Hiking in European Mountains: Trends and Horizons 9783110660715, 9783110660159

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Hiking in European Mountains

De Gruyter Studies in Tourism

Series editor Jillian M. Rickly

Volume 3

Hiking in European Mountains Trends and Horizons

Edited by Pablo Vidal-González

ISBN 978-3-11-066015-9 e-ISBN (PDF) 978-3-11-066071-5 e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-11-066084-5 ISSN 2570-1657 Library of Congress Control Number: 2020935904 Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at http://dnb.dnb.de. © 2020 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston Typesetting: Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd. Printing and Binding: CPI books GmbH, Leck www.degruyter.com

Contents Pablo Vidal-González 1 Introduction 1 Pablo Vidal-González, Antonio Vidal Matzanke 2 Back to the mountains: Hiking as a search for lost roots and rural origins 7 Åge Vigane, Eivind Sæther 3 Norwegian friluftsliv: History, cultural practice and values

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Josep Capsi, Hector Esteve 4 Long Trails in Europe: The path to success of hiking tourism products 35 Piotr Cych, Weronika Machowska 5 Orienteering from the Polish perspective

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Laura Jiménez-Monteagudo, Luis Esteban 6 Mountains as an inclusive way open to everyone: An analysis

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Antonio Turmo Arnal 7 Spanish rambling: An activity under the umbrella of a sport federation 77 Julia Blume, Diana Müller, Heinz-Dieter Quack 8 Trends in the German hiking market until 2030

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Jad Abou Arrage, Zeinab Jeambey 9 Community-based tourism on the Lebanon Mountain Trail Víctor Sánchez-Sanz 10 A critical overhaul of current situation of hiking in Spain Simon Jeppesen 11 The reinvention of pilgrimage in Scandinavia Pablo Vidal-González 12 Final remarks 147

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Contents

Abbreviations

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List of figures

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List of tables

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List of contributors Index

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1 Introduction Since the 1950s, with the development of the middle classes in Western countries, the growth of sports in nature, and in particular hiking, has evolved significantly. Our attraction to nature has been a value in constant growth. Recent studies show that hiking maintains an enormous strength and is practiced by a growing number of people (Mackintosh, Griggs & Tate, 2018), attracted by the consumption of nature as a vital necessity of contemporary societies. We can say, without fear of being mistaken, that the future of hiking is extraordinary, given its recent evolution. In parallel, this strong evolution, this increase in hiking, involves a series of risks that should not be ignored. Such risks include overcrowding of tourist destinations, seasonalization of demand, erosion of the most used trails and pollution, among others. We find hiking to be the most democratic sport; nearly everyone can access the most basic facilities to practice it. Because of their high symbolic value, national parks and other protected areas may be more publicized and therefore more popular, but there are areas of high walking value everywhere. Little to no expensive or technologically complex equipment is required, and the ease with which the effort and the physical exigency required to engage can be adapted means that nearly everybody can do it. The efforts made to involve people with some kind of disability, as we will see later, do nothing more than underline these values. All of these are elements to explain, in one way or another, the popularity of hiking as an outdoor sport of choice. Another reason for the increase in popularity of hiking is the certainty, recently highlighted, that sporting activity in contact with nature generates important benefits for the physical health of those who practice it. Wolf and Wholfart (2014) point out how these benefits also extend to the concept of well-being, which greatly broadens the spectrum and allows a better understanding of the increase in practice. Eigenschenk et al. (2019, p. 14) have carried out a recent review of the scientific literature and point out that the evidence reveals that outdoor sports are linked to achieving multiple outcomes and they help people to find and maintain a lifetime physical activity. As outdoor sports are accessible and appealing to a very broad audience, the benefits gained are also open for all kinds of stakeholders. Furthermore, as many benefits can be reached simultaneously, outdoor sports do not only benefit the practitioners in multiple ways, but from a decision-maker’s point of view, investments in outdoor sports are seen as being very cost-effective.

It is evident that there is a broad consensus on the benefits of all types of outdoor sports practices, which helps to better understand its high growth rate. Another element that adds to the appeal of hiking is the requirement of the need to escape from the daily reality of urban areas. We need to reconnect with nature, return to our roots, establish a link with natural landscapes, to reconcile with ourselves https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110660715-001

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and be more attached to nature. The search for authenticity, the return of roots and traditions, Vidon (2019, p. 18), explains this growing attraction for wilderness, from a psychological perspective as: “perceived by many nature tourists as a profoundly biological place in which the social subject may reconnect with her ‘true,’ ‘whole,’ ‘authentic’ self, the wilderness as biological offers an enticing antidote (a fantasy) to feelings of alienation as that ‘other’ that will bring the split subject authenticity and wholeness via (re)union with the biological child.” Many authors insist on this point of the search for authenticity. This is how Langseth explains the growing participation of sportsmen and women in risky activities in nature, “as an attempt to strike a balance between the social constraints of everyday life and the cultural imperatives in late modernity” (2011, p. 640). At the same time, this growth, this considerable democratization of performance, this strong increase in demand, is accompanied by specialization, a search for new and increasingly distant destinations, as well as the use of new materials. We cannot study or value all hikers equally. It imposes a specialization by interest groups to respond better to the demands and needs of different groups of hikers, as well-noted by Getz and McConnell (2011). This diversity among the different levels of hikers also poses problems that will have to be addressed more intensively in the future. Despite the fact that there is an increase in the number of people who practice sports in nature, in the USA, there is an increase in the number of those who do so, as it is a question of “that are physically not very challenging” (Cordell, 2008, p. 10). This also raises important security issues, which are often faced by emergency services. The importance of proposing reasonable and affordable routes to each other’s training and capabilities are essential. There are many accidents due to lack of preparation and lack of equipment in conditions in the main mountain areas of our continent. The Alps, the Pyrenees, the Norwegian mountains or the Corsican island GR-20 are examples, among others, of this problem. The European hiking sector has a rich social fabric, made up of the hikers themselves, the numerous organizations that manage it (companies, administrations, federations, and associations), the events held around this phenomenon (marches, festivals, competitions), as well as the consumer habits among its practitioners. This “substantial diversity,” following Manning’s words (2011, p. 342), is one of its greatest values, but at the same time poses important challenges in managing diversity, which can lead to confusion. Local, regional or national authorities often mix their interests and priorities, generating a message that is unclear and out of sync, to the detriment of the outdoor sports consumer. Studies on the importance of hiking have been carried out from different academic disciplines, highlighting the area of tourism, but also health, economy, or psychology. Other disciplines have been integrated more recently, such as sociology, rural development, or social and cultural anthropology. In any case, “outdoor studies is a young and emerging discipline not without issues of identity, particularly in a global context” (Prince, 2016, p. 9). That is why the growing interdisciplinary work is

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offering interesting results and should be the line to follow in the future of research on the subject. All the efforts we make as researchers to progress in this direction will help us to improve results and move forward more quickly. Academia shows a growing interest in sports activities in nature, both from the point of view of physical activity itself, as in its impact on tourism, and also in aspects related to health, social sciences issues, and even sports performance. It is for this reason that in recent years, European universities have devoted increasing attention to the practice of hiking, developing new research proposals with an increasingly interdisciplinary character. Thus, studies on physical activity and sport have incorporated subjects on outdoor sports (Norway, Great Britain and Spain, among others), as well as new Masters programs in these subjects, since they have detected the important attraction of these sports forms, their growing interest, and the high impact they generate in the natural environment where they are held, but also the important market and employment niches that these activities generate. We must not forget the strong impact that hiking has on the territory in which it is practiced. More and more, the tourist offer for ramblers seeks to enrich rural environments that are economically disadvantaged, either by depopulation, by its distance from major urban centers, or by being based on a primary economy. However, these weaknesses are precisely the strengths that make them more attractive to the consumer, the tourist, the hiker from the urban environment. The new trends, including community-based tourism, seek to offer a mutually favorable exchange between two very different worlds, that of the urban consumer, which “attempts to escape the constraints of modern, rationalized life and thereby transcend the institutional world of modernity” (Wolf & Wholfart, 2014, p. 631) and that of the rural inhabitant, who lives in an environment with an unstable balance and to whom the new trekking tendencies can bring an important economic benefit, one that will allow them to supplement their income. With the aim of joining forces in this field, the research group on Mountain Sports, Leisure and Free Time of the Faculty of Physical Activity and Sports Sciences of the Catholic University of Valencia (UCV), Spain, met in January 2019 as an outstanding group of Spanish and foreign experts to discuss these and other issues, as events marketing rock climbing, expeditions to the Himalayas or high performance sport in the First International Congress on Hiking and Mountain Sports. Subsequently, it has dynamized a research network on this subject, coordinating a group of experts and researchers from different Spanish universities and foreign colleagues and officials from the Federation of Mountain Sports and Climbing (FEDME), which has been recognized by the Spanish Higher Sports Council (CSD). As a result of post-meeting reflection and debate, the pertinence of generating a publication on the state of hiking from a comparative and interdisciplinary approach across European countries was observed. One of the outcomes is this book, which gathers contributions from Norwegian, Polish, Spanish, German and Lebanese researchers. It intends to be an impulse for transnational and interdisciplinary research

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in the area. We propose this text as a further step in the consolidation of hiking as an academic learning exercise that allows greater professionalism of hiking activity, as part of the curriculum of European universities with training in outdoor sports, mainly in the areas of sport, tourism and health. There are few precedents, as Stoot (2016) among others points out, perhaps with the idea that training in outdoor sports corresponds more to non-formal education or extracurricular activities in primary schools. “Outdoor studies is far ahead of these traditional forms of schooling in that is inherently recognises being, but up to now has lacked the conceptual framework through which to convey the understanding” (Quay & Seaman, 2016, p. 47). In the first of the chapters, Vidal-González and Vidal Matzanke analyze the origin and meaning of hiking, the fascination and magnetism that the environment exerts for urban men and women. It points out the dichotomy between urban and rural, between a populated coast and an empty mountain, but full of attractive environmental and heritage resources. They also underline the link between natural heritage and cultural heritage, typical of the rural milieu and how these can help to energize this abused and abandoned geography, with serious shortages and problems of depopulation. Vigane and Saether then delve into a concept that deeply permeates Norwegian society and that makes the practice of nature sports tremendously popular, the friluftsliv, life in nature, understood as an interest in being permanently in contact with nature, to live in nature. In the words of the authors, this is a fundamental feature of Norwegian culture, which, despite everything, is not free of threats, so it must be encouraged and cultivated to ensure that this lifestyle remains in the next generations. The practice of friluftsliv is directly linked to history and the strong sense of Norwegian national identity and shows the extraordinary connection, not without new challenges, between its inhabitants and the nature that surrounds them. Cych and Machowska make an approximation to the evolution of orienteering, a sport that combines physical exercise in nature, but also intellectual reflection, from a European perspective, underlining the reality of this sport in Poland. The authors place special emphasis on the future challenges of this sport on a global level, and specifically in this central European country. They present a proposal to increase the number of practitioners of this complete and interesting sport, still young in many countries. Jiménez-Monteagudo and Esteban present the state of the art on this exciting topic and describe some of the challenges involved, with special mention to the development of the joëlette as a tool that greatly facilitates contact with nature. Amongst the various adapted sports disciplines, adapted sport in the countryside and mountains has become increasingly popular in recent times. The interest in nature sports could not be oblivious to the strong demand from the group of people with disabilities. The use of the joëlette, still moderate in many countries, is an extraordinary tool to facilitate access to nature for many people with disabilities. Incipient proposals are allowing people to enjoy natural environments of extraordinary value that they may have never

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otherwise been able to enjoy before. The social and human impact of this integration is extraordinary and has not yet been sufficiently measured. Turmo presents the case of the activities and competences of the FEDME, a nonprofit organization that manages and dynamizes the important hiking phenomenon in Spain and compares it with the same phenomenon in other European countries. The Spanish Federation is a direct witness and committed actor in the important growth of hiking practice. The work aims to collect the lines of action and respond to the new challenges posed, before which new management models should be developed. Blume, Müller and Quack situate us before the reality of the flourishing practice of hiking in Germany, presenting an interesting sociological study on the latest trends in this market, from the point of view of tourism, as well as announcing the new technological trends, associated with digitalization, which advance the future of this sector. The authors distinguish between those hikers who prefer to avoid the use of computer devices and those who are increasingly expanding, who demand more information and monitoring through apps. Abou, Arrage and Jeambey present an interesting example of success. It is a community development project in rural areas of Lebanon, stimulated by a tourist project to attract hikers, mostly from other countries. Rural tourism in general and hiking in particular are important tools for attracting new visitors to the countryside and are a perfect complement to local economies, although hardly to the point of becoming the main source of income for local communities. The authors point out the richness, diversity, and attractiveness of the mountain landscapes of this fascinating country and how rural tourism is enabling greater cohesion and an increase in wealth at the local level. The economic impact of hiking between local communities is a key issue. It is a useful and socially responsible tool for sustainable development that combines the enjoyment of nature and local cultural heritage with an important economic contribution to support the rural population. Sánchez talks about the development of hiking in Spain, comparing it with the same phenomenon in other European countries and highlights the future challenges the sport will be facing. The text highlights the wide range of sports management and practice models in Spain, due to the way each region is governed and to the different historic backgrounds of this sport. This practice perhaps depends too much on public administration and needs to adapt to more dynamic associative environments. The author proposes solutions and new ways to break with this duality and enrich the national hiking offer. Jepessen introduces us to an interesting example of a combination of hiking practice, nature, and cultural heritage, such as the reinvention of the Saint Olav pilgrimage to Nidaros Cathedral. It is a hiking route that allows contact with the lush nature of the Norwegian mountains, as well as a search for introspection and tranquility, with a religious origin similar to the pilgrimage of Saint James in Spain. The senderista not only looks for nature, but also the reason why the cultural patrimony, material and immaterial, are the perfect complement so that the routes are of their interest.

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What we have here is a wide range of contributions from different points of view and regional approaches, which emphasize in a shared way on the importance of hiking as a sport and tourism proposal. Let us hope that these contributions will encourage the progress of research in this field and contribute to the training of new specialists in the sector, in order to meet the growing demand for these practices.

References Cordell, H. K. (2008). The Latest on Trends in Nature-Based Outdoor Recreation. Forest History Today. Spring. 4–10 Eigenschenk, B., Thomann, A., McClure, M., Davies, L., Gregory, M., Dettweiler, U., & Inglés, E. (2019). Benefits of Outdoor Sports for Society. A Systematic Literature Review and Reflections on Evidence. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(6), 937. Langseth, T. (2011). Risk sports – social constraints and cultural imperatives. Risk sports – social constraints and cultural imperatives. Sport in Society. 14:5.629–644 Getz, D. & McConnell, A. (2011). Serious Sport Tourism and Event Travel Careers. Journal of Sport Management, 25(4),326–338 Mackintosh, C. Griggs, G. & Tate, R. (2018). Understanding the growth in outdoor recreation participation: an opportunity for sport development in the United Kingdom. Managing Sport and Leisure, 23(4–6), 315–335 Manning, R.E. (2011). Studies in Outdoor Recreation. Search and Research for Satisfaction. Oregon State University Press. 3rd Edition. Prince, H. (2016). Introduction. In Humberstone, B. Prince, H. & Henderson, K.A (eds). Routledge International Handbook of Outdoor Studies. New York. Routledge. 7–9 Quay, J. & Seaman, J. (2016). Outdoor studies and a sound philosophy of experience. In Humberstone, B. Prince, H. & Henderson, K.A. (eds). Routledge International Handbook of Outdoor Studies. New York. Routledge. 40–48 Stoot, T. (2016). Pedagogic practice in higher education in the UK. In Humberstone, B. Prince, H. & Henderson, K.A. Routledge International Handbook of Outdoor Studies. New York. Routledge. 131–140 Vidon, E.S. (2019). Why wilderness? Alienation, authenticity, and nature. Tourist Studies. 19 (1). 3–22 Wolf, I.D. Wholfart, T. (2014). Walking, hiking and running in parks: A multidisciplinary assessment of health and well-being benefits. Landscape and Urban Planning. 130: 89–103

Pablo Vidal-González, Antonio Vidal Matzanke

2 Back to the mountains: Hiking as a search for lost roots and rural origins Mountains as attractions and dreamed-about places Since the dawn of time, mountains have been the subject of study in a wide range of scientific disciplines. Our restless human nature, together with the unknown character of many regions, including mountainous areas, has produced in us the need of search for answers to the questions posed by this lack of knowledge (Moscoso Sánchez, 2003). Inevitably, the curiosity aroused in human beings by mountains has increased their allure; they have often been dreamed-about places, and indeed this is still the case today. A few centuries ago, the fascination of mountains lay in the difficulty in reaching and remaining in them; now people are still drawn to them by a powerful urge that is concerned with returning to the place once reached and then abandoned at a particular time. In other words, the process experienced by many western societies with the migration from the countryside to big cities, is one undergoing a period of change (Vaccaro & Beltrán, 2012). To understand, comprehend and put mountains in the context of a dreamed-of place, we need to travel back in time to 14th century southern China, where a new concept known as “landscape” emerged. This new concept was the result of reflection and an attempt to explain and express the feelings experienced when contemplating a particular area often framed by mountains (Calero, 2014). This signalled a new way of thinking that was capable of appreciating aspects such as nature, wildlife, vegetation and so on. This situated human beings within a previously unknown environment, giving them their own identity and therefore the ability to orient themselves in a completely new space. This new line of thought would expand towards the West via trading routes and constantly travelled migratory routes, and it would be the figure of Francesco Petrarca that would signal the beginning of the concept of landscape in Europe (Calero, 2014). In Petrarch’s Ascent of Mount Ventoux in 1336, the Italian humanist expressed his admiration and fascination for the mountainous landscape around this Alpine giant (Maderuelo, 2009). From this point onwards, the notion of landscape, closely connected with mountains, takes on greater importance and will always be linked to the specific characteristics of each culture. As Mata (2008) says: The recognition that the landscape of each territory is expressed in terms of its own particular appearance and in multiple social images, makes landscape an important factor in the quality of life of the local population; this is because landscape is, first and foremost, the result of the sensitive relationship between people and their perceived, everyday or visited surroundings. (p. 155) https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110660715-002

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Other distinguished academics also discussed the topic of study represented by landscape and mountains, all influenced by Alexander von Humboldt’s legacy, the starting point for Europe’s most important schools of geography (Nogué, 2010). In fact, landscape, with the mountain being its greatest exponent, represents an element of personal identity for people who live there and can still exercise a twoway effect on the beings present in it. Nowadays, appreciating nature and the landscape has become an issue of major interest. Proof of this is “the exponential increase in publications focusing on landscape, the proliferation of research institutes and laboratories working on the topic and the huge attention it is attracting across a wide range of socio-economic and political spheres” (Hernández, 2012, p. 131). This translates into the study of landscape across a number of knowledge areas. Whilst for life sciences the object of study lies in biological diversity, in social sciences, the approach focuses more on maintaining cultural diversity (Andreu, 2012). From each of the major knowledge areas other perspectives have emerged that attempt to tackle and explain each of the relationships that exists in this environment, with the possibility of landscape and mountains being studied from the point of view of anthropology, territorial organisation or migratory movements, amongst others. It is not surprising that an element that has always been present and unknown has aroused the interest of human beings, who, after all, have always wanted to find the answers to big questions. In the end, it is completely logical that mountains and the landscape are seen as dreamed-of places. In the words of Nogué when he quotes the European Landscape Convention: “the landscape is an important part of the quality of life for people everywhere: in urban areas and in the countryside, in degraded areas as well as in areas of high quality, in areas recognised as being of outstanding beauty as well as everyday areas” (2010, p. 135).

The workers’ fascination with nature The rise of the Industrial Revolution, first in Europe and then in the United States, in relation to the growth of urban environments and the acceleration of fast-paced and mechanized processes, marked a turning point in the fascination for nature. From 1830 onwards, the first British tourists arrived at the Folgefonna glacier in Norway in search of lost nature and a pristine, unspoilt, unchanged place; Norwegian farmers were incredulous at the interest shown by the tourists in visiting a landscape that they considered useless, empty and meaningless. The farmers had worked hard for generations to make the most of the area’s scarce natural resources but had expressed their profound lack of enthusiasm for the barren, cold and inhospitable terrain. They quickly realised the area’s new tourism potential, and quickly adapted to these new opportunities, becoming mountain guides and subsequently building what was to be

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a major tourist destination in the nearby town of Odda, a town where the German Emperor spent many holidays. The Grand Canyon of the Colorado River, in the United States, prompted a similar fascination and from the mid-19th century onwards it became a major tourism attraction across the entire American West. As early as 1886, three years before it was first declared a Reserve and years before it was finally given National Park status well into the 20th century, in 1919, a local newspaper reported: “The National Park of the Grand Canyon of the Colorado sounds well. The National Park in the Grand Canyon of the Colorado will be a Mecca of tourists from all the world over.”1 The relationship is clear. The attraction of nature and the protection of new spaces in the face of the inexorable progress of civilisation in general and mining in particular, would make this place, as demonstrated a century later, a focal point for people in search of that dreamed-of nature, which we were forced to renounce when we “modernized” and de-naturalised our world. That fascination felt by our ancestors, the contemporaries of the Industrial Revolution, has become even stronger in our time. The growing urbanisation of our lives leads us to search, as a basic need, for new ways of consuming nature, for a return to nature, to the place our forebears left in order to prosper, but to which we always feel the need to go back. “Emerging heritage forms respond largely to loss and yearning for what is lived or portrayed as ‘authentic experiences’.” (Santamarina & Moncusí, 2014, p. 97) This leads to situations that may be best described as paradoxical or dichotomous. Examples include the lengthy queues for photos after going up by cable car to the Aiguille du Midi to get a good image of themselves with Mont Blanc. Controversy that is more recent surrounds the queues on the ascent to Mount Everest and the chance to show on Instagram that we have broken through the last frontier and reached the furthest and remotest of places, despite being surrounded by many others. The commodification of experiences in adventurous landscapes is an increasing and present part of this dichotomy. It is all about trivialising, domesticating, making the theoretically unattainable our own. The dichotomy between the search for the exceptional, the authentic and massification comes to the fore here. Mountains, the rural environment and heritage: the connection to the development of sports tourism. Nowadays, a large number of public and private organisations have seen rural heritage as a powerful tool for fighting and reversing factors such as countryside depopulation or the loss of ancient working techniques and processes. The Council of Europe Conference of Ministers responsible for Spatial/Regional Planning (referred to from now on as CEMAT) described heritage in CEMAT (2006) as “the set of material and immaterial elements that bear witness to the particular relationships established by a human community with a territory over the course of history” (p. 10). Broadly speaking, heritage or the elements considered as such can be

1 Arizona Champion, January 23, 1886.

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classified into two main groups: firstly, all tangible elements like castles, footpaths, houses, etc., and secondly, intangible cultural elements like customs, festivals, traditions and so on. CEMAT itself specifies each of these major groups and states that tangible heritage is much easier to locate, as it is composed of elements like landscapes, real estate, furniture, products and so on. In terms of intangible heritage, and this is its distinctive feature, CEMAT states: “this heritage is composed of a set of intangible heritage assets that are inseparable from the tangible heritage” (p. 11). Within this statement, it is understood that each of the elements constitutes a living heritage and that as part of their context they give meaning to the whole; they help us make better sense of the temporal and spatial factors that characterise the particular traits of specific physical environments. It could be said, therefore, that this is a process of intentional heritage formation, understood as a process of “cultural production in which certain cultural or natural elements are selected and refashioned for new social uses” (Roigé & Frigolé, 2014, p. 12). Tourism is a major example of this. Alongside this is a paradigm shift in the global tourism model that leads to a change in tourism trends. Although the last century saw a boom in the sun and sand tourism model, the 21st century is characterised by the emergence of new forms, particularly sports tourism and all its many variants (Cánoves, Villarino, Priestley, & Blanco, 2004). According to De Oliveira-Matos (et al. 2017), the aim of this new tourism concept is to enjoy nature and a series of different surroundings that are often framed against mountain backdrops and provide an alternative that complements well-established models. They are capable of producing an economic impact in seasons in which there was previously no tourism and of generating employment in regions undergoing processes of depopulation. Faced with this new situation, Prats (2003) contends that: There is a market for tourism and heritage projects in which the supply, as one might call it, is generated by technical experts coming out of university (sometimes even from the university itself), working in companies, quasi-companies or other types of generally small teams, or working individually, producing projects in response to demand from administrations, mostly local, more often than not initiated by the experts themselves, who make a living or complement their income from drawing up, executing or maintaining these kinds of projects. (p. 128)

In fact, one of the sports tourism projects gaining a strong foothold in rural and mountainous areas is hiking. According to García Ferrando (2015), in recent years hiking has been on the increase in several of its parameters: more projects, more kilometres of infrastructure, better facilities, more publications and, of course, many more enthusiasts on the trails. Both researchers and institutions confirm that the walking-hikingtrekking combination is the most widely practised leisure activity in both Spain and Europe (Moscoso Sánchez, 2003). As Boller, Hunziker, Conedera, Elsasser, & Krebs (2010) point out, one of the key factors in the great popularity enjoyed by hiking is due largely to the simplicity involved in doing it; if it is an activity that almost anyone can

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do. Another factor is its ability to physically take hikers along forgotten trails and back to their rural origins.

A new discipline in the mountain environment: trail running races There are many sports disciplines that are currently practised in mountain settings. Hiking is understood to be an activity that consists of travelling along way-marked trails unsuitable for motor vehicles (Gallegos & Extremera, 2010) and is one of the most popular, due to its ease and accessibility. Another of the most important activities, in terms of numbers of people participating is mountain trail running. In recent years, mountain trail races have grown exponentially from all points of view. Many of today’s runners are hikers who opted to take things a step further and be part of a discipline involving slightly higher demands on the body (Consejo Asesor Científico de las Montañas. Área de Accesos y Naturaleza, 2010). One of the key reasons for the huge numbers of people in both disciplines is that many runners are also active hikers and the choice of one or the other discipline can be traced back to each person’s personal goals. It is true that the same person can be a hiker at a particular time when they go out into the mountains with their family and then be out competing in a mountain trail running race the following week (Nasarre, 2016). There are various reasons why mountain trail running races have seen a sharp rise in participant numbers. As has already been mentioned, the hiker-trail runner link is a key factor, although there are a number of others. Firstly, the setting in which the activity is done is key. According to the Spanish Mountain Sports Federation, the Federación Española de Deportes de Montaña y Escalada (2016) (referred to from now on as FEDME), mountain trail running races take place in low, medium and high mountain areas, no matter the time of year. These races typically have two main elements. One is the type of terrain they over which they travel, which can be mountainous or rural. The other is the positive and negative accumulated height gain, which is regulated according to the different rules for each type of race (Federació d’Esports de Muntanya i Escalada de la Comunitat Valenciana, 2015). The features of the area where the race takes place, against a backdrop of an eminently urban society that has become disconnected from rural life, produce a breeding ground for a feeling of yearning that makes people want to return to the natural world to enjoy their free leisure time (Moscoso & González, 2004). As has been clearly shown in the surveys on sports habits run by García Ferrando (2015) an increasing number of people are practising some kind of sport. The sports habit is becoming more and more widespread, due to better education and more readily available information.

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Nowadays, the vast majority of citizens in developed countries are aware of the link between sport and health and understand that the way to better health is through practising sport. The sport and health approach is not limited to physical health; it also includes mental and social health (Barton, Hine, & Pretty, 2009). Another determining factor has been the psychosocial side of sport. In the study of people’s mental, emotional and social lives, it is well known that being accepted and recognised as an individual in society is highly valued. Currently, with the boom in new technology, many race participants use social media to show and tell their followers that they have taken part in specific races. The more kilometres they run the more likes they get, and the more difficult the race the greater the acclaim (Kliot & Collins-Kreiner, 2018). Organisers of major races have known how to make the most of this through their marketing professionals, meaning that many races come up with sophisticated advertising spots to attract potential participants. One example of this is the film trailer spot for Penyagolosa Trails 2018, which hosted the World Trail Running Championships. One of the slogans was “Create your own epic”, persuading runners that finishing the race was a heroic feat (Vidal-González & Sánchez, 2018). Perhaps one of the most important factors is the tourism focus placed on these races. At present, sports tourism, understood as an activity in which the main aim is to practise sport in a tourist destination, is undergoing exponential growth (Cánoves et al., 2004). Many public administrations and private companies have realised that sporting events in the countryside are a tool for deseasonalizing a tourism industry that had historically concentrated on the sun and sand model. Now, many races are held throughout the year and in any location on the coast or in the mountains, with the latter being more popular (Raya, Martínez-Garcia, & Celma, 2018). These races and tourism products have been adapted as part of society’s consumer system with the intention of offering a complementary service for family and friends travelling with race participants. This includes all kinds of initiatives that fit in with the race and are often aimed at highlighting specific locations. Examples of this could be day trips, wine tastings, activities, new kinds of disciplines, etc., that are organised to keep family members entertained. When a runner takes part in the UTMB (Ultra Trail du Mont Blanc), his or her family can do all kinds of parallel activities that not only have a positive economic impact but also a huge social impact as well (Quinlan Cutler, Carmichael, & Doherty, 2014). In conclusion, hiking has become a global sport, with an increasing number of followers. The attraction of the return to the roots, the contact with nature lost and longed for, as well as the important improvement in our health, make it increasingly popular to walk. Perhaps the challenge is not to die of success, not to collapse the most popular routes, looking for others (the offer could be endless), which satisfies the expectation of the public, but at the same time avoids overcrowding. The formula should be proximity hiking, increasing the visibility of local trails. First and foremost, those hikers occupying the positions closest to the center of its social world, in words of Capsi and Esteve (in this volume) should be the center of

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attention for Long Trails and the most demanding challenges. In this way we would avoid the big displacements, the big costs and the big traffic jams, that go deeply against the hiking philosophy and propose something similar to the idea of the proximity product. In this case, the hiking proximity trail.

References Andreu, A. (2012). Apunts sobre la construcció de la noció de paisatge i la seva valorització social. En B. Santamarina (Ed.), Geopolíticas patrimoniales: De culturas, naturalezas e inmaterialidades. Una mirada etnográfica (pp. 113–130). Valencia. Germania. Barton, J., Hine, R., & Pretty, J. (2009). The health benefits of walking in greenspaces of high natural and heritage value. Journal of Integrative Environmental Sciences, 6(4),261–278. https://doi.org/10.1080/19438150903378425 Boller, F., Hunziker, M., Conedera, M., Elsasser, H., & Krebs, P. (2010). Fascinating Remoteness: The Dilemma of Hiking Tourism Development in Peripheral Mountain Areas: Results of a Case Study in Southern Switzerland. Mountain Research and Development, 30(4),320–331. https:// doi.org/10.1659/MRD-JOURNAL-D-10-00018.1 Calero, Á. (2014). Reflections on Landscape: Theory and Management in Europe. En P. Vidal-Gonz ález (Ed.), Landscape Anthropology in European Protected Areas (pp. 13–28). Cánoves, G., Villarino, M., Priestley, G. K., & Blanco, A. (2004). Rural tourism in Spain: an analysis of recent evolution. Geoforum, 35(6),755–769. CEMAT. (2006). Guía Europea de observación del patrimonio rural CEMAT. From European Council website: https://optefau.files.wordpress.com/2018/03/guc3ada-europea-de-observacion-del -patrimonio-rural-cemat1.pdf Consejo Asesor Científico de las Montañas. Área de Accesos y Naturaleza. (2010). Incidencia Socioeconómica y Ambiental de las Carreras por Montaña en el Medio Rural y Natural en España. FromFederación Española de Deportes de Montaña y Escalada website: https://www. mapa.gob.es/es/desarrollo-rural/temas/caminos-naturales/incidencia%2Bcarreras_tcm30149290.pdf De Oliveira-Matos, C., Chim-Miki, A. F., Mediana-Brito, P., & Batista-Canino, R. M. (2017). Senderismo como Modalidad Turística: Una Oportunidad Competitiva para Brasil. PODIUM Sport, Leisure and Tourism Review, 6(4),427–449. https://doi.org/10.5585/podium.v6i4.217 Federació d’Esports de Muntanya i Escalada de la Comunitat Valenciana. (2015). Reglamento de Competiciones de Carreras por Montaña FEMECV. From https://www.femecv.com/sites/de fault/files/reglamento_carrera_por_montana_femecv_aprobado_18_diciembre_2015.pdf Federación Española de Deportes de Montaña y Escalada. (2016). Reglamento de Competiciones de Carreras por Montaña FEDME. From http://www.fedme.es/salaprensa/upfiles/1207_F_es. pdf”,1,0,0>http://www.fedme.es/salaprensa/upfiles/1207_F_es.pdf Gallegos, A., & Extremera, A. (2010). Actividades físicas en el medio natural: Teoría y práctica para la Educación Física actual. Sevilla: Wanceulen. Editorial Deportiva, S.L. García Ferrando, M. (2015). Encuesta de Hábitos Deportivos en España 2015. From https://www. mecd.gob.es/servicios-al-ciudadano-mecd/dms/mecd/servicios-al-ciudadano-mecd/estadisti cas/deporte/ehd/Encuesta_de_Habitos_Deportivos_2015.pdf Hernández, E. (2012). Visiones del paisaje. Del entendimiento a las implicaciones en la praxis. En B. Santamarina (Ed.), Geopolíticas patrimoniales: De culturas, naturalezas e inmaterialidades. Una mirada etnográfica (pp. 131–147). Valencia: Germania.

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Kliot,N.& Collins-Kreiner,N. (2018). Social world, hiking and nation: the Israel National Trail. Social & Cultural Geography, 1–29. https://doi.org/10.1080/14649365.2018.1519116 Maderuelo, J. (2009). La mirada del arquitecto. En Martínez de Pisón, E. & Ortega Cantero, N. (Eds.), Los valores del paisaje (pp. 215–232). Universidad Autónoma de Madrid. Madrid. Fundación Duques de Soria. Soria. Mata, R. (2008). El paisaje, patrimonio y recurso para el desarrollo territorial sostenible. Conocimiento y acción pública. Arbor, 184(729),155–172. Moscoso, D. J., & González, M. T. (2004). La montaña como observatorio de lo social. Instituto de Estudios Sociales Avanzados de Andalucía (IESA-CSIC). Moscoso Sánchez, D. J. (2003). La montaña y el hombre en los albores del siglo XXI. Una reflexión sociológica sobre la situación del montañismo en España. Cuarte (Huesca): Barrabes Editorial. Nasarre, J. M. (2016). Senderismo. 100 hitos normativos y para pensar. Madrid: Ediciones Desnivel. Nogué, J. (2010). El retorno al paisaje. Enrahonar, 45, 123–136. Prats, L. (2003). Patrimonio + turismo = ¿desarrollo? PASOS. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural, 1(2),127–136. Quinlan Cutler, S. Carmichael, B. & Doherty, S. (2014). The Inca Trail experience: Does the journey matter? Annals of Tourism Research, 45, 152–166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2013.12.016 Raya, J. M. Martínez-Garcia, E. & Celma, D. (2018). Economic and social yield of investing in hiking tourism: the case of Berguedà, Spain. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 35(2),148–161. Roigé, X., & Frigolé, J. (2014). La patrimonialización de la cultura y la naturaleza. En X. Roigé, J. Frigolé, & C. del Mármol (Eds.), Construyendo el patrimonio cultural y natural. Parques, museos y patrimonio rural (pp. 9–28). Valencia: Germania. Santamarina,B. Moncusí,A. 2014. El mercado de la autenticidad. Las nuevas ficciones patrimoniales. Revista de Occidente. Julio-Agosto. 410–11. 93–112. Vaccaro, I. & Beltrán, O. (2012). Consuming space, nature and culture: patterns of mountain indirect urbanization. Mountain Research Initiative Newsletter, (7), 18–21. Vidal-González, P. & Sánchez, V. (2018). Hiking paths and intangible heritage: a quest for cultural roots. Cases in the province of Castellón, Spain. Sport in Society, 1–12. https://doi.org/10. 1080/17430437.2018.1551368

Åge Vigane, Eivind Sæther

3 Norwegian friluftsliv: History, cultural practice and values Introduction The aim of this chapter is to show the roots of the Norwegian term friluftsliv and to show how Norwegian friluftsliv is central in Norwegian culture and society. The key elements in this chapter are Norwegian friluftsliv`s history, its practice and its values. It is possible to track this interest in friluftsliv in both history, philosophy and as a phenomenon of the present. The term “friluftsliv” (literally: free-air-life) has a long and quite complex history, but today, in the everyday Norwegian language, it is a common term to describe spending time in nature, un-motorized activity, hiking or skiing in nature. The research shows that friluftsliv activities continue to be important in Norway, with a participation rate of approximately 90% (Breivik, 2013; Odden & Aas, 2003; Sandvik & Holseter, 2018). According to Odden (2008) friluftsliv in Norway today, can be seen as a process between generalization and differentiation. The generalization process is seen as the traditional way of friluftsliv, like hiking, and differentiation is seen as a more variety of activities. In any case, most of the people are spending time in nature with friends or family (Hofmann, Rolland, Rafoss & Zoglowek, 2018). The traditional Norwegian concept of friluftsliv is closely related to other outdoor recreational activities that exist worldwide. But the Norwegian term friluftsliv is much more than outdoor activity, outdoor adventure or outdoor recreation. According to Hofmann, Rolland, Rafoss & Zoglowek (2018, p.97) friluftsliv “can be understood as a philosophy of life and therefore as a lifestyle”. There is a great deal of interest in friluftsliv exercise, especially with regards to intrinsic values. The intrinsic values in friluftsliv are associated with ideas like freedom, the experience of nature and to have a good time on the planet. It may seem that contemplative values are important in friluftsliv as well, although it is often the combination of physical activity and the experience of nature that is unique and constitutes the core of friluftsliv (Miljødepartementet, 2016; Miljøverndepartementet, 2001; Vaagbø, 1993). Even friluftsliv is a common term in everyday life, and people give their own meaning and persuasion, Nils Faarlund`s definition of the term friluftsliv still has an influence among Norwegians. According to Faarlund (2007, p.60) “Friluftsliv is a Norwegian tradition for seeking the joy of identification with free nature”. Faarlund uses the term “go into nature”, more than “go out to nature”. The difference, according to Faarlund, is important. The concept of “into nature,” suggests something familiar. In contrast, the concept of “going out to nature” suggests something wild or unfamiliar. Faarlund uses the analogy that “the nature is home of the https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110660715-003

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culture” (Faarlund & Verket, 2003, p.1). This idea is rooted in the European movement to stand up against the forces of modern, busy life (Faarlund, 2007). Other values are the deep feeling of joy, the contact with nature and free play in nature (Faarlund, 2007). Vikander (2007) suggests friluftsliv can be a path to some higher insight and wisdom. Norwegian friluftsliv is recognized as a value-based life philosophy and an environmentally friendly practice (Gurholt, 2008). The Norwegian government define friluftsliv as: “Friluftsliv is physical activity in the open air in spare time with the aim of environment change and experience in nature” (Miljøverndepartementet, 2001, p.9). This definition is descriptive, more than normative. Alternatively, there is a limitation against motorized practice. Motorized activities, like scooters or helicopters are, from this point of view, not accepted as friluftsliv, given that it is not sustainable (Gurholt & Sanderud, 2016). Despite several definitions, friluftsliv is deep rooted in the Norwegian language and in daily life. It features in school curricula, traditional Sunday hiking trips, Easter holidays in the family cabin, and overnight trips with friends (Dahle, 2007; Sæther, 2008). Friluftsliv can therefore be characterized as a cultural phenomenon (Dahle, 2007). The essence of a cultural phenomenon like friluftsliv can be different things based on various factors, such as adolescence, time, gender, family, heritage and personal values. The reason why friluftsliv has become such a phenomenon in Norway might be linked to the history of nature and national identity beginning in the 1800. The traditional Norwegian concept of friluftsliv is closely related to other outdoor recreational activities that exist worldwide. In Norway, walking in the woods and in the mountains are the most popular activities. Modern Norwegian friluftsliv culture, have roots from different social groups in the Norwegian society: workers, farmers and nobility. In Norway the Romantic Movement inspired the population to build a national identity, after being under Danish control for many centuries (Tordsson, 2014). Despite lots of people living along the coastline, and thousands being fishermen, it was not the fjords but the mountains that became central components to define Norwegian identity (Tordsson, 2005, 2007). The most important inputs for children learning about the benefits of friluftsliv, is from the children’s parents and family (Dahle, 2007). The curriculum in kindergarten and school values the importance of teaching friluftsliv to children in the Norwegian society (Kunnskapsdepartementet, 2017). To spend time with family, friends, experience nature, reduce stress and exercise are the most common reasons for being in nature. Ironically, some practices in friluftsliv also can harm the environment. That is why there is an ongoing discussion about ecological values and sustainable use of nature. Friluftsliv culture is established depending on what people find interesting related to socio-economic conditions and is constantly evolving.

