Higher Education and Decolonization in Africa 3031389727, 9783031389726

Citation preview

Higher Education and Decolonization in Africa Pedro João Uetela

Higher Education and Decolonization in Africa

Pedro João Uetela

Higher Education and Decolonization in Africa

Pedro João Uetela Universidade Púnguè Chimoio, Mozambique

ISBN 978-3-031-38972-6    ISBN 978-3-031-38973-3 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-38973-3 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG. The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Paper in this product is recyclable.

Preface

The volume herein presented is the fruit of reflection about higher education over a long period of research. The study initiated in 2021 when we were developing the project Mellon on decolonization knowledge and disciplines at the University of Ghana. Our initial aim was to write two research articles devoted to exploring major changes in the university’s structures and organization. The organizing principle of this work is that a new form of composition of universities is emerging. The new appearing format is contrary to the previous format in which higher education used to be organized. The colonial university dominated considerably for long period, and at the moment, a new model of university, the decolonial university has become a reality. Whereas the former university (colonial) was based on exogenous knowledge production, the latter (decolonized) university is founded on local knowledge (the indigenous knowledge). It is within this scope that Maringe (2023) set to unpack the historical and philosophical antecedents of higher education, critically examining the intentions and impact of colonial assumptions behind higher education in different parts of the world. This volume then is a suitable reading for postgraduates and scholars in the field of higher education, as well as senior management teams in universities and practitioners who work directly in the field of transformation in government and university departments. Many organizations and individuals have been involved in the production of this book. First was the Andrew Mellon Foundation which conceived the project and funded it over a year, in 2021. The main work was v

vi 

PREFACE

done during the aforementioned period. In addition, there is the Institute of African Studies at the University of Ghana from where the project was developed. As academic coordinator, I see the need of thanking many people who have contributed in the gestation of the present book. Firstly, my post-doc supervisors, Professors Patricio Langa (from Eduardo Mondlane University) and Takyiwaa Manuh (from the University of Ghana) for their constructive comments and incentives to research decolonization of universities in Africa. Furthermore, I address my gratitude to all distinguished scholars who indirectly cooperated to turn this volume into a reality. Secondly, I would like to thank Dr. Franklin Obeng-Odoom for the revision he made to the volume. With his expertise, he did the proof reading for the book. Third, I acknowledge my gratitude to Tikoji Rao Mega who coordinated the whole process of publication from the start through the final stage. Finally, to my wife and two children who patiently bore my absence from home and even longer periods of preoccupation while I was there. I thank them all. Chimoio, Mozambique

Pedro João Uetela

Synopsis

The studies, which this book presents, investigate current debates shaping higher education (HE) development as a subsystem and higher education as a field of study in Africa. The underlying focus is to capture how the discussions and narratives about HE are evolving on the continent and what data exists on the subject. It does so by applying meta-analysis, literature review methodologies and the lens of decolonization theories to examine both studies and key reforms characterizing the continent. The book unpacks how these remarkable and unintended transformations of universities that shape Africa can be comprehended by researching national, regional and continental arrangements of universities and systems in order to see how all these categories either dialogue or intersect. Furthermore, it questions whether HE transformation in Africa is leading to decolonization of science or reproducing the categories global north domination over the global south. As a result, we describe the modern university imposed on many African countries by colonization and problematize how this is being contested by impositions of new, indigenous and autochthone structures of university that are deemed meaningful to the continent. Whether such reforms and transformations of university are leading to either success or failure constitute our key inquiry by seeking to assess the dialogue African universities make between academia, industry, labor market and national states. As previously indicated, we build a bipartite co-authorship network mainly based on publications and other relevant literature that has considered African HE as an object of study. In applying secondary research data (meta-analysis), we unpack HE traditions and conditions under which universities operated, including the vii

viii 

SYNOPSIS

intersection they make with different stakeholders in order to inform additional policy reforms. Higher Education, Decolonization and Graduates Employability in Africa aid to capture the contribution universities make to local communities and economies in the continent. It also captures whether higher education institutions (HEIs) are either contributing to development or simply sustaining underdevelopment. In brief, we attempt an assessment of the development of higher education in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) with a view of presenting the current debates shaping HE development as a field of study in the continent. Such debates are presented in the context of (1) the functions of universities in SSA and (2) the state, industry, knowledge and employability of graduates. We hope to do this by reviewing literature from selected countries to capture the experiences within those countries. This is expected to be undertaken with decolonization as the key theoretical orientation of the project.

Contents

1 Introduction  1 1.1 What Did Developed Countries Do to Strengthen Research in HE and What Africa Has Not Yet Done  2 1.2 The Inception of HE Research: The Emergence of Northern Imperialism and Its Influence on Africa  3 1.3 The Landscape of Higher Education, Research Development and the Foundations for Higher Education  8 References 13 2 The  Meaning of University and Its Place in Africa 15 2.1 Introduction 15 2.2 The Inception of HE and Its Linkages with SSA 15 2.3 Theories on Higher Education in SSA 19 2.4 Research Methodology 21 2.5 Data Collection 22 2.6 The Landscape of HE Policies in Africa 22 2.7 Discussion, Findings and Policy Implications 22 References 48 3 The  Role of Higher Education in Nurturing Labor-Market in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) 51 3.1 Introduction 51 3.2 The Role of Universities 51

ix

x 

Contents

3.3 Discussion of Results 53 3.4 Concluding Remarks 61 References 63 4 Colonization  and Decolonization of HE and Development Nexus 65 4.1 Introduction 65 4.2 Higher Education and Employability 69 4.3 The Complexity of Universities and Graduates Employability Debate 95 References100 5 Case  Studies on Higher Education and Further Employability Linkages in Africa103 5.1 Introduction103 5.2 An Analysis of Key Case Studies on HE, Graduates’ Employability and Interconnections with the Industry107 5.3 Some Case Studies from the SADC Region (Malawi, Mozambique and South Africa)109 5.4 Some Case Studies Undertaken to Capture HE, Employability in the SADC Region: Intersection Between HE and Employability of the Graduates115 References166 6 Case  Studies for West Africa173 6.1 Introduction173 6.2 Case Studies: Discussions173 References200 7 Some  Case Studies from Central, Eastern and Northern Africa203 7.1 Case Studies for Eastern Africa205 7.2 Case Studies in Northern Africa217 7.3 Discussions and Conclusions224 References226 Index229

List of Figures

Fig. 2.1

Fig. 2.2 Fig. 3.1 Fig. 3.2 Fig. 3.3 Fig. 3.4 Fig. 4.1

Summary of courses/areas of knowledge production that initially fostered relevance of universities in SSA during and immediately after the inception of universities based on Table 2.18 findings. Source: Hermeneutics of SSA inception of universities: Table 2.1 Areas of knowledge production that shape/d SSA HE after independence and currently. Source: Critical hermeneutics of SSA HE education Levels of approach and countries that focused on employability & industry linkages (cf. Countries researched) Placement of countries (cf. the countries researched) Approaches to employability in countries selected (cf. the Journals searched) Explanation of the eight categories applied to analyze the articles (cf. research landscape of the journals) Contribution of the sectors of the economy where graduates are employed. Source: Interpretation of Balchin et al. (2017: 16) versus data from the follow up of the graduates

47 47 55 57 58 59 99

xi

List of Tables

Table 2.1 Table 2.2 Table 2.3 Table 2.4 Table 2.5 Table 2.6 Table 2.7 Table 2.8 Table 2.9 Table 2.10 Table 2.11 Table 2.12 Table 2.13 Table 2.14 Table 2.15 Table 2.16 Table 2.17 Table 2.18 Table 4.1 Table 4.2 Table 4.3

International Journal of African Higher Education22 Journal of Higher Education in Africa: CODESRIA 23 South African Journal of Higher Education23 Journal of Education Review24 South Africa Journal of Education24 Independent Journal of teaching and learning25 Journal of Higher Education Online25 South African Journal of Science26 Journal of Education as a Change26 African Journal of Health Professional Education26 Journal of African Studies Review27 Makerere Journal of Higher Education27 Journal of Students Affairs28 Journal of Perspectives in Education28 International Journal of Education Research29 Zimbabwean Journal of Education Research29 Global Journal of Education Research29 Modern HE in SSA and key policies implemented to ensure relevance in line with region/country needs 30 Functions, mission and vision of African Universities in line with decolonization 73 Idealization of the African HE model at the period of independence97 Model II of knowledge and its alignment with employability conception98

xiii

CHAPTER 1

Introduction

The moral to write this book evolved when I was selected as a post-­ doctoral research fellow to join the University of Ghana (Accra), precisely, the Institute of African Studies, to develop the project Decolonization, Knowledge and Universities in 2021. This was an ambitious project funded by the Andrew Melon Foundation and coordinated by professor Takyiwaa Manuh. As part of the deliveries and requirements for the successful termination of the fellowship, our chronogram of activities had indicated two key research activities, namely (i) conducting an investigation on how universities in Africa (African universities) are decolonizing science. The article considered the analyses on the mission and visions of selected higher educational institutions (HEIs) in order to evaluate whether they are either decolonizing or neo-colonizing science. The article was published by the International Journal of Sociology of Education. (ii) The second activity outlined in our chronogram of activities as a priority was subsequently to undertake additional research that captured key reforms, both intended and unintended, in order to assess how these comply to colonization or decolonization of universities in Africa. That led to the writing of this book. Furthermore, the underlying focus of the book was the goal of capturing HE and development linkages by reviewing key studies that established a dialogue between universities, the industry and the state. Specifically, it set out to capture how graduates’ employability in Africa is becoming a channel of interconnection between key factors © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 P. J. Uetela, Higher Education and Decolonization in Africa, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-38973-3_1

