Higher Education in Vietnam: Change and Response 9789814379267

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HIGHER EDUCATION IN VIETNAM

The Institute of Southeast Asian Studies (I SEAS) was established as an autonomous organization in 1968. It is a regional research centre for scholars and other specialists concerned with modern Southeast Asia, particularly the many-faceted problems of stability and security, economic development, and political and social change. The Institute is governed by a twenty-two-m ember Board ofTrustees comprising nominees from the Singapore Government, the National University of Singapore, the various Chambers of Commerce, and professional and civic organizations. A ten-man Executive Committee oversees day-to-day operations; it is chaired by the Director, the Institute's chief academic and administrative officer. The Indochina Unit (IU) of the Institute was formed in late 1991 to meet the increasing need for information and scholastic assessment on the fast-changing situation in Indochina in general and in Vietnam in particular. Research in the Unit is development- based, with a focus on contemporar y issues of political economy. This is done by resident and visiting fellows of various nationalities. To understand the Vietnamese perspective better, the Unit also has a regular programme whereby scholars from Vietnam are invited to do research on issues of topical interest.

HIGHER EDUCATION IN VIETNAM CHANGE AND RESPONSE EDITED BY

DAVID SLOPER University ofNew England

LE THAC CAN National Research Institute for Higher and Vocational Education

Indochina Unit INSTITUTE OF SOUTHEAST ASIAN STUDIES

Cover Photograph The bronze statue ofHo Chi Minh as teacher that stands in front ofthe French colonial city hall in Ho Chi Minh City symbolizes Vietnam commitment to education

s

Published by Institute of Southeast Asian Studies Heng Mui Keng Terrace Pasir Panjang Singapore 0511 All rights reserved. No part of rhis publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the Institute of Sourheast Asian Studies.

© 1995 Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore The responsibility for facts and opinions in this publication rests exclusively with the authors and their interpretations do not necessarily reflect the views or the policy of the Institute or its supporters.

Cataloguing in Publication Data Higher education in Vietnam : change and response I edited by D avid Sloper and Le Thac Can. 1. Education, Higher--Vietnam. 2. Education and state--Vietnam. I. Sloper, David. II. Le Thac Can. LA1183 H63 1995 sls94-85285 ISBN 981-3016-90-6 (hard cover) ISBN 981-3016-91-4 (soft cover) ISSN 0218-608X For the USA and Canada, a hard-cover edition (ISBN 0-312-12789-8) is published by St. Martin's Press, New York. Typeset by International Typesetters Printed in Singapore by SNP Printing Pte. Ltd.

This book is dedicated to increased international understanding through higher education as exemplified by the growth in Vietnamese-Australian relationships during the past decade and to Alison Sloper and Tran Tuyet Nhung, our wives, who as frequent research and conference widows, have contributed much to this ideal

CONTENTS

List ofTables List ofFigures Foreword Acknowledgements Acronyms and Abbreviations Map ofVietnam

tX

xu X ttl XVt XVttt XX

1. Higher Education in Vietnam: The Door Opens From Inside Le Thac Can and David Sloper 2. Socio-Economic Background ofVietnam since 1986: Impact on Education and Higher Education Nguyen Duy Quy and David Sloper

26

3. The Educational System ofVietnam Pham Minh Hac

41

4. The Policy-Making Context and Policies of Education and Training in Vietnam Tran Hong Quan, Vu Vtm Tao, and David Sloper

62

5. The Organization and Management of Higher Education in Vietnam: An Overview Tran Chi Dao, Lam Quang Thiep, and David Sloper

74

6. Staffing Profile of Higher Education Pham Thanh Nghi and David Sloper

95

viii

Contents

7. Postgraduate Degrees and Classification Schemes for

117

Academic Staff

Nguyen Tien Dat and David Sloper

8. Research Activities and Higher Education Dang Ba Lam, Nghiem Xuan Nung, and David Sloper

134

9. Funding and Financial Issues

161

Pham Quang Sang and David Sloper

10. Physical Facilities and Learning Resources Nguyen Thi Tri, Pham Quang Sang, and David Sloper

182

11. An Entrepreneurial Development: Thang Long

200

University

Hoang Xuan Sinh and David Sloper

12. Serving National Goals and the Local Community:

211

The Case of Can Tho University

Tran Phuoc Duong and David Sloper Contributors Index The Editors

229 231 239

LIST OF TABLES

1.1 1.2 1.3 2.1

Vietnam: Basic Data Major Themes and Issues Influencing Western Higher Education Interrelated Issues Mfecting Contempor ary Higher Education

14 16 19

Selected Agricultural and Industrial Production,

1989-91

30

5.1

Higher Education in Vietnam: Basic Data, 1980-90

79

6.1 6.2 6.3

Number and Gender of Academic Staff, 1980-90 Academic Staff, by Region, with Student/Staff Ratios Academic Rank and Postgraduate Degrees among Female Academic Staff at Thirty-Five Institutions Academic Staff, by Age Distribution and Postgraduate Degree, at Thirty-Five Institutions Qualifications of Academic Staff, 1980-90 Academic Staff, by Senior Rank and Qualification, in Thirty-Thre e Institutions Responsible to the MOET in the Academic Year 1990/91 Academic Staff Income and Working Hours per Month Basic Data about Managerial Staff at Thirty-Five Institutions

97 97

6.4 6.5 6.6

6.7 6.8

98 100 101

102 107 110

List of Tables

X

6.9 Capabilities Required of Rectors/Deputy Rectors 6.10 Age, Gender, and Ethnicity of Professional Staff at Thirty-Five Institutions

111

112

6.11 Qualifications of Professional Staff at Thirty-Five Institutions

7.1 7.2

Classification Scheme for Academic Staff Adopted in 1976 Proportion of Professors and Associate Professors at Select Hanoi Institutions, 1992

113 127 130

8.1

Research Institutes under Direct Government Supervision 8.2 Research Institutes, by Field of Study 8.3 Geographical Distribution of Research Institutes 8.4 Graduate Stock and R&D Labour Force 8.5 Distribution of Graduate Labour Force, by Employment Area 8.6 Expenditure on R&D Activities 8.7 Funding Sources for R&D Activities 8.8 State Allocations for Research and Application 8.9 Laboratories in Higher Education Institutions 8.10 Number of First-Degree Graduates, 1956-88 8.11 Development of Postgraduate Education, 1977-89 8.12 Participation by Higher Education Institutions in National Science and Technology Activities

9.1 9.2 9.3

Budget Allocation to Education and Higher Education, 1986-90 Expenditure Distribution for MOET Higher Education Institutions, 1989-92 Government and Other Funding in Select Higher Education Institutions, 1991

10.1 Facilities Data in Selected Institutions 10.2 Major Institutions with Special Laboratories 10.3 Capital Works Expenditure, 1986-90

138 140 140 141 142 142 143 144 149 154 155 156 164 168 174 184 186 192

List oJTables

12.1 Comparative Data for Vietnam and the Mekong Delta Region 12.2 Post-Secondary Graduates in Mekong Delta Provinces 12.3 Can Tho University Admissions and Graduation, 1985-91 12.4 Degree Enrolments at Can Tho University In-Service Training Centres, Academic Year 1992/93 12.5 Distribution of High School Graduates among Can Tho University Admissions, 1990-93 12.6 Province of First-Year Students among Can Tho University Admissions, 1990-93 12.7 Comparative Direct Cost of Higher Education per Student per Academic Year in Different Cities 12.8 Finance Provided by the MOET and Can Tho University, 1988-92

Xi

212 213 215 218 223 224 224 225

LIST OF FIGURES

3.1 Educational System ofVietnam in the Feudal Periods 3.2 Educational System ofVietnam in the French Colonial Period 3.3 Educational System in the Period 1951-54 3.4 Educational System of North Vietnam in the Period 1954-'75 3.5 Educational System ofVietnam in the 1990s

56 60

5.1 Higher Education Award Pattern 5.2 MOET Organizational Chart, 1992

81 88

8.1 General Organizational Chart for Research Institutes 8.2 Flowchart of R&D Funding in Higher Education Institutions

44 48 53

139 148

FOREWORD

This study of Vietnam's higher education structure and system is both unique and necessary. It provides detailed data and critical analysis not previously available to readers outside Vietnam and it is unique by virtue of the quality of the writing being ideologically objective. It is a necessary report in the sense that Vietnam is today embarking on a new era of educational, scientific, and commercial co-operation with many countries and, accordingly, it is especially important to understand both her present situation and future aspirations for higher education. The book contains material pertinent to a basic understanding of the historical and polyglot background to the development of Vietnam's higher education system and its more recent metamorphosis. It contains professional analysis and objective expositions of key problems currently impacting on the installation of a modern and effective system of higher education so necessary to propel Vietnam into a position where it can eventually stand intellectually and economically as an equal with its neighbours. It is especially rewarding that a publication of this genre has been compiled by key Vietnamese personnel, located in the highest echelons of both "party and pedagogy". Such a book accordingly has the imprimatur of authenticity and presents the latest, best, and most accurate of sensitive data, much of which would be available only in Vietnamese, perhaps if at all. Ipso facto, it indubitably contains what might be otherwise described as "privileged information" not easily or freely accessible within Vietnam and cer-

xiv

Foreword

tainly not normally available to an international readership. The book is particularly pertinent in that it covers a range of current issues, discusses a variety of persistent structural problems, and shares with readers some of the aspirations of the government for the future of higher education in Vietnam. The compositions, as readers will find for themselves, are elegantly written with flair and sophistication. In addition, the book should be seen as an important intellectual signpost representing a major step in the difficult progression of higher education for a society that has suffered political trauma and social incoherence for much of the past half century. The patina of ideology is generally absent in the writing and refreshingly so in today's age where openness should not be a rationed commodity in intellectual or scientific circles to which universities of international standards surely aspire. This book comes at a particular time when Vietnam is at a crucial crossroads in terms of both its economic and political orientation. Since 1986 when the government's policy of doi moi, "renovation", was first proclaimed, Vietnam has struggled to accept the realities of changing global practicalities and take advantage of the more open climate and accommodation at last engendered towards it by other nations. Accordingly, in comparative-international terms the state will have to face challenging issues in higher education, namely, massive structural reorganization at the same time as its struggles to equitably allocate its modest resources for a rapidly growing and demanding population. The universalization of primary, and eventually secondary education, is a necessary goal that needs to be set more carefully in place, thus ensuring an effective future linkage with both further and higher education. While pragmatism and improvization may have been keys to the maintenance of a constricted system of higher education during the past two decades, since reunification in 1975, they cannot be used as excuses for the coming decades. This situation is now clearly recognized by the government and Vietnam has greatly benefited by the more recent attention and contribution of a range of international agencies providing both intellectual expertise and concrete material support. The particular style of objective, detailed, and critical inputs provided by all those who have contributed the various chapters in this book is perhaps the most tangible reflection of the open attitudes that

Foreword

XV

are now prevailing within those circles entrusted in giving intellectual leadership currently to the renovation and expansion of higher education taking place in Vietnam. From a personal as well as professional perspective, it is proper that regional countries such as Australia, amongst others, are now taking a prominent place in participating cooperatively in the strengthening or upgrading of Vietnamese higher education. This is increasingly manifest in the number of contacts, exchanges, and programmes inaugurated in recent years between Australian and Vietnamese academics, scientists, and the various universities and research institutions that they represent. The co-operative process is a mutual one involving the sharing of a range of scientific expertise and practical experience whose territorial boundaries are not immutable. Higher Education in Vietnam: Change and Response, a joint research effort by Australian and Vietnamese academics published by the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies in Singapore, is a practical expression of this style of concord. It should auger well for the next edition of this work when the process of doi moi is more fully extended and its results thoroughly evaluated. Hopefully this will be well before the commencement of the next millennium.

Stewart E. Fraser Professor of Education LaTrobe University Melbourne, Australia

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

To mention all who have assisted the production of this work would be an undertaking almost as complex as the process of writing, translation, and editing has been. Not to acknowledge the following would be an omission that detracts not only from their contribution to and ownership of parts of the book but also from its worth. Our gratitude is expressed to Mrs Tran Thi Bach Mai and Mr Le Dong Phuong of the National Research Institute for Higher and Vocational Education (NRIHVE), Hanoi for assistance in co-ordinating and typing initial drafts and to Mrs Cindy Porter of University of New England, Armidale, NSW Australia (UNE) for her skill in preparing the final typescript. Those whose assistance in translation is acknowledged with thanks include Mr Nghiem Xuan Nung, Mr Nguyen Tien Oat, Mr Pham Thanh Nghi, Mr Le Dong Phuong, and Mrs Vu Thi Yen. The contribution of the authors, numbers of whom are ministers and senior officials of the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET), is greatly appreciated for all of them lead busy professional lives. While the exposition of higher education in Vietnam and its continuing development are properly their responsibility, we recognize the vital stimulus these endeavours received through the Education Sector Review and Human Resources Analysis Project. This project, strongly supported by Professor Tran Hong Quan and actively led by Professor Pham Minh Hac with expert assistance from Mr Baudouin

Acknowledgements

xvii

Duvieusart of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) as Task Manager and Dr Doran Bernard as ChiefTechnical Adviser, has created a framework for the modernization of education and training in Vietnam. Finally, we acknowledge the support given David Sloper through a 1993 joint programme award of the Academy of the Social Sciences in Australia, the Australian Academy of the Humanities, and the National Centre for Social Sciences ofVietnam. This award and the access to research facilities provided by the NRIHVE, its Director, Professor Dang Ba Lam, and his colleagues enabled this book to be written.

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

AIT ASEAN AY

CMEA COM CPV FAO DRV ESR GOP GDR GNP MIS MOET MOF MOSTE NA NCAE NCSS NGO

Asian Institute ofTechnology Association of Southeast Asian Nations Academic year Council for Mutual Economic Assistance Council of Ministers Communist Party ofVietnam United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization Democratic Republic of Vietnam Education Sector Review and Human Resources Analysis Project, 1991-92 Gross domestic product German Democratic Republic Gross national product Management Information System Ministry of Education and Training Ministry of Finance Ministry of Science, Technology, and the Environment National Assembly National Centre for Atomic Energy National Centre for the Social Sciences ofVietnam Non-governmental organization

Acronyms and Abbreviations

xix

National Institute for Educational Sciences National Research Institute for Higher and Vocational Education National Working Group NWG Organization for Economic Co-operation and OECD Development Research and Development R&D Republic of Vietnam RVN State Committee for Science and Technology SCST State Planning Committee SPC State research institute SRI Socialist Republic ofVietnam SRV United Nations Development Program UNDP University of New England, Armidale, NSW, UNE Australia United Nations Educational, Scientific, and CuiUNESCO rural Organization UNESCO/PROAP UNESCO Principal Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific United Nations Children's Fund UNICEF Union of Soviet Socialist Republics USSR

NIES NRIHVE

Map of Vietnam Provincial Boundaries and Principal Cities. 1990

CHINA

lAOS

GULF

OF TONGKING

CAMBODIA

An

Giang

CJ

Phu Ouoc

Con Dao

1

HIGHER EDUCATION IN VIETNAM: THE DOOR OPENSFROM INSIDE LE THAC CAN AND DAVID SLOPER

INTRODUCTION The primary aim of this book is to give an account of higher education in Vietnam in the contemporary period for general readers as well as for specialists in higher education and Asian studies. However modest the aims and achievements of this book, it opens the door for the first time on the important social institution of higher education in a country that is destined to become increasingly significant in the economic development of Southeast Asia and of the Asian region generally. There is no claim that this publication is the definitive academic study of the system and constituent organizations of higher education in Vietnam. That analytical work remains to be completed, hopefully by a Vietnamese scholar within a few years. Several very distinctive if not unique characteristics distinguish the present work. Firstly, this book was written about Vietnam for foreign and domestic readership substantially by Vietnamese citizens who con-

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Le Thac Can and David Sloper

tinue to live in Vietnam. Thus it does not follow the usual pattern of a foreign researcher who, with a comparatively privileged intellectual and technological background, has research opportunities to visit a country in which data are collected. Frequently, having obtained data and insights as a foreigner, the researcher departs, analyses the material, and writes up the study. One common result is that the outcome of such research, in terms of readership and ownership, is largely seen as being external to the country that afforded the research opportunity. Secondly, this book was written during 1993 at a critical threshold in the current transformation of Vietnam and potentially of its system of higher education. The changes with which Vietnam is grappling and which , since 1986, are propelling the country into previously unexperienced social, economic, and political circumstances certainly involve material and technological discontinuity at many levels. Changes in these domains are visibly influencing the well-being of the nation and its people. But we assert that development which is pivotal, residual, and inherently national depends fundamentally on the development of human resources at all levels. In such a development process, higher education is expected, by government and other bodies within Vietnam and also by external agencies, to play a crucial and a national role. Thirdly, this book was written without invigilation or censorship of the text by any government agency or other authority in either Vietnam or Australia. This characteristic of increasingly positive attitudes towards the concept of openness in Vietnam has a parallel, at a minor but quite tangible level, in the abolition on 1 April 1993 of security registration formalities for foreigners in Vietnam. An expansion of these three characteristics, particularly of the first two, forms part of this overview chapter in which, from recently opened doors and also from windows, new perspectives on higher education in Vietnam are revealed. There is an abundance of scholarly literature about Vietnam including such specialist areas as language, culture, history, and military interventions and their consequences. Since reunification in 197 5 of the southern former Republic of Vietnam and the northern former Democratic Republic ofVietnam to become the present Socialist Republic of Vietnam, research attention has increasingly focused on

]. Higher Education in Vietnam: The Door Opens -

From Inside

3

change in political and economic policies and systems within Vietnam and in its regional and international relations. The literature of reunification and its consequences which developed after 1975 has been supplanted by the growth of the literature of doi moi that has taken root since the 6th Congress of the Communist Party ofVietnam (CPV) planted the seeds of this concept in December 1986. The term doi moi in Vietnamese literally means renovation and refers to the process and consequences of pursuing an open-market orientation while maintaining the principles of socialism as interpreted by the CPV. The decisions made at the 6th Congress marked a policy watershed with the directional flow shifting from a command economy prescribed in accordance with centralized planning mechanisms towards the development of a multi-sectoral economy operated by market mechanisms with state regulation. About these matters much has been written. By contrast, remarkably little has been published internationally about higher education in Vietnam. There are a number of publications in Vietnamese and these are usually related to specific issues; and there are comparable presentations about particular aspects of higher education that Vietnamese officials and researchers have presented at regional seminars and international conferences. Some of these have been sponsored by UNESCO's Principal Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (PROAP) in Bangkok and may be accessed through PROAP's library. Other publications that touch on higher education include mission reports by the United Nations and other international agencies, the comprehensive 440-page Final Report ofthe Vietnam Education and Human Resources Sector Analysis1 and Pham Minh Hac's Education in Vietnam 1945-1991. 2 Among international publications concerned specifically with higher education are Le Thac Can,3 Lam Quang Thiep, 4 and Sloper. 5 It is against such a background that this book presents the first conspectus on higher education in Vietnam. AUTHOR PERSPECTIVES

The authors of this collection of research essays are all academically qualified and employed in the knowledge industry in Vietnam in various role combinations as teacher, researcher, administrator, or policy-

4

Le Thac Can and David Sloper

maker. The chapters are a mirror of the authors' intellectual backgrounds in that considerable diversity of intellectual outlook, of research methodology, and of writing style are evident; and the editors have not sought to achieve conformity in these matters. Such plurality can be claimed as a strength for the book and for the future of higher education in Vietnam even though the mirror of the authors' experience is probably taller and narrower than it is wide, given their formative experience in the intellectual conventions of former Eastern bloc countries. The conceptual frame within which each contributor was asked to write is that of change and responsiveness - both intrinsic and extrinsic at national and international levels. Evidence of these concepts is apparent in most chapters and is undeniably present at the macro-economic level as many components ofVietnamese society respond to forces in the emerging market economy. There are fifteen Vietnamese contributors and some are joint authors of more than one chapter. What follows is a case-study of these contributors through an analysis of characteristics in their heterogeneous intellectual backgrounds. This heterogeneity is reflected in three principal areas: the countries in which higher degrees were taken; the disciplines in which study and research were pursued; and the languages in which research and theses were completed. Other general characteristics which help form a social public profile are also detailed. The age range of authors is from forty-one to sixty-three years with the average being fifty-four years; and two are women and thirteen are men. Most authors are members of the CPV and three are members of the Central Committee of the Party. Four contributors are of ministerial or vice-ministerial rank. Nine have the nationally conferred status of professor and two of associate professor, with the remaining four being research scientists. Two persons hold a bachelor degree only and these are the only two who have not studied for formal awards in a foreign country even though they have travelled abroad. These two experts are also among the four non-professorial contributors, the other two who are classified as research scientists being one of the women and the youngest person, a forty-one-year-old man. Thirteen authors have doctoral degrees and these were completed

J. Higher Education in Vietnam: The Door Opens- From Inside

5

in six different countries: France, the former East Germany, Hungary, Poland, the United States, and the former Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). Those who completed doctoral degrees in the former USSR number seven or 54 per cent of the total; however, these seven studied in three different cities (Moscow, Leningrad, and Kiev, in frequency order) and no two in the same institution. The majority of contributors undertook their doctoral research in the areas of science or technology with physics and engineering being the disciplines of four and of three persons, respectively. Only one person did doctoral studies in education (comparative education) and that after completing a first degree in technology. Two authors list psychology as the focus of their doctoral research. Two of the older contributors, each in their sixties, completed high school studies in Vietnam in the French language, studied for their bachelor degree in a Chinese university having first learnt the Chinese language and script, and then subsequently undertook doctoral studies and research in the Russian language using the Cyrillic script. Having to complete a first degree in one language, usually Vietnamese for younger persons, before undertaking one or more postgraduate degrees in one or more different languages is another characteristic of this group; and also of many academics and research personnel in Vietnam. Only one of the authors completed her first degree and her doctorate in the same country and the same language, namely, French. Among the diversity of qualifications held and the countries in which degree studies were completed, only one of the fifteen contributors completed a degree in the English language. This represents one award attained in English among almost forty degrees held by the authors. This polylingual characteristic of the authors - and of the two who did not study abroad one is fluent in three languages, the other in two - can be seen as a focal point from which one may view the kaleidoscope of intellectual traditions and scholarly research conventions that influences chapters in the present book. Perhaps this chapter might have been more aptly titled "Not through a Single Prism: Changing Perspectives on Higher Education in Vietnam", for it is difficult to imagine a comparable group of executive and senior educa-

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Le Thac Can and David Sloper

tion policy-makers, institutional officials, and researchers who work in close professional proximity to each other having such disparate backgrounds. Despite this heterogeneity of intellectual backgrounds, it is true that their intellectualism operated within a common ideological frame that many foreigners, even students of Vietnam or of international socialism, might not easily understand. Those familiar with higher education and intellectual life can appreciate how personal paradigms may change over time. It is credible, for instance, that an engineer or technologist, after appointment as an institutional head, might develop further interests in educational planning or policy-making; or how another person, not being trained initially in the social sciences, might become professionally committed to, say, research methodology or adult learning and evaluation. Such shifts or development of paradigms are manifest in the lives and scholarly writing of many of the fifteen authors. That such a process of maturation has occurred is remarkable not simply because of their heterogeneous backgrounds, but also because of the relative paucity, during the past ten years, of new books and ideas and the inherent constraints imposed by a relatively narrow repertoire of professional experience. While a majority of the contributors had their formative intellectual experience in science and technology disciplines and within a Marxist frame of socio-political reference, their capacity to master several languages and to learn and to conduct research within cultures quite dissimilar to that ofVietnam suggests a flexible, or at least a pragmatic approach in accommodating social change. This assumption is evident in the initiation of and active responsiveness to change that is being led by many senior government personnel such as the present contributors. One obverse of the polylingual characteristic among authors is the occurrence of some variance in language usage and register between chapters: generally the language style, though differing between chapters, is scholarly; in one or two chapters, the style touches that of oral literature as a presentation is made simply and directly as a statement of the author's perception or professional experience. Less citation of research evidence and comparable literature occurs than is usually found in the social sciences or higher education.

1. Higher Education in Vietnam: The Door Opens- From Inside

7

A THRESHOLD TO TRANSFORMATION If the commitment to doi moi policies made at the 6th Congress of the CPV in December 1986 and reaffirmed at the 7th Congress in June 1991 represents a critical watershed in the socio-economic development of modern Vietnam, the national project entitled "Education Sector Review and Human Resources Analysis" implemented during 1991-92 is the dredging of the waterways to accommodate a new flow of ideas about to break any upstream logjam. This project referred to briefly as the Education Sector Review (ESR) was funded by the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) and executed jointly by UNESCO, Paris, and the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET). The design and methodology of the ESR were unique and are the subject of another study. 6 In contrast to the usual sector study, which often involves a survey team led by foreign specialists undertaking a rapid review of national data and infrastructure in the given sector, the ESR was conducted over two years in three interrelated phases: diagnosis, strategy development, and action planning. There was an almost Gandhian dimension to the ESR for, as there were no resident foreign specialists, the Vietnamese project participants were encouraged to identify problems, to acquire skills and understandings needed to solve those problems and others that arose, and then to take ownership, not only of the processes involved, but also of the outcomes of the ESR. Within the framework of the ESR during 1991 and 1992, higher education personnel along with others involved in education and training were equipped- through interaction with a team of foreign specialists and with each other- with new concepts and methodologies that resulted in the establishment of a new profile on and data about education and training which either verified or modified existing information. Education and training were interpreted to be national concerns not simply those of the MOET; and accordingly the seventy-nine Vietnamese personnel working on the ESR were drawn also from the State Planning Committee (SPC) , the State Committee for Science and Technology (SCST), the Ministry of Finance (MOF) , the Vietnamese Youth Union, the Vietnamese Women's Union, the National Econom-

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Le Thac Can and David Sloper

ics University, and the Education Management College. Professor Tran Hong Quan, Minister of Education and Training, gave unequivocal support for the ESR, with active leadership being vested in the Senior Vice-Minister of the MOET, Professor Pham Minh Hac, who was National Project Director. The two deputy project directors were Professor Le Thac Can and Professor Hoang Due Nhuan, respectively, Director of the National Research Institute for Higher and Vocational Education and the National Institute of Educational Sciences. At the operational level, ten National Working Groups (NWGs) were responsible for implementing various research studies, strategic planning exercises, and model simulations. Vietnamese participants joined these NWGs that focused either on horizontal levels of education and training such as General Education, Out-of-School Education and Vocational/Technical Education or on vertical sectoral concerns such as Statistics and Planning, Infrastructure and Equipment, and Administration and Personnel Management. Nine international specialists worked episodically with the NWGs to assist with research design, data analysis and interpretation, and strategy formulation. Their assignments in Vietnam were up to four weeks' duration and several times each year in the case of four core specialists. Leadership of each NWG was given to senior civil servants or academics, people who held such important posts as Director of the Finance and Planning Department or the Higher Education Department of the MOET. In addition to the incalculable process outcomes of the organic methodology adopted for this ESR, tangible outputs included: a master plan proposal for education and human resources development to the year 2005; a dynamic simulation model for the growth of the education system allowing adjustments to be made to plans; identification of seven key issues, ten policy goals, and thirty strategic alternatives; and the detailed presentation and costing of seventy-eight projects for strengthening and upgrading education and training in Vietnam of which forty-six have been ranked as high priority. These outputs in a published reporrl were formally tabled at a meeting in Hanoi in March 1993 attended by nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), aid agencies, and bilateral and multilateral donor and funding bodies. At this donors' meeting the Vietnamese authorities and UNESCO were commended by the rna-

}. Hightr Education in Vittnam: Tht Door Optns- From Insidt

9

jor agencies for the execution of what was termed an exemplary project which will stand as a model for future sector studies. Membership of the National Steering Committee for the ESR, of its Standing Committee, and of the ten NWGs included a vertical range of policy-makers and advisers, senior bureaucrats from several ministries and government bodies, educational and other researchers, and personnel engaged in educational administration, curriculum planning, and a diversity of teaching and instructional roles in education and training activities, both formal and informal. Some people were members of several ESR committees allowing more effective linkages. In addition, when specialist advice or research expertise was needed, other national agencies were commissioned for specific data collection and analysis; and international agencies such as the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) collaborated with the ESR directly and through commissioned adjunct research studies which provided important data for NWGs. Personnel involved in various aspects of the ESR were all university graduates and many were still directly associated with universities and research institutes as members of the academic staff. This fact, plus the existence of a NWG focusing on Higher Education and another on Research and Social Services ensured that these areas were an essential component of the ESR. Concurrent with the technical appraisal undertaken during 199192 by the ESR was a political reassessment of the place of education and training in contemporary Vietnam. Had the ESR never occurred, such a reassessment would have been likely and for a number of reasons. Firstly, there was an historic and ideological commitment by Vietnam to the eradication of illiteracy and the extension of education as a social and humanitarian right of its citizens. Chapter 3 provides a detailed account of this commitment and records that after the August 1945 Revolution, 95 per cent of the population were illiterate. Despite massive population increases, by the end of the 1980s a literacy rate of 88 per cent was recorded. Secondly, there was acceptance of a relationship between literacy, education, and health on the one hand and the potential, on the other, for a given or total population to be more socially and economically productive. Thirdly, with the orientation to an open-market commodity economy with the abolition of subsidies

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Le Thac Can and David Sloper

and the adoption of a single-price mechanism, there was evidence that social welfare provisions in education, health, and other areas may deteriorate. As one example, the previously high literacy rate, an achievement without equal among comparable developing countries, is thought to be falling. Fourthly, labour force data and considerations indicated that there was increasing unemployment, particularly associated with technological innovation both in agricultural and manufacturing sectors, and that some formal education and training provisions were inappropriate to changed needs in many sectors of the economy. As an illustration of this disjuncture, commerce students in 1993 were still being lectured in the theory of planned economies because of the absence of appropriate curriculum, textbooks, and experienced academic staff The concurrence of the professional and the political reappraisal of higher education in Vietnam in recent years has seen considerable interaction, formally and informally, between personnel involved in the ESR in various roles and government officials, policy advisers, and policy-makers. There was a small but critical number of senior people who, largely through their expertise, occupied positions it: and were influential in both domains. During the 1991-92 activities of the ESR, regular progress reports were formally presented to the Government of Vietnam, the UNDP, UNESCO, and to interested bilateral and multilateral agencies. In addition, members of the Standing Committee of the ESR and international specialists were invited to meetings, for example, with Professor Tran Hong Quan and the four vice-ministers of the MOET, and with Vice-Premier Nguyen Khanh and members of the Council of Ministers. These meetings were occasions for robust interaction as attempts were made to reconcile present policy and reality in view of evidence analysing strengths and weaknesses in the education and training sector. In May 1992 the World Bank supported an identification mission for a proposed higher education project. Data collected from visits to twenty-eight higher education institutions throughout Vietnam complemented the general findings of the higher education NWG in the ESR. The World Bank has undertaken further missions including one in October 1992 and another in March 1993. The need to reform higher education comprehensively had been

}. Higher Education in Vietnam: The Door Opens- From Inside

II

recognized by Vietnamese educationists and policy-makers before the inauguration of the ESR or other recent appraisals. Proposals for organizational reform and curriculum reform developed by the then Ministry of Higher Education antedate the major socio-economic changes initiated with the adoption of doi moi in December 1986. An account of the development of these reforms is given in Chapter 5. Plans for higher education in Vietnam to increase its congruence with international forms and standards have been an important agenda item in recent years at the annual national meeting of university rectors. Factors that have constrained increased effectiveness and implementation of reform in higher education among other social institutions in Vietnam include the transformation of international communism, the complexities of a peace settlement in Cambodia, the maintenance of an embargo on loans by international lending agencies, and the enforcement of selective trade and investment sanctions. A culmination of the parallel process of the professional and political reassessment of education and training was reached in January 1993 when the 4th Plenum of the full Central Committee of the CPV met and, among other considerations, undertook the most comprehensive review of education and training since 1945. Agreement was reached that education is not merely a personal good or a social good but that it is also an investment good; and that investment in education and training should precede and accompany other investment strategies being pursued as part of national development under doi moi policies. The centrality of human resource development is acknowledged in the Decision concerning the continuing renovation of education and training that was issued by the Central Committee on 14 January 1993. This Decision emphasizes that

• •

•

education and training are the driving force and basic requirement for the realization of socio-economic objectives; the general objectives of education and training are the improvement of the educational level of the population, the training of necessary manpower for development, and the creation of best conditions for the development of talent; education and training should meet the demands of national de-

12

Le Thac Can and David Sloper

velopment and follow progressive trends of life-long continuing education in contemporary times. The Decision also indicates orientations and important measures for the development of education and training in Vietnam in the near future including

• • • •

• • • • • • • •

improvement of the structure of the national education system; reorganization of the system of schools, colleges, and universities; eradication of illiteracy; improved linkages between general secondary education and vocational education; expansion of vocational education and training; rational increases in higher education enrolments; redefinition of objectives for education and training, redesigning of curricula, improvement of education and training methods for every level of education and training; promotion of research and extension activities in universities and colleges; consolidation and development of education and training activities in ethnic minority regions and areas with economic difficulties; strengthening of educational management by the government and Party organizations; upgrading of the teaching and managerial staff; renovation of educational administration .