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The history of friluftsliv and Norwegian identity In the early 1800s, Norwegian scientists started to explore the mountain areas. Biologists, geologists, and demographists began crossing mountains to explore and register plants, flowers, minerals and the various characteristics of the landscape in the mountains (Horgen, 2016; Mytting & Bischoff, 2008). Through centuries, harvesting, fishing, hunting and picking berries was established among farmers to provide food for their families. Through harvesting, farmers had developed a deep understanding of sustainable life in nature (Breivik, 1978; Mytting & Bischoff, 2008). Farming was hard work, and all their energy was concentrated on cultivating the soil. Farmers had the feeling of being connected to mother earth. It was just a way of life (Pedersen, 1999; Tordsson, 2010). Because of this, there was no time left for hiking in the mountain without a clear goal or important purpose. There are some early examples of mountaineering from the 1700s and early 1800s but people only crossed or climbed mountains for a reason (Horgen, 2016; Horgen, 2017; Tonstad, 2008). Farmers did normally not go into the mountains, and only did so to buy or sell food, or to bring animals, such as cows and sheep across the mountain (Horgen, 2016; Støyva, Thomassen, Naustvoll, Basberg, & Den Norske Turistforening, 1999). The farmers wish to spend all their time cultivating their land was considered as an important quality in a man (Helle-Olsen, Thomsen, Worsøe, Bay 2004; Tonstad, 2008). Therefore, locals looked at climbers and hikers, who spent time in the mountains with no purpose, as useless. Locals had no understanding for how foreigners hiked or climbed with no purpose. They often said: “He is either mad, or an Englishman” (Mytting & Bischoff, 2008, p.16). Kirsti Pedersen did a research among the Sami indigenous people in the Alta area in the Northern part of Norway. She did not find the Sami people used the modern term friluftsliv. In opposite they used the term “meahca`stallan” which means doing something with a purpose, and what is useful to the family or society. As a result of her study, she called their way of life “gatherers” (Pedersen, 1999).

The Romantic Movement The Romantic Movement in Europe in the beginning of the 1800s brought another way of thinking and watching the interactions between man, life, and nature. Feelings and emotions became central in considerations of the meaning of existence. In Norway the Romantic Movement inspired the population to build a national identity, after being under Danish control for many centuries. The authors, Asbjørnsen and Mo had in the 1830s travelled around at the countryside, collected fairytale stories that said something important about Norwegians relations to nature. Another important group who spread romantic ideas of nature to the Norwegians, were painters, musicians and poets.

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The modern word friluftsliv was first introduced by Henrik Ibsen in the poem “Paa Vidderne” [On the Heights] in 1859 (Ibsen, 1871). In this poem, the term friluftsliv was conceptualized to describe how it is to be a human being in high altitudes, such as walking and living between mountains, how it feels to be free and how it feels to spend time experiencing nature. By using the term friluftsliv, and describe the term this way, Ibsen brought a new understanding of nature and a new practice in nature to the society. People in the cities were curious to see this amazing scenery, described in poems, songs and paintings, in real life, and so nature-based tourism began in Norway. But, in contrast to the British nobility who climbed the mountains, Norwegians hiked between the mountains. In other words, Norwegians enjoyed the beauty of Norwegian nature (Sæther, 2008). Cultural productions that influenced Norwegians to hike in nature were Bjørnstjerne Bjornson’s national hymn, music by Edvard Grieg and Ole Bull, the paintings by J.C. Dahl (Sæther, 2008). The painting “Brudeferden i Hardanger” by Tidemann & Gude in 1948 became a national symbol for the Norwegian romantic period and nationalism. Late in the 1800`s, the mountain farmer was considered an idol among people in the city. The mountain farmer was regarded as a free man, his own master, skilled, and independent as the farmer lived an authentic life in close relation to nature (Tordsson, 2005, 2007). The mountain farmer is illustrated by Ibsen, who created the worldwide famous figure Per Gynt in the poem from 1867. Norway did not have one united friluftsliv culture. Several natural environments are in use in the spare time of Norwegians, such as the forests, the fjords, the valleys and the mountains. Historically, when Norway was establishing Norwegian identity, they were looking for representatives of this culture. For example, in England, and in capitals all over Europe, there are many memories of war heroes. In Norway there are few war heroes erected as bronze statues. Unlike the war heroes in Europe, the bronze sculpture of the Norwegian King Olav was made with clothes for hiking in nature. The clothing of King Olav as part of his statue can tell us something about the position nature has in Norwegian society. Perhaps the bronze statue of Fridjof Nansen (1861–1930) is the closest to a heroic figure, as a result of his famous expeditions. According to Sørensen (1993) Nansen is the most important person to make skiing to a national sport, and he contributed to spread friluftsliv into the society as well (Sørensen, 1993). Nansen’s famous speech in 1921 motivated young people all over Norway to spend time in nature, set goals for themselves, and challenge their limits (Renolen Aasbø, 2010; Repp, 2007). Such an independent lifestyle and individualism were seen as great value in this period. Friluftsliv was seen as a central element to build up a Norwegian identity, after being in union with Sweden. According to Tordsson (2005) Norwegians had to love nature, go skiing and live in relation to nature. Norwegians have, through centuries, lived in and by nature (Mytting & Bischoff, 2008). This Norwegian attitude to nature is for example in contrast to America, where

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nature is seen as wild and something to be conquered. Common words often used to describe nature in the USA are challenge, adventure and achievement. This is in contrast to seeing – “friluftsliv is a way home” (Dahle, 2007, p. 31; Faarlund, 2007, p. 60; Tordsson, 2007, p. 64).

The Norwegian trekking association The Norwegian Trekking Association (DNT) was established in Oslo in 1868. The values were simplicity, safety and facilitation for all kinds of people to feel the joy of being outside. DNT was a democratic organization for all kinds of people, unlike the elitist Alpine Club in Britain. Today, the aim of DNT is to promote straightforward, active, versatile and environmentally-friendly outdoor activities and to preserve the outdoors and the cultural landscape. The Norwegian trekking association is the biggest friluftsliv organization in Norway, and there are more than 300,000 members of all ages. DNT has 57 local organizations, and they all have free access to more than 550 cabins all over Norway. One important element in bringing all kinds of people to the mountains is to keep all the cabins open through the whole year. As such member, you can buy a key which fits all the cabins. Many cabins also provide food, where you can take what you need and pay in a box in the cabin. It is a system based on trust, inspired by an idea from children selling newspapers in London in the 1860s. The Norwegian trekking association also has more than 30,000 km marked trails in all parts of Norway. The organization is for the most based on volunteers, who run trips and excursions all throughout the year for different kinds of groups made up of people of all ages, levels of skills and from different regions. The Norwegian trekking association has a great influence on how Norwegians practice friluftsliv and the high number of people who continue to practice friluftsliv (Turistforening, 2019). According to Bischoff (2012) all the paths are fundamental important to bring people close to nature and experience the joy of being into the Norwegian landscape. Based on Bischoff’s thesis the Norwegian trekking association have a huge, positive influence of Norwegians experience and understanding of nature (Bischoff, 2012). In Pedersen’s thesis from the northern region (Pedersen, 1999), she named people with a focus on hiking, for hikers. Pedersen also found a distinction between men and woman. Woman took more responsibility for the children, which included doing shorter hikes around the family home. Unlike the men, who did longer hikes, over several days, woman for the most was modelling the children into a nature-friendly practice. It was just a natural way of living, nature friendly and ecological (Pedersen, 1999).

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Norway as “playground” for British nobility In the last part of the 19th century, it was not only the Norwegian nobility who discovered the beauty of the landscape, and wanted to spend time to observe, and experience nature. British nobility, climbers, and hikers saw Norway as their new “playground” (Helle-Olsen et al., 2004). Climbing Norwegian mountains, shooting reindeer, fox and grouse became a growing tourism industry. Slogans such as “Why go to Africa to hunt lions, when you can come to Norway to hunt reindeer?” were used to promote Sirdal as a tourism destination (Helle-Olsen et al.). Because of this, a new mountaineering tradition was established: “Citizens discover nature” (Breivik, 1978 p. 11; Mytting & Bischoff, 2008 p. 20). Central to developing climbing as an activity in Norway was William Slingsby. Slingsby, who completed many of the first ascents in the Norwegian Alps (Horgen, 2016; Horgen, 2017). Until now, Norwegians had just carried a rope, or, perhaps just twisted it around their body. A common saying was “The leader never falls” (Horgen, 2017, p. 220). Norwegians used old fashioned axes and simple nails in their boots. In contrast, Slingsby brought modern equipment developed in the Alps for mountaineering. Due to his influence it was no longer mountaineering for a purpose; rather, mountaineering became a sport (Horgen, 2017). That said, Slingsby had one major positive on Norwegian mountaineering and that was the establishment of new routines and new equipment that made mountaineering safer. During this period there was a growing number of tourists coming by ship from England to visit several mountain areas in Norway. Many arrived by ship to Sundal in the Sørfjorden, where local farmers and young people greeted them. From the coastline, the locals brought the visitors up to the glacier Folgefonna. There was a small cabin for staying overnight close to the glacier. The next day, locals guided the tourists over the glacier and down to the Oddafjorden on the other side of the mountain. Here, the ship picked them up to continue their journey. At that time, there were 13 hotels in the small city named Odda. Another popular glacier among tourists was the glacier Jostedalsbreen, and the mountains in Jotunheimen. Within quite a short period, the Norwegian mountains were used by hundreds and thousands of people, just to see, observe and enjoy the beauty of nature (Bjørne-Larsen, Rudsengen, Statens naturoppsyn & Den Norske turistforening, 2008). South of Norway, Torvald Heiberg started buying areas in Sirdal in the beginning of the 1900s, buying approximately 1 million hectares from local farmers (Thomsen, 2004a). In the 1880s, thousands of farmers emigrated to America, as many farmers did not see the value of the land in the mountains. Heiberg built around 17 cabins for tourists, mostly for the English nobility. In the cabins they experienced a different kind of luxury, depending of the money they spent. They could have people making their food, carrying their equipment or tracking the reindeer. They could also sit on the terrace and shoot reindeer passing by, or indeed enjoy their cigar or whiskey. However, dark clouds were rising. The local farmers disliked the fact that they were

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forbidden to hunt in the mountains which had been a tradition for hundreds of years. In their view, the mountains belonged to the people. Heiberg protected his land by rangers, and locals were prohibited to hunt in the aria. The conflict escalated, and, as a result, some local farmers used dynamite to destroy one of the cabins. These few examples of tourism at Folgefonna, Jostedalsbreen, Sirdal and mountaineering in general, describes a period which had great influence of Norwegian friluftsliv. The Norwegians started to practice hiking and climbing with no other purpose than pleasure. The friluftsliv tourism broke down in 1945 when World War II began (Thomsen, 2004b). The modern way of outdoor practice, such like climbing, hunting, glaciering and downhill skiing Pedersen called “specialists” (Pedersen, 1999). According to Odden (2008) this is an illustration how the term friluftsliv is changing, into what he called the differentiation process, which represent more kind of people, who practice outdoor life in a more variety way.

Friluftsliv as a part of Norwegian identity and skiing Although the Norwegian constitution was confirmed in 1814, Norway was still in a union with Sweden until 1905. Because of this lack of independence, there was a need nationally to develop a strong Norwegian identity (Tordsson, 2014). This included a strong focus of uniting the countryside and the city, the past and the modern, and, of course, culture and nature. Important questions were raised: What kind of culture and what kind of nature is typically Norwegian? Despite lots of people living along the coastline, and thousands being fishermen, it was not the fjords but the mountains that became central components to define Norwegian identity, especially a small area called Morgedal in Telemark. Skis have been used in the Nordic areas for at least 4,000 years (Mo, 1988). Skis were used for friluftsliv activities like hunting, and as a tool for travelling and daily life. Skiing for fun was also a significant part of children’s playtime when friluftsliv started in the 1860’s (Haarstad, 1988). In 1868, Sondre Norheim from Morgedal, traveled to Christiania (once the name of the capital Oslo) to ski, and he won a jumping competition. Later, the brothers Mikkel and Torjus Hemmestveit also won skiing competitions in Christiania and became very famous. Through skiing shows, they received a lot attention, and several ski factories, ski organizations and ski competitions were established. Skiing started to grow among the population and became very popular within a few years (Hybertsen, 2008). The young group of skiers from Telemark, led by Sondre Norheim, established the Telemark style. They jumped longer with their new style, compared to the established skiing groups in Oslo. Skis, which were wider at the front and at the back were developed. People in Christiania and in other cities bought skis, and people all over Norway started to practice every Sunday during winter. In addition, there were competitions held

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with a significant amount of money for the winners. Skiing was a great activity, and it fit the national ideology in this period regarding the importance of being free, independent, and experiencing the wonders of nature. Skiing, at this time, was becoming a national sport (Hybertsen, 2008). Competitions were not seen as friluftsliv, nevetheless lots of people were gathering at ski jumping events. They were inspired by seeing these people jumping and flying on skis, and, as a result, thousands of children, teenagers, women and men were involved in skiing in their spare time. The King of Norway also contributed to the view that skiing was a typical Norwegian activity. The King was often seen skiing in addition to visiting ski competitions. According to Olstad and Tønnesson (1987), women were for a long time not allowed to participate in organized ski sports. The first skiclub for women started in 1889 (Vaage, 1992). The attitude among some men created many obstacles for woman to participate in competitions and in skiing in general. The presence of women at such events was not popular among some men, particularly when they stayed overnight in cabins around Christiania (Olstad & Tønnesson, 1987). Due to this, Eva Nansen began protesting in the newspaper VG (1893). According to Nansen, there were thousands of female skiers. She was a very important figure in creating acceptance for women in both participating in competitions and for skiing in the mountains (Olstad & Tønnesson, 1987). Both Eva and Fridjof Nansen were important figures in bringing skiing into the daily life of Norwegians (Sørensen, 1993).

Friluftsliv for building bridges between classes The ideology of friluftsliv at the beginning of the 1900s was characterized by the notion of individualism. Fridjof Nansen fronted the values of being original, strong, brave and independent. These values were important in this period due to the end of the union with Sweden (Mytting & Bischoff, 2008; Repp, 2007; Tordsson, 2005). In the period 1918–1940, these values changed towards ideas of community. Thousands of workers worked daily in factories. It was a busy, stressful, noisy and sometimes health threatening life. In 1919, a worker had to work for 48 hours a week; however, this was less than before and most of the workers had a day off on Sundays (Mytting & Bischoff, 2008). Their spare time, therefore, had to be useful for society. Workers did not have the money of the bourgeoisie and so organized friluftsliv activities by traveling with others who found themselves in the same situation (Tordsson, 2003). This was a time when people believed in change driven by optimism, democracy and cooperation (Tordsson, 2005). Spare time was understood as a symbol for the improvement of the workers spiritual and cultural development. Spending time in nature and spending time in the mountains was the ideal (Tordsson, 2014). Workers, therefore, stood up against individualistic ideology. They saw brotherhood, solidarity and community as great values.

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Nature became a symbol for freedom and the original good life in contrast to the oppression they felt in the factories (Tordsson, 2005). This period was characterized by economic crises and friluftsliv was seen as a first step towards a new, better life and towards new structures in society. Workers were organized and they managed to buy some areas outside the city for camping during weekends and holidays with the purpose of bringing their families to a clean, natural and relaxing area. Some factory owners also built recreation areas for their workers. These became meeting areas for all kind of groups in Norwegian society. Nature itself was seen as a form of criticism against social oppression, where nature became a form of medicine for a society that found itself out of balance (Tordsson, 2005, 2014). Some assume this period was important for Norway as it aimed to avoid society being divided into different classes (Tordsson, 2014). In nature most everyone saw themselves as one human being in one nation with a shared common interest in nature. Politicians started to create a law with the purpose of allowing everyone to have access to nature. The spare time of workers started to become longer as workers managed to get acceptance for shorter hours a week. There was an understanding of nature as healthy for the population, especially for young people who recently had more time to use after work. Activity in nature was seen as meaningful, more valuable, and important for Norwegian mentality and identity (Sæther, 2008; Tordsson, 2014; Waaler, 2008). In this way, the working class, farmers and Norwegian citizens were agreed in the view that nature was a common good and that friluftsliv was for everyone. This was also a key part in the creation of the law of friluftsliv. The work had started already in 1938 but was not realized until 1957. The law of friluftsliv, the right to roam, is maybe the most important law in Norway to get people into nature. Areas in the mountains should play an important role for the Norwegian population in the future, given that access to nature is important to develop the Norwegian identity. The right to roam applies to open countryside, where a lot of activities are permitted, such as free movement on foot and skis, as well as resting and relaxing, and even overnight camping. After World War II, there was a huge need for rebuilding Norwegian society, with a significant demand for the energy required to fuel industrialization. Leirhaug (2008) writes about the growing ecological challenges in society as a result of industrialization. Næss (1976) states the need for a deep ecological movement to change how we see humans, nature and society. This was in contrast to the near-sighted ecological movement that believed technical improvements were enough to deal with ecological problems.

Ecological movement After the war, there was a significant need for electricity to rebuild the country and for industrialization. From the 1950s until the 1970s, many areas were set under

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water for the creation of reservoirs and hydro-electricity schemes with the purpose of producing electricity. It causes damage to wildlife and nature, and there was a growing understanding among politicians to protect nature. The establishment of national parks and protected areas became important for the government in the 1970s (Horgen, 2016). In the 1970s, Norwegian society experienced a raising green ecological movement led by the philosopher Arne Næss (Næss, 1976). Leirhaug (2008) understands the philosophy of Næss as self-realization. That is to say, selfrealization that means all creatures are joined together in a holistic way and that to destroy any kind of life is to damage ourselves. To establish a sustainable practice, we all need to see nature as children see it (Leirhaug, 2008). Children see nature and creatures with a soul, and then, value (Næss & Haukeland, 2005). Cobb (1977) write on how children act in nature. By acting in nature, they include nature in their world, they establish role-play in “the space,” and they see themselves included by “the space”. A new attitude to see nature was needed according to Næss (1976). Næss was supported by Nils Faarlund, who, in the 1960s, established a mountaineering school in Hemsedal. Faarlund did focus on friluftsliv as simple, ecological, sustainable and with no other purpose than just to be in nature (Faarlund, 2003). The values and philosophy of Næss and Faarlund are still important elements in friluftsliv education led by high schools and universities in Norway. Walking in nature and participating in friluftsliv is a personal matter and a chosen use of leisure time for many people in Norway. There are a number of conditions that make friluftsliv possible for people in contemporary Norway. Most of the population have areas that are accessible, and the structures in place that realize what politicians agreed upon. A relatively good economy and enough leisure time means that all residents of Norway can participate in friluftsliv. The state spends money on safe nature areas but also on enabling friluftsliv to become widespread in the population through outdoor activities. The utility values are linked to a documented lifelong effect on health and quality of life (Miljødepartementet, 2016). Friluftsliv is also a central part of Norwegian cultural heritage and the national identity. Therefore, Norwegian authorities also emphasize that even moderate activities have a positive effect on health – both physically and mentally (Miljødepartementet, 2016). An increased focus on friluftsliv is therefore a key aspect of the Norwegian government’s public health efforts (Miljødepartementet, 2016). All children can thus go on school trips together with other students and through this ensure that all children experience friluftsliv during school time.

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Children, friluftsliv and curriculum Even though friluftsliv in schools is important to help children learn about it, the most important element for spreading friluftsliv is the parents and family of children (Dahle, 2007). Activities such as sliding on ice, climbing a tree, climbing a rock, jumping down from a rock, playing in a stream, hide and seek in the forest and building cabins in the forest are all important for young people to develop their motor skills, coordination skills and judgement (Breivik, 2001; Brussoni, Olsen, Pike, & Sleet, 2012; Sandseter, 2009). Research among children in Oslo in 2004 shows 21% of the children between the ages of 8 years old and 12 years old are overweight (Vilimas, Glavin & Larsen Donovan, 2005). An inactive lifestyle and the development of digital cultures being the likely reasons (Jordet, 2010). If kids have to learn how to deal with the cold, they have to experience it (Bagøien & Storli, 2016). No one wants an accident to happen, and we are working hard to avoid it, but still, a good way to avoid accidents is to let kids explore their limitations within reason. Challenge by choice is an effective way of teaching children to take care of their own safety. In kindergartens in Norway, playing outside is a central element of a child’s daily life (Kunnskapsdepartementet, 2017). Research shows the time children play outside in the local environment is lower compared to earlier. Anyhow, many parents still believe outdoor play is important for their kids (Skår, Gundersen, Bischoff, Follo, Pareliussen, Stordahl & Tordsson, 2014). According to Fasting (2017), the lives of children should be physical. How children manage to use their bodies is important also for how they communicate (Fasting, 2017). But the question arises on how to keep the children’s playtime outside safe? It is quite easy, but at the same time also challenging and difficult. It is a fundamental right to let children explore their limitations (Fasting, 2017; Sandseter & Sando, 2016). This way of thinking in pedagogy is closely linked to learning by doing which is described by John Dewey (Dewey, 1958). Experience is an interaction between doing something and seeing what the action leads to. No one can learn such skills by avoiding all kind of threats or challenges (Bagøien, 2006; Bagøien & Storli, 2013). Natural playgrounds are popular, and, according to Godal and Waaler (2003), the government spends a lot of money to secure the possibilities to play in nature for children. According to Synnestvedt (1994), the phenomenon friluftsliv was initially in school curricula in 1922 and 1925. It was recommended that the teacher go on trips with young students in both summer and winter. The term friluftsliv was first used in the school curriculum in 1974. This was not a coincidence; in Easter 1967 there were many accidents in the mountains as a result of avalanches in Norway (Horgen & Unsgård, 2010). Safety in nature was a priority for the government. In the curriculum Mønsterplanen (Kirke og undervisningsdepartementet, 1974) it was decided to teach friluftsliv in the public school system to ensure everybody learned about life in nature and how to behave in nature. Map reading and the use of a compass became part of the curriculum. A tradition was developed in most of the schools to allow all the young students to spend a day or two skiing or ice

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skating if winter conditions allowed it. It was taken for granted that all young students had their personal skis or ice skates. Today many schools still give the students a day off in the winter and the school even pays for the transport to the mountains. By keeping this tradition alive, thousands of teenagers have the opportunities to have at least one day of skiing every winter. Friluftsliv is still important and has important learning outcomes in the curriculum in kindergartens, primary schools, secondary schools, high schools and universities. According to Tordsson (2006) friluftsliv is both, a method and a subject. The following examples from curriculum illustrate the important role friluftsliv play in the subject physical education. According to the curriculum in kindergarten (Kunnskapsdepartementet & Utdanningsdirektoratet, 2006, p. 27), by engaging with nature, the environment and technology, kindergartens shall enable the children – to experience and explore nature in all its diversity, – to enjoy outdoor experiences all year round, – to experience, explore and experiment with natural phenomena and the laws of physics, – to learn about nature and sustainable development, learn from and develop respect for nature, and gain an early understanding of nature conservation, and – to learn about animals and animal life. According to the curriculum, after 4th grade (children are 9–10 years old) (Kunnskapsdepartementet & Utdanningsdirektoratet, 2006), the aims of such training are to enable the learner – to using skis and skates where it is possible, – to act safely in, on and by the lake and be able to explain the danger, and manage to call for help, – to make and use simple maps to orient yourself in the near aria, – to using cloth, equipment and simple items to engage in nature on a safe and functional way, and – to have a conversation about rules to spend time in nature, and be able to practice “Leave no trace”. According to the curriculum, after 7th grade (children are 12–13 years old) (Kunnskapsdepartementet & Utdanningsdirektoratet, 2006), the aims of such training are to enable the learner – to use orienteering maps in familiar terrain, – to describe local traditions in friluftsliv, – to participate in different outdoor activities and practice moving about safely in different kinds of weather, – to plan and carry out an overnight stay in the outdoors, – to practice some activities with roots in Sami traditions, and – to perform simple first aid.

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According to the curriculum, after 10th grade (children are 15–16 years old) (Kunnskapsdepartementet & Utdanningsdirektoratet, 2006), the aims of such training are to enable the learner – to orient themselves by map and compass in varied terrain and be able to orient themselves by other methods, – to practice friluftsliv in different natural environments and be able to explain the “Right to Roam”, and – to plan and conduct hikes in different seasons, even with overnight. Overall the department present a summary about the role friluftsliv shall play in the curriculum. The headline is “Joy over nature”. At the same time, the training must be joyful in physical activity and the greatness of nature, over living in a beautiful country, over lines in landscape and switching in seasons. The teaching should make the student humble to the inescapable, happy above friluftsliv, curious to hike outside marked paths, to use body and a senses to discover new places and to explore the surroundings. Friluftsliv touches both body, mind and thought. The teaching must emphasis the relationship between nature and nature experience: the knowledge of the nature element and the community in the living environment must be presented holistic to understand that we depend on other species, have a deep connection to them and feel joy to experience natural life. (Kunnskapsdepartementet & Utdanningsdirektoratet, 2006, p. 27) Summing up the contents of friluftsliv at schools, the focus is placed on holism, affinity with nature and individual development, along with and according to the Norwegian way of life and culture. (Hofmann et al., 2018, p. 52)

To reach these learning outcomes, it is needed to have a great deal of flexibility how the school schedule is organized. Some schools have lessons within 45 minutes, 60 minutes or 90 minutes. Sometimes teachers cooperate and go into nature for a half or a whole day. What most of the schools have in common is to cooperate and overlap between subjects with the focus to reach several subjects learning-outcomes at the same time. Examples can be orientating by a map in the forest and making food in nature by campfire. Using knives and axes are common. Painting or writing in nature are other ways of learning in nature. The subject biology is another subject, which is easy to organize in the nature. Some schools are practice this kind of outdoor teaching all year round, once a week, in all weather conditions. The term is called “uteskole”, which means teaching outside the classroom. Through this kind of practice the children learn in addition to the learning outcomes about clothing, to deal with rain, wind and coldness. They learn how to leave no trace, and how to spend time in nature in a sustainable way. As a part of our university’s internationalization program, we have visitors from universities all over the world. On one of these days, teachers from a university in USA observed the Norwegian students wearing knives in the forest, and asked: “What are you doing? Do you allow weapons in your teaching? That’s dangerous.” No, I

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answered: “There are no weapons here, just tools”. A few weeks later we were visiting our colleagues in the USA. On the final evening, we enjoyed a dinner in a restaurant. When one of the teachers went to pay, she opened her purse and there I saw a pistol. “You were talking to me about weapons, when we used knives in the forest, well, I will say that’s a weapon.” The cultural differences can be striking. This philosophy goes back to Aristotle. To learn something you do not yet know, you need to do things that push you to your limits. This “hands on learning” is continued by reform pedagogical ideologists. Learning by doing, learning by experience, and situational learning in a group is important for learning friluftsliv skills (Høyem, 2016; Magnussen, 2018). This is why Norwegians practice outdoor learning in the local environment around schools. To learn from nature is something totally different compared to learning by reading or by listening to a teacher in a classroom.

Modern practice of friluftsliv To illustrate the role friluftsliv play in the Norwegian culture and society “Friluftsliv Year” can be a good example. In 1993, 2005 and 2018 the Norwegian government decided to focus on friluftsliv by producing white Paper on friluftsliv policy. During “Friluftsliv Year” Norsk Friluftliv, an organization for 17 Norwegian voluntary friluftsliv organizations, with more than 950,000 memberships and more than 5,000 local teams and associations, hundreds of arrangement were organized, celebrating different way of friluftsliv practice all over Norway, through the whole year. The organizations have individual memberships and are open to all. Organizations do not have motor transport or organized competitive activities as their primary purpose (Norsk friluftsliv, 2019). According to Odden & Aas (2003) friluftsliv in Norway is in the middle of a general application process and a differentiation process. It means that the population still participates in friluftsliv, but at the same time there are several new activities. Earlier research divided Norwegian friluftsliv into two parts. The first part, that is hunting, fishing and picking berries, was seen as a modern continuation of the old harvesting tradition. The second part was seen as people hiking in the mountains for enjoyment, training or pleasure. This was regarded as an adapted version of the old bourgeois way of friluftsliv. Since 1980, there has been a need to adjust that simple picture. A lot of new branches on the friluftsliv tree have emerged such as kiting, surfing, mountain biking, kayaking, back country skiing, snowboarding, trail running, climbing and many more activities (Rafoss and Seippel, 2017). The term friluftsliv has been used to describe many kinds of trips, activities and actions. Based on research by Norsk Monitor in 2013, people were asked if they had done hikes or trips at least once a month during the last season. 72% of the participants

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answered they were “hiking in the forest or field,” 31% were “hiking in the mountains,” and 38% were “skiing in the forest or in the mountain”. The results showed how strong traditional and simple friluftsliv still is for the Norwegian population (Rafoss & Seipell, 2017). According to Andersen and Gade Rolland (2017) Faarlund & Verket (2003), the experience itself is the most important core element in Norwegian friluftsliv. They attribute this to how the experience engages the body, emotions and intellect. This is important at a time when humans are more disconnected from nature in their daily lives. Rafoss and Seipell (2017) also note some interesting social differences. Woman hike more than men, older men hike more than younger men, well-educated people hike more than people with low educational level; and people with a high salary practice more friluftsliv compared to people with a lower salary. For the question about harvesting from nature, approximately 25% had been fishing, but only 3–4% of the population had been hunting. Even traditional and simple friluftsliv like hiking is the most common way to spend time in nature, there is a growing practice to see friluftsliv as a way to improve their health (Rafoss & Seipell, 2017). Outdoor training had a huge score among the population, especially biking (46%). What are the most important reasons for Norwegians to practice friluftsliv? According to Dahle (2007), parents are the biggest influence to socialize kids to friluftsliv, like the family trip on Sundays. Next are friends that involve you and engage you to practice friluftsliv. To live close to nature is also important. Other reasons for practicing friluftsliv are the existence of friluftsliv in school, a family cabin and having a dog. By walking and talking, by telling good stories around a campfire, or by just being quiet and listening and observing nature (Vigane, 2007), generations are present in nature and have the feeling of belonging to nature. Actually to spend time with family and to spend time with friends are the two most important motives to spend time in nature. According to Bagøien (2003) there is a strong need among the Norwegian population to spend time in nature. Vaagbø (1993) describes the most important motives for Norwegians to spend time in nature. First, contemplative needs, such as experiencing silence and peace in nature; second is the social needs of being with family and friends; third is the experience of flowers and animals and to feel the connection to the magic of nature; fourth is harvesting and the fifth motive is to seek exciting experiences. Easy access to nature and terrain close to cities seems to be an important frame for Norwegian friluftsliv practice. To illustrate this, I will refer to the experience of international students coming for our Outdoor Education program in friluftsliv at University of Stavanger. “There are people outside, biking, hiking, running twenty-four hours a day. Even when it is raining, stormy or the temperature is low. I realize now how important friluftsliv is to Norwegians. In my country people would stay inside when the weather conditions are bad, but here in Norway it seems that weather doesn’t matter at all. I have really experienced that there is no bad weather, only bad clothing.”

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Kulturdepartementet (2012) confirmed a public policy the focus of which was to facilitate all kinds of activity for everybody and for everybody. The government, through Miljødepartementet (2016), has set nearfriluftsliv as a focus area. When more and more people live in the cities, this challenges the old definition and understanding of the term friluftsliv. Access to nature has always been an important value in Norwegian practice. In conclusion, therefore, these are some of the reasons we see Norwegians continuing to practice friluftsliv culture. At the center of this is the experience of Nature. Still, it is not quite right to say that we have only one way of seeing nature as well as seeing one kind of friluftsliv culture in Norway. Friluftsliv culture is established depending on what people find interesting related to socio-economic conditions, among other factors, and friluftsliv is constantly evolving. Friluftsliv has become the most common leisure activities among the Norway population. Moreover, friluftsliv is something people have in common in our society.

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Dewey, J. (1958). Experience and nature. New York: Dover. Faarlund, N. (2007). Defining friluftsliv. In B. Henderson & N. Vikander (Eds.), Nature First. Outdoor life the friluftsliv way. (pp. 322). Canada: Natural heritage books. Faarlund, N., & Verket, L. (2003). Friluftsliv: hva – hvorfor – hvordan. [Friluftsliv: What-Whyand How] file://fil03/emp02/2903481/Documents/Bachelor/Bachelor%202%20år/IDR%20121% 20Skog%20og%20Fjell/Litteratur/hva%20-%20hvorfor%20-%20hvordan.pdf Fasting, M. L. (2017). Barns utelek. [Childrens play outside] Oslo: Universitetsforlaget. Godal, B., & Waaler, R. (2003). Forvaltning av barns friluftsliv. [Management of childrens friluftsliv] In T. E. Bagøien (Ed.), Barn i friluft. Om verdifullt friluftsliv. [Children in the free air. About the value in friluftsliv] (2nd ed.). Oslo: Sebu. Gurholt, K. P. (2008). Norwegian friluftsliv and ideals of becoming an `educated man`. Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning. 8(1),55–70 doi:10.1080/14729670802097619 Gurholt, K. P., & Sanderud, J. R. (2016). Curious Play: Children’s Exploration of Nature. Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning, 16(4),318–329. doi:10.1080/ 14729679.2016.1162183 Haarstad, K. (1988). Skisportens oppkomst. In A. Eggset & J. Sandnes (Eds.), På trønderski: Ski, skiløping og skiproduskjon i trøndelag gjennom tidene. [The rise of skiing. At Trøndeski: Skiing, skiing and ski production in Trøndelag through the ages] Trongheim: Tapir. Helle-Olsen, K., Thomsen, H., Worsøe, O. I., Bay, L. A. (2004). Heibergheiene – fra rikmannsjakt til enkelt friluftsliv [Heibergheiene-from rich men who are hunting to simple friluftsliv] Stavanger: Stavanger turistforening. Hofmann,A. R., Rolland, C. G., Rafoss, K., Zoglowek, H. (2018) Norwegian Friluftsliv. A Way of Living and Learning in Nature. New York: Waxmann Horgen, A. (2016). Respons på fare i naturen, holdninger til sikkerhet i friluftslivet – et historisk perspektiv med utgangspunkt i norsk fjellsport. [Responses to danger in nature, attitude to outdoor safety-a historical perspective based on Norwegian mountain sports] In A. Horgen, M. L. Fasting, T. Lundhaug, L. I. Magnussen, & K. Østrem (Eds.), UTE! Friluftslivpedagogiske, historiske og sosiologiske perspektiver. [Outside! Friluftsliv-pedagocical, historical and sociological perspectives] Bergen: Fagbokforlaget. Horgen, A. (2017). Sikkerhetsdiskursen i norsk friluftsliv og fjellsport. [The safety discourse in Norwegian friluftsliv and mountain sports] Historisk tidsskrift, 96(04),468–493. doi:10.18261/ issn.1504-2944-2017-03-05 Horgen, A., & Unsgård, J. (2010). Friluftslivsveiledning vinterstid. [Friluftsliv guiding in the wintertime] Kristiansand: Høyskoleforlaget. Hybertsen, S. (Writer) & S. Hybertsen (Director). (2008). Skispor fra fortiden [Skitracks from the past] 13.02. In Skispor fra fortiden – Snowshoe Thompson. Norway: NRK 2. Høyem, J. (2016). Å grave kantgrop med Aristoteles. En beskrivelse av praktisk kunnskap i friluftslivsfag. [To make snowcaves with Aritoteles. A description of practice knowledge in the subject friluftsliv] In A. Horgen, M. L. Fasting, T. Lundhaug, L. I. Magnussen, & K. Østrem (Eds.), UTE! Friluftsliv-pedagogiske, historiske og sosiologiske perspektiver. [Outside! Friluftsliv-pedagocical, historical and sociological perspectives] Bergen: Fagbokforlaget. Ibsen, H. (1871). Digte. [Poem] Jordet, A. N. (2010). Klasserommet utenfor: tilpasset opplæring i et utvidet læringsrom. [Clasroom outside the school: Customized training in an extended learning space] Oslo: Cappelen akademisk. Kirke og undervisningsdepartementet (1974). Mønsterplan for grunnskolen: nynorsk [Curriculumn for primary school] Oslo: Aschehoug. Kulturdepartementet. (2012). Den norske idrettsmodellen [The Norwegian sports model] Meld. St. 26 (2011–2012) https://www.regjeringen.no/no/dokumenter/meld-st-26-20112012/id684356/

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Kunnskapsdepartementet. (2017). Rammeplan for barnehagens innhold og oppgaver. [Curriculumn for kindergartens content and tasks] Oslo Kunnskapsdepartementet, & Utdanningsdirektoratet. (2006). Læreplanverket for Kunnskapsløftet [Curriculumn for Kunnskapsløftet] (Midlertidig utg. juni 2006. ed.). Oslo: Kunnskapsdepartementet; Utdanningsdirektoratet. Leirhaug, P. E. (2008). Økosofi – helhetssyn på barns friluftsliv. [Ecology-holistic view of childrens friluftsliv] In T. E. Bagøien (Ed.), Barn i Friluft. Om verdifullt friluftsliv. [Children in the free air. About the value in friluftsliv] Oslo: Sebu. Magnussen, L. I. (2018). Lær! Forståelse og ferdigheter i friluftsliv. [Learn! Understanding and skills in friluftsliv] In L. I. Magnussen & T. Vold (Eds.), Friluftsliv og guiding i natur.[Friluftsliv and guiding in nature] Oslo: Universitetsforlaget AS. Miljødepartementet. (2016). Friluftsliv: natur som kilde til helse og livskvalitet [Friluftsliv: natureas source to health and quality of life] (Meld. St. 18 2015–2016). https://www.regjeringen.no/ no/dokumenter/meld.-st.-18-20152016/id2479100/ Miljøverndepartementet. (2001). Friluftsliv: Ein veg til høgare livskvalitet. [Friluftsliv: A road to better quality of life] (Meld. St. 39 2000–2001). https://www.regjeringen.no/no/dokumenter/ stmeld-nr-39-2000-2001-/id194963/ Mo, K. (1988). Trekk av skienes historie. [Ski history] In A. Eggset & J. Sandnes (Eds.), På trønderski: Ski, skiløping og skiproduksjon i trøndelag gjennom tidene. [The rise of skiing. At Trøndeski: Skiing, skiing and ski production in Trøndelag through the ages] Trondheim: Tapir. Mytting, I., & Bischoff, A. (2008). Friluftsliv (2nd ed.). Oslo: Gyldendal undervisning. Norsk friluftsliv (2019). From https://www.norskfriluftsliv.no/vare-medlemsorganisasjoner/ Næss, A. (1976). Økologi, samfunn og livsstil: utkast til en økosofi [Ecology, society and lifestyle: suggestion to ecosophy] (5th ed.). Oslo: Universitetsforlaget. Næss, A., & Haukeland, P. I. (2005). Livsfilosofi: et personlig bidrag om følelser og fornuft [Life philosophy: a personal contribution about feelings and common sense] (3rd ed.). Oslo: Universitetsforlaget. Odden, A., & Aas, Ø. (2003). Motiver for friluftslivsutøvelse. [Motives for practice friluftsliv] Rapport fra konferansen Forskning i friluft, (pp. 120–139). Oslo, Friluftslivets fellesorganisasjon. Odden, A. (2008) Hva skjer med norsk friluftsliv?: En studie av utviklingstrekk i norsk friluftsliv 1970–2004. [What happens to the Norwegian friluftsliv?: A study of developments in Norwegian friluftsliv 1970–2004.] Doctoral thesis. Trondheim: NTNU Olstad, F., & Tønnesson, S. (1987). Norsk idretts historie. [Norwegian sports history]: B. 1: Forsvar, sport, klassekamp 1869–1939, [Army, sports and class struggle]. Oslo: Aschehoug. Pedersen, K. (1999). Det har bare vært naturlig: friluftsliv, kjønn og kulturelle brytninger. [It has just been natural: Friluftsliv, gender and cultural differences] Doctoral thesis. Norges idrettshøgskole, Institutt for samfunnsfag, Oslo. Rafoss, K., & Seipell, Ø. (2017). Friluftlivsaktiviteter i den norske befolkningen. En studie av utviklingstrekk og sosiale forskjeller i perioden [Friluftsliv activities in the Norwegian population. A study of development and social differences in the periode] 1990–2013. In A. Horgen, M. L. Fasting, T. Lundhaug, L. I. Magnussen, & K. Østrem (Eds.), UTE! Friluftslivpedagogiske, historiske og sosiologiske perspektiver. [Outside! Friluftsliv-pedagocical, historical and sociological perspectives] Bergen: Fagbokforlaget. Renolen Aasbø, A. (2010). En skikonge er oss sendt – Om Fridtjof Nansens litterære selviscenesettelse under den moderne skiidrettens fremvekst. [A ski King is sent to us – About Fridjof Nansen`s literary self-staging during the modern skisports rise] Edda(03), 270–286. Repp, G. (2007). How modern Friluftsliv started: Fridtjof Nansen, instigator and model. In B. Henderson & N. Vikander (Eds.), Nature First. Outdoor life the friluftsliv way. (pp. 104–113, 283–285). Toronto: Natural Heritage Books.