1

2 

P. J. UETELA

influencing HE and how all this impact on national developments. This book then is an outcome of all the aforementioned promises and necessity to position Africa within the global landscape and debate concerning HE. From preliminary analyses, modern HE which the book focuses on is novel. Decolonizing universities and science then turned into a key priority of African countries subsequent to independence. How is decolonization maximized, and what contribution HEIs make to the industries and economies in Africa? This is in part one of the key inquiries the book seeks to address throughout. So, how is the book organized? The book is constituted of seven main chapters. The first chapter locates Africa in the global landscape in terms of debate concerning the evolvement, growth and expansion of HE. In the second chapter, we question the meaning of university and capture what is that which other countries did and Africa did not do in order to strengthen the higher education subsystem. Chapter 3 addresses the role higher education has in influencing job opportunities. It shows the extent to which higher education and the industry cooperate. Then in the subsequent chapter, there is an application of bibliometric methodology to capture the current state of art of Africa in terms of research about the field of HE. It does so by reviewing the main journals that publish about African HE in order to understand the significance of universities in fostering development. The distinction between Chaps. 3 and 4 is that whereas the former applies literature review, the latter uses bibliometric analyses. Chapter 5 makes an interplay between HE and employability based on research. It summarizes the key studies that have been undertaken to align access to HE and work of graduates. Chapters 6 and 7 explore some case studies that have been undertaken across Africa in terms of regional settings as to correlation between HE, employment, industry and entrepreneurship. It also alludes to the emergence of market ideology on the conditions under which HE operates.

1.1   What Did Developed Countries Do to Strengthen Research in HE and What Africa Has Not Yet Done There is a growing concern that the knowledge-based economy is shaping peoples’ attitudes and university functions (see Armel & Shizhou, 2022). Armel and Shizhou argue that the information age, knowledge economy and knowledge society have an influence on dissemination, acquisition,

1 INTRODUCTION 

3

transformation and application of knowledge. As a result, among the university imperatives is the increasing adjustment and restructuring in order to respond to both new demands and impositions. Among the key reforms characterizing Africa are the decolonization of Universities, Knowledge and Epistemologies (Manthalu & Waghid, 2019). Decolonization consists in revitalizing (i) the rise of Arabic models of scientific dominance that shaped Africa with focus on Egypt, Morocco and Mali. It also accounts for unpacking the reasons behind (ii) decay and weakness of the earlier empire and civilization due to European settlement that determined a new way of scientific reasoning. Furthermore, decolonization theory is discussed in terms of (iii) the revitalization of African universities after a long period of marginalization under the European presence on the continent given that the northern priorities with Africa did not envisage concern on knowledge production. On this, Cross and Ndofirepi (2017) would simply argue that the university as we know today is a western invention despite recognizing the prior developments of knowledge in Egypt, Greece and India. Hence, the book alludes to the inception of HE research and growth of universities in Africa as starting point to investigate the relationship between knowledge, employment and decolonization. It shows how the misconception that the idea of university emerged in the global north has contributed to the marginalization of African HE to the extent that local universities, epistemologies and knowledge produced are considered to be colonially grounded.

1.2  The Inception of HE Research: The Emergence of Northern Imperialism and Its Influence on Africa As earlier mentioned, this chapter builds upon the inception of the global north imperialism of university as a starting point to unpack the African concept of higher education. It shows how the misconception that the idea of university emerged in the global north has contributed to the marginalization of African HE to the extent that local universities, epistemologies and knowledge produced are considered to be colonially grounded (see Cross & Ndofirepi, 2017). There have been growing concerns on the link between higher education as a field of study and research as a measure through which epistemologies are generated in both universities and research centers based on application of a rigorous method, theory and

4 

P. J. UETELA

level of analysis. The aforementioned position suggests that higher education and research are not delinked though may not have necessarily emerged coincidentally. Higher education is defined as the most recent and emerging field of knowledge production that merges scholars from different specializations (cf. Forsberg & Geschwind, 2016; Macfarlane & Grant, 2012; Tight, 2012; Teichler, 2005). In Africa, HE has not yet achieved as much high prestige as other traditional fields that have been considerably accepted for centuries (the case of sociology, anthropology, philosophy, physics, chemistry, engineering and other related disciplines). The undervaluation of HE and HE research is partly explained in the global north by the novelty of what is meant by research university Bildung (see Rothblatt, 1997: 1–51). This typology only emerges in the nineteenth-­ century Germany and was further nurtured in the context of the United States of America by HE policy reforms. The changes evolved to assist minority groups, student support for poor background families and rising numbers of people that entered higher education (see Delbanco, 2013: 1–37) because of growth and complexity of HE, a driving force that imposed universities to redefine policy measures of access. Certain fields that constituted the structure of university then, lost popularity exacerbating the crisis of university. In addition, the university crisis that mainly affected scholars and domains of social sciences increasingly grew leading to the rise of a specific subjects that addressed HE (e.g. crisis of social sciences and humanities with focus on sociology and philosophy). Furthermore, university crises imposed new demands for researchers, especially from the view that traditional disciplines that dominated previously were in decay and the need for new scientific discoveries appeared. In fact, highly recognized researchers migrated from their fields of research and expertise inventing new disciplines (see Clark, 1983: 1–2). The field of higher education is one among the newly invented subjects. There has been an increasing debate in whether it can be a field of study given that it concentrates researchers from different domains who are interested in systematically understanding the way universities operate, but apply the lens of their expertise to investigate universities, which may lead to bias and prejudice on one hand. On the other, there are concerns that higher education can simply be considered as a series of literature that addresses relevant aspects of higher learning, teaching, research, policy and practice (Clark, 1983: 22). A tentative approach to respond to these two contradictory arguments requires an analysis of current changing dynamics in HE and how those

1 INTRODUCTION 

5

shed light on comprehending the scope of higher education as a multidisciplinary field of study. The approach also considers the path which research in such field of learning undertook. There are at least some perspectives explaining either the inception of either HE research or research in higher education both for global north and south. The capture of these theories is an attempt to sustain the grounding foundations legitimizing how high learning as a systematic field and discipline has historically evolved (see Robertson & Bond, 2005; Healy, 2005; Brew, 2001; Barnett, 1992; Trow, 1970). Where and when did the debate on turning HE as a field of study emerge? It appeared in the 1960s in the context of the United States of America (USA). The underlying reasons behind the inception was the growth and complexity of American HEIs (in terms of size and numbers). Subsequently, there was a growing concern in other parts of the globe, which also faced growth of their subsystems. The case of the USA accounted as imperatives for the understanding of HE as field of research the necessity of respect for civil and human rights including access to HE. The scope of this direction was also paralleled to the construction of the perspectives behind the struggles of the founding fathers of democracy in the country who privileged freedom including of access to HE as priority. Considering liberty of access to both education and HE was a key priority and because of these changing practices that have shaped education systems in either the USA or elsewhere, student protests/movements/unions and public debate loomed. The insufficiency of a rigorous and specific method to address these topics considering the wide range of traditional disciplines that were dominant can be seen as a driving force that initially constituted the emergence of both HE studies and research about universities either in northern America or in Europe subsequently (see Teichler, 2005: 452–453). As a result of the aforementioned experiences and as part of the consequences of the key transformations of the 1960s, in the 1970s, other dimensions of dynamics shaping HE occurred. This was the moment when the number of enrollments grew as a result of “universal access” and growing statistics of students from different settings and contexts who went to university (see Trow, 1970: 27). Again such composition of American and European HE increased concerns on the link between such surging figures and future of universities, especially the employment of the graduates that were trained in mass. As a result, public debates emerged to address different themes that aided both construction and consolidation of HE as a field of research. The focus turned

6 

P. J. UETELA

into subjects such as (a) the role of universities and states for employment, (b) the link between public and private good in relation to university, (c) access to HE and student opportunities, (d) curricula adjustments, (e) teaching and learning, teaching and research and other themes of interest. These topics were discussed at different levels (institutional, national and international). The necessity of addressing all these problems from a unique perspective of research instead of scattered traditional subjects (sociology, economy, philosophy, phycology, political science, administration and so on) increased the interest of institutionalizing HE research and HE as a specific discipline of investigation (Teichler, 2005: 453). Subsequently and during the 1980s, concerns increased considerably with focus then to market-oriented management and subsequently market-­ oriented university. In the case of Africa as we address in the next sections, this model of university management only evolves in the 1990s. Market management as a key transformation of the 1980s imposed internal dynamics within HEIs in a sense that the dominance of traditional arenas of knowledge generation that had then characterized universities for long associated with the growing number of graduates that terminated universities instigated the necessity of inventing an alignment between teaching and profession. The parallelism was on basis of the necessities of the industry, universities and graduates interconnections. Therefore, investigating systematic mechanisms and networks of reinforcement for both cooperation and coordination between universities, the state and the new markets also incremented the necessity of turning HE as a research field of its own. The need for a specific field of HE was mainly supported by the growing themes of public concern that universities needed to systematically address. Any approach to these growing concerns from the perspectives of dominant epistemologies was seen as making the research vague though they would serve as forerunners that would later on turn into pathtakers, concepts that were recently applied by Macfarlane and Grant (2012) to illustrate that the field of HE is not delinked from previously dominant narratives of knowledge generation. As a result, the majority of the scholars that became interested in HE research, policy and practice either in the USA or in Europe are undeniably considered to have come from these dominant and traditional fields of epistemologies. The key features of market university management determined the steering mechanisms that followed during this period, monitored by either relevance or applicability of the investment made to HEIs. In the transnational/cross-national contexts, terms such as accountability, return