Despite massive resource deprivation that has affected education and training generally and higher education in particular, this book presents evidence that considerable progress in reform has been achieved and that, by 199 3 the threshold for a broad transformation has been reached. AN ANALYTICAL FRAME

It is arguable that at all times the long-term prosperity and well-being of a nation is inextricably linked to its higher education system; and that at times of specific or national crisis- war, natural calamity, major

]. Higher Education in Vietnam: The Door Opens- From Inside

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ideological shift or economic discontinuity to name a few - expectations and demands placed on higher education are increased. Thus to appreciate the key issues facing higher education one should have some understanding of Vietnam as a modernizing nation. IfVietnam, which may currently be regarded as a weak kitten economically, has the potential to develop into a tiger and possibly even into an economic dragon, it is appropriate to present a profile of the national economy and a brief overview of the total educational system before reviewing specific aspects of higher education. Table 1.1, derived from the ESR, displays basic data; and Chapter 2 gives an interpretative overview of the socio-economic background ofVietnam since 1986 and its impact on higher education. Vietnam, a large and diverse country having a land border of3,730 kilometres and a coastline of 3,260 kilometres, has specific local problems arising from varied geographic and demographic factors. Different provinces and regions have adjusted to socio-economic changes at different rates; and universities and colleges in various locations have responded to local needs and changing national policies in different ways. To contextualize higher education the next two chapters help form the framework for the focus of this book. Chapter 3 gives an account of the formal education system in Vietnam, which includes a brief history presented in five periods and an overview of issues since reunification in 1975 that are of significance in the immediate future. The introductory section of the book concludes with Chapter 4, which outlines the policy-making context and policies of education and training in Vietnam. In continuation of the building metaphor associated with socioeconomic renovation in Vietnam, the following section sketches an analytical frame upon which to hang the door of higher education that is being opened from inside. As stated earlier, the conceptual template within which authors were ro write their chapters is that of change and responsiveness. What follows are observations about higher education generally that allow readers to sharpen the focus analytically on the contributions of Chapters 5 to 12. These present a critical profile of attributes of Vietnam's system of higher education, of its co nstituent institution s, and of the crisi s of change being encountered. Significant

Table 1.1 Vietnam: Basic Data Demographic (sources: a, b) Area Population (I 989) Population density ( 1989) Population growth rate Crude birth rate Crude death rate Life expectancy at birth ( 1990) Female life expectancy as % of male Economic (sources: b. c) Gross national product (GNP) ( 1988) GNP per capita Economic growth rate ( 1990) Current account deficit (I 990) Government budget deficit ( 1990) Exchange rate: US$ I to dong

332,000 sq. km . 64.4 million 194 per sq . km . 2. I o/o per annum 3 1 per 1,000 8 per I ,000 62.7 years I 07.3% US$ I 2 billion (estimated) US$220 (estimated, 1988) 6.4% (estimated) US$640 million 20% of national income 1987 = 50 I; I 989 = 3, 996; 1991 = 14,000; 1992 = I 0,500

Labour force (sources: b, c) Size of labour force (I 989) % of females in labour force Size of labour force in the state sector % of labour force in agriculture % of labour force in industry % of labour force in services

33 million 46% 3.7 million 67 % (approximate) I 2% (approximate) 21% (approximate)

Education (source: d) % of literate population (I 0 years plus. 1989) % of females literate % of males literate Number of females illiterate Number of males illiterate

88% 84% 93 % 3,854,000 1,537,000

Mean number of years of schooling (25 years plus, 1980) Number of primary school students ( 1990) % of female primary school students

3.2 years 8,583,050 48%

Number of lower secondary students ( 1990) % of female lower secondary students

2,761,825 56%

Number of upper secondary students (I 990) % of female upper secondary students

691,379 49%

Number of students in vocational education Number of students in professional secondary education

100, ISO 138,508

Number of students in higher education % of female higher education students

126,025 42 % (approximate)

Sources: a - World Bank, Vietnam: Stabilization and Structural Reform (Washington, 1990). b - UNDP, Human Development Report 1991 (New York : Oxford University Press. I 991) . c - UNDP, Draft UNDP Fourth Country Programme I 992- I 996 (Hanoi, I 991) . d - General Statistical Office. 1989 Census (Hanoi).

I . Higher Education in Vietnam: The Door Opens- From Inside

15

change, often arising from a crisis situation, is a proper part of college and university life. However else we-{[efine a university, it must be defined as an organization committed to and involved with change. Change is the essence of universities as they seek to preserve, to produce, to disseminate, and to apply knowledge. Internationally, the gap between the multiple demands placed on higher education and the resources provided to it by governments and other patrons has widened in the past decade. From countries that are quite dissimilar politically, economically, and in other social dimensions, a suite of issues affecting higher education seems to emerge. Questions arise about which issues in this dynamic suite are inextricably central and which are located at various points in the periphery of concern; and also which among the common suite of issues are intrinsic to a national system and which are extrinsic as characteristics of international higher education. Whatever specific answers are provided, there appears to be increasing congruence in the response given to such issues, at least among politicians and policy-makers, despite divergence in other national characteristics. International reports such as Universities Under Scrutiny 8 provide an analysis of the relationship between crisis, change, and response found in OECD higher education systems in the 1980s. It is difficult and perhaps foolhardy to describe in a single word or phrase the complex issues and spirited debates that have encompassed higher education during the past three decades. Such an analysis is presented in Table 1.2, which derives from a specific study9 of factors influencing academic staff development in Western higher education during 196090. Vietnam and its higher education system have been relatively insulated from the issues that have affected universities in the noncommunist world including those in Western countries. However, with the increasing thrust for higher education reform since 1990, universities and colleges in Vietnam are facing or are likely to have to deal with many of the issues listed in Table 1.2 and to deal with them in a much shorter time span than was available to their Western counterpans. Concern for almost all of these issues is expressed in the following chapters and by more than one author.

Le Thac Can and David Sloper

16

Table 1.2 Major Themes and Issues Influencing Western Higher Education Issues

Period

Theme

1960s

Democratization

Expansion. growth. questions of social relevance

Early 1970s

Participation

Equity. access. socially disadvantaged. questions of accreditation

Late 1970s

Accountability

To government and patrons. to society; also: vertical - to bureaucracy; outward - to society; horizontal - to peers; inward - personal

Early 1980s

Rationalization

Specialized and vocational studies. amalgamation and closure. redundancy and early retirement. questions of purpose

Late 1980s

Quality

Efficiency and effectiveness. excellence. questions of economic relevance

Early 1990s

Performance

Growth in participation rates and enrolments. endeavours for system standardization and new delivery modes. emphasis on output and performance indicators

Of all the critical issues facing higher education internationally and particularly in Vietnam, that of resource provision is of pre-eminent concern. The challenge for universities is twofold and must be addressed simultaneously: how to manage currently available resources more efficiently and more effectively when the goals of higher education are becoming increasingly complex; and how to expand the existing resource base without any fundamental compromise of the accepted purposes of higher education. Significant reform of higher education has been pursued during the past five to ten years in countries as different as China, Great Britain, Holland, Indonesia, Norway, and Australia. Non-government analysis of such reforms suggests that the immediate and tangible outcomes include: a greater concentration of policy formulation; usually an endorsement of corporate managerialism; structural changes, often in-

} . Higher Education in Vietnam: The Door Opens -

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volving institutional amalgamations and the formation of consortia; encouragement of applied research yielding direct benefits; increased student participation rates; and generally decreased professional and personal satisfaction for staff. The need for what have often been dramatic innovations derives from perceptions of national demographic and international economic factors. But the motive force driving these reforms is increased competition for government funding between higher education and other social sectors. Governments and their advisers have often attempted to present innovations and interventions within a conceptual framework, even if this is done post hoc. Theories that have been influential in recent years, as responsible ministers in liberal democracies as well as those in more controlled nations realign their higher education systems, owe more to economics than to other social science disciplines. Human capital theory in relation to investment in education was influential for twenty years or more from the 1960s; and it is not entirely without supporters even in international lending and educational agencies. Currently, neo-classical or free-market economics receives more attribution from education ministers and officials than many economists would probably accord them. While issues raised in the debate about free-market economics are increasingly familiar to those who read the literature of higher education, the countries in which these phenomena occur are increasingly diverse. It is unlikely that Vietnam, as it pursues openness and internationalism, will be isolated from this current trend. Indeed there is already evidence of the operation of open-market economics in higher education for in 1993 more students pay part or all of their higher education costs than receive scholarship support from the state; and Chapter 12 provides a case-study of such trends with its account of the development ofThang Long Private University. DILEMMAS FACED BY UNIVERSITIES

The dilemmas faced by Vietnam's and other higher education systems in the 1990s can be viewed through an analysis of three sets of interrelated issues which could be expressed as a hypothesis in three statements. As higher education currently endeavours to serve better the

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Le Thac Can and David Sloper

socio-economic context in which it is located, the expectations and demands placed upon it multiply and come from a widening range of constituencies. At the same time there is relatively less support given directly to higher education and a constriction in funding rates and other resources is experienced. One notable consequence of these two somewhat antithetical factors is that higher education must expand and diversify its resource base and the range of patrons who provide it with financial and other support. These three interrelated statements could be tested analytically at several levels, for instance: at system level, at institution level, or at a sub-unit level such as a discipline department, research centre, or individual academic. Table 1.3 contains a listing of some of the principal items that could be specified under each statement. The issues presented in Table 1.3 derive from a more heterogeneous context than that found in Vietnamese universities and colleges in 1993. Yet with few exceptions most issues are in evidence across the range of the one hundred or more institutions and/or have been the subject of discussion at formal meetings such as the annual conference of rectors. What is recognized by senior educationists in Vietnam is that most of these factors which, in recent years have been or currently are influential in systems of higher education in other countries, will be encountered by Vietnam as it strives to transform the forms and standards of its own higher education system. This is not an argument based on a simplistic theory of educational evolution or on an ideal of internationalism in higher education. It is grounded in the reality of the following five premisses that are explicit in this and other chapters. These are applicable to Vietnam as to other nations with variations of emphasis. •

• •

Governments are unable or unwilling for political and economic reasons to increase significantly the rate of expenditure on higher education among other social welfare commitments. Higher education must make more efficient and more effective use of resources that are currently available. Continuing action must be taken by higher education to expand and to diversify its resource base and this is not limited to financial resources.

Table 1.3 Interrelated Issues Affecting Contemporary Higher Education

Increase in Expectations and Demand • Increased rates of participation among school-leaver age cohort • Reduction in youth unemployment • Direct employability of graduates • Increased enrolments in postgraduate degrees • Staff more visible at institution • More applied research • Narrowing of teaching profile • Increase in productivity • Greater contribution to economic prosperity • Increased focus on areas of present national importance • More immediate contribution to reduction of national deficit • More direct intervention by government • Increased demand for accountability and more tangible performance indicators • More engagement of social issues through equity and access programmes • Increased demand for recognition of prior learning and credit transfer

Constriction in Funding Rates and Other Resources

Diversification of Resource Base and Patrons

• Reduced rates of recurrent funding • Reduction in academic course and units offerings • Delayed or reduced maintenance schedules • Pressure for higher rates of facilities utilization • Reduced funding for capital works • Increased obsolescence of plant. equipment, and learning resources • Delays in replacing staff • Retarded salary reviews and increases • Increased student/staff ratios • Increased emphasis on vocational and applied courses • Devolution of management and budget implementation • Increased emphasis on fiscal accountability • Introduction of charges for service internally and externally • Increased scrutiny of academic staff conditions, e.g. study leave. inquiry-based research

• Development of student fees and charges • Elaboration of student loan schemes • Encouragement of contract and grant research • Expansion of fee-paying academic programmes. e.g. international and graduate students • Development of industrial and commercial collaboration • Adoption of a more corporate managerial style in both administrative and academic areas • Strengthening of alumni network • Development of donor base. e.g. named buildings, chairs. facilities. or bequests • Establishment of entrepreneurial units for R&D. patents. and other commercial activities • Fostering of international linkages between institutions and academic units • Inauguration of new learning and delivery modes. e.g. distance and open • Greater utilization of plant and facilities throughout year • Development of continuing education and extension programmes

20

•

•

Le Thac Can and David Sloper

Increasing expectations are placed on higher education to contribute more directly to national development and particularly to economic prosperity. The relationship of higher education to other levels and forms of education, training and professional development and its influence on them, both positive and dysfunctional, must be addressed.

The exposition and analysis of these principles, as of the issues identified in Table 1.3, are the essence of this book. Expression of them in contemporary higher education in Vietnam may be found in such selected examples as: the approval by the 4th Plenum of privatization measures consummating the development over several years of progressive regulations and legislation; recognition that the proportion of administrators, at 43 per cent of the total staff in higher education, is grossly inappropriate; the growth and ingenuity of entrepreneurial activities aimed at income supplementation; strategic plans to deal with the difficulties inherent in curriculum reform; renewed evaluation of the national student scholarship scheme and of employment prospects for graduates; the need for positive interaction with such patrons and participants as government bodies, professional associations, employers, alumni, families of students; and the need to recognize that interactions between higher education and its various constituencies should not be merely financial transactions but opportunities for enhanced linkages affecting curriculum, employability, economic productivity, and social effectiveness. After resource deprivation, the most fundamental issue facing higher education in Vietnam is that of reorganization. Many higher education institutions are roo small, academically dispersed, and unarticulated to make the best use of available resources. In the 1991 I 92 academic year the average enrolment was 1,200 students and twelve institutions enrolled fewer than 200 students. This endemic concern for structural change affects other specific issues and thus is a recurring theme not only in Chapter 5 but also in Chapter 6, which deals with the staffing profile, in Chapter 8, which considers the place of research activities in the present system of higher education and in Chapter 9, which examines financial issues. That this concern is also

]. Higher Education in Vietnam : The Door Opens -

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mentioned in other chapters is not surprising; nor is the fact that many Vietnamese university and college personnel, inured to minimalist budgets, view structural change as a vital strategy in ameliorating the pattern of resource deprivation in which their higher education system seems to be trapped. However resource-deprived higher education may be, it is salutary to note the needs identified by university rectors and college directors in twenty-eight institutions visited by the World Bank higher education project identification mission in May 1992. Mter acknowledging that the major concern expressed is for "reforming the network" of higher education, the mission's aide-memoire records that the following needs were identified as priorities: • • • •

retraining and upgrading of staff, both academic and administrative; revision of curricula, particularly in the social sciences; provision of equipment and learning resources; provision of books and other library resources.

It is significant that buildings and physical facilities, although in need of upgrading and replacement as is clear from the evidence presented in Chapter 10, were not ranked; and this may seem unusual to people familiar with comparable aid projects. Each of the ranked needs is interrelated but the priority given to the professional development and upgrading of teachers, researchers, administrators and other service personnel testifies to the centrality of human resource development needs in higher education in Vietnam. The strengthening of contemporary leaders and specialists in each area, against the background of academic classifications examined in Chapter 7, would greatly assist sustainable development and allow Vietnam to interpret and pursue its own pattern of higher education. Vietnam's academics have shown remarkable ingenuity, creativity, and pragmatism in sustaining higher education during extreme economic adversity. Provision of additional resources, especially the professional development of staff, when linked to other organizational changes including structural reform, will prove to be, we believe, a rnajor catalyst in continuing national development. As prospects for

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Le Thac Can and David Sloper

national economic growth improve, so must they also for higher education. In a July 1993 survey 10 of economic growth in seventeen Asian region countries including Korea in the north, Pakistan in the West, and New Zealand in the south, Vietnam was ranked in the top quartile based on GDP growth. In fact, Vietnam was placed in fourth position in this table of seventeen nations that included the economic tigers and dragons of Southeast and East Asia. With the expected growth in Vietnam's GDP of7.5 per cent for 1993, Mr Phan Van Tiem, minister without portfolio with responsibility for economic matters, reported that targets set by the government this year will be surpassed and an annual increase of7 per cent in GDP until 2000 is expected. Inflation in the first five months of 1993 reached only 4.5 per cent, notably less than the 30 per cent recorded for the same period in 1991. These achievements were despite adverse weather conditions earlier in 1993 in the centre and north of the country. PRAGMATIC DUALISM A primary contention of this chapter is that expansion and rationalization of the higher education system in Vietnam is inextricably linked to expansion and rationalization of the resource base supporting the system. Higher education in Vietnam has been recognized as a significant and a costly social institution. Demands to improve accountability in the effective management of all resources used by higher education are likely to increase- and probably at a rate faster than any increase in direct funding. In the first phase of national adjustment towards a market economy, the MOET and higher education institutions have made notable progress in improving social accountability and in diversifying funding. Chapter 11 with its account of the inauguration of Thang Long University as the first private university in Vietnam and Chapter 12, which describes activities to strengthen the academic organization and the financial operations of Can Tho University are instances of such progress. Even so, universities and colleges currently function in a survival mode at a level of resource deprivation that makes coherent development almost impossible.

]. Higher Education in Vietnam: The Door Opens- From Inside

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Pursuing initiatives in higher education in a context of crisis and social volatility is often a venturing process, likened to taking several steps forward and then one back in order to gain stability sufficient to survive. In the maelstrom of development in Vietnam, political, economic, and other social advancement may officially be deemed to be closely linked; however, inevitably one sector advances more quickly than others, even if only for a time. Some observers would argue that economic developments are outstripping political and legislative developments. This view would be understood in terms of the basic geographic and demographic diversity within Vietnam and also in terms of the differential rate of adjustment that areas of the country and of the national administration have made in the movement towards an open-market economy. There is evidence of what appears to outsiders as the operation of contradictory forces in Vietnam's remarkable transformation, as may be seen in the following examples: the endorsement of open-market policies by the CPV, which maintains the panoply of Party ideology and apparatus; increasing acceptance of social pluralism but a central political commitment to socialism; a freeing of entrepreneurial spirit but manifest evidence of a social conscience; a programme of equality and education for all and a simultaneous commitment to nurture talent and to develop excellence; new regulations for the operation of private higher education institutions and a resolution to increase, by 22 per cent, the hours that undergraduates in state universities spend formally studying the philosophy of Marxism-Leninism. How much effort is spent in resolving apparently mutual contradictions such as these is unknown. It would seem that many Vietnamese adopt a pragmatic pattern of dualism in order to achieve progress. Pragmatic dualism of this order is not simply a private coping mechanism. The official English language newspaper Vietnam News on the from page of its edition dated Friday 23 April 1993 presents in its four lead stories examples of this pragmatic dualism. An article beginning "General Secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam Central Committee Do Muoi received in Hanoi Wednesday afternoon Ms Melba E. Hernandez, member of the Communist Party of Cuba Central Committee and adviser to its Department of Foreign Relations and

24

Le Thac Can and David Sloper

Ideology, now on a visit to Vietnam" appears below a photograph showing the two officials separated by a bust of former President Ho Chi Minh. Juxtaposed below is the next headline "Taiwan, Vietnam Sign Investment Pact". This is followed by a report that states: Vietnam agreed to safeguard the rights ofTaiwanese investors, ensure their ability to remit profits and create a framework for settling commercial disputes, the (Foreign) Ministry said in a statement. Taiwan has committed about US$1.2 billion to Vietnam since the late 1980s.

A comparable juxtaposition lies in the other two stories, headlined: "Lao Government Economic Delegation Arrives" and "Demands for Telephone and Fax Subscription Keep Rising in Hanoi". The former refers to continuing friendly relations with another communist state in Indochina. The latter reports that demand in 1992 rose fourfold over that in 1991 and that further expansion is being contracted with Japanese and German companies. The desire to stand upright as an independent nation and yet to be linked to and accepted by the wider international community is a tangible part of Vietnam's process of modernization. This contemporary pragmatic dualism has a parallel in the centuries of common border and cultural relationships with China to the north. It reaffirms the Vietnamese proverb, sometimes illustrated with a grove of mature bamboo: "To succeed you must learn to bend with the wind". This book captures some of the winds of change that are blowing across Vietnam and its higher education system and the creative efforts that are being made to resolve mutual contradictions as an old order changes and new responses are demanded. Among obvious omissions are specific consideration of curriculum reform, academic staff development, and graduate employment patterns. Each of these topics is examined explicitly in several chapters; each proved to be elusive when authors tried to capture its data and current characteristics; and each merits more systematic analysis in a different kind of publication. No attempt has been made to write a concluding chapter. In opening the door of higher education in Vietnam to a wider international community, this book invites reflective understanding of the distinctive context and of critical issues and options being faced.

]. Higher Education in Vietnam: The Door Opens- From Inside

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NOTES 1. Final Report of the Vietnam Education and Human Resources Sector Analysis, National Project VIE 89/022 (Hanoi: Ministry of Education and Training, Vietnam, UNDP UNESCO, 1992). 2. Pham Minh Hac, ed., Education in Vietnam 1945-1991 (Hanoi: Ministry of Education and Training, 1991). 3. Le Thac Can, "Higher Education Reform in Vietnam", Comparative Education Review35, no. 1 (1991): 6. 4. Lam Quang Thiep, "Higher Education in Vietnam", Encyclopaedia of Higher Education (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1992). 5. D.W Sloper, Higher Education in Vietnam: Issues and Options, Working Paper Series, no. 6 (Hiroshima: Research Institute for Higher Education, Hiroshima University, 1993), p. 47. 6. D.W Sloper and D.C. Bernard, "Participatory Sector Analysis" (forthcoming). 7. As in note 1. 8. W Taylor, ed., Universities Under Scrutiny (Paris: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, 1987). 9. D. W. Sloper, Academic StaffDevelopment: Policies and Issues from an Australian Perspective, Working Paper Series, no. 3 (Hiroshima: Research Institute for Higher Education, Hiroshima University, 1989), p. 41. 10. "Panel of Economists: Paying for Excess", Far Eastern Economic Review, 8 July 1993, pp. 44-48.

2 SOCIO -ECON OMIC BACKG ROUND OF VIETNAM SINCE 1986: IMPACT ON EDUCA TION AND HIGHE R EDUCA TION NGUYEN DUY QVY AND DAVID SLOPER

The year 1986 is recognized as an important landmark for Vietnam, a country which has undergone a new phase of development in implementing the policy of doi moi 1 pursuant to the Resolution of the 6th Congress of the Communist Party ofVietnam (CPV) held in December of that year. Although only six years have passed until 1992, the policy of renovation has made initial achievements that are of great significance and have created turning-point changes in the socioeconomic development ofVietnam. NEW PERSPECTIVE ON SOCIO-ECO NOMIC DEVELOPME NT IN VIETNAM SINCE 1986, PARTICULARLY IN 1990-92

From having an economy run in accordance with centralized planning mechanisms with two major economic sectors - state and collective

2 . Impact of Socio-Economic Background on Education and Higher Education

27

-Vietnam has changed to develop a multi-sectoral commodity economy operated by market mechanisms with state controls. The system of subsidies in production and goods distribution and the use of coupons in consumption has been demolished. The Vietnamese economy has adopted a one-price system and has experienced considerable improvement in its budget through innovation in financial and monetary policies. One consequence of this is that the fevers of inflation have been cooled down. In early 1989, a programme of economic renovation was realized simultaneously with comprehensive pricing reforms combined with anti-inflation policies, which have substantially reduced the inflation rate. Owing to efforts to stabilize the economy by taking measures to increase exports to hard currency areas and other solutions, the economy of Vietnam had, by the end of 1991, compensated for the deficit in its budget and the scarcity of materials; at the same time, the inflation rate of about 70 per cent was reduced in the following year to about 15 per cent per annum. In the initial stage of this renovation process, policies on wages, incomes, and employment have improved in some aspects in spite of what some regard as a low speed of implementation. AB a result of the extension of enterprise power and authority, workers have been able to earn extra income. In rural areas, the implementation of a market one-price mechanism and of the form of quotas to be applied to farmer households has radically changed cultivation ways and increased labour efficiency. In 1988, agricultural production went up by 4 per cent; in 1989 by approximately 7 per cent; but in 1990 by only 2 per cent due to the lack of fertilizers. Despite its dependence on the weather, the agricultural sector has obtained new factors as stimuli for development. Farmers are entitled to the secure long-term use ofland for up to ninety-nine years and may transfer their right to use the land allocated by the state as stated in the 1992 Constitution, although the ownership of land is collective. This has encouraged farmers to take part in production vigorously and has promoted agro-forestry outputs. Forms of organizing production units in agriculture have also become varied. Besides selfsufficient households, co-operatives have been transformed in organization and their ways of operating. The supply of input services for

28

Nguyen Duy Quy and David Sloper

farmers such as fertilizers, seeds, and pesticides and the purchase of agricultural products have been mainly undertaken by co-operatives and state-run companies. State-run farming activities occupy just 4 per cent of cultivated land with the main products being plants and livestock. Although there have been changes in the production structure of Vietnamese agriculture, for the time being rice is still the staple product. Rice accounts for nearly 55 per cent of the total agricultural output. The transition to market mechanism, liberalization of farm product prices, and transformation of cultivation methods have considerably expanded the area under cultivation and increased farm outputs. Vietnam had previously suffered from insufficiency of rice and had to import for many years; but recently it has become a rice-exporting country. In the years 1990 to 1992, one to 1.5 million tons of rice had been exported annually. Other farrri products such as maize, sweet potatoes, cassava, sugar, and domestic animals are an important source of export income as well; and account needs also to be taken of other commercial products such as tobacco, coffee, tea, coconuts, rubber, and silk. Along with agriculture, policies affecting forestry have also been renewed. As a result of several projects of afforestation and environmental preservation, in combination with the reforms in cultivation methods and the promotion of forest and land allocation policies, forests have been restored and numbers of bare mountains and hills made green agam. Besides agriculture and forestry, the new open and export-oriented policies have helped marine production to contribute to exports of valuable products such as shrimp, fish, and other seafoods. The production of fish in recent years has increased steadily: in 1989 it was 623,000 tons; in 1990, 619,000 tons; and in 1991, 677,000 tons. In industry, there have also been changes in economic structure. According to estimates for 1990, approximately 60 per cent of industrial productivity was attributed to the state-run sector (including joint ventures with private companies) and the rest, nearly 40 per cent, to the private and co-operative sector. Since 1989, reform measures have provided state-run enterprises with more self-determined power in

2. Impact ofSocio-Economic Background on Education and Higher Education

29

business. However, it is estimated that two-thirds of state-run enterprises have not been profitable. To compensate for these losses, these enterprises have been privileged to get credit at low interest. This has contributed further to the national budget deficit and financial difficulties. Nevertheless, a number of industrial sectors have played and do play an important role in economic growth, particularly the mining of coal, bauxite, copper, chromium, apatite, gold, different kinds of rare soil, gems, and petroleum. The exploitation of crude oil has been developing from production of less than 1 million tons in 1986, increasing to 1.5 million tons in 1989, and to 3.9 million tons in 1991. Exclusive of the Vietnam-Soviet oil joint venture, which is in current production, exploration activities have involved the co-operation of several international oil companies. The output of oil of about 20 million tons per year is expected to be reached by the end of the decade. The energy industry has made a marked development in recent years. Several large and medium-sized power stations have been brought into operation. These efforts assist the growth of certain base products in many industrial areas. The total output value of industry (calculated according to 1989 fixed cost) was 14,763 billion dong in 1991, of which the state-run sector accounts for 10,291 billion and other sectors 4,472 billion. In the first half of 1992, the total industrial output value was 8,632 billion dong including 6,112 billion attributed to the state-run sector and 2,520 billion to other sectors. Table 2.1 presents data about the production of selected items in recent years. The implementation of policies to develop a multi-sectoral commodity economy under market mechanism with state control has resulted in the enlargement of services, culture, and social work. Because of the measures taken to open the economy and reform the policies on foreign commerce, these areas have received increases at an average rate of 10 per cent per year since 1988. A great deal of commercial, tourist, and financial activity has sprung up. Even within budget limitations, the state has endeavoured to sustain the domains of culture, social work, education, science, and health. Nevertheless, the expenditure on education in 1989 accounted for only 1 per cent of the gross domestic product (GDP) while in neighbouring countries it was