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Sandseter, E. B. H. (2009). Characteristics of risky play. Journal of Adventure Education & Outdoor Learning, 9(1),3–21. doi:10.1080/14729670802702762 Sandseter, E. B. H., & Sando, O. J. (2016). “We Don’t Allow Children to Climb Trees”: How a Focus on Safety Affects Norwegian Children’s Play in Early-Childhood Education and Care Settings. American Journal of Play, 8(2),178–200. Sandvik, L., & Holseter, C. (2018). Levekårsundersøkelsen [Interview survey] EU-SILC 2017. Tema: Friluftsliv, organisasjonsaktivitet, politisk deltakelse og sosialt nettverk. [Friluftsliv, activity in organizations, participating in political activity and social network] Dokumentasjonsnotat. In: Statistisk sentralbyrå. Skår, M., Gundersen, V., Bischoff, A., Follo, G., Pareliussen, I., Stordahl, G., & Tordsson, T. (2014). Barn og natur. Nasjonal spørreundersøkelse om barn og natur. [Children and nature. National questionnairy about children and nature] In NINA temahefte (online), Vol. 54. Støyva, J., Thomassen, F., Naustvoll, B., Basberg, B., & Den Norske turistforening, F. (1999). Breboka: håndbok i brevandring [Glaciering: How to hike the glaciere] (5th ed.). Oslo: DNTFjellsport. Synnestvedt, K.-E. (1994). Skolefaget Kroppsøving: fagets bakgrunn og utvikling 1848–1925: En lære-og fagplanhistorisk studie i norsk allmueskole og folkeskole. [Physical education: The background and development of the subject 1848–1925: A study and curriculum history study in Norwegian universe school and primary school]. (Master`s thesis) Universitetet i Oslo, Pedagogisk forskningsinstitutt. Sæther, E. (2006). Friluftslivets historie. [The history of friluftsliv] In T. E. Bagøien (Ed.), Barn i friluft [Children in friluftsliv] (2nd ed.). Oslo: Sebu Forlag. Sørensen, Ø. (1993) Fridjof Nansen. Mannen og myten. [Fridjof Nansen. The man and the myth] Oslo: Universitetsforlaget. Thomsen, H. (2004a). Oppkjøpet av fjellområdene. [Buying mountain areas] (1904–1916). In K. Helle-Olsen (Ed.), Heibergheiene-fra rikmannsjakt til enkelt friluftsliv. [Heibergheiene-from rich men who are hunting to simple friluftsliv] Stavanger: Stavanger turistforening. Thomsen, H. (2004b). Organisering og drift av eiendommen. [Organizing and management of the property] In K. Helle-Olsen (Ed.), Heibergheiene-fra rikmannsjakt til enkelt friluftsliv. [Heibergheiene-from rich men who are hunting to simple friluftsliv] Stavanger: Stavanger turistforening. Tonstad, P. L. (2008). Preikestolen: historien, folket, naturen [Pulpit Rock: History, people and nature] (Vol. 2008). Stavanger: Stavanger turistforening. Tordsson, B. (2003). Å svare på naturens åpne tiltale: en undersøkelse av meningsdimensjoner i norsk friluftsliv på 1900-tallet og en drøftelse av friluftsliv som sosiokulturelt fenomen. [Responing to nature`s open prosecution: An examination in meaning dimentions in Norwegian friluftsliv in the twenty century and a reflection about friluftsliv as a socio-cultural phenomenon] Norges idrettshøgskole, Institutt for samfunnsfag, Oslo. Tordsson, B. (2005). Fritid, friluftsliv og identitet. [Spare time, friluftsliv and identity] In R. Säfvenbom (Ed.), Fritid og aktiviteter i moderne oppvekst: grunnbok i aktivitetsfag [Sparetime and activities in modern adolecent] (pp. 162–186). Oslo: Universitetsforlaget. Tordsson, B. (2006) Perspektiv på friluftslivets pedagogik. [Perspective on the friluftsliv pedagogies]. Haderslev: CVU Sønderjylland University College. Tordsson, B. (2007). What is friluftsliv good for?: Norwegian friluftsliv in a historical perspective. In B. Henderson & N. Vikander (Eds), Nature First (pp. 62–74). Toronto: Natural Heritage Books. Tordsson, B. (2010). Friluftsliv, kultur og samfunn. [Friluftsliv, culture and society] Kristiansand: Høyskoleforlaget.

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Tordsson, B. (2014). Perspektiv på friluftslivets pædagogik. [Perspective at the pedagocic of friluftsliv] (2nd ed) København: Books on Demand GmbH Turistforening, D. N. (2019). Om DNT. [About The Norwegian trekking association DNT] Retrieved from https://www.dnt.no/om/ Vaage, J. Kristensen, T. (1992) Holmenkollen: historien og resultatene [Holmenkollen: history and results] Stabekk. De norske bokklubbene. Vaagbø, O. (1993). Den norske turkulturen: friluftslivets år 1993. [The Norwegian trekking tradition: The year of friluftsliv 1993] Oslo: FRIFO. Vigane, Å. (2007). Kysten er jo alt for meg. Om ungdoms erfaringer og dannelse i et kystlandskap. [The coast means everything to me. About teenagers experiences and forming along the coast]. (Master`s thesis), Oslo, Norges Idrettshøyskole. Vilimas, K. Glavin, K. Larsen Donovan, M. (2005) Overvekt hos åtte- og tolv-åringer i Oslo i 2004. [Obesity in eight and twelve years children in Oslo in 2004] Tidsskriftet Den norske legeforening. (22) Oslo Vikander, N. O. (2007). Feet on two continents: Spanning the atlantic with friluftsliv? In B. Henderson & N. Vikander (Eds.), Nature First. Outdoor life the friluftsliv way. (pp 8–20) Canada: Natural heritage books. Waaler, R. (2008). Med barn på tur i naturen-Rettigheter og plikter. [Bringing children into naturerights and duty] In T. E. Bagøien (Ed.), Barn i friluft. Om verdifullt friluftsliv. [Children in the free air. About the value in friluftsliv] Oslo: Sebu forlag.

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4 Long Trails in Europe: The path to success of hiking tourism products Introduction In Europe, hiking trails are a cultural promotional tool and an invitation to explore heritage diversity. Since 1987 the Council of Europe has certified close to 40 trails, with different themes and connecting the continent. Hiking is also a sporting activity developed by sports federations and clubs across various regions, states and European and international organisations. The organisations involved in promoting tourism have focused their interest on hiking as an activity that enables people to reach remote and unique places in our countryside and requires low investment to put in place. The growth in the number of people practising outdoor activities across Europe in recent years (Mackintosh, Griggs, & Tate, 2018) and specifically hiking activities, is reflected in the success of Long Distance Hiking Trails (commonly referred to by the hiking community in the shortened form of Long Trails) that can connect the cultural, sporting and economic development interests of international, national and local organisations. The variety of interests, concepts, organisations and fields of study in hiking complicates the task of people in charge of managing and developing Long Trails. Our intention with this chapter is to contribute with new points of view to the process of planning and designing hiking trails aiming to position themselves as successful hiking tourism products. The content we present here is structured as follows. In the first part we place hiking activities in context within sports tourism as products designed with few specific criteria. Next, and based on this concept of a general tourism product, we suggest changing the way we look at the hiking tourism product. We propose seeing it as the result of the social interaction that takes place in hiking, so other aspects should be taken into account in its design. In the last section before the conclusion, we take this idea a step further to guide the design of Long Trails in Europe using criteria that lead hikers to be more attracted to them, basing our discussion on the features of the routes followed by other devotees of leisure sports activities from their beginnings through to becoming expert practitioners.

Hiking as a tourism activity The development of hiking in Europe benefited from the tourism sector, which has tried to make the most of the potential presented by this activity for encouraging participants to venture into new areas, especially rural spots, creating job opportunities https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110660715-004

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and boosting financial income wherever this has been done. Proof of this is that the World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO, 2019) published a report highlighting the benefits of hiking tourism, added to others already mentioned above in terms of the local economy. Other benefits include the ease with which it can be implemented with relatively small investments; it has high market potential; it complements other areas in the tourism sector; it is sustainable if developed and managed properly; and it contributes to improving quality of life for local residents. So, in view of the huge economic and social benefits that can be achieved with the development of hiking tourism, many interested organisations promote projects on this theme. The report confirms that hiking has gained a certain amount of recognition within the field of tourism studies. In his compilation of a taxonomy of tourism products, McKercher (2016) establishes five broad families (pleasure, personal search, human activity, nature and business), each with a wide range of product families containing various product lines. Although the author does not attempt to provide an exhaustive list of all the existing product lines, hiking appears listed twice. The first is as a product line of active recreational products within the family of pleasure. The second time it is shown as a product line in a family of land adventure in the nature. However, the taxonomy presented is not absolute and allows us to also place hiking tourism products within other product families, such as active sport, ecotourism (Hugo, 1999) even with a glimpse of religious and intangible heritage hiking (Vidal-González & Sánchez, 2018). Although the classification places hiking in the families it considers to be dominant (pleasure and nature), the possible presence of the hiking product in other families reinforces the idea that it is an activity with great potential, as noted by the World Tourism Organisation. When organisations promoting hiking adopt a tourism view of the phenomenon, certain concepts developed in the tourism subject area come to the fore, conditioning the way the phenomenon is understood and how to intervene to promote it. The view is that actions, in order to be successful, must be guided by the knowledge provided by market science and that managers must target hiking consumers, as stated by Nordbø, Engilbertsson and Vale (2014). This orientation towards the market consists, amongst other actions, of developing a tourism product (in this case hiking) that enables the destination being promoted to develop. The development of a tourism product is focused on meeting the needs of its potential consumers and this is what the tourism industry has concentrated on: developing tourism products (Xu, 2010) regarded as activities, attractions or interests consumed by tourists in their destinations and that meet their needs (McKercher, 2016). So, the hiking tourism product must possess its own set of features and its success will depend on its ability to satisfy consumer demand; this is the goal on which its development should be focused. A hiking tourism product can be conceived within nature tourism products (De Juan, 2008; McKercher, 2016) and also as a product belonging to the rural tourism sphere. The latter will depend more on the type of space and the needs of the area with the hiking product. In this chapter we will not go into defining or explaining concepts

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related to rural tourism, as a great deal has already been written on the subject (for example in Abellán, 2008), but we cannot deny or ignore its relationship with hiking. To understand what is meant by a hiking tourism product, we also have to clarify the differences between hiking and cultural routes and itineraries which, as a tourism product, are being developed successfully in some countries (Hiriart & Mínguez, 2016). This type of tourism and cultural routes, which have intrinsically different cultural sub-goals (Garrido, Sánchez, & Enriquez, 2015), have been offered as tourism products for years and with a huge range of themes, but always focused on “conventional” tourists and not on hikers as main consumers. The same as happens with rural tourism, it is true that hiking products, in some cases, might have a cultural, heritage, religious or a very significant intangible heritage component (Hitchner, Schelhas, Brosius, & Nibbelink, 2019; Manget, 2014; Vidal-González & Sánchez, 2018) which will depend on the region and culture the trail runs through. In terms of the use of the terminology we set out here, it is true that very little has been written on the hiking tourism product and we need to expand and study the viability, development and main features of such terms. Even so, a few years ago, López (1999, p. 259) was already talking about tourism products based on hiking trails, understanding them as offering a package that included at least accommodation and an activity. He listed some necessary criteria they should fulfil: – to determine and identify the target audience, the segment of the demand to be captured. – to know their expectations in relation to the hiking activity (more sporting or cultural). – to know their walking level, the physical exertion they are willing and able to put in (the average is accepted to be from 300 to 500 metres of height gaing and 5 hours of walking per day). – to decide on the level of quality of the accommodation. In the European rural environment products cannot be offered without a minimum of comfort; on the other hand, this is not an issue in places regarded as adventure destinations. – to estimate the price they are willing to pay for the product. Although they may have changed nowadays and perhaps a few more current ones might be added, these criteria are important when planning any hiking tourism product. Now, once the hiking tourism products have been placed in context, the perspective needs to be expanded in order to understand the possible characteristics of these hiking products and, in consequence, of the Long Trails. Developing hiking tourism products to promote destinations is a complex task for two reasons. Firstly, because tourism products are made up of a number of elements that intervene in their configuration (Benur & Bramwell, 2015), and, secondly, because tourism product development depends on the integration of a number of actors at different levels (Haugland, Ness, Grønseth, & Aarstad, 2011). Although there is no consensus in terms of the concept of tourism product, we think it is interesting to adopt the

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model put forward by Smith (1994) to understand the essential features of hiking when we describe it as a tourism product. This author argues that there are five key elements for any tourism product: physical plant, service, hospitality, freedom of choice and involvement. In the case of hiking, the most important physical plant is the trail or footpath, that is, the place along which hikers travel. It is the central part of the product and the part over which managers and promoters have the greatest control. There are many trail design possibilities and this will depend on aspects such as local geography, technical difficulty and accessibility. Designs usually adapt to the nature of the surrounding countryside, attempting to highlight existing natural and cultural features. Other important physical characteristic of the hiking tourism product are the complementary services offered to users, such as communications, accommodation and places to eat and drink. Lastly, we should not forget the climate, which conditions the seasonality of hiking activity in the area. Service is the second element of a tourism product. Smith (1994, p. 588) refers to it as: “the performance of specific tasks required to meet the needs of the tourists”. Service in hiking tourism products can be understood as the quality of the trail: the state of conservation and maintenance, the elements that make up the trail itself (drinking fountains, toilets, information panels, shady areas, picnic spots, viewpoints, etc.) or the signposting. In the hiking product, service can also be understood as the services in the areas the trail runs through, which may have tourism infrastructure (hotels, bars, shops, etc.) that would provide the services to trail users. This is why it is very important to bear the service element in mind when designing a trail route, so that they are available to users to make use of either directly or indirectly. In addition to the above, some Long Trail footpaths are installing their own personal care and advice service for users (e.g. Trail Officers on the National Trail network in the UK), as well as other parallel services that can make doing the trail easier (e.g. luggage transport service during the stages of a Long Trail). In these cases, we are talking about specific services aimed at meeting the needs of tourists who go to walk these trails. The third element of Smith’s model (1994, p. 588–589) is hospitality. Similar to what we described in the previous paragraph with service, the same sort of thing happens with hospitality in hiking products. This element depends partly on the complementary services available in the area or in places where the trail runs through or is situated. When designing a trail it is important to try to ensure that this hospitality is present in the various services considered appropriate and that fit in with the hiking product, in order to give tourists the best possible experience. Some studies indicate the need to coordinate the actions of the different organisations involved in developing tourism products and at different levels in order to develop a destination’s capabilities (Haugland et al., 2011), so hospitality should be one of those capabilities. For Smith (1994), hospitality sets the scene and facilitates the addition of the following two elements, which are the most controversial aspects of his model because they include the tourist as part of the product. These elements are freedom of choice and involvement.

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Freedom of choice refers to the need for travellers to have an acceptable range of options to make the experience a satisfactory one. This characteristic is typical of hiking products as the mere fact of doing the activity involves having to decide between many options. But freedom of choice should be developed even further so hiking trails can allow the hiker complete freedom to choose what they want to do, not just in terms of their route but also how they do it, how long they take, their timetable, speed, choice of difficulty level, stops to make on the way, turning point, the next stage, where to stay the night, etc. Lastly, involvement, means having access to activities that capture the imagination, interest and enthusiasm of the potential hiker. Through their involvement, the tourist explores the world around them. Involvement in hiking products is part of the way in which people consume this tourism product. That is, the nature of hiking consists of doing a physical activity that involves travelling on foot, moving forward, advancing along the trail or footpath, without which the activity would not make sense. It is therefore reasonable to deduce that the hiker is the main person involved and participant. Hiking enables us to explore our surroundings and is the facilitator of the emotions typical of the experience of travelling along trails. According to Smith (1994), the combination of all five elements enables providers to offer a product that can be seen as good quality and satisfactory by consumers. Without undervaluing each of the five elements that make up the model, we believe that this way of seeing the hiking tourist as an individual who analyses the five elements of the product, decides which product is better and then consumes it, forgets that people who travel to do hiking do not act in such a simple, mechanical way. Hikers and anyone who practises sports or active leisure activities does not do it in an isolated way, on the contrary, they are part of a much large social context that exists around that activity. So, although Smith contributes extremely interesting elements, using his tourism product model as a guide for evaluating, designing and promoting hiking products presents a reductionist view of the trail hiking phenomenon that forgets about the importance of social interaction between people. In the real world there are other factors that have a huge influence on determining which destinations are chosen by hikers, and recognising that they exist and that they do have an influence can help us to develop hiking. In the next section we will attempt to ascertain how we can broaden our outlook.

Towards a broader perspective: the social world of hiking Social sciences have taken an interest in learning more about the logic of sports and leisure sports activities, especially in the last 40 years, a period in which these practices started to play a leading role in western societies. The theoretical concepts created

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to explain the functioning of social life in general were applied to specific research on sport and sports leisure. One of the concepts that has had the greatest impact and applicability in sports and leisure sports activities is serious leisure (Stebbins, 1982). With this concept Stebbins describes a set of activities that attract their practitioners sufficiently and provide them with personal benefits, and as a result they become involved in improving their skills and progression in the activity. Another example is the concept of social field devised by Bourdieu (1990). These are places in which people’s lives take place, where there are rules of the game and different positions within the field are occupied according to the type of capital available. Sports, sports leisure, tourism and any other area of life can be observed from this point of view. We are also interested by the idea of communities of practice conceived by Lave and Wenger (1991), as the authors show that the ability to cope with any activity is a more of a socio-cultural activity than an individual process. People who have only recently taken up any practice, including hiking, learn by taking part, absorbing and being absorbed by the culture of the practice; over time they make it their own and understand what it consists of. This set of theoretical concepts or ways of explaining social reality have something in common, which is what captures our interest: social practices, including hiking, that are social by nature and require a learning process in order to be part of that practice. That learning is the process through which people come to an understanding of the activity. In the case of hiking, the process enables learning about difficult things like as specific language, use of materials, reading maps, planning the activity, how to behave in the countryside or which type of clothing is most suitable. But it also entails developing an understanding of other issues that may be more relevant for the topic we are discussing in this chapter: what a good hiking experience should include, which places occupy a privileged spot in the hiking imaginary, what kind of activities are the ones that define you as an expert hiker, how hiking identity is developed from taking part in hiking activities, etc. From our point of view, the decision to consume a tourism product will not be determined solely by the quality of the five elements that define a tourism product according to Smith (1994), plus we should take into account the influence of the structure of collective beliefs of a particular social activity. We consider that the analysis and design of hiking tourism products would benefit from points of view with a broader understanding of the phenomenon. We can place the concept of social worlds put forward by Unruh (1980) within this line of thinking. In our view, this theoretical concept is extremely useful as it enables us to incorporate new elements apart from tourists into hiking tourism products. Although the tourists are a fundamental part of hiking tourism, they are not the only important factors for understanding it. The basic ideas about social worlds already existed prior to Unruh’s work, however, the author collects previous contributions and unifies them for his argument, as he understands that they all share a common idea of social organisation that does not base its existence on delineated spatial, territorial, formal or membership boundaries. Unruh (1980) defines social worlds as amorphous and

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blurry constellations of actors, organisations, events and practices that come together in spheres of interest and involvement for their participants. In Europe, the social world of hiking is formed by hikers, the many organisations operating around hiking (associations, federations, companies and public administrations), the events taking place around the hiking phenomenon (festival, organised walks, volunteer and club trips, etc.) and the practices carried out by hikers (buying material, specialist reading matter, etc.). There are other elements, apart from the actors, that make up the social world of hiking and that should be taken into account in order to understand hiking as a tourism product and as a social area. According to Kliot and Collins-Kreiner (2018), the most interesting feature of the concept of social worlds is that it allows for the complete integration of all aspects of a social phenomenon. Another of Unruh’s interesting contributions (1979) is his general model of participation in social worlds. The author presents a structure of participation in concentric circles where each type of participant occupies a place. The closer they are to the centre of the model, the greater knowledge they have of the social world and the greater the importance of the activity for the person’s identity. The part furthest away from the centre is occupied by the so-called strangers, who are disconnected and who are ignorant of the meanings and culture of the social world. Next are the so-called tourists, who show an interest in the social world but who are transitory or temporary members who remain in the social world until they obtain some kind of satisfaction or benefit. Close to the centre are the regulars, who have integrated the social world into their lives and made it part of their identity, remaining constantly in the activity. The central place is occupied by the insiders, who define their identity mainly through their participation in the social world, but even more importantly, they are the ones who create, maintain and develop the social world. It is important to emphasise that the model considers the transitory nature of the positions occupied by the participants. In other words, they are not fixed positions, instead the possibility exists of developing a career (Stebbins, 1982) by improving their skills and abilities in the activity in order to gradually occupy positions closer to the centre. Adopting these theoretical points of view, both the idea of hiking as a social world and the different positions occupied by hikers, enables a fuller analysis to be carried out that is much more useful for our purposes, due basically to two factors. Firstly, we incorporate new social objects (Harman, 2016) into the analysis that are fundamental for hiking practice to materialise and be possible: organisations, events, practises and actors. Without each and every one of these elements, no social world can exist, develop or be maintained over time. Taking them into consideration is fundamental for anyone who wants to understand the hiking phenomenon or take part in it. Secondly, we consider that the actors with the greatest relevance and interest for the study of hiking are those who enable that social world to develop. That is, our interest centres on the people who through their hiking practice create the world of hiking and its associated meanings. They are the ones who reproduce hiking and make its existence possible. It is precisely the hikers with greater involvement in this

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social world (regulars and insiders) who travel far away from their homes to do hiking activities (Kliot & Collins-Kreiner, 2018). This means we are moving away from a position that gives the same importance to hikers who do tourism as to tourists who do hiking and that includes both in the category of tourist. Our proposed approach involves a change of conception of the target audience. We will move from focusing on a tourist who consumes hiking because they evaluate the characteristics of the product and decide which hiking product to choose according to its quality, to considering them as a hiker who in addition to weighing up the five characteristics of Smith’s tourism product (1994), is highly conditioned by the social world of hiking they form part of and that is part of their identity. It is the hiker who travels with the intention to practise hiking and in doing so becomes a tourist, who should be the focus of the interest of the people responsible for hiking tourism products. The creators of the social world of hiking through the practice of hiking are not the tourists who consume this product, but rather the hikers who occupy positions close to the centre of that social world, the regulars and the insiders. The true potential of hiking as a tourism product is not in capturing tourists who do hiking but in attracting hikers who travel to do hiking and who indirectly consume other products, that is, the success of hiking tourism products will depend on whether they are able to become elements that develop alongside the evolution of the social world of hiking and are therefore more likely to occupy a prominent place in the hiking imaginary and be consumed by devotees. There are four elements that create and enable the social world of hiking to exist: actors, events, organisers and practices. All of them are relevant, however, we consider that hiking practices stand out because they are the ones that enable the social world of hiking to exist and develop. Amongst the practices that hikers do connected with the activity we can find: planning the trip, planning the route, buying materials, reading information, activities with an association or club, physical training, using methods of transport to travel, interacting with other hikers, etc. But out of all the practices that hikers do, the most important is the hiking activity itself, moving through space by one’s own physical means. Hiking generally develops because of people travelling along hiking trails and paths marked on a map, and the vast majority are signposted to make this easier. From our point of view, the most important practices for the social world of hiking and its characteristics are the Long Trails. These are also important for the tourism sector, as they can be designed and promoted as hiking tourism products. In the next section we will try to offer some essential guidelines for designing these potential tourism products that can eventually become Long Distance Hiking Trails.

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Long Trails as hiking tourism products The importance of any trail and also of Long Trails for the social world of hiking is justified by the fact that these routes are the ones that enable people to do hiking and therefore make it possible for hiking to exist as a social practice. Likewise, and this is particularly true for Long Trails, they can be created as tourism products intended for hikers. This means that the product can be designed more completely if the perspective is broadened to take into account the influence of the social world of hiking on hikers. This opening up will allow us to change the perception that the target audience of Long Trails are simply tourists who choose hiking as just another option amongst many others. We think it is more realistic that hiking tourism products are aimed at a target audience who consider themselves to be hikers, that is, who occupy positions close to the centre of the hiking social world (regulars and insiders) and for whom hiking is meaningful as an activity that defines their identity or an important part of their identity. They are the potential consumers of these products. So, the next step will be to try to understand what characteristics hiking tourism products have to attract that target audience. As we have described previously, part of the general model of participation in the social worlds described by Unruh (1979) consisted of structuring the different types of participants in concentric circles. The closer they get to the central position, the greater their knowledge of the social world and the more important the activity is for their personal identity. It is important to underline that this is a model that considers the transitory nature of the positions occupied by the participants, that is, they are not fixed positions, instead there is the possibility of developing a career (Stebbins, 1982) through the improvement of skills and abilities in the activity in order to occupy places increasingly closer to the centre. Getz (2008) suggested that people involved in serious leisure activities develop their careers in the social world of that leisure activity thanks to their participation in organised events. Later, Getz and Andersson (2010) drew up a series of hypotheses to form a model explaining the trajectory followed by a career based on events. They applied that model in studies with runners and then with cyclists (Getz & McConnell, 2011) to try to find out if the patterns of participation in sports events of people who were more committed to the activity were different than those of people who were less committed. In the social world of hiking, participation is not based so much on activities organised in the format of running or cycling events, instead it consists of completing different kinds of trails and routes (including Long Trails) either individually or in a small group. The same as for other sports and leisure activities, in hiking these practices are also a way of acquiring identity and progressing in the world of hiking towards positions closer to the centre occupied by hikers classed as insiders. This is why we consider that the design of hiking tourism products can benefit if it is oriented towards the dimensions in the hypothetical model of a career based on participation in events put forward by Getz and McConnell (2011). If we assume that the

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target audience for these products is the most committed hikers, and that their participation in Long Trails is conditioned by the dimensions of the trajectory of participation in social worlds, then we must design hiking trails and routes that can facilitate these trajectories. The event-based trajectory put forward by Getz and McConnell is composed of 6 dimensions: motivation, travel style, temporal, spatial, event types, destination criteria. We suggest that if they are to be successful as a tourism product, Long Trails should be oriented in a way that facilitates these dimensions. In terms of the first dimension, notivation, Getz and McConnell (2011) come to the conclusion that sports people think about travelling for self-development reasons, for the satisfaction of completing the event, and even for the physical demands (athleticism) and the challenge it presents. These motives were added to other more generic reasons that already existed for the mere fact of travelling (Pearcy & Lee, 2005): the game, the excitement and the search for new experiences. Long Trails seem to be one of the best options for generating conditions related to the dimension of motivation, similar to those of competitive events. One of the particular features of Long Trails is the long distance they normally cover. For a hiker, the fact of planning to cover the complete distance, the preparation and logistics required, can create a feeling of facing a challenge similar to the events that take place in other sports. In hiking, these feelings will be much more challenging the longer and more difficult the route is, and the further the Long Trail is from the hiker’s usual surroundings. Completing the whole of the previously planned route or part of it may give the hiker a sense of satisfaction and personal self-development from having met their target. We can quote some examples of Long Trails that are real challenges for any hiker due to their long distance, including the Appalachian trail (USA), the John Muir Trail (USA), the South West Coast Path (UK), the Te Araroa (New Zealand), and the Great Himalayan Trail (Nepal). Although it is true that the Long Trails we have referred to may possibly be the greatest in terms of the dimension of motivation, a name and a long distance is no guarantee of success in the world of hiking; there are other factors that should be analysed. Travel style is the second of the dimensions put forward by Getz and McConnell (2011). In the event studied by these authors, they observed that participants who travelled to attend the event did so in many ways and that there were local, national and international participants. The profile of most of the people taking part was male, with groups of friends rather than families, and many of them stayed for at least one week, making a substantial investment in the trip so they could take part. Getz and McConnell (2011, p. 336) justify this last observation with the theory of serious leisure: “travelling to compete in events is an inherent part, or even a requirement, in the careers of many serious sports tourists”. They also hypothesise that events increase the possibility of coordinating their participation with family holidays, instead of just travelling with friends or a club to an event. As events start forming part of the participants’ lifestyle and their own identity, they take up more time and become the focus of holidays. Long Trails have certain advantages compared to

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“events” in terms of travel style. For example, no cumbersome equipment is required for doing the sports activity (unlike with cycling), the activity itself is free as it is not a competitive event (unless a fee is charged for entering a National Park through which the trail happens to pass) and the only luggage needed can be the trail backpack. The third dimension analysed in the reference study is the temporal dimension. Getz and McConnell (2011) emphasise that the vast majority of the participants with most involvement in the activity had also competed in other events the previous year and planned to compete in a similar number of events the following year. They also found that less involved athletes participated less frequently. Seasonal patterns change as the desire to participate in specific events increases, so the time of year when the event is held is less relevant for them. They conclude that, if this is the case, destinations could plan events in low seasons to attract participants who are highly involved in the social worlds of sports activities. We can see aspects of the temporal dimension that could be interesting for tourism products based on Long Trails. We reiterate our idea that it is important to create a product aimed at the right target audience, that is, to hikers occupying positions close to the centre of the social world of hiking. For these people, hiking has a special importance so, when planning their trip, they are not so influenced by the “moment” as by the quality or significance of the Long Trail itself. Plus, the temporal dimension in hiking does not depend on specific dates of organised events, since although plans, festivals and the like can be arranged at any time, the trails are available all year round so other factors such as local weather conditions may have an influence. We consider that the hiker who decides to do a Long Trail will not be as conditioned by the time of year as by their availability to travel. Evidently, we have to take into account that some places do have a degree of seasonal limitation, as in the case of the famous Kungsleden (King’s Trail) in Sweden, where the solution in winter has been to turn it into a ski trail, a measure that is also used in other northern European countries where the local geography permits (including Norway, Finland and Estonia). In terms of the next dimension, spatial, Getz and McConnell (2011) argue that practitioners of sports activities go from attending local events to being participants in international events as part of their career development. For the authors, the search for new experiences motivates long distance trips combined with holidays for participants, with iconic events being a strong attraction. We argue that something similar happens with hiking, with hikers who practise hiking the most (the ones nearest the centre of their social world) who have the desire to search for newness and the appeal of doing routes in places known internationally to hikers. In our view, Long Trails, in hiking, are the equivalent to these iconic events, as they can provide hikers with attractive reasons to be the object of a long holiday trip. Event types are the fifth dimension in event participation careers. For the authors, this dimension complements the search for newness that was envisaged in the previous dimension. Many of the people they surveyed has participated in other similar challenges, following particular spatial and temporal patterns on the calendars of

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each sport. Following this analysis, Getz and McConnell (2011) advise that, when scheduling and selling their sports events, organisers should take into account which sectors are attracted by their competition. This is why, in any of the social worlds in sports practice, such as running or mountain biking, there is a full range of events related to different levels of difficulty, ability, newness and quality. The event branding and positioning help to publicise the type of event to the participants being targeted. The most well-known Long Trails are famous for their branding, so we recommend they try to position themselves as top destinations in the hiking world. The last dimension, destination criteria, refers to the fact that some destinations do have certain advantages for setting up events, such as weather conditions and historic interest of the location, while other destinations do this by providing good “event packages”. Participants in events make their decisions based not only on their interest in the specific features of the event but also in terms of the attractiveness of the event destination (the surrounding countryside for example). But they add that it is also true that some iconic events exist independently of tourism destinations. It is undoubtedly the case that some places, because of their landscapes, typical natural surroundings, local heritage or even climate, will also have certain advantages for designing trails and attracting hikers. We think that the intermediate option put forward by Getz and McConnell (2011) and consisting of creating “packages”, can be a very valid one for hiking and specifically for Long Trails. We believe that, although a Long Trail has a well-known brand and name, the act of adapting part of the route and making it available as a “package” with various options (for example with stages and highlighting or providing certain services for users: transport to the starting point, accommodation, bars and shops, luggage transport, support service, etc.), could be a very interesting option for reinforcing the quality of a Long Trail as a hiking tourism product. There are already options similar to the ones we are proposing: Long Trails with their own identity and brand, equipped with services (those already described) and resources (good web platforms, free maps and tracks to download, information points, etc.), and whose target audience is still the hikers who are involved the most in the practice. To mention a few of these cases, they include for example the Swiss Hiking Routes (Switzerland, including National Route 1 which is part of the Alpine Way) or the National Trails (UK). The latter, the National Trails, are particularly interesting, as they have a very detailed web platform (which shows all the tourism services all the way along their 16 Long Trails) and even the possibility of a personalised service (provided by Trail Officers), meaning that users can prepare their trips thoroughly, with the same guarantees as any other tourism product, in this specific case for hikers from all over the world. As described earlier, the six dimensions can also form the career trajectories of the most committed hikers. Long Trails could be designed with special attention to these dimensions and be adapted to hikers in the target audience. As has been argued in this section and now as a summary, the adaptation of the six dimensions in Long Trails could be exemplified as follows: motivation with attractive routes that

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pose a challenge to practitioners; travel style providing an individual identity so that Long Trails become the focus of hikers’ holidays; Temporal putting forward alternatives (e.g. transformation into ski trail) in cases of seasonal limitations, to make the tourism product available to hikers all year round; spatial showing the newness and potential of the route, searching for distinctiveness in order to be known internationally in hiking circles; event styles with its own branding helping to position the product and publicise the type of route to the target audience of hikers; and destination criteria equipping Long Trails with a range of tourism services that increase the quality and viability of the product, offering possibilities of creating and adapting tourism packages catering for hikers’ needs and availability. This would enable Long Trails to respond to the requirements of these trajectories in order to become hiking tourism products consumed by the activity’s most experienced and interested practitioners, who often are also the ones who travel most frequently, further and during most times of year in search of new routes.

Conclusion In this chapter we have shown how the increase in hiking practitioners in Europe, together with the emergence of tourism related to this practice, has led organisations aiming to develop the economy of certain regions to promote hiking routes with the intention of attracting people who consume services and generate resources in particular destinations. This has been reinforced by the recommendations of organisations such as the World Tourism Organisation, which highlight the potential of hiking tourism products for certain regions. Long Trails are the essential hiking product that can be designed for this purpose. From the tourism sector point of view, organisations promoting Long Trails as tourism products must make sure a number of requirements are met when designing them. It is true that the criteria for obtaining an attractive a good quality tourism product are important, however, we have suggested that for a Long Trail to be a successful product its design should take into account other features that are determined by a key characteristic: the social aspect of hiking. To do this, we have used Unruh’s (1979) concept of social worlds, which broadens the perspective to show that the events, practices and organisations around the activity are also relevant. Because of this, based on a sociological view of hiking, we consider that the potential customers and the people who should be targeted by the design of Long Trails are the ones occupying the positions closest to the centre of its social world. These practitioners are the ones who travel to carry out their activity as part of their career development in the social world of hiking. The trajectories followed by hikers in the social world of hiking are conditioned by the same dimensions that Getz and McConnell (2011) established for other practitioners of serious sports leisure. Based

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on these trajectories, Long Trails could try to adapt their offer so that hikers who travel more frequently choose them as the destination they are looking for. We believe that this is how Long Trails can have a greater chance of becoming a successful tourism product.