1 INTRODUCTION 

7

indexes, quality measurements, quality-based management, assessment measures, quality assurance and auditing served as scrutinizing means of relevance within universities (see Uetela, 2016: 50–69). Again, the necessity of studying the way HE will operate under these growing concerns emanating from decreasing public funds and increment of control which leads to a cautious control of thinly resources at least from a specific research agenda of HE research has added growing interests. Over the last decade of the twentieth century (1990s), the effects of both internationalization and globalization diminished the role of national states. Actually, some countries even went on collapsing (the URSS) and the fall of the Berlin Wall that separated the two sides of Germany. The fall of these national states is considered the top manifestation of the end of the cold war. All these events accelerated reinvention of the meaning of national states through the emergence of a global nation given that the frontiers that had been previously established to separate nations were no longer empirically valid (see Beck, 1999). The conditions under which either HE operated in Europe or the USA pursued some of these elements driven by the fact that internationalization shaped political agendas. In fact, internationalization of HE loomed as a response to the changing dynamics in the political sphere which became much emphasized than ever. As changing dynamics were growing rapidly at the political sphere level, new structures that strengthen the epistemological foundations of HE research also increased. There are also two recent events that contributed to HE research and HE as a field of study supported by the current public themes that are in vague. These are namely (a) the hopes and concerns that education/HE and economic growth are inter-linked and (b) secondly, the necessity of constantly investing on relevance of universities under the concept of market-­driven initiatives. The former position has been both contradictory and contested when related to the African continent on the basis that return indexes were never aligned to investment and as a result African states should shift priorities from HE investments to fundamental degrees of learning (primary and secondary education). In simple terms, whereas the link between HE and development was seen as a positive initiative globally, other geographical locations addressed the concern differently especially in developing nations. The plausibility of each position (incentive and contestation) can only be methodologically and systematically sustained by empirical evidence which is achieved by HE research, considering that what is done in HE research cannot be done clearly by any other

8 

P. J. UETELA

discipline. There are also growing concerns on the meaning of universities, and as a result, various stakeholders come in. The necessity to link academic roles and professional functions of universities is deemed to be fruitful when market initiatives are integrated in the management of universities, curricula design and teaching and learning. The concepts brought up to this stage underline the epistemological foundations of HE research at least in the developed world (Europe, the USA and Australia Asia). They explain the rise of HE research as emanating from a systematic attempt to investigate the changing dynamics in HE that were growing rapidly as a result of political shifting ideologies that affected universities. HE research initially and continuously is shaped by contestations as their opponents perceive research in HE, firstly, as a discipline rather than an interdisciplinary arena. Secondly, it was also believed that what is done in HE can similarly be performed in other disciplines. However, empirical evidence from the fastest growth of the field of higher education evidences that such a research area remains unique with appropriate theory, method, thematic and levels of analyses.

1.3  The Landscape of Higher Education, Research Development and the Foundations for Higher Education Two eminent researchers in the domain of modern HE research (Tight, 2012; Teichler, 2005) have considerably sought to unpack HE as a field of research with especial focus on empirical data that serves to illustrate both meaning and epistemological foundations for the success of HE research at least in the developed world. There are various levels of analyses they apply including empirical data to distinguish research curried out in the context of HE and that of other disciplines. At this stage, let us turn into the main initiatives (institutions, agencies and politics) developed across Europe as a means to steer research in higher education and then address the issue of level analysis as a distinct feature that distinguishes HE research as multidisciplinary arena from other narrowed and focused domains/ disciplines. Teichler (2005) starts by distinguishing various typologies of institutional names where research in HE takes place. Furthermore, he also shows how the case of universities as a domain that merits cautious research can be understood in terms of both national and supranational levels. In

1 INTRODUCTION 

9

the context of Europe, even though internationalization and globalization have become the dominant features with tendencies for uniformity and standardization of HE systems, still national contexts matter in understanding the landscape universities are either growing or contributing to local economies. Hence, the growing interest in the field of HE research was shaped at times by contexts where (a) research and practice was combined. This initiative turned dominant in environments where universities in cooperation with some national entities worked cooperatively in establishing centers that promoted lifelong learning for their staff members either for promotion or for the acquisition of new skills. As a result, both university personnel, government servants and other stakeholders could benefit from the knowledge generated in these centers as they served as laboratories of experiments in topics related to HE (teaching, learning and research, didactics on/of higher education, curricula, change, innovation and related subjects). Some universities in other geographical locations such as Australasia maintain this format. In the case of Europe, the model emerged in alignment with the fastest growth of HE in the 1970s which accounted as addressed before for the necessity of understanding the future of graduates on the basis of the surged number of the personnel that terminated HE in the subsequent years. In twentiethcentury Europe, this model of institutional research became restricted to states such as Germany, the UK and the Netherlands (Teichler, 2005: 454). Another model addressed in the perspective of Teichler (2005) that monitored the development of HE research in the context of Europe and the USA is what he considers as (a) the value of institutional research and (b) the nexus between teaching and research. The former policy commenced in the USA under the process of institutionalization of research units within the administration of particular universities in order to investigate the link between public debates and then inform policy and practice. The expansion of many institutional centers and associations between universities revealed a significant interest in the new model of research in HE that was emerging, even though national systems and contexts of particular countries contributed for the distinction between one university with another and determined the basis for the cooperation that occurred. The establishment of the European Association for International Research

10 

P. J. UETELA

(EAIR) in late 1970s, when the public debate was increasingly focusing on the consequences of rapidly growing higher education, illustrates the pace at which institutional research as a model of investing in HE research was becoming popularized. However, popularization and expansion of institutional research was followed by decreasing moments due to at least two reasons: (1) leadership constraints in terms of priorities and did not regard management (the main theme institutional research focused) as a priority; (2) resources to steer investigations that supported continuity of the institutional research became thin and as a result, institutional research as a model of investigation is slumbering. As to the latter concept of aligning teaching and research and hence nurturing instruction through investigation, it started with Humboldt nineteenth century German model of university (Wittrock, 1993). The discussion on the undivided line between teaching and research was further and detailed developed in the USA an alignment, which upgraded universities and colleges in this geographical region of the country so that today (moment of writing the book) US universities dominate the ranking leagues and tables. As part of the efforts initiated by the USA, currently, there are unceasingly efforts since 2000 within universities, schools and institutes linked to education to focus on training of research professionals in the domains of higher educational management, policy and teaching and research strategies. There is a growing concern that academics involved in these programs become examples by considering that what they teach is an outcome of what they research that is, practice is aligned with theory. The idea of fostering research in higher education through the establishment of courses/programs that focus on the main themes that are currently shaping public debate in higher education especially management of higher education, leadership, policy, innovation and other dominant subjects is being popularized. In many countries, initiatives are being undertaken espetially in the USA, Europe and Australasia, though the case of Africa as it is addressed in the appropriate section similar initiatives are still lagging behind. Successful experiences in the context of Europe point to some programs that are part of this reform process. At the beginning of the twenty-first century, several universities in the context of Europe joined efforts of introducing a continental program on Master of Business Administration (MBA) in order to research public issues on HE management. Some of the leading successful examples of these programs as a result of importation of the American concept of HE research in courses of education are dominant in England: University of

1 INTRODUCTION 

11

London-Institute of Education (Master of Business Administration in HE). Similarly, in Oslo-Norway, the MA and Doctoral program in Philosophy of HE established in 2002 under the faculty of education has attracted researchers either within the country or outside Europe to expand comprehension on how teaching is alimented by research. The latter program is not limited to focus on the vision of philosophy and the history of HE in order to explain the significance of research for teaching in HE. It also investigates how similar initiatives shape universities as the global producers of knowledge. Similar to what occurs in the context of the USA, specializations of the group members expand the themes that are becoming the greatest interest of the public and their findings suggest and inform new policy. Two years later in 2004, a similar program on HE commenced at the university of Kassel-Germany. However, contrary to the previous two, which worked in faculties of education, this specific course is associated with the division of Social Sciences. Staff members are predominantly from the Centre for Research on Higher Education and Work, and since its implementation, the program has attracted researchers interested in the domain of HE, either within or outside Germany. Some of the scholars joining The international Center for Higher Education Research (INCHER) to research about HE in both Europe and other geographical locations of origin have benefitted from Humboldt fellowships to carry out their investigations. What makes some of these new programs that address research in HE unique is the professionalization of the staff within and outside the faculties/departments they belong to, through partnership with research groups that constantly investigate and update dominant debates on higher learning, teaching and research. The specific program of history and philosophy of higher education at the faculty of education, Oslo University, for example, instituted HEDDA (Higher Education Development Association) as a laboratory that makes experiments of the research results in higher education. Parallel initiatives are present and carried out by CHEPS (Centre for Higher Education Policy Studies), University of Twente, Netherlands; CIPES—Centro de Investigação em Políticas do Ensino Superior (Centre for Research in HE policy), University of Porto Portugal; NIFU—Studies in Innovation Research and Education—Oslo, Norway; Higher Education Group (HEG), Finland; Center for Higher Education Studies (CHES), Prague; the Czech republic and Centrum für Hochschulentwicklung (CHE), Gutersloh in Germany. The way these