30

Nguyen Duy Quy and David Sloper Table 2.1 Selected Agricultural and Industrial Production, 1989-91

Product Foodstuffs * Tea Coffee Rubber Electricity generated Coal Crude oil Cement

Unit

1989

1990

1991

Million tons Thousand tons Thousand tons Thousand tons Billion kWh Million tons Million tons Million tons

21 .51 30.2 40.8 50 .6 7.9 3.8 1.6 2.3

21.49 32 .2 59 .3 57 .9 8.8 4.6 2.7 2.5

21.72 34.3 59 .6 59.7 9.3 4.3 3.9 3.2

* Converted rice equivalent. Source: Vu Dinh Bach and Nguyen Dinh Huong 1992 (pp . 57-59).

higher, for instance: in Thailand it was 3.5 per cent; in China, 3.4 per cent; in Bangladesh, 1.9 per cent; and in Nepal, 2 per cent. The expenditure on health care in 1989 accounted for 0.6 per cent of the GOP whereas in Thailand it was 1.1 per cent; in China, 0.8 per cent; and in Bangladesh, 0.7 per cent. In 1990, the state spent just over US$1 per capita on education, while in China the cost was US$6 and in India US$11.15. Such low investment on education and health is one of the reasons these areas are critically degraded. With rapid economic growth, a decline in inflation, open policies, and better circulation of goods to and from various parts of the country, domestic production since 1990 has met fundamental consumer needs .and allowed some accumulation. Though the accumulation rate constitutes only 10 per cent of the GOP, of which about 4 per cent is from the internal economy, this is a significant point to mark the stability of the economy after many years of crises. The accumulation fund according to the actual price was: in 1986, 35 billion dong; in 1987, 159 billion; in 1988, 1,118 billion; in 1989, 1,446 billion and in 1990, 3,204 billion. It is noteworthy that while the accumulation made in the state-run sector has been very low largely because of insufficient investment budget, that in the household economy has increased. In 1989 the amount saved by households was 505.3 billion dong. 2 If appropriate policies can be designed to attract the people's investment in the development of production and services, the accumulation of

2. Impact of Socio-Economic Background on Education and Higher Education

3I

funds from internal sources should be enormous in the next five to ten years. These initial achievements have helped the Vietnamese economy gradually get out of crises and have helped people put their confidence in the national cause of renovation. The 7th Party Congress in June 1991 confirmed the first gains of renovation and determined to carry out intensively further comprehensive reforms throughout the country with the following essential elements: to develop the market economy within a socialist orientation; to broaden co-operative relations within the region and the world; and to democratize social life in all aspects. After the 7th Congress, the people's morale and commitment to productive labour have obviously increased. Therefore, the economy has advanced a new step in 1992; main norms and quotas were fulfilled and even exceeded the planned ones. Compared with the year 1991, the national income in 1992 increased by around 5.3 per cent, industrial output by 14.5 to 15 per cent, agricultural output by 4.4 per cent, and foodstuff production by 9 per cent gaining 24 million tons. The state's basic building investment increased by 25 per cent. Direct foreign investments being implemented increased by 73 per cent, the domestic income budget rose by 82 per cent, and exports by 19 per cent.3 In 1992, the economy developed more comprehensively and at a higher tempo with a drastic drop in inflation, which reaffirms the recognized capability and will of Vietnam to overcome challenges and hardship. Its economy has managed to self-sufficiently respond toessential demands for materials and goods through commodity exchanges with foreign partners. The amount of exports in the two years 199192 increased and altered the balance of income-expense from the previous net trade deficit to exports with an accumulation despite the sharp reduction in economic trade relations with markets in the former Soviet Union and Eastern European countries. 4 Since the promulgation of the Foreign Investment Law in 1988, there are more than forty countries which have made direct investments in Vietnam with the registered licensed capital being over US$4 billion. In 1992, the capital investment was double that of 1991; and

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Nguyen Duy Quy and David Sloper

there were relatively big projects (exclusive of oil ones) being invested in both the northern and southern areas of Vietnam. In 1992, inflation and economic crises were repressed to a significant degree. In 1990-91, the inflation rate reached 70 per cent per annum (an average of 4.4 per cent per month). In the following year it was dramatically reduced to 15 per cent (an average of 1.2 per cent per month). Monetary value and exchange rates have since remained stable. Agro-industrial production and exports have increased significantly and should grow further bringing an end to a retrograde period in certain economic fields and sectors. The balance of supply and demand of materials has been better assured and national reserves built up, which have strengthened the ability of Vietnam to cope with unpredictable market changes. Progress and positive advancement have been witnessed in such fields as science, education, culture, information, health care, sports, and the execution of social policies. Difficulties seem to be declining in the lives of the people as seen in the apparently improved living standard of the majority of the population. A diminution has been reported in the number of people attempting to leave the country. From an overview perspective of the beginning stage of renovation, it is evident that there have been radical changes in various domains such as household economy, the state-run sector, and in external economic affairs as well as in services, social activities, and culture. New factors have emerged contributing to socio-economic stability for current and prospective development. These outcomes result from numerous elements of the renovation policies that are appropriate for the conditions of Vietnam and the well-being of the whole community. Although there must be further work done to achieve complete renewal of organizational and management mechanisms and to reform economic structures, in Vietnam a new model of a market economy with a socialist orientation has been formulated and is becoming more and more visible through actual practice. The investment in building a material-technical basis and the application of scientific and technological achievements in the process of renovation are regarded as important factors which have brought about the mentioned results. The production capacity of some key economic areas is being enlarged,

2. Impact ofSocio-Economic Background on Education and Higher Education

33

particularly of foodstuffs, crude oil, and electricity. These will make a decisive contribution to ensure fundamental balance in sustainable economic development. Initial fruits of the renovation programme reflect the great potential of the Vietnamese economy once it transferred to a multi-sectoral commodity economy that is driven by market mechanisms with the control of the state. Nevertheless, the renovation process in Vietnam is expected to experience further challenging obstacles. From the standpoint of its economy, Vietnam is considered to be a low-developed country compared with others in Southeast Asia. 5 At present, despite specific progress, its economy is still vulnerable and unstable with obvious evidence that economic efficiency, capital accumulation rate, and labour efficiency are generally low and the quality of many processed products are not up to the level of international competition. The market for consumption is relatively limited, some aspects of management have proved to be weak, and the capital market is advancing though slowly. In general, initial results of the renovation process constitute a strong foundation which represents a massive change in the socioeconomic structure ofVietnam. These changes have opened up many new possibilities and opportunities for Vietnam to go forward. IMPACT OF THE MARKET ECONOMY ON EDUCATION AND HIGHER EDUCATION A developed and modernizing society should be one that provides the basis for social institutions to establish a balance between factors operating at the macro level and the dynamic operation of micro-level factors. Experience in Vietnam had indicated that a socialist model with centralized power, bureaucracy, and subsidies did not meet the requirements for modern socio-economic development. As a result, since 1986 and consistent with the designed socialist path, this country has determined to embark on building a multi-sectoral commodity economy with market mechanism and state control. It was evident that only the market economy itself could allow the mobilization to the utmost of natural and human resources within the country, that

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Nguyen Duy Quy and David Sloper

would promote to the highest degree people's creativity, and which would facilitate co-operation with foreign countries in the cause of national development. This approach has thus placed human beings at the centre of concern due to the great value and significance attached to the human factor; for human beings are integral to acts of creativity and innovation, which intend to establish "a wealthy people, a strong country and a civilized society", these being the stated intentions of the CPV. Building a multi-sectoral commodity economy under a socialist orientation is a principle of development for the Vietnamese economy which originates from the people's aspiration and the cultural values of Vietnam. A socialist orientation in economic development here means development with social justice by which human beings are not a means or an instrument but the goal, the target for development. The essence of socialist-oriented development in Vietnam is to deal effectively with the relationship between economic development and the realization of social goals. An inevitable consequence should be the creation of premises, conditions, and insurances for humans to develop their capabilities comprehensively. 6 Until 1992, after more than six years of a socialist-oriented market economy, Vietnam has achieved initial important results. It has liberated production capacity, stimulated every potential, encouraged and enabled every Vietnamese to promote the sense of self-reliance, practice of thrift and diligence to build and defend the Fatherland and to make himself and the country rich. 7

However, besides these achievements, the Vietnamese economy and society need to be studied to discover solutions to such problems as class polarization, social strata division, especially the wide gap between the rich and the poor. It is significant that the social situation has undergone slow changes and there remain big and serious problems. While no distinct progress has been made in solving unemployment in society and low wages in the public sector, the life of some ethnic groups is quite hard and education and health care establishments have been degraded. Matters that are of greater concern are that negative social phenomena are on the increase, particularly prostitution, drug addiction and gambling.

2. Impact of Socio-Economic Background on Education and Higher Education

35

These are the aftermath of decadent lifestyle affected by a baneful culture which is the main cause leading to burglary, theft, crimes and lack of security in society. 8

Values of a traditional culture could fade due to the infiltration of exotic cultures; tokens of backwardness in ethics and morals have recurred, even the erosion of value concepts and traditional social standards. In order to do away with these negative aspects of a society in the condition of a market economy under socialist orientation, it is necessary to lay stress on key institutions and policies so as to set up one system of stimuli and another of obligation ties, in which education and training become extremely profound and important tasks in the new circumstances. Nowadays, the development of human resources has become a principal criterion in defining levels of national development. Except for the per capita gross national product (GNP), the level of provision of education and the life span are considered as basic criteria to evaluate the socio-economic progress of each nation. Education may be considered both as a strategy for training manpower and as a provider of aesthetic and spiritual influences. Most importantly, education creates the fundamental basis for human resource development, which is the essential prerequisite for broader socio-economic development. Other developed countries as well as Vietnam have learnt that from the design stage of development strategies and programmes, synchronization should be ensured to develop the economy simultaneously with solving social problems. This means that besides the attempts made to develop the economy, emphasis should also be given to building up the infrastructure aspects of social life such as education, health care, and public welfare. Vietnam is moving from a low-developed economy with low labour efficiency and with agriculture accounting for over 80 per cent of the population and 75 per cent of the active work force and 40 per cent of the national revenue towards a market economy. On the one hand Vietnam has to tackle such basic questions about the development of human resources as how to motivate and target the revolution irnplicit in the country's renovation policies, with the aim of elevating

36

Nguyen Duy Quy and David Sloper

the people's knowledge and proficiency; how to do this in a way that helps bring out the talent of innovation and the qualities of virtue in all aspects of social activities; and how to meet the absolute need of building and developing the country. On the other hand, such negative social problems as are being exposed during the process of developing a market economy have to be coped with as well. The requirements of the renovation policies in Vietnam and the present socio-economic environment have exerted profound influence on education in general, and on higher education and graduate training in particular. Ideally, education should be ready and always one step in advance; and so education could prepare contingents of well-trained and retrained workers, including leading experts who are enabled to access and apply modern scientific and technological achievements in production and in everyday life keeping abreast with rapid developments associated with the market economy. As it happens, the indicators of degradation in education and training in these years have been seen to be rather serious. As shown in some survey documents, in 1989 the average number of school years attended by each person in Vietnam was 4.5 exceeding by only 0.1 year that in 1979. The number of people with postgraduate education amounts to only 12 per cent of all university lecturers and researchers. Evidence from developed countries has indicated that this ratio should be around 30 per cent as such a proportion can then accelerate developments in the process of modernization and industrialization. At present, the percentage of Ph.D.s and other doctors in Vietnam is 5.5 per cent whereas that percentage should amount to at least 12 per cent. The majority of persons in employment so far lack vocational skills since up to 94.4 per cent of the active labour force are working in non-state-run agriculture without essential technological scientific knowledge. Many factors have led to the above situation, of which the most important one is that the role of education in creating "grey matter potential", that is, sufficient intellectual capability to sustain ongoing national development, has not yet been fully acknowledged. So education and training with science and technology have not been placed at the core of socio-economic development strategy. At the same time consequently, there has not been much determination to find out meas-

2 . Impact ofSocio-Economic Background on Education and Higher Education

37

ures and solutions for appropriate investment. This is especially true in agriculture when the market economy boomed, and workers only paid attention to short-term immediate benefits of working on quotas (according to the Policy No. 10 on quotas) rather than long-term interests of education, training, and raising of people's knowledge and rhus increasing production and prosperity. For the time being, in main production areas in Vietnam, hard and simple manual work still prevails. This affects the attitude towards work value, the process of socio-economic development and the people's lifestyle. The development of a market economy involves the progressive application of advanced modern technology in production, business, and management; therefore, the brain quotient investment in goods and products gradually increases and more and more original creative work is generated. All of this requires workers at all levels to be trained and become qualified in many ·perspectives so that they are prepared well enough to join in the competition in production and the market. In parallel with creating material and financial resources and in promoting them, it is extremely important at the moment to develop human resources aimed at a work force of higher proficiency. So as to meet these requirements, the Vietnamese state has declared, at the 7th Congress of the CPV in June 1991, that together with science and technology, education and training have to be regarded a national priority policy which constitutes a motivator and a fundamental condition to ensure the implementation of socio-economic goals, building and defending the country. The goal of education has been stated to be elevating people's knowledge, training human resources, fostering talent, and producing workers with cultural and scientific knowledge, with professional skills, creativity, and discipline at work. The state has promulgated a policy of compulsory general education of which the curricula are closely associated with the need to develop the country and which are appropriate for the contemporary situation. Forms of training should be varied, and equity in educational opportunities ensured, especially in higher education to provide the poor and ethnic minority people with chances to participate. . The system of higher education is being reorganized and research lllstitutes are to be associated with universities, which will help recip-

38

Nguyen Duy Quy and David Sloper

rocate support between training and academic research work. Educational curricula and methods are further to be reformed in an updated and practical way. Textbooks and curricula should be revised particularly in the system of postgraduate study in order to retrain academic staff to become well qualified, responsible, and practical. The state is also expected to take care of teachers' material and spiritual life and this is a decisive precondition to raising the quality of education and trainmg. In the immediate future, Vietnam hopes to achieve a drastic surge towards sustainable development in its national economy so as to be able to reach a solid "take-off" by 2000. In addition to specific policies on education and training, the Vietnamese state has to combine closely the policies on economic development with those on social development including education. Needs will arise in society which education, among other ministries and agencies, has to be equipped to address. The application of new technology in agriculture as well as the implementation of policies on product quotas and on land and forest allocation in rural areas will make for redundancies and people will leave farming work. There should be projects and programmes on how to find employment for this increasing part of the population no longer working in the agricultural field but now seeking work in service, cultural, and social work. The promotion of industrialization and services will speed up the urbanization process. The establishment of urban and newly populated industrial zones will involve tense new social problems associated with housing, hospitals, schools, electricity and water supply, environmental hygiene, and transportation. Right now there need to be social projects on vocational training in accordance with the development of economic branches to prepare for the process of urbanization and the vigorous development of the market economy in the near future. Problems concerning psychology, culture, and life-style will become evident once processing centres, special economic zones, and foreign enterprises have been set up. Those "civilized islands" with modern technology providing well-paid wages and an industrialized living style, and with conveniences and advanced infrastructure will

2. Impact of Socio-Economic Background on Education and Higher Education

39

contain positive and negative effects and probably also impose them on surrounding areas. In the process of foreign investment in Vietnam, the culture and life-style from those overseas countries would infiltrate into this nation; and so there ought to be intelligible and judicious discussion of viewpoints and the creation of policies to handle the situation. All of these sorts of problems set for Vietnamese education and higher education a task to be radically reformed and dynamic. This need for reform applies to the whole education system from the organization of schools and syllabuses to the curricula and methods of teaching. Above all there should be the clear-cut awareness of the link between formal education and human resources as a core issue in national development. The economic development ofVietnam presents an unprecedented opportunity in the immediate future to create favourable conditions for Vietnamese education and for higher education in particular. The current mix of challenge and opportunity has the potential, with appropriate focal investment, to foster great advances and significant national achievements at a time when science and technology are making their own revolutionary impact throughout the world.

NOTES 1. The term doi moi in Vietnamese literally means renovation and refers to the process and consequences of pursuing an open market while maintaining the principles of socialism as interpreted by the Communist Party of Vietnam. 2. Vu Dinh Bach and Nguyen Huong, The Scientific Basis and Application ofMicro Economic Policies in Vietnam (Hanoi: Science and Technology Publishing House, 1992), p. 62. 3. Yo Van Kiet, "Promote the Improvements of 1992 and the Speed of SocioEconomic Development in 1993", Report presented at the Ninth National Assembly, 2nd. session, journal of Communism, no. 1 (1993) . 4. While imports were down by US$829 million, exports amounted to US$991 million. 5. Taiwan: in 1960, population, 11.3 million; GNP, US$11 billion; GNP per capita, US$1 ,000. Thailand: in 1960, population, 26.31 million; GNP, US$8 million; GNP per capita, US$300. Vietnam: in 1990, population, 66.21

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million; GNP, US$14 million to US$15 million; GNP per capita, US$200. 6. Nguyen Duy Quy, ed., Unity in Diversity- Cooperation between Vietnam and Other Southeast Asian Countries (Hanoi: Social Science Publishing House, 1992). 7. Do Muoi, "Fostering and Promoting the Human Factor to Develop a Wealthy People, a Strong Country and a Civilized Society", journal ofCommunism, no. 2 (1993). 8. Vo Van Kiet, op. cit.

3 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF VIETNAM PHAM MINH HAC

To date there is no comprehensive book about the history of education in Vietnam, although there is some material about developments after the August 1945 revolution that deal a little with the educational system. 1 Recently there appeared some unpublished manuscripts 2 on the educational system ofVietnam in the fifteenth to the sixteenth and the eighteenth to the nineteenth centuries. The history of educational development may be linked with the history of national development. Based on available material this chapter gives a brief account ofVietnamese education through several periods of history: firstly the period of Chinese imperial domination; next the period of national independence; then the period of French colonialism; followed by the period after the August Revolution of 1945; and the period of national reunification from 1975 until the present time. PERIOD OF CHINESE IMPERIAL DOMINATION, 111 BC TO AD 938 Within the territory of the present Socialist Republic of Vietnam archaeological sites of homo erectus and of the palaeolithic era have been

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Pham Minh Hac

found dating between 10,000 and 23,000 years ago. There is also evidence of population groups with discernible cultural characteristics from about 6,000 years ago. About 2,700 years ago, a people identified with the Dong Son culture were living in the state known as the Van Lang kingdom under the Hung kings. Towards the end of the third century BC, Thuc Phan, King of the Tay Au, defeated the last of the Hung kings, and merged the territories of the Tay Au and the Lac Viet into the kingdom of Au Lac. From 111 BC to AD 938 Vietnam was dominated by the Chinese emperors. During this period the Chinese administrators established both public and private schools, mainly for their sons, for them to become functionaries of the state administrative machinery. Such officials carried out the policy of the feudal intelligentsia, which means that sons of families who were historically of the mandarin class could also become officeholders under the emperor although they may have studied to only a low level without taking an examination. With the continuation of this system for some centuries, a number ofVietnamese from high social classes were permitted to enter the Chinese schools. No material with details of the educational system of Vietnam during this period is extant. It is said that this pattern continued until the Tang dynasty (AD 618 to AD 907) when China substituted the competitive examination statute for the regime of the feudal intelligentsia, inaugurated the doctor's degree, and sent excellent students ofVietnam to take the competitive examination in Beijing. 3 In organization the Vietnamese educational system of that time imitated the Chinese one consisting of primary education (under fifteen years) and higher education (above fifteen years). PERIOD OF NATIONAL INDEPENDENCE, 938 TO ABOUT 1850

At the battle of Bach Dang in 938 Ngo Quyen won the victory over the Southern Han troops and put a definitive end to the period of Chinese imperial domination, which had lasted over 1,000 years. Ngo Quyen established an independent Vietnamese state and initiated the

3. The Educational System ofVietnam

43

period of national independence lasting from that time until the French invasion ofVietnam. In this period many dynasties reigned, the most notable being: the Ngo dynasty (939-965), the Dinh (968-980), the Early Le (9801009), the Ly (1009-1225), the Tran (1226-1400), the Ho (14001407), the Later Le (1428-1778), the Nguyen Hue (1788-1802), and the Nguyen dynasty from Nguyen Anh (1802-1945). Following the Bach Dang triumph of 938, successive leaders had to struggle for the national independence and existence of the Vietnamese people. The invasion by Chinese dynasties was repulsed with such victories as those by Le Hoan over the Sung troops in 981, by Tran Hung Dao over the Mongol army in 1258, 1285, and 1288, by Le Loi over the Ming troops in 1428, and by Nguyen Hue over the Tsing troops in 1789. Under the Ngo, Dinh, and Early Le dynasties (939-1009), education was provided in private and Buddhist schools and it was not developed extensively. When the Lydynasty (1009-1225) began, more attention was given to education, which became concentrated at the capital Thang Long, present day Hanoi, by the Ly Court. In 1076 the Royal College was built in the Temple of Literature, where the sons of high dignitaries received moral education and training. In 1253 the Tran dynasty also established in the Temple of Literature the National Institute of Learning, and selected princes and also excellent commoners for training as mandarins. The Royal College and the National Institute of Learning are acknowledged as the first public schools in Vietnam. The Royal College existed in Thang Long (Hanoi) from the eleventh century to the end of the eighteenth century, when it was removed to Hue, capital of the Nguyen dynasty, and continued there until the beginning of the twentieth century. In 1397 the Ho dynasty proclaimed the establishment of public schools in the administrative divisions, and in the fifteenth century the Le dynasty established public schools in the provinces for the sons of commoners. Generally in this period there were three types of schools: the Royal College in the capital under the direct management of the king; a small number of provincial schools in the provinces and districts; and many private schools established by the people. The people Were generally committed to improving the education of those who

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Pham Minh Hac

wished to learn, and the state was committed to organizing the competitive examination. 4 The educational system in the first few centuries of the feudal dynasties focused on the examination of persons training to be officials and administrators at all levels. Figure 3.1, a chart of the educational system of the Nguyen dynasty, displays the key elements of education in Vietnam during the feudal periods. In 1075 the Ly dynasty organized the first competitive examination in the history of Vietnamese education. But it was at the end of the Tran dynasty and the beginning of the Later Le dynasty (fourteenth to fifteenth centuries) that the competitive examination was implemented fully and included the following elements: thi huong- the interprovincial competitive examination; thi hoi- pre-court competitive examination; and thi dinh- the prestigious court competitive examination organized in the capital city ofThang Long. Graduates of the interprovincial competitive examination were bestowed with the titles cu nhan (licentiate) if they passed four examinations or tu tai (bachelor) if they passed three examinations. Since 1374, graduates of the pre-court competitive examination were granted the title of tien sy or doctor. From 1829 this title was reserved for graduates of the preFigure 3. I Educa tional System of Vietnam in the Feudal Periods Administrative Level

Central

Provincial District

Village

Type of School

I

Milita~ school

l

II

Competitive Examination

School of literature

I I

·1

~,--

J

School of district of province

I Private school

1

~l

Court competitive examination

• •

Pre-court competitive examination

Interprovincial competitive examination

I

I

3 . The Educational System of Vietnam

45

court competitive examination who were of high rank and were allowed to participate in the court competitive examination. The head examiner was the king, and other graduates who were not allowed to participate in the court competitive examination obtained only the tide pho bang or junior doctor. For those successful in the court competitive examination four tides were awarded: trang nguyen, being the firstrank doctorate and first laureate, bang nhan, being a first-rank doctorate and second laureate; tham hoa, being a first-rank doctorate and third laureate; and the remaining candidates who passed all four competitive examinations obtained the tide of doctor, namely, tien sy. The curriculum for the competitive examinations was common for all types of schools (private schools, provincial schools, and the Royal College). The content consisted of the set of four Confucian classics and the five Confucian classical books, that is, the essential contents of Confucianism. All teaching materials are written in Han, Chinese classical characters known as chu nho. From about the thirteenth century a Vietnamese system of writing, chu nom or simply nom, was developed. This was derived by combining Chinese characters or using them for their phonetic significance only. Both writing systems continued until the twentieth century: chu nho was used for official business and scholarship, while chu nom was used for popular literature. This innovation, or national departure from the Chinese norm, is one of considerable significance and carried implications for later social and educational developments in Vietnam. The essential features of education in this definitive period were that it was selective, being for the privileged classes other than a few commoners who were excellent scholars. It was a structured system with a focus on examinations and formal awards. High status was awarded graduates through the involvement of the court and the king and they entered government service. A Confucian style philosophy of society which emphasized educational attainments, ritual performance, and government authority was dominant with the state being run by a scholar class of civil servants. Such practical matters as flood control ~d irrigation systems to support intensive agriculture were also greatly unproved during this period.

Pham Minh Hac

46

PERIOD OF FRENCH COLONIALISM According to Chinese records the first contact between Vietnamese and Europeans was in AD 166 when travellers from the Rome of Aurelius arrived in the Red River delta near present day Haiphong. Portuguese sailors first landed in Danang in 1516; and there followed several centuries of intermittent contact by traders including the Portuguese, Japanese, and Dutch and by missionaries including the Dominicans from Portugal, the Franciscans from the Philippines, and the Jesuits mostly from France. A notable French Jesuit was Alexandre de Rhodes (15911660) whose contribution to education was to devise quoc ngu, the Roman script phonetic alphabet in which Vietnamese is written to this day. It has been claimed that the use of quoc ngu undermined the status of scholarly officials by progressively giving the masses access to literature, learning, and literacy, which were previously unattainable. In 1787, Nguyen Canh, the four-year-old son of prince Nguyen Anh who was defeated in the Tay Son Rebellion, visited the French court at Versailles with a Vietnamese entourage; and this colourful occasion helped the French to retain interest in Indochina. In 1847 a French naval squadron attacked Danang in response to some action against Catholic missionaries; and in 1853 a joint military force of fourteen ships from France and the Spanish colony of the Philippines stormed Danang after the death of several missionaries. This force subsequently seized Saigon in 1859 and the French victory at the battle of Ky Hoa marked the beginning of the end of formal militatry'"action by the Vietnamese against the French in the South. At the same time there was the rise of popular guerilla resistance led by the local scholarly officials. A French offensive in 1867 broke the morale of the patriots and resulted in the execution or exile of many leaders and scholars. Although the Indochinese Union proclaimed by the French in 1887 officially colonized Vietnam and nearby states, active resistance to colonialism continued in various parts ofVietnam throughout the period of French rule. In the first stage of colonialism, the French maintained the feudal system of Confucian education as in the Nguyen dynasty. 5 After 1917 when they promulgated the first Education Act, the Chinese script was

3. The Educational System of Vietnam

47

not taught in schools and the interprovincial and pre-court competitive examinations were abolished. From that time the education system of Vietnam imitated the French one; 6 but there were only the programmes for horizontal educational development, not vertical ones, for example, several types of elementary education equivalent to half the length of primary education today. In accordance with these programmes, elementary schools were established in the villages with dense population. They consisted of one or two grades of primary education and had the different names: ecole communale in the North, ecole auxiliere preparatoire in the South, and ecole preparatoire in the central part ofVietnam. In some towns and district capitals there were primary schools with six school years. In some large cities such as Hanoi, Haiphong, Vinh, Hue, Quinhon, Saigon (which today is Ho Chi Minh City), there were schools of higher elementary education, that is, equivalent to lower secondary education with four additional years. Only in Hanoi, Hue, and Saigon were there schools of upper secondary education. From the first years of the twentieth century the French colonialists began to develop professional education, which in English is equivalent to vocational education. In 1918 the regulation about higher education in Indochina was promulgated affecting the following colleges that had been or were later established: College of Medicine and Pharmacy (1902), Teacher Training College (1917), College ofVeterinary Medicine ( 1918), College of Law and Administration ( 1918), College of Agriculture and Forestry (1918) , College of Civil Engineering (1918), College of Fine Arts and Architecture (1924), College of Literature (1923), and College ofExperimental Sciences (1923). Besides these there were technical schools such as the School of Decorative Fine Arts, the School of Practical Industry, and the School of Industrial Techniques. As the duration of initial training was two years, almost all of these institutes and colleges, in the three first decades of the twentieth century, were basically vocational schools for skilled workers or secondary professional schools (for technicians). Although from 1908 some were popularly termed universities, in fact, it was not until 1919 that there was the first pre-university class of physics, chemistry, and natural sciences. In 1923 the first enrolment for full training as a phy-

48

Pham Minh Hac

sician or doctor of medicine was begun. Then enrolments at degree level began in the College of Law in 1941, the College of Agriculture for the training of agricultural scientists in 1942, the College of Civil Engineering in 1944 and, in 1941 the College for Training of Licentiates in Sciences. These colleges formed parts of the Universite Indochinoise. 7 In general, the educational system of Vietnam in the period of French colonialism was limited, with total enrolment amounting to only 2.6 per cent of the population of school age when the population was 17,702,000in 1931 andin22,150,000in 1943. In common with other colonial regimes, the main objective of the educational system was to train employees for the administrative machinery and it therefore paid primary attention to the training of manpower. Figure 3.2 presents a simplified outline of the educational system of Vietnam towards the end of the French colonial period. Figure 3.2 Educational System of Vietnam in the French Colonial Period

Higher education to bachelor degree Upper secondary education Lower secondary education

Higher education to bachelor degree with honours Secondary professional education Vocational education

Primary education Elementary education Pre-school education Note: This chart outlines the system operating in 1941-42.