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Mackintosh, C., Griggs, G., & Tate, R. (2018). Understanding the growth in outdoor recreation participation: an opportunity for sport development in the United Kingdom. Managing Sport and Leisure, 23(4–6), 315–335. https://doi.org/10.1080/23750472.2019.1595093 Manget, L. (2014). The Spirit of the Appalachian Trail: Community, Environment, and Belief on a Long-Distance Hiking Path by Susan Power Bratton. West Virginia History: A Journal of Regional Studies, 8(2), 94–96. https://doi.org/10.1353/wvh.2014.0018 McKercher, B. (2016). Towards a taxonomy of tourism products. Tourism Management, 54, 196–208. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2015.11.008 Nordbø, I., Engilbertsson, H. O., & Vale, L. S. R. (2014). Market Myopia in the Development of Hiking Destinations: The Case of Norwegian DMOs. Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 23(4), 380–405. https://doi.org/10.1080/19368623.2013.827608 Pearce, P. L., & Lee, U. I. (2005). Developing the travel career approach to tourist motivation. Journal of Travel Research, 43(3), 226–237. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287504272020 Smith, S. L. J. (1994). The tourism product. Annals of Tourism Research, 21(3), 582–595. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/0160-7383(94)90121-X Stebbins, R. A. (1982). Serious Leisure: A Conceptual Statement. The Pacific Sociological Review, 25(2), 251–272. https://doi.org/10.2307/1388726 Unruh, D. R. (1979). Characteristics And Types Of Participation In Social Worlds. Symbolic Interaction, 2(2), 115–130. https://doi.org/10.1525/si.1979.2.2.115 Unruh, D. R. (1980). The Nature of Social Worlds. Pacific Sociological Review, 23(3), 271–296. https://doi.org/10.2307/1388823 Vidal-González, P., & Sánchez, V. (2018). Hiking paths and intangible heritage: a quest for cultural roots. Cases in the province of Castellón, Spain. Sport in Society, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/17430437.2018.1551368 World Tourism Organization. (2019). Walking Tourism – Promoting Regional Development. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.18111/9789284420520 Xu, J. B. (2010). Perceptions of tourism products. Tourism Management, 31(5), 607–610. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2009.06.011

Piotr Cych, Weronika Machowska

5 Orienteering from the Polish perspective Introduction Orienteering is a sport that usually takes place in a forested environment. It consists of four different forms: foot orienteering, mountain bike orienteering, cross-country ski orienteering, and trail orienteering. Foot orienteering is currently the most popular, given that it can be practised almost everywhere in the world, regardless of the climate. The origins of orienteering can be found in Scandinavia, a region where orienteering is still very popular. Fifty years after the inception of the International Orienteering Federation, this sport has spread to 80 countries around the world, though Europe is still the heart of orienteering. Poland has its own orienteering tradition and has chosen an individual way of development, which also contributed to the international prosperity of orienteering.

Characteristics of orienteering Orienteering is an activity with a map that involves both body and mind. It can be practised as both a sport and qualified tourism (Cych, 2013). As a sport, it is practised usually on foot, on a bike, or athletes may choose Trail-O (trail orienteering) that was originally invented for people with disabilities (actually, non-disabled people have also their own class). During the winter season, athletes may put on the skis and try orienteering on a snowy surface. Tourist orienteering is much less popular, but it is also practised, especially in Poland, where it has been the main orienteering event for many years. Rogaining is somewhere between tourism and sport because it uses some rules typical of sports activities but maps and time limits are characteristic for tourist orienteering (Williams, 2015). Moreover, rogaining is not included in the events defined by the International Orienteering Federation such as foot, mountain bike, ski and trail orienteering (International Orienteering Federation, https://orienteering.sport/). No specific equipment is needed to practise orienteering. Amateurs need just a pair of sports shoes and sportswear. Professionals should also have a compass, orienteering shoes with spikes or studs, high socks or leg protectors, and lightweight clothing that is airy and dries quickly. For professional orienteers, a control description holder and a chip used in punch control points are also necessary. Bikers who want to practise orienteering should hold the map case on a bicycle handlebar. Cross country skiers keep the map on their chests using special holders. Trail orienteers do not have to use any special equipment aside from compass.

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On foot, mountain bike and cross-country ski orienteering there are different events that are distinguished depending on the distance, technical skills, and the environment where the event is set. These include sprint, middle and classic (long) distances. Each of them differs not only in the distance but also technical demands. The shortest distance is characterized by the highest speed, very fast decisionmaking process, the frequent changes in moving direction and the shortest winning times (about 12 to 15 minutes in Foot-O and about 20 minutes in MTB-O and Ski-O) (International Orienteering Federation, https://orienteering.sport/orienteering/com petition-rules/). Sprints are usually set in urban areas (city centres) and distances are rather short (between 3 to 5 km) which makes sprints very intensive, characterized by anaerobic exercise similar to that observed in 5k runs in track and field. The middle distance is the most technically demanding because the emphasis is on detail orientation (Gjerset, Johansen & Moser, 1997). Orienteers must read the map very carefully so that they know where they are at the moment and where they will be in several seconds. Therefore, reading the map ahead is the key to success in middle-distance races. The winning times are about 30 minutes. The long-distance events are more like the “old fashioned” orienteering because they are based on route choice abilities and rough map reading (Seiler, 1989; Ottosson, 1988). They are held in a format similar to how the orienteering competitions used to look like. The courses are not only physically exhausting (expected winning times are ca. 100 minutes for men and 70 minutes for women) but they also have few long legs,1 where orienteers must think twice before they decide which way they should choose. Usually, there are plenty of alternative routes making orienteering fascinating for participants. Sometimes orienteers follow quite different ways from one control point to another. This differs depending on the distance, elevation, surface and level of technical difficulty but they may reach the finish line in exactly the same time. This is called equifinality. Trail orienteering (precise orienteering) has only two types of events: classic and tempo orienteering. Each format has two categories: one for disabled athletes and an open course for others. Trail orienteering is the youngest type of competitive sports based on using a map and compass, created for Paralympic athletes. It is similar to tourist orienteering as the emphasis is on using map reading skills instead of physical preparation. The name of this type of orienteering comes from a trail, which is an asphalt or hardened path used by wheelchairs orienteers. All participants get a map just after their start and they have a time limit to decide which controls set in the surroundings are the right ones and reflect control points drawn on the map. The winner is a person who makes fewer mistakes within the time limit (Celestino & Perreira, 2015).

1 leg – in orienteering a section of the course between two control points or between start and first control or between the last control and finish line.

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Some timed control points require very fast decisions because time is measured (the shortest time is the best). In “Tempo-O” events there are only timed controls. The tourist form of orienteering used to be popular for many years in Poland as an orienteering sport (Cych, Krompiewska & Machowska, 2011). This has changed in recent years as the popularity of tourist orienteering declined. However, the calendar of tourist events remains impressive. There are Polish championships in tourist orienteering (individual, pairs, team and even championships held at night). Rules of tourist orienteering are quite different from the sports orienteering since the emphasis is put on map-reading skills rather than physical preparation. It is more similar to Trail-o rules. In tourist orienteering, the winner is a person, pair or team that has the fewest penalty points (Figure 5.1). The penalties are given for timeout, wrong confirmation of controls and lack of answers to special tasks (this is practised very rarely). Maps are usually incomplete, purposely distorted and therefore, orienteering is a very demanding sport.

Figure 5.1: Participants of tourist’s orienteering event during the course (photo credit: Jacek Gdula).

Orienteering practised on foot, bikes and skis is physically very demanding (Creagh & Reilly, 1997; Moser, Gjerset, Johansen & Vadder 1995; Seiler 1987). Participants must force their bodies to obtain the shortest possible times on their courses. Physiological requirements vary depending on the event (sprint, middle or long-distance races) although, despite the distance, aerobic capacity is the most critical factor (Creagh & Reilly

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1997; Moser et al., 1995; Peck, 1987; Seiler, 1987). Other important features are anaerobic capacity, strength and coordination abilities. Their importance to the final result varies depending on the distance, surface, elevation and navigational difficulties (HébertLosier, Jensen, Mourot, & Holmberg, 2014a). Some foot orienteers have a very high level of aerobic capacity that is usually measured by maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max). This threshold is 80 ml/min/kg in the best male orienteers and 70 ml/min/kg or even more in female athletes (Moser et al., 1995). Such excellent results place orienteers among the athletes with the highest aerobic performance (next to cross-country skiers, triathletes and long-distance runners). This is probably caused by a demanding environment where orienteering competitions usually take place. People who often struggle with rocky ground, mud, and many ascending and descending areas are forced to push their bodies to the limits. On shorter courses (below 10 km), runners who compete with the map must utilize more anaerobic energy sources to keep up with the high speed. Therefore, some training sessions are short but very intensive to help competitors improve this ability. Bikers and cross-country skiers who prepare for orienteering competitions do the same. Specialists who want to be the best on the shortest distances practise orienteering sessions at high speeds (even below 3 min/km) (Bird, Balmer, Olds & Davison, 2001; Hébert-Losier, Jensen & Holmberg, 2014b; Nemytov, 2014). Orienteers need a high level of endurance strength to cope with substantial differences in altitudes. For example, a typical orienteering course set in the terrain is characterized by up to 4% ascend of over the entire distance measured as an optimal route (IOF, 2019: 40). This means that on the course of 17 km length measured in a straight line (~20 km along the optimal route choice), the ascend can be as high as 800 m. Therefore, orienteering is much more “vertical” running compared to track and field running events, even if those are cross-country races. Foot orienteers must overcome diverse natural obstacles on their courses such as streams, ditches, trenches, fallen trees, etc. They need to develop good balance, spatial orientation, timing and other coordination abilities to ensure that their moves are economical. Orienteering involves many cognitive activities. Planning, remembering, recognition, decision-making and thinking are typical mental processes used in orienteering (Ceugniet, 1991; Di Tore, 2016; Di Tore, Corona & Sibilio, 2015; Eccles, Walsh & Ingledew, 2006; Guzman, Pablos & Pablos, 2008; Johansen, 1997; Mottet & Saury 2013; Pollatou, Gerodimos, Zissi, Zervanou & Karadimou, 2009; Whitaker & CuqlockKnopp, 1992). Competence in performing basic orienteering techniques efficiently is a key variable differentiating between the elite and the non-elite athletes (Guzman et al., 2008). Various types of attention must also be engaged. Orienteers are usually welleducated and intelligent people (Hog, 1996; Ottosson, 1995; Seiler, 1996; Strangel, 1996). Memory seems to be the most useful cognitive process in orienteering. Both remembering and recognition play a significant role in using the map and relocating (Eccles, Walsh & Ingledew, 2002). When foot-orienteers, bikers or cross-country skiers move between controls, they use various navigation techniques (Chaloupska, 2015; McNeill, 2010; Ommodei &

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McLennan, 1995; Myrvold, 1996). Some of these techniques are general (like memorising routes, detail or rough map reading, relocating) whereas some are specific, depending on the orienteering event format. For example, mountain bikers and crosscountry skiers do not have to use techniques of maintaining the running direction that are commonly used by foot orienteers. Accurate contour reading and interpretation is needed among well-skilled foot orienteers, but on the other hand, it is almost useless in MTB-O and Ski-O. For them, much more important technique is distance measurement and assessment, which is used permanently to choose the right path or to know when the map reading in advance should be stopped on longer legs. This ability is used by orienteers in case of not losing important terrain features when following along trails, paths or roads. Decision-making process makes orienteering one of the trickiest sports and activities (Almeida, 1997). The whole idea of orienteering is based on using different tactics. Nearly all legs of the orienteering course give the chance to make a route choice. There are also other decisions that orienteers have to make during events (e.g. how to adjust their speed to a specific terrain and the athlete’s sports skill level, how to cope with unexpected changes in the terrain, how to respond to other competitors who run in front of or behind orienteer etc.). There are other similar orienteering tactics that are specific to Foot-O, MTB-O or Ski-O. Foot orienteers often employ a tactic termed “purposeful deviation” not to lose precious seconds or even minutes on looking for small objects where control points are hidden. Additional distance has to be covered, but this tactic protects against the waste of time. Orienteering competitions are most often held in the natural environment, with forests being a typical location. Woods are often the choice as a venue for orienteering events because they are characterized by the most technically demanding surface and reduced visibility, which additionally impedes navigation. Forested areas are usually open for recreation and other types of physical activity, even if they are owned by private persons. Therefore, it is much easier to organise events in such locations compared to city centres. However, organisers of these orienteering competitions must face many problems to make the event both challenging and safe for participants (Cych, 2013). Orienteering offers many health and social benefits to participants. This makes the sport very popular among people of any age. It can even be regarded as a lifelong activity (Pesce, Cereatti, Casella, Baldari & Capranica, 2007). World Orienteering Masters Championships attract thousands of participants, and some of them are over 90 years old. Physical capacity in orienteers is above average. Furthermore, orienteering helps develop social skills such as maintaining interpersonal relations, sharing thoughts with other orienteers, and cooperation during travelling and living together. The sport develops empathy and helps people feel a sense of being a part of society (Strangel, 1996). Orienteers are also sensitive to environmental protection problems (Cych, 2013). On the other hand, it must be considered that practising orienteering exposes people to some threats that are strictly related to the environment. For example, although

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ticks are very small insects, they transmit diseases that are very dangerous to human health and even life. The problems of Lyme borreliosis and tick-borne encephalitis are growing rapidly in Europe and on other continents (Cych, Kiewra & Szczepańska, 2018; Cych & Rotter, 2007). Foot orienteers are more exposed to ticks than mountain bike orienteers because they run through high grass and they move slower and sometimes stop, which gives ticks more time to attach to people. Some accidents also happen, especially dangerous for bikers. High speed, the need to divide attention between map reading and riding a bike may lead to unexpected collisions, with ankle sprains being frequently reported (Ekstrand, Roos & Tropp, 1990). Other injuries occur much less frequently (scratches, bruises, etc.).

History of orienteering The origins of orienteering can be found in Scandinavia, a region where the sport is still very popular. Scandinavian terrains are very demanding and many different orienteering techniques have to be used (e.g. reading contours, keeping direction, simplification). Moreover, the important factor that influenced the development of orienteering in Scandinavia was that forested areas have been open for people regardless of the owner. Orienteering was first introduced into military routines as it helps develop skills of finding the way in unknown terrain. The first orienteering competition for civilians was organized at the end of the 19th century. According to Myrvold (2005), the event was held near Oslo, on the 10th of October 1897. Only eight participants took part because no transport was provided to the venue located in the middle of the forest. There was only one 10 km course with three control points situated in several cottages where competitors had to get some confirmation of their attendance. Some other sources point to Bergen as a place where the first orienteering competition was held (in May 1987). However, as shown by Myrvold (2005), it probably was not an orienteering but a cross-country event and no map was used despite the competition near Oslo where participants had to bring their own maps to the start (the athletes could choose from four types of maps) and they drew the course on their own 30 minutes before the start. Not much later, orienteering gained rapidly in popularity in Scandinavia, especially in Norway and Sweden, where it became known at the beginning of the 20th century. Although in the early twentieth century orienteering was popular only in Sweden, Norway, Finland and Switzerland, the sport developed in some Eastern European countries after the Second World War (Hungary, the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia). In 1961, the International Orienteering Federation was established. Ten years later, Poland joined the organisation (together with Great Britain). However, in Poland, orienteering was not popular and only a few people knew about the sport. Furthermore, there were no favourable conditions for the promotion of orienteering in the country. The first and

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biggest problem was to get a map. In the 1960s and even 1970s, access to maps was limited due to military restrictions. No GPS system existed and almost any map was considered a source of potential information for enemies and spies. Therefore, no orienteering maps existed in Poland until 1973, when the first colour map made according to the IOF standards was drawn and published. The scale of the map was 1:20,000 and it covered a region of the northern part of Poland (one higher hill on rather flat terrain). Due to the different problems (not only with maps) that were common among people interested in orienteering, the popularity of the sport was limited for a very long time. The only way to attract people to orienteering was to organize some events for tourists, scouts, and soldiers. The biggest Polish tourist organisation Polish Tourism and Sightseeing Association (PTTK) took responsibility for the development of orienteering in Poland, but as a tourist activity rather than a sport as it was the case in other countries. Therefore, PTTK was a body that represented Poland in the IOF for almost two decades. In such conditions, it was impossible to create orienteering as a modern sport, and therefore, the situation had to change. Fortunately, maps became more accessible, and people had more freedom to travel and compete. Some tourist had ambitions to practise orienteering and treated it as a sport. They started to take part in the World Orienteering Championships, but they realised the huge gap between them and competitors from other countries, who were almost professional. These observations and the will to improve the orienteering technique and physical capacity inspired some Polish tourists to quit PTTK and establish their own sports organisation. The Polish Athletics Association included orienteering in their programs in 1982 and finally, the Polish Orienteering Federation was established in 1989 (Wysocki, 2016). Some people decided to stay in PTTK and nowadays, two parallel orienteering organisations function in Poland: one is responsible for tourist form of orienteering whereas the other supports orienteering as a sport. Polish army and soldiers have had a substantial influence on the development of orienteering in Poland. A lot of successful Polish orienteering clubs are of military origins (“Wawel” Kraków, “Śląsk” Wrocław, “Grunwald” Poznań, “Flota” Gdynia). Nowadays, most of the best Polish orienteers are soldiers, but they have contracts for a limited period of time, and therefore are not typical soldiers who additionally practise orienteering. They are actually professional orienteers. Unfortunately, this is not reflected in international sports achievements because the only medal for Poland during the European Foot Orienteering Championships was won about 20 years ago. Moreover, no medal has been won to date by Polish athletes during World Orienteering Championships. In bike orienteering, the situation seems to look much better: Anna Kamińska won three medals during World MTB Orienteering Championships, and some world’s biggest events have been held in Poland. This is connected with the specificity of Polish forested areas that are full of roads, paths and small tracks, which makes bike orienteering more demanding. Moreover, Polish woods are open to the public and managed by an institution named Lasy Państwowe (National Forests).

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This usually helps organise the events in greater areas because fewer permissions are needed (from one owner) compared to most Western countries. Orienteering is not only interesting and demanding but it is an excellent sport for youth. There are many advantages of practising orienteering which are important to the development of the body, mind and personality in young people. As mentioned earlier, orienteering helps strengthen the cardio-pulmonary system, develop coordination skills, and improve memory and decision-making to name a few. Orienteering training also makes young people more open to others (Vukadinović, Juhas & Kozoderović, 2015). In Poland, orienteering has been used by the government as a sport. Almost all children and young people are encouraged to compete because it neither requires the sophisticated sports technique nor technically advanced equipment. Consequently, foot orienteering is included in the program of the Regional Youth School Games in many Polish provinces, and it was for many years part of the program of the Nationwide Youth Games. Unfortunately, orienteering has not been included into school curricula in Poland as it is the case in Sweden, Norway, Finland or Switzerland, where each school has its own orienteering map of playground or surroundings and all children know what orienteering looks like. The popularity of orienteering in Poland is even much lower than in the Czech Republic, where almost 10,000 orienteers are registered (Orientacní Beh, 2019). On the contrary, only 1,500 orienteers are registered in Poland, the country with four times more people than in the Czech Republic (PZOS, 2019). Orienteering is almost unknown to people who live in Poland because it is completely absent from mass media. The situation has changed a little for better in the South-West part of Poland since the World Games were held in Wrocław and its surroundings in 2017. Orienteering was present in the program of the Games. However, this change has been observed for a short period of time, and other promoting activities are needed. One of such long-term actions is to create the Permanent Orienteering Courses that started in 2011 (Wysocki, 2016). This is a very popular form used to familiarise people with orienteering. It also encourages families to visit nearest parks, forests or even cities and to get to know it better using a detailed orienteering map. The information about Polish areas where permanent control points exist is also available (http://www.zielonypunktkontrolny.pl). Currently, there are more than 100 places where one or even more orienteering maps are available and where wooden posts are equipped with mechanical punchers and QR holograms (Figure 5.2). Some of these projects are addressed to walkers, whereas some are designed for bikers. Users can download a map from the Internet for free, which makes it accessible and more and more popular. The first permanent course in Poland was created in 2012. Although only seven years have passed since then, hundreds of thousands of people have benefited from this project. Fifty years after the inception of the International Orienteering Federation, this sport has spread to 80 countries around the world, though Europe is still the heart of orienteering. Although Scandinavian orienteers remain the orienteering elite, runners from other countries have joined the leaders. Switzerland, France, Russia, Ukraine and the Czech

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Figure 5.2: Permanent control point in Maskulińskie (photo credit: Piotr Sierzputowski).

Republic are among the nations that are often present on the podium of world championships. Sometimes orienteers from continents other than Europe (Australia, New Zealand) also demonstrate a high level of achievement. The domination of Scandinavian countries has been diminished in the last decades partly because of the introduction of a new format of orienteering events such as sprint, which differs a lot from classic orienteering competitions. Sprint is characterized by the different environment and the distance. The sprint format attracts media and spectators, which is nowadays very important from the commercial point of view. For the first time in the history of orienteering, a separate world championship in sprint will be held in 2020 in Denmark. Athletes will compete in three varieties of sprint: individual race with interval start for each competitor, individual race with mass start and some kind of splits and loops, and mixed relays (two men and two women in one national team). Orienteering is not present in the Olympic Games program yet, which causes some financial and organisational problems. Governments usually are not interested in supporting non-Olympic sports, even if they are popular for years and beneficial to practitioners. Being out of the Olympic family of sports also has a negative effect on the popularity and recognition of orienteering. The IOF authorities are fully aware of the current state of orienteering and people who are responsible for its promotion make efforts to improve the popularity of orienteering all over the world. Consequently,

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orienteering events are more and more often held in exotic locations (in Africa, South America and Asia), where the sport has no tradition. This makes orienteering more and more recognizable but more time and money is needed. It would be beneficial for orienteering to promote it as a physical activity that is easily accessible for all, not only professional athletes. Consequently, many people who work on a daily basis could spend their free time actively with a map on weekends, as they do in Scandinavia. It is also critical to follow the trends in physical activity that are observed in Western countries and promote mountain bike orienteering. Mountain bikes are common, and many people prefer cycling than walking or running as a form of physical activity. Therefore, it could be advisable to facilitate practising MTB-O in the form of participation in events and a readily accessible network of permanent control courses. Due to climate change, cross-country orienteering seems to face a bleak future. This sport requires a sufficient snow cover, which seems to be a rare occurrence now. For example, in mountainous areas in Poland (above 1,000 m a.s.l.), the number of days with sufficient snow cover has declined from 150 before World War II to 100 at the beginning of the 21st century (Słonina, Cych & Kunysz, 2006). If this trend is maintained, practising cross-country skiing will be possible only in northern countries or at altitudes of 1,000 metres above sea level. Although this type of orienteering is the most likely to be part of the Olympic Games program (Myrvold, 2005), it is barely known in Poland. Although the Polish Orienteering Championships in crosscountry skiing are held almost every year, fewer and fewer people are interested in participation and the number of places suitable to host such events is decreasing because of the lack of snow or its uncertainty (Cych, 2008).

Conclusions Orienteering in Poland is not as popular as in some Scandinavian and European countries (Switzerland, Czech Republic, Russia, France and Baltic countries). Nevertheless, the sport is well known in Poland among soldiers and certain groups of tourists. This means that orienteering is considered not only as a sport but also as a physical activity mixed with intellectual effort. There are also several provinces in Poland where orienteering is an activity which is well-recognised by both teachers and pupils. Unfortunately, orienteering in Poland is not promoted in mass media and Polish Orienteering Association has not provided sufficient financial support for the sport. Even though running is now a very popular form of physical activity, orienteering has not built on this success. The number of clubs and athletes remains at the same level for many years. The opportunities offered by orienteering are not utilized by mass sport participants. Perhaps the main barriers are the need to understand a specialised map, fear of getting lost, fear of ticks and the lack of knowledge of the rules of this sport.

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jako przykład transgranicznej współpracy w Euroregionie “Glacensis” in Polish). Annales Universitatis Mariae Curie-Skłodowska Sect.D Med, 60, suppl.16, 64–67. Vukadinović, N., Juhas, I., Kozoderović, J. (2015), Orienteering section as a form of extracurricular activities in physical education. (Orijentiring sekcija kao oblik vančasovne aktivnosti u fizičkom vaspitanju in Serbian). Phys Cult, 69(1), 59–69. DOI: 10.5937/fizkul1501059V Whitaker, L. A., Cuqlock-Knopp, G. (1992), Navigation in Off-Road Environments: Orienteering Interviews. Sci J Orienteering, 8(2), 55–71. Williams, V. (2015), Weird Sports and Wacky Games around the World (From Buzkashi to Zorbing). Greenwood, Santa Barbara – California, Denver – Colorado, 2015. Retrieved from https://old. orienteering.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/WOC-Medals-1966-2014.pdf Wysocki, A. (2016), An outline of the history of orienteering. (Zarys historii imprez na orientację, in Polish).Retrieved from http://ino.pttk.pl/przepisy/reg/zarys_historii.pdf

Laura Jiménez-Monteagudo, Luis Esteban

6 Mountains as an inclusive way open to everyone: An analysis Introduction Diversity is one of the characteristics that makes human beings such exceptional creatures, giving them the chance to live together in a cultural and social richness that would be difficult to imagine in a homogeneous society, if such a thing existed. In the last few years in our society, people with some kind of disability have acquired the same rights as any other citizen, at least in the eyes of the law, to experience the utopia of inclusion; that is, the real challenge of “being the same as everyone else” in everyday life, participating in the same opportunities, and enjoying the right to a good quality of life. But what happens when we talk about inclusive physical activity? And what about inclusive mountaineering? We are observing that this process is happening in a much slower way and with greater problems, due to the nature of the terrain in the case of mountaineering and to a general lack of education across society in this area. It is true that in recent years, serious strides forward have been made in terms of the growing visibility of the practice of physical activity by people with disabilities (Saxton, 2016). The Paralympic Games, for example, is an event whose popularity has increased considerably (Collins, Simon & Carson, 2018). Nonetheless, only a few people are able to take part in a movement such as the Paralympics. This is why we have to promote basic physical activity in all its contexts, including the natural environment. The problem we come up against when doing physical activity and sport in the natural environment is that there are many barriers preventing these practices from making the same progress as other activities. One of the biggest obstacles is the lack of professionals trained in assisting people with disabilities to engage in physical activities in nature. Plus, we are finding that the environment is full of artificial and natural barriers for people with reduced mobility, resulting in the need to use support materials and products that enable them to overcome these barriers and achieve personal independence (Antonelli, Alleva, Zobel, Durante & Raparelli, 2017). In the 1980s, a “mountain chair” was designed that opened up a new path towards inclusion in this kind of activity, allowing people with major physical disabilities to access the natural environment. This tool has marked a turning point in terms of inclusion, as it means that people both with and without disabilities can take part in activities together. This may not seem like anything particularly novel,

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except that this would have been out of the question in the natural environment some years ago. There are currently a number of national projects up and running in Spain (Naturaleza para todos, Montaña para todos, among others) as well as international projects in various countries (Handi Cap Evasion; Joëlette Solidaire; the défi joëlette team in mountains, and so on) involving initiatives that focus on this new tool. The chair not only makes inclusion possible in the mountains, where people both with and without disabilities can enjoy the countryside together; it also generates a feeling of solidarity between the pilots and the passengers involved in the activity. In this chapter, we are calling for the promotion of these inclusive physical activities in the rural environment, based on one such activity: the use of the mountain chair.

The state of the art: Physical activity involving people with disabilities in the natural environment There are very few studies on adapted or inclusive physical activity and sports, but there are far more on the topics of leisure, free time, and the natural environment (James, Shing, Mortenson, Mattie & Borisoff, 2017). Before taking a closer look at this subject, we need to point out that language is one of the key factors in tackling the problem of social inclusion. In recent years, this topic has been one of concern for society, so we are calling for and supporting the use of inclusive language that puts the emphasis on the person rather than on their disability (Peers, Speccer-Cavaliere & Eales, 2014). Plus, the content of the latest White Paper recommendations on disability in Spain (2018) mention the avoidance of terms that have acquired negative connotations and do not help to unify concepts at an international level, including terms like “adapted” or “para.” The White Paper reiterates the need to make good use of language and recommends using the term “person with disability” or “athlete with disability.” In 1994, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) highlighted the right to an inclusive education in The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education (Block, Kwon & Healy, 2016). When we talk about the physical activity of people with disabilities, we could be referring to different concepts that have been and still are referred to in the various fields as “adapted physical activity,” “adapted sport” and “inclusive physical activity and sport.” The term adapted physical activity (APA) was coined in 1973, at the same time as the foundation of the International Federation for Adapted Physical Activity (IFAPA), the purpose of which is to carry out academic research and development in APA, later defined by Hutzler (2008, p. 184) as “a body of knowledge that

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includes the physical activities performed by people with disabilities, the service provider systems developed to guarantee the participation of such people, a professional speciality that attracts professionals from teaching and academic fields and an area of academic study and research.” Adapted sport is an important part of APA, and already back in the 19th century there were some early exercises for people with sensory disabilities (Klein’s gymnastics for the blind). In 1888, the first club for deaf athletes was set up in Berlin and Ling put forward a series of exercises for people with disabilities (Sherrill, 2004). In 1918, at the end of the 1st World War, the first signs of adapted sport appeared when a group of people with amputated limbs started playing sport while they were in hospital. In 1932, the “Society of One-Armed Golfers” was founded (Castro, 1999), but it was from the 2nd World War onwards, in 1944, when the National Spinal Injuries Centre at Stoke-Mandeville hospital was set up by Sir Ludwig Guttmann (Guttmann, 1976). The Centre would go on to make a significant contribution to the emergence of adapted sport and would sow the seed for the Paralympic Games as we know them today. When physical activity and sport are practiced between people with and without disabilities, we call it inclusive physical activity and sport. This is the concept that gives us the best guidance in understanding where we want to go in terms of developing these lines. Human beings, by their very nature, tend to adapt to the medium they find themselves in and, in fact, many achievements have been made throughout history by people with disabilities practicing physical activity in the natural environment. Some examples of the people accomplishing these feats include: Tom Whittaker, who had a foot amputated and was the first person with a disability to climb Everest in 1998; Irik Weihenmayer, a US climber who lost both his eyes and went on to scale Everest in 2001; Mark Inglis, a double leg amputee also climbed Everest in 2006; and Indian-born Arunima Sinha, a single leg amputee, another Everest climber. David Lim is a mountaineer who contracted GuillainBarré disease and acquired a disability in his lower limbs that did not stop him from leading the first expedition to the giant peak from Singapore in 1998, and who appears to have no limitations in his ascents to the highest peaks. Other life stories include such climbers as Spain’s Urko Carmona, a three-time world climbing champion with an amputated leg, and Javier Aguilar, who is totally blind and whose mountain climbing skills are absolutely incredible. But, in addition to the various feats achieved throughout history in the natural environment, people with all sorts of limitations need to be able to get out into the countryside, not just as a one-off experience but in response to a need to live in contact with nature and enjoy the leisure and recreation it offers (Dorsch, Richards, Swain & Maxey, 2016; James et al., 2017). To cater for this need, various kinds of wheelchairs and support products emerged to make access easier, including allterrain hand bikes with two front wheels and one rear wheel, and off-road fourwheeled electrical devices driven by the user. These include, for example, Off Road Wheelchair Riding (ORWC) as used in France and imported from the United States

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in 1990 by Jean-François Porret (Villoing, Eric & Le Roux, 2018). These chairs give users a huge sense of independence, even though, as in the case of Porret, they have various forms of tetraplegia. However, in addition to these chairs, which have gone from being pulled by animals to being electric, other chairs have been designed such as the Cingo, Kilikart, TrailRider, and Joëlette, which need drivers or porters and enable people to get to otherwise impossible places, thanks to the teams driving them (Antonelli et al., 2017).

The mountain chair The essence of the mountain chair we shall be discussing in this chapter is that it can only be used by employing “teamwork,” with all that this entails in terms of such values as solidarity and shared effort, and that it enables people to reach difficult or even apparently inaccessible places. One of the things that makes human beings naturally creative is the need to find solutions to the problems and difficulties they have to tackle. For example, a French mountain guide named Joël Claudel had a nephew with myopathy (a muscular disability) and wanted to make a dream come true, to enable Stéphane to do activities in the mountains and enjoy the wonders of nature with his family. Driven by that desire, in 1987, Joël created what is now known as the “Joëlette” chair at home in his garage. Nowadays, 20 years after this tool was invented, several versions of it have been developed and acquired not only by associations, but also by active tourism companies, tourist offices, and rural accommodation providers to offer a range of activities in the natural environment for people with disabilities (Díaz, 2015). Some of the groups who have developed the inventor’s initiatives include Universe Montagne Esprit Nature UMEN and Les Dunes d’Espoir (France), Handirando (Belgium and Italy), and so on. In recent years, a variety of groups, associations, clubs and so on in Spain have started a new way of doing inclusive hiking, including in universities such as the Catholic University of Valencia (UCV), where a research project is underway to ascertain the benefits gained from using these chairs for passengers and pilots alike. The mountain chair is an all-terrain chair with one wheel that enables people with physical disabilities or reduced mobility to move through the countryside and the mountains. It is driven by at least one driver at the front and one at the rear. However, two-wheeled models have already been developed to improve stability, although they can be a bit more limiting in terms of accessing difficult or technical trails (Baronio, Copeta, Motyl & Uberti, 2017). The use of electric or human powered mountain chairs is being seen as a tool for providing people with severe physical disabilities a way of accessing the natural

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environment. We hardly know of any specific studies on the Joëlette (Baronio et al. 2017) that assess the impact of its use. However, some work has been done on electrically powered chairs, both the ones driven by users with disabilities and the ones carried by people without disabilities. In the case of the electric chairs developed by John Castellano in the United States (ORWC), the study analyzing its institutionalization in France from the 1990s to the present day (Villoing, Le Roux & Perera, 2018) found that these chairs provide huge benefits to the people using them. This electric chair is driven independently by the user. It gradually came to be regarded as a practice that could combine the diversity of people with disabilities with access to natural spaces and independence. This later became an activity under the auspices of the country’s Federation. As for the electric chairs driven by people without disabilities (that is, where the intended user does not physically operate the chair), studies revealed that the mere act of getting out into the natural environment opened up the chance for those with disabilities to have new adventures in the outdoors and a real opportunity to improve their integration (Antonelli et al., 2017).

Benefits of using the mountain chair As part of the training given to students in the Sports and Physical Activities Sciences degree course (UCV “San Vicente Mártir”), a pilot study was set up to ascertain the benefits provided by inclusive physical activities in the natural environment. Specifically, the impact of activities with the mountain chair on both the pilots driving it and on the passengers. Some of the conclusions extracted from this study about the chair pilots were that physical activities in the natural environment where there is contact with people with disabilities promote positive attitudes towards them. It can also be said that these activities can generate a positive influence on the perception of future sports and physical activities science professionals of how they can cater to people with different needs. The students valued the experience very positively for its contribution both to their studies and to their awareness. In terms of the benefits for passengers, firstly, the conclusions drawn were that these activities open up a new pathway to leisure and recreation, with a promising outlook for people with disabilities. They gave positive feedback on the fact that they were able to enjoy the natural environment. Participants also expressed their happiness and excitements following their experiences, as well as seeing the activity as a real chance to socialize (Figure 6.1). It was therefore concluded that doing physical activities with the mountain chair can be a powerful tool for encouraging people with disabilities to have a social life. These activities also generate gratifying and heart-warming experiences both for the passengers and for the pilots. On the whole, it was concluded that, according to comments from the people involved, the

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Figure 6.1: The mountain chair is a symbol of teamwork (photo credit: Laura Jiménez).

chair may have aspects that need to be improved, but it is generally comfortable for the passengers and easy to handle for the pilots.

Discussion Physical activities in the natural environment can be a good resource for contributing to raising awareness in people without disabilities and for improving the view taken by professionals in terms of the attention given to these people in the field (Figure 6.2). Insofar as awareness is concerned, a range of different studies have been carried out on the basic actions needed to improve attitudes towards disability (Abellán, Sáez & Reina, 2018; Hutzler, 2003; Ocete Calvo, Pérez, & Coterón, 2015). There are various strategies that may encourage this awareness, such as direct contact, inclusive physical activity, and adapted sport, so a number of programs have been implemented in an attempt to enable people, professionals and society in general to have these sorts of experiences and improve their attitudes towards people with disabilities (McKay, Block, & Park, 2015; Ocete et al., 2015; Reina, Hemmelmayr & Sierra, 2016). Amongst them, we can highlight that there are some studies that stress the powerful impact of coming into contact with people with disabilities at awareness-raising events (Paradis, Misener, McPherson, McGillivray, & Legg, 2017).

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Figure 6.2: Teamwork generates gratifying experiences for passengers and pilots (photo credit: Laura Jiménez).

So, it seems that inclusive activities – events with people with disabilities, in this case in the natural environment are certainly a good awareness tool, as was shown in the study described in the previous section. In terms of people’s perception of how self-sufficient people with disabilities can be and how much care they need, we can see that various studies emphasize that contact with other people is a key part of their improvement (Mckay et al, 2015; Reina, Healy, Roldán, Hemmelmayr & Klavina, 2019). This kind of contact through activities in the natural environment can help to overcome professionals’ lack of confidence in engaging in physical activities in this type of setting, due to their lack of training and the problems with accessing such places. Another aspect to highlight is that students stressed that, for them, the experience had been a meaningful one, it enriched them as individuals, it was satisfying, and so on. In the study carried out by James et al. (2017), the volunteers who took part in driving the chairs expressed their satisfaction at having done physical activity, enjoyed nature, and helped others to access the natural world. It was an experience they were keen to share with other participants. In terms of the benefits of these activities for people with disabilities, experiences are varied. Sometimes, the person with a disability has been able to get out into

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the natural environment for the first time in their lives because they had not been able to do so before these chairs were invented in the 1980s. But for other people, after having had an accident and acquiring a disability (a paraplegia, for example), being able to get up into the mountains means much more than overcoming barriers. It means reliving the sensations of being out in nature, normalizing their situation, breaking out of social limitations, reconquering natural spaces and even reclaiming their own identity as individuals (James et al., 2017; Perera, Villoing, Ruffié & Gosset, 2017). It seems there is unanimity in valuing activities in the natural environment as a benefit for people both with and without disabilities (Bratman, Daily, Levy & Gross, 2015). The study by Dorsch et al., (2016) stresses how outdoor recreational activities can improve quality of life for people with disabilities. In some of the studies analyzing the impact of activities in the natural environment in this kind of chair, it was found that such resources have enabled huge progress to be made in restoring people’s independence and giving them an opportunity to socialize (Villoning, Le Roux & Perera, 2018), according to feedback from the passengers interviewed for the prior study. To end this section, we focus on the chair that needs pilots and that shares some of the features of the Joëlette mountain chair, although we should specify that the latter depends entirely on being pushed and assisted by the pilots who drive it. We have seen one study that questions if it is harmful for the passengers to not have any kind of independence at all in activities done with these chairs (Goodwin, Peco & Ginther, 2009), as they depend totally on the drivers and their involvement appears to be lower than in activities where the person with disabilities plays a more active role. However, this study found, and this was backed up by other studies (James et al., 2017), that the passengers, despite their more dependent role, were adamant that the experience was worthwhile for them because it enabled them to get out into nature, travel along trails, and to feel the leaves, plants, and so on. Their feedback was full of such words as adrenaline, excitement, and adventure. One of the original aspects of these activities is the need for the experience to be a shared one; that is, it can only be through teamwork that barriers can be overcome, giving access to the most amazing places. So, when leisure is shared with others, it encourages the cultivation of important social values such as tolerance and the exercise of equality. In this way, leisure is revealed as a major resource to take into account when promoting inclusion (Sarrate, 2015).