12 

P. J. UETELA

centers and research institutes are rapidly growing and cooperating within Europe indicates the magnitude at which HE research is undoubtedly becoming a new field of interest. Nationally steered research institutes also feature as a model of research that has significantly contributed to the advancement of HE interest in Europe. This typology is unique in the sense that it is based on direct support of states to institutions that are associated with a range of investigations. Furthermore, there are also agencies either private or public within national states that outstand in funding different projects developed within HEIs provided such institutions are specialized in research development of higher learning. In the Nordic countries, the Norwegian Institute for Studies in Research and Higher Education which is now part of NIFU (Nordic Institute for Studies in Innovation, Research and Education) have strongly dominated this category and NIFU is rapidly growing to become the leading European non-profit organization that steer and foster investigation for knowledge policy. In Central Europe, the Centre for Higher Education Studies located in Prague-Czech Republic as earlier mentioned has unceasingly researched on HE and has made considerable assistance to HEIs to improve quality through the incorporation of findings this institute produces concerning the actual public debate. University-based centers of research have been popularized in Europe as key panaceas that instigate investigation on HE.  Some of the above-­ stated agencies that have contributed to the actual landscape of high learning in Europe are mainly linked to universities and have been considered as alternatives to support the state burdens on steering HE. At least two examples stand out: (i) the center for research on higher education and work is linked to the University of Kassel and since its establishment in 1978 has been focusing on the link between graduates and work seeking to generate knowledge that serves to inform policy reforms in curricula and alignment with the competitive markets. Additional empirical evidence about HE research and its constitution in Europe include that (ii) it is impossible to understand either HEDDA outside the university of Oslo or (iii) CHEPS outside the university of Twente. Furthermore, when CHEPS was established in 1984 it was aimed at investigating decentralization of power in management and decision within universities.

1 INTRODUCTION 

13

References Armel, N. D., & Shizhou, L. (2022). The evolving role of higher education in national development plans in Cameroon: Focus on the period 2000-2030. International Journal of Science and Research, 11(5). Barnett, R. (1992). Improving higher education: Total quality care. Society for Research into Higher Education and Open University Press. Beck, U. (1999). O que é Globalização? Equívocos do Globalismo e respostas à Globalização. Paz e Terra Editora. Brew, A. (2001). Conceptions of research: A phenomenographic study. Studies in Higher Education, 26(3), 271–285. Clark, B. (1983). The higher education system: Academic organization in cross-­ national perspective. University Press. Cross, M., & Ndofirepi, A. (2017). Knowledge and change in African Universities: Current debates. Sense Publishers. Delbanco. (2013). College: What it was, is and should be (pp. 1-27). Princeton University Press. Forsberg, E., & Geschwind, L. (2016). The academic home of higher education research: The case of doctoral theses in Sweden. Theory and Method in Higher Education Research, 2, 69–93. Healy, M. (2005). Linking research and teaching: Exploring disciplinary spaces and the role of inquiry-based learning. In R. Barnett (Ed.), Reshaping the university (pp. 67–78). SRHE/Open University Press. Macfarlane, B., & Grant, B. (2012). The growth of higher education studies: From forerunners to pathtakers. Higher Education Research & Development, 31(5), 621–624. https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2012.719283 Manthalu, C. H., & Waghid, Y. (2019). Education for decoloniality and decolonization in Africa. Palgrave Macmillan. Robertson, J., & Bond, C. (2005). The research/teaching relation: A view from the edge. Higher Education, 50(3), 509–535. Rothblatt, S. (1997). The modern university and its discontents. The fate of Newman’s legacies in Britain and America (pp.  1–50). Cambridge University Press. Teichler, U. (2005). Research on higher education in Europe. European Journal of Higher Education, 40(4), 447–469. Tight, M. (2012). Levels of analysis in higher education research. Tertiary Education and Management, 18(3), 271–288. Trow, M. (1970) Reflections on the transition from mass to universal higher education. Daedalus, 99(1), 1–42. The Embattled University. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/20023931.

14 

P. J. UETELA

Uetela, P. (2016). Higher education and development in Africa. Palgrave Macmillan. Wittrock, B. (1993). The modern university: Its three transformations. In R. Sheldon & B. Wittrock (Eds.), The European and American University since 1800 (pp. 303–362). Cambridge University Press.

CHAPTER 2

The Meaning of University and Its Place in Africa

2.1   Introduction Understanding the meaning of higher education is sharply intriguing for both higher education key actors and national governments. For Sub-­ Saharan Africa (SSA), two major perspectives have nurtured debates concerning the role of universities, namely (i) that higher education institutions (HEIs) are not the spotlights that contribute to societal growth through systematic knowledge, and (ii) the opposing theory advocating that scholarship and research are fundamental for development considering the world drift towards knowledge-based economy where universities play an essential role in advancing knowledge that influences policy and practice. Drawing from these delinking views/schools, this chapter reviews both conceptual and empirical analyses applied to influence the debate. It indicates the rise of a new approach concerning the premise that HE is irrelevant to the region by showing an apparent revitalization of universities as sites of knowledge cultures that are in the process of building empirical solutions in 47 SSA countries.

2.2  The Inception of HE and Its Linkages with SSA Research about the meaning of universities in SSA is an incipient phenomenon considering the genesis and results of investigation produced/existing in the domain, which are still scarce and scattered (cf. Uetela, 2017; © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 P. J. Uetela, Higher Education and Decolonization in Africa, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-38973-3_2

15

16 

P. J. UETELA

Langa, 2013). At least two reasons justify this insufficiency. First is the fact that interests in research on HE as indicated in Chap. 1 commenced outside SSA (see Gumport, 2000; Clark, 1973). The position proposes that both conceptual and empirical literature produced on the theme of HE about Africa are mainly exogenous to SSA. In addition, is the research that refers to Africa but has been produced by non-indigenous SSA scholars. Hence, this study to some extent upgrades the contribution Africa can add to the international pool of literature by bringing about synergies on SSA concerns on universities. Notwithstanding, the thinly existing systematic studies about universities in SSA often focus on local analyses (few individual countries). Consequently, neither regional nor continental research has been dominant despite (Manthalu & Waghid, 2019) having studied regional development of universities with focus for the Southern Africa Development Community (SADC) region. The insufficiency and infancy of HE research in SSA may be confirmed when one analyses the findings of key international studies in the field (see Tight, 2012; Macfarlane & Grant, 2012; Teichler, 2005). A quick look on these international analyses confirms the emergence of HE research, the greater contribution it makes and greater concerns of developing the field for specific geographical locations such as Europe, USA and Australasia, whereas Africa lags behind. There is also a consensus that certain topics shape HE discussions in those dominant regions, whereas Africa is still constructing the arenas of debate. Current development that contributes to the successful experiences in turning HE as a field of studies in the global north rather than south is the growing concern on institutionalizing university programs at both master’s and doctoral level focusing specifically on HE studies with the aim of understanding the meaning of universities (Teichler, 2005: 456). Similar projects and programs are not yet common in Africa. In countries where there is a noticeable interest in the field, the projects are still at initial stage. In SSA, local concerns about HE appear to have been initiated in East Africa (University of Makerere-Uganda precisely) through the establishment of the East African School for Higher Education Studies and Development (EASHESD) in 1979, under the college of Education and External Studies. Despite the progress made by Uganda until this period, there was no mention of another research center in the SSA-dominating literature. The fact once again confirms the context under which marginalization of universities in the global South emanates. The absence of Africa in the global landscape of HE, is also evidenced by Tight’s (2012)

2  THE MEANING OF UNIVERSITY AND ITS PLACE IN AFRICA 

17

classification of 15 major scholarly journals that addressed HE in various perspectives. The findings show that in 2010, for example, none of those paid attention to the African continent either in substance or in form (contents and journals analyzed). Back to the case of Uganda, the focus during the establishment of EASHESD, there is an apparent concern that the scope behind the establishment of the “laboratory” was to inspire conceptual and empirical studies aligning to the shift towards knowledge-based economies. In addition, this drift would revert the demise of universities by showing how they are significant in stimulating knowledgeable solutions. Henceforth, at this school, especial emphasis was given to professions such as administration, leadership and innovation policy. However, this shows that despite the growing debate by some of the global south scholars claiming that universities in Africa have a long history (see Teferra & Altibach, 2004), Makerere tends to be one of the few greatest that launched the project of HE as a field of study. Some current developments in offering a comprehensive view on higher education research have been concentrated in South Africa as it is turning into the hub of HE research at least in the continent. South Africa has invested in both research centers and institutes including programs that research about HE, as many HEIs within the country tend to run courses and institute research centers on the subject. The University of Western Cape, for example, built the Institute for Post-School Studies, which researches and runs both master’s and PhD programs. Other successful experiences in South Africa include the following universities: (i) Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, (ii) The University of South Africa— UNISA, (iii) Tshwane University of Technology, (iv) University of Fort Hare, (v) Cape Peninsula University of Technology, (vi) University of Pretoria, (vii) University of Witwatersrand, (viii) University of KwaZulu Natal, (ix) University of Cape Town, (x) Stellenbosch University, (xii) University of Johannesburg, (xiii) University of Rhodes and (xiv) University of Free State. All these universities have either master’s or PhD programs in Higher Education Studies including research centers that uniquely research about universities. The existence of at least 14 HEIs, added to the master’s and PhD programs, make South Africa the unique hub that influence HE investigation in Africa. Since there is also a growing notion for the need of knowledge production based on research in cross-­ disciplinary cultures that can serve to explain the whole essence of university, there is an emerging debate on this perspective.