PERIOD AFTER THE AUGUST REVOLUTION, 1945-75 After the victory of the August Revolution of 1945, the Democratic Republic of Vietnam was founded, the people's democratic regime was established, and the era of independence began. But on 23 September

3. The Educational System of Vietnam

49

1945 the French colonialists returned and stationed occupying troops in Saigon on 19 December 1946, provoking a war of aggression in the whole country. This came to an end with the notable victory at Dien Bien Phu on 9 May 1954, which then led to the partition of the country into North and South Vietnam at the 17th parallel. In the South the struggle for national independence against the quisling regime and the U.S. military forces continued; while at the same time the U.S. planes bombed North Vietnam. On 30 April 1975 the Saigon regime collapsed and Vietnam attained reunification, independence, and peace after almost forty years of armed struggle. Educational developments during the period 1945-75 are reviewed in three separate but interrelated phases below. THE FIRST DAYS OF THE PEOPLE'S DEMOCRATIC REGIME, AUGUST 1945 TO DECEMBER 1948

Immediately after the August Revolution of 1945, the Vietnamese Government and President Ho Chi Minh proclaimed: An ignorant race is a weak one; we must launch the anti-illiteracy campaign to overcome the obstacle of having 95 percent of the population illiterate. At the same time we have to lay down as a policy, the educational reform and the construction of a people's democratic educational system by keeping to three principles: that education be national, scientific and popular. 8

This educational system consisted of the following elements:

• literacy; • basic education including four school years; • general and vocational education; • higher education . When compared with the time before the August Revolution enrolments increased substantially in this phase until 1948 to 284,314 pupils in 4,952 schools of primary education; 2,378 pupils in twentynine schools of secondary education; in addition there were classes at university level in medicine, pharmacy, literature, and political and social sciences. 9

so

Pham Minh Hac

WAR OF RESISTANCE AGAINST THE FRENCH COLONIALISTS , 1949-54

During this phase there was effectively a partition of the whole country into two sorts of areas: the French-controlled areas and the liberated areas. In the former areas the educational system maintained was the same as in the period of French colonialism prior to World War II. In the liberated areas, because the aim of the educational system was to serve the patriotic war and national construction, the educational system developed as follows: •

• • •

•

literacy and complementary education for adults: In July 1948 the anti-illiteracy campaign began. The literacy and complementary education programme in 1947/4"8 had different levels: elementary literacy- ability to read and write; preparatory literacy- equivalent to the two first grades of primary education; complementary education of first stage - equivalent to primary education; and complementary education of second stage - equivalent to lower secondary education. pre-school education. primary education: included four school years from the fourth grade to the first grade (from the school year 1947/48). lower secondary education: established in the provinces and districts, which included four grades, from the seventh to the fourth secondary grade. upper secondary education: established only in some provinces and interprovincial areas, which included three grades, from the third to the first secondary grade.

In July 1950 the Government Council adopted the resolution of educational reform, 10 and for the first time the comprehensive improvement in the quality of the people's lives was posed as the goal of education, with the guidelines that education belongs to the people, was established by the people, and that the purpose of education was to produce competent citizens for the future. The nine-year system consisted of the following levels:

3. The Educational System ofVietnam

• • • • • •

51

pre-school education (creche, kindergarten); one year in the pre-primary class; level I of general education, four years: from grade 1 to grade 4; level II of general education, three years: from grade 5 to grade 7; level III of general education, two years: grade 8 and grade 9; vocational education: elementary vocational education: with a training duration of two years; secondary vocational (or professional) education with a training duration of two to four years.

Vocational education enrols pupils who have finished general education at level II. Between the years 1947 and 1950, nineteen schools (and classes) of secondary professional education were established. Among them were six schools of pedagogy, eight schools of agriculture, and five teacher training institutes; and after 1950 in the North of Vietnam there were only seven schools of secondary professional education. If the educational system in the centuries of feudal dynasties had the task of training the mandarins at different levels for the royal court and civil administration , and if in the period of French colonialism education had the task of training personnel for the administrative machinery of the colonial regime, then this period is the first time that the educational system was widened considerably and had as irs goals: enhancing the comprehensive quality of life of the population; training manpower to meet the need of defending the country; securing true independence; and establishing a republic with a democratic regime. In pursuit of that spirit and those goals, the Vietnamese Government paid attention to the development of colleges or classes at university level in the liberated areas such as: two classes of general mathematics at the province Nghe An, and in the interprovincial area ofViet Bac begun in 1947; the College of Foreign Languages, namely Chinese and English begun in 1947; the College of Law begun in 1948; the College of Civil Engineering begun in 1947; the College of Fine Arts begun in 1949; and the College of Medicine and Pharmacy developed

52

Pham Minh Hac

in the early 1950s. These classes and colleges have been active continuously since their establishment in those years of the struggle for independence. Until 1950, three university centres developed: in the province of Thanh Hoa; in the interprovincial area ofViet Bac; and in Nanning, a province in Quantsi, China. In Thanh Hoa there were the preuniversity class and the teacher training class at high level, that is, to train teachers for the level III of general education; in Viet Bac there was the College of Medicine and Pharmacy; and in Nanning there were the College of Fundamental Sciences and another Teacher Training College at high level to train teachers for the level III of general education. These three university centres gathered intellectuals around them and became the places where the graduates at high level were trained; later they became an important part of the intellectual circles and life of the whole country. After 1954 the three university centres were unified into the University of Hanoi. In general, from 1945 to 1954, under the republican and democratic regime, the educational system took shape and developed at all levels from pre-school education to higher education; it belonged to the people and was established by the people; it ushered in a period of educational development which had the aims of enhancing comprehensively the quality of life of the population, and began to pay more attention to the training of manpower and to the fostering of talents. Figure 3.3 outlines the basic components of the education system during this period. THE PERIOD 1954-75

In this period the North ofVietnam was an independent nation which set about the challenges of reconstruction. In South Vietnam, the cities and a part of the countryside were controlled by the Saigon regime but the rest was regarded as liberated areas. In the Saigon-controlled areas the education system was maintained as before. In the liberated areas there were classes for eradicating illiteracy, classes of complementary education, of primary education, and some teacher training schools.

53

3. The Educational System ofVietnam Figure 3.3 Educational System in the Period I 95 J-54 Years

Level

3

Higher education (specialized degrees)

3

Higher education (general degrees)

2

General education : level Ill

3

General education : level II

4

General education : level I

Secondary professional educati on

l

Pre-school educa tion : kindergarten 3 Pre-school educa tion: creche

In North Vietnam from 1954 to 1956 there were two educational systems: the old one, which had similarity with the French one, a twelve-year system; and the new one, which had taken shape in the formerly liberated areas ofNorth Vietnam and was a nine-year system. In 1956 the second educational reform was implemented. In order that education should serve effectively reconstruction in the North and liberation in the South, the two previous educational systems were unified on the basis of the nine-year system to become a new ten-year system with: level I being four years from grade 1 to grade 4; level II being three years from grade 5 to grade 7; and level III being three years from grade 8 to grade 10. Entry to the first grade was at the age of seven years old. Before the first grade, children were to learn in the pre-primary class at the age of six to seven years old; and pre-school education enrolled children from the age of four to six years old. In the two years 1957 to 1958, the anti-illiteracy campaign was launched again. At the beginning of this campaign, the literacy rate was 70 per cent and at the end it was over 90 per cent in the cities, lowland, and midlands. In this period the system of complementary education began to develop and the central school of general and labour education was established in the school year 1955/56. This provided for the core cad-

54

Pham Minh Hac

res, activists, and heroes of labour. The central school of complementary education for workers and peasants was established in 1956 to teach the programme of general education at levels II and III for young cadres, young workers, and peasants to prepare them for the study in the universities, colleges, and professional schools. From 1958, the schools of complementary education for cadres in villages were established at the district level; and from the school year 1959/60, the schools of complementary education for workers and peasants were established at the provincial level and in the interprovincial areas. The educational system also began to pay attention to the fostering of talent: from 1965 there were special classes for talented pupils in general education at level III at the University of Hanoi, the Teacher Training College Number 1, and the Teacher Training College of Foreign Languages where excellent students were prepared for enrolment at universities and colleges. In order to serve the rehabilitation of the economy, secondary professional education and vocational education developed considerably. The number of secondary professional schools increased to over 100 in 1965; then to about 200 by 1975. Among them over half were central schools and the rest were local schools. The number of vocational schools increased from 50 in 1965 to about 200 by 1975; and over 100 classes of vocational training or on-the-job training were offered in the various state enterprises. In 1956, using as a basis three university centres in liberated areas and the University of Hanoi, three educational institutions at university level were established. These were the University of Hanoi, the Teacher Training College of Hanoi, and the University of Technology of Hanoi. Besides these there were the Hanoi College of Medicine, the Hanoi College of Agriculture, the College of Economics, and the College of Fine Arts, making the total number of tertiary education institutions seven in 1956. In the academic year (AY) 1974/75 there were, in North Vietnam, thirty higher education institutions. Because of the situation of war, many of these institutions had to operate on a reduced scale: so the Teacher Training College of Hanoi was divided into the Teacher Training College Hanoi Number 1, The Teacher Training College Hanoi

3. The Educational System ofVietnam

55

Number 2, and Teacher Training College of Foreign Languages; the University of Technology of Hanoi was divided into some technical colleges such as the College of Civil Engineering, the College of Mining and Geology, and the College of Light Industry. Some higher education institutions were established in cities in the Thai Nguyen, Vinh, and Thai Binh provinces such as Teacher Training College Viet Bac, Teacher Training College Vinh, College of Medicine Viet Bac, College of Medicine Thai Binh, College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering Bac Thai; and several other higher education institutions were established in this period. In AY 1974/75 in South Vietnam there were: four public universities located in Saigon, Hue, Can Tho, and Thu Due; three public community colleges in My Tho, Nha Trang, and Danang; and eleven private tertiary education institutions in various locations. The duration of training in the secondary professional schools was two to three years; and in the colleges and universities it was three to six (three years in Teacher Training Colleges, five years in the University of Technology or Technical Colleges, six years in the College of Medicine) . Vocational schools trained skilled workers such as teachers of general education at level I (that is, primary education) and nurses. The secondary professional schools trained technicians such as teachers of general education at level II (that is lower secondary education) and medical aides. The higher education institutions trained high-level personnel such as engineers, doctors of medicine, and teachers of general education at level III (that is, upper secondary education). In postgraduate studies there were in this period the degree, pho tien sy (junior doctor's degree) and tien sy (doctor's degree) . Figure 3.4 presents a summary outline of the total education system which had developed considerably during this period. PERIOD AFTER REUNIFICATION, 1975-92 Early in this period, which began with the reunification of the North and the South ofVietnam in 1975, the third educational reform was promulgated in January 197 9. It began to be implemented in the school year 1980/81; and schools of general education commenced

Pham Minh Hac

56

Figure 3.4 Educational System of North Vietnam in the Peri od 1954-75 Level

Years

Higher education: doctor of sciences Higher education: junior doctor 4 to 6

Higher education: undergraduate degrees

3

General education: level Ill

3

General education : level II

4

General education: Ieveii

I

Pre-school class

~

Secondary professional education

+

I I Vocational education

t

Kindergarten 1-5 Creche

using new programmes and textbooks in 1981 from the first grade, an adoption process which was completed in the twelfth grade in the school year 1992/93, that is, as the original intake of 1981 ascended to a higher grade each successive year. With this major educationai reform there is now a twelve-year educational system and children begin school at the age of six years. The 1979 educational reform sought to unifY the previous two systems: the ten-year system in the North that increased the number of school years to eleven and then to twelve; and the twelve-year system in the South whose length was maintained. In the school year 1981/82 the previously operating pre-primary class ceased and first grade was introduced in the whole country, and the major task of changing textbooks was initiated for ascending grades each successive year. By the school year 1989/90 the schools of general education in the North and the South ofVietnam were organized with grades 1 to 9 belonging to basic education; and the introduction of new textbooks continued into

3. The Educational System ofVietnam

57

grades 10, 11, and 12, which belong to upper secondary education. In the 1992/93 school year the reform and unification ofVietnam's school educational system will be completed. In April 1991 the Assembly of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam adopted an act for the universalization of primary education, which is the first education legislation for unified Vietnam. This act provided that general education at level I (from grade 1 to grade 5) be separated from what was previously basic education and be called primary education. The schools of general and labour education and the school of complementary education for workers and peasants no longer exist. In the mountainous areas boarding schools for ethnic minorities were established first of all in the provinces, then in the districts. In recent years, especially since the school year 1988/89, in every province there is one special school; in some districts there are special schools; and in every grade there are selected classes. Centres of pre-vocational, technical, and vocational training were established in provinces and some districts to make a total of about 200 centres in the whole country. Complementary education and in-service training have been changed into a system of life-long or continuing education; and continuing education centres are being established in some provinces. The educational system now pays more attention to the development of general schools for handicapped children; and there are now forry of these schools. In this period vocational schools and secondary professional schools have the same role in the educational system as before but with more diversified forms, for example: vocational school, general-vocational school, vocational class with on-the-job training in state enterprises, and the secondary professional school (public, private, central, local). The training duration is two or three years depending on whether entrants have completed lower or upper secondary schooling. In 1992 the number of secondary professional schools was 270 and of vocational schools, 242. Following the adoption of policies oriented towards a more diversified and a market economy late in 1986, the national educational system in 1987 embarked upon a programme of adjustment. The effect of this adjustment is bringing many changes at all levels of the formal

58

Pham Minh Hac

system: general, vocational, and higher education. Promulgation of a new list of areas of study and training for professions and trades was one aspect of these changes. Another was implementation of a new first degree structure in higher education, which h:'i:been divided into two stages: stage 1 -fundamental study of two y e.rs' length; and stage 2 - specialized study of two or more years' length. Diversification of the education and training forms in higher education was allowed with the operation of short-term higher education, open learning, distance education, and private educational institutions. New regulations have been adopted for assessment procedures and are being implemented progressively, which decentralize this responsibility to universities and colleges; and scholarship regulations have been revised to make awards more dependent on academic achievement and social need. Currently, higher education institutions in Vietnam are divided mto s1x groups:

• • •

• • •

universities and teacher training colleges; colleges of industrial and technological education; colleges of agriculture/forestry/fishery; colleges of economics and management; colleges of medicine and physical education; colleges of arts and culture .

There are now sixty-three universities and colleges at university level excluding those of the Ministry of Defence and the Ministry of the Interior and thirty-five junior colleges with short-term study, which are responsible to the MOET; and the greatest number of these are provincial and local teacher training colleges. Detailed listing and discussion about different types of universities and colleges currently operating in Vietnam may be found in Chapter 5. These higher education institutions are concentrated in four centres: Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh City, Hue, Danang, and Thai Nguyen. Two-thirds of institutions, such as universities, teacher training colleges, universities of technology, and colleges of economy are under the administration of the Ministry of Education and Training. The remainder are under the administration of other ministries and these are usually for specialized study, for example: the colleges of medicine

3. The Educational System ofVietnam

59

are under the administration of the Ministry of Health; and the colleges of communication are under the administration of the Ministry of Posts and Communication. The aims of the educational system today and in the coming years are directed towards enhancing the total quality of life of the population, training manpower for a changing economy, and fostering talents at all levels of education with the formative development of each individual personality being seen as the most important task. Because education is interdependent with the society that funds its operations - the state, parents, employers, and students themselves - it cannot be separated from the world of labour and employment. In addition to personal development, education in Vietnam is striving to meet the demands of social and economic development in this modernizing nation. The overall pattern of education in Vietnam is far from static and Figure 3.5 presents a picture of structural elements early in 1993. With proposals for change under active consideration, part of this structure may soon be altered.

THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM IN THE IMMEDIATE FUTURE In order to prepare Vietnam for entry into the twenty-first century, the government is giving high priority to strategic educational development and particularly to reforming the structure of the educational system. Completion of some of the strategies in the continuing process of reform that have already been initiated or are under active consideration include the restructuring of the educational system; consolidating the public educational institutions, which may involve closing some, amalgamating others, and strengthening all institutions; allowing the transformation of some public institutions into private ones; stimulating the establishment of people's and community educational institutions; permitting the establishment of private institutions at the levels of preschool education, vocational and professional education, and higher education (the establishment of private schools in general education, which remains a state responsibility, is prohibited); stimulating the establishment of non-formal education and self-instruction activities;

Pham Minh Hac

60 Figure 3.5 Educational System of Vietnam in the I 990s Age

Level Higher education : doctoral degrees Higher education : masters degrees

24 Higher education : bachelor degree (5 & 6 years)

22 Bachelor degree (4 years) Diploma (2 years) 18 Upper Secondary Education By selection

I

Optional basis

I

Professional secondary

I

Vocational

15 Lower secondary education II

Primary education 6 Pre-school education

ensuring the right of all citizens to learn and to study both within Vietnam and abroad; and their rights to take examinations and become qualified after making their own choice about schools, teachers, and occupations or professions. Among other strategies, which are more organizational and administrative in emphasis, are rearranging the school system to enhance the efficiency of investment, the facilities, and the teaching staff; especially reorganizing the system of higher institutions and research institutes to link them more closely and effectively; focusing scientific resources and research expertise in centres of excellence in all disciplines; broadening the system of schools and classes in general education to foster talented pupils; establishing some national institutions recognized for their educational excellence; and renewing complementary and continuing education and in-service training particularly for people employed in the modern sectors.

3. The Educational System ofVietnam

61

These are high aims and the government and the people ofVietnam are working hard to achieve them. Vietnam is open to learning from the experience of other countries, both from their successes and from their mistakes; and the nation is willing to work co-operatively with others to upgrade and strengthen its historically vibrant education system.

NOTES 1. Nguyen Khanh Toan, Twenty Years of Educational Development (1945-1965) (Hanoi: Education Publishing House, 1965); Vo Thuan Nho, ed., Thirty Five Years ofGeneral Education Development (1945-1980) (Hanoi: Education Publishing House, 1965); Education in Vietnam (Hanoi: Vietnam Courier and Ministry of Education, 1983); LeVan Giang, ed. , History of Higher and Secondary Professional Education in Vietnam (Hanoi: Research Institute for Higher and Secondary Professional Education in Vietnam, 1985); Pham Minh Hac, ed., Forty Five Years of Educational Development in Vietnam (Hanoi: Education Publishing House, 1990); Pham Minh Hac, ed., Education in Vietnam 1945-1991 (Hanoi: Education Publishing House, 1991). 2. Le Thi Hong, "Educational System, the Learning and the Competition Examination in the Early Le Dynasty", mimeographed (National Institute for Educational Sciences, Hanoi, 1992); Le Thi Hong, "Education System, the Learning and the Competition Examination in the Nguyen Dynasty", mimeographed (National Institute for Educational Sciences, Hanoi, 1992). 3. LeVan Giang, ed., op. cit., pp. 14-15. 4. Le Thi Hong, op. cit. 5. Vo Thuan Nho, ed., op. cit., p. 5. 6. LeVan Giang, ed., op. cit., p. 87. 7. Ibid., p. 86. 8. Nguyen Khanh Toan, op. cit., p. 2. 9. Vo Thuan Nho, ed., op. cit., p. 21. 10. Pham Minh Hac, ed., op. cit.

4 THE POLICY-MAKING CONTEXT AND POLICIES OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN VIETNAM TRAN HONG Q!JAN. VU VAN TAO, AND DAVID SLOPER

INTRODUCTION This chapter presents the general policy-making context in Vietnam and describes the major bodies of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (SRV) and the Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV). Against the detail of previous chapters, an outline is given of the policy process, policy shifts, and developments in recent years. In the concluding section, the concern for and the expectations placed upon higher education by policies committed to social and economic renewal are presented. PRINCIPAL POLICY-MAKING BODIES The 1992 Constitution of the SRV resulted from a process of review and consultation which saw about two-thirds of the clauses of the previous constitution being either amended or replaced. The basic principles guiding policy formulation, government, and management of the

4. The Policy-Making Context and Policies ofEducation and Training in Vietnam

63

country as established by the 1992 Constitution are summarized in what follows. The National Assembly (NA) is the highest representative organ of the people and the highest organ of state power of the SRV. The NA is the only organ with constitutional and legislative powers. The NA decides fundamental domestic and foreign policies, socio-economic goals, the country's national defence and security issues, the essential principles governing the organization and activity of the state machinery, and issues affecting social relations and activities of citizens. The NA shall exercise supreme control over all activities of the state (Article 83) and the duration of each NA is five years (Article 85). The government is the executive organ of the NA and is the highest organ of state administration of the SRV. The government shall carry out overall management of work for the fulfilment of the political, economic, cultural, social, national defence, security, and external duties of the state; it shall ensure the effectiveness of the state apparatus from the centre to the grassroots; it shall ensure respect for and implementation of the constitution and the law; it shall promote the mastery of the people in national construction and defence; it shall ensure security and the improvement of the people's material and cultural living conditions. The government is accountable to the NA and shall make its reports to the NA, its Standing Committee, and the country's President (Article 109). The tenure of the government is the same as that of the NA. When the latter's tenure ends, the government shall continue in office until the new legislature establishes a new government (Article 113). The CPV, as the leading political party in the country, participates in the decision-making process concerning the most important issues of the country's development and defence. The CPV, as the vanguard of the Vietnamese working class, as the faithful representative of the rights and interests of the working class, the toiling people, and the whole nation, and acting upon the Marxist-Leninist doctrine and the thoughts of Ho Chi Minh, is the force leading the state and society. The role of the CPV and its organizations is determined in the constitution (Article 4) and all organizations of the CPV operate within the framework of the law.

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Tran Hong Quan, Vu Van Tao, and David Sloper

The bodies responsible for education and training are: in the NA - its Culture and Education Commission; in the government- the MinistryofEducation and Training (MOET); in the Central Committee of the CPV- its Committee of Science and Education. The MOET is responsible for all levels of education: for pre-school education, general education, vocational education, higher education, and life-long education. POLICIES OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC RENOVATION The 6th Congress of the CPV, at its meeting in December 1986, advanced the policy of doi moi to provide a framework for the comprehensive renewal of the country, thus marking a critical turning point in the development process ofVietnam. The historic significance of this policy development derives from the fact that the 6th Congress of the CPV both analysed the causes of socio-economic crises over many years and set out the direction for escaping from a continuation of such crises. The 7th Congress of the CPV, at its meeting in June 1991, reviewed the policy and programmes for renovation over the previous five years and declared: that "renovation has achieved very important initial results"; and that "the line of renovation set out by the 6th Congress is proper, its steps are appropriate". The 7th Congress also acknowledged that the country has not yet emerged from socio-economic crisis, renovation still has some limitations, and a lot of urgent socio-economic problems require solution.

What follows is a summary of some of the major policies of "continuing renovation" that may be directly related to education in general, and to higher education in particular. ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT POLICIES

The basic policy was aimed at transforming Vietnam from a centrally planned economy with bureaucratic management approaches to a mixed state-controlled market system, the control that the state is to

4. The Policy-Making Context and Policies ofEducation and Training in Vietnam

65

exercise being by laws, plans, and policies. The policy for a socialist-oriented mixed economy means that all citizens are entitled to freedom of business activity in accordance with the law, and to guarantees as to legal ownership and income. Different forms of ownership may be combined or integrated with a view to establishing a variety of business organizations. All enterprises, regardless of their ownership relations, are guaranteed autonomy in business, co-operation, and competition, and are each equal before the law. The various economic sectors of Vietnam include the state economy, the collective economy, the individual economy, the private capitalist economy. The household economy is not an independent economic sector as such, but its development is strongly encouraged. Economic growth is closely associated with the process of building up infrastructure, of restructuring the total economy in the direction of gradual industrialization, and of escaping from a situation of backwardness in agricultural production. To develop agriculture, forestry, and fisheries in combination with processing industries are goals of primary importance in order to stabilize the socio-economic situation. Other tasks to be undertaken at the same time include: to speed up the pace and increase the industrial sector; to expand the service sector in the direction of fully mobilizing the nation's potential for producing consumer goods and goods for export; to boost prospecting for, exploitation of, and processing of oil and gas and other minerals; to develop, on a selective basis, a number of other manufacturing industries including the means of production and infrastructure, and the priority development of electricity, transportation, irrigation and drainage, and information and communications. Another goal is to combine different levels of technology, to make full use of available technologies, and progressively to improve them while striving to absorb quickly new technologies. A supremely important national policy of developing human resources, that is, of strengthening the direct driving force for all development, is to upgrade education, training, science and technology, thus allowing the country to escape from poverty and backwardness. The objectives of education and training in Vietnam are to improve people's knowledge, to train manpower, and to nurture talents.

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Tran Hong Quan, Vu Van Tao, and David Sloper

Formal education aims to educate young people comprehensively, to assist their development with good professional competence, selfawareness, and the capability to find a job, or to create a job in the mixed economy. SOCIAL POLICIES

The fundamental basis to Vietnam's social policies is that development should be for the people and by the people - and first and foremost the workers. This is the common goal both of economic policies and of social policies: all are pursued for the benefit of the people. In the coming five years, more energy should be concentrated on solving some of the most acute problems. These include such issues as: reducing the population growth rate, which in 1990 was about 2.5 per cent per year; providing jobs for working people, firstly in urban areas for demobilized soldiers and school graduates with the state providing the policies, mechanisms, environment, and vocational training, and working people seeking jobs that suit them; reforming the wages system to provide fair and adequate remuneration; attending to those who have rendered meritorious services to the country; improving to specific levels the general living standards of the working people in terms of working conditions, food, housing, education, health care, travel, and rest; and paying special attention to mountainous and remote regions as well as ethnic minorities which may experience disadvantage. FOREIGN POLICY

Vietnam seeks to pursue an open foreign policy, to befriend all countries in the world community, and to strive for its own and universal peace and for independence and development.To achieve these goals Vietnam is working to create favourable conditions to expand and to consolidate international relationships in political, economic, cultural, and scientific areas based on the principles of equality and respect for each other's independence, sovereignty, and mutual interest, in defence of production and economic and national security, while maintaining and promoting the traditions and richness of its national culture.

4. The Policy-Making Context and Policies ofEducation and Training in Vietnam

67

POLICY OF HIGHER EDUCATION RENOVATION Other chapters will present analyses of important issues in the operation of higher education at system and at institutional levels. This section states the common policy on higher education endorsed by the CPV and the government and then examines two of the major areas of this policy. The principal policy-making bodies of Vietnam, at the 7th Party Congress in 1991, stated: With sciences and technology, education in general and higher education in particular, is considered as the first national priority policy, as the driving force and the basic condition in ensuring the realization of the socio-economic objectives, and of building and defending the Fatherland.

To fulfil the expectations of such a pivotal national role, higher education has to realize its responsibilities simultaneously in two major policy areas: one is to do with education as investment, the other relates to academic staff development and activities. Many other policy and practical matters derive from these two critical areas. INVESTMENT POLICY

Higher education must contribute to and also give leadership to economic development in Vietnam. Investment in education is considered as investment for broader socio-economic development. Education is not simply a personal good or a social good but also an investment good made by the people for the common benefit of the people. The state should therefore increase progressively the proportion of the state budget spent on higher education up to the average level of expenditure in other countries in the Asian region. At the same time it should mobilize other financial resources within the country and continue efforts to secure assistance from foreign sources, possibly by grants or loans or through the donation of equipment and services from such bodies as foundations and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), for the further development of higher education. Whenever there are projects or investment ventures in Vietnam,

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Tran Hong Quan, Vu Van Tao, and David Sloper

there should be identified an appropriate budget allocation for education and training, for upgrading the people ofVietnam to enable them to meet national policy objectives; and this should include people for higher education degree training or upgrading courses which will contribute to sustainable development. Besides the general policy of education as investment, there must be a policy of using existing and new investment in higher education with increased efficiency on a selective basis and in a number of identified priority areas. POLICY REGARDING ACADEMIC STAFF

It is the academic staff who ultimately determine the quality of higher education; and policies regarding academic staff should provide spiritual and material encouragement to raise both the status of the profession and the living conditions of its members. The state should have national programmes for constantly improving the qualifications of academic staff Training, retraining, and upgrading existing academic staff will be a very important factor as the economy transforms more to the market system and the demand for applied knowledge and advanced technologies increases. In order to carry out higher education renovation policies, a new contingent of academic staff with qualifications and experience much higher than at present must be formed. Many of the existing policies and regulations affecting higher education are being, and must continually be, reviewed and modified in order to realize the full potential of academic staff and of the other resources invested in higher education. These include such matters as: salaries and incentives, employment conditions, promotion and career development; participation in research, consultancy, and service activities; in-service professional development; and recognition and reward schemes. The translation of these policy goals into operational activities for higher education in the country's development in the 1990s means that with other levels of education, universities and colleges must actively improve the people's knowledge, train manpower, and foster talent.

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69

EXPECTATIONS OF HIGHER EDUCATION

Higher education has traditionally trained high-level manpower for all economic sectors; and now must respond to new demands for different competencies and increased quality set out by needs in the marketbased economy. An immediate need is to train businessmen, financial and other managers, lawyers, and various technologists and qualified experts in many other areas who are capable of undertaking leadership tasks and preparing the country and a new generation of workers and citizens for the twenty-first century. A concurrent task for higher education is to retrain previously qualified manpower for new fields including areas being modernized such as agriculture, basic industries, transportation, marketing, and services, as well as those areas based on the application of advanced technology such as electronics or information science. Training qualified manpower is to be considered a first priority objective for higher education; and to achieve such objectives, wellqualified and highly motivated academic staff are a prerequisite. Fostering elites and developing people of talent has been a vital function of higher education, but in recent years of economic hardship it has not been given appropriate attention. The more talent the country has, the greater is its potential for creativity. Every profession, every occupation, and every region possesses talented people and needs to encourage and support the development of their talent for their own good and for the good of Vietnam. Institutions of higher education are like a "cradle" where outstanding national leaders and managers, qualified scientists and technologists in many fields, economists and businessmen of practical ability, as well as doctors, lawyers, teachers, and persons of talent and culture among others are nurtured and prepared. Their preparation is both for immediate employment and for the changing nature of employment in the future; and in the bustle of social, political, and economic changes, there is an equal need for artists, musicians, and historians to help preserve and transmit the richness of the nation's heritage. Progress must take up this heritage and not sweep it aside. Improving the people's knowledge is a great responsibility of higher

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Tran Hong Quan, Vu Van Tao, and David Sloper

education and this finds expression first and foremost in the training of qualified teachers for schools and other areas of learning. This teacher training activity is not just for teachers of academic or core subjects, but also teachers of art, of technical and trade areas, and especially highly qualified teachers who could successfully take part in such critical activities as universalizing primary education, providing a higher quality of secondary schooling, and once again in providing retraining and upgrading programmes for existing personnel. Higher education can become more active in the enlargement of scientific knowledge among the masses, through extension, continuing education or public awareness campaigns. It can also take part in resolving urgent national problems such as population management and family planning, protection of the environment, and fostering the responsibilities and obligations of citizenship. The experience and methods used in other comparable countries such as informal education, open or distance education can be reviewed and critically used to serve new situations or needs in Vietnam. While committed to the principles of equity in access and excellence in performance, higher education must decide, within the framework of national policies, the priority areas for its activities and the programmes which universities and colleges are best able to deliver. Many educational needs and issues may be served better by other sectors of education or by training programmes within employment. Thus, the development and renovation of higher education in the next decade should respond not only to the demand for national development in socio-economic areas but should also take an active part in realizing the objectives, enunciated by the CPV, of creating "a wealthy people, a strong country and a civilized society" within Vietnam. In following national policies and pursuing important national tasks, Vietnam's system of higher education should also maintain and develop relations with universities in other parts of the world to provide challenge, stimulation, and new knowledge as well as to learn from the comparable experience of other countries particularly in the Asian region.