Conclusions In our society, we are constantly coming up against barriers of all kinds. The old quarters of cities have become inaccessible places for a wheelchair user. The

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natural environment is not free from these barriers either, although in this case they are not man-made. But the most difficult barriers to overcome are the ones that human beings have in their minds when they say “it’s impossible” or “we can’t change this.” In spite of the difficulties encountered by people with disabilities wanting to engage in activities out in the countryside and the slow progress being made to achieve total inclusion, there are initiatives and projects promoting this practice, such as the case of the mountain chairs. These chairs, in addition to enabling people to get out into the natural environment, can be used as tools for moving around the old quarters of cities and allowing people with disabilities to share in the enjoyment of exploring the steep, narrow alleyways. One of the key factors for enabling people with disabilities to benefit from activities in nature is the availability of professionals working in the field, including teachers, coaches, and guides, all properly trained and feeling competent to take on the task. And here is where we come up against one of the major problems: Lack of training can be an insurmountable barrier to making inclusion a reality, preventing people with some sort of disability from taking part in physical activity. It is not common, for example, to find professionals working in the outdoor physical activity sector who are trained in using mountain chairs for people with reduced mobility, in the use of guide poles for blind people moving through the natural environment, and so on. Of course, this is not the only obstacle; one of the most evident are the sky-high prices of all the support products, sports equipment, and items needed for practicing physical activity. Plus, when it comes to wheelchairs, the prices are even more outrageous. It seems unacceptable that a product intended to help people with reduced mobility to have access to nature and enjoy this asset is priced at around €4,000. We are not talking about the competitive sphere or about an activity created for just a few. On the contrary, this is about leisure and free time, a right that everybody should be able to enjoy. Despite this somewhat complex and not very encouraging panorama, we can also say that a great deal of progress has been made since the early days of physical and sports activities for people with disabilities up to the present day. It does not seem long ago that it would have been unthinkable for a blind person to climb Everest, or that someone with tetraplegia could reach mountains and peaks in a mountain chair. This is all possible today. However, resources and time must be invested to allow new research projects to be developed in order to make progress in looking at the benefits of activities in the natural environment for people with some kind of disability. This means that future research in this area must be aimed at improving the various lines of work. Such studies would help find ways to improve and make the support equipment used in outdoor activities more affordable, encourage studies for improving the training provided to professionals, and promote research studies to analyze the impact outdoor activities have on the quality of life of people with disabilities.

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The mountain chair has shown to be a very acceptable resource for generating some of these benefits. Importantly, it enables natural barriers to be overcome and provides contact with the natural environment to people who would otherwise be unable to get out, with all the associated benefits of satisfaction, stress relief, and happiness. Plus, one of the original features of this chair is that we can say it “generates solidarity” around it. In other words, the chair by itself would be a useless piece of equipment without a team of drivers to push and guide it. So, outdoor physical activities with the mountain chair can contribute towards fostering some of western society’s most cherished values. In a world where everything seems to come with a price tag, these activities present us with an alternative, with the chance to have authentic experiences of solidarity, teamwork and gratification that are unforgettable for everyone involved.

References Abellán, J., Sáez, N., & Reina, R. (2018). Evaluación de las actitudes hacia la discapacidad en Educación Física: Efecto diferencial del sexo, contacto previo y la percepción de habilidad y competencia. Cuadernos de Psicologia del Deporte, 18 (1), 133–140. Antonelli, M., Alleva, S., Zobel, P. B., Durante F. & Raparelli, T. (2017): Powered off-road wheelchair for the transportation of tetraplegics along mountain trails, Disability and Rehabilitation: Assistive Technology, DOI:10.1080/17483107.2017.1413431 Baronio, G., Copeta, A., Motyl, B. & Uberti, S. (2017). Gölem project: Concept and design of a trekking/hiking wheelchair. Advances in Mechanical Engineering, 9 (11) 1–11. DOI: 10.1177/ 1687814017730541 Block, M.E., Kwon, E. & Healy, S. (2016). Preparing Future Physical Educators for Inclusion: Changing the Physical Education Teacher Training Program. Journal of the Brazilian association of Adapted Physical Activity, 17, (1), p. 9912. Bratman, G. N., Daily, G. C., Levy, B. J., & Gross, J. J. (2015). The benefits of nature experience: Improved affect and cognition. Landscape and Urban Planning, 138, 41–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2015.02.005 Castro Pañeda, P. (1999). Los héroes olvidados. El deporte de los discapacitados físicos. Oviedo: Universidad de Oviedo. CERMI, CPE y Fundación ONCE (2018). Libro blanco del deporte de personas con discapacidad en España. Collins, L., Simon, S. & Carson, H. J. (2018): Para-adventure: a hyperdynamic problem for the inclusive coach, Sport in Society, DOI: 10.1080/17430437.2018.1504776 Díaz, M. (2015). Senderismo con Joëlette como medio de inclusión de las personas con discapacidad en Tenerife. Trabajo de Fin de Grado. Facultad de Ciencias Políticas, Sociales y de la Comunicación. Universidad de la Laguna. Dorsch, T.E., Andrew K., Richards, R., Swain, J., Maxey, M. (2016). The Effect of an Outdoor Recreation Program on Individuals with Disabilities and their Family Members. Therapeutic Recreation Journal L (2) pp. 155–171. Goodwin, D., Peco, J. & Ginther, N. (2009). Hiking Excursions for Persons with Disabilities: Experiences of Interdependence Therapeutic Recreation Journal; First Quarter, 43, 1, ProQuest Education Journals p. 43.

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Guttmann, L. (1976). Textbook of sport form the disabled. Aylesbury: Hm + M Publishers. Hutzler, Y. (2003). Attitudes toward the Participation of Individuals with Disabilities in Physical Activity: A Review. QUEST, 55, 347–373. Hutzler, Y. (2008). Las actividades físicas adaptadas como herramientas de evaluación e intervención: un punto de vista de la IFAPA. Una propuesta ecológica sistemática para la evaluación e intervención en la actividad física adaptada. En Pérez Tejero. Discapacidad, calidad de vida y actividad físico-deportiva. (183–207) Madrid: Consejería de Deportes. James, L., Shing, J., Mortenson, B., Mattie, J. & Borisoff, J. (2017): Experiences with and perceptions of an adaptive hiking program, Disability and Rehabilitation, DOI: 10.1080/ 09638288.2017.1302006 McKay, C., Block, M., & Park, J. Y. (2015). The Impact of Paralympic School Day on Student Attitudes Toward Inclusion in Physical Education. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 32(4), 331–348. https://doi.org/10.1123/APAQ.2015-0045 Ocete, C., Pérez, J., & Coterón, J. (2015). Propuesta de un programa de intervención educativa para facilitar la inclusión de alumnos con discapacidad en educación física. Retos. Nuevas tendencias en Educación Física, Deporte y Recreación, 27, 140–145. Paradis, K., Misener, L., McPherson, G., McGillivray, D. & Legg. (2017). Examining the impact of integrated and non-integrated parasport events on volunteer attitudes towards disability. pp. 1724–1744. Peers, D., Spencer-Cavaliere, N. & Eales, L. (2014). Say What you Mean: Rethinking disability language in Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly 31, 265–282. Perera, E., Villoing, G., Ruffié, S. & Gosset, S. (2017). Le Fauteuil Tout Terrain, une «paire de chaussures de montagne»: expériences corporelles et reconfigurations identitaires. Movement & Sport Sciences – Science & Motricité, 97, 9–16 Reina, R., Hemmelmayr, I., & Sierra, B. (2016). Autoeficacia de profesores de educación física para la inclusión de alumnos con discapacidad y su relación con la formación y el contacto previo. Psychology, Society, & Education, 2(8), 93–103. Reina, R., Healy, S., Roldán, A., Hemmelmayr, I. & Klavina, A. (2019): Incluye-T: a professional development program to increase the self-efficacy of physical educators towards inclusion, Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, DOI: 10.1080/17408989.2019.1576863 Sarrate, Mª. L. (2015). El Ocio, espacio de inserción personal y social. Madrid. Recuperado de http://www.madrid.es/portales/munimadrid/es/Inicio/El-yuntamiento/Salud/Animales/ Temas-de Salud?vgnextfmt=default&vgnextoid= 5ad240e32f416110VgnVCM1000000b205a0aRCRD&vgnextchannel= 70fa0c5600847010VgnVCM100000dc0ca8c0RCRD&idCapitulo=5612163 Saxton, M. (2018) Hard bodies: exploring historical and cultural factors in disabled people’s participation in exercise; applying critical disability theory, Sport in Society, 21:1, 22–39, DOI: 10.1080/17430437.2016.1225914 Sherrill, C. (2004). Adapted Physical Activity, Recreation, and Sport. Crossdisciplinary and Lifespan. (6ªEd) New York: McGraw-Hill. Villoing, G., Le Roux, N., Perera, E. (2018). The institutionalization of off-road wheelchair riding in France (1990–2015): ‘truly a sport of sharing and diversity’. Sport in Society, Taylor & Francis.

Antonio Turmo Arnal

7 Spanish rambling: An activity under the umbrella of a sport federation A brief historical background From the dawn of time until the 19th century, terrestrial mobility had been exclusively achieved by walking or using livestock. For this purpose, a network of pathways of different kinds was built based on their different uses – from the humble paths that covered the way from the mountain villages to the summer pastures to the Roman roads that extended for thousands of miles. In the 19th century, the age of inventions–the train, the bicycle and the car–not only changed the concept of terrestrial mobility, but also involved the construction of roads specifically designed for them. For the mobility of motor vehicles and bicycles, initially some of the roads already operating were used, such as those built in connection with the road plans of the late 19th century. But during the last century, they have been specialized, developing their own characteristics (asphalting, widths, profiles and so on). The railway needed a specific type of road from the start. In Spain, it was necessary to wait until the second half of the 20th century for terrestrial mobility to become mainly by mechanical devices, which meant a great restriction of the use of walking and livestock. Nevertheless, legislation still allows the transit of pedestrians and animals through the whole network, apart from highways and motorways. Pedestrians can even use the right part of the road in some circumstances, which is known as a “procession.” Another phenomenon that originated in the most developed areas in Spain during the last quarter of the 20th century is the development of the so-called “rambling” activity, within the sphere of sport, which has brought back pedestrian mobility for the purpose of sport and recreation, and has also helped to rehabilitate the network of pathways for the use for which they were originally built.

Rambling in Spain Today we can consider rambling a socially global trend whose formal start can be identified in 1972 when the former Spanish Federation of Mountaineering (FEM) received an application from the Association de Tourisme Pedéstre (presently FFRandonnee) to continue the European Path E 4 (in Spain GR® 7) from Puigcerda to Tarifa, a pathway whose marking ended in the year 2000. On 8th December that same year, the FEM created a Rambling Committee, which was ratified in its end-of-year assembly in León. The first marking was painted in 1975 in the Hermitage of Sant Blai (Tivissa-Tarragona). https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110660715-007

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There are no specific statistics about the number of ramblers in Spain, although we can use as a reference the Survey on Sporting Habits of Spanish People (2015), carried out by the High Sports Council (CSD). However, in Table 7.1, we report the following figures from an entry defined as “Rambling/Mountaineering Practitioners.” That is to say, 11.3% of the Spanish population over 15 (38,934,000) take part in activities of rambling/mountaineering every month.

Table 7.1: People depending on the frequency of sport practice by sport modality. Any sport Frequency: Weekly Frequency: Monthly Federated Federated. Weekly Federated. Monthly

,, ,,

.% .% ,, .% .%

Rambling/Mountaineering ,, ,,

.% .% , .% .%

(Source: adapted from Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte, 2010).

Another aspect of this reality appears in the paper “Analysis of the profile of the uservisitors of the Natural Environment in Spain 2017–2018” (FEDME, 2017–2018) commissioned by the Scientific Advisory Council for the Mountains of FEDME (Spanish Federation of Mountain Sports and Climbing). The purpose of this study was to examine the profile of those who visit the natural environment. When questioned about types of activity in which they engaged (in FEDME, 2017–2018, Table 15: “Distribution of frequencies by Activity”), 51.90% of respondents indicated that rambling is the purpose of their presence in the natural environment. Regarding European figures, one study of the socioeconomic impact of rambling in Germany (BMW1, 2010) indicates that 56% of the population takes part in some rambling activities per year; 15.8% do it several times a month, while 14.2% say they do it at least once a month. In other countries, there are indications that state with little doubt that rambling in Europe is an activity undertaken by over 100 million people.

Models of attention to rambling in Europe Europe is a culturally and politically diverse continent; its culture and history are centuries-old and consist of a great variety of landscapes and geographies. Hence, it is not surprising that its models of rambling development are so varied. It is not our intention to be exhaustive or deepen the characterization of the models, but we can list the following situations:

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– countries in which rambling and route marking are supervised by a specific sport federation: France, The Netherlands, Italy – countries in which rambling and routes marking are supervised by a multisport federation, usually Mountain Sports: Spain, Croatia, Serbia, Macedonia, Austria, Slovenia, Portugal – countries in which rambling and routes marking are supervised by a national organization (of diverse character): Estonia, Sweden, Norway, United Kingdom, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Romania, Latvia – countries in which rambling and routes marking are supervised by several rambling associations/clubs depending on the regions: Germany – countries in which routes marking is supervised by a state body: Cyprus, Andorra – countries with no attention to rambling or marking: Montenegro, Albania, Bosnia Herzegovina, North Macedonia, Bulgaria

Characteristics of the Spanish model Who is responsible for rambling and pathways in Spain? As stated previously, the Spanish model is part of the group of countries in which rambling is managed by a multisport federation. But before analyzing the legal basis for this fact, we have to reflect on an element that is common to many countries and becomes general to every model: the sport activity of citizens greatly surpasses the number of associates/affiliates to the specific organizations. The data shown in the survey commissioned by the CSD are clear: if you compare the number of affiliated ramblers (220,000) with those people who claim to do rambling/mountaineering activities every month (4,399,000), the federation responsible for rambling only computes 5% of the people doing the activity. This figure is consistent with that of the German study already mentioned, which states that Deutscher Wanderverband only comprises 4% of the German ramblers. The legal framework that makes FEDME responsible for managing rambling in the first place is the 1978 Spanish Constitution, which in its article 43.3 (BOE, 1978) states that “the authorities will promote health education, physical education and sport” which makes these authorities responsible for sport. The government, through the Sport Law 10/1990, delegated this responsibility to sport federations, giving them a special status. To sum up, we can define them as private law organizations, non-profit, and public service utilities. The transfer of public responsibility to these is stated in Article 30.2 of the aforementioned law, which declares that “Spanish sport federations, in addition to their own powers, will undertake, by delegation, public duties of an administrative nature, acting as collaborating officers of public Administration.” Besides, in virtue of this characterization, they are controlled by the State.

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In Law 10/1990, there is not a specific article enumerating those public duties carried out by federations, but it is quite simple to identify them through the set of articles. None of them deal with elements related to rambling. We should remember that, in the preamble of the above law and in order to identify the clearly distinct aspects of sport phenomenon, one single aspect is mentioned first: “Sport practice of citizens as a spontaneous, selfless and ludic activity or with educational and health purposes;” then we can find sport activity within some structures and sport events. This first idea is not developed in the rest of the articles. Consistency would dictate that if the public competences regarding competition and sport events are transferred to the federations, the same should happen with this first consideration. Therefore, we can assume that there is an unspecific tutelage of these federations over any person who takes part in an activity within its catalogue. Among the remarkable aspects of this legal framework, relevant to this analysis, we can emphasize two elements: – Every sport, identified as such, will be managed by an exclusive federation. – The Statutes of federations will not be valid until they are published in the official Gazette (BOE). In Article 3.7 of FEDME Statutes, rambling is mentioned as one of the “mountain and climbing sports.” Article 2.7, which describes the aims of FEDME, mentions the construction and conservation of paths, cooperation with foreign organizations, trail marking, and so on. That is to say, rambling and path marking are an exclusive competence of FEDME and the federation network in Spain. Alternatively, we have to say that there is a regional legislation that identifies the actions in paths by federations, belonging to autonomous regions, as a public competence. To date, there are two regulations: The Autonomous Chartered Region of Navarra. Decree 197/2011. Art. 8.2 The Federation of Mountain Sports and Climbing of Navarra, besides its own functions and those generally stated in the article, will undertake by delegation, under the coordination and tutelage of the Sport administration of the Autonomous Region, the following administrative functions regarding sport trails of public use in Navarra, acting as collaborative agents of state administration: a) Initiating and resolving the procedure of revocation of the sanctioning and authorization of trails. (. . .) d) Authorising the use of registered marking in approved trails. (. . .) Andalucía, Decree 67/2018. Article 6. Delegated public functions. 1. In accordance with the article 60.2.g) of the Law 5/2016, of 19th July, to the exclusive intents and purposes of which it is stated in the present Decree, the public competence of

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approval of trails, in its capacity as collaborating agent of state administration in the development and promotion of rambling, is delegated in Andalusian Federation of Mountaineering. According to the provisions of the present Decree, its development regulations, and its own internal regulations, the federation, in the exercise of this delegated public function will be responsible for: (. . .)

Which implementation model of marking for pedestrian mobility is promoted by FEDME in its territory? In the European context, we can differentiate two models: – recovery/marking of all the trails in an area – recovery/marking of certain itineraries in an area The first, usually developed in flat areas, means intervention over the whole network of trails, by marking all the crossroads with fingerposts in which indications of all directions are provided. There are no predetermined itineraries, which allows the ramblers to create their own routes, leaving the decision-making to them. Its lack of implementation is due to some problems of economic, social and environmental sustainability. It involves a high cost of both implementation and maintenance, which is only reasonable if the use of the network by the ramblers is very frequent (which is not usually the case). However, it means the dispersal of ramblers all over the territory, which can be problematic in Protected Natural Spaces. Besides, this system does not provide ramblers with all the basic information they require: distances, slopes, estimated timings, technical material needed and so on. The second model, the most common in all Europe, identifies and marks specific itineraries within a territory, using the paths network already existent and acts on these by marking them. This reduces the costs of implementation and maintenance, and also allows the adaptation of the network to rambling demands, as it makes it possible to add/remove itineraries in an area. This itinerary system in Protected Natural Spaces is a management tool of public use, not only to avoid the transit through fragile areas but also to promote environmental awareness. For the ramblers, the marked itinerary reduces their uncertainty about their mobility in the area, both proposing a specific itinerary and offering them all the information required, by information boards at the start and finish. This is the system used in Spain. These two models coexist in Switzerland, which has developed three route marking systems depending on the territory. For mobility in high mountain areas (white and blue marks) and for mobility in mountain areas (white and red marks), they use the itinerary system, whereas for the lower areas, they mark the whole trail network. In Spain, this marking system for the whole trail network is being partially implemented by the initiative of a private company.

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The federative system General structure We can identify four levels in the federative system, which must be understood in a different way if we refer to activities or competitions: – Level 1: FEDME, national federation – Level 2: Autonomous regions federations – Level 3: Clubs and associations – Level 4: Ramblers, sportspeople In the sphere of competitive activities (according to some internal federative sources, between 10% and 30% of federated people’s actions), the relationship is hierarchical. That is to say, FEDME establishes some national standards that must be observed by the autonomous regions’ federations, clubs and sportspeople, if they want to take part in national competitions. In turn, autonomous regions federations define others for the regional competitions, in most cases consistent with national ones, which must be complied with by clubs and sportspeople. Clubs and associations can also establish conditions for the sportspeople if they want to take part through them. Regarding activities (between 70% and 90% of the federated people’s actions), there is no hierarchical relationship. The ramblers/sportspeople do not need any associative structure to do their activity; they only affiliate if they consider it appropriate (we must remember that 95% of the estimated ramblers in Spain are not linked to any federative structure). To go rambling, ramblers do not need to affiliate to an autonomous region federation. For these, there is a binding legal link, but FEDME has little competence over them. To sum up, FEDME has no power to intervene/act with regards to activities, but it is aware of its reference and coordination role, as we will explain in the following section.

FEDME attention plan for rambling and trails In this matter, the action has two interconnected channels: 1. FEDME Rambling Office 2. FEDME State Commission for Trails The first function is carried out by a hired person, supported by two committees composed of volunteers: Technical Committee and Advisory Committee. The first one is a reduced group of people, designated by the Rambling Office, who contribute their diverse views about general action. The second is constituted by people who have, or have had, a role in the sphere of federated rambling (whether in

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FEDME or in autonomous regions federations) to whom information about relevant affairs is sent by email for them to give their opinion or share their vision. The State Commission for Trails was formally created in 1993, although before that, the meetings of regional rambling representatives served this purpose. It is composed of the FEDME Rambling Office and the people responsible for rambling and trails of the 19 autonomous regions federations. They meet twice a year. One of these meetings is held in June in Madrid. The second, which travels around the territory within the so-called FEDME State Rambling Conference (26 editions), is usually held in November; it includes workshops, round tables, exhibitions and so on, determined by the federations themselves. This committee is essential in federative dynamics as a forum where sharing of knowledge about rambling and marking functionality is promoted, general coordination documents are discussed, an exchange of experiences among the regional federations is generated, general working lines are defined, and common actions are programmed. Apart from other documents generated in this body, which must be approved by FEDME Board, we are drawn to two in particular: – GR®, PR® and SL® Trails Marking Manual: This is the document that defines the basis for marking with said marks; it is developed in every territory through Authorization Protocols of the regional federations. – General Guidelines: This document is drawn up every four years and it is generated after the elections for the FEDME President are held, including those indications about trails/rambling that appear in the program of the elected president; the scope of action, the horizons pursued, and so on are enunciated; it does not usually state any specific action. FEDME has no direct power of action over the territory regarding trails and rambling, as happens in the rest of the sports it manages. This action is developed through regional federations (as is the case in most public administration in Spain).

GR®, PR® and SL® trails The way FEDME and the federative group proposes to facilitate rambling activity is the itinerary marking for pedestrian mobility in the natural environment, using the marks GR®, PR® and SL®. The trails marked this way have as their main aim to improve safety in sport practice, based on two elements: 1. Marking eliminates or reduces significantly the uncertainty regarding orientation in the territory. 2. The obligation of giving information concerning the trail at the initial and final points (length, slopes, estimated time, occurrences, map and so on) allows the ramblers to have a clear idea of the activity they are going to do.

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It is obvious that there are still important factors regarding security that have no place in the system, such as meteorology, the physical condition of the ramblers, and the possession/knowledge of using materials and equipment suitable for the activity. The markings GR®, PR® and SL® (see Figure 7.1) have been registered by FEDME, and the administration in every territory is entrusted, by means of an agreement, to regional federations, in accordance with the regulations stated in “Trails Marking Manual.”

-GR®,Long Distance; trails longer than 50 km., the reference colors are red and white

-PR®, Short Distance; trails shorter than 50 km.; the reference colors are yellow and white

-SL®, Local Trails; trails shorter than 10 km. (in some federations, these trails are not marked, being substituted by PR®); the reference colors are green and white

Figure 7.1: Three types of federative trails.

The following is also suggested: – Diversions: they join two distant points of the same trail; usually in GR® – Detours: branches that join a trail with a nearby interest point, with a limit in the number of kilometers – Links: paths linking two trails that are close to each other, normally also GR® – International links: trails that link the Spanish network with those of FFRandonne in France and FCMP in Portugal It must be emphasized that the marks GR®, PR® and SL® belong to the so-called “French marking group,” which is in place, with national variants, in Belgium, France, Spain, The Netherlands, Italy and Portugal. For the marking of these three types of trails, three marks are used: – Continuity mark: two horizontal parallel stripes, the upper one white and the lower one the color of the type of trail – Wrong Path mark: two stripes in the shape of a cross, combining white and the color of the type of trail

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– Direction change: two parallel stripes, usually vertical, which show a turn in the upper part, combining white and the color of the type of trail The Continuity mark is the basic one and indicates, at a crossroads or when the itinerary continuity is in question, the road corresponding to the trail we are following. The Wrong Path mark identifies, usually at a crossroads, the paths that do not correspond with the itinerary proposed; this does not mean that the path has no destination, only that it is not the one described. The third mark, Direction Change, is used in significant crossroads. Trails must be marked for eider walking direction. The third mark, which is unnecessary in theory as we have the “Continuity” one, is common for the French system and meets one of the recommendations of the European Rambling Association, stated in the document General Principles for Signing and Marking Footpaths(ERA, 2015). Its existence is due to a verified need in rambling activity. As we will explain later, its existence is owing to the fact that federations that manage this matter are responsible for marking for pedestrian mobility, but also bring together the most important structured rambling community in Spain. The purpose and effort of FEDME and Federations with this marking is that it has a minimum homogeneous level in all the territory. So that any rambler, before a continuity sign in a trail, no matter the geographic location, knows that the place is identified and with a minimum guarantee.

Implementation process of federative marking For the implementation process of GR®, PR® or SL® marking, we can identify three agents: 1. the promoter, namely the organization that requests using the marking 2. “FEDME Trail Technician” from the regional federation 3. regional federation, which is responsible for the authorization This process is in line with two documents: “GR®, PR® and SL® Trails Marking Manual” (FEDME, 2014) and the “Authorization Protocol of Autonomous Region Federation,” or similar.

The promoter This is commonly a public administration, although there are associations, mountain clubs, companies, and foundations that declare their intention of using the federative signs to mark a pedestrian route. For that, they have to comply with the regulations of the regional federation (Authorization Protocol) and, if required, any autonomous region regulation governing the implementation of marking in a

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natural environment. They are obliged to design a project, and one of the key elements is to have the permission of the owners of the land (trails), not only for the marking implementation, but also for the transit of ramblers, as well as complying with any regulation concerning the project. The promoter will be in charge of the project execution tasks, the payment of the authorization fees determined by the regional federation, and the maintenance and spreading of the proposal. The problem is that many promoters work with external financing for the implementation, and do not provide the necessary financing system for the other two obligations described; as a result, in a few years, the construction becomes untenable and the federation has to deauthorize it.

FEDME Trail Technician The scope of action of this federative figure is basically for the consistency of GR®, PR® and SL® trails network in a territory, but also the flexibility involved in the adaptation of the model to the geographical, political, and legal diversity in Spain. FEDME Spanish School of High Mountain has established a non-regulated process for training these types of technicians. This is the only Spanish organization that deals with the implementation of a marking system for pedestrian mobility in the natural environment. It consists of two phases; the first, usually online, includes about 120 hours of lessons; the second, more practical, is tutored by a FEDME Trail Technician and lasts 50 hours. The duty of this FEDME Trail Technician, when acting as an authorizing technician for a regional federation, is to review the executed project meter by meter (in both walking directions) in accordance with the “GR®, PR® and SL® Trails Marking Manual” and the “Authorization Protocol” of the regional federation and, if appropriate, any other regulations in place. They prepare a justified report that establishes the compliance or failure to comply with the aforementioned documents. The people trained as a FEDME Trail Technician can be part of a promoter work team, which makes them incompatible with the position of federative authorizing agents in their territory.

Mountaineering regional federations As noted, the regional federations are responsible for managing the implementation of GR®, PR® and SL® markings in their territory. For that purpose, they produce a document called “Authorization Protocol” based on the Manual, which includes matters such as autonomous region legislation, rambling tradition, and so on.

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Promoters need to contact them if they want to use federative marking and they must use a FEDME Trail Technician for trail authorization works; they also make the decisions about matters such as deauthorization.

FEDME GR®, PR® and SL® Trails Marking Manual This is the reference document. As stated before, it is a common minimum, and it is the product of the consensus reached at the State Committee for Trails. The cession of federative marks management by FEDME to regional federations is based on it. The “Authorization Protocols” of each federation are also based on it, incorporating aspects concerning its legislation or tradition. It is presented in electronic format, suitable for digital printing, and it is modified almost every year on occasion of the meetings of the committee, in order to incorporate new elements, modify the wording so as to make it more effective, apply any new legal or federative regulation, and so on.

GR®, PR® and SL® trails spreading: Trail searching engines From the federative point of view, there is the awareness that the marking of a trail is not aimed at local people. Its target is the regional, national, or international rambling community, who need the information to be disseminated to them. This duty is entrusted to the promoters, who have a primary interest in making the rambling resources in their area of action known. Until recently, this dissemination was provided through publications (leaflets and/or books) which involved a great cost; besides, there were distribution problems and, with the passing of years, an inevitable obsolescence. At present, the electronic format represents the best option, due to its low cost, ease of distribution, and updating capacity. From FEDME and some of the regional federations, GR®, PR® and SL® trails search engines are being created in order to provide open reliable information. The FEDME search engine, in which we can find 35,000 out of the 65,000 km. of GR®, PR® and SL® trails, is really a distributor of information vectors; it offers minimum information for each trail, including the direct download of the track in GPX, linked to the website of the regional federation (or any website designed by it) where the detailed information of the trail is posted. FEDME has an agreement with the Spanish National Geographic Institute and the trails also appear in the search engine “Nature, Culture and Leisure;” they will also appear in the digital cartography 1:25:000, through Iberpix and in the map download application of said institution. It is the wish of FEDME to extend the range

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of collaboration with private and public organizations so as to facilitate the distribution of these resources.

Implications of federated rambling activity in trails marking Rambling is the most popular mountain sport. A series of FEDME internal surveys targeted toward federated people, who usually do several sports at a time (even pertaining to other federations, such as mountain biking), indicate that between 50% and 60% of the federated sportspeople are exclusively ramblers; and almost all of them do it to a certain or lesser extent. In many clubs, rambling excursions are the most popular and programmed; there is not an annual census of them, but there are usually hundreds in big regional federations. This has some implications and is potentially of great importance in connection with the federative action in trails. It can be summarized by stating federated ramblers are the biggest group in Spain using the GR®, PR® and SL® trails network. To put it in other words (Figure 7.2), the federative structure is the user of systems

Hiking in Clubs

GR®, PR® and SL® homologation

GR®, PR® and SL® Trails Marking Manual

Mountaineering Regional Federations

FEDME commision for trails

Figure 7.2: Diagram of the functioning of the FEDME system on footpaths and hiking (photo credit: Antonio Turmo Arnal).

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promoted by the federations themselves, which creates a “virtuous circle” that does not occur in other markings. The practice, the experiences, the tastes, the criticisms, and so on of the federated rambling community about the marked trails reaches the Autonomous Regions Federations through their internal structure. They share this knowledge at the Rambling State Committee, where possible modifications/extensions of “FEDME GR®, PR® and SL® Trails Marking Manual” are proposed, which are later implemented in the authorization conditions of said trails, where ramblers are going to do an important part of their activity.

Conclusion: The role of federations in Spanish rambling Throughout this text, we have stated that rambling in Spain is conducted under the umbrella of a multisport federation, namely FEDME. This phenomenon in Spain appeared within the scope of mountaineering federations., Rambling is not only the most popular sport in mountaineering federations, but also the most popular participation activity of Spanish people. But this character of rambling as a social phenomenon and its implications (the positive socioeconomic impact in rural areas, its importance for health, its potential to raise environmental awareness, pointing out the value of rural landscapes and ways of life, the recovery of historical heritage and so on) have made mountaineering federations change their role. Originally, the federative structure was almost the only factor, the protagonist of rambling in Spain. Today, it is only an agent within the action structure. But, it is obviously an essential agent due to its nature as an expert in the matter, which comes from three different sources of knowledge: 1. the profile, needs, tastes and so on, of the rambler, due to the great range of rambling activities by the clubs 2. marking, as the federative one is the more extensive in Spain and also the oldest 3. the international scene, due to its membership of the European Ramblers Association and the relationship with other countries’ organizations, which allow them to anticipate certain dynamics And all this done by a non-profit organization, which was declared of public utility, as is the case of the FEDME.

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References BOE (1978). Boletín Oficial del Estado, 29.12.1978, p. 29320 Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Technologie (BMWi) (2010). -Grundlagenuntersuchung Freizeit- und Urlaubsmarkt Wandern (Forschungsbericht Nr. 591). Berlin. ERA (2015). General Principles for Signing and Marking Footpaths. Retrieved from http://www.eraewv-ferp.com/fileadmin/user_upload/dokumenter/Walking_in_Europe/Waymarking_in_ Europe/General_principles__waymarking.pdf FEDME (2014). Manual de Señalización de Senderos GR®, PR® and SL®. Retrieved from https://mis endafedme.es/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/ManualSenderosFEDME_RED.pdf. FEDME (2017–2018). Analysis of the profile of the user-visitors of the Natural Environment in Spain 2017–2018, commissioned by the Scientific Advisory Council for the Mountains of the Spanish Federation of Mountain Sports and Climbing. Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte, 2010. Encuesta de Hábitos Deportivos en España. 2015. Síntesis de Resultados. Madrid. MECyD.

Julia Blume, Diana Müller, Heinz-Dieter Quack

8 Trends in the German hiking market until 2030 Introduction Hiking tourism can no longer be considered as a niche market. Since the 1990s, we have experienced a significant image change in Germany from a sedate to a lifestyleoriented leisure activity. This positive image change during the last decade is also due to the fact that outdoor activities are associated with relatively low entry barriers. The overall demand for hiking (during their leisure time as well as on holiday) among the population as a whole has increased significantly to the same extent (Dreyer/Menzel/Endreß, 2010, p. 13; Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Energie (BMWi), 2010, p. 18; Reiser/Jansen-Meinen, 2018, p. 66). A comparison of the results of the hiking studies from 2010 and 2014 for the German hiking market shows this increase in demand: While in 2010 the share of non-hikers accounted 46%, it fell to 29% until 2014. Thus, the clear majority of the German population tends to go hiking (PROJECT M GmbH 2014, p. 10f.). The results of the Wandermonitor (a monitoring of the hiking market throughout Germany) 2018 have shown that almost 80% of the interviewees migrate frequently to occasionally. 9.3% stated that they migrate several times a week, 47.9% several times a month and 22.4% about once a month (Arbeitsgruppe Wandermonitor, 2019). As a result, three quarters of the respondents could be described as more or less intensive hikers. Approximately 300,000 to 400,000 kilometres of hiking trails can be found in Germany (Deutscher Wanderverband (DWV), 2009). Although exact data on the network of hiking trails is not available, the German Hiking Association estimates that there are over 200,000 km of paved trails, which are maintained and marked by its members on a voluntary basis. In addition, there are other hiking trails roughly of equal dimension, which are laid out, marked and maintained by initiatives, local authorities, nature and national parks as well as regional tourism associations (BMWi, 2010, p. 73f.).

Current hiking market Who is the typical German hiker? The “typical German hiker” does not exist. Needs and motives are pronounced very differently and vary depending on age, hiking destination or type of hike. Active

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hikers can be found in all age groups (Menzel/Endreß/Dreyer, 2008, p. 17). Whereas, the majority of the regularly to occasionally hiking population can be assigned to the age group 50 years and older (best agers). Above all, in recent years the younger target group up to the age of 29 years has discovered the activity hiking for themselves (PROJECT M GmbH, 2014, p. 11). Furthermore, the educational background plays a significant role when it comes to interest in hiking. The lower the educational level, the less pronounced is the interest in hiking. As a result, the topic of hiking in general is more popular for people with a higher qualification, such as a university degree (Arbeitsgruppe Wandermonitor, 2019; PROJECT M, 2014, p. 17). An increased income level, which is also an indication for people with a higher level of education, can furthermore be noticed among the hiking population (BMWi, 2010, p. 29). For many, hiking is not an end in itself, but rather a method for experiencing nature and landscape. For many Germans, holidays and nature are inextricably linked (FUR, 2019, p. 7). Around 70% of German hikers prefer to hike during their leisure time. If on holiday, other sporting, nature-related or cultural-historical activities are carried out in addition to hiking. The majority of hikers do not carry out hiking as their main activity. An interesting development can be determined that both low and high mountain ranges as well as the lowlands, such as large lakes, are increasingly visited as preferred landscapes in hiking holiday destinations (Arbeitsgruppe Wandermonitor, 2019; PROJECT M, 2014, p. 19, 21; BMWi, 2010, p. 50, 57). Around 80% of hiking vacationer carry out their various hiking tours from a fixed accommodation. Not even a quarter of hiking holidays are realised as multi-day tours (BMWi, 2010, p. 53). Generally, hiking holidays or holidays involving hiking are short breaks (81.2%). The minority describes this stay as the main holiday trip (ibid, p. 55). The majority of German hikers prefer to hike in pairs. Small groups of up to 6 people are also possible (BMWi, 2010, p. 39; PROJECT M, 2014, p. 28). Average distances of 10 kilometres with an average duration of around 3 hours are covered (BMWi, 2010, p. 28). The spring and autumn months are most frequently chosen for the hiking trip. The most popular hiking month is September with 18% (PROJECT M, 2014, p. 28). The preferred means of transport for hikers during their holidays is the motor vehicle (approx. 86%), which is used both during their arrival and departure as well as for travel during their holidays, due to their need for individuality and flexibility (BMWi, 2010, p. 95). Hiking specific studies clearly prove that the experience of nature is the main reason of German hikers. “Be active”, “experience the region” and “benefits for their health” always rank among the top 4. Figure 8.1 shows the development of the data provided by the surveyed hikers. The baseline study 2010, the hiking study 2014 and the results of the Wandermonitor 2018 were compared. While in earlier years more rational motives for hiking were often discernible (e.g. covering certain distances), recently we also see an increasing importance in emotional motives (Steinecke, 2011, p. 210; Arbeitsgruppe Wandermonitor, 2019). Interior-oriented motives such as “be footloose” or “experience moments of silence”

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to experience a great deal

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Figure 8.1: Motives for hiking in comparison (source: BMWi, 2010, p. 34; PROJECT M, 2014, p. 13; Arbeitsgruppe Wandermonitor, 2019).

improvement in the placement

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always remain important for German hikers. On the other hand, health-oriented motivations are not a new phenomenon and reflected in the high expression of the characteristics “be active” or “benefits for their health”, especially among the target group best agers. Motives for taking time out, such as “release stress” or “escape the daily routine”, are largely constant in the lower range of the first half. Such aspects are increasingly being cited by the working population. An interesting development could be determined with the 2018 Wandermonitor with experience-oriented motives: The depth of experience is essential for the hikers surveyed. The “intensive” hiking experience is important and not a multitude of experiences during the hike. This is demonstrated by the improvement in the placement of the motives “experience the region”, “discover something new” and “broaden the horizon” (Arbeitsgruppe Wandermonitor, 2019; PROJECT M, 2014, p. 19ff.).

Regional economic effects of hiking tourism in Germany Regional economic effects in the travelling destinations essentially contribute to the development of the respective tourism region. Looking at the spending behaviour of German hikers, it can be seen that the average expenditure of an overnight guest is 22 euros, whereas that of a day-tripper is only 15.50 euros per person and day. The costs of the overnight hiker are additionally supplemented by the average costs of 35 euros per person and day for the place of accommodation (BMWi, 2010, p. 62). Hotels including inns, motels and lodges are preferably frequented (PROJECT M, 2014, p. 29). Consequently, it is not surprising that hiking tourism is an important economic factor in Germany, which is also relevant for the development of many regions (Müller, 2019, p. 55). In comparison to other nature-related leisure markets, the hiking activity can be described as the segment with the highest turnover. With a gross annual turnover of around 8 billion euros (2016), hiking tourism made a valuable contribution to the tourism with a total value added of 105.3 billion euros, with day visitors accounting for the higher share (Müller, 2019, p. 67; BMWi, 2017, p. 24). Similar figures were already determined in the baseline hiking study from 2010. Expenditure includes revenues from the gastronomy, food retailing and accommodation sectors as well as means of transportation, entrance fees, entertainment, culture and sport. Wages, salaries and profits should also be mentioned (BMWi, 2010, p. 68). Revenues from hiking tourism, on the other hand, are not only generated onsite in the destinations. Income can already be posted in advance in the source markets. This includes the purchase of equipment such as weatherproof jackets, backpacks and hiking boots. In addition, there are hiking literature or maps, tents or sleeping bags, but also GPS devices. The willingness to invest in equipment rises with increasing affinity for hiking. Each hiker spends an average of around 92 euros

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on specific products for hiking. This results in a Germany-wide volume of 3.7 billion euros. However, there may also arise costs, which are associated with travel planning or organisation. In addition, investments are made for the maintenance of the hiking infrastructure as well as for voluntary activities by hiking clubs that are difficult to quantify, which also induce regional economic effects in the broader sense (BMWi, 2010, p. 58, 60).

Development and challenges of the German hiking market How did the positive development of hiking tourism in the Germany come about? Nowadays, hikers have the opportunity to choose from a multi-optional range of hiking regions and trails of various levels of difficulty or locations. As already noted, hiking originally developed through the need to cover simple distances. The change in demand-related behaviour was accompanied by a gradual development of hiking as an experience (Quack, 2018, p. 23f; Schultz, 2014, p. 59). The first stage of experience focused on the expansion of the hiking trail infrastructure. New paths and hiking homes were built during the 20th century (BMWi, 2010, p. 17). The second stage of experience optimisation is characterised by the rethinking of numerous German holiday regions. The change that was noticeable at the end of the 20th century led destinations to realise that professional development was necessary for successful market development. The wishes and needs of hikers were increasingly taken into account and quality labels for hiking trails and hiker-friendly hosts developed (BMWi, 2010, p. 18f.). The third stage of experience optimisation is characterised by the growing number of qualified hiking trails and hosts (PROJECT M GmbH, 2014, p. 36). In addition to the increased expectations of high quality of the guests, a significant competitive pressure of hiking tourism destinations could also be identified, which poses noticeable challenges for destinations. Hikers gain experience with age and develop with their life experience a different sense of entitlement. Some hiking regions are already striving to differentiate and distinguish themselves from competing destinations via target groups and product design in order to meet the demand for multi-optionality and high quality (PROJECT M GmbH, 2014, p. 38f., 44; Steinecke/Herntrei, 2017, p. 92; Quack, 2019, p. 24). A holistic natural experience could offer alternative overnight accommodations. You can hardly get any closer to nature than sleeping outdoors or in a tent. The project team Wandermonitor at the Ostfalia University of Applied Sciences is currently working on this topic. Despite an apparent tendency not to forgo a certain luxury, such as a bed (95.1%), a toilet (92.2%), a shower (91.2%), but also elements such as electricity (84.5%), catering facilities and the general availability of running water (water in the countryside 77.9%, cold water 84.4%, warm water 87.4%), half of the hikers who took part in the survey can imagine staying in a hammock, a hanging tent (a combination of hammock and tent) or underground in a cave

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Hiking tourism professionalisation

dwelling (Figure 8.2). Three-quarters of the respondents even said they were in favour of spending the night in a tree house or a bubble hotel or tent (transparent accommodation like a giant soap bubble). The vast majority, however, favour a hikers’ hut (90.5%), followed by an overnight stay in a Tiny House (small mobile houses) (86.8%) (Arbeitsgruppe Wandermonitor, 2019).

Tourist experts as “companions“

Storytelling, spirituality, experience space design, myth forest, longings, e.g. identity, originality, uniqueness, security, homeland for a period of time; etc.

Tourist experts as “service provider for longings“

Hiking 3.0: make it special Holistic experience, myths, search for meaning, fulfillment of longings etc. Tourist experts: “there is hiking anyway”

Hiking 2.0: doing it good Quality orientation Hiking trails > hosts > trail network

Hiking 1.0: make it possible Origin of hiking as a natural experience (hiking associations, development of the landscape with hiking trails, etc.)

Certificates: regions

Certificates: trails, hosts

Time

Figure 8.2: Development of hiking as an experience (source: following Fredlmeier/Sänger/ Fredlmeier/Quack 2015 for Königswinterer Kreis).

The extent to which the process of changing in German hiking tourism will continue to develop depends rather on various framework conditions. These are reflected in the economic situation and in climatic and demographic change (Zander/Zinke, 2011, p. 201). In addition, uncertainties and structural breaks due to various crises or the digital travel world have a significant influence on future developments (Freyer, 2015, p. 18). As an outdoor sport, the hiking activity takes place exclusively outdoors. Consequently, the topic of weather influences plays an important role. Ecological and climate-neutral offers are considered as possible differentiation approaches (Zander/Zinke, 2011, p. 202). For Germany’s coasts, global warming could have positive effects on tourism, which would result in a gratifying development of demand in the north German hiking regions. Negative consequences, on the other hand, can be seen in the preservation of the hiking trail infrastructure, which requires increased

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maintenance due to storm damages (BMWi, 2014, p. 16). The question for future development is to what extent the extreme and changing weather conditions will also cause a change in the hiking behaviour of the Germans. Will hikers walk at other times of the year? The Wandermonitor 2020 of the Ostfalia University of Applied Sciences will address this topic. Changing housing conditions for Germans and the resulting urbanisation also have a significant impact on hiking tourism in Germany, which ultimately takes place predominantly in rural areas. Lower human resources than in urban areas as well as offers that are not extensively available, such as a public transport network, restaurants and hotels, are decisive reasons for the deficit structures that often prevail in rural regions. This often makes it more difficult to ensure a highquality hiking tourism offer (BMWi, 2014, p. 17f.). Frequently there are also insufficient financial resources available to adapt the partly outdated infrastructure to the latest requirements (BMWi, 2014, p. 19).

The prospective hiking market in Germany The hiker of the future Along with the presented challenges of the market, various types of hikers have been developed. The typical image of a hiker has changed over time – away from elderly people with hiking shoes and walking sticks towards a colourful mix of young and older hikers with different motives and needs. As already mentioned, the experience of nature is still the most important reason to go hiking, but hikers follow different side-motives or different ways to reach their destination. In order to better illustrate those differences, seven types of hikers can be depicted following the Sinus‐Milieus®, which are briefly presented in the following (see Figure 8.3).

The traditional hiker The traditional hiker pursues the classical main motive of a hike for an authentic natural experience. As the hiker has gained experience and accordingly developed high demands in the course of the development of the hiking offer, an excellent infrastructure and high quality standards are standard requirements of the traditional hiker. The expected basic quality also includes permanent access to the Internet, also outside (at least selectively). The German guest is looking for Quality Time during his holiday. Therefore, he reluctantly leaves something to

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Technophile Minimalist

Traditionals Adventurous

Social Status

Upper class/ Middle middle class Lower middle class/ Upper-middle class Lower class

Searcher for meaning

Basic Values Tradition

Modernisation/Individualisation

Re-orientation

Figure 8.3: Sinus-Milieu-Model and hiking until 2030 (source: own contribution following SINUS).

chance in search for the perfect hiking experience. Organized hiking tours are essential aspects in the decision making of the traditional hiker.

The cocoon hiker Safety during the hike is the most important quality standard for the cocoon hiker. He demands an infrastructure geared to absolute safety, which must be discernible on all channels. At the same time, however, it should not be perceived as too disturbing and rigid, as the feeling of freedom should not be limited. Safety in this sense means the desire for control. Above all, bookable organised tours and hiking guides are required. The hiking trail is in demand if it is equipped, communicated and perceived as a cocoon and complies with the assumed safety requirements.

The searcher for meaning The hiker searching for meaning wants to release himself from social constraints and everyday burdens (detox) by hiking. He strives for self-awareness (“experience yourself”, authenticity), self-orientation (“be yourself”, inner balance, individualisation) and self-development (“understand your life”, spiritual clarity, expansion of consciousness). He shares his experiences with other interested people, especially online. The human being is looking for happiness as a positive inner state. It is assumed that experiences can cause happiness. This goes along with the longing for a healthy, gentle life. Health means to exercise and healthy diet.

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The experience-oriented hiker The focus of the experience-oriented hiker is on thoughtful hiking trails that have been realised as a whole with thematization, design and experience stations with sensual explanations. The providers of hiking regions and trails are under pressure to position and modernize themselves, whereby trails are increasingly becoming completely well thought and arranged routes. The landscape is also “planned” as a potentially affecting experience factor in order to offer the experience-oriented hiker an experience of which he can tell about. He wants to learn and experience something new at the same time. Theme hiking trails or hiking events with purposely-staged experiences enable real experiences and run along a path of excitement that appeals to all senses.

The adventurous hiker The “experience snacking” on hiking trails becomes the normal offer of a hiking trail and the habituation effect occurs for certain types of customers. The combination of a multitude of “experience snacking” on hiking trails is in demand as a new offer. This opens the market for further adventurous customer groups who are not yet or rarely hikers: the adventurous hiker emerges. All those adrenaline junkies, participating at trekking and adventure camps, survival runs or are hiking to the starting point of a zipline, can be assigned to the adventurous hiking target group and can evolve into significantly, financially strong consumers.

The minimalist hiker The search for an alternative to the consumer-oriented affluent society leads to the philosophy of minimalism. This philosophy of life is well received by hikers: back to the real nature. The mainstream of “hiking motorways” is rejected. Instead, the minimalist hiker seeks the challenge, the new, the un-staged and not predetermined, the “lost places”. He no longer needs signposts, because he searches for his own “paths”. The longing for the unknown or mysterious, unusual destinations is in demand. Often overwhelmed by the flood of information on the Internet and the constant need to “be online”, the factor “nature” plays an important role in the choice of the “offline holiday destination”. Typical sightseeing points and excessive consumption are deliberately avoided, such as the use of a smartphone during the hike.

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The technophile hiker Technology is not only becoming more wide-ranging and customized, it is also portable, lightweight and “gets under your skin”. For the technically playful hiker, technology is the new gatekeeper; it opens the way into the nature (e.g. through geocaching or Pokémon Go). With Big Data, there are less and less areas that have not yet been “hiked”. With the support of the technologies, it is possible to link the offers that the technophile hiker actively uses for himself (e.g. augmented reality as landscape-conserving information and edutainment). He leaves a digital footprint behind and in return demands technical, individualised and personalised services.

Digital hiking Our society is on the move. In addition, various other factors have a significant influence on the future development of hiking tourism in Germany. “Digitisation is a consequence of the technological developments. Therefore, they are regarded as drivers of digitisation. Computer technologies, telecommunication networks, the Internet, cloud computing, big data, social media and mobile technologies are among the technological drivers” (own translation as of Landvogt, 2017, p. 13). Nevertheless, digitalisation is far more than just the transfer of analogue information to a digital medium. The human being, including their living and working environment, must be transferred to a digital level where they are online, well connected and reachable at all times (Hamidian/Kraijo, 2013, p. 5). A specific hiking study from 2018 states that 62% (1st place) of the interviewed hikers use Internet as a source of information in preparation to go on a hike. The majority (82%) of hikers visit the website of the hiking region or trail, followed by digital maps such as Google Maps, OSM (54%). 36% of hikers use digital media during their hike. The remaining 64% continue to mainly use markings or signposts for orientation. In addition to the website of the region or hiking trail (62%), digital maps such as Google Maps, OSM (60%), but also Facebook (29%) or suggestions from online platforms (24%) were mentioned (BTE/DWV, 2018, p. 18f., 22). Digital media have revolutionised everyday life. Nowadays, hardly any area of life can be found without digital devices or services (Mockler, 2013, p. V). Hiking with the help of a Global Positioning System (GPS) has already established itself as a modern hiking tool. Providing GPS tracks online can be considered as a standard hiking offer in present time. On the one hand, it gives the hiker a certain security to reduce the risk of hiking. On the other hand, the hiking route is revealed and hidden picnic spots appear, orientation in unmarked terrain is possible or the route can be traced afterwards (Dreyer et al., 2010, p. 313, 318; DWV, n.d.).

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How will the development of the hiking tourism continue in the future? In addition to GPS positioning, smartphone applications (apps) offer a combination of orientation and knowledge transfer. They enable via mobile Internet access to extended information, such as timetables, hotel and price comparison or maps. It can help you to move forward and make your stay easier in no time (Schneider/ Dreyer, 2011, p. 75; Gatterer/Kirig, 2011, p. 2). A further expansion of the mobile Internet is planned for 2020 and is intended to revolutionise data transmission through even greater capacities. Thus will allow a broadband expansion in rural areas (Telekom, 2019). The “Internet of Things”, i.e. the connection between people and things, has already arrived in tourism. These are intelligent objects that can absorb and process information, but also communicate information about themselves to the outside world (Stampfl, 2012, p. 33). Due to the fact that more and more people own and use mobile devices with Internet connection and various applications, their movement patterns are revealed (Landvogt, 2017, p. 28f.). It is quite similar with smartwatches or fitness wristbands which measure one’s own vital data using digital technologies but also record activities and the number of steps taken. Equipped with a GPS or SIM card they can be used to locate and thus track hiking routes subsequently, or they can be linked to the smartphone. At the same time, SmartWear, clothing that has directly integrated the monitoring features but not yet totally tested, has various technical functions that can be retrieved from the smartphone (Kruse Brandão/Wolfram, 2018, p. 48; Smartwatch.de GmbH, 2019). The current state of digitisation already allows a fusion of real and virtual space. Capabilities can be used via telepresence without the need to be present at the “real” place. If virtual processes are controlled by real actions in the form of movements consisting of electronic images, the action can be made even more real with the help of teleportation (Mikunda, 2012, p. 194). Will the hiker renounce the real experience and go on a hike in virtual space using VR glasses? Virtual reality (VR) pursues the target that a person can move to another world in which he or she feels present. With the help of digital technologies, the person dives into this world, artificial stimuli are generated and various sensory organs are also addressed (Dörner/Broll/Grimm/Jung, 2016, p. 30). VR running machines are also constantly evolving and offer the user by now a real feeling of running, as if the person was moving uphill or downhill and thus experiencing with the whole body. Although this type of treadmill is not yet available to the end consumer, also due to the very high costs involved, a trend is nevertheless emerging (Cyberith GmbH, 2019). Augmented Reality (AR) as a combination of reality and virtuality is evolving into an orientation instrument and offers hikers similar to a GPS device completely new freedoms to discover hidden, barely explored hiking trails, in real time, usually interactively and in three-dimensional representation (Gatterer/Kirig, 2011, p. 2; Horster/Kreilkamp, 2017, p. 217). With the help of software applications, it is also possible to try on clothing or other accessories virtually. This saves the customer

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the trip to a department store (Hamidian/Kraijo, 2013, p. 15). Could this be a new development for suppliers of hiking clothing or equipment? Since 2018, in the Hochkönig region in the Berchtesgaden Alps guests have the opportunity to plan their holidays in a completely different way using a high-resolution interactive map. The hiker receives all the necessary touristic information in a 3D view that might be necessary for travel planning and can have a feeling for the entire route. On site, the corresponding mobile application can be used for the actual navigation (Hochkönig Tourismus GmbH, n.d.). Such virtual applications enable the user to experience natural and historical conditions much more intensively. The possibilities of exploring a destination are increased which also permits a changed perspective of the experiencing (Göll/Lassnig/Rehrl, 2010, p. 40). For some years now, drones, unmanned autonomous or automated flying objects, have been increasingly used. The areas of application are very diverse. A drone can develop an independent existence, can access the wifi from a smart home or the GPS location of the mobile device and thus ensure a permanent connection to humans, similar to a GPS device (Beetz, 2019, p. 315). As a result, a drone can also be used for digital routing and tracking of the hiking route. Due to the directly transferable aerial photographs to a mobile device, it is furthermore possible to keep an eye on the hiking area. Drones are also increasingly being considered for deliveries by various online providers (Heinemann, 2019, p. 19). Accessibility and networking would also make it possible to guarantee supply and delivery by a drone to the remotest areas, such as by ordering groceries during the hike. Smart homes, such as Amazon’s Alexa, Apple’s Siri and the Google Assistant, could also influence the hiking behaviour on the Internet of Things. Using voice control, the simplest information, e.g. the weather on the Brocken, can be retrieved or the booking of accommodation along the way can be made (Vetter/Morasch, 2019, p. 328; Heinemann, 2019, p. 21). The enormous dynamics in the development of the media landscape, in particular its digitisation and democratization in the last decade, should be pointed out in the following. According to a study from 2018 by the US consulting firm Phocuswright on behalf of the Konpetenzzentrum Tourismus des Bundes (Federal Center of Competence in Tourism), the following recent developments are relevant in relation to hiking tourism (Kompetenzzentrum Tourismus des Bundes, 2018).

Democratization of the appropriation of space and loss of the control function Although digital technologies basically allow a democratization of knowledge and thus the broadest possible access for mediation services, existing (information) opportunities are perceived and used unequally (Decker, 2015, p. 4). Professional

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possibilities of influencing the perception of the region as well as the character of the touristic use successively lose their effectiveness. Even though they are the intended result of the planned development of hiking tourism. The increasing acceptance of platforms is becoming more important for the travel decision of an increasing number of travellers than classical information and sales techniques of the tourism industry. Not least because of the subjective reviews entered by users. At least in principle, the control function of visitor flows in protected areas as an example is endangered. Consequently, private players have been commercializing themselves as providers of tourism services thanks to digital platforms. This can initially be seen as a welcoming development, as a sign of (grassroots democratic) participation in form of one’s own living environment. As intermediary of the region, however, they are also central actors in tourism, without seeing and understanding themselves as tourism agents. At present and in the future, it will be necessary to expand the existing negotiation models and processes with regard to the stakeholder approach: thanks to digital portals, locals have a double function. On the one hand the classical one as those who develop everyday life with and around the hiking destination. They are also (and in terms of tourism relevance significantly increasing) essential providers of tourism services in the region.

Conclusion The future of the hiking market is manifold. It can be assumed that digitisation will continue to progress and completely new opportunities will arise through the revolution of the Internet, the progressive expansion of the broadband network in the coming years and above all through the development of ever new products and applications for hiking tourism in the destinations, such as augmented reality. More and more platforms (web-based or via app) offer users the possibility of making use of various services over long distances and in real time. They allow to make bookings or to fill them with content that the public can access. Generally, these recommendations are not verified or revised for errors, security or safety, but often used by hikers. It should be noted that the digitalisation of hiking tourism is associated with a number of advantages, which could above all also encourage previous non-hikers to go hiking by means of digital offers. Digital technologies, such as the smartphone, continue to facilitate orientation and could have a positive influence on information retrieval during the hike and on-site and furthermore, complement existing offers. The mostly younger target group up to 29 years of age is particularly driving this development forward. This is also due to their technical affinity. This will have to be taken into account for the future development with regard to their

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motives and needs in communication and maintain the growth in demand through eventful offers. Although digitisation brings obvious benefits to hiking tourism, its progress will further increase the competitive pressure among providers on the hiking market. While some hiking destinations have already recognised that the holistic experience during the hike and the integration of digital media may constitute the prospective decisive competitive advantage, other regions are still remaining in the initial stages of establishing hiking tourism, orienting themselves towards high quality.

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Mockler, P. (2013). Geleitwort. In F. Keuper, K. Hamidian, E. Verwaayen, T. Kalinowski, & C. Kraijo (Eds.), Digitalisierung und Innovation: Planung, Entstehung, Entwicklungsperspektiven (V). Wiesbaden: Springer Fachmedien. Müller, D. (2019). Regionalwirtschaftliche Effekte des Wanderns. In H.-D. Quack, N. Dembowski, & D. Müller (Eds.), Blickpunkt Wandertourismus: Vol. 5. Ware Wandern: Zwischen Natur und Kommerzialisierung (pp. 55–69). Berlin: Erich Schmidt Verlag. PROJECT M GmbH (2014). Wanderstudie: Der deutsche Wandermarkt 2014. Berlin. Quack, H.-D. (2019). Über die Kommodifizierung des Wanderns. In H.-D. Quack, N. Dembowski, & D. Müller (Eds.), Blickpunkt Wandertourismus: Vol. 5. Ware Wandern: Zwischen Natur und Kommerzialisierung (pp. 17–32). Berlin: Erich Schmidt Verlag. Reiser, D., & Jansen-Meinen, V. (2018). Walking in Germany: Between recreation and ideology. In C. M. Hall, Y. Ram, & N. Shoval (Eds.), Routledge international handbooks. The Routledge international handbook of walking (pp. 65–73). Abingdon, Oxon, New York, NY: Routledge. Schneider, S., & Dreyer, A. (2011). Innovationen im Wandertourismus – Erfahrungen bei der Realisierung einer iPhone-Applikation. In A. Kagermeier & T. Reeh (Eds.), Studien zur Freizeitund Tourismusforschung: Band 4. Trends, Herausforderungen und Perspektiven für die tourismusgeographische Forschung (pp. 73–82). Mannheim: Verlag Metagis-Systems. Schultz, H. (2014). Landschaften auf den Grund gehen: Wandern als Erkenntnismethode beim großräumigen Landschaftsentwerfen. Berlin: Jovis Verlag GmbH. Smartwatch.de GmbH (2019). Was ist eine Smartwatch? Retrieved from https://www.smartwatch. de/was-ist-eine-smartwatch/ (13/08/2019). Stampfl, N. S. (2012). Die verspielte Gesellschaft: Gamification oder Leben im Zeitalter des Computerspiels. Telepolis. Hannover: Heise Verlag. Steinecke, A. (2011). Tourismus (2nd ed., totally revised). Das geographische Seminar. Braunschweig: Westermann Schulbuch. Steinecke, A., & Herntrei, M. (2017). Destinationsmanagement (2nd ed., revised). Utb Tourismus. Konstanz, München: UVK Verlagsgesellschaft mbH. Vetter, Thomas, & Morasch, R. (2019). Integrierte Plattformen im Handel. In G. Heinemann, H. M. Gehrckens, T. Täuber, & Accenture GmbH (Eds.), Handel mit Mehrwert: Digitaler Wandel in Märkten, Geschäftsmodellen und Geschäftssystemen (pp. 321–343). Wiesbaden: Springer Fachmedien. Zander, C., & Zinke, B. (2011). Wandertourismus: Der deutsche Markt. Heilbronner Reihe Tourismuswirtschaft: Vol. 12. Berlin: Uni-Edition GmbH.

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9 Community-based tourism on the Lebanon Mountain Trail Introduction The link between tourism and community development constitute an important part of the literature on tourism and development as a whole (Richins, 1997; Hiwasaki, 2006; Okazaki, 2008; Burgos & Mertens 2017; Mtapuri & Giampiccoli, 2019). In response to changes in rural development policies and strategies, new tourism concepts and rural tourism forms have emerged in both developed and developing countries, and among them, the community-based tourism (CBT) concept. Interest in CBT has grown as an alternative to maintain social and economic development in rural areas where primary traditional activities are in decline. The perceived benefits of CBT are threefold: its potential to provide rural areas with economic growth and employment, the realization of economic value of the cultural and natural heritage, and the involvement of local communities in the active management and preservation of their own resources. This chapter addresses the concept of CBT, particularly in the case of rural tourism on the Lebanon Mountain Trail. Located on the eastern Mediterranean, Lebanon is a country of contrasts, where areas of natural beauty lie alongside chaotic development and the expansion of cities (Makhzoumi et al., 2012). Although small (10,452 km2), Lebanon is known for its combination of eastern and western cultural values; its moderate climate and its rich history which constitute the foundations for the development of an ideal tourism destination (Ladki and Sadik, 2004). The Lebanese rural landscape is a combination of natural and cultural heritage. It has high and arid mountains (1,800 to 3,000 m above sea level) which are still largely uninhabited, as well as lower mountains where there are hill villages (500 to 1,800 m) with terraced agricultural lands on the slopes where perennial crops such as olives and other types of fruit trees are cultivated. On the wide plains of the hinterland (Beqaa valley at 900 m altitude), there are vineyards as well as large scale farming (Figure 9.1). Tourism suffered significantly as a result of the civil war (1975–1990) and political unrest during the period 2004–2018 that rocked Lebanon and its surrounding countries intermittently. However, Lebanon witnessed a boom in tourism between the end of war and 2004 following the reconstruction of its basic infrastructure. Government policies in the post-war period focused on promoting conventional tourism in urban and coastal cities, while rural areas remained neglected (Abou Arrage et al., 2014). In addition to conventional tourism, the rich cultural and natural heritage of the country together with the landscape of its rural areas and the

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Figure 9.1: Topography and landscape map of Lebanon.

hospitality of its local communities constitute the main assets for the development of different forms of rural tourism. These include nature-based tourism, adventure sports tourism, eco-tourism, agro-tourism, wine tourism, experiential tourism, cultural tourism, religious tourism and community-based tourism.

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Community based tourism Rural tourism can be defined as an experience that encompasses a wide range of services and activities that take place in non-urban areas. The essential characteristics of rural tourism include access to wide-open spaces with small-scale tourism infrastructure. It promotes sustainable products based on the natural and cultural heritage features of the area. When applied to rural tourism, the CBT concept promotes responsible practices that integrate the social, economic, cultural and environmental needs of local communities. CBT is an alternative form of tourism that aims to contribute to the holistic development of disadvantaged community members (Mnguni & Giampiccoli, 2017). The term CBT emerged in the mid-1990s and refers to small-scale tourism involving interactions between visitors and the host community. Particularly suited to rural areas, CBT is understood to be managed and owned by the local community. It favors local service providers and suppliers and focuses on interpreting and communicating the local culture and environment. Internationally, there are a number of different terms used for very similar activities. In Latin America for instance, the term rural tourism is often used, alongside CBT. In parts of Asia, eco-tourism is often applied through CBT. In general CBT, sustainable tourism, rural tourism and eco-tourism all have a similar objective, that is safeguarding and enhancing a destination’s cultural and natural heritage while at the same time improving the socio-economic welfare of communities. Regardless of the actual terms used, there are key processes and practices that ensure CBT is appropriately and effectively planned and managed for the benefit of both the people and place concerned (Table 9.1).

Table 9.1: CBT Attributes and benefits (source: Asker et al., 2010). CBT attributes Hosting tourists in the local community Managing a tourism scheme communally Involving communities in tourism planning, development and operations Involving communities in on-going decision making CBT benefits Sharing the profits/benefits equitably Using a portion of the profits/resources for community development and/or to maintain and protect a community cultural or natural heritage asset Benefiting local communities, particularly rural or indigenous people or people in small towns, contributing to their wellbeing and the wellbeing of their cultural and environmental assets

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The relevance of CBT is growing and while its development may lead to many opportunities, there are various challenges and risks associated with its introduction as a “quick fix” for communities that lack diverse livelihoods, resources and capacities. If it is not well assessed, planned and managed effectively with the communities, CBT development can lead to undesirable effects on the society and the environment as part of the dynamic existing between them. Thus, CBT development models are required to enhance their chances of success in achieving socio-economic sustainability by empowering local communities to manage their own resources, in turn providing meaningful employment and assisting with capacity building and cultural preservation. On the environmental level, CBT should ensure sufficient income for communities to actively protect their natural heritage from degradation as well as to enhance conservation efforts of their natural resources and biodiversity. (Asker et al., 2010; Mnguni & Giampiccoli, 2017) Adopting good CBT practices contributes to each of the three pillars of sustainability by delivering social, environmental and economic benefits. Overall sustainability is best achieved when these three objectives are all met through addressing social needs, contributing to building a more sustainable environment, and by being economically viable (Asker et al., 2010). Since the 1990s, CBT initiatives have been promoted as a mechanism for sustainable development as well as poverty alleviation, and biodiversity conservation. Scholars believe that CBT has the potential not only increase local incomes and jobs, but also to develop skills and institutions, and to empower local people. However, for community-based initiatives to realize their full potentials, community involvement and benefit sharing are fundamental. Nonetheless, the main challenge that has to be overcome is that communities are faced with limited capacities and market knowledge when designing products as well as limited access to information and skills. The concept of capacity building has become increasingly important in order to reduce the challenges faced by communities with regard to participation in development initiatives, including tourism (Grybovych and Hafermann, 2010; Imbaya, et al. 2019). CBT always correlates with local participation in the planning, development, management and benefits of tourism. Its forms and types vary greatly and range from the collectively owned and managed resources to individual/family-coordinated initiatives. Tourism is a global, demand-driven business, but its organization and management, as well as the benefits that flow from them are often of a distinctly local and supply-driven nature. CBT experiences are heterogeneous, as they can derive from explicit, strategic and planned processes, or they can develop spontaneously from individual or family initiatives. In the context of CBT, local community participation is key and is required while external intervention (state, local and international NGOs) is discretional. It is essential, therefore, to use an appropriate conceptualization of community when analyzing processes of tourism and their effects on local society (Ruiz-Ballesteros & Caceres-Feria, 2016).

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The CBT development approach can be seen as a specific strategy to foster more equitable tourism, specifically in favor of disadvantaged groups in the society. In many areas around the world, CBT has been promoted as a means of development whereby the social, environmental and economic needs of local communities are taken into consideration when developing a tourism product, as is in the case with rural trails or heritage routes (Mnguni & Giampiccoli, 2017). The planning process associated with trails may itself increase social connectivity by encouraging and requiring interaction among different parties. Additionally, partnerships with state agencies and NGOs have been recognized as effective channels through which to pursue both trail development and community-based tourism. Trails designed and used for tourism have the potential to spur much-needed economic development, while also building positive relationships with nearby communities. They offer a unique opportunity to strengthen cultural ties and can be used for educational purposes. Trail systems can provide a venue for sharing traditional practices, historical sites and culturally important traditions (Deyo, Bohdanb, Burkec, Kelleyd, van der Werffe, Blackmerf, Greseg & Reof, 2014). The development of CBT hiking trails can be valuable if properly managed. However, it is important to note that both marketing and market access may become challenging. As mentioned before “Marketing and market access are fundamental conditions for the success of CBT ventures. However, these are often the most difficult conditions for a community to attain and accomplish on its own, due primarily to a lack of knowledge and resources and difficulties in attracting tourists” (Mnguni & Giampiccoli, 2017, p. 5). Literature on CBT hiking trails and routes is abundant. The Camino de Santiago in Spain has a long history of pilgrimages along its routes. A trail can be hiked in few hours within the same day or can be a multi-day endeavor. According to Mnguni & Giampiccoli (2017) routes have developed all across the globe. Some examples include the Silk Routes in Eastern Europe and the Camino de Santiago in Western Europe. The terminology used to describe the concept such as “themed routes”, “trails” or “tourism byways” also varies greatly. Trails usually refer to routes on a smaller geographical scale and indicate the possibility of engaging with them on foot, bicycle, or horseback. Trails are present around the world and can have great tourism potential, especially for less developed areas. The concept of rural trails or heritage routes has been used to promote areas with high cultural resources that appeal to a specific category of tourists, who often stay longer and spend more to pursue their particular interest (Lourens, 2007). Some authors also mention that trail development has been viewed as the world’s best hope to secure sustainable tourism. From an eco-tourism perspective, trail development goes through the following main stages: assessment, planning, evaluation, implementation and monitoring. Community participation becomes relevant in the implementation stage and thus trails can create local jobs related to the following: building the trail itself; enhancing the informative aspect through interpretative and

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educational guides, maps, information brochures and other specialized services; possible entrepreneurial opportunities for trail owners; and trail maintenance and management. This last point is particularly relevant to CBT, since disadvantaged community members can enter the tourism sector in various ways to provide products and services (Mnguni & Giampiccoli, 2017).

Rural tourism and the Lebanon Mountain Trail In Lebanon, tourism has always been one of the leading economic sectors, as it constitutes a main source of income and employment and accounted for 19% of GDP in 2017 (Blom Invest Bank, 2018). The rich and diverse cultural and natural heritage of Lebanon, its vibrant society, and its strategic location on the eastern Mediterranean allow tourism to play this leading role. However, the Lebanese tourism industry faces many challenges including political instability, low competiveness, seasonality and environmental degradation. In the last decade, Lebanon’s tourism market has recorded important fluctuations driven by internal and external factors. Lebanon was severely affected by the assassination of its Prime Minister Rafiq Hariri in 2005, the war with Israel in 2006, internal political instability in 2008, and an influx of Syrian refugees since 2011. According to the Lebanese Ministry of Tourism, the number of international arrivals to Lebanon dropped from around 2.17 million in 2010 to 1.21 million in 2013. But by the end of 2017, signs of recovery had started to show and there were 1.86 million tourist arrivals. Despite this unstable situation, the tourism industry has witnessed positive changes since 2004. In parallel with the decline of conventional tourism in the main Lebanese cities and tourist attractions, alternative forms of tourism have prospered in a number of rural areas that showcase nature and adventure-based tourism. In the domestic market, Lebanese society is showing a growing interest in visiting mountain villages and spending short vacations in rural areas all over Lebanon. Consequently, rural tourism is gaining importance as a net contributor to the economy at both the local and national levels despite the regional political tension and local security issues of the last decade. As a response to the economic challenges facing Lebanon and particularly its rural areas, many towns and villages are reconsidering their development plans to find synergies among the economic sectors that can contribute to a more sustainable and resilient local economy and to increase the rural tourism value chain competitiveness. This process is supported largely by international organizations and donor agencies. Moreover, rural development practitioners in Lebanon consider that sustainable forms of tourism can benefit rural areas and provide them with economic opportunities thus improving rural communities’ living conditions as well as better

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management of their natural and cultural resources. In this context, many projects and initiatives, funded mainly by international organizations and donors, have been implemented in rural areas and villages with the objective of – building the capacity of the local stakeholders to plan better for rural tourism and to manage their natural and cultural resources in a more sustainable way, – providing technical and financial support to local authorities and tourism operators to improve tourism infrastructure, services and activities as well as to create integrated rural tourism destinations, and – reinforcing the rural tourism value chain structure and improving linkages between its different stakeholders. The USAID (2014) rural tourism value chain assessment considers that this type of tourism is a major component of the economic recovery of rural populations. Rural tourism provides employment as well as income-generating opportunities. It may also have the effect of reducing rural-to-urban migration that has, and still is, occurring at staggering levels. Additionally, rural tourism provides an opportunity to preserve the natural resource base and cultural heritage of Lebanon. These landscapes with their unique scenery, along with the rural villages themselves, occupy large areas of land and represent the main stock of natural and cultural heritage which serves as the foundation of rural tourism. This, in turn, can provide the incentives necessary to provide an economic return on these resources that will lead to their preservation for generations to come. Based on this assessment, a National Rural Tourism Strategy was drawn up in 2014 with the support of the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and adopted by the Ministry of Tourism. Its main objectives were to enhance domestic rural tourism in Lebanon, unlock the great economic potential of this sector in these areas in addition to finding alternative ways of income generation to ameliorate political instability and security issues. The rich cultural and natural heritage of Lebanon’s rural areas and the distinguished hospitality of their local communities, constitute the main asset for the development of different rural tourism forms including eco-tourism, communitybased tourism, experiential tourism, religious tourism, cultural tourism, naturebased tourism and adventure tourism. In Lebanon, these types of tourism emerged since the mid-nineties, specifically between 1995 and 1998 with the creation of four tour-operators specialized in nature-based and adventure tourism activities, namely hiking, trekking, climbing, caving, and rafting. At that time, the market was limited to few foreigners and local travelers. From 1997 to 2006, the rural tourism sector in Lebanon witnessed an important but slow evolution, especially with the designation of the first nature reserves where the concept of eco-tourism was introduced. Between 2006 and 2008, several rural tourism development projects were implemented, of which two were funded by USAID: The Lebanon Mountain Trail (LMT)

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and DHIAFEE1 Network. These projects influenced the rural tourism sector by introducing the Lebanese public to new forms of responsible rural tourism based on accommodation in guesthouses and nature-based activities provided by local guides. The LMT is the first long distance hiking trail in Lebanon and the Arab region and covers a path of 470 km. It passes by 76 towns and villages from Andqet in the Caza of Akkar in the north of Lebanon to Marjaayoun in the south at altitudes ranging from 570 to 2,073 meters above sea level. The trail crosses one World Heritage Site, one Biosphere Reserve, two nature reserves and four protected areas (Figure 9.2). The trail was conceived of, and developed in a way, to showcase the natural beauty and cultural wealth of Lebanon’s mountains and rural areas as well as to demonstrate the determination of the local communities to conserve this unique heritage. It brings communities closer together as well as expanding economic opportunities in rural areas through environmentally and socially responsible tourism. During the implementation period, 11 guesthouses were partially renovated, and their owners trained in the basics of hospitality for the first time in Lebanon. Established in 2007, the Lebanon Mountain Trail Association (LMTA’s) objectives are – to develop, maintain and protect the LMT, – to help establish side trails on the LMT, – to protect the natural, cultural & architectural heritage and landmarks near the trail, and – to enhance economic opportunities by promoting responsible tourism. Since its creation, the LMT Association has worked on the development of the trail with the objective of supporting local economic opportunities through responsible tourism, educational programs for schools and environmental conservation activities. In line with this, the LMTA has been upgrading the existing guesthouses on the trail and helping develop of new ones. In this way, the LMT has expanded rural tourism in Lebanon and opened up many new opportunities for longer stays in mountain destinations. In the last decade, the LMT has become the backbone of the country’s rural tourism industry and one of its main tangible products for rural economic growth. The LMTA is continuously working with national, regional, and local partners from the rural tourism value chain to upgrade its trail services and activities. The association has three main programs: trail development, education programs and community

1 The DHIAFEE Network (conceived by ANERA in 2005 aimed at increasing economic opportunities in rural communities by stimulating sustainable income and employment in the accommodation services. The network was initially formed of 44 alternative tourism lodging facilities classified in seven categories: Guesthouses; Small hotels; Inn/Auberges; Youth hostels; Religious lodgings; Ecolodges; and Camping sites.

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Figure 9.2: The Lebanon Mountain Trail Map.

development. In addition to these, it also occupies itself with administration, outreach (PR & communication) and policy platforms (including protection, legislation, training, and blazing). The LMTA is endeavoring to make the trail a world-class destination with proper delineation, trail blazing, promotion and accommodation together with trail-side attractions and activities. Its four-pronged strategy for achieving its

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objectives are critical in advancing the LMTA’s mission and often go hand-inhand with each other. While many may think that the LMTA is only concerned with hiking activities, the association does much more. It maintains the trail, educates and creates awareness among local communities and young people of the importance of the LMT to the country’s heritage. It also supports families and businesses along the trail.