18 

P. J. UETELA

The empirical facts that characterize SSA comply with the assumption that there are only two consolidated regional schools that invest on the relevance of universities, one in East Africa (Uganda) and the second in the southern region (South Africa). This latter country runs many master’s and doctoral programs in the field, which suggests an expansion within the global south not only in the number of HEIs but also of the interests in capturing the meaning of such growth from the lens of scholarship. However, in spite of the apparent rapid expansion of HE and initiatives that seek to invest on the importance of universities are both dispersed and uncommon considering they are undertaken by individual scholars (Langa, 2010, 2011; Beverwijk, 2005; Brito, 2003; Mário et  al., 2003). Nevertheless, both categories (i) of schools already instituted and (ii) scanty initiatives across the region consider universities as the main fountains where (a) academic and professional abilities are nurtured through knowledge, (b) future dominant elites are instructed and (c) human capital is consistently empowered in order to foster socio-economic transformation (Uetela, 2017: 15; Castells, 2001: 1). Therefore, universities matter for the global south. The emergence of a new vision of university that struggles for applicability, envisages a drift from the kind of HE that the majority of SSA states inherited and constructed after a long context of marginalization of the nexus universities and their importance. In the next chapters, we will detail how research describes the infancy of the field of HE in the modern HEIs existing across SSA and consequently, the rapid growth of universities as they only coincide with the rise of independence movements in Africa. These movements apart from political independence also addressed the quest of advanced knowledge as essential in informing notions for development especially in the 1960s. Before this regime, universities remained neglected, as they did not exist. In cases where they existed, they served the interests of the west sustaining an apparent irrelevance to the context of the region. The foundations for the emergence of HE in SSA calls upon the theory of conflict/antithesis viewed in Marx’s concept of power as a driving force for transformation and conquest (Giddens, 2008: 10), which sheds light on the hermeneutics of the magnitude at which universities are struggling in order to be accepted as institutions that impact knowledge through research in SSA today. The premier universities that appeared in modern SSA can be both conceptualized and aligned to the results of conflicting powers between

2  THE MEANING OF UNIVERSITY AND ITS PLACE IN AFRICA 

19

European dominant authorities on one hand and divided Africa in categories of Francophone, Anglophones and Lusophones, which is apparently maintained up to date. The case of Eastern Africa University, which integrated Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania by fusing together the university of Tanganyika, university college of Makerere and the university college of Nairobi, outstands as one of the efforts that theoretically initiated the construction of the meaning of universities in SSA in a block of countries and grouped problem solutions. The captioned strategy also occurred in the southern part of Africa precisely between Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland (Bosutoland, Bechuanaland and Swaziland). For the latter case, subsequent to the independence of Botswana and Lesotho in 1966, there was a split with each of the countries owning a unique university (university of Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland), as each state individually attempted to invest relevance on indigenous institutional basis. Lastly, in the central SSA, countries such as the Central African Republic, Gabon, Chad and the Republic of Congo also established a common university known as “The Foundation for Higher Education in Central Africa (FESAC) though currently each of the four nations maintains its own system of higher learning (Uetela, 2017: 53–67). Despite these attempts, research on the meaning of universities remained less reinforced by local policies for long periods. Hence, if the establishment of HE was late in SSA so was the standardized investigation of its applicability. The major units of analyses on how universities are relevant in SSA are inspired by the demise of the entire period that colonization lasted (without HE), as universities were deemed as both meaningless and marginal for the global south. Therefore, the period of modern university is conceptualized as a looming moment on investigations of the applicability of HEIs (cf. Teferra & Altibach, 2004; Cloete et  al., 2011), and current developments, essentially based on relevance, are measured from the perspective of informed knowledge and as outcome of research initiatives are rapidly growing. However, what is the relevance, how has it been defined in SSA and how is it linked to this thing called university?

2.3  Theories on Higher Education in SSA What the book displays above is that HE research is novel in Africa, whereas the establishment of HE is the subject of long debate. Despite the longevity of HE in Africa overall (see Teferra & Altibach, 2004), in the

20 

P. J. UETELA

SSA region, both universities and research on their essence continue an infant debate. Furthermore, the concern about relevance outstands in compliance with the length of such university presence as announced earlier. The empirical overview of current reforms in HE may account for an intensity of imminent legal accreditation frameworks that serve to strengthen universities. The way meaning is measured including the process of how different attributes applied to evaluate such applicability are all deriving forces from the quest that universities are turning into nascent modern and global institutions for Africa, yes, but are struggling to link academia with profession in order to steer and invest on their applicability. The underlying scope behind this appears to maintain the nexus between science and professional skills to indicate how HE is important. The invention of (i) national assessments and prioritization of accreditation and quality assurance are some of the units of analyses applied to show the meaning of universities in the region. There has also been a focus on (ii) regulation of the qualifications for HE, (iii) the necessity for national systems of academic credits and accumulation, (iv) license and regulation of more HEIs, (v) value of national counsels for HE, as some countries initiated implementation of national qualifiers for specific functions of the national counsels of HE quality assessment. All these policy reforms show that (vi) the concept of regulating and inspecting universities’ performance is calling special attention in understanding both meaning and utility. Most of the measures and initiatives that SSA countries embarked on at the inception of their HE systems has led to new directions. Such directions in the region reinforce the conditions under which universities should operate and conform to the global demands based on maximization of further efforts to invest on public quality of the universities that exist (cf. Dil, 2007; Stensaker, 2007, 2011; Barnett, 1992). The pathway for consideration of relevance in HE within the SSA region and some key measures that are in place at this stage is summed up in Table 2.18 below which details the methodology applied to collect and analyze data on how the debate on the whole essence of universities is grounded. The main units of analyses applied are (i) the courses different countries prioritized in order to link professions and academy as new markets and demands awakened, (ii) how they regulated their universities and (iii) addressed the vision of university as the modern institution that instigates socio-cultural transformation through informed knowledge.

2  THE MEANING OF UNIVERSITY AND ITS PLACE IN AFRICA 

21

2.4  Research Methodology The strategy applied to both the collection and analysis of data on the discussion concerning the meaning of universities and how this has emerged and been popularized is essentially based on the literature review and analyses of the major policies that 47 SSA countries adopted since the inception of their HE subsystems. Special focus of interest is concentrated on identifying (i) the main areas of knowledge production that universities defined, (ii) the large-scale shifts in university policy and (iii) future projects that foster university relevance in each state sampled. The criteria for selecting the countries identified were based on existing HE subsystem and efforts to develop a HE subsystem. The other method applied to capture the position of Africa on the colonization versus decolonization debate was defined by five stages. The first step explored the Google platform to identify the main journals that address African HE. Subsequently, there was the elimination of those irrelevant based on the impact factor. Approximately 17 journals comprised the final list applied for analysis. The publications disclosed research findings for a 69-year period from 1950 to 2019. In the third phase, there was a thorough skim of articles per journal selected in order to identify those that mainly focused for Africa and for HE. The identification enabled the selection of the countries and articles that approached the link between universities and labor-market at different categories in order to capture contribution to the industry. In the fourth phase, we built a database of categories based on (i) country researched, (ii) number of articles published, (iii) authors affiliated in the country selected (iv) authors affiliated in other African countries than the country selected, (v) authors that wrote from outside Africa—“global scholars,” (vi) those affiliated in the country selected and in another African country and (vii) those affiliated in the country selected and in another country outside Africa. The last classification served to identify the field researched (topic investigated). For this data, see Tables 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8, 2.9, 2.10, 2.11, 2.12, 2.13, 2.14, 2.15, 2.16, and 2.17. Based on the methodology, the investigation explored the magnitude at which the debate higher education and employability of the graduates has been addressed from the African perspective. Hence, the contribution universities make to the industry was then assessed based on employability. The total number of the articles analyzed in 17 journals was 676 researched by 1179 scholars based in Africa, outside Africa and globally.

22 

P. J. UETELA

Table 2.1  International Journal of African Higher Education Country

Ethiopia Ghana Kenya Lesotho Mauritius Mozambique Senegal S. Africa Uganda Zambia Other countries Totals

No. of articles

Total of authors/ country

Affiliated in the country

Other country than Af.

Outside Africa

Both country and Africa

Country and global

3 2 2 1 1 2 1 8 1 1 3

3 3 2 1 1 4 1 16 1 2 5

2 2 1 1 1 3 1 3 1 2 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 0

1 1 1 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 5

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

25

39

17

4

18

1

0

(see International Journal of African Higher Education)

2.5  Data Collection The data was gathered from two dimensions: (i) identification of the journals and (ii) analyses of the content of the articles as indicated in Tables 2.1–2.17.