4. The Policy-Making Context and Policies ofEducation and Training in Vietnam

71

CONCLUSION

Throughout the changes of recent years and especially the dramatic ones since 1986, Vietnam's universities and colleges have struggled to sustain themselves and to provide solutions to a range of needs and issues that had not been previously encountered. Staff of the MOET and in the national system of higher education have worked with great dedication and, in some instances, for decreasing recompense. Part of their satisfaction will be to have contributed to the emergence of a more vital system of higher education, one which can be further adapted, with the availability of more resources, to meet the immediate and future needs of Vietnam. A number of policies have been developed, approved, and are in the processes of progressive implementation. Because of the relatively slow cycle of change to degree-level education these changes are not always visible at once. On 14 January 1993, the Central Committee of the CPV issued a Decision concerning the continuation of renovation of education and training. This Decision emphasizes that

• •

•

education and training are the driving force and basic requirement for the realization of socio-economic objectives; the general objectives of education and training are the improvement of the educational level of the population, the training of necessary manpower for development, and the creation of best conditions for the development of talent; education and training should meet the demands of national development and follow progressive trends of life-long continuing education in contemporary times.

The Decision also indicates orientations and important measures for the development of education and training in Vietnam in the near future including:

• • • •

improvement of the structure of the national education system; reorganization of the system of schools, colleges, and universities; eradication of illiteracy; improved linkages between general secondary education and vocational education;

72

• • •

• •

• • •

Tran Hong Quan, Vu Van Tao, and David Sloper

expansion of vocational education and training; rational increases in higher education enrolments; redefinition of objectives for education and training, redesigning of curricula, improvement of education and training methods for every level of education and training; promotion of research and extension activities in universities and colleges; consolidation and development of education and training activities in ethnic minority regions and areas with economic difficulties; strengthening of educational management by the government and party organizations; upgrading of the teaching and managerial staff; renovation of educational administration.

Many other reviews are under way and considerable encouragement, and already some assistance, have been received through bilateral co-operation projects and through international agencies. More is promised; and much more is needed in a short duration to allow higher education to fulfil its proper function and a small part of the expectations held by many. Among issues or policy matters under active consideration are •

•

•

•

reorganization and consolidation of higher education institutions; the creation of different functions for institutions including national-level institutions and local or community colleges; inauguration of a comprehensive programme of professional staff development including specific training for academics in teaching research, management, and leadership, and for executives and administrators in a range of competencies; expansion of the resource base by encouraging financial support from employers, benefactors, parents, and students; encouragement for semi-public and private institutions, which would be licensed by the state; revision and modernization of the curriculum; and the provision of adequate facilities and resources for teaching at the appropriate standards and in a diversity of patterns and delivery modes;

4. The Policy-Making Context and Policies ofEducation and Training in Vietnam

•

•

•

•

73

the development of sequenced postgraduate degrees and of research programmes with appropriate facilities at large institutions or designated centres of excellence; the creation of closer links between universities and employers, professional associations, and state registration bodies and also with commercial and industrial groups that may be established; consideration of the most appropriate co-ordinative mechanism at national level which will allow coherent system development in accordance with national policies and the growth of institutional autonomy to serve regional and local needs; the development of positive and reciprocal links with appropriate educational and professional organizations in foreign countries.

As a contribution to the policy issues and discussions that have been briefly outlined here, many of these important matters receive further consideration in subsequent chapters of this book.

5 ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN VIETNAM: AN OVERVIEW TRAN CHI DAO. LAM O!)ANG THIEP, AND DAVID SLOPER

INTRODUCTION This chapter presents a general overview of the higher education system ofVietnam. The main data sources used are from the State Planning Committee (SPC) and those available within the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET), particularly from the Department of Planning and Finance. Use is also made of current data from the MOET Department of Higher Education and of conclusions mentioned in reports of the annual meetings organized by the former Ministry of Higher and Vocational Education until 1987 and by the MOET to the present. In addition, results from the most recent national surveys and research into higher and other levels of education have also been used. The chapter begins with an account of organizational characteristics and base statistics, which is kept brief because the

5. Organization and Management ofHigher Education in Vietnam: An Overview

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more significant characteristics are the subject of separate chapters. Consideration is then given to student administration, degree patterns, and methods employed for teaching and learning. Matters concerning governance and administration are dealt with next, and the conclusion identifies key issues requiring urgent action. ORGANIZATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS BRIEF HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT

Higher education in Vietnam in its modern pattern does not have a long history of development. Only in 1940 was the first modern university set up in Hanoi and this was for the whole of the Indochina peninsula. Following the August Revolution of 1945, and especially after the victory against the French in 1954, the number of colleges and universities increased vigorously in both North and South Vietnam. From 1975, all colleges and universities in Vietnam were united in one national system. A detailed account of the historical development of education may be found in Chapter 3. After the 6th Congress of the Communist Party ofVietnam (CPV) which was held in 1986, the socio-economic policies ofVietnam have been changed fundamentally to move from a centrally planned economy to a market economy. In responding to this change of socioeconomic policy, the higher education system began, in 1987, a series of important policy initiatives in keeping with national policies for renovation. Principal among these was the acknowledgement that higher education training programmes should be aimed at serving not only the state and the collective economic sectors, but also all other economic sectors; that the budget for higher education activities should be based not only on the allocation of finance by the state but also on the mobilization of other resources, including payment of tuition fees; that the scope of higher education and training should develop on the basis of diversity in training forms; and that at the same time, the development of formal training should follow a more rational and systematic pattern which would ensure both quality in education and also satisfy new and emerging requirements of society and the economy.

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Tran Chi Dao, Lam Quang Thiep, and David Sloper

THE SYSTEM OF HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS

To understand the progress that is being made in implementing these major policies, it is first necessary to appreciate the complex organization of higher education in Vietnam. Annex 1 contains a list of higher education institutions in Vietnam with such basic data as: year of foundation, location, numbers, and categories of academic staff and students. For historical reasons, the system of higher education institutions that Vietnam adopted in the phase of modern development follows that of the former Soviet Union. As a consequence Vietnam has only a few multi-disciplinary universities, the dominant pattern being mono-disciplinary institutions. At present, higher educations institutions in Vietnam can be classified as follows: •

•

• • • • •

multi-disciplinary institutions which provide degree programmes in the basic sciences (natural, social and the humanities) with one or two universities also offering programmes in medicine and agriculture (Can Tho University) or law (University of Hanoi, University ofHo Chi Minh City); specialized institutions of technology (both mono- and multidisciplinary) in such areas as engineering, agriculture-forestryfishery, economy, medicine, pharmacy, sports; cultural and art colleges; local multi-disciplinary universities; national teacher training colleges; both national and provincial junior teacher colleges; other provincial and junior colleges.

According to 1991 data, as displayed in Annex 1, there were 103 state colleges and universities in Vietnam (by the end of 1992, the number was 104) excluding specialist military and security colleges, which are not, in any aspects of their curriculum or operations, under the jurisdiction of the MOET. In 1991 Vietnam was divided into fortyfour provinces plus three cities (Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh City, and Haiphong) and one special zone (Vungtau-Condao) which have the status of provinces. These administrative units of the state organization, which reflect the complex geography and demography ofVietnam, are

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also a factor influencing the number and distribution of colleges and universities. Each of the forty-four provinces (plus three cities) has some type of teacher training institution (47): either national teacher training colleges (9), national junior teacher training colleges (8), or provincial junior teacher training colleges (30). Teacher training is provided in a two-year programme after grade 10 or 12 for primary teachers. Secondary school teachers should have the equivalent of a bachelor degree (four years post-secondary). Other types of colleges and universities are multi-disciplinary (9), industrial engineering (13), agro-forestryfishery (6), economic (6), medical and sport (8), and arts colleges (7). The distribution of institutions is unbalanced with a majority of colleges and universities, some 69 per cent, clustered in a few towns and provinces, for instance, Hanoi, twenty-nine institutions; Ho Chi Minh City, sixteen; Hue, six; Haiphong, five; Danang, three; Ha Son Binh, six; Thai Nguyen, five; and Can Tho, two. Of these, fifty-nine institutions or 57 per cent of the total are in the five largest cities; and yet 80 per cent of the population are rural residents and workers. The single most critical issue facing higher education derives from the number and size of institutions and their lack of integration at system level. Based on the earlier decision to follow the Eastern bloc model of higher education with specialized, usually mono-disciplinary institutes, many colleges and universities are too small, academically dispersed, and unarticulated to make the most efficient use of resources. The imperative for more efficient resource utilization results in a dual challenge for higher education institutions: firstly, the challenge of how to increase access, participation, and quality; secondly, how to strengthen the contribution to society and particularly to economic development. To respond to this dual challenge carries consequences not only for teaching and academic programmes, but also for research, professional, and social service undertakings. Response options discussed in this and other chapters will be understood better against the following data presentation and analysis. Of the 103 higher education institutions in Vietnam in 1991, thirty-nine were responsible to the MOET and the remainder were responsible either to other ministries, for example,

78

Tran Chi Dao, Lam Quang Thiep, and David Sloper

Health, Culture, Finance, and Law or to provincial authorities. However, the curriculum of each is subject to approval by the MOET. Almost half of the total are teacher training institutions, which prepare lower secondary and primary school teachers and are the responsibility of the provinces. Very few institutions are multi-disciplinary universities offering courses in the humanities, the natural sciences, and the social sciences, for instance, the Universities of Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh City, and Hue. Only one, the Can Tho University, teaches agriculture, medicine, the humanities, and education in the same institution. BASIC STAFF AND STUDENT STATISTICS

Essential higher education data for staff and students are presented in Table 5.1. Higher education enrolments decreased between academic year (AY) 1980/81 andAY 1985/86 from 120,848 to 85,726 full-time students. However, enrolment recovered to 92,637 full-time students in AY 1989/90. The total number of full-time, part-time, and in-service students in AY 1989/90 was 126,025. This figure represents twenty students per 10,000 inhabitants. It is very small compared to some countries in the region (for example, Thailand, 120; South Korea, 31 O) even though in some fields, absorption of graduates by the labour market is beginning to be a problem. Since 1990 institutions have been permitted to admit fee-paying students for short courses and for degree programmes and this category is not included in the official statistics qpoted in Table 5.1. By some estimates these students equal the number· of official students; and this growth with the inherent tension between maintenance of quality and the welcome and necessary additional income from fees is an issue that is currently being reviewed by the MOET. Academic staff in higher education total 20,869 persons, which is 57 per cent of the total number of employees. Of the staff, 31.4 per cent are female and 2 to 3 per cent are of minority ethnic origin. Only 2,426 or 11.6 per cent of the total academic staff have postgraduate degrees. A 1991 survey of teaching staff in thirty-five institutions found that 45.2 per cent were over forty years of age. Doctorates had been completed by 12.9 per cent of academic staff surveyed, and 67 per cent

Table 5. 1 Higher Education in Vietnam : Basic Data, I 980-90 Academic Year Data

1980/81

1981 /82

1982/83

1983/84

1984/85

1985/86

1986/87

1987/88

1988/89

1989/90

Academic staff (total) Academic staff (female)

17,592 4,044

18,509 4,812

18,369 4.740

18,124 4,238

18,984 5,283

18,827 5,219

19,2 12 5.798

19.785 6, 128

19,887 6,300

20,681 6,494

D+CS HE graduates PSE and other THCN

1,409 14,916 1,267

1.318 16, 155 1,036

I ,524 15.780 1,065

I ,586 15,748 790

1,791 16,082 I , Ill

1.769 16,200 858

1.810 16,684 718

2,058 17,040 687

2,099 17, 120 668

2,689 17,312 680

153,6 71 (44) 36,336 36,070

148,986 (48) 32,080 34,538

139,35 7 (39) 33,404 33,036

129, I 05 (43) 30,132 33,550

125,720 (40) 33.788 27,005

126, 195 (44) 33,006 25,544

126.715 (41) 35 ,319 24,2 52

122,300 (42) 39,576 28,200

128,000 (n .a.) 37,952 24,252

126,025 (n .a.) 35,998 26, 130

85 59 26

95 64 31

92 61 31

93 63 30

94 63 31

95 61 34

96 62 34

100 63 37

103 62 41

103 62 41

120,848 25,704 26,668

111.290 24,158 25,738

101.851 20,824 26,036

93,543 19,2 56 26,338

90,521 20,043 21 ' 122

88,726 21.768 20,202

91 ,246 22,907 18.762

97 ,000 26,572 19,200

I 00,300 26,826 19,600

I 04,607 28,266 20,600

Students (total) (% of female students) New enrollees Graduates Institutions Universities Colleges Students (formal) New enrollees (formal) Graduates (formal)

D+CS - Doctoral and candidate of science HE - Higher education PSE - Professional secondary education THCN - Vocational secondary education n.a. -Not available.

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Tran Chi Dao, Lam Quang Thiep, and David Sloper

of those holding foreign masters or doctorate degrees were over fifty years of age. Further details are examined more closely in chapters which examine the staffing profile and the pattern of postgraduate awards. In AY 1990/91, some fifty-eight higher education institutions had a full-time enrolment ofless than 800; twelve had fewer than 200 students; and there were only four universities with enrolments at almost or exceeding 3,000 regular students. Higher education receives some 15 per cent of the total education budget, which itself was slightly over 8 per cent of the total state budget in 1989. In 1989, 22.6 per cent of the budget was devoted to salaries, 19.4 per cent to scholarships, and 13 per cent to construction and equipment. The provision for library, computing, experimental equipment, consumables, and other learning resources was extremely limited. The funds available from the state budget for payment of salaries have been inadequate by about 50 to 60 per cent for some years and individual academics and institutions engage in other economic activities to provide salary supplementation. This position has affected not only the livelihood and professional esteem of academic staff (and other teachers in the education system), but also has had a damaging effect on the quality of teaching programmes. The current situation represents a spiral of professional degradation. DEGREE PATTERNS

Higher education award programmes range from three to eight or nine years of required training. Long-term higher education programmes are offered in many institutions, for example, six years for medical and dental sciences, five years for industrial engineering, and four years for most other awards. The majority of these programmes have two years of basic study followed by specialization. Short-term diploma programmes are offered in junior colleges with a duration of about three years. Higher education is government-sponsored, but private education, which is sometimes known as semi-public education, is now permitted and a few centres/institutions have been established on an experimental basis. Figure 5.1 displays the higher education award

5. Organization and Management ofHigher Education in Vietnam: An Overview

81

pattern that is favoured by MOET officials but which is still being implemented. In 1991, forty-three out of sixty universities had adopted the two-phase degree programme in which Phase 1 consists of two years of foundation knowledge and techniques. Most institutions operate two semesters of fifteen teaching weeks, with two weeks of examinations in each academic year, which runs from September to June. Since 1988/89 many universities have adopted a credit point system allowing students a greater choice of subjects in approved combinations. But the curriculum is relatively limited and rigid by international standards; and courses in physical education and Marxism-Leninism philosophy are compulsory in all degrees. Teaching depends heavily on lectures. With nearly thirty formal contact periods scheduled weekly, little time is available for independent study. There is a great shortage of textbooks, library, laboratory, and other learning resources. According to recent surveys 15 per cent of subjects are taught with inadequate printed materials; 15.6 per cent of students Figure 5. 1 Higher Education Award Pattern Years

International Equivalent

Programme

,-------

9

8

I

Ph.D.

~

Masters

~

Bachelor

Doctoral 7

6

5

n

4

Postgraduate

3 Undergraduate: phase 2 2 I

Undergraduate: phase I

Short term

Upper secondary schools "-

Diploma of higher education

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Tran Chi Dao, Lam Quang Thiep, and David Sloper

use the library regularly and 8 per cent never go to the library; and 7 4 per cent consider the teaching methods dull and uninteresting. RESEARCH AND POSTGRADUATE STUDIES

In keeping with the Soviet model of higher education, which generally separated teaching activities from research activities, Vietnam established a comprehensive network of research institutions throughout the country, in parallel with the network of institutions of higher education. Over 300 state research institutes (SRis) or centres belong to various ministries, some of which are reportedly better funded, staffed, and equipped than the universities. Trying to find sufficient well-trained and funded persons either to undertake quality teaching in the universities or quality research in the SRis has been a difficult task; and it is also an inefficient use of resources. University laboratories, libraries, and specialist facilities would be enhanced and students could benefit from contact with such individuals if there were a merger of SRis with universities, and research could benefit from using the staff, students, and facilities of the universities. Until recent years most people undertook research or postgraduate studies not in universities but in association with the SRls. If formal postgraduate degrees were sought, studies for these were either undertaken in Eastern bloc countries or universities in those nations which examined doctoral candidates based on research and/or publications completed in Vietnam. With significant changes to international communism in the past five to seven years, two results affecting higher education in Vietnam are evident: firstly, very few students proceed abroad for postgraduate degree studies; and secondly, the proportion of university academic staff holding postgraduate qualifications has declined to about 12 per cent and up to 67 per cent holding foreign higher degrees are over fifty years of age. Programmes for masters and doctoral degrees in Vietnam's universities have been introduced, as shown in Figure 5.1. To sustain and to regenerate not only its academic labour force but also its national economy, Vietnam must produce sufficient numbers of highly qualified personnel. The present disaggregation of meagre research infrastructure among universities and

5. Organization and Management of Higher Education in Vietnam: An Overview

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SRis is a formidable challenge; but it is one which the MOET, with support of the highest levels of government, including the Council of Ministers and the Prime Minister, have been actively deliberating during 1991 and 1992 and in earlier years. The resumption of bilateral development co-operation programmes with provision for postgraduate training abroad, for example, the Australian programme with currently 200 postgraduate awards each year, will help build up national capability in this area. STUDENT ADMINISTRATION AND STUDY MODES ADMISSIONS, EXAMINATlONS , AND SCHOLARSHIPS

Until1987 there was a single national admission examination for entry to universities and colleges administered by the MOET. Since 1988, this selection and admission process has been undertaken by each higher education institution. Prerequisites for students taking these entrance examinations (and many sit more than one), which are set by the MOET, stipulate that applicants for formal entry must be: graduates of either general or vocational secondary education; in good health as prescribed by regulation; and under thirty-two years of age or thirtyfive years for women, ex-servicemen, and those from ethnic minority groups. Entrance examinations are divided into four groups according to the field of training or the type of institution a student wishes to attend. The subjects examined for Group A include mathematics, physics, and chemistry; for Group B: mathematics, chemistry, and biology; for Group C: literature, history, and geography; and for Group D: literature, mathematics, and foreign languages. These subjects were changed in recent years by many institutions, and Vietnamese language has also been introduced. The results of the examinations are the only academic basis for selection as school leaving results have not been used. In addition to formal results, additional selection criteria apply to certain fields of studies, for example, the capacity to speak a foreign language, or drawing ability required for architecture. Under subsidies of the planned economy regime all higher educa-

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Tran Chi Dao, Lam Quang Thiep, and Da~id Sloper

tion students received free tuition and a scholarship to pay accommodation and catering charges in a student hostel. After 1988 a four-level scholarship scheme was introduced, providing benefits at 100, 75, 50 and 25 per cent of charges, the award being based on academic merit in the entrance examination and on academic performance plus behaviour from the second year of degree studies. Students are now required to pay the balance of charges and an amendment to the earlier constitutional provision for free education permits these charges. This mechanism allowed the introduction of full-fee-paying students, with tuition fees ranging in 1992 from 20,000 dong to 100,000 dong per month for a four-month semester depending on the degree course and other institutional variables. By comparison, accommodation charges range from 3,000 dong to 10,000 dong per month. In 1992 about 70 to 80 per cent of regular or officially enrolled students (that is, recognized by MOET statistics) received some form of scholarship. OPEN ADMISSION AND FEE PAYMENTS

It is estimated that full-fee students, termed informal or irregular students by the MOET, constitute an additional40 to 50 per cent of the total number enrolled in higher education. This indicates a national enrolment in AY 1991/92 of the order of 200,000 to 250,000 higher education students of whom more than half pay towards either their tuition fees and/or their hostel fees. This shift in a period of three years represents a massive change in policy, practice, and in the potential revenue base for higher education. MOET officials and institutional personnel are concerned about the need to establish a framework for charges, to maintain access and equity and to ensure quality in entrants and in graduates. In addition to regular academic programmes that operate on a fulltime basis, and increasingly also on a part-time basis, in-service higher education programmes have been offered in Vietnam since 1960. These target workers in employment and generally require a minimum of two years' experience for high school graduates and one year for graduates of vocational secondary education; and there are no age limits. Usually, training is by the "sandwich" mode, conducted intensively in a short period of several months each year either at an in-service centre

5. Organization and Management ofHigher Education in Vietnam: An Overview

85

or, more commonly, at the work-place; and the duration of training is usually three years. The curricula and standards are different from those of formal higher education with more emphasis being placed on professional skills and practical competencies. For this reason there is an MOET department other than the Department of Higher Education responsible for these activities. In recent years as a consequence of changes in production patterns that have affected former state industries, there has been a reduction in demand for some forms of in-service training. In other areas, for instance, business management, computer applications, or the upgrading of magistrates and law officers, new demands for in-service courses have been made upon regular higher education institutions. After 1989 an "open admission" mode developed in Vietnam's higher education system. The mode resulted from the contradiction between demand for university entrance and the limitations of supply caused by government budget restrictions and approval being granted to admit fee-paying students. Many institutions have developed this admission pattern, the most visible being the Ho Chi Minh City Open University. In AY 1992/93, enrolments on a full-time or part-time basis at its main site exceeded 9,000 students with an additional number of more than 5,000 studying elsewhere by a form of distance learning. While this university administers a small scholarship programme from its own resources, almost all students are fee-paying, the maximum fee for a full-time course being 850,000 dong for a two-semester enrolment. The emergence of the open admission mode in parallel with an increasingly competitive examination for the regular entry mode, has caused much debate in higher education, particularly about standards, quality control, and performance measures. Among the organizational responses being discussed are: the creation of a number of specific open universities or the development of a private or semi-private sector in higher education with appropriate licensing and regulation; or the establishment of open admission community colleges, which could provide their own training and awards and which might also provide transfer with credit to major and specialized institutions of higher education. This area is under active review during 199 3 with a mission team spending some months in Canada and the United States.

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Tran Chi Dao, Lam Quang Thiep, and David Sloper

ASSESSMENT OF STUDENTS

The method for evaluating and recording the academic progress of students in Vietnam's colleges and universities does not follow a common standard although progress towards this goal is being made. Currently two principal forms of valuation exist: a new credit point system being introduced since 1988, which has a maximum of 10 points in each semester subject and a minimum passing score of 5 points and actually requires assessment across a broader range of subjects; and the old regulations, which tested on a pass or fail basis at annual examinations and allowed a narrower stream of subjects to be taken. The variety of evaluation practices, most of which depend heavily on examinations, tend to reflect the experience of academic staff and the disciplines or institutions in which they completed their final degrees. GOVERNANCE AND ADMINISTRATION The MOET has direct responsibility for the larger and more important universities and colleges. This involves allocation of state funds for institutional budgets including specification of the minimum numbers of scholarship students to be admitted, staffing numbers, and other functions. Other ministries supervise mainly specialist monodisciplinary institutions; and provincial authorities exercise direction over junior and provincial colleges in their areas. In respect of curricula and other related academic matters all higher education institutions are under the management of the MOET and its specialized departments. Matters subject to such national regulation include admission criteria, examination requirements, core curriculum subjects, and the granting and recognition of degrees and other academic awards. There are national curriculum committees and other bodies representative of Ministry, institutional, and specialist interests which give advice to the MOET and the minister in their various jurisdictions. Prior to 1987, the provision of educational services in Vietnam was the responsibility of four separate agencies. The committee for Mother and Children Protection oversaw pre-school programmes in creches; the Ministry of Education was responsible for pre-school education in kindergartens and formal general education up to senior secondary

5. Organization and Management of Higher Education in Vietnam: An Overview

87

school; the General Department for Vocational Training administered vocational education; and the Ministry of Higher and Secondary Technical Education was responsible for universities, colleges, and technical schools. The four ministries merged in 1987 into two, the Ministry of General Education and the Ministry of Higher, Technical and Vocational Education. They merged into a single Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) in 1990. The MOET has fifteen departments and two national institutes as outlined in Figure 5.2. The four departments most directly involved with higher education institutions are the Department of Higher Education, the Department of Postgraduate Studies, the Department oflnService and Continuing Education, and the Department of Student Affairs. Co-ordination and co-operation between these departments are not well organized; and the present pattern of structure, functions, and responsibilities within the MOET need to be reviewed and changed to meet external changes that are affecting higher education at institution and at system level. At the institutional level, the organizational structure is as follows. The chief executive is the rector who is appointed for three years by the minister after election by academic staff of the institution. The rector is assisted by one or more vice-rectors depending on institutional size; and there are various supporting administrative offices such as academic administration, finance and property, and research and productive output. Institutions divide academic teaching activities into departments according to the disciplines and numbers of programmes, staff and students of the university or college; and a dean may be appointed to lead a degree programme based on several departments. The rector is advised by consultative bodies, such as the Consultation Council comprising vice-rectors, deans, and heads of offices; and the Department Council, which includes heads of academic departments and distinguished professors, provides advice to deans. At present there are formal legal provisions relating to financial matters between the MOET and institutions and for the financial operations of institutions. Regulations also exist for such matters, as previously mentioned, as curricula, scholarship numbers and awards, admission policies, staff appointments and promotions, and degree

Figure 5.2 MOET Organizationa l Chart. I 992

Minister Tran Hong Ouan Prof Dr.

---

Leadership of Ministry

I

I

I

I

I st Vice-Minister Pham Minh Hac Prof. Dr.

Vice-Minister Tran Chi Dao Prof. Dr.

Vice-Minister Luong Ngoc Toan Prof. Dr.

Vice-Minister Tran Xuan Nhi Prof. Dr.

----- ------ ---

---- ------ ------

--~ --------------- ----=--=-=- ---------------- --~ -- ---- ------ ----- -- --- ------------- ----------- ------------- ------------- ------ ------ ------ -- -- -- -- ---- ------ ------ -----

-------------- -- -- --- -

--- - ~

Departments

Postgraduate

t-

Bureau of administration

Organizational and personnel

~

International relations

Scientific research

~ ~

Planning and financial

Higher education

Vocational education

~

Student affairs

~ ~ ~ J-

~

Pre-school education

Teaching staff development

}-

Complementary and continuing education

1--

Inspection

~

Physical education and sport

1--

General education

~

fMostly for

general education) ----------------- ----- ---------------- ------------- ----------- --------- - ------ -- - --- - - ----- -- ---- - - ----- - ---------- -------------------- ----------------------------- ----------------- ------ -- -- ------ --------- -- ------------- -- ---- ---Researc Institutes. Centres, Publis t"Jing House

National research institute for higher and vocational 1-education Magazine: "Education and Epoch"

1--

National institute for educational science

1--

Institute for school design and t-construction

Education research and review

f-

Education and training 1-publishing house

Vocational orientation centre

--------------- --_--- ---.---------------- __ ___ -- ~

,

_,-

~

--------·-.

5. Organization and Management ofHigher Education in Vietnam: An Overview

89

awards. There is a deficiency of current legal statutes that are relevant and appropriate to management of the changing situation in Vietnam's higher education institutions. This lack tends to make some institutions excessively dependent on the MOET while others exercise newly found initiative. Both patterns can affect the quality of education. At the level of national policy-making, the decisive agents are the MOET and the Department of Science and Education of the Central Committee of the CPV. The National Research Institute for Higher and Vocational Education contributes through research on problems and meetings of rectors at regional and national level provide another source of guidance and advice. In general, there is limited experience of organization and management practices in the sort of higher education system that will work collaboratively with other socio-economic developments as Vietnam moves into a market economy within a socialist philosophy. CONCLUSION During a period of extreme resource deprivation and of continuing economic and political change since 1986, social institutions in Vietnam such as universities and colleges have had their operations dominated by survival strategies. Many institutions have demonstrated great ingenuity in responding to market opportunities and in initiating diverse programmes of social service, both philanthropic and profitmaking, in their quest for survival. Many positive changes have been made in higher education, but the system requires comprehensive review to increase resources and to improve use of existing resources. Despite obvious achievements, there will be continuing difficulty in managing resources effectively because of the existence of 103 separate higher education and 300 state research institutes. This fundamental issue of organization and structure causes problems of effectiveness in policy-making, planning, and management. Other major issues that are associated with or derive from this critical issue include the followmg:

• •

the need for a higher education management information system; reorganization within the MOET of planning and policy develop-

90

• • • • • • • • •

Tran Chi Dao, Lam Quang Thiep, and David Sloper

ment for higher education to provide effective coherence in implementation; the role of non-teaching staff, who currently form 43 per cent of total personnel; the absence of systematic training for institutional executives and administrators; curriculum renovation and the development of closer links with employers and professional bodies; teaching/learning quality, associated equipment and resource provisions, and academic staff development; student/staff ratios, which average 6.1:1 and display a low of2.8: 1; salary levels, promotion criteria, and career development; the quality and maintenance of buildings and other learning resources such as libraries, computers, and specialist facilities; alternative delivery modes; research and service linkage with industry, employers, and the community.

Many of these issues are considered in other chapters of this book. One way to improve efficiency and effectiveness is to raise enrolment rates, to justifY the current number and organizational pattern of institutions. If, on the other hand, policy-makers prefer to maintain enrolment rates at their existing levels, a drastic reduction of staff/student ratios and a reorganization of institutional arrangements should be considered. Where future socio-economic development justifies an increase in the number of graduates, a stabilization of personnel and rational review of organizational patterns of training and/or research institutions would be nee~ed. Because higher education is a labour-intensive industry with a product (degree) cycle of about four years, strategic planning and implementation over a period of three to five years is necessary to minimize disruption to ongoing activities. The issues are clear and numerous whereas, at present, available options to resolve endemic problems are somewhat limited. Nevertheless the MOET, the Council of Ministers, and senior organs of the CPV have been scrutinizing various models which will modernize the system of higher education in response to emerging needs. Conferences

5. Organization and Management of Higher Education in Vietnam: An Overview

91

of rectors and other experts have deliberated alternatives; and international agencies such as UNESCO, UNDP, and the World Bank have already provided valuable assistance or are poised to collaborate. Vietnam has a proud national record of overcoming adversity and of survival. Its modern education system also demonstrates some significant achievements. To consolidate these foundations and to realize the potential demonstrated during the recent survival phase, higher education must receive sufficient policy support and resources to deal with the priority issues of reorganization and human resource development.

ANNEX I Higher Education in Vietnam : Institutional Data for the 1990/91 Academic Year

Name of Institution

No.

Year Established

Location

Total Academic Staff/Doctors

1956 1976 1976 1976 1977 1977 1976 1979 1976

Hanoi HCM City Hue Dalat Ban Me Thuoc Can Tho Hanoi Hanoi Hanoi

853/333 677/79 228/18 123/8 222/1 603/22 236/16 154/5 145/5

2.930 2, 148 836 619/953 1.027 3, 136/397 512 1, 134 1.143

1956 1976 1976 1966 1966

Hanoi HCM City Danang Hanoi Hanoi

908/386 622/100 499/131 427/117

2. 993/36 4,942 2.328/687 1,909/655 1.058

1968

Hanoi

344/69

1,677/662

1966 1959 1969 1976 1976

Haiphong Hanoi Hanoi HCM City Thai Nguyen

448/23 241/73 170/16 57/8 169/l8

1,289/395 I .020/43 827 612/67 467/81

1988 1966

Hanoi Haiphong

106/1

119

1956 1976 1971

Hanoi Hue Thai Nguyen

492/102 178/11 176/ 10

1.626/991 960 923

1976

HCM City

302/26

1.470/469

1964 1966

Ha Son Sinh Nha Trang

189/24 163/9

648/358 975

Students: Full-Time/ Part-Time

Universities I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Hanoi University HCM City University Hue University Dalat University Tay Nguyen University Can Tho University College of Foreign Languages College of Law Institute of Foreign Relations

Institutes and colleges Engineering 10 Hanoi Polytechnic II HCM City Polytechnic 12 Danang Polytechnic 13 Institute of Civic Engineering 14 Institute of Geology/ Mining Engineering IS Institute of Transport Engineering 16 Institute of Marine Engineering 17 Institute of Water Resources 18 Hanoi Architecture Institute 19 HCM City Architecture Institute 20 Thai Nguyen Institute of Engineering 21 College of Code Technology 22 Haiphong College of In-Service Training Agriculture, forestry, and fishery 23 Hanoi Institute of Agriculture 24 Hue Institute of Agriculture 25 Thai Nguyen Institute of Agriculture 26 HCM City Institute of Agriculture/Forestry Institute of Forestry 27 Institute of Fishery 28

283130

Economy Hanoi Institute of Econ omy 29 HCM City Institute of Econ o my 30 Hanoi Trade College 31 Han oi College of Foreig n 32 Trade Hanoi College of Fina n ce & 33 Commerce HCM City College of Finance 34 Medical science and health-related Hanoi Institu te o f Medicine 35 HCM City Institu te of Medicine 36 Hanoi Institute of Pharmacy 37 Thai Nguyen Institute o f 38 Medicine Hue Institute of Med icine 39 Thai Sinh Institute of Medicine 40 Haipho ng Bran ch of 41 Medicine Insti tute HCM City Centre of 42 Training Medicine College o f Sport No. 1 43 College o f Sport No . 2 44 Culture and fine arts Hanoi Institute of Music 45 HCM City Insti tute of Music 46 47 Hanoi College o f Fine Arts 48 HCM City College of Fine Arts 49 College o f Culture 50 College o f Industry & Appli ed Arts 51 College o f Theatre/ Cinematography National teachers college 52 Hanoi Pedag og ical University 53 Hanoi Teachers College No . 2 54 Fo reig n Language Teachers College 55 Thai Ng uyen Teach ers College 56 Vinh Teach ers College 57 Hue Teach ers Colleg e 58 Q ui Nhon Teach ers College 59 HCM City Teachers College 60 HCM City Techn ical College

1956 1976 1979 1965

Hanoi HCM City Hanoi Hano i

462/91 299/38 280/28 10017

1, 996/4,0 12 2,6 17 1,22 1 449/20

1976

Hanoi

232/8

1,45 5

1977

H CM City

14 1/5

I ,02 5/3,059

19 55 1964

Hano i HCM City Hano i Thai Nguyen

496/9 1 562/ 11 132/4 22 1/ 10

2,03 7 3,46 1/54 0 632 1,43 7/224

1976 19 79

Hue Thai Sinh Haiphong

22 1/4 352/8 11 4/ 1

I .23 1/ 136 I , 11 3 653

1990

HCM City

1964 1985

Ha Bac HCM City

124/ 11 9 4/6

220

1965 19 76 19 55 1976 19 77 196 5

Hano i HCM City Hanoi HCM City Han oi Han oi

11 6/8 124/3 44 50 120/8 82

177 168 122 126 66 5 2 13

1980

Hano i

62/2

194

1955 1967 1967

Hanoi Xuan Hoa Han oi

758/20 I 2 17/ 15 441 /2 1

2,0 17/ 180 I ,01 3/ 153 2, 485/223

1970 1959 19 79 198 1 19 76 1976

Thai N g uyen Vinh Hue Q ui Nhon HCM City HCM City

262/25 3 76/5 5 269/ 13 197/7 469/33 232/1 7

1,254 1,09 5 1,258/275 1,023/194 2,2 11 1,598/ 11 0

1979

166

National junior teachers colleges Viet Bac J.T.C Tay Bac J.T.C Sport No. 1 J.T.C. Music and Painting JT.C Technical J.T.C Sport No. 2 J.T.C Kindergarten No. 1 JT.C Kindergarten No. 2 J.T.C

61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68

Provincial junior teachers colleges Hanoi J.T.C Haiphong JTC Vinh Phu J.T.C Engineer Bac Ninh J.T.C 72 Quang Ninh JTC 73 Ha Son Binh 74 Hai Hung J.T.C 75 Thai Binh JTC 16 Ha Nam Ninh JTC l7 Thanh Hoa J.T.C 78 Nghe Tinh JTC 79 HueJTC 80 Danang JTC 81 Binh Dinh JTC 82 Khanh Hoa J.T.C 83 Lam DongJTC 84 Dong Nai J.T.C 85 Long An J.T.C 86 Dong Thap J.T.C 87 Song Be J.T.C 88 Tay Ninh JTC 89 Dac Lac J .T. C. 90 Tien Giang J.T.C 91 Ben Tre J.T.C. 92 Hau Giang J.T.C. 93 HCM City J.T.C. 94 Hoang Lien Son J.T.C. 95 Gia Lai Kontum J.T.C. 96 Cuu Long JTC. 97

69 70 71

Other provincial colleges Thanh Hoa JTC. of Agriculture Hue Jr. College of Fine Arts Thanh Hoa J.T.C. of Medicine Junior College of Pol1ce Junior College of Banking Branch ot Jr. College of banking 103

98 99 100 101 102

Thai Nguyen Son La Hanoi Hanoi Hai Hung HCM City Hanoi HCM City

129/1 104 61/1 87 67 41 64/1 38

341 403 246 385 385 229 168/43 240

179 74/2 82/1 97 56/1 136

1978 1918 1980 1987 1988 1984 1988 1988 1978 1987 1987 1986 1978

Hanoi Haiphong Phu Tho Bac Ninh Quang Ninh Ha Son Binh Hai Hung Tha1 Binh Nam Dinh Thanh Hoa Vinh Hue Danang Binh Dinh Nha Trang Dalat Dong Nai Long An Dong Thap Sono Be Tay Ninh Ban Me Thuoc Tien Giang Ben Tre Hau Giang HCM City

1980

Plei Ku Cuu Long

76 69

961 302 429 351 255 741 612/205 652 622 782 816 123 550 913/134 460 422 674 459/247 503 623 678 373 563 511/135 571 1,009 623 239 674

Thanh Hoa Hue Thanh Hoa Ha Dong Hanoi HlM C1ty

88/2 43 82 61 144/3 83

247/560 68 155 578/341 459 640

1970 1981 1980 1985 1984 1983 1987 1978 1978 1973 1981 1980 1978 1978 1978 1978 1978 1978

107

89 93 173/2 150 83 200 133 132/1 92 117 I 1 81 90 72

105 105 104 102 114 329/1 72

1980 1967 1981 1975 1961

6

STAFFING PROFILE OF HIGHER EDUCATION PHAM THANH NGHI AND DAVID SLOPER

INTRODUCTION The largest single item of a university budget goes towards staff salaries. Moreover, the qualiry of the staff (academic, administrative, professional) is one of the most important indicators determining the output of higher education institutions. To improve effectiveness in use and to realize more fully the potential of staff is an important challenge for higher education at both system and institutional levels. This chapter will analyse the current staffing situation in higher education in Vietnam under such characteristics as number, age, gender, ethnicity, discipline, qualifications, and experience. The provision of such data and the analysis undertaken will form an important part of the background for the discussion of options for change and development in later chapters.

ACADEMIC STAFF SOME COMMON POINTS ABOUT TASKS, WORK REGIME, AND POLICIES

Academic staff who are employed to lecture in higher education insti-

96

Pham Thanh Nghi and David Sloper

tutions, both universities and colleges, are responsible for more than 200 teaching periods annually, each period being 45 minutes as required by regulations; and they are also to be given adequate time for research work. This formal teaching requirement amounts to five contact hours for each week of the fifteen weeks in each of the two semesters in an academic year. Lecturers have the right to undertake professional development activities with the aim of upgrading their competence and their promotional level; and after specified periods of service they can be sent to in-service complementary training courses under various forms. The salary of academic staff is based on common regulations and depends on their seniority. In 1990 the government issued procedures for assessing and granting a new classification of titles for academic staff in different grades: assistant lecturer, lecturer, senior lecturer, associate professor, and professor. This classification, which is examined in Chapter 7, has helped lecturers to have a more positive attitude to their professional work. However, there still remain numerous irrationalities concerning the treatment, both spiritual and material, oflecturers of good record; and as a result, this sometimes discourages them in upgrading their level and/or improving their professional skills as teachers and researchers. KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF ACADEMIC STAFF

In the academic year (AY) 1989/90 the total number of academic staff was 20,681 persons. Since 1980, there have been small fluctuations, but the annual average growth rate in the number of staff has been 2 per cent. Table 6.1 illustrates the overall position. An analysis of academic staff by gender is also presented in Table 6.1. It can be seen that in AY 1989/90, females represent about 31 per cent of the total staff The percentage of female academics has grown steadily over the past ten years. The percentage increase in female staff until 1990, based on the number in AY 1980/81, is approximately 60.6. During the same period the total number of academic staff increased by 17.6 per cent. There is room for continued growth in both the number and the increase rate of female academic staff. Higher education institutions and therefore academic staff are unevenly distributed throughout Vietnam, as may be seen in Table 6.2.

Table 6.1 Number and Gender of Academic Staff, I 980-90 Academic Year

Total staff No. of females 1 J of total)

1980/81

1981/82

1982/83

1983/84

1984/85

1985/86

1986/87

1987/88

1988/89

17,592

18,509

18,369

18,124

18,984

18,827

19,212

19,785

19,887

4,044 (23.4)

4,812 (26.0)

4,740 (25.8)

4,240 (23.4)

5,283 (27.8)

5,2!9 (27.7)

5,798 (30.2)

6,128 (31.0)

1989/90 20,681

6,300 (31.7)

6,494 (31.3)

Table 6.2 Academic Staff, by Region, with Student/Staff Ratios Reg1on ----~----------"·----

Category No. of staff (%of total) Student/staff ratio

Red River

Northern Mountain

Hue Thanh Nghe Tinh

Central Coast

Central Highland

South Eastern

Mekong Delta

I 0,462 (50.5)

1,419 (6.8)

1,739 (84)

1,337 (64)

553 (2.6)

3,932 (18.9)

I ,239 (5.9)

3.91

4.61

6.13

7.05

5.56

6.43

6.90

98

Pham Thanh Nghi and David Sloper

In the Red River region surrounding Hanoi, numerous higher education institutions are concentrated; and the number of academic staff working in these institutions is 50.8 per cent of the total. Student/staff ratios are highest in Central Coast region. In the Mekong delta and the South Eastern and Hue-Thanh-Nghe Tinh regions, those ratios are relatively higher. One conclusion is that institutions are either overstaffed or have insufficient students; however, the underlying problems are more complex than this simple display of data may suggest and will be discussed later. A survey was conducted in 1991 in a cross-section of thirty-five higher education institutions and involved 8,515 academic staff in these institutions. Some 6,944 staff returned usable questionnaires, which is a response rate of 82 per cent. One investigation concerned academic rank and the level of postgraduate degree qualification that had been attained. Table 6.3 presents data in respect of the 2,170 females employed as academics in these thirty-five institutions. It can be observed that the number of academics with postgraduate degrees in relation to the total number of female lecturers surveyed is very small. The number oflecturers from ethnic minorities is very small. The results of the survey at thirty-five universities and colleges show that among 8,515 lecturers, there are only 218 persons from ethnic minorities, equivalent to 2.58 per cent. The distribution of academic staff across several age brackets from under thirty to over fifty-one years and the spread of those with postgraduate qualifications is uneven and the criteria of age and qualification may be related. The past ten years has Table 6.3 Academic Rank and Postgraduate Degrees among Female Academic Staff at Thirty-Five Institutions

Total number (% of total)

Associate Professor

Total

Professor

2, 170 (100)

2

3

(0 .09)

(0 . 13)

Doctoral Degree

4 (0 . 18)

Candidate Degree 154

(7.09)

Note: Doctoral degree almost universally refers to doctor of science degree of the former USSR. Candidate degree refers to the candidate of science degree of the former USSR. which lies within the range of Ph .D. degrees in Western countries.

6. Staffing Profile ofHigher Education

99

seen a rapid decline in the number of Vietnamese academics going abroad to socialist countries for postgraduate degrees. The number of academic staff aged younger than thirty years is very small. Of the 6,944 academic staff who responded in the survey of thirty-five institutions, 55.4 per cent are aged forty-one years or older with some 21.95 per cent being over fifty-one. This is an acceptable distribution given the nature of training and advancement in academic life. Of considerable concern are the facts that 100 per cent of professors and 96.69 per cent of associate professors are aged over fifty-one years; and that 70.42 per cent of academics holding doctorates and 41.04 per cent of those with candidate of science degrees are older than fifty-one years. These people are in their final employment phase as they approach retirement. Of equally critical concern is the fact that only 16.29 per cent of respondents hold postgraduate degrees. Because the 6,944 respondents account for about one-third of the national academic labour force, and are representative in profile, the implications for succession and renewal of retiring staff as well as for growth and development are very senous. Another analysis of academic staff by age distribution suggests that universities where the qualifications of academic staff are high, have a smaller percentage of young lecturers; and conversely, in universities and colleges that have a younger academic staff, there is a smaller percentage of staff with postgraduate degrees. The consequences of aggregating younger and lesser qualified staff and, the obverse, at certain types of institution, merit further investigation at the level of national policy. ACADEMIC STAFF Q!JALIFICATIONS

At all higher education institutions in Vietnam even though the number and the percentage of academic staff with postgraduate degrees such as doctors and candidates of science have increased steadily, the majority of staff members (in excess of 80 per cent), have only bachelor degrees. Table 6.5 displays relevant data. Academic staff with doctoral or candidate degrees are concentrated mostly at universities and colleges in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City, as is indicated in Table 6.2 and detailed further in Table 6.6. Many

0

0

Table 6.4 Academic Staff. by Age Distribution and Postgraduate Degree, at Thirty-Five Institutions Age Rank and Postgraduate Degree

Total

Under 30

31-40

41-50

Over 51

No. of academic staff (% of total)

6,944 (I 00.00)

659 (9.49)

2,438 (35. I I)

2,323 (33.45)

1,524 (2 I. 95)

No. of professors/ % of rank (% of total)

22/100 (0 .32)

0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

22/ 100 (0.32)

No of associate professors/% of rank (% of total)

151/100 (2.18)

0 (0)

0 (0)

5/3.3 I (0.07)

146/96.69 (2 . 11)

No. of doctors of science/% of degree (% of total)

71/100 (1 .02)

0 (0)

2/2 .82 (0.03)

19/26.76 (0 .27)

50/70.42 (0.72)

No. of candidates of science/% of degree (% of total)

1,060/100 (15 .27)

4/0 .38 (0 .06)

90/8.49 ( 1.3)

531/50 .09 (7 .65)

435/41 .04 (6 .26)

~

;::. ~

;;!

;::.

;:s

~

~

:t

;::. ;:s 1:1...

\:::) ;::.

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~

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6. Staffing Profile ofHigher Education

101

Table 6.5 Qualifications of Academic Staff, 1980-90 Doctoral and Candidate Degrees

Bachelor Degree

Academic Year

No.

%

No.

1980/81 1981/82 1982/83 1983/84 1984/85 1985/86 1986187 1987/88 1988/89 1989/90

1,409 1,318 1, 524 1,586 1,791 1,760 1,810 2,058 2,099 2,681

8.6 8.2 8.3 8.8 9. 16 9.6 8.8 10. 1 I 0.55 12.9

14,916 19,917 15, 780 15, 742 16,082 16,200 16,684 17,040 17, 120 17,310

%

84.6 86.2 85 .0 86 .8 85.4 . 86 .2 87.7 86.8 86 .0 83 .6

universities and colleges have high student/staff ratios and their staff are not academically strong. However, these ratios at universities and colleges in the South are quite low and the average student/staff ratio in Vietnam's higher education system is 6.12: 1. This is acknowledged as being very low in relation to other comparable countries and other countries in the region. The distribution of academic staff with doctoral or candidate degrees by discipline is also quite uneven. Data for the AY 1990/91 show that the percentage of academic staff with doctoral and candidate degrees to total staff numbers in science and technology is about 22; in the humanities and social sciences, about 15; in economics, about 11.6; in agriculture and forestry, about 11.2; in public health and sports, about 6.5; in teachers colleges, about 5.5; and in art and culture, about 3.2. RESEARCH

Until recent changes towards a market economy there was little expectation that research was to be undertaken in higher education institutions. In fact, following the Soviet model, a parallel stream of state research institutes (SRI) responsible to various ministries was developed. In 1993, there are more than 300, many of which are better

Table 6.6 Academic Staff, by Senior Rank and Qualification, in Thirty-Three Institutions Responsible to the MOET in the Academic Year 1990/91

No.

University or College

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

University of Hanoi University of Ho Chi Minh City Hue University Dalat University Can Tho University Hanoi Foreign Languages College Hanoi University of Technology Danang University of Technology HCM City University of Technology Construction College College of Mining and Geology College of Transportation Hanoi College of Agriculture I Hue College of Agriculture II College of Agriculture

Total Academic Staff 853 440 228 123 603 405 908 283 494 499 427 344 492 178 176

Professor 47 8 1 I 2 0 21 0 6 18 12 2 6 0 0

Associate Professor 211 24 3 4 7 I 209 9 22 56 31 II 31 4 1

Doctor 31 17 I I 11 I 25 I 7 12 18 I 4 I 0

Candidate of Science 302 62 17 7 11 16 361 30 13 119 103 62 100 10 10

16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33

HCM College of Agriculture and Forestry Nha Trang College of Marine Science Hanoi National Economic University HCM City Economics University College of Trade College of Industrial Art Hanoi Pedagogical University Teachers Training College No. 2 Foreign Language Teachers Training College Vinh Teachers Training College Viet Sac Teachers Training College Hue Teachers Training College College of Sports No. 2 Drawing and Music Teachers Training College Ministry of Education and Training Research Institute for Higher and Vocational Education Institute of Educational Sciences School Design Institute Total number (Percentage of total)

302 163 462 299 280 82 758 217 441 376 262 269 41 87 0 16

6 0 II 3 0 0 25 0 I 0 0 0 0 0 10 2

12 2 58 19 8 2 103 3 13 II 6 3 I I 19 6

3 I 7 4 I 0 8 0 I 0 I 3 0 0 6 0

23 8 84 34 24 0 193 IS 20 35 25 10 0 0 17 IS

484 4

5 0

22

4 0

89 3

10,996 (100)

187

924

170 (1.5)

1,848 (16 .8)

fl. 7)

I

(8.4)

104

Pham Thanh Nghi and David Sloper

staffed, equipped, and funded than universities. The number of doctors and candidates of science working in the education and training sector accounts for approximately 35 per cent of the total number of doctors and candidates in Vietnam; but the budgetary funding allocated to research in higher education institutions represents an insignificant percentage of the total sum allocated in the national budget for this purpose. The current situation is irrational and leads to duplication of resources, the dispersal of limited equipment, library materials and funding, and the separation of research and postgraduate study activities. In higher education institutions there is an underutilization of skilled human resources. CAPACITY FOR FULFILLING MISSION AND TASKS

Overall, the qualifications of academic staff are too low for effective work in higher education. According to a formal report, somewhere between 30 and 50 per cent of academic staff are able to fulfil their tasks with proficiency. One cause is that academics have been trained in narrow and often theoretical specializations. Their training abroad was often related to scholarships available rather than to national needs. They are generally weak in professional areas, particularly in relation to practical knowledge. They are short of new information, have not been trained how to renew knowledge; and another set of critical issues results from the extreme shortage of knowledge about modern educational theory and research, about teaching methodologies, and how to develop a capacity for self-learning. All of these factors hinder improvement in the professional skills and vocational interests of academic staff. In the current conditions of rapid social and economic transformation, most academics cannot respond to the needs for associated educational reform. Of a sample of 306 academic staff who were personally interviewed (randomly selected among the 6,944 respondents), 23.5 per cent say that their present qualification is good enough to realize the teaching mission; 53.6 per cent of them say that they wish to be retrained in the same discipline and 10 per cent indicate a need to go through a course of teaching methodology. Throughout Viet-

6. Staffing Profile ofHigher Education

105

nam's universities and colleges there is an abundance of unskilled academics, who are weak in areas of subject content, research experience, and professional knowledge; and at the same time, there is a shortage of persons with good teaching capabilities. Among 214 interviewed managers in higher education (that is, academic staff who also hold administrative positions), 55.1 per cent of them believed that their institution lacks lecturers for some needed specializations; and 65.9 per cent of them reported that their institution has for some other specializations, lecturers in abundance. Examples are a shortage of staff with competence in the area of market economics rather than planned economics or teachers of English rather than Russian. Academic staff in fourteen higher education institutions interviewed felt that in institutions where there is a high proportion oflecturers with postgraduate degrees, this capacity is not fully exploited; while on the contrary, where this proportion is low, there is a lack of leading personages, and the capacity of the academic staff to fulfil tasks appears rather weak. Because of the previous pattern of postgraduate training abroad mainly in socialist countries, 40 per cent of lecturers have studied from one to three foreign languages and 19.54 per cent report having completed at least one or more research projects. ATTITUDE TO PROFESSION

Despite perceived shortcomings about their own capability and about problems in their institutions, most lecturers work responsibly. The social status of the teaching profession at all levels has declined and is currently low, partly in relation to a decline in salaries. The results of interviews with a sample of 306 academics reveal the following: that there are 33 per cent among them who are satisfied with their profession; 53.6 per cent accept their profession as an obligation, though they do not love it; and the rest, 13.4 per cent, want to give up the teaching profession. An investigation carried out with 352 higher education students in the northern, central, and southern regions of the country found that 22.4 per cent of interviewed students believed their teachers loved their profession, while 72.4 per cent thought that their teachers worked only from a sense of obligation and duty. The attitude

106

Pham Thanh Nghi and David Sloper

of academics to their profession has a great impact on the quality of their lectures and on their ability to attract students to formal classes. A total of 74.7 per cent of interviewed students thought that lecture periods are often boring; only 15.6 per cent of them were enthused by lecturers. Despite changes in many areas of Vietnamese society and education, assessment methods in universities and colleges have not been renovated yet: 68.8 per cent of students believed that the lecturer's evaluation of their assignments and examinations is based too much on evidence of knowledge which has been learnt by heart; and that most lecturers pay inadequate attention to the aspects of creativity and the development of critical thinking. INCOME SITUATION

The salaries of academic staff are too low and their living conditions are excessively difficult, which do not allow sufficient commitment and time for their primary working activity. For 51.6 per cent of them, the principal income is their salary. The interviewed academics saw their salary as being much lower than that of people of the same formal qualifications and professional level working outside the education sector. The results of a survey of thirty-nine academics at universities and twenty academics at colleges conducted by interview in May 1991 are presented in Table 6.7. The table shows that the money they must earn to complement their official monthly income is generally equivalent to the money they receive as salary, the overall averages per month being 68 ,950 dong in official salary and 63,150 dong in additional income. Since 1991, salary rates and costs have increased. One of the most immediate issues in terms of stabilizing and strengthening higher education is that of staff salaries and the need for them to be upgraded progressively. In 1992 the official salary paid to academic staff could meet their basic living needs for only ten days of each month. For instance, a professor received about 120,000 dong per month (about US$12) . Given this inadequacy, staff must participate in other income-earning activities, both those recognized by their university or college and personal activities. The range of activities dem-

?I ~

~ ~

'"()

..

~

"iS..:. v,

~ ~

10. Physical Facilities and Learning Resources

193

that for equipment approximately 15 per cent, with the remaining 5 per cent being allocated to other costs. The State Planning Committee (SPC) and the ministry to which the college or university belongs prepare annual and five-year plans for the allocation of a construction budget for the physical facilities of each college. The Ministry of Finance allocates such funds as are approved directly to the institution through the State Bank for Capital Construction. This bank monitors the implementation of construction in order to provide the necessary progress payments. Capital works in higher education institutions have, of necessity, been financed not only from the governmental budget, but also by mobilizing other funds from the MOET, from production and research revenue, and from international aid. One result of these various funding sources is that the monitoring of the capital works budget is not systematic, and there is a lack of comprehensive data. Illustrations of the total complex picture can be seen only by looking at a variety of single cases, for example: as stated previously, in 1990 the MOET from its own funds (international experts programme) provided to a number of institutions more than 200 microcomputers. In the past decade no new higher education institution has been physically established and all of the capital works budget provided has been used to upgrade existing institutions. This budget was allocated for building lecture halls, offices, and dormitories, which can be regarded as essentials and also to modernize equipment. Because of the inadequate budget that has been distributed among many colleges, construction time is prolonged and almost always facilities are late in being put into use. MAINTENANCE OF MATERJAL BASIS

Because Vietnam's econorriy is underdeveloped, the material basis, that is the capital investment in colleges and universities as public institutions, is of high value. Efficient maintenance and utilization are important questions of concern to executives at system and institutional level in higher education. Currently there are no standards, guidelines, and rules for expenditure on maintenance. All the expenses for mainte-

194

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nance and repairs must be taken from the current operating expenditures of the governmental budget. According to the balance sheets of the institutions, the expenditure for repairs, maintenance, minor equipment acquisitions, and minor construction made up 9 to 14 per cent of their actual expenditure in AY 1989/90. Of this expenditure, minor acquisitions and minor construction generally made up 40 per cent, the remainder being for maintenance and repairs; but this rate varies between institutions. Often this budget item was allocated to such priorities as salaries, expenses for teaching and learning (consumables for experiments and practicals), administration, with any remaining funds then being for maintenance and repair. Consequently in the survival regime of recent years, maintenance has been neglected to an even greater degree than before and physical facilities, classrooms, libraries, and in fact most of the material basis of universities and colleges are severely degraded. To change this situation, from 1991 onwards, with the permission of the government, the MOET has been able to reserve from its allocated budget about 7 per cent of its current expenditure in higher education for an upgrading programme. Based on requests for maintenance from institutions, the MOET will decide on the budget distribution. But from an overall system view, even this increased rate of expenditure does not represent a significant improvement. In particular, if a comparison is made between the increased allocation for maintenance expenses and the total value of the fixed assets of higher education, the rate of expenditure is still below 1 per cent. This further explains why the fixed assets of higher education are deteriorating so quickly; and at a time when the system is experiencing great change and new and expanded demands are being made upon colleges and universities. CURRENT ISSUES

Any strategy to increase the financial allocation for physical facilities to improve higher education requires that these facilities be used as effectively as possible. After budget allocations for salaries, allowances and incentives, facilities constitute the biggest commitment in higher

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education. Increasing demands, both quantitative and qualitative, necessitate the most efficient use of resources in this area. The effective use of learning resources and infrastructure such as buildings, teaching aids, libraries, laboratories, and others depends upon a mapping of higher education institutions. The network of Vietnam's universities and colleges is currently under review with the intention of reducing the number of institutions and consolidating their facilities and support services. This programme of reorganization is explained in detail in Chapter 5 and other chapters. What follows are some issues relating to the use, maintenance, and development of fixed assets as a prerequisite for the more effective and efficient operation of the higher education institutions. If there were rational standards and guidelines concerning institutional size and information available about facilities and infrastructure, the following issues could be analysed in more detail. Unfortunately such data are not currently available in comprehensive or meaningful forms. Issue I: facilities, technical means, and documentation. Facilities for lectures, laboratories, and other teaching and learning activities, for faculty offices and administrative services, for student dormitories, and for the provision of textbooks and library materials are insufficient, of poor quality, and often do not meet the requirements of higher education. Technical facilities and equipment, textbooks, and reference books are particularly inadequate and outdated in the provincial colleges. The principal cause is the low budget allocation, with only 0.8 per cent of capital investment being spent for higher and technical education. From this small investment only 20 per cent is for equipment. Facilities and technical equipment for the large institutions in northern Vietnam were installed some thirty to thirty-five years ago; much of it was evacuated during the war; and there was a division of bigger institutions into smaller ones. Since those years, very little specific additional funding has been allocated for the replacement of equipment. More than forty institutions were established during 1975-80 often with an inadequate initial investment; and in recent years, funds

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have not been allocated to finish construction and equipment installation was not given appropriate attention. The statistics on the age of equipment in use in higher education institutions nationally (Department of Planning and Finance) give the general picture: equipment produced before 1960- 37.8 per cent; that produced from 1960 to 1975 - 24.5 per cent; and that from 1976 to 1980-28.9 per cent, with 8.8 per cent being of other age. Textbooks and library reference materials are in short supply and generally old; and most books in foreign languages are in Russian. This results in a common problem where students proceed through their degrees by means of "pure instruction" or "pure study" with little additional learning materials other than that provided by the course lecturers. Some of the unevenness or inconsistency in the changing socioeconomic environment is very clear in higher education as openmarket practices take off and many of the resources in universities and colleges are not geared up to meet these changing and unexpected demands. In some cases, perhaps too many, what results is low quality of training and irrelevance to practical requirements. Associated problems are the content of curricula and the formerly narrow specialization of academic staff. Examples are the teaching of planned economics rather than open-market economics; and inadequate expertise in English despite great social demand. These issues must then be placed in the context of a general shortage and backwardness of equipment and facilities, libraries, computing facilities, experimental equipment, and other teaching aids. With other measures such as curricular reform, training, and further professional development of academic staff, the improvement of the quality of higher education requires replacement of much equipment, and comprehensive upgrading of many facilities. The laboratories should not have fallen behind the equipment and facilities of industry. Only when such basic matters concerning physical facilities and learning resources are rectified can the professional work of academic staff be expected to improve so that they raise the quality of higher education. Institutions might then have graduates who are able to go into productive work in state and market enterprises, to solve current

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tasks at an acceptable level and to be able to accept new knowledge and techniques and put these into use more effectively. Given restrictions on national budget and other pressing social and economic problems, it is unlikely that any significant increase, from national sources, can be provided to improve the facilities and learning infrastructure of Vietnam's higher education system. Diversification of financial sources available to colleges and universities is occurring and this is illustrated in other chapters. A change in budget allocation policies with a change in higher education development policies is needed to give investment that is focused and in-depth across a range of institutions. This requires the establishment of standards for identification of priority among institutions and between faculties in each institution; and also that the budget should have an allocation specified for equipment, at least to meet current developments in Vietnam's economy. Issue 2: maintenance offacilities. Standards and budget allocations for maintenance of facilities are in fact non-existent or grossly insufficient. As noted previously, the budget allocation for construction and for the installation of equipment for higher education is very low; and that this small amount is distributed among many ministries and provinces to which institutions belong. Foreign currencies for import of equipment and learning resources that could not be produced in the country are very restricted. With these financial constraints the most important question is how to maximize the lifetime of these buildings and pieces of equipment. Items in the list of infrastructure in the national system of higher education may be a large machine or a small electronic unit or a building. Each requires a certain grade of maintenance and protection to ensure its normal functioning. Moreover, effective maintenance has a good effect on safety, comfort, and the general quality of the learning environment. Currently, facilities and equipment in higher education are not given necessary maintenance attention. Because of limitations in financial resources, maintenance is given last priority in budget allocations. To have no fixed maintenance budget annually is shortsighted thinking and inadequate planning.

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To forget or neglect maintenance for buildings and equipment will as a consequence result in rapid deterioration and earlier than normal replacement needs. Ordinarily maintenance and repair needs for complex institutions such as universities are great and are not usually met even with a full and regular budget allocation. With no budget allocation for maintenance, the needs have multiplied and expanded at a faster than usual rate. The development of standards and of a rational budget allocation for regular, even if only basic, maintenance of the infrastructure of higher education is vitally important and urgent.

Issue 3: facility sharing. Developed facilities of higher education are mainly focused in a few universities and technical institutions. The laboratories in these institutions are based on the major specialization of the institutions (for example, 415 laboratories in thirteen institutions); and often their time utilization is very short. According to the statistics of the Department of Planning and Finance, even rare, highly valued equipment, which accounts for 28 per cent of the total value and are the items most frequently used, is in use for an average time of only 3.5 hours per day. Specialized laboratories are essential requirements for research by many academic staff. But with the small number of facilities, mainly installed by single departments, the situation arises that other departments, even in the same institution or in other institutions, have difficulty in gaining use of these facilities. This may be because of selfinterest or because of bureaucratic formalities, or for both reasons. Every facility has a certain optimum lifetime; and, even if not in use, facilities will also be degraded invisibly because of scientific technical progress. In a country at Vietnam's stage of development, it is most important to increase the usage time of all facilities through planning. Computing facilities, for example, and other costly and rare equipment could be centralized in interdisciplinary laboratories to be used on a rental basis or in other forms of sharing in order to utilize them fully for all instructional and research activities. Facility sharing could be interdepartmental, interfaculty, intra-institutional, or sharing between universities and colleges and state research institutes. One problem here is to pay full attention to the concerns of indi-

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viduals and of departments managing such shared facilities. Administrators and managers will be less interested in sharing if they cannot have appropriate control over proper care, usage, and maintenance and also control over how to use the revenue from renting. If the formalities are too complicated and this revenue is not used for incentive purposes to benefit persons responsible for these shared facilities, they will not be encouraged to increase their efficient use of them. Sharing of facilities should be encouraged even as institutions of higher education are encouraged to accept increased responsibility and autonomy for the maintenance and development of their organization.

NOTE 1. Data used in this chapter come from reports and records held by the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) constituent higher education institutions and from research undertaken in conjunction with the National Education and Human Resources Sector Analysis, 1991-92.

11

AN ENTREPRENEURIAL

DEVELOPMENT: THANG LONG UNIVERSITY HOANG XUAN SINH AND DAVID SLOPER

In recent years, there has been growing concern among intellectuals and academics about the grave crisis in the area of education and training in Vietnam. The academic standard of the country's universities appears to be lagging too far behind that of many other comparable countries. At the national level, a new policy based on openness and innovation is needed. Thang Long University 1 is the first private higher educational institution established in Vietnam. Its creation was sought in 1988 by a group of intellectuals, as an experiment, to provide an education of quality. The aims ofThang Long University at its inauguration were:

•

• •

to teach according to international standards; to admit students on their academic records without discrimination based on political or geographical criteria; to divide studies into "stages", each one of which is recognized by a certificate issued by the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET);

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to so provide a flexible pattern of studies that is adapted to the needs of the nation; to give back to teachers, once decently remunerated, their honour and their status in society; to give to deserving students the right to obtain, in Vietnam, education, culture, and a better future.

Those aims are very ambitious. The presentation in this case-study will show that a lot of difficulties are being met in accomplishing them. However, we believe the goals set and the effort spent in reaching them are worthwhile for they will make a contribution to developing the people and the nation ofVietnam. The foundation ofThang Long University as an experimental private university actually dates from December 1988 when it received a state authorization from the MOET and the University was established as a not-for-profit institution. At first, Thang Long University had only one department: Mathematics and Computing Science. In 1989 it recruited its first students and in April 1993 it had four enrolment cohorts in this department with a total of 150 student admissions; and there is one enrolment cohort of 54 students in the Department of Management, which was created in 1992. Thang Long's total of 204 enrolled students in 199 3 is still modest- we must say, very modest. Why did we choose those two specialities, Mathematics and Computing Science and Management, to be taught initially at Thang Long University? The reason is rational: our society needs them. When we train the human resources that society requires, our students will easily find jobs. A major concern for young people is unemployment. In Thang Long University there are students who already have degrees from universities of the former Soviet Union or from state universities ofVietnam. They come to us because they could not find any job; and they hope that with a degree in computing or management given by Thang Long, they will be employed by companies or firms. For that matter, we already have proof given by students from the first enrolment in Mathematics and Computing Science. In 1992, ten students of this cohort who had a high school certificate and who had completed three of the four years

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of degree study in Mathematics and Computing Science, and who had been given a diploma for these studies, which is approved and recognized by the MOET, were taken directly into employment. How is Thang Long University financed? For want of resources including money, initially only one department, that of Mathematics and Computing Science was opened. The second department, that of Management was opened in September 1992. The Institute Superieur de Gestion Paris has assisted Thang Long University in the training of Vietnamese professors in Paris, in developing teaching programmes, and in sending books and advisers to Hanoi to develop management programmes at the University. While only two departments with 204 students in all is very modest, money is still required to pay teachers and secretarial expenses, to hire classrooms, and to buy equipment. The principal basis ofThang Long University's financial resources are as follows. •

•

Student fees: These are very small. At the opening of the University in 1989 we took a sum equivalent to 10 kilograms of rice per month per student; and in 1993 it was 30 kilograms of rice. 2 Donations: These are received from: Vietnamese living outside of Vietnam; French university professors; non-governmental organizations (NGOs) such as the CCFD (Comite Catholique Contre la Faim et Pour le Development), France-Libertes, Foundation Danielle Mitterrand, and AEFA (Association Europe France Asie); the Embassy of Germany in Vietnam and the GVA (GermanVietnamese Association); the AAETL (Association a l'aide des etudiants de Thang Long) and the ASCUT (Association pour le Soutien du Centre Universitaire Thang Long).

The NGOs, apart from the AAETL and the ASCUT (created to collect donations from French friends), help us when projects submitted to them are brief, explicit, and small in dimension. For instance, a project to obtain five microcomputers or an offset printer as equipment for computing science and for reproduction were each successful. We must say that requesting support and making submissions is a task that demands much time and patience. Project proposals must

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be made each year to different NGOs; and sometimes we receive a positive answer, other times no answer at all. With the experience of four years since establishment we have learnt that we will likely obtain approval for our projects when someone in the organization to which we appeal is a friend of ours who knows the situation at Thang Long University. If we are unknown to an organization, the response is always no. Here we must acknowledge that the CCFD is our most faithful supporter. Some World Bank personnel visited our university during 1992 and told us that our financial policy could not keep on going for long. This view is shared by some in the MOET and among our French friends. And at times we, the innovators ofThang Long University, also feel concerned for one cannot feel at ease while being dependent. But we are in a situation where we cannot do otherwise. Outsiders suggest that we must be financially independent. Our answer is that we completely agree with them; and in what follows we give an analysis of the difficulties faced by the first private university in Vietnam in struggling to become financially independent. THE MATTER OF INCOME FROM TUITION FEES Can we increase student fees? This is easier to do in the South of Vietnam for several reasons. People in the South have some awareness of private schools because these existed before 1975. They also have access to more money thanks to their family members living abroad, mainly in the United States. Also they are more accustomed to a market economy; so when an institute provides a good education, parents send their children there even if the institution is private, which means they have to pay. Families do this because they believe that when their children are well-educated, they will find it easier to look for jobs with good remuneration. In the North, the general situation is to the contrary. People have no clear notion of private education, because until now, all universities have been national. When students passed the national competitive examinations for entry to universities, formerly they all received scholarships both for tuition and for living expenses. Their

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parents had to contribute nothing apart from waiting some years until their son or daughter got their degree and then employment. Since 1988, with national economic reforms towards a market economy, many people in the North have begun to have money, but they are not so rich as those in the South for many reasons, one of which is that they seldom have families abroad. However, even in the North parents agree to pay, sometimes very expensively, for specific coaching lessons for their children to enable them to pass the national examinations for entry to university. When children fail to gain entry the first time, the second time, and even the third time, the parents persist in paying for private lessons, even though these have become more expensive, until their offspring pass the examinations. It is well known that such additional lessons for one child cost the parents, each month, more than the officially provided salary of a university professor (200,000 dong) .This phenomenon of private tuition for high school students is general in Hanoi, but less evident in the countryside. The main reason is that the peasants are relatively poor and that as they now have their own lands, they prefer to have their children at home with them to work in the fields. When Thang Long University recruited its first students in 1989, this cohort comprised only students who had flunked the national university entrance examination. For that reason their parents agreed to pay fees. But they wanted to pay only a very small sum, something as small as 10 per cent of the amount they would have previously paid for specific coaching lessons for their children. We are also aware that the pocket-money of some of the students is from ten to twenty times more than the total cost of their fees at Thang Long. The reason is that people in the North do not have the knowledge and the experience of private higher education colleges or universities and so are not confident in them. So Thang Long University has to prove that the quality of the education provided through teaching programmes where English and French are two compulsory languages, that the quality of the academic professors, that quality of the equipment provided for computing science and that the quality of the library, all rank among the best in Vietnam.

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THE Q!JESTION OF ACADEMIC STANDARDS When young people go to university, in general their parents do not care about their academic work and results. Parents usually do not know if the teaching is good, or if the professor's pedagogy is well prepared or ad hoc. One of the best means to show the effectiveness of education is when students with degrees from Thang Long University get hired by companies, firms, or banks. Because this innovation in higher education started with a very small sum of money contributed by Vietnamese living abroad, and because our first enrolment of 150 students were those who had failed the national university entrance examinations {and some at not such a good level) in order to reach its aims, Thang Long University had to invite the best professors working in state universities and in government research institutes of Hanoi to become foundation academic staff All of these staff work at Thang Long University on a part-time basis. The students have assessments every month and examinations at the end of each semester. To motivate students, we give scholarships to deserving students based on academic merit. Following this policy of educational evaluation, fiftyseven of the initial enrolment of 150 students successfully completed the first phase diploma of two years of study. The others, nearly one hundred, either failed the assessments and examinations or were excluded because of poor attendance or unacceptable behaviour. The selection was done progressively after each monthly evaluation. The motto ofThang Long University is quite plainly: quality first. This education policy is still continuing. For the moment, it does not draw towards our university many good students. Because if they are good, they would have passed the national university entrance examination, and they prefer national universities to private ones because not only are there no fees, but they may even get a scholarship; and some hope to be sent abroad if they passed the entrance examination with high marks. In Thang Long University, as noted above, we give scholarships too, but the students have to work hard consistently because scholarships are given every two months according to marks gained in monthly assessment and half-yearly examinations. Some Thang Long students are sent abroad too, but only after two years of study at Thang

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Long University; so students have to prove they are really competent. After the first enrolment intake, we began to have some good students in the following enrolments, though not a great number. Another point that does not help in drawing students towards Thang Long University is the teaching of two obligatory languages: English and French. Many find this programme too difficult for them, because almost all students in the North ofVietnam previously studied Russian at high school. We sincerely believe that Thang Long University can be financially independent only by increasing student fees over a ten-year period as Vietnamese society recognizes our teaching quality, and as our graduates easily find jobs with good remuneration. As Vietnam modernizes and develops, we are hopeful that there will also be new intellectual developments. SUPPORT FROM THE VIETNAMESE GOVERNMENT Increasing student fees is not enough to develop our university and to maintain its teaching quality. Our goal is for Thang Long to be the equal of any university in a comparable country. To achieve this goal, Thang Long University needs to acquire and build up good-quality physical facilities and equipment. The Vietnamese Government helps it by providing teaching premises. Since its foundation, Thang Long has had to change location four times. It is now based in the Pushkin Institute, formerly the cultural institute for Russian language and literature, which is at present empty because nobody wants to learn Russian. The rental is cheap because the building belongs to the MOET. But who knows ifThang Long has a stable location? With the market economy everything is changing and can change quite quickly. Another concern regarding premises is that the Institute is too small to contain a university. We know that we have the full support of the MOET, but at the same time the Ministry thinks that we can draw upon foreign assistance in finding money and equipment. As we said above, that assistance is very small and to obtain it demands of us much time and patience. If we are in small and unsuitable premises, visiting foreign-

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ers may not have confidence in our university; and in general to date, after their visits, they have not come back, apart from the GermanVietnamese Association. ASSISTANCE FROM OVERSEAS ORGANIZATIONS Foreign universities help Thang Long University by transmitting their know-how such as the aid rendered by the Institute Superieur de Gestion Paris mentioned above. This institution assists by training Vietnamese professors in Paris, by sending books on management, and by sending French advisers to work alongside Vietnamese teachers. For the Department of Mathematics and Computing Science we have already managed to employ highly qualified professors from universities and research institutes in Hanoi. But there are still problems: computing science is a new field in Vietnam; our professors are good in the theoretical aspects of it; but in the area of application, that is another matter. A director of a French informatics society intends to help us improve our teaching in computing science by giving us good equipment and by instructing our academic staff how to produce software applications for management and industry. Informatics- that is, computing science and information technology - is of growing concern to our society as it modernizes; but until now, it tends to be decorative rather than practical everywhere in Vietnam, even in most universities. With the aid of the Institute de Gestion Paris, at a later date when our professors of management are competent, we can appeal to our ministries and to Vietnamese or foreign organizations established in our country to assist in the continuing development of skilled staff in this important area. So it will be a means to have money for Thang Long. Our policy in computing science is the same. If the project of the French informatics society is realized, we can establish a computing laboratory inside our university to produce software needed by Vietnam. Here we would like to repeat an old adage that Mr Alfred Mahdavy, President of the Institute Superieur de Gestion Paris used to say: "It's better to teach a person the manner of fishing than to give him a fish".

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ACADEMIC STAFF DEVELOPMENT Grants to our professors for continuing professional development abroad are needed. For instance, we teach English and French as compulsory subjects in Thang Long University, but our academics do not know business English and French, which are necessary for the Management Department. The CCFD has just given us two grants for learning business English abroad, and we have responded positively by sending the curriculum vitae of our professors to that committee. The Institute Superieur de Gestion Paris also promises to give professional training in Paris to our professors of management. ASSISTANCE FROM FOREIGN ACADEMICS Several foreign professors of different nationalities have proposed to give voluntary lectures at Thang Long. It is a matter we have considered many times. But the level of English or French language of our students puts obstacles in the way. We want our students to feel at ease with foreigners and that they should speak fluently at least one foreign language. We earnestly want to make Thang Long become a university without boundaries, one that is committed to openness, while still keeping its Vietnamese identity. This does not mean chauvinism, but rather that Thang Long University seeks to contribute to the world's richness. By adopting this language policy as part of its educational philosophy, Thang Long wants to encourage other universities of Vietnam to overcome any isolation between them and the outside world. For the moment, we have one teacher, a Frenchman who is fortunately remunerated by the Institute Superieur de Gestion Paris to teach in management. The obstacles he faces are enormous: first, the professor has to teach in two languages- English and French- but students find it too hard to learn both languages at the same time; and second, he has to repeat the same words several times in order to be understood. I have attended some of his lectures and they present a spectacle which I have never seen before. The professor speaks and writes on the blackboard an explanation in two languages, English and French (because it is too difficult for students to learn two languages

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at the same time, most of them learn English and only some French). The summit of the spectacle is the professor writing in Vietnamese too, when students can understand neither English nor French (our courageous professor has had to learn our tongue in order to teach)! Later when Thang Long University becomes well known and our students understand completely that they must work hard both in their discipline and in languages, Thang Long will then draw upon visiting professors from other countries to the extent possible. But our longterm policy is co-operation, not aid. Because no university in the world, however rich, can afford to send its professors voluntarily to another forever. We hope that in the future we can exchange our students and professors with other universities in any country in the world. There is already an exchange of students between Thang Long and the Institute Superieur de Gestion Paris; but this is under the form of aid, which means we send our students to Paris, completely at the expense of the Institute, and we receive the Institute's students and organize seminars for them with the money they provide as our partner. We are striving to respond to each of the six issues mentioned above in order to become financially independent. We consider that Thang Long University needs about ten years to achieve that programme. For the moment, we expect Vietnamese governmental and foreign assistance, and would value more private sponsors in finding additional finance and better equipment for our students and staff, while also creating more departments in order to become a full-fledged university. Knowledge is a treasure. Every nation knows that. But if there is insufficient investment in education, the end result will not be good education and, a fortiori, too few knowledgeable scientists and intellectuals. Thang Long University, or rather its present embryonic form, is above all an illustration of entrepreneurship in developing a new university policy, one that is more open to different forms of learning. The time has come for reforms that must be done at the national level. The Vietnamese people, although being among the poorest in the world, are courageous, intelligent, and hard working, and they are willing to work to open up university learning. To hesitate further would be a big sin.

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NOTES 1. Thang Long or City of the Soaring Dragon was the name given to present day Hanoi by Emperor Ly Thai To, who moved his capiral to Thang Long in 1010 AD . 2. To fix prices ar local market rates, student fees (and often other transactions including salaries even when fully monetized) are expressed in equivalents of kilograms of rice rather than in a currency unit. To provide some comparison, in April 1993, 30 kilograms of rice in Hanoi was equivalent to about 78,000 dong or about US$7.80.

12 SERVING NATIONAL GOALS AND THE LOCAL COMMUNITY: THE CASE OF CAN THO UNIVERSITY TRAN PHUOC DUONG AND DAVID SLOPER

INTRODUCTION In Vietnam higher education institutions can be classified into two types: comprehensive universities and professional universities. There are three comprehensive universities, one of which is located in each of the northern, central, and southern regions of the country and these provide programmes leading to degrees equivalent to bachelor, masters, and Ph.D. in a number of disciplines. By contrast each professional or technical university normally provides training in one or two disciplines. Can Tho University (CU) is a comprehensive university and is the only university in Vietnam offering, at the one institution, higher education programmes in agriculture, education, and medicine. A popular viewpoint about universities, which has its supporters in Vietnam, is that they are often ivory towers of learning somewhat

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detached from the society that supports them and also that they become part of the larger bureaucratic education system. After unification of the country in 1975, CU underwent drastic changes in organization and instructional approaches in an attempt to take a lead in integrating university learning with local community development and so fulfil its national obligation within the limit of guidelines set up by the government. This chapter presents a profile of an entrepreneurial response within a state system of higher education as it examines CU's parallel commitment to the dual goals of meeting national policy objectives and fulfilling local community needs. HISTORICAL REVIEW

Can Tho University is a state institution that was established in 1966 in Can Tho city and it is the only higher education institution in the Mekong delta. This delta is one of the two great rice bowls of Vietnam and has rich natural resources based on four million hectares of land, 900 kilometres of coastline with abundant marine products, a dense network of rivers and canals, favourable weather conditions for good production, and a moderately dense population of 14.65 million inhabitants. Table 12.1 presents comparative data for Vietnam and the Mekong delta. The population growth rate of 2.7 per cent per annum is higher than the national rate of 2.5 per cent; and the population in the Table 12.1 Comparative Data for Vietnam and the Mekong Delta Region Attributes Surface Area (km z)

Borders (km .)

1989 Population (million)

Population Density (per km z )

Population Growth Rate

Vietnam

330,363 (100%)

Land : 3,730 Coast: 3,260

64 .412 (100%)

195

2.5 % p .a. (1990)

Mekong d elta

39,554 (12%)

Coast: 900

14.65 (23 %)

370

2. 7% p.a. (1988-89)

Region

21 3

12. Serving National Goals and the Local Community: Can Tho University

Mekong delta region is predominately non-urban, the distribution being 75 per cent rural inhabitants and 25 per cent urban inhabitants. The national significance of the Mekong delta region is indicated by the fact that currently it accounts for 49 per cent of national agricultural production and 53 per cent ofVietnam's rice production. However, asTable 12.2 shows, the Mekong delta region is among those regions of Vietnam that have the lowest number of post-secondary education graduates. After unification in 1975, the University was reorganized to meet the higher education needs of the Mekong delta. There were several organizational readjustments before reaching the current form of three faculties: Agriculture, Education, and Medicine. The Agriculture Faculty has seven departments: Agronomy, Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Science, Aquaculture, Agricultural Engineering, Water Management, Food Science, and Agriculture Economics. The Education Faculty has five departments concerned with teacher education: Mathematics-Physics, Chemistry-Biology, History-Geography, Letters, and Foreign Languages. The Medicine Faculty has one department: General Medicine. Table 12.2 Post-Secondary Graduates in Mekong Delta Provinces

No.

Province

Year

Population

Post-Secondary Graduates per I ,000 Inhabitants

I

Kien Giang An Giang Can Tho Soc Trang Vinh Long Dong Thap Tien Giang Long An Ben Tre Tra Vinh Minh Hai

1993 1992 1992 1992 1992 1992 1991 1989 1991 1989 1991

1,324,338 1,896,296 1.739,097 I. 151.705 I ,025.200 I ,436.741 1, 558,2 19 I , 120,204 I ,213. 976 851,638 I .662,882

1.2 3.0 2.4 18 5.0 3.9 3.5 5.8 4.3 2.1 18

2 3 4 5 6 7

8 9 10 II

Source: Statistics provided by the People's Committees of the provinces.

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There are seven specialized centres for research and/or training: the Biotechnology Research and Development Centre, the Electronics and Information Science Centre, the Anemia and Shrimp Research Centre, the Mekong Delta Farming System Research and Development Centre, the Renewable Energy Centre, the Foreign Languages Centre, and the Science and Technology Information Centre. There are also two Experimental Stations and several pilot production units. The University employs more than 1,100 staff members of whom more than 700 are academics. More than 75 per cent of academic staff are under thirty-five years of age. The University has around 5,000 undergraduates in twenty-four academic programmes leading to degrees equivalent to bachelor or medical doctor; and there are 1,500 undergraduates at six In-Service Training Centres located in various provinces in the Mekong delta. Students are admitted through a very competitive entrance examination held each year, which eliminates 85 to 90 per cent of candidates. Can Tho University comes under the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET), which maintains tight control over university operations including budget, academic programmes, and staffing. However, higher education institutions will enjoy more autonomy when new education reforms are implemented. PARALLEL COMMITMENT: NATIONAL GOALS AND SERVICE TO LOCAL COMMUNITIES

Being the only institution of higher education in the Mekong delta, CU is charged with responsibility for manpower training and conducting scientific research to serve the socio-economic development of the region. CU is continually exploring ways to fulfil these tasks and has emerged as one of the leading institutions recognized for innovation. It is among the few universities that have high student enrolments, as seen in Table 12.3. The number of new students CU admits each year is dose to the average total enrolment of 1,223 students in all universities and colleges. The average annual admission to CU in the period 1985-91 was 1,017 students and the average number graduating in the same period

12. Serving National Goals and the Local Community: Can Tho University

21 5

Table 12.3 Can Tho University Admissions and Graduation, 1985-91 Category

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

Admission Graduation

I , 188 736

1,038 808

I ,263 768

978 715

877 1,023

876 916

900 1,011

was 853 students. As a rough estimate of internal efficiency at CU if it is assumed that full-time undergraduate degrees are four years {and medicine is actually longer), a comparison can be made between students admitted in the years 1985-87 and those graduating four years later, in the years 1989-91. This basic comparison indicates that 85 per cent of admissions in those years graduated in the minimum time of four years. A more exact analysis would probably result in a higher output rate and therefore greater internal efficiency based on this indicator. Can Tho University is also credited with having realistic programmes in scientific research and for promoting the quick transfer of new scientific and technological findings to serve society. Details of the University's current activities and operations are presented below. NATIONAL PROGRAMMES TRAINING

The MOET maintains strict control over degree programmes, the course structure and curriculum for each training programme, and the number of students recruited each year. The University's twenty-four academic programmes lead to degrees equivalent to bachelor in agriculture and education and to qualification as medical doctors. About 50 per cent of newly admitted students receive some scholarship to a maximum of 55,000 dong per month {about US$5) and are exempted from tuition fees. The rest pay tuition fees ranging from the equivalent ofUS$60 to US$80 per year, which cover about 30 per cent of their training cost. Every year the scholarship status of each student is reviewed based on his or her academic performance. Therefore

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there is tough competition among students for scholarships. The government provides to CU about US$180 (1992) per student head per year, which covers approximately 80 per cent of the real training cost. The government provides other operating costs including funds for staff salaries, physical facilities operation, and some construction costs. But overall, the government budget allocated for the University covers, at best, only 50 per cent of the annual expenditure. Can Tho University must therefore be innovative and find ways to make up the deficit. SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

Can Tho University has participated in almost all research projects that have been undertaken at a national level but the budget of such projects allocated to the University has accounted for only 10 per cent of CU's annual research budget. Once again meeting the deficit in this important area of higher education activity represents a challenge. COMMITMENT TO SERVE REGIONAL COMMUNITIES Following the adoption in 1986 of an open-market policy, socioeconomic development in the Mekong delta has made great advances never witnessed before. From being barely self-sufficient in food, the region contributes 80 per cent of rice exported each year. Fast economic growth has also brought increased demand for manpower training and for various forms of technical support. Like many other universities CU has been trying its best to fulfil its obligation to these rapidly changing needs at the local level. TRAINING PROGRAMMES

Regular training programmes. More than 95 per cent of CU students come from the Mekong delta region. While following the curriculum set up by the MOET, the University uses 10 to 15 per cent of the allocated time for formal studies to address regional problems. The localization of training programmes is an innovation that has been conducted through several approaches, for instance:

12. Serving National Goals and the Local Community: Can Tho University

• •

•

21 7

By offering courses at senior levels that are related to local concerns or by enriching courses with local facts and examples. By requiring all students enrolling in agriculture, education, and medicine degrees in years three to six of their studies to spend one or two summers on practical work in their profession in rural communities. By encouraging students in the final year of their degree programmes, especially those in the agricultural sciences, to conduct research for their graduation thesis in various localities in the Mekong delta. For example, fourth-year students in agriculture spend six to eight months carrying out their research on farmers' land. Normally they stay with the farmer's family and work with the farmer's family members. Students' experimental plots are also used as demonstration sites for other nearby farmers and we discovered that the students' hosts became effective and natural extension agents to spread research results among their local fellow farmers. After finishing experiments, students come back to university to write their thesis. Before submitting his or her thesis, a student sends his or her thesis to the local agents who supervised his or her work for grading the quality of the work; the host farmer also has some say in this evaluation. The University also assigns academic staff to supervise the students' work and the supervisor visits students regularly to correct any problems that may arise.

Can Tho University believes this is an important and productive innovation in teaching and learning, which addresses real problems at the local level but within the national policies for higher education and for social and economic development. Whenever there were epidemics, an outbreak of disease, or natural disasters, the University sent its staff and students to help local communities. For example, during the outbreak of brown plant hoppers, which destroyed a large part of Mekong delta rice after the big flood in 1978, CU was closed for one week and most of the staff and students were sent to the disaster areas to help destroy the insects. By exposing students to local realities we hope that the cultural and emotional bonds between students and local communities would develop

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and that students after four or six years exposed to the city life of Can Tho would not be out of touch with their roots in the more rural areas of the Mekong delta. IN-SERVICE TRAINING PROGRAMMES

In the past few years, the University has been faced with increasing demands to receive more students. Each year 7,000 to 10,000 high school graduates compete for 800 to 1,000 available places at CU. To meet part of this training demand, CU has helped to set up six InService Training Centres in various locations in the Mekong delta which offer training programmes relevant to local needs. These Centres recruit as students government civil servants or high school graduates and grant awards including certificate, diploma, and bachelor degrees. However, their training capacity is still small due to lack of funds and the relatively low quality of education and training that can be provided. Table 12.4 displays data on students enrolled in degree-level programmes at five CU In-Service Training Centres in the Mekong delta in academic year (AY) 1992/93. In addition to the 5,000 students enrolled full-time at the main CU campus, this network of centres provides study opportunities at degree level for another 1,401 students, or an extra enrolment of about 28 per cent; and most of these students are living in rural areas or rural towns. Table 12.4 Degree Enrolments at Can Tho University In-Service Training Centres. Academic Year 1992/93 No.

Provinces

I 2 3 4 5

Vinh Long Can Tho An Giang Kien Giang Minh Hai

Total

Number of Students 345 486 66 291 213 1,401

12. Serving National Goals and the Local Community: Can Tho University

219

SCIENTlFIC RESEARCH

Can Tho University participates actively in various national scientific research programmes to keep a link with national scientific and technology activities. However, the major research programmes conducted by the university are with local communities, especially those surrounding the Mekong delta. Can Tho University positively encourages staff and students to engage in scientific and technological research by setting teaching and research achievements as one of the most important criteria for • • • •

academic promotion within the University; selection for higher degree studies in or out of the country; participation in international conferences; payment of higher salaries.

For students it .has been found that those doing scientific research for their graduation thesis will have a better chance for employment. The following are among the several types of scientific research currently being conducted by the University: •

•

•

Contracting with national organizations to solve national and regional needs, for example: development and selection of rice varieties for improving grain yields and quality; research and production of anemia cysts for in-country use and for export. Contracting with local authorities to solve local problems, for example: research and development of technology for culturing soybean in rotation with water rice in the Mekong delta; and development of cheap biogas technology for the Mekong delta. Setting up joint research projects with international organizations, foreign universities, and international NGOs to conduct research programmes that are of interest to both parties, for example: acid sulphate soils and biological nitrogen fixation research projects with Wageningen Universities (Holland); anemia and shrimp production with the Anemia International Reference Centre with the UniversityofGhent (Belgium) and KWT (an NGO in Germany); and production and processing of soybeans with the Mennonite Central Committee (United States and Canada). A number of

220

•

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other relationships that provide a basis for collaboration in research are outlined in Appendix 1. Initiating needed research projects with university funds to solve urgent local problems, for example: development of technology for production of shrimp juveniles; processing of cacao seeds; and development of feed for local pig farms.

Most of the scientific research in agriculture and related fields is conducted in collaboration with local agriculture service officers and farmers. Many of these involve experimental and pilot projects and these units are also used as demonstration sites for local people. Such scientific programmes not only provide additional opportunities for teaching, learning, and community service, but they also develop university infrastructure, particularly the capability of staff and equipment acquisition, and they greatly assist in resolving the budget deficit. OUTREACH SERVICES

Besides conducting scientific research to solve national and local problems, CU also maintains a strong commitment to provide technical services to local communities through various other activities, for example: • • •

•

•

through active participation in combating natural disasters and epidemic disease outbreaks; by providing visiting academic staff to teach at various In-Service Training Centres; by maintaining a strong extension service to farmers and other rural industries through close links with all extension service centres in the provinces; by supporting an active programme for technology transfer under various forms including transfer programmes through TV and radio; by organizing regular short-term, non-degree, or certificate courses and seminars at its campuses and in various locations in the regions on such issues as new developments in technology, agriculture production techniques, new varieties of crops, animals, or new products;

12. Serving National Goals and the Local Community: Can Tho University

•

221

by establishing science and technology information centres equipped with modern facilities to disseminate information and practice about new developments in science and technology. INTERNATIONAL CO-OPERATION

In recent years, CU played a leading role as an innovator in opening universities in Vietnam to the outside world. Can Tho University maintains strong international co-operative programmes with various education and research institutions, NGOs, and international agencies, some of which are listed in Appendix 1. These entrepreneurial activities have common objectives and all international co-operative projects centre around the following principles: •

•

•

institution-building, including the establishment of specialized laboratories, the construction of experimental stations, and the continuing professional development of academic and technical staff; applied research as the main focus but fundamental research also being done to understand the complexity of the local situation and general conditions that give rise to local problems; strong outreach activities under many forms involving both Vietnamese staff and students and also international academics and scholars whenever possible.

Throughout the years, CU has served as an institution for higher education training as well as a centre for scientific research and technology transfer in the Mekong delta. In return, it has enjoyed the support of local communities as well as increasing recognition from international bodies for its pioneer role in providing direct service to its local communities within a framework of national policies, both for higher education and for socio-economic renewal. The final section of this case-study examines some of the critical issues that confront universities such as CU. Two major sets of issues are considered: one looks at the response by higher education to government policy changes in economic activity; and the other looks briefly at the continuing problem of balancing an institution's budget.

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NEW ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT CREATES NEW DEMANDS FOR HIGHER EDUCATION REORGANIZATION AT CU

A few years ago, most graduates of CU could find jobs in various government agencies or state enterprises that recruited highly specialized personnel. Now the job market has changed; and most university graduates have to seek employment in private enterprises, which normally do not require narrowly specialized graduates. In order to meet these new and diversified demands, CU has, since 1992, been seeking authorization to restructure its organization again. According to the proposed structure, the University will have the Board of Trustees as its highest authority which, on behalf of the MOET, would make all decisions concerning academic programmes, scientific research, budgets, and associated matters. In this proposal, many small departments will be merged to create larger units for more effective use of existing facilities, human resources, and more flexibility in training. Many obsolete training programmes have already been discontinued and many teaching staff in these fields are being retrained for other jobs. For example, many academics formerly teaching Russian language have been provided opportunity for transfer to other jobs within or outside CU or are being retrained to become English lecturers, librarians, or other required specialists. The MOET is reviewing a national plan for reorganization and amalgamation; and CU hopes for an early decision about its own proposals. A TWO-YEAR COLLEGE NETWORK FOR THE MEKONG DELTA

Tough competition in entrance examination and the high costs ofliving in CU have created a disproportion in the social distribution among students admitted to CU in recent years. Many high school graduates spend one, two, or more years to prepare for entrance examination. For example, for the AYs 1990-93 about 60 per cent of students admitted by CU had graduated from high school at least one year previously, as indicated in Table 12.5. The data show that about 40 per cent of schoolleavers are successful in passing the entrance examination to CU in the same year as they

12. Serving National Goals and the Local Community: Can Tho University

223

Table 12.5 Distribution of High School Graduates among Can Tho University Admissions, 1990-93 (In percentages)

Year of High School Graduation

Academic Year of Admission 1990/91

1991/92

1992/93

Same year One year before Two years before

41 25 34

38 28 34

27 33

Total percentage

100

100

100

40

graduate from high school. Candidates living in isolated areas have little opportunity to study at university entrance examination preparation centres that operate in big cities. There is a wastage factor here and loss of productive output to society that is a problem for both CU and the national education policy. In addition, the high cost of living in big cities where national universities are located also contributes to this disproportion. From the evidence in Table 12.6, based on CU's experience, poor or distant provinces had the lowest percentage of students admitted to the University. By exploiting new government policies to bring higher education closer to the people who need it, CU is helping local authorities to transform existing In-Service Training Centres into community collegetype institutions, which can provide the first two years of higher education programmes as well as other short-term technical training programmes relevant to local needs. One of the advantages of attending training at such centres is that students would be paying much less than attending university in a big city, as may be seen in Table 12.7. Graduates of the two-year programme could come to the main campus of CU to finish the last two or three years of study and so earn a university degree. On the basis of this comparison, attending the proposed community college at Vinh Long would be approximately 50 per cent cheaper for a student than attending CU during the first two years of university studies.

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Table 12.6 Province of First-Year Students among Can Tho University Admissions. 1990-93 Year of Admission No.

Province

1990/91

1991/92

1992/93

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II

Long An Tien Giang Ben Tre Vinh Long Tra Vinh Dong Thap An Giang Can Tho Soc Trang Kien Giang Minh Hai

5 15 6 13(CL)* 0 6 9 37(HG)** 0 3 5

3 10 6 14(CL)* 0 10 9 39(HG)** 0 3 5

3 II 5 9 3 II 10 35 4 3 5

* Formerly Cuu Long province. **Formerly Hau Giang province.

Table 12.7 Comparative Direct Cost of Higher Education per Student per Academic Year in Different Cities (In US$, April 1993 prices) Institution and Location Can Tho University, Can Tho City

Vinh Long In-Service Training Centre, Vinh Long City

Tuition Room Food Transport Others

82.5 20.0 120.0 10.0 90.0

82.5 at home at home bicycle 80.0

Total

322.5

162.5

Item

225

12. Serving National Goals and the Local Community: Can Tho University

STRATEGY TO SECURE BUDGET New flexible training programmes, more places for new students, renovation of curricula, and upgrading academic staff have all proved to be very costly investments for CU in recent years. The government, at the most, could provide only half of the necessary real annual operating costs. Table 12.8 provides further details of income sources. To cope with this financial problem, CU has created various fundraising programmes including those mentioned below.

TRAINING CONTRACTS Can Tho University has been providing training services or visiting lecturers to various local schools, particularly In-Service Training CenTable I 2.8 Finance Provided by the MOET and Can Tho University. 1988-92 Annual Financial Provision (thousand US$) Category

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

24 0.5

145.2 0.9 0. 1

271.4 2.0 0.8

417 .0 6.0 0.3

667.3 12.5 13.4

24.5

146.2

274.2

423.3

639.2

A.2 For constructiona

20.0

59.0

84 .2

80.4

10.0

Total

44.5

205.2

358.4

503.7

794.4

23 .9 16.5

77 .0 40.4

128.0 72.6

184.0 105.4

168.0 148.6

94.8

138.0

313 .0

328.0

506.0

135.2

255 .7

513 .6

617 .4

822.6

A. Finance from the MOET

A. I For operating costs Undergraduate programme Scientific research Graduate programme Subtotal

B. Finance from Can Tho University

Training contractsb Research contracts and commercial investment International support' Total

Construction of new physical facilities . From services such as lecturing at In-Service Training Centres. . c From research projects but not including international travel or scholarshrps. a

b

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tres in the Mekong delta. The money earned through these services amounted to 30 per cent of total annual funds raised by the University in recent years and has been used, for example, to supplement staff salaries and to make up the budget deficit. RESEARCH CONTRACTS AND PRODUCTION

The University has been very active in providing problem-solving services to local communities at nominal charges as well as entering into commercial investments, mostly associated with developing new products from scientific research, which are then sold to raise funds. INTERNATIONAL ASSISTANCE

The biggest source of finance raised directly by CU comes from international co-operation programmes. As mentioned above and detailed in Appendix 1, CU maintains strong programme links with foreign institutions and international agencies. Funds provided through these programmes in recent years amounted to as much as 70 per cent of the total funds that the University raised annually. CONCLUSION Established in a location far away from the centres of political and educational power, CU has so far managed to cope with the constant problem of shortage of finance that faces all state universities. Can Tho University has emerged as one of the leading regional universities, having the largest annual student admission, and has been quietly achieving most of its goals. The following are some elements that the rector and staff of CU believe form the foundation of its success: • •

•

maintaining sensitivity both to national policies and to local community needs; reviewing continually its structure, its academic programmes, and its approach to scientific research to keep up with and to lead new socio-economic developments; keeping strong bonds with local communities as well as with international bodies;

12. Serving National Goals and the Local Community: Can Tho University

•

227

maintaining strong fund-raising programmes to cover the deficit in the operating budget.

To date the support for innovation and resource base expansion at the CU has been positive from both the MOET and members of the international academic and research community as well as from the all important communities of the Mekong delta region.

Appendix I Can Tho University: International Collaboration SISTER RELATIONSHIPS Sister relationships have been established with foreign institutions to promote education. research, and technology dissemination and these include links with: Agricultural University in Kuban (USSR), Odessa State University (USSR). Odessa Medical University (USSR), Olstyn Agricultural Sciences Institute (Poland), University of Hawaii (United States). University of Wisconsin at Madison (United States). Michigan State University (United States). Asian Institute of Technology (AIT). Bangkok (Thailand), Kasetsart Agriculture University (Thailand), Wageningen Agricultural University (Netherlands), University of Alberta (Canada). and the University of the Philippines. INTERNATIONAL CO-OPERATION PROJECTS Can Tho University has entered into collaborative and co-operative projects with NGOs and other organizations including those listed below Non-Governmental Organizations US. Committee for Scientific Co-operation with Vietnam (United States): improvement of teaching facilities and curriculum development of the medica l faculty, wetland ecology, agricultural extension works in the Mekong delta and scholarships for graduate study; Mennonite Central Committee (United States and Canada) : production and processing of soybeans in the Mekong delta. library services. dental clinics, English teaching programmes for students and the local community, teaching equipment. and educational exchange programmes; Bread for the World (Federal Republic of Germany) : animal feed development renewable energy, integrated plant protection programme, singlecell protein production, scholarships for graduate study, university printing

Tran Phuoc Duong and David Sloper

228

• • • •

shop, and rice and soybean germplasm conservation; Church World Service (United States): facilities for field practice in medicine; Heifer Project International (United States): rice-shrimp farming system; SAREC (Sweden): animal nutrition, long-term project on acid sulphate soils and scientific documents for university library; Terre des Hommes (Federal Republic of Germany) : biogas production, rural development; Co-operative Services International (United States): irrigation, rural development exchanges of scientific information and expertise with Asian universities and among agricultural universities within the country; Dutch Committee on Technical Co-operation with Vietnam (KWT, The Netherlands): artemia and shrimp production.

International Research Programmes •

• • •

International Rice Institute (IRRI): a long-term co-operative programme with IRRI established since I 97 2 for rice research and development training of rice technicians, and co-publication of books about rice; East-West Centers Environment and Policy Institute (Southeast Asian Universities Agro-ecosystems Network, SUAN) : sustainable agriculture in the Mekong delta; University Paris-Sud, Centre d'Orsay (France) : biometry, molecular biology; University of Lyons I, INRA, CNRS, Museum National, Paris (France) : nitrogen cycle in Mekong delta soils; University Lyons I. INRA, Wageningen Agricultural University (France and The Netherlands) (EEC project) : genetic stability of rhizobia in acid soils; ORSTOM (France): nematode disease in crops in the Mekong delta; Wageningen Agricultural University (The Netherlands) : acid sulphate soils (VH) and development of rhizobia inoculum for soybean (VH 24); Wageningen Agricultural University, Louvaine-la-Neuve Catholic University and Agricultural Institute of Gembloux (The Netherlands and Belgium) (EEC project) : acid sulphate soils; FAO: artemia production and university library.

CONTRIBUTORS

Dang Ba Lam, formerly Head of the Higher Education Division and Deputy Director of NRIHVE, is now Director of NRIHVE. Hoang Xuan Sinh is a professor at the University of Hanoi and Rector ofThang Long University. Lam Quang Thiep, formerly a professor at the University of Hanoi, is now Director of the Department of Higher Education, MOET. Le Thac Can, formerly foundation Director of NRIHVE, is now Chairperson of its Scientific Board and also Chairperson of the Vietnam National Research Program for Environmental Protection. Nghiem Xuan Nung is a Research Officer, Higher Education Division, NRIHVE. Nguyen Duy Quy is President of the National Centre for the Social Sciences of Vietnam, which is an office of ministerial rank. Nguyen Thi Tri is a Research Officer, Higher Education Division, NRIHVE. Nguyen Tien Dat is Head of the Comparative Education Division, NRIHVE. Pham Minh Hac, formerly Director of the NIES, is now Senior ViceMinister, MOET, with specific responsibility for international relations.

230

Contributors

Pham Quang Sang is a Research Officer, Vocational Education Division, NRIHVE. Pham Thanh Nghi is Deputy Head of the Higher Education Division, NRIHVE. David Sloper, formerly a university administrator in Australia, Papua New Guinea, and Thailand, is now Senior Lecturer in Higher Education, University of New England. Tran Chi Dao, formerly a professor at the Hanoi Polytechnic University, is now Vice-Minister, MOET, with responsibility for higher and vocational education. Tran Hong Quan, formerly Rector of the Polytechnic University of HCM City and Minister for Higher and Vocational Education, is now Minister for Education and Training. Tran Phuoc Duong, formerly Dean of the Faculty of Science at Can Tho University, is now Rector of Can Tho University. Vu Van Tao, formerly a professor at the Hanoi Polytechnic University, is now Adviser to the Minister of Education and Training.

INDEX

accumulation fund, 30 agricultural production, 27, 28, 30, 31 farm products, 28 rice, 28 state-run, 28 agriculture, 35 Asian Institute ofTechnology, 153 assistance, foreign, 143, 144 Au Lac kingdom, 42 August Revolution, 1945 victory, 48 Australia, 153 Bac Thai College of Industry, 189 Bac Thai Medical College, 189 library, 185 Bac Thai University of Agriculture No.3, 189 Bach Dang, battle of, 42 Bangladesh education expenditure, 30 health-care expenditure, 30 budget, national, 27 allocation, 179 capital construction, 191, 192 domestic income, 31 education allocation, 164

higher education allocations, 163-65 building investment, 31 Bulgaria, 119 Can Tho University, 211-28 academic programmes, 215 admissions and graduation, 215 Agriculture Faculry, 213 assistance, international, 226 co-operation, international, 221, 227-28 Education Faculry, 213 enrolment, 214, 218 financial resources, 225 government funding, 216 In-Service Training Centres, 218, 223 Medicine Faculty, 213 outreach services, 220-21 reorganization, 222 research contracts and production, 226 . scholarship, 215 scientific research, 219-20 specialized centres, 214 staff, 214 success, foundation, 226-27

232

training contracts, 225-26 training programmes, 216-18 in-service, 218 tuition fees, 215 Central Library of Science and Technology, 152 China, 42 education, 42 expenditure, 30 gross national product per capita, 161 health-care expenditure, 30 College of Construction funding, 176, 177 colleges, 4 7, 48, 51 local funding, 166 research, 137 student assessment, 86, 106 Communist Party of Vietnam (CP\0, 23,63,64, 70 4th Plenum, 11, 164 Decision, 11, 12 6th Congress, 3, 26, 64, 75 7th Congress, 31, 37, 64, 67 Central Committee Department of Science and Education, 89 education and training Decision, 1993, 71, 72 Confucianism, 45 Constitution 1992, 27,62,63 co-operatives, 27, 28 Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA), 121 Council of Ministers, 129, 131, 156, 157, 158 Resolution, 158-59 Czechoslovakia, 119 Dalat University of Central Plateaux, 189 Danang, 46 Danang University of Technology

Index

research and production centres, 188 Dien Bien Phu, 49 doi moi (renovation), 3, 7, 11, 26, 27, 32,33, 39,64, 137, 163 Dong Son culture, 42 dynasties, 43 economiC development policies, 64-66 sectors, 65 economics free-market, 17 economy commodity with socialist orientation, 34 market impact on education, 33-39 education, 35, 36 competitive examination, 44 complementary system, 53, 54 compulsory, 37, 164 Confucian, 45 curriculum, 45 expenditure, 29 goal of, 37 graduate tides, 44, 45 legislation, 57 objectives, 65 postgraduate, 36, 82-83, 121-23 cao hoc (masters degree), 124, 125 criteria for candidates, 123 development, 155 full-time study, 123 overseas, 118-21 part-time study, 123 pho tien sy (junior doctor) degree, 123 renovation, 123-26 tien sy (doctor of science) degree, 123 pnmary universalization of, 57

Index

233

private, 80, I64 secondary professional, 54, 57 vocational, 47, 54, 57 years of, 36 education, higher academic staff, 95-I08, I46, I 57 attitude to profession, I 05-6 by region, 97 characteristics, key, 96-99 classification scheme, I26-32 doctoral degrees, I46 income, I 06-8 income supplementation, I69,

I75, I76 lecturers, 96 number and gender, 96, 97 professors, 126, I27, I28, I30 promotion, I69 promotion procedure, I3I qualifications, 99, I 0 I salaries, I79 work, effective, I 04-5 accommodation charges, 84 area per student, I83 budget, official major components, I68-72 salaries and administrative expenses, I68-70 student scholarships, I70-7I buildings, I83-85 capital works, I9I-93 cost per student comparative direct, 224 degree patterns, 80-82 entrance examinations, 83 equipment, I95, I96, I98 expectations, 69-70 expenditure per student, I70 facilities physical, I82-83, I95 sharing, 198-99 funding, 14 5, 180-81 and financial issues, I61-81

mechanisms, 165-68 non-government, I73-78 tuition fees, I76-78 governance and administration,

86-89 guiding principles, I82 human resource component, 118 in-service programmes, 84, 85 institutions amalgamation, 159 data, 92-94 groups, 58 laboratories, 149, 150, 186-

87, 198 libraries, I5I, I52, I85-86 organizational structure, 87 research, 146, I47, 148, I54 semesters, 8I system, 76-78 issues, I6, 19, I56-60 maintenance of facilities, 193-94,

197-98 management information system,

I8I managerial staff, 108-II appointment procedures, I 09 capabilities of, 111 weaknesses and shortcomings, perceived, I 09 medical services, I91 open admission mode, 85 organization and management,

74-91 policy, 67-70 academic staff, 68 investment, 67-68 professional staff, I1I-I3 reform, 16 reorganization, 20, 21 research and production centres,

187-88 functions , 187 objectives, 187 resource deprivation, 18, 20, 21

234

role of, 134 salaries, 169, 170 scholarship scheme, 84, 178, 180 sport facilities and students' clubs, 190-91 staff and student statistics, 78-80 staffing profile, 95-116 student administration and study modes, 83-86 student/staff ratios, 90, 98, 101 students dormitories, 190 full-fee, 84 teaching, 81, 82, 96 tension, 118 tuition fees, 84 Education and Human Resources Sector Study, 137 "Education Sector Review and Human Resources Analysis" project, 7, 8, 9, 10 educational system, 41-61 1951-54, 53 1990s, 60 after reunification, 55-59 in feudal periods, 44 reform 1950, 50 1956, 53 1979, 55, 56 talent fostering, 54 energy industry, 29 Europeans arrival, 46 exchange rates, 32, 162 exports, 31, 39 Finland, 153 Five-Year Plan 1986-90, 163 1991-96, 163 foodstuff production, 31 Foreign Investment Law promulgation, 31

Index Foreign Languages Teachers Training College, 190 Foreign Languages U niversiry, 190 funding, 176, 177 foreign policy, 66 forestry, 28 France, 122 French colonialism, 46-48, 136 Education Act, 46 educational system, 48 General Department for Vocational Training, 87 German Democratic Republic, 119, 121 governmental revenue, 165 graduates by employment area, 142 bachelor degree, 141 number per million, 141 guerilla resistance, 46 Ha Tay province institutions, 146 Haiphong institutions, 146 Hanoi, 43, 140 institutions, 146, 183 Hanoi Faculty of Medicine, 189 Hanoi Polytechnic U niversiry, 150, 153 Hanoi University ofTechnology, 189, 190 library, 185 research and production centres, 187, 188 tuition fees, 176, 177 health care expenditure, 30 Ho Chi Minh, 49 Ho Chi Minh City institutions, 146, 183 Ho Chi Minh Ciry Open University, 85, 184, 185

Index

tuition fees, 177 Ho Chi Minh City University, 188 Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology, 189 Ho dynasty, 43 Hoang Due Nhuan, Professor, 8 Hue, 43 Hue Medical College library, 185 Hue University, 188 Hue University of Agriculture No. 2, 189 human capital, 17 resources development, 35 Hung Icings, 42 Hungary, 119 income, national, 31 India education per capita expenditure, 30 Indochinese Union, 46 Indonesia gross national product per capita, 161 industry economic structure, 28 output value, 29 production, 30, 31 state-run enterprises, 28, 29 investments, direct foreign, 31 Korea, South students per 10,000 inhabitants, 78 Ky Hoa, battle of, 46 Lac Viet, 42 land ownership, 27 Le dynasty, 43 Later, 44 Le Hoan , 43

235

Le Loi, 43 Le Thac Can, Professor, 8 libraries, 151 , 152 literacy rate, 9, 10, 53 Ly dynasty, 43, 44 marine production, 28 materials, 32 Mekong delta, 212, 213 data, 212 post-secondary graduates, 213 rice export, 216 mining, 29 Ministry of Education, 86 Ministry of Education and Training (MOET), 7, 22, 58, 64, 78, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 89, 115, 121 , 124, 131, 144, 145, 146, 149, 150, 156, 158, 159, 166, 167, 168, 176, 181, 190, 193, 194,214,2 15,222 departments, 87 functions, 165, 166 higher education institutions, 77 organizational structure, 87, 88 Ministry of Finance, 166, 167, 181, 193 Ministry of General Education, 87 Ministry of Higher and Secondary Technical Education, 87 Ministry of Higher Education, 11 Ministry of Higher, Technical and Vocational Education, 87 Ministry of Science, Technology, and the Environment, 158 missionaries, 46 monetary value, 32 Mother and Children Protection committee, 86 Nanning, 52 National Assembly, 63, 64, 166 National Centre for Atomic Energy, 145

Index

236

National Centre for the Social Sciences, 14 5 National Institute of Learning, 43 National Research Institute for Higher and Vocational Education, 89 Nepal education expenditure, 30 Netherlands, 153 Ngo Quyen, 42 Nguyen Anh, Prince, 46 Nguyen Canh, 46 Nguyen dynasty, 43 educational system, 44 Nguyen Hue, 43 oil production, 29

expenditure, 142, 147 facilities, 149-51 funding, 143, 157, 159 human, financial, and other resources, 140-45 information service, 151-52 institutes, 146 by field of study, 140 geographical distribution, 140 organizational chart, 139 state, 82, 101, 137, 138, 146,

156, 157 under direct government supervision, 138 issues affecting, 156-60 network, 159 organization of national activities,

137-40 Pakistan gross national product percapita, 161 Pham Minh Hac, Professor, 8 Phan Van Tiem, 22 Philippines, 46 Poland, 119 policy-making bodies, 62-64 Portuguese, 46 pricing reforms, 27 privatization, 20

state allocations for, 144 research and development expenditure as percentage of gross national product, 142, 143 per capita, 142, 143 funding sources, 143 labour force per million, 141 Rhodes, Alexandre de, 46 Romania, 119 Royal College, 43

quoc ngu alphabet, 46 quotas for farmers, 27, 37

Saigon, 46, 49 salary minimum state, 169 savmgs by households, 30 schools, private, 59 social policies, 66 socio-economic renovation policies, 64-66 Socrates, 118 Soviet Union, 119, 121 Spain, 46 State Bank for Capital Construction, 193

Red River region, 98 research, 82-83, 101, 104, 134-60 and higher education institutions,

145-48 applied, 187 and basic, 157, 158 contribution from higher education institutions, 154-

56 co-operation, international, 152-

53

Index

237

State Committee for Science and Technology, 138, 159 State Council of Academic Grades and Scientific Titles, 131 state employee average salary, 171 State Planning Committee, 158,

166, 193 Sweden, 153 Switzerland, 153

scholarships, 205 student enrolment, 201 Thanh Hoa, 52 Thuc Phan, King, 42 traditional values, 35 training, 37 objectives, 65 postgraduate, 121-23 aim, 123 Prime Minister's resolution,

1976, 123 Taiwan gross national product, 39 per capita, 39 population, 39 Tay Au, 42 T ay Son Rebellion, 46 teacher training, 70, 77 institutions, 78 teaching profession social status, 105 technical schools, 47 technology, 65 new, 38 Temple of Literature, 43, 135 textbooks, 172 Thai Nguyen province institutions, 146 Thailand education expenditure, 30 gross national product, 39 per capita, 39, 161 health-care expenditure, 30 population, 39 students per 10,000 inhabitants,

78 Thang Long, 43 Thang Long University, 146, 200-9 aims, 200-1 Department of Management, 201 Department of Mathematics and Computing Science, 201 financial resources, 202 location, 206

overseas, 118-21 Tran dynasty, 43 Tran Hong Quan, Professor, 8 Tran Hung Dao, 43 tuition, private, 204 unemployment, 10 United Nations Development Program (UNDP), 7 projects in Vietnam, 144, 153 United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), 7 Universite lndochinoise, 48 universities, 54, 186 academic staff postgraduate qualifications, 82 centres, 52 comprehensive, 211 credit point system, 81 curriculum, 81 definition, 15 dilemmas, 17-22 modern, first, 75 pre-, first, 47 private, 200 professional, 211 research, 137 student assessment, 86, 106 study of Marxism-Leninism, 23 University of Agriculture and Forestry, 177 University of Hanoi, 52, 124

238

College of Law, 121 Faculty of Law, 121, 122 University of Indochina, 136 Van Lang kingdom, 42 Viet Bac, 52 Vietnam administrative units, 76 Chinese imperial domination, 41-42 invasion, 43 coastline, 13 data, 14, 212 Democratic Republic of founding, 48 dualism, pragmatic, 22-24 gross domestic product growth, 22 gross national product, 40 domestic revenue, 163 growth rate, 163 per capita, 40, 161 independence,42-45 inflation, 22, 27, 31, 32, 162, 168, 169 land border, 13 North of, 203, 204

Index

partition, 49 population, 39 growth rate, 66 reunification, 2, 49 socio-economic background, 2639 South of, 203, 204 writing system, 45 Vietnam, North, 136 educational systems 1954-56, 53 1954-75, 56 higher education institutions, 54, 55 postgraduate education, 122 Vietnam, South, 52, 55 postgraduate training, 122 vocational skills, 36 Western higher education major themes and issues influencing, 16 World Bank, 10, 137, 165 Higher Education Mission, 21, 109

ABOUT THE EDITORS David Sloper, formerly a university administrator in Australia, Papua New Guinea, and Thailand, is now Senior Lecturer in Higher Education, University of New England. Le Thac Can, formerly foundation Director of the National Research Institute for Higher and Vocational Education, is now Chairperson of its Scientific Board and also Chairperson of the Vietnam National Research Program for Environmental Protection.