Trail and community development The establishment of the LMT as a national, long-distance hiking trail has been the result of the concerted efforts of many people both locally and abroad who have shared a vision and mobilized the resources to realize it. Today, the LMT is a living, growing entity in constant need of development and expansion. The association is working constantly with local community members and municipalities to maintain, protect and develop the trail, as well as to create new side trails and extensions to the original 470 km trail created in 2008. The LMT is accessible at almost any time of the year, even during the winter season when snow covers some portions of it. To celebrate its existence, the LMTA organizes end-to-end hikes once a year, with groups starting simultaneously from north to south and south to north. These events, which are called “the thru-walks,” typically lasts the full month of April. To date, the LMTA has planned and organized eleven such thru-walks. These month-long treks are important because they anchor the trail and keep the local, national and international communities informed and interested, as well as the media. Moreover, they inject much needed income into local villages with an estimated $100,000 per thruwalk. Guesthouses are an important source of income for local families living in trailside villages. Since 2008, the number of guesthouses increased from 11 to 25, demonstrating the interest of locals to invest in similar businesses as a response of the increased demand from hikers and other visitors to rural areas. There are around 40 young local guides operating on the LMT, among which 10 women. They usually live in their villages and are familiar with the cultural and natural attractions along their sections of the LMT that they interpret and explain for the benefit of their guests. They are neither “tourism” guides nor employees of the LMTA. They may be farmers, school teachers, craftsmen, and/or members of the local municipal council. The LMTA believes that these local guides are very important agents of change. In addition to guiding hikers and visitors, they help in spreading the word locally about the LMT and its importance. They also maintain the trail and report on abuses to the LMTA office. Trail guiding and interpretation is a skill that must be acquired and added to in order to ensure quality. The LMTA is very much committed to building the capacity of trail guides on the LMT and in other parts of the country, providing them with the necessary tools to do their job properly. To improve their skills and standardize their services and prices, the

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LMTA has developed a training program to equip them to lead group hikes up to 25 people. This involves a modular training program followed by an extended evaluation process that leads to their certification. Ten years after the LMT was delineated, its biggest challenge remains the protecting of the trail itself and ensuring its sustainability in both the geographic and the economic sense. In partnership with two Italian NGOs, Cooperazione per lo Sviluppo dei Paesi Emergenti (COSPE) and the Italian Association for Responsible Tourism (AITR), the association embarked on a mission to raise awareness among local communities about the importance of the LMT as a natural and cultural attraction and as a potent economic asset. Under the two-year pilot project “Conservation and Development of Economic Opportunities on the Lebanon Mountain Trail,” it engaged in an intensive mobilization of the local communities on sections 3 to 10 in the north. This involved organizing meetings with mayors, activists and the communities themselves at which they called for shared action to protect and promote the trail locally. The trail team validated the trail path in coordination with local municipalities and guides and for the first time, information panels and directional signs were designed, produced and erected. In a strategic step aimed at long-term collaboration with local authorities, the LMTA signed Memorandum of Understanding with local municipalities and developed joint action plans with them to define their roles and responsibilities in protecting the trail and promoting it within their destination. For the first time, the LMTA issued a call for proposals to support community-based organizations in establishing their own tourism businesses with the aim of diversifying and improving their services along the trail. In terms of education, the LMTA has designed interactive educational programs for schools and young people (ages 8–15) that revolve around the LMT. The “Trail to Every Classroom” and “Environmental Championship” programs aim to make students aware of the wonders of the LMT and, in the process, teach them a great deal about Lebanon’s geography, geology, agriculture, biodiversity, waste management, water resources, protected areas, cultural heritage, landscapes and civic responsibilities. The programs are built on the concept of experiential learning, with hands-on, fun and creative activities aimed at giving children a clear understanding of our ecosystem.

Efforts toward heritage conservation An estimated 20% of the LMT is protected because it passes through two nature reserves, a biosphere reserve, and the world heritage site of “Qadisha Valley”. However, most of the areas through which the LMT passes have either not been surveyed or have been surveyed but not yet mapped. The LMTA recognizes the value of protecting natural resources and their importance for community development.

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Like most trails around the world, the LMT is not static. As time goes by and as the population increases, the visual impacts of urban growth and development become more and more evident along the trail. Urban pressure is apparent through new road constructions, dumpsites, quarries, anarchic construction and housing projects, among others. The construction frenzy is a result of the efforts to rebuild the country following the 2006 war and the 2008 global financial crisis that prompted many investors in the region to divert their savings to Lebanon’s real estate markets. Trail abuses are very difficult to prevent especially in the absence of effective law enforcement. The LMTA strongly believes that the Lebanese government has to take active measures to slow down real estate speculation and to protect mountain landscapes and resources, namely water, soil and trees in order to ensure the ecosystem integrity and help in controlling and mitigating natural disasters such as floods and soil erosion. To address these issues, the LMTA is working with municipalities, Union of Municipalities, local NGOs, universities and researchers, as well as international organizations to promote sustainable land management practices along the LMT in order for the trail to become a conservation corridor for generations to come. Among its conservation efforts, the LMTA launched the process of signing memorandums of understanding and developing integrated action plans with trailside municipalities. A holistic approach was adopted in action plan development, making sure that concrete actions cover the cultural, social and economic side of rural tourism; heritage and trail conservation being the main guiding elements. The LMT’s future rests in part on the active participation of local communities along the way. Local citizens, institutions and municipalities in trailside communities share responsibility for its long-term sustainability. The LMTA maintains a close relationship with trailside municipalities and is in constant discussions with them as well as members of parliament to advocate for legislation that would help protect the trail.

Conclusions and perspectives Globally, there has been a call in recent years to get communities involved in tourism through CBT initiatives, especially in the case of long distance hiking trails. This involvement enables local communities to benefit from their natural resources and overcome economic challenges. The case of the LMT shows that CBT can improve the lives of rural people through the creation of employment and income generating services and activities. The LMT was conceived as a CBT pioneering model in Lebanon and paved the road to other CBT and rural tourism initiatives all over the country. However, community led trail management and conservation is a work in progress and faces social and political challenges in Lebanon. Despite these challenges, LMTA’s efforts towards

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community mobilization on parts of the trail have shown great promise in raising awareness and involving communities in trail management and conservation. The LMTA plans to replicate this approach all over the trail and to up-scale its effort to reach active community buy-in. To support this bottom-up approach the association is advocating for trail protection on the national level in coordination with relevant public authorities. In doing so, the LMTA is working towards institutionalizing CBT in Lebanon and showcasing it as a standard model for rural development in Lebanon.

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Park, E., Phandanouvong, T. & Kim, S. (2018). Evaluating participation in community-based tourism: a local perspective in Laos. Current Issues in Tourism, 21 (2) 128–132. Richins, H. (1997). Community tourism development scenarios and their use in tourism research. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 2 (1) 31–42. Ruiz-Ballesteros E. & Caceres-Feria R. (2016). Community-building and amenity migration in community-based tourism development. An approach from southwest Spain. Tourism Management (54) 513–523.

Víctor Sánchez-Sanz

10 A critical overhaul of current situation of hiking in Spain “Speed is outdated, luxury is in slow things.” José Mariano López‐Urdiales, Aeronautical Engineer, 2011

Introduction In recent years, Spanish hiking has experienced an increase in several of its parameter values such as the number of projects, the number of kilometers in building infrastructure, the upgrading resources in equipment, the number of publications and, what is more relevant, the steady growth in hikers. Nowadays, up to 70% of Spaniards admit to being into hiking and practice it at least once a month (García & Llopis, 2017). Researchers and institutions confirmed that the rambling-walking-hiking combination is one of the most popular leisure activities in Spain (García, 2001, 2006a, 2006b; García & Llopis, 2011, 2017; Jimenez, 2011). The word “hiking” was completely unknown until the 1970s (López, 1999). The origin of hiking was initially focused on a professional sporting activity, which was exclusively related to mountain sports federations and hiking clubs. From the 1990s onwards, a remarkable change took place and hiking took on targets such as health, tourism, culture, leisure, and education, among others. (Cachón-Zagalaz, Lara-Sánchez, Ubago-Jiménez, González-González de Mesa, López-Gallego & Zagalaz-Sánchez, 2019; Gómez-Martín, 2019). For this reason, the prevalence of mountaineering federations has given way to a multisectoral activity, in organizational terms. Now we find a hiking sector that already forms part of the Spanish social network, which has become an established practice. Numerous institutions, entities, and experts have strived to manage and organize trekking appropriately ever since its emergence in the mid-1970s (López, 1998). At present, approaches to this practice exceed sporting motivations to incorporate tourist proposals, standards of living, non-motorized mobility, recovery of heritage, and rural development, to name a few examples. Spanish hiking is an up-and-coming activity, in constant development, with its own characteristics that are still far from the standards of those in more consolidated hiking countries. (FEDME, 2012; Gómez-Martín, 2019). We can confirm that Spanish hiking has become a broad phenomenon of general interest that is well-coordinated with related sports (mountain races, via ferrata, cycling, horseback riding, and so on) and that coexists perfectly with other complementary activities (cuisine, art and culture, bird watching and so on). In Spain, hiking is also a “leader” activity among the specific demands of rural and mountain tourism (Gómez-Martín, 2019; Turespaña, 2008; World Tourism Organization, https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110660715-010

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2019). The tourist potential of Spanish hiking practices is clearly evidenced in works that highlight its growing socio-economic influence in these territories (Campillo & Font, 2004; Diputación de Huesca, 2003; FAM, 2015, FEDME, 2012; Luque, 2018). Speaking in terms of hiking as a public-service good – as an activity that can, for example, guarantee citizens´ good health, educate young people, or instruct cultural and ecological values – studies show that for some time now, public and private administrations have been involved in developing specific hiking projects to achieve these objectives (Sánchez, 2014). It is especially relevant when talking about Spanish hiking as a practice of good health. The conclusions of the 1st Seminar on “Health and Protected Natural Areas” (Europarc, 2013) stand out in that, among others, hiking was confirmed as a consolidated promoter of public health and one of the best indicators of social welfare, in line with studies on sports habits in Spain (García & Llopis, 2011, 2017). As time goes by, variants of hiking continue to surge, and the practice scenarios are no longer exclusive to the mountain. Currently, we can confirm that in Spain the majority of spaces and environments already have specific hiking projects: we can find routes in medium and low mountains, in cities, in peri-urban environments, on the coast, or in protected natural spaces, to name a few. Something similar occurs with the groups that practice this activity as there are no longer limits and all the traditional stereotypes have been breached. Classic mountaineers who live with their families, the elderly, tourists, schoolchildren or people with disabilities are an indicator that we have overcome the initial phases as a federative practice. Thus, the Spanish hiking phenomenon, although influenced by other countries, has its own structure (Sánchez, 2014; Gómez-Martín, 2019). The current diversity of approaches and factors make it particularly interesting to characterize. The aim of this chapter is to share our point of view on the most important elements of hiking in Spain. This characterization incorporates a critical look on research and projects related to Spanish and international hiking in the last 10 years, since the foundation of our Mountain Sports Research Group (Faculty of Sports Sciences, UCV).

Mountain sport federation and the origins of climbing The Spanish Alpinism Federation (FEA) was established in 1922. Its foundational focus was almost exclusively the practice of alpine activities and ascents. In its origin, hiking was not contemplated by the FEA because the concept as such did not yet exist. Later, the FEA would be called Spanish Federation of Mountaineering (FEM) and, later still, it morphed into its current name: Spanish Federation of Mountain Sports and Climbing (FEDME) with the purpose of incorporating other sports modalities and sensitivities. Activities similar to hiking had very little presence both in the federation and in

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Spanish society, and it was not until 1972 when the FEDME decided to implement the French model of hiking (signs, types of routes, regulations, and so on) and create a specific section of hiking within the FEDME. We could say that this was the event that led to the birth of the concept of hiking and its subsequent evolution as a social phenomenon. From the primitive FEA, the organization evolved over the years and it began to manage Spanish hiking as one of its disciplines, although initially it had a mountaineering perspective and prioritized of Long Route (GR®) for medium-high mountain environments. Along the way, new proposals were moderated and new routes were created in order to enable the access of non-alpine groups. This evolution was not exempt from conflicts between mountaineers and the first hikers who shared the same federation. This fact reveals a peculiarity of Spanish hiking as opposed to international hiking, given that in Spain it emerged in an alpine organization, when in most countries hiking is part of organizations exclusively for hikers or linked to tourism (Norway, England, Sweden, France). Over the years, FEDME gradually normalized the presence of hikers in its structures and led the promotion of hiking in Spain almost exclusively for decades. Years later, another federative modality was created, “Senderos Locales” (SL®) or “Local paths” with the idea of facilitating even more access to new groups. The federative structure of routes was finally established in three different levels (GR®, PR®, SL®), perfectly standardized and authorized, bearing their own copyright and holding reasonable recognition and acceptance among citizens within mountaineering or otherwise. In the 1990s, 20 years after the FEDME adopted the French hiking model, they already had 8,000 km of marked trails (most of them GR®) and by 2019, they clearly exceeded 65,000 km.

Who currently manages hiking in Spain? We have reflected on how Spanish hiking has ceased to be an exclusively federative activity and began, back in the 1990s, to allow entry to new organizing agents as hiking became increasingly popular. The mountaineering club that had monopolized the connection of those practicing these activities and the network of trails began to share hiking management tasks with other public and/or private entities. Nowadays, it is a popular practice, and transversal to many social sectors from which different agents have appeared to dynamize trekking. To profoundly understand the protagonists, we must discern the decisions related to trekking in two clearly distinguished levels: management of the footpath and management of the trekking. In this division, we can find public and/or private organizations that participate in one or both activities at once (trail and hiking):

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Management of the footpath

The entities that carry out actions in conditioning and maintening paths, hence the management of the territory, drafting of regulations and other related actions. At present, it is confirmed that the entities that manage the paths and act in the territory have been restricted almost exclusively to public administrations, publicprivate consortiums, and in general, to large institutions that can deal with the great logistical and economic effort that is physically present in this region. Some experts state that public promoters’ participation is of a great significance and has been positive for Spanish hiking (Sánchez, 2014). We have estimated that only 10–20% of trail managers are still associations and clubs, the rest being managed by various public administration offices. On the other hand, political decentralization in Spain leads to these trails being administered by a multitude of public entities at very different levels, finding projects at national, state, regional or even local level including public entities with independent operating systems that also participate in managing roads (acting on paths, roads and so forth). This is the case of organizations such as National Parks or the Spanish Railways Foundation (Figure 10.1). In addition to this, and unlike other European countries, we consider that the management of hiking and roads in our state is heavily dispersed and we may find actions from organizations with a wide range of approaches and interests: Agriculture, Tourism, Environment, Culture, Heritage, Public Works or Sports, to name a few sectors. We should explicitly name some specific outstanding projects in Spain. The Green Ways project for example, draws from the old train routes and stands out for its historical significance in benefit of the Spanish population. In this project, in which a good conglomerate of public institutions participates, are some successes such as the large number of users and the economic and social significance in the territories in which Green Ways is in place. It is a unique project at a national and international level, which has been acknowledged in several countries (UN, World Tourism Organization, UK, Italy, Portugal, among others). It has little social rejection and hardly any drawbacks in the implemented areas (https://www.viasverdes.com with 125 itineraries totaling 2,700 kilometers in 2018). Another outstanding project focused on roads is the Natural Roads Programme (Figure 10.1), which is currently the most important initiative at the national level due to its territorial scope and the powerful investments it entails. However, we should note that it withstands some rejection among groups involved, as well as criticism of the excessive intervention in roads, denaturalizing historical trails, and not conditioning the layout specifically for hiking practices. This program currently depends on the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, with more than 10,000 km already conditioned (https://www.mapa.gob.es/es/desarrollo-rural/temas/caminos-naturales). In this regard, we observe certain similarities between these two programs, such as the similarity between the characteristics of their projects and FEDME sponsorship. Owing to this fact, many of these public footpaths have finally attained official status, without great difficulty, as federated, marked footpaths (basically GR®, and to a lesser

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Figure 10.1: Corporate image of both projects (source: official websites of Vías Verdes and Caminos Naturales).

extent, PR® and SL®). It is clear that we are currently in a period of public intervention on trails at medium and large scale.

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Organizations that manage hiking as a physical practice, ranging from the design of layouts to marketing and promotion, or even creating hiking products or the enactment of healthy hiking campaigns. For this second type of management related to hiking as a physical activity, we come across a subtle difference. Of course, we have public entities that promote hiking from different administrations, but the difference is in the active presence of private initiatives including those that promote projects to develop ideas and/or hiking products. Here, we also include agents such as associations clubs, companies, mountain guides, universities, tourist accommodations or even the FEDME. In these entities, we can observe that mountain-walking coexists alongside business projects, tourism, environmental projects, culture, health, non-motorized mobility and any other projects that may have walking as a basic activity other than FEDME.

Hiking in Spain: Big territorial differences There is an ongoing debate in Spain on whether it is more convenient to take on a single and uniform model that includes the majority of hiking proposals (same signs, same philosophy, same model, same managing entity and so on) or, on the contrary, to allow for the different hiking sensibilities and needs to take on their own path (in this case, there would be no consensus on the model). Several factors confirm that there currently are territorial differences to the extent of presence and character in Spanish hiking that prevent taking on a single unified model for the whole of the territory:

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Spain’s political and territorial structure has made it impossible to adopt standards in hiking as here decision-making is intermingled between national, regional, and local public administrations in addition to private initiatives. We must note that, unlike other countries, there is no specific higher entity of hiking that manages most projects and that could offer an effective homogeneity to Spanish hiking (similar to ramblers in the UK or the Fédération de Randonnée in France). In addition, at this point, the difficulty posed by the disparity of profiles between these managing bodies that have been alternating approaches to sport, tourism, public works, or the environment, to name a few examples, further complicates this process. It is also necessary to point out the historical reasons that explain these territorial differences. We can verify that in Spain there are two traditional hiking communities that have had their own noticeable evolution for decades. Catalan and Basque hiking have a marked associative tradition and historically superior popular and institutional support that makes it impossible for us to talk about the same phenomenon in remaining regions (although not all of them to the same extent, and other regions have also been establishing their models as good hiking references as-is for those of Aragon or Murcia). Other experts add a third factor: the socio-economic, climatic, and landscape differences between North and South that have shaped different walking needs. Hence, as Spain lacks a superior entity at the national level, these differences have led to decisions, models and priorities totally contextualized to the territories in which they appear.

In the event that the Spanish hiking society and public administration finally choose to provide uniformity to Spanish hiking, it seems that the FEDME project with its wellrenowned GR®, PR® or SL® presents the greatest consensus, standardization, and territorial presence (http://www.fedme.es) among the sector. During the last years, however, some groups of hikers have come to criticize FEDME adopting the French Model of hiking, focused only on routes as their one and only referent and suggest more comprehensive alternatives focused mainly on the territory and non-motorized mobility such as the so-called Swiss Model of hiking (see, for example, the projects https://www.itinerannia.net or https://www.turismepriorat.org).

Challenges to hiking management in Spain After more than a decade of interviews with Spanish public and private hiking experts and managers, we can confirm that different managing agents have, indeed, very similar challenges. We have pinpointed the following Spanish territory demands:

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Lack of coordination among institutions. One of the consequences of the disparity of entities involved in the matter without a higher supervisory body is an increment on difficulty of carrying out projects as entities involved are several and of variable status. Delays and incomplete projects are the ultimate consequences. 2. Lack of inventories of roads that would allow for good planning in the territory. One of the characteristics to which the Swiss Model owes its high degree of acceptance among hikers is precisely the complete inventories on which they base their work. The consequences in Spain is misappropriating roads and the difficult access to some territories due to the contentious claims of private owners (Campillo & López-Monné, 2010). 3. Absence of volunteer structures. Another great difference of Spanish hiking is the scarce presence of volunteers in management, which makes it difficult to maintain trails and impossible to carry out large projects, making this structure highly expensive and, in short, prevents the hiking sector from acting as a real lobby. 4. Difficulty in marketing hiking products. Spain as a tourist-oriented country strives to incorporate hiking as a tourist product but must come to terms with the reality that traditional beach-and sun tourism makes it difficult to create a new image of itself as a destination for active tourism and nature. 5. The need to fight back its temporary nature. We find this is an issue both in tourist activities and in promoting hiking as a health-related and leisure activity. We find social and cultural limitations that prevent us from considering hiking as an activity other than transient in nature. 6. Other challenges that are also present among national managers and that in some cases present small territorial variations are listed in Table 10.1.

Table 10.1: Other challenges of Spanish hiking management (source: author’s elaboration). Abuse signaling (denaturalise environment) Excessive bureaucracy Misuse of public aid Not agreeing on a unique hiking model Not having specialist professionals Conflict between collectives (bikers, hikers, riders, and so on) Projects without previous research Saturation of trails in some territories Pressure of private properties Difficulty of reconciling with hunting uses Define a model of hiking accommodation Find funding

Combat environmental threats Development of security plans Poor trail maintenance Vandalism control Very local promoters Banalization of the territory by the new walkers Coordinate with other sports modalities The defense of free access Land consolidation Difficulty coexisting with livestock uses Control of overcrowding Regularize motorized traffic

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Hiking areas in Spain: Main references A good analysis of hiking should examine the physical spaces in which we carry out this practice because it can explain how the practice has evolved in Spain very clearly. We have confirmed that, from its origin to the present day, hiking has gone from being an activity close to mountaineering to becoming a multi-objective practice with a very broad span of active users. This is why new practice areas have been added to the initial mountain environments. We recommend large physical environments for hiking in Spain with their defining characteristics: 1. Hiking in high summer mountains: The alpine origin of this modality is still present in circles of mainly classic mountaineers. This practice focuses on the search for ascents, characterized by self-management of food and overnight stay, and difficulty with orientation, a temporary nature marked by the great influence of weather conditions. Some examples are the Pyrenean routes that take place around the peaks of 3,000 metres. These hikers are traditionally linked to mountain clubs. See an example in the Spanish GR-11. 2. Trekking in the classic destinations: The great Spanish massifs. Less demanding than alpine hiking, this would be the stereotypical starting point for hikers and the original influence for the FEDME model. This is the basic model for hiking in the great Spanish mountains, mostly by GR® routes or similar. Good examples would be Picos de Europa, Pirineos, Sierra Nevada or the Gredos Massif. 3. Island hiking: The case of island hiking has established itself as a primarily Spanish hiking environment. It is focused on tourism and has brought value to spaces that traditionally are not part of classic mountaineer ideology. The cases of hiking in the Canary Islands and Mallorca are already an international reference and deserve a more detailed analysis. 4. The cases of natural paths and green ways: They mostly take place in rural environments ranging from low to medium mountain areas. They are characteristically well-enabled roads offering an accessible path to hikers and many different groups. See the cases of the Plazaola Greenway and the Ebro Natural Way. 5. Circuits and hiking trails: Mainly located in natural environments with clear altimetric flexibility ranging from low to medium-high mountains. There must be a certain natural continuity of the environment as they are “long-distance trails” incompatible with small natural spaces. Circular hiking circuits are a trend in Spain, with a multitude of territories implementing this modality as a tourist-oriented product. Accommodation is the key, as is adopting a specific management perspective to adapt to current hiking market requirements. Most of them are projects with private initiatives such as Carroc de Foc or Estels del Sud. 6. Hiking as an urban phenomenon: Cities in Spain also have a space for practicing hiking, although at a clearly lower level than European cities. It enables access to large groups and eases everyday practice to citizens. In Spain, there are

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good examples of cities that want to incorporate walking into urban and periurban landscapes, very much in line with the international trend of slow cities or similar. See the examples of Vitoria, Oviedo, Valencia, Zaragoza and so on. Protected natural spaces: Here, we include those natural environments with some means of protection and that have become true magnets for hiking collectives in comparison to unprotected areas. Some natural parks are pioneers in terms of accessibility and hiking. The situation in Spain offers enormous possibilities here. We highlight among others the National Park of Ordesa and Monte Perdido or the Natural Park of the Sierras de Cazorla, Segura and Las Villas.

Conclusions and final assessment In this chapter, we analyzed past and present some of the key points that explain the features and characteristics of Spanish hiking today from a scientific standpoint and more than a decade of interviews and workshops with Spanish hiking experts. We attach a decalogue as a final summary with elements that help their comprehensive understanding and that, in some way, also anticipate some future consequences: 1. The typology of hiking promoters in Spain is in a developmental stage and constantly changes. The support of this activity traditionally carried out by mountain associations, clubs and federations has been replaced by public institutional promotion as the only entities capable of developing such hiking projects by meeting their high economic and structural needs. Hiking promotion is mainly done by public groups that manage roads. However, there is a growing sector of private promotion and management of hiking as a physical activity or as a touristoriented product. 2. A key factor in understanding the Spanish scene is that there are no social or legal conditions for a new specific hiking federation to establish itself, as in other European countries, outside the FEDME. Although mountaineering associates are a minority among the total users, their federative model is still majorly supported and their processes of official authorization and markings are of the utmost synchronous inclination. 3. Other non-federative models should be analyzed and perhaps adopted in some cases in order to offer alternatives to the promoters. Betting on a single, standard signpost model does not in itself guarantee the success of hiking in Spain, not even when it comes to the extended officially authorized model (FEDME). Groups are already heading alternatives to the federative hiking model; some of these projects have identified with the Swiss model of hiking. 4. The main challenge of the hiking phenomenon in Spain is the lack of global planning for hiking activities. There is an apparent lack of coordination between the different levels of hiker promotion. A single supervisor is needed to unify the

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basic criteria at a national level, to plan infrastructures, to legislate, to structure the territory, and to facilitate non-motorized mobility for the whole of the population (without renouncing the singularity in certain territories). Lack of a real volunteering structure and culture in hiking is a real problem that will prevent Spain from catching up with the leading countries in international hiking. The level of commitment of the local population, residents, collectives, associates, young people, or retirees is not enough to design, maintain or manage hiking projects. Applying themes to footpaths is a trend on the rise in Spain, providing added value and differentiating attributes to this sector. It is used as a strategy to identify and personalize hiking projects with mainly socioeconomic interests. At present, mountain federations are also incorporating themes into their hiking model and are already undertaking theme projects in their approved trails GR®, PR® and SL®. Although trekking has experienced a recent growth as a tourist product in Spain in recent years, data suggests this can´t be the base of tourist activity. Faced with this new reality, hiking needs specific management, so that we not only use the Spanish federative model but also incorporate other formulas that are bettersuited for tourist products (theme, branding, differentiation, added value, internationalization and so on). The synergy of hiking with coastal tourism is an ongoing fact and seems to be an important option within the Spanish tourism sector. The cases of the Canary Islands and the Balearic Islands are part of a phenomenon called “island trekking.” However, the challenge of temporary practice is a fact and is a handicap within the phenomenon of hiking tourism. Managers and promoters have not yet found the solution to this need. Spain is facing an intense debate on the characterization of specific hiking accommodation that is not yet well-defined. The profile that seems to be imposing itself and that is an intuited trend is based on the generalization of comfort and the enjoyment of many services by the client, leaving as a minority the option of austerity reminiscent of classical mountaineering or adventure hiking crossings. It would be a mistake to apply other European accommodation formats such as Gîte d’étape, bed and breakfast or cabin to cabin without contextualizing the Spanish reality. Hiking as an urban and peri-urban phenomenon is a reality in Spain, in line with global movements such as slow cities or non-motorized mobility. Trekking projects included in protected areas or in their peripheries have a greater chance of success than those developed in unprotected natural spaces. The format “circuits and hiking trails” is very popular and does not stop growing in Spain. Originally located in the Pyrenees, it has become a great reference for other national territories and even for other modalities such as mountain biking. The Carros de Foc project is an international review in its modality.

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12. There are important territorial differences in terms of the magnitude and presence of the phenomenon of hiking in Spain; although the trend is towards equality in basic aspects, the North-South differences are still evident. 13. The GR® and PR® routes are the most popular options in Spain, and to a lesser extent the SL. Exclusive projects with GR® and totally linear are not preferred. It is a current trend that they form part of wide and interconnected hiking networks, preferably circular or in “network” format, with parts of the route close to the towns. 14. The institutional projects of Caminos Naturales (Natural Roads) and Vías Verdes (Green Ways) have monopolized in the last years the biggest investments in pedestrian infrastructures at the Spanish level. There is no single profile of hiker in Spain. The tendency is to continue adding more and more heterogeneous and diversified groups of hikers. There are two large generic groups of hikers with different evolutions: the hikers with mountain links who are aware of the federative framework, and the new hikers without links to mountaineering who are alien to the federative model. Non-federative hikers, non-mountaineers and those outside clubs are now the vast majority. The most numerous groups are the middle socioeconomic level practitioners and are linked to family hiking with a focus on leisure and free time. The disabled, the elderly and the “urbanites” are incorporated normally. Young people are the least practicing group of hikers, with little presence below 30 years. There is no data that shows significant differences in practice between men and women.

References Cachón-Zagalaz, J., Lara-Sánchez, A. J., Ubago-Jiménez, J. L., González-González de Mesa, C., López-Gallego, F. J., & Zagalaz-Sánchez, M. L. (2019). Walk More towards Active Leisure, Tourism, Culture, and Education. Sustainability, 11(11), 3174. MDPI AG. Retrieved from http:// dx.doi.org/10.3390/su11113174 Campillo, X. y Font, X. (2004). Avaluació de la sostenibilitat del turisme a l’Alt Pirineu i Aran. Generalitat de Catalunya, Consell Assessor per al Desenvolupament Sostenible. Campillo, X. y López-Monné, R. (2010). El llibre dels camins. Arola Editors. Barcelona. EUROPARC. VVAA. (2013). Salud y áreas protegidas en España. Identificación de los beneficios de las áreas protegidas sobre la salud y el bienestar social. Madrid: EUROPARC. Retrieved from http://www.redeuroparc.org/img/Eje_4/AP_y_salud.pdf. Diputación de Huesca (2003). Estudio de aproximación ambiental y socioeconómica a la influencia de las actividades de senderismo y excursionismo en la Provincia de Huesca. Zaragoza: Prames. Federación Aragonesa de Montañismo (FAM) (2015). Senderos turísticos de Aragón (2013–2015). Estudio de la incidencia socioeconómica y retorno de la inversión en materia de senderos en Aragón. Zaragoza: Dirección General de Turismo del Gobierno de Aragón. Federación Española de Deportes de Montaña y Escalada (FEDME)(2012). Senderos señalizados y desarrollo rural sostenible. Barcelona: FEDME.

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García, M. (2001). Identidades colectivas y Deporte. En Devís, J. (Ed.). La educación física, el deporte y la salud en el siglo XXI. (pp. 161–180). Alcoy (Alicante): Marfil. García, M. (2006a). Veinticinco años de análisis del comportamiento deportivo de la población española (1980–2005). LXIV (44), 15–38. García, M. (2006b). Postmodernidad y deporte: Entre la individualización y la masificación. Encuesta sobre hábitos deportivos de los españoles. Madrid: Consejo Superior de Deportes. García, M. & Llopis, R. (2011). Ideal democrático y bienestar personal: Encuesta sobre los hábitos deportivos en España 2010. Madrid: Consejo Superior de Deportes. Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas. García, M. & Llopis, R. (2017). La popularización del deporte en España: encuestas de hábitos deportivos 1980–2015 (Vol. 50). CIS-Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas. Gómez-Martín, M. B. (2019). Hiking tourism in Spain: Origins, issues and transformations. Sustainability, 11(13), 3619. Jiménez, P. J. (2011). Deporte y turismo: Fundamentos de gestión y organización. Madrid: Síntesis. López, R. (1998). Evolució i canvi de model del senderisme a catalunya: De l’associacionisme a l’activitat turística.(a) López, R. (1999). Senderisme: Camins i senyals. activitats recreatives i turístiques en espais rurals i naturals. Tarragona: Arola. López, R. (2006). Senderismo, una palabra reciente. Retrieved from http://www.senderisme.com/ revfile.aspx?idioma=es-ES&idrev=199&idprv=218 Luque, P. (2018). Análisis del perfil de los usuarios-visitantes del medio natural en España 2017– 2018. Barcelona: Federación Española de deportes de Montraña y Escalada. Nasarre, JM. “Los retos del montañismo en el siglo XXI. Respuestas normativas.” Apunts. Educación física y deportes [en línea], 2016, Vol. 2, Núm. 124, p. 100–107. Sánchez, V. (2014). El fenómeno senderista en España. Análisis por un panel de expertos. (Unpublished (Tesis doctoral)). Universitat de València, Valencia. Thiele, F. (2016). From A to B: What’s so new about hiking? 9th World Congress on snow and mountain tourism. Andorra. Retrieved from http://mountainlikers.com/ponents-2016/. Turespaña. (2008). Turismo de montaña. Madrid: Instituto de Turismo de España. World Tourism Organization. (2019). Walking tourism. promoting regional development. Madrid: UNWTO. https://doi.org/10.18111/9789284420346

Simon Jeppesen

11 The reinvention of pilgrimage in Scandinavia Any dream is made possible by taking the first step. So whenever you want something, the whole universe will conspire for you to get it. But you have to take the step towards your dream. Paulo Coelho, The Alchemist

Introduction During the last three decades in Europe, the medieval tradition of pilgrimage has gone through a renaissance. In 1997, the old pilgrimage path going between Oslo and Nidaros Cathedral in Trondheim was reopened as a continuous path following the old traditional route through the valley of Gudbrandsdalen. Since 1997, more paths have been reestablished and today there are more than 2,000 km of path following the traditional pilgrimage routes in Norway. Collectively, these paths are known as the St. Olav Ways and have their origin in the pilgrimage tradition connected to the cult of St. Olav. Since the opening in 1997, the paths have been improved continuously and in 2010, the first path between Oslo and Trondheim was given status as a European Cultural Route by the European Council. The same status afforded to the most popular pilgrimage paths: The St. James Ways (also known as Camino de Santiago or simply as The Camino). Since 2010, the number of pilgrims and hikers along the St. Olav Ways have increased and the St. Olav Ways are becoming more well-known both in Norway and internationally. Currently pilgrimage is being reinvented in Scandinavia and the shaping of a new pilgrimage tradition is taking place. Among hikers who consider themselves pilgrims, motives are numerous and complex. The experiences of slow time, opportunities to reflect and contemplate, flow and personal spirituality seem to be central to most pilgrims walking the St. Olav Ways. The aim of this article is to give the reader an introduction and overview of the historical foundation that the St. Olav tradition is built upon and a good understanding of some of the main motives amongst the pilgrims on the St. Olav Ways. The first three Norwegian pilgrimage paths were reopened 22 years ago. The three paths going between Oslo-Dovre-Nidaros, Tydal-Nidaros and Skalstugan-StiklestadNidaros had been restored, signposted and described in books and pamphlets. The official opening took place on July 28th 1997 by the Norwegian Crown Prince Håkon in front of the Nidaros Cathedral in Trondheim. Collectively, these three paths covered 920 km of hiking trail. In the year 2000, the path “Østerdalsleden” was opened. In 2003, the path Oslo-Romerike-Hamar opened and in the summer of 2006 the pilgrim path from Hedalen Stave Church to the St. Thomas Church at Filefjell followed. There https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110660715-011

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are also pilgrimage paths from Seljord, Setesdal and Suldal to the pilgrim festival in Røldal. Today, these pilgrimage paths collectively cover more than 2,000 km in Norway alone. A similar development has taken place in other Nordic countries with pilgrimage paths also in Sweden, Denmark, Finland and Iceland (Uddu, 2008; Berg & Nesbakken, 2009). The tradition of walking in the Medieval tracks of the pilgrims of the Middle Ages have gone through a renaissance in recent decades all over Europe. Camino Santiago de Compostela is the most popular with more than 300,000 Pilgrim Passports being stamped each year at the pilgrim’s reception office in Santiago (Borjas, 2017). Today, more people are looking to places other than the crowded ways of the St. James and are searching for more unknown and less trafficked pilgrimage paths. Since 2010, quantitative data has been collected along the St. Olav Ways. The number of hikers on the St. Olav Ways, and the number of overnight stays at lodgings are increasing. Figure 11.1 show the number of Olav Letters being handed out. All data indicate a clear trend towards more pilgrims/hikers using the pilgrim paths in Norway between 2010 and 2017 (Arroz, 2017).

Figure 11.1: Olav Letters Received (from Arroz, 2017) and Pilgrim’s Passport.

Extensive research exists on the pilgrimage phenomenon related to Camino Santiago de Compostela but so far there are few studies conducted on the motivations of pilgrims on The St. Olav Ways. These few studies have mainly collected qualitative data through semi-structured research interviews with pilgrims. The main findings are that the main motives among pilgrims on The St. Olav Ways can be characterized as spiritual and include the search and longing for authentic rural settings, a pause from modern hectic urban life and time to explore personal values and beliefs. There are other additional motives as modern consumer driven hiking practices focus more on the physical challenge, leisure, recreation, status and authentic experiences (Uddu, 2008; Jensen, 2015; Breejen, 2007; Øian, 2019).

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Background: St. Olav Origin of The Cult of St. Olav Trondheim is the most important city for the Norwegians. The city is glorified with churches and are visited by many people. There lies the sanctified body of king and martyr Saint Olav. By his grave the good Lord let miracles happen. People come to his grave in great numbers from far away in order to be blessed and cured in the presence the holy Saint Olav. Adam of Bremen, ca. 1075

The history of Olav Haraldsson (later Olav the Holy or Saint Olav) is closely related to the dramatic circumstances of the Christianization of Scandinavia which was an extensive, difficult and bloody process lasting approximately 200 years. The time period was characterized by constant struggles between believers of the old Norse cult and believers of the newly introduced cult of Christianity. The first Christian king of the partly united Norway was Haakon Haraldsson (also known as Haakon the Good). Haakon ruled Norway between 934–961. He was baptized in England, and from there he brought missionaries and a bishop into Norway. Haakon was not able to provide safety for the clergy and they quickly left Norway. Although Christianity was strengthened in the days of King Olaf I Tryggvason, it was the deeds of his successor Olav Haraldsson that gave the cult of Christianity a relatively strong foothold in Norway (Kvam, 2008; Langslet & Ødegård, 2011; Duda, 2016). Olav Haraldsson was born in 995 in Ringerike, south-eastern Norway. Olav was the son of Harald Grenske, a local king of Vestfold and great grandson of the famous Harald Fairhair, the first king that unified large parts of Norway. As a Viking, Olav sailed to the British Isles and was baptized in the town of Rouen, in 1013 or 1014. A year later, he was proclaimed the king of Norway. Because of his determination to introduce Christianity into Norway, he came into conflict with local lords, which eventually ended in the Battle of Stiklestad, in the year 1030. King Olav was killed in that battle and was buried at the site where the battle took place. About a year later, in August 1031, the body was transferred to a crypt in Nidaros, and the king was declared a saint. The Cult of St. Olav was born and grew quickly thereafter. Numerous churches were built and dedicated to St. Olav in Scandinavia, Northern Germany, on the British Isles, Novgorod in Russia and in the Baltic countries (Kvam, 2008; Langslet & Ødegård, 2011; Duda, 2016). After Olav Haraldsson’s death there was a significant shift in Norwegians view on Christianity. That was when the new religion made a breakthrough in the minds of the masses. Reidar Astås, Church historian

St. Olave’s church in York, England established about 1050 is the first church known to have been dedicated to St. Olav. Archbishop Adam of Bremen described the pilgrimage paths to Nidaros around 1070. More than 300 churches and monasteries were dedicated to St. Olav during the Middle Ages (Kvam, 2008)

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The St. Olav Ways During the 11–12th century Trondheim was the Jerusalem of the north. A conscious effort was made to create a center of religious gravity in northern Europe along the lines of Santiago in the west, Rome in the South and Jerusalem in the east. The path north along the St. Olav Ways was an important and integrated part of the cult surrounding St. Olav. Øystein Ekroll, 2007

Soon after Olav Haraldsson died in the battle of Stiklestad in 1030, he was sanctified and became known as Saint Olav or Olav the Holy. Pilgrims started to arrive at Nidaros and soon Nidaros became one of the most popular pilgrimage destinations in northern Europe. The pilgrims came by foot or by boat. The pilgrims crossing the land followed the large valley formations where roads, tracks and paths already existed. The routes being used mostly by the pilgrims became known as the St. Olav Ways. Pilgrims often traveled in groups and daily distances of 30 km were common. Guest houses, chapels and primitive dwellings were built along the routes. Seven main pilgrimage routes to Nidaros developed during the middle ages (Uddu, 2008; Duda, 2016). Figure 11.2 shows these seven routes:

Figure 11.2: The pilgrimage routes to Nidaros during the Middle Ages (source: Duda 2016).

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A. Kystleden (The Coastal Route): Many pilgrims from Oslo, Denmark or the Baltic Countries followed the coast all the way to the port of Trondheim, which is placed in a fjord (Trondheimsfjorden). B. Gudbrandsdalsleden: The path follows the Gudbrandsdalen valley. This is the most popular route among modern day pilgrims on the St. Olav Ways. This path was also the most trafficked land path during the Middle Ages. C. Østerdalsleden: Runs parallel to Gudbrandsdalsleden but further to the east following another main valley north. D. Värmland-Trysil: A branch that connects the region Värmland with Østerdalsleden. E. Romboleden: The oldest pilgrimage path. Connects with regions in Sweden with a tradition related to Saint Brigid. F. St. Olavsleden (St. Olav Way): This is the path that was used by King Olav and his army to arrive at the battle of Stiklestad in year 1030. G. Nordleden (North Way): Pilgrims coming from the far north used this path. All the paths ended in the same place – at the square in front of the Nidaros Cathedral. After Trondheim became the center for pilgrimage in Scandinavia, between three and seven thousand pilgrims arrived at Nidaros Cathedral each year. During the Middle Ages, the city of Trondheim itself had approximately 2,500 permanent residents. There were as many as 14 churches besides the Cathedral and the pilgrims were an important economic factor to the city (Jondell, 2008)

Nidaros Cathedral Before the cathedral was built, there was a small wooden chapel above the grave of St. Olav. The building of the cathedral began around 20 years after Olav Haraldsson was canonized and became known as St. Olav. The cathedral was built on top of his grave in his honor and it became an important part of the cult of St. Olav. During the Middle Ages, the cathedral was also called “Cor Norvegiae” (the heart of Norway) and St. Olav became the patron saint of Norway. Nidaros is the most northern of the European cathedrals and the biggest church in Scandinavia from the Medieval period. The building of the church took approximately 250 years – from 1050 to 1300. The history of Nidaros Cathedral is dramatic and it has burnt down four times – in 1328, 1432, 1531 and 1708. After the cathedral burned in 1708, it was not rebuilt and stood as a roofless ruin until a full restoration was undertaken in 1869 and the cathedral was restored to its former state and as we see it today (Jondell, 2008).

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The Protestant Reformation Following 500 years as an important shrine for pilgrims from all over Europe, the pilgrimage tradition suddenly came to a halt. The Protestant Reformation had its beginning with Martin Luthers Ninety-five Theses in 1517. In 1537 the kingdom of Denmark-Norway under the rule of Danish King Christian III rejected Catholicism and embraced Lutheranism and the Protestant Reformation. The Catholic archbishop, Olav Engelbrektsson, had to flee to the Netherlands. Many churches and monasteries were abandoned or even destroyed. Part of the new religious dogma was that God was omnipresent and therefore there was no longer a reason to go on pilgrimages to holy places. Being a pilgrim and going on a pilgrimage became illegal and was punished in Norway after 1537. The tradition of pilgrimages completely disappeared in the Lutheranien parts of Europe. For more than four centuries no pilgrims arrived at Nidaros Cathedral, and today the tradition of pilgrimage has been rediscovered, modernized and is finding new shapes that fit into modern society (Løver, 2008; Duda, 2016; Øian, 2019).

The reinvention of pilgrimage Clearly, the pilgrimages of the Middle Ages were strongly influenced by the Catholic Church and a widespread Christian tradition of pilgrimage existed throughout Europe, during the Middle Ages.The motives of the individual medieval pilgrim might have varied to some extent and search for adventure, education, knowledge sharing have probably been present. But overwhelmingly, the predominant motives of the pilgrims were religious (Blackwell 2010). The modern-day version of pilgrimage deviates drastically from pilgrimage during the Middle Ages. Researchers discuss what constitutes the difference between a tourist and a pilgrim. The modern urban active and experienceoriented tourist/pilgrim seeking authentic experiences and time to reflect spans a large value spectrum and borders between the religious and the secular (Løver, 2008; Olsen 2011; Øian, 2019). Surveys conducted among hikers on the pilgrimage paths in Norway indicate that the average hiker is not very religiously oriented but to a larger extent focused on personal development, spirituality and authentic nature experiences (Øian, 2019) The classic work of Turner and Turner (1978) on pilgrimage is focused on the religious and ritualistic aspects of pilgrimage. They divide a pilgrimage into a ritual with three stages: 1. Separation – the pilgrimage begins; 2. Liminal – the journey itself brings the pilgrim into an open-minded state where old beliefs become fluent and revised as the pilgrimage develops; 3. Homecoming – the pilgrim is reinserted into their home environment, but with a transformed identity. During the liminal phase, Turner & Turner emphasizes the pilgrims experience of a strong companionship with other fellow pilgrims. They call this feeling of companionship for “Communitas”. Communitas is a

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mental state where societies socioeconomic hierarchy are flattened and pilgrims are equalized allowing pilgrims to experience a state of strong social connection and openness together. Turner & Turner also call this flattened state “anti-structure” because of the disappearance of normal social structures (Turner, 1969; Turner & Turner 1978). More recent research on pilgrimage show that the concept of communitas might be too simplistic in relation to modern day pilgrimage. A large scale research project from 2012 conducted by the Universities at Trier and Mainz, with more than 1,000 respondents and a combination of qualitative and quantitative questions, reveal a complex picture of the motives of pilgrims walking the path to Santiago de Compostela (Jensen, 2015). The research shows clusters of motives among the respondents that divides the pilgrims into, five broad categories: 1. The spiritual pilgrim: The largest group amongst the respondents. Seeking meaning in life, time to reflect and authenticity. Looking for a change in their life at home. This group corresponds well with the three-stage theory of Turner and Turner (1978). This group represents a mix of more or less spiritual and secular beliefs and a main motive is a search for authentic experiences, time to reflect and personal and spiritual insights (Løver, 2008; Jensen 2015). 2. The religious pilgrim: The pilgrimage is an aspect of ingrained religious faith. There is no deep wish for change but rather a strong wish to dive deeper into a personal faith. This group best represents the continuation of the pilgrimages of the Middle Ages. 3. The hiking-oriented pilgrim: The religious and spiritual motives are less prevalent for this group. The motives are more related to sport and athletics and the experience of physical mastery and stamina (Jensen 2015; Vidal-González & Sánchez, 2018). 4. The adventure pilgrim: The main motives for this group are leisure, adventure and authentic experience. Religion, spirituality and physical challenges are less important to this group. The approach to pilgrimage is more in line with the approach to other leisure activities. 5. The culture- and landscape-oriented pilgrim: This group is characterized by a more aesthetic approach to pilgrimage. The motivation to experience the landscape, history, local food and culture is strong. The comfort level is often high with transport of luggage and choosing better lodgings. Taking all these different motives and ways of being a pilgrim into account it seems that the concept of pilgrimage has become a polysemy. What it means to be a pilgrim is very much up for discussion and there are many interpretations and understandings of the concept (Øian, 2019; Lois-Gonzáles, 2013).

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The Scandinavian perspective In 1992, the book In the Pilgrim’s footsteps to Nidaros by Eivind Luthen was published. The book became the starting point of the reestablishment of the St. Olav Ways in Norway. The initiative had several stakeholders including regional government agencies, several NGO’s and the Ministry of Environmental Affairs. Later, the Ministry of Culture became involved (Mikaelsson, 2011). It is worth noting that The Church of Norway was not particularly involved or interested in the project of reestablishing the pilgrimage paths (Øian, 2019). The reestablishment of the are inspired by the path to Santiago de Compostela, with its own symbol used for signposts, a pilgrim passport and a diploma (Olavsbrev) for walking at least the last 100 km to Nidaros Cathedral. Since 2010, when data started to be collected at the reception center at Nidaros Cathedral, the numbers of pilgrims have increased. In 2017 the number of pilgrims registered was 2670, so the numbers arriving at Nidaros Cathedral are very small compared to more popular pilgrimage routes in Europe. German pilgrims dominated with 35%, Norwegians coming second with 18% (Arroz, 2017). The reestablished modern pilgrimage paths in Norway are situated where the old pilgrimage paths originally were but the paths today are conceived as much more than religious paths. Today’s paths also have cultural and historical aspects and are governed by cultural heritage policies and utilized by the tourism industry. Hogne Øian (2019) analyzes the many interests in the pilgrimage paths and describes the paths as a contested space with many – and sometimes diverging – interests from different groups and organizations.

Slow time The qualitative data suggests that there is a common motive among the respondents to experience what could be characterized as “slow time”. The experience of slow time is connected to the feeling of a lack of obligations, no stress and a sense of being present here and now. The findings of Løver (2008), Hafskjold (2015) and Olsen (2011) all suggest that the experience of slow time is important to their respondents. The experience of slow time is strongly connected to a sense of authenticity, intimacy and spirituality and having the time for reflection and contemplating one’s own life and values (Bremborg 2008; Østergaard & Christensen 2010; Ryall 2007; Post et al. 1998). The motivation to experience slow time and having the time to reflect and contemplate could be considered a part of the “self-religion” of postmodernity according to Østergaard & Christensen (2010). In this perspective, the modern pilgrimage could be interpreted as a counter reaction to the secular and consumer-oriented culture that exists in most European countries today. In late modernity, more people view the prevalent consumer culture to be superficial, fragmented and stressful. The conscious choice to go on a pilgrimage can function as a counter-measure to the stresses of modern life (Østergaard & Christensen, 2010). It is important to notice that the

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sense of spirituality connected to experiencing slow time does not necessarily signify a religious connection. Spirituality can certainly be part of religious practice, but spirituality can exist on its own with no religious dogma attached to it (Løver 2008; Hafskjold, 2015; Øian, 2019). Reflecting on one’s own life – past, present and future – are central to all surveys conducted so far in Norway. The longing for time for introspection and calm reflection fits well with the ethos of late modern spirituality, self-help and self-religion where wellness, balance and mindfulness seem to be key (Østergaard & Christensen, 2010).

Flow The experience of flow was studied and described by Mihaly Csikszentmehalyi (1990) in his book Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience. The experience of flow is an intense feeling of being present and embedded in the activity and in the environment. There is a tendency to lose track of time and the sensation of embeddedness or unity with the world. In many ways, this condition is meditative, where the ego disappears and feelings of happiness and/or lightness are strong. The research on flow shows that in order for an activity to create the experience of flow, several factors must be present: 1. The participant must fully concentrate on the activity. 2. The challenges are clear and obvious. 3. Engagement in the activity make the participant forget personal problems. 4. Engagement in the activity make the participant less self-aware. 5. The participant must be feeling in control of the surroundings. 6. If all of the above is present the individual’s ego can transcend its own limitations and experience a loss of ego and a strong feeling of happiness and embeddedness in his/her environment. Pilgrimage and walking are tightly linked. Long-distance-hiking might be a somewhat more appropriate term since it indicates a prolonged walk, with a backpack in rough terrain that does not necessarily involve spiritual or religious motives. The movement of the body and the feeling of exhaustion is essential to many pilgrims and might even be the main motivator for the pilgrims with a sports-oriented approach. For many, making it to Nidaros is secondary and the main goal is to be moving, using the body along the trail (Olsen, 2011; Hafskjold, 2015). In the research carried out in Norway, many of the interviewed respondents describe how use of the body can lead to the loss of sense of ego, losing track of time, happiness and feeling embedded in the environment – all common characteristics of the flow-experience. For the pilgrim the use of the body and the physical exhaustion, the rhythm of walking, the clear goal of moving forward and clear knowledge of the destination all constitutes a matrix well suited for obtaining flow-experiences. The qualitative research on St. Olav Ways shows that flow-

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experiences are prevalent among the pilgrims and a strong motivator to walk as a pilgrim (Olsen 2011, Hafskjold 2015).

Nature In contrast to Santiago de Compostela, large parts St. Olav Ways mostly goes through scarcely populated and unpopulated areas. The paths cross high mountain plateaus and runs through deep valleys and large forests. The nature is varied, relatively pristine and can be harsh, cold and wet even during the summer season. In all research projects on the St. Olav Ways in Norway, the experience of nature stands out as a strong motivator for the majority of respondents. From a value or spiritual perspective nature is entirely open to interpretation and the individual pilgrim can view and interpret the experience of nature through their own set of secular, spiritual and religious values. In this sense the religious pilgrim sees God’s creation, the spiritual pilgrim sees the mysterious wonders of existence, the naturalist pilgrim sees the intricate complexity of ecology and evolution and the sports-oriented-hiker sees the trail, the height gained, distance travelled and the physical challenge. The qualitative data suggests that interpretations of the meaning of the nature experience are very different but also that it is a strong motivator to go on a pilgrimage on the St. Olav Ways. (Løver, 2008; Olsen, 2011; Hafskjold, 2015)

Religion Even though the St. Olav Ways has lost a lot of its connection with organized religion it is still related to the Norwegian church and uses paths with strong historical bonds to Christianity. Most pilgrims do not consider themselves religious but they value spirituality (Olsen 2011; Hafskjold 2015). The church organizes walks lasting from hours to weeks with Christian themes, and although it seems that the religious rituals have been deemphasized, they are open ended and very similar to mindfulness practices. In some ways, The Church of Norway has a traditional view on the St. Olav Ways and sees the Nidaros Cathedral as the main goal of a pilgrimage, even though the data suggest that most pilgrims are not coming to visit the grave of St. Olav (Løver, 2008; Olsen, 2011), primarily. The priest Hans-Erik Lindström, leader of Vadstena Pilgrim Center in Sweden, coined and described seven keywords for the modern pilgrim walking St. Olav Ways. The keywords are: 1. Slowness: The slow speed of walking makes us experience slowness in a way that makes us more present, observant and introspective. 2. Freedom: Being able to wander not thinking of a full calendar gives us a sense of inner and outer absence of stress and demands.

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3.

Simplicity: During a pilgrimage you carry only the bare material essentials with you. You live, sleep and eat very simply. Social interaction and cooperation with strangers become more prevalent. 4. Don’t worry: Take it as it comes and do not worry about tomorrow. Every day is simply putting one foot in front of the other until you reach your goal for the day. 5. Silence: While walking we get to be surrounded by calm and silence. Every day during a pilgrimage, you should practice being silent. Being silent with others and feeling the wordless community of pilgrims can be very powerful. 6. Sharing: During a pilgrimage, all pilgrims are sharing and helping one another. Sharing essential items such as first aid, water and food. When walking in a group and meeting strangers, thoughts and feelings are shared through conversations and spending time together. 7. Spirituality: The concept of pilgrimage opens up for contemplation and spirituality. Conversations, meetings, religious rituals, sharing and being present opens the pilgrim to look deep into themselves and their own existence (Lindström, 2007). It is interesting to note that coming from a Christian priest these keywords do not appear to be specifically Christian but can apply to most people with an interest in personal reflection and spirituality. To a large extent, the Norwegian Church has adapted these keywords in order to accommodate modern spiritual, but mostly secular, pilgrims and offer a frame for personal religion and spirituality with ways of expressing their own beliefs without traditional Christian dogma (Hafskjold, 2015; Øian 2019).

Conclusion Pilgrims are people in motion passing through territories not their own, seeking something we might call completion, or perhaps the word clarity will do as well, a goal to which only the spirit’s compass points the way. H. Richard Niebuhr

This chapter summarizes the development of the pilgrimage paths in Scandinavia collectively known as The St. Olav Ways. These paths have a rich history and an origin that dates back approximately a thousand years to the introduction of Christianity in Scandinavia. Since the death and canonization of Olav Haraldsson into Saint Olav in 1030 and until the reformation in Norway in 1537, the St. Olav ways have been used by countless thousands of pilgrims coming from throughout Europe. In an effort to atone for their sins and get a place in heaven the pilgrims sailed the treacherous seas and walked the narrow paths, crossing dangerous mountain regions in order to reach Nidaros Cathedral in Trondheim where the body of Saint Olav was laid to rest. After the protestant reformation of the Norwegian church in 1537, the tradition of making pilgrimages to Nidaros suddenly stopped and was mostly forgotten.

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Today, almost five hundred years after the reformation, this old tradition of making pilgrimages to Nidaros is being reinvented in Scandinavia. Much has been done since the opening of the first parts of St. Olav ways in 1997. The number of pilgrims are still relatively small, but since 2010, the trend is that the number of pilgrims is growing. The religious motives of the medieval pilgrims are substituted by a variety of motives. It has become very much up to the individual pilgrim to define what it means to be a pilgrim. The word pilgrim has become a polysemy – a word with many meanings. Today, the main motives for going on a pilgrimage on the St. Olav Ways are varied and complex but the research undertaken so far in Norway indicates that some main motives are: 1. to experience slow time 2. to take time to reflect and contemplate 3. the physical/mental challenge 4. to experience flow 5. to experience authentic nature 6. to deepen already held religious beliefs 7. to search for meaning and spiritual insights Some of the main challenges in today’s western societies are the social ills of depression, burnout, loneliness, stress and inactivity. Recent research shows that living a simpler life, having clear goals, nature experiences, sense of community, lack of stress and moderate physical activity can be a cure to some of these ills (Ministry of the Environment, 2009). The reinvention of pilgrimage might just be a cure to some of the stresses of living in today’s western society. Most likely pilgrimages will increase in popularity, as more people will become aware of the concept. It will be important to monitor the development of pilgrimages in Scandinavia and its impact on physical and mental health.

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Berg, S. K., & Nesbakken, A. (2009) Footprints of pilgrimage. The Pilgrim Ways to Nidaros as cultural heritage and asset for development. NIKU Rapport 33. 66 Pages. In Norwegian. Csikzsentmihalyi, M. (1990) Flow: the Psychology of Optimal Experience. New York: Harper and Row. Duda, T. (2016) The St. Olav’s Way – the origin, nature and trends in development of pilgrimage activity in Scandinavia. Peregrinus Cracoviensis 27(1), 25–45 Ekroll, Ø. (2007) Korset viser veg: Pilgrimsferder til Trondheim – Nordens Jerusalem. In P. K. Uddu (Ed.) På livets vei. Pilegrimsmotivet – et nasjonalt utviklingsprosjekt. En utredning for Kirkeog kulturdepartementet, 1. januar – 31. desember 2008, Oslo. Retrieved from http://www.re gjeringen.no/upload/KKD/Kirke/Pilegrim/Pilegrimsrapport_Uddu_11feb2009.pdf Hafskjold, M. B. (2015) En pilegrimsvandring vs. En vanlig vandretur i norsk natur – det går vel for det samme det, eller? Ås: NMBU Jensen, R. (2015) Pilegrim – Lengsel, vandring, tenkning – før og nå. Oslo: Novus Forlag Jondell, E. (2008) The pilgrim City by Nidelven. In S. Thue (Ed.), On the Pilgrim Way to Trondheim (pp. 34–40).Trondheim: Tapir Academic Press. Kvam, B. O. (2008) Olav Churches in Europe. In S. Thue (Ed.), On The Pilgrim Way To Trondheim (pp. 9–14). Trondheim: Tapir Academic Press Langslet, L. R., & Ødegård, K. (2011) Olav den hellige – spor etter helgenkongen. Forlaget Press. Lindström H. E. (2007) Pilegrimsliv – en håndbok for vandrere. Verbum Lois-Gonzáles, R. N. C. (2013) The Camino de Santiago and its contemporary renewal: Pilgrims, tourists and territorial identities. Culture and Religion, 14, 8–22. Løver. L. L. (2008) Turist eller pilegrim? En undersøkelse av nåtidens pilegrimsfenomen. Trondheim, NTNU Mikaelsson, L. (2011) Prester og pilegrimsvandring. Tidsskrift for kulturforskning, 10, 19–29. Ministry of the Environment (2009) The Nature Experience and Mental Health – Report of the “Outdoor Life and Mental Health” Nordic Project. Retrieved from https://www.regjeringen.no/ en/dokumenter/t-1474-e-the-nature-experience-and-menta/id578787/ Selnes A. (2009) At Sea and on Land. In S. Thue (Ed.), On The Pilgrim Way To Trondheim (pp. 16–18) Olsen, H. A. (2011) Det er på veien det skjer, tror jeg. Trondheim: NTNU Post, P., Pieper, I., Van Uden, M. (1998) The Modern Pilgrim: Multidisiplinary Explorations of Christian Pilgrimage. Uitgeverij Peeters Ryall, A. (2007) “Også jeg. Gjentakelsens poetikk i litterære pilegrimsreiser til Santiago de Compostela». In Religiøse reiser. Mellom nye og gamle spor. Ingvild S. Gilhus & Siv E. Kraft (Eds.). Universitetsforlaget Turner, V. (1969) The Ritual Process: Structure and Anti-Structure. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Turner, V. & Turner, E. (1978) Image and pilgrimage in Christian culture: Anthropological perspectives. New York: Columbia University Press. Uddu, P. K. (2008) På livets vei. Pilegrimsmotivet – et nasjonalt utviklingsprosjekt. En utredning for Kirke- og kulturdepartementet, 1. januar – 31. desember 2008, Oslo. Retrieved from http:// www.regjeringen.no/upload/KKD/Kirke/Pilegrim/Pilegrimsrapport_Uddu_11feb2009.pdf Vidal-González, P., & Sánchez, V. (2018) Hiking paths and intangible heritage: a quest for cultural roots. Cases in the province of Castellon, Spain, Sport in Society. DOI: 10.1080/ 17430437.2018.1551368 Øian, H. (2019) Pilgrim routes as contested spaces in Norway. Tourism Geographies, 10.1080/ 14616688.2018.1522511 Østergaard, J. & Christensen, D. R. (2010) Walking towards Oneself. In: Re-investing Authenticity: Tourism, Place and Emotions. B.T Knudsen & A. M. Waade (Eds.). Channel View Publications.

Pablo Vidal-González

12 Final remarks Human beings have always been accustomed to walking. Our bodies are prepared for it. Walking was the means used by Alexander the Great’s soldiers to travel from Greece to India, by Roman legions to the far corners of the Empire and by Christian pilgrims to travel from Norway to the tomb of the Apostle St. James in the Spanish Finisterre. It was customary practice to travel along footpaths and the pace was different to that of our society, always rushed and hurried, in our need to move at speed without actually getting anywhere. In the past, mountain farmers observed how tourists from large cities wanted to climb high European mountains in the Alps, the Pyrenees and on Norwegian glaciers. They watched in amazement the keenness of these new citizens, bourgeois city dwellers in the new global villages of 19th century industrialisation, as they felt the urge to discover the final frontiers of nature, flee from the hustle and bustle, the urgency and the contamination of the new metropolis. With the beginnings of the desertion of the rural environment and the resulting exodus and concentration of the population in cities as places with services and employment, people felt an increasingly pressing need, paradoxically, to return, to recover their origins, the lost roots of their ancestors. The more urban-based the society, the earlier we have seen that interest emerge. This was how the first geographic communities arose, followed by the emergence of hiking associations and walking clubs, all interested in first discovering their own territory and then continuing to be amazed at finding longed-for nature in far-flung places. The mythical search for the new Eden, Nepal, by the hippies in the 1970s and 1980s, and the later boom in long-distance trails is just one clear example of this practice. The achievement of Tenzing Norgay and Edmund Hillary in 1953 had put one of the final frontiers of our world on the map. Interest in hiking, as just another mountain sport, not the only one but certainly the most common, has been increasing exponentially with the change taking place towards the 21st century. Warnings from doctors and psychologists made us see increasingly clearly the importance of doing sport as a healthy activity to offset the stress of urban life and the serious health problems caused by a sedentary lifestyle, including cardiovascular diseases and cholesterol. The 1994 film Forrest Gump was a prelude to this new fashion. Trails, marathons, half marathons, ultramarathons and other mass races began springing up all over the place. However, the most popular by far turned out to be hiking. The new combination of the sport-health duo, together with being in contact with nature, the search for peace and quiet, for the slow life, for silence and introspection to counterbalance urban life, resulted in a formula for success that is still attracting more and more people. In the preceding pages our colleagues have analysed the growing participation of Spanish and Germans in the sport of hiking, now accepted as being yet another https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110660715-012

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of the major tourism options to take into account. Evidently, this phenomenon does not happen just in these countries, it is found in all developed countries, with notable examples being Great Britain, France and Switzerland. We have also been able to read about proposals to combine natural and cultural heritage offered by the resurgence of pilgrimage walking routes in Norway and in Spain, following the example set by the well-known Way of St. James, a successful formula being replicated in many countries, including Korea and Japan. Once again, the combination of sports and contemplation of cultural heritage associated with the rural world becomes a formula for attraction and success. The chapter devoted to friluftsliv, literally life in the open air, deserves a special mention. For Norwegians in particular and Scandinavians in general, this lifestyle linked with nature is far from tracing its origins in the pressures of city life. We are not looking at a reaction to the fast pace of life in cities. It is a feeling of belonging to a young and independent region, characterised by exuberant, wild vegetation, together with a very sparse population, unlike Great Britain and Germany. Being Norwegian goes hand-in-hand with being in nature and returning to it whenever you are outside. For a Norwegian, enjoying nature, being in nature, is an intrinsic part of their national identity, of their life. The recent threats to this lifestyle as a result of the strong move towards the urban way of life by the new globalised generations pose a serious challenge for the Norwegian education system. It is also true to say that accessing mountains has become a privilege not within everyone’s reach. We have said that enjoying hiking in its threefold value of a physically and mentally healthy practice, in contact with nature and away from the daily routines of a sedentary lifestyle is a necessity for contemporary human beings. However, there is still a large group of people who have limited access to hiking, most notably people with disabilities. New inclusion dynamics are being developed so that these people can have equal rights and enjoy the all the health benefits that come with hiking. The widespread use of the joëlette as a tool for getting people with disabilities into the mountains is a huge step forward, not least for the team-building component involved in using it. This instrument only makes sense with teamwork, with all members of the group working together in unison to enable the person with the disability, as the focus of all their efforts, to enjoy being out on the mountain. If you are unfamiliar with this discipline, I recommend you give it a try. The person with the disability is not the only one who benefits from it. Readers will also be struck by the inclusion in this volume of a chapter on a hiking experience in an Asian country, specifically in the Near East, in Lebanon. We thought it was a very interesting example of success, with hikers being at the service of two highly ambitious goals, to develop the country’s rural areas and help social cohesion in a generous country that has taken in, not without certain difficulties, major contingents of refugees, first Palestinians and then Syrians, in numbers that run into the millions. We believe the experience of the Lebanon Mountain Trail is extraordinarily interesting as a vehicle for development. It promotes the value of Lebanon’s natural

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heritage and also its rich and varied gastronomy, as well as the huge cultural heritage of a country that for centuries has been a crossroads of civilisations. We are looking at a good example of how hiking, as a tourist practice, can help in areas outside the major tourism circuits to improve life in local towns and villages. We think it is worth taking a closer look at the experience. As a final paradox, the high demand for nature, alongside a high demand for everyone to enjoy the same places, to reach the most iconic locations and take the most spectacular photos to post on social media (notably Instagram, Facebook, Twitter and TripAdvisor), is starting to pose a risk. The massification of new nature reserves, of protected species, is leading to their collapse, accompanied by a growing process of tourism commercialisation, a “vending” of nature, that should put us all on our guard. A recent article in The Guardian (Simmonds, McGiveny, Reilly, Maffly, Wilkinson, Canon, Wright & Whaley, 2018) warns of this serious problem in USA National Parks. Just looking at the photos in the article should make us think twice. We could lose ourselves in the crowded queues to find a little patch of lost nature. We could, and we are starting to do this, replicate in natural destinations the massification model of the urban destinations we are trying to get away from. Seeing wonders of nature like Niagara Falls or Maya Bay in Thailand become overcrowded theme parks, to name just two iconic examples, should be enough to make us stop and reflect. Perhaps we should rethink the model and look for smaller places in the rural world closer to home, with its nature, heritage, peace and quiet and attractive prices, diversifying our demand and also promoting sustainable hiking that is respectful to the environment and fosters rural development.

Reference Simmonds, C. McGiveny, A. Reilly, P. Maffly, B. Wilkinson, T. Canon, G. Wright, M and Whaley, M. (2018). Crisis in our National Parks: how tourists are loving nature to death. The Guardian. 20.11.2018. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/nov/20/national-parksamerica-overcrowding-crisis-tourism-visitation-solutions Retrieved the 26.08.2019

Abbreviations AITR BMWi CBT CEMAT COSPE DNT DWV CSD FCMP FEM FEDME GR IFAPA LMT LMTA ORWC PR PTTK SL UNWTO USAID

Italian Association for Responsible Tourism Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Energie Community-based tourism Council of Europe Conference of Ministers responsible for Spatial/Regional Planning Cooperazione per lo Sviluppo dei Paesi Emergenti Norwegian Trekking Association Deutscher Wanderverband Spanish Higher Sports Council Federação de Campismo e Montanhismo de Portugal Spanish Federation of Mountaineering Federación Española de Deportes de Montaña y Escalada Long-Distance Route International Federation for Adapted Physical Activity The Lebanon Mountain Trail Lebanon Mountain Trail Association Off Road Wheelchair Riding Short Distance Route Polish Tourism and Sightseeing Association Local Route World Tourism Organisation United States Agency for International Development

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List of figures Figure 5.1

Participants of tourist’s orienteering event during the course (photo credit: Jacek Gdula) 53 Figure 5.2 Permanent control point in Maskulińskie (photo credit: Marek Szczepański) 59 Figure 6.1 The mountain chair is a symbol of teamwork (photo credit: Laura Jiménez) 70 Figure 6.2 Teamwork generates gratifying experiences for passengers and pilots (photo credit: Laura Jiménez) 71 Figure 7.1 Three types of federative trails 84 Figure 7.2 Diagram of the functioning of the FEDME system on footpaths and hiking (photo credit: Antonio Turmo Arnal) 88 Figure 8.1 Motives for hiking in comparison (source: BMWi, 2010, p. 34; PROJECT M, 2014, p. 13; Arbeitsgruppe Wandermonitor, 2019) 93 Figure 8.2 Development of hiking as an experience (source: following Fredlmeier/Sänger/ Fredlmeier/Quack 2015 for Königswinterer Kreis) 96 Figure 8.3 Sinus-Milieu-Model and hiking until 2030 (source: own contribution following SINUS) 98 Figure 9.1 Topography and landscape map of Lebanon 108 Figure 9.2 The Lebanon Mountain Trail Map 115 Figure 10.1 Corporate image of both projects (source: official websites of Vías Verdes and Caminos Naturales) 125 Figure 11.1 Olav Letters Received (from Arroz, 2017) and Pilgrim’s Passport 134 Figure 11.2 The pilgrimage routes to Nidaros during the Middle Ages (source: Duda 2016) 136

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List of tables Table 7.1 People depending on the frequency of sport practice by sport modality Table 9.1 CBT Attributes and benefits (source: Asker et al., 2010) 109 Table 10.1 Other challenges of Spanish hiking management (source: author’s elaboration) 127

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List of contributors Jad Abou Arrage has fifteen years of experience in rural development, natural resources management, and ecotourism development. He works as a consultant for local and international organisations and teaches environmental economics, sustainable landscape management, and ecotourism at the Lebanese University in Beirut. He holds a PhD in Agricultural Sciences from the University of Milan-Italy and is an active member in the Lebanon Mountain Trail Association. Julia Blume is a research assistant at the Ostfalia University of Applied Sciences. She works on projects of the working group “Hiking” under the leadership of Prof. Dr. Heinz-Dieter Quack and teaches in the course of studies tourism management at the Institute for Tourism and Regional Research. Josep Capsi is a Lecturer in Physical Activity and Sport Sciences at the Catholic University of Valencia and Director of the Public Sport Management Master in the same institution. His research areas of interest are the social determinants of sport participation and the dynamics of sport practices. Currently, he is focused on outdoor activities research within the Hiking Research Group. Piotr Cych has been working at the University School of Physical Education in Wroclaw, Poland, since 1994. His scientific interest is related to orienteering and selected aspects of young athletes’ lifestyles. He is an author of about 50 articles and books. In addition to working at the university, he has been the coach of the Polish Junior Team in orienteering. Luis Esteban is Professor of Psychology at the Faculty of Physical Activity Sciences and Sports, Catholic University of Valencia. His research interests are related to the full participation of people with disabilities in the practice of sport. In this sense, it is part of a competitive sports team with disabled people in outdoor sports. Hector Esteve is Orienteering Sport Lecturer at the Catholic University of Valencia, Spain. He is currently Technical Director and Technification coordinator in the Valencian Federation of Orienteering Sports. Promoter and organizer of the First International Congress CAFD along with the I Congress International Hiking and Mountain Sports (UCV), held in Valencia-Torrent in January 2019. Involved in various international projects on hiking “Analysis in European countries for the applicability in the Valencian Community ”and “Crossings-Long and Hiking trails by stages in Europe”, among others. Zeinab Jeambey used his background in nutrition, food heritage promotion and tourism when he worked as program manager of the Lebanon Mountain Trail Association focusing on community engagement and sustainable development on the Lebanon Mountain Trail. She concieved and contributed to the development of “darb el karam” the first food trail in Lebanon. Simon Jeppesen is an Assistant Professor at the Institute for Sports, Physical Education and Outdoor Life at University of South-Eastern Norway (USN), Campus Bø. He studied Biology and Outdoor Life and taught students since 2006 at USN. Over the years he has spent hundreds of nights in tents, under tarps and in snow caves with and without students. Recently he has become interested in the phenomenon of pilgrimage and long-distance hiking.

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Laura Jiménez-Monteagudo is a Senior Lecturer at the Catholic University of Valencia, Spain, teaching Adapted Sports and physical activity methodology. He has researched the importance of giving disability training to professionals in physical activity and sports and coordinates a research group to learn about the benefits of physical activities with Joëlette mountain chairs. In addition, she teaches at the only official Master’s degree in adapted physical activity of the Autonomous University of Madrid and is member of the board of directors of the Valencia Region Federation of Mountain Sports and Climbing. Weronika Machowska has been successfully training orienteering since she was 6 years old, and in 2004 she won the gold medal at the European Youth Orienteering Championships. She studied Physical Education in Poland and in Spain (Erasmus). Since 2014 she is working at the University School of Physical Education in Wroclaw as Assistant Professor. Her scientific interest is related to orienteering, long distance running and mountain running. Diana Müller is a research assistant at the Ostfalia University of Applied Sciences. She works on projects of the working group “Hiking” under the leadership of Prof. Dr. Heinz-Dieter Quack. In her dissertation, Müller analyses the experience of visitors in historical gardens and parks using the example of Sanssouci-Potsdam. Heinz-Dieter Quack is Professor at the Ostfalia University of Applied Sciences, teaching destination management. Head of the Research Centre Hiking & Health of the German Hiking Institute (Deutsches Wanderinstitut e.V.); Member of the Scientific Management of PROJECT M and the European Tourism Institute (ETI) and Head of the Federal Tourism Competence Centre (Kompetenzzentrum Tourismus des Bundes). Eivind Sæther is a member of the Research group Physical Education, Activity and Health, and Assistant Professor at the Physical Education and Sport Science Department in Nord University, Norway. Their scientific interests are on nature experience, physical activity and pedagogy. They have worked with friluftsliv and physical activity since 1990. Víctor Sánchez is a lecturer in Mountain Sports at the Catholic University of Valencia since 2001, after completing his PhD dissertation on the key aspects of the hiking phenomenon in Spain. He is a member of the Scientific Advisory Council of Mountains, dependent on the Spanish Mountaineering Federation since 2015, as well as a trail technician, climbing referee, and Director of technical training for young climbers at the Valencian Federation of Mountain Sports and Climbing. Antonio Turmo is Director of the Spanish Federation of Mountain Sports and Climbing Rambling section since 2005. He is also Board Member of the European Ramblers Associatión (representing the Spanish Federation) and member of the work groups ERA “E-Paths” and “Short Quality Paths”. Pablo Vidal-González is Professor of Social and Cultural Anthropoloy at the Catholic Universiy of Valencia, and director of his Anthropology Research Institute. He researchs the relation between people and nature, landscapes and rural areas. He is Visiting Fellow at the MacMillan Center in Yale University, USA, and Associated Researcher in URMIS, University of Paris Diderot, France. Antonio Vidal Matzanke is a Predoctoral Researcher at Catholic University of Valencia, Spain. Member of the Research Group in Mountain Sports, Leisure and Free Time. Develops his activity

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on leisure and sports activities as hiking or mountain biking in the framework of the tourism paradigm. In his professional activity, also linked to tourism allows him to know first-hand the needs and interests of 21st Century tourists. Åge Vigane is Assistant Professor at the University of Stavanger, Norway, teaching Norwegian Friluftsliv and Outdoor Education. He has a long experiencie, teaching friluftsliv to students since 1997. He is also giving lectures on other topics as Friluftsliv history, Friluftsliv in the Norwegian Society, first aid, risk assessment and outdoor leadership. In addition to his teaching and researching, he is ski instructor, guiding groups in winter mountain, but also hiking and glacier excursions.

Index Authenticity 2, 98, 139, 140 Climate change 60 Consumption of nature 1 Council of Europe 35 Daily routine 94, 148 Depopulation 9 Digitalisation 100, 103 Eco-tourism 109, 111, 113 Experiencing nature 18, 92

National identity 4, 16 National park 9, 45 National Trails 38, 46 nature-based tourism 108, 113 Paralympic 52, 65, 67 Physical health 1, 12 Quality of life 7, 8, 24, 36, 65, 72, 73 Rural development 2, 107, 112, 119, 121, 149

Family 11, 12, 15–17, 19, 25, 29, 36, 44, 60, 68, 110, 131 Freedom 23, 38, 39, 57, 98

Smartphone 99, 101 Social phenomenon 41, 89, 123 Stress 16, 70–72, 74, 94, 140, 142, 144, 147 Sustainable development 5, 110 Swiss Hiking Routes 46

Hiking market 91, 128 Hiking practice 5, 41, 42, 122, 124, 134 Hiking social world 43 Hiking tourism product 35–48

Tourism product 36–42, 47 Tourist destination 9 UNESCO 66

Insiders 41–43 World Tourism Organization 122, 124 Lifestyle 4, 18, 25, 44, 148 Local communities 5, 107–111, 113, 114, 116–118 Long Distance Hiking Trails 35, 42, 114, 118

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Young people 18, 20, 23, 25, 58, 116, 117