2.6  The Landscape of HE Policies in Africa 2.7  Discussion, Findings and Policy Implications Based on Table  2.18, the empirical evidence about the inception and development process of the university and its relevance in SSA suggests at least three main perspectives from which HE evolved. Initially, some countries focused insistently on vocational and teacher training. The second moment is when the domains of knowledge production broadened to cover additional arenas of expertise (especially in the 1980s and 1990s). Lastly, the third moment is the actual and unceasing attempt to link state-­ universities and the market as the last advanced tool that shows university meaning in the region. Such perspectives summed up in the two graphs

2  THE MEANING OF UNIVERSITY AND ITS PLACE IN AFRICA 

23

Table 2.2  Journal of Higher Education in Africa: CODESRIA Country

No. of articles

Total of authors/ country

Affiliated in the country

Other country than Af.

Outside Africa

Both country and Africa

Country and global

3 3 3 7 2 1 1 8 4 17 2 2 10 1 8 46 9 2 9 46

4 3 4 11 2 1 1 10 3 21 2 2 19 1 10 80 13 2 14 59

1 3 1 7 1 1 1 9 2 17 0 0 16 0 6 65 12 2 11 0

0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 0 3 0 0 9 2 0 0 32

3 0 3 1 1 0 0 1 2 3 1 1 0 0 4 6 0 0 3 27

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

184

262

156

52

56

0

0

Algeria Botswana Burkina-Faso Cameron R. Congo I. Coast Egypt Ethiopia Ghana Kenya Morocco Mozambique Nigeria Rwanda Senegal S. Africa Tanzania Tunisia Uganda Africa & Diaspora Totals

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

(See Journal of Higher Education in Africa: CODESRIA)

Table 2.3  South African Journal of Higher Education Country selected

South Africa Totals

No. of articles

Total author/ country

Aff. in the country

In other African country

Outside and Africa

Both country and Africa

Country selected and global

17

32

30

0

0

0

0

17

32

30

0

0

0

0

(See South African Journal of Higher Education)

24 

P. J. UETELA

Table 2.4  Journal of Education Review Country

No. of articles

Total of authors/ country

Affiliated in the country

Other country than Af.

Outside Africa

Both country and Africa

Country and global

Botswana Egypt Eswatini Ethiopia Ghana Kenya Lesotho Malawi Morocco Namibia Nigeria S. Africa Tunisia Uganda Totals

3 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 4 8 47 1 5 78

4 1 2 1 6 2 1 5 1 5 12 83 1 12 136

4 0 1 0 5 0 1 2 1 1 10 82 1 8 116

0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 4 2 0 0 3 13

0 0 0 0 1 1 0 2 0 0 0 1 0 1 6

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

(See Journal of Education Review)

Table 2.5  South Africa Journal of Education Country

No. of Articles

Total of authors/ country

Affiliated in the country

Other country than Af.

Outside Africa

Both country and Africa

Country and global

Nigeria S. Africa Totals

1 8 9

2 9 11

9 7 16

2 0 2

0 0 0

0 0 0

0 0 0

(See South African Journal of Education)

that will follow are of significance for regional understanding. In fact, for the implications the late evolvement of HE in SSA has, Fig. 2.1 prescribes the priorities of SSA universities during the wake of HE and indicates how this was prioritized in the 47 countries’ policy reforms on one side. On the other, Fig. 2.2 captures the actual efforts for the demise of the notion that universities are irrelevant by summarizing the arenas of knowledge generation that maximize university meaning.

2  THE MEANING OF UNIVERSITY AND ITS PLACE IN AFRICA 

25

Table 2.6  Independent Journal of teaching and learning Country

No. of articles

Total of authors/ country

Affiliated in the country

Other country than Af.

Outside Africa

Both country and Africa

Country and global

1 1 16 1 19

0 1 28 2 31

1 0 28 0 0

0 0 0 2 2

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

0 9 0 0 9

Ghana Lesotho S. Africa Zimbabwe Totals

(See Independent Journal of teaching and learning)

Table 2.7  Journal of Higher Education Online Country

No. of articles

Total of authors/ country

Affiliated in the country

Other country than Af.

Outside Africa

Both country and Africa

Country and global

Ghana Kenya S. Africa

2 1 3

1 1 7

1 0 4

0 0 0

0 0 0

0 0 3 authors not found

0 0 0

Totals

6

9

5

0

0

0

(See Journal of Higher Education Online)

From the data, in the SSA region, the concept of modern university and its linkages with relevance implies a range of considerations. Primarily, it is the scanty existence of a kind of a consolidated HE system before the nineteenth century as most of the universities appeared at the wake of national movements for independence. On this account both impact and social relevance of universities are embedded by consistent relationships with the model of university that expanded in the west deriving largely from the English, French and Portuguese characteristics which is maintained in today’s African HE subsystems. As a result, the appearance and investigation of the type of university that today dominates SSA, remains incipient. However, the case of universities privileging knowledge for its own sake in the perspective of Newman (cf. Rothblatt, 1997; Delbanco, 2013) and based on the character of the person was reinvented in SSA. The

26 

P. J. UETELA

Table 2.8  South African Journal of Science S. Africa Totals

10 10

19 19

19 19

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

(See South African Journal of Science)

Table 2.9  Journal of Education as a Change Country

No. of articles

Total of authors/ country

Affiliated in the country

Other country than Af.

Outside Africa

Both country and Africa

Country and global

S. Africa Totals

10 10

16 16

16 16

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

(See Journal of Education as a change)

Table 2.10  African Journal of Health Professional Education Country

Malawi Nigeria S. Africa Tanzania Uganda Zimbabwe Totals

No. of articles

Total of authors/ country

Affiliated in the country

Other country than Af.

Outside Africa

Both country and Africa

Country and global

1 3 31 2 2 1 40

5 11 99 16 7 9 147

0 10 88 13 7 5 123

5 1 5 0 0 3 14

0 0 6 3 0 1 10

0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0

(See African Journal of Health Professional Education)

reinvention was made by maximizing the development of a kind of university in-­out wide perspective with the aim of turning HEIs as (i) places where universal knowledge occurs, (ii) broader concepts of teaching are cultivated and (iii) a variety of learning initiatives that steer public sector happens. The meaning/relevance of university in this sense implies several goods for the case of SSA and sharply contradicts the concern of the western international grounds in the following perspectives.

2  THE MEANING OF UNIVERSITY AND ITS PLACE IN AFRICA 

27

Table 2.11  Journal of African Studies Review Country

Cameron Kenya Nigeria S. Africa Uganda Zimbabwe Totals

No. of articles

Total of authors/ country

Affiliated in the country

Other country than Af.

Outside Africa

Both country and Africa

Country and global

2 3 2 2 1 1 11

3 0 2 2 1 1 9

1 0 1 1 1 0 4

1 2 1 1 0 0 5

1 0 0 0 0 0 1

0 1NG 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0

NG not given

Table 2.12  Makerere Journal of Higher Education Country

Ghana Kenya Malawi Nigeria Rwanda Tanzania Uganda Zimbabwe Others Totals

No. of articles

Total of authors/ country

Affiliated in the country

Other country than Af.

Outside Africa

Both country and Africa

Country and global

2 2 1 25 1 2 44 1 4 82

4 3 1 43 3 2 78 4 8 146

2 1 0 41 0 2 65 4 0 115

0 2 1 2 3 0 8 0 7 23

2 0 0 0 0 0 5-NG 0 1 3

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

(See Journal of African Studies Review)

Whereas in the European context of university the focus was initially in the formation of the character, in the context of SSA, the role of universities remained initially that of training for practical and conceptual skills. Hence, the relevance of most of the universities that emerged across the region privileged not only the instruction of the dominant elites but also the training of citizens for work considering the investment many nations made in the arenas of vocational and teacher training, especially during and immediately after the independence of African states (1960s to 1990s).

28 

P. J. UETELA

Table 2.13  Journal of Students Affairs Country

No. of articles

Total of authors/ country

Affiliated in the country

Other country than Af.

Outside Africa

Both country and Africa

Country and global

Botswana Ethiopia Ghana Kenya Nigeria S. Africa Zimbabwe Others

1 3 1 2 1 29 2 4

2 8 1 3 2 51 4 5

2 5 1 1 2 46 4 0

0 3 0 0 0 0 0 2

0 0 0 2 0 5 0 2

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Totals

43

76

53

2

7

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 not given 0

0

(See Journal of Students Affairs)

Table 2.14  Journal of Perspectives in Education Country

South Africa Zimbabwe Totals

No. of Articles

Total of authors/ country

Affiliated in the country

Other country than Af.

Outside Africa

Both country and Africa

Country and global

49

86

83

0

3

0

0

1 50

1 87

1 84

0 0

0 3

0 0

0 0

(See Journal of Perspectives in Education)

The increasing cultivation of skills for work grew faster in the second stage when SSA broadened the scope of knowledge production and epistemologies, though the main focus remained that of accelerating the linkages of science that universities reproduced with application. It is worth noticing that the meaning of HE not only remained academic, but it consistently entailed integration of professional skills for future occupations. The broadened fields of knowledge generation/epistemologies indicated in Fig. 2.2 complies with this theory, though it best characterizes the third and last position on how the utility of African universities mingled between academic, professional attributes and policy reforms that fostered continuity of universities in the region.

2  THE MEANING OF UNIVERSITY AND ITS PLACE IN AFRICA 

29

Table 2.15  International Journal of Education Research Country

No. of Articles

Total of authors/ country

Affiliated in the country

Other country than Af.

Outside Africa

Both country and Africa

Country and global

Ghana Nigeria Totals

3 10 13

3 19 22

0 0 0

0 0 0

0 0 0

0 0 0

0 0 0

(See International Journal of Education Research)

Table 2.16  Zimbabwean Journal of Education Research Country

Botswana Ghana Kenya Nigeria Zambia Zimbabwe Others Totals

No. of articles

Total of authors/ country

Affiliated. in the country

Other country than Af.

Outside Africa

Both country and Africa

Country and global

1 3 1 8 1 30 1 45

4 6 3 17 1 46 1 78

NG NG NG NG NG NG 1 1

NG NG NG NG NG NG NG 0

NG NG NG NG NG NG NG 0

NG NG NG NG NG NG NG 0

NG NG NG NG NG NG NG 0

(See Zimbabwean Journal of Education Research)

Table 2.17  Global Journal of Education Research Country

No. of articles

Total of authors/ country

Affiliated in the country

Other country than Af.

Outside Africa

Both country and Africa

Country and global

Ghana Nigeria Totals

2 32 34

2 57 59

2 50 52

0 7NG 7-NG

0 7NG 7-NG

0 7NG 7-NG

0 7NG 7-NG

(See Global Journal of Education Research)

30 

P. J. UETELA

Table 2.18  Modern HE in SSA and key policies implemented to ensure relevance in line with region/country needs Countries in Northern Region of SSA

Major policy reforms/changes in HE that ensure relevance

1. Chad

• Embarked on poverty eradication through knowledge maximization with universities playing an essential role in instructing different expertise; • The government of Chad also invests on universities in order to prioritize vocational training

2. Djibouti

3. Eritrea

Future projects

• Aims to terminate political turmoil and implement a stable HE system; • Further priorities are being extended to infrastructure, qualified staff and the link between courses offered and their applicability to the industry. • HE is sharply nascent in the country as it • Aims to expand both only emerged in 2006 with the institution universities and of the university of Djibouti, the unique participation in HE HEI predominantly reported to exist in the country; • Main reforms were undertaken in 2008 concentrating on regulatory frameworks for students’ entry in HE • There is only one university (the • Expand HE and spread university of Asmara in Eritrea) instituted the value universities hold under the Comboni mission during the for socio-economic colonial presence in the country. transformation Additional policy initiatives that invest in university relevance are non-existent (continued)

2  THE MEANING OF UNIVERSITY AND ITS PLACE IN AFRICA 

31

Table 2.18 (continued) Countries in Northern Region of SSA

Major policy reforms/changes in HE that ensure relevance

Future projects

4. Mauritania • HE dates back to 1966. During its • Invests on vocational appearance, it prioritized the domains of training and the role of Administration, Islamic studies and universities for the labor technical education. These institutions market as a means to operated until 1980s when further lessen unemployment; agencies of high learning emerged • Seeks to increase the sites focusing on new fields with emphasis on of technical training. law, economics, arts and humanities; • Since 2000, the number of universities expanded considerably. Furthermore, additional measures have been implemented including regulation of gender balance for participation in HE and regulatory frameworks for universities were introduced. 5. Sudan • Gordon Memorial College is classified as • Increment in research the first HEI established in Sudan initiatives through the between 1945 and 1951, when the availability of funds for British had fully occupied Sudan. At this application stage (of inception of HE), the country prioritized instruction in domains such as arts, sciences, law, agriculture and engineering; • During the 1990s and 2000s, additional reforms were undertaken at both public and private institutions, though political instability has driven the state to shift priorities from funding HE to steer other sectors for security; • Quality assurance and control; mechanisms are seen as the main initiatives that foster relevance. (continued)

32 

P. J. UETELA

Table 2.18 (continued) Countries in Central region of SSA

Major policy reforms/changes in HE that ensure relevance

6. Central African Republic

• HE is post-1960 (the independence period), • Invests more in though the French government previously the professional emphasized instruction of national elites who fields of had settled in the country; knowledge • As part of the consolidating efforts of HE, in the production and 1960s, the Central African Republic undertook constantly further reforms in HE by establishing a common re-structure the university that served Chad, Gabon, Central curricula African Republic and Congo (the Foundation for Higher Education in Central Africa); • Agriculture became the priority course in the Institute of Agriculture through professional instruction of the candidates that would show the function of universities and the contribution they make to the industry; • Professional skills rather than academic were deemed essential. • From its early stage, DRC aimed at building • End political strong institutions of both lower and high turmoil in order learning; to institute a • Government authorities have often urged stable university; universities to deliver abilities that are both • Invests on relevant for the work force and instigate universities on development; the potential • Law amendments and policy reforms strongly that knowledge increased since 1990s with focus on the necessity will aid conflict of reinventing HE followed by the decay specially resolution in the 2000s’ contingency (political and economic crisis which also affected and continue to have influence on universities)

7. Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC)

Future initiatives

(continued)

2  THE MEANING OF UNIVERSITY AND ITS PLACE IN AFRICA 

33

Table 2.18 (continued) Countries in Central region of SSA

Major policy reforms/changes in HE that ensure relevance

8. Congo Brazzaville

• HE dates back to the late 1950s and early 1960s • Linking when three institutions emerged leading to the universities with origin in 1971 of the University of Brazzaville; socio-economic • There were encouragements for universities to transformation focus on teacher training as an index to spread becomes one of knowledge across the country subsequently; the instruments • Brazzaville later on (1970s and 1980s) plunged through which into curricula reforms in order to adjust the relevance can be courses offered within universities with the maximized objectives set to be attained; • Towards the 1990s, under the liberalization politics, the number of HEIs increased considerably with universities accelerating their emphasis on professional fields and skills, practical instruction in business administration agriculture and other relevant fields. • Initially instituted HE in 1961 by adhering to • Future initiatives the Foundation for Higher Education in Central include Africa’s initiative that covered four countries expanding HE, (Gabon, Chad, Congo-DRC and the Central new funding African Republic); mechanisms and • After independence Gabon instituted its own HE governance for system serving as a model for Omar Bongo success university located in the capital city Libreville, though previous to this, the school of water and forests founded in 1953 accounted for the initial attempts to institute HE in the country. At the moment, there are reports of nearly 26 HEIs (both public and private) • New policy reforms are on course to promote control, quality and outcomes.

9. Gabon

Future initiatives

(continued)

34 

P. J. UETELA

Table 2.18 (continued) Western countries of SSA 10. Benin

Major policy reforms/changes in HE that ensure relevance

• Initially re-invented its HE governing structure in 1973, giving high hierarchy to the rector, whereas the ministry of education maintained the role of regulatory agent; • Additional policy changes were implemented subsequently which included provision of equal opportunities to enter HE before launching the establishment of entities that assured quality with focus for (i) national assessments, accreditation and quality assurances, (ii) qualifications for HE, (iii) national systems of academic credits and accumulation, (iv) license and regulation of HEIs and (v) national counsels for HE. These are the main key transforming regulations encountered in the country 11. • Initiated HE in 1961 under French Burkina-­Faso scrutiny • At the beginning, HE focused on teacher training to instigate knowledge generated by universities as fundamental for privileging the spread of science to the majority of nationals; • A national university was instituted in 1972; • A law reform that accredited the insurgence of other HEIs was enacted in 1985; • In 1991, Ouagadougou university inspired the emergence of additional institutions of high learning; • Advanced knowledge research initiatives were employed and dominate the HE system sharply since 1996.

Future initiatives

• Strengthen policies for equity in access; • Introduce local initiatives that fund HE as a means of lessening the role of the state in funding universities; • Launched scholarship initiatives for students from a poor background

• Attempts to show/ measure relevance in terms of linkages between universities and how they influence socio-economic transformation of the country; • Concerns have been addressed for private steering initiatives as public funds have proved to be scarce not only in Burkina-­Faso but everywhere in the region and continent

(continued)

2  THE MEANING OF UNIVERSITY AND ITS PLACE IN AFRICA 

35

Table 2.18 (continued) Western countries of SSA

Major policy reforms/changes in HE that ensure relevance

Future initiatives

12. Cameroon

• Being a federal state Cameroon between 1961 and 1972 has since implemented a dual model of steering universities (i) Federal funds and (ii) State budgets; • Reform laws characterized university changes in Cameroon between 1967 and 1973, concerning the roles of chancellors and rectors in recruiting the teaching staff. The policy illuminated the debate on relevance through the courses that were being offered; • The education ministry served then as the entity that ensured both quality and relevance of HE. • Recently, Cameroon targets expansion of HE sector contributing to a meaningful development and secure high-level human potential by 2030 (Armel & Shizhou, 2022) • HE in Cape Verde Initiated four years after the independence of that country; • There has been a slow investment on universities considering six to ten are mentioned to exist among public and private. The University of Cape Verde outstands; • In the 1990s, and under the liberalization of the market, Cape Verde licensed private universities which continue to grow. • There is no report of legislative reforms in this country prior to independence, which suggests that greater period of the settlement of the British in Gabon, universities might not have been seen as significant institutions; • In the 1990s, the (a) Gambia College and (b) Technical Training Institute were founded with little information on what came after 1998, when the University of Gambia was established.

• Sets new connections between the Universities, State and the Industry as a means to measure the applicability of high learning through economic development

13. Cape Verde

14. Gambia

• Increment of HEIs in order to respond to the local population needs; • Institute a stable HE system that will foster retention of local students and promote sustainable development facilitated by ICTs • Given that HE is only limited to colleges and institutes it turns problematic to envisage the role of universities and the way relevance is accounted to those

(continued)

36 

P. J. UETELA

Table 2.18 (continued) Western countries of SSA

Major policy reforms/changes in HE that ensure relevance

15. Ghana

• Is one of the first states in SSA to establish • Invests on new funding a HE system and institutions. It invested mechanisms in order to in the role of knowledge produced by provide stable grounds of universities for growth since the early university relevance; 1920s. Subsequently, HEIs surged as • Decided to devote empirically evidenced by the rise of the attention in the fields of university college of the Gold Coast in agricultural and 1948 (today University of Ghana) linked polytechnic schools/ to the University of London and many institutes other universities that exist now. • Invests on quality assurance mechanisms and teaching instruction to maintain meaning of universities • The early instituted universities focused • Invests on gender balance on Agronomy, Veterinary, Geology and for HE’s participation; Mining. Universities became state owned • Increases vocational and until the mid-1980s; professional training in • Additional reforms that followed included order to eradicate poverty university autonomy, regulatory • Increases competition mechanisms and (i) the scientific and between universities and technical administration and (ii) the research initiatives commission of HE was introduced to monitor, assess and guarantee accomplishment of the objectives set to be attained by the new policy and reforms. • HE initiated in 1970s and has been • Steer universities in a interrupted by either civil wars or coup strategy that reinforces d’états. In 1999, new initiatives such as peace building government cooperation with other states like Brazil and Portugal in training local talents abroad were invented. This is not only an achievement to the local government but is also a strength for universities which benefit from this labor force after completion of studies and returning to Guinea-Bissau; • Bissau universities privilege/d domains linked to law, medicine and teacher training

16. Guinea

17. Guinea-­ Bissau

Future initiatives

(continued)

2  THE MEANING OF UNIVERSITY AND ITS PLACE IN AFRICA 

37

Table 2.18 (continued) Western countries of SSA

Major policy reforms/changes in HE that ensure relevance

Future initiatives

18. Ivory Coast

• HE is a 1960s event in the country with the premier national school of administration of Ivory Coast only appearing at this period. Subsequently, various other universities, research centers and schools were instituted accounting for nearly 13 tertiary institutions at present; • Sustainability of HE is done through tuition fees, donor support and income generating activities though 95% of the expenses are government supported • Unlike most of the African countries with their systems of universities linked to Europe, the Liberian model is associated with the USA and was initiated in 1862; • During the 1980s and 1990s, most of universities were closed, and it was only in the 2000s that institutions of higher learning re-appeared. Since the latter period (2000), enrolment rates have increased quickly aligned to the establishment of new universities. Further policy regulations are adopted to maintain both meaning and utility. • Reformed HE only after independence prioritizing engineering, teacher instruction and infrastructure, mining and agriculture • In 1971, Niger initiated HE. In the following years (1980s), reforms for autonomy of universities and accreditation mechanisms were established. Both HEIs and student enrollments are rapidly expanding in the country.

• Invests in teacher quality education, vocational training and relevance of universities is assessed by the magnitude of progress they influence in the country

19. Liberia

20. Mali

21. Niger

• Institutes a strong and stable university after long-interrupting moment due to political instability that apparently led to university irrelevance

• Invests more on infrastructure vocational training and technical education • Seeks to introduce further regulation measures in order to retain university applicability; • Emphasis is also given to boosting both vocational and technical training (continued)

38 

P. J. UETELA

Table 2.18 (continued) Western countries of SSA

Major policy reforms/changes in HE that ensure relevance

Future initiatives

22. Nigeria

• Nigeria is one of the few federal states in Africa with its HE initiatives drawing back to the 1959 under the guidance of the new mission that was looming, • In 1977, reforms of greater magnitude commenced with focus on the abolition of tuition fees for undergraduation. As a result of some of these policy transformations, both student enrolments and universities (either federal or state universities) have expanded rapidly, especially after 2005. In addition, public universities are predominant in Nigeria as opposed to some African countries where private high learning has monopolized the market at least in terms of quantity (Eg. The case of Mozambique). • Universities in São Tomé are new and are still emerging. The São Tomé University was instituted in 2014 and the education law regulates the two universities that are reported to exist. • Universities in Senegal commenced when the university of Dakar was founded in 1957; subsequently in the 1980s and 1990s, polytechnic institutes and other agencies were created leading to considerable numbers of enrollments and the obligation to regulate HE • Was one of the first countries to institute HE in SSA in 1814 under the British system of education. Prior to this era, more universities and colleges appeared, especially in the late 1980s and 1990s. Added regulatory mechanisms appeared as the main instruments of valuing universities; • Sierra Leone implements funding mechanisms with focus on donor support, student fees and income-generating activities.

• Nigeria invests in regulatory mechanisms of universities and attempts to link both vocational and technical skills generated within higher education with the needs of the industry.

23. São Tomé Principe

24. Senegal

25. Sierra Leone

• Increase both universities and participation in HE

• Links the skills nurtured by universities with the market needs

• Sierra Leone seeks to strengthen infrastructure and assure relevance of universities across the country.

(continued)

2  THE MEANING OF UNIVERSITY AND ITS PLACE IN AFRICA 

39

Table 2.18 (continued) Western countries of SSA

Major policy reforms/changes in HE that ensure relevance

Future initiatives

26. Togo

• The first attempt to establish HE in the country was a joint initiative between Togo and Benin, though in 1970 Togo established a university of its own. After this period, Togo emphasized instruction of graduates in fields of law, science and medicine especially at the university of Lome; • New major reforms include accreditation, policy change and adoption of quality assurance initiatives

• Expand HE and prioritize vocational training skills

Central Region of SSA Countries

Major policy reforms/changes in HE that ensure relevance

Future initiatives

27. Burundi • On the inception of its HE, Burundi privileged professionalization of the graduates with focus on agriculture, commerce, planning and development, a policy that guided the university of Bujumbura (UOB) in 1964, and subsequently with other universities that appeared; • In the 1980s, there were policy reforms alluding to accreditation and licensing of more universities; • From 1989, the University of Burundi has turned into one of the role models for policy reforms and innovations in Eastern Africa. 28. • Few reforms are reported to have existed Comores in this country and universities maintained Irelands since the early moments of institutionalization an investment in the fields of teaching, agriculture, medicine and administration.

• Invests on constructive alignment measures that consider linkages between universities and the market/industry

• The main challenge rests upon expanding both institutions and access to higher education

(continued)

40 

P. J. UETELA

Table 2.18 (continued) Central Region of SSA Countries

Major policy reforms/changes in HE that ensure relevance

Future initiatives

29. Ethiopia • HE in Ethiopia emerged in the 1950s, • Targets to build capacity though vital policy reforms strongly that will influence vital commenced in 1996, when regulatory sectors such as health, mechanisms were initiated including (i) economy and higher national assessments, accreditation and education through quality assurances, (ii) qualifications for learning; HE, (iii) national systems of academic • Makes a constructive credits and accumulation, (iv) license and alignment between regulation of HEIs and (v) national curricula and the needs of counsels for HE; the industry. • In 2003, Ethiopia went further reforming universities for acquisition of more autonomy, new means of funding prompted by the insufficiency of the state and implemented the strategic center for HE in order to invest on further policy reforms in HE. 30. Kenya • HE emerged in 1956 under the • Turn universities as consortium between Kenya, Uganda and essential for poverty Tanzania at Technical College of East eradication and generate Africa. skills that are core for the • In 1961, a national system of universities industry. was instituted under the creation of today university of Nairobi in 1963. After this period, both universities and student enrollments increased considerably; • The main goal with the reforms that Kenya undertook aimed at linking education training with poverty eradication and to make universities as a key priority for investment. (continued)

2  THE MEANING OF UNIVERSITY AND ITS PLACE IN AFRICA 

41

Table 2.18 (continued) Central Region of SSA Countries

Major policy reforms/changes in HE that ensure relevance

Future initiatives

31. Rwanda

• Universities in Rwanda appear to be new institutions considering that the first one (the university of Rwanda was established in 2013), despite previous existence of schools and colleges across the country; • Rwanda invests on vocational and technical training as the main measures to assure relevance of its HEIs; • Recently it has extended the scope to instituting research centers, consultancies and other related programs that investigate university applicability. • When HE was initiated, Somalia addressed specific arenas of knowledge (law, economics and social studies). In 1969, nationalization of public institutions occurred, though political turmoil has devastated the economy and universities became affected. • Uganda has been one of the successful countries in terms of establishing research centers for HE policy and innovation. The University of Makerere is an inspiring example of a model of instituting reforms that increments the scope of debate about high learning in the continent.

• Aims at investing on knowledge skills that are significant to the labor market

32. Somalia

33. Uganda

• Aims at expanding universities after long periods of constant conflicts and dysfunction of the state.

Uganda seeks to consubstantiate the link between universities and economic development

(continued)

42 

P. J. UETELