sanskrit scholar, linguist (r844-1918): Delitzsch, Friedrich 146; Schwyzer, Eduard 581 Windischmann, Karl (Joseph Hieronymus) German doctor, philosopher, anthropologist (1775-1839): Bopp, Franz 66 Winghe, Philips van Dutch painter, draughtsman (r560-1592): Bosio, Antonio 70 Winnefeld, Hermann German archaeologist (1862-1918): Kekule von Stradonitz, Reinhard 3 26 Winter, Adam German ceramicist, sculptor (1903-1978): Hampe, Roland 264 Winter,"' Franz German classical archaeologist (1861-1930): Fremersdorf, Fritz 211; Kekule von Stradonitz, Reinhard 3 26 Wissowa,"' Georg German classical

philologist, religious scholar (1859-1931): Dittenberger, Wilhelm 15 5; Heinze, Richard 2 76; Kroll, Wilhelm 3 3 7; Marquardt, Karl Joachim 395; Munzer, Friedrich 432; Pauly, August Friedrich 4 72; Reitzenstein, Richard 524

Witte, Jean Joseph Marie Antoine de French classical archaeologist, epigraphist, numismatist (1808-1889): Lenormant, Charles 359 Witte, Kurt German classical philologist (1885-1950): Kroll, Wilhelm 337 Wolf,"' Friedrich August German classical philologist (1759-1824): Bekker, Immanuel 3 1; Boeckh, August 60; Buttmann, Philipp Karl 93; Gerhard, Eduard 226; Gesner, Johann Matthias 230; Goethe, Johann Wolfgang 238; Hermann, Gottfried 281; Heyne, Christian Gottlob 288; Humboldt, Wilhelm von 301; Lachmann, Karl 343; Lehrs, Karl 359; Meyer, Johann Heinrich 413; Mommsen, Theodor 422; Muller, Karl Otfried 431; Passow, Franz 471; Ruhnken, David 550; Voss, Johann Heinrich 641; Wieland, Christoph Martin 6 59; Wood, Robert 672; Wyttenbach, Daniel 673 Wolf,"' Hieronymus German Humanist, philologist (1516-1580): Hoschel, David 295; Xylander, Guilielmus 675 Wolff,"' Hans Julius German-American legal historian, papyrologist (1902-1983): Ruschenbusch, Eberhard 551 Wolfflin, Eduard von Swiss classical philologist, lexicographer ( 18 31-1908): Georges, Karl Ernst 225; Kaschnitz von Weinberg, Guido 324; Maas, Paul 383

Wolfflin, Heinrich Swiss art historian (1864-1945): Matz, Friedrich 402; Riegl, Alois 532 Wolters, Paul German classical archaeologist (1858-1936): Buschor, Ernst 90; KarousouPapaspyridi, Semni 323; Schuchhardt, Walter-Herwig 579; Schwabacher, Willy 579 Wood,"' Robert British private scholar, politician (17 16/J 7- 177 1): Chandler, Richard 110; Stuart, James 602 Woolley"' Leonard British archaeologist (1880-1960) 673 Wotton, Henry English poet, diplomat (1568-1639): Casaubonus, Isaac 101 Wotton, William English scholar (1666-1727): Bentley, Richard 39 Wrede, Walther German archaeologist (1893-1990): Gerkan, Armin von 228 Wulzinger, Karl German engineer, archaeologist (1886-1949): Wiegand, Theodor 657 Wympfeling, Jacob ► Wimpfeling (Wimpheling), Jakob Wyttenbach,"' Daniel Swiss-Dutch classical philologist, philosopher (1746-1820) 673-674 Wyttenbach, Johanna (born Gallien) German philos. writer (1773-1830): Wyttenbach, Daniel 673 Xylander,"' Guilielmus (Holzmann/Holtzmann, Wilhelm) German Humanist, philologist (1532-1576): Leunclavius, Johannes 367; Sylburg, Friedrich 607 Xystus Betulius • Birck, Sixtus

Yushmanov, Nikolai Russian Semitist (1896-1946): Diakonoff, Igor 151 Youtie,"' Herbert Chayyim American papyrologist (1904-1980) 676 Zamberti, Bartolomeo Italian philologist (1473-after 1543): Valla, Giorgio 627 Zasius,"' Ulrich German Humanist, jurist (1461-1535) 677 Zeller,"' Eduard German historian of philosophy, theologian (1814-1908): Diels, Hermann 1 5 2; Nestle, Wilhelm 440 Zeno, Apostolo Italian poet (1668-1750): Maffei, Francesco Scipione 386 Zesen, Philipp von German poet (1619-1689): Buchner, August 8 1 Zeune, Johann Karl German philologist (1736-1788): Christ, Johann Friedrich u3 Zeuthen, Hieronymus Georg Danish mathematician (1839-1920): Heiberg, Johan Ludvig 271 Zevecote, Jacob van Belgian poet (1596-1642): Heinsius, Daniel 273 Ziebarth,"' Erich German ancient historian (1868-1944} 678-679

INDEX

Ziegler,• Konrat German classical philologist (1884-1974): Latte, Kurt 354; Pauly, August Friedrich 472 Zielinski,• T adeusz Polish-Russian classical philologist, cultural historian (1859-1944): Rostovtzeff, Michael 544 Zimmem, Heinrich German Assyriologist (1862-1931): Delitzsch, Friedrich 146; Landsberger, Benno 348; Schrader, Eberhard 576; Soden, Wolfram von 589 Zingcgref, Julius Wilhelm German historian (1591-1635): Gruter, Jan 256 Zippelius, Hans German architect (1873-1956): Wiegand, Theodor 658 Zoega, • Georg Danish antiquarian, archaeologist (1755-1809): Heyne, Christian Gottlob 287; Hirt, Aloys 290; Visconti, Ennio Quirino 635-636 Zollikofer, Georg Joachim German theologian (1730-1788): Bottiger, Karl August 72

Zonaras, Ioannes Byzantine historian, canonist, jurist (12th cent.): Wolf, Hieronymus 670 Zsamboky, Janos • Sambucus, loannes Zulian, Girolamo Italian antiquarian, diplomat, collector (1730-1795): Visconti Ennio Quirino 636 ' Zumpt, Karl Gottlob German classical philologist (1792-1849): Ernesti, Johann August 185 Zuntz, Gunther German-British classical philologist (1902-1992): Friedlander, Pa1.11 213

Zunz, Leopold German Judaist (1794-1886): Wolf, Friedrich August 669 Zwingli, Ulrich (Huldreych) Swiss refonne,(1484-1531): Ceporinus, Jacobus 107; Glareanus, Heinrich 237; Xylander, Guilielmus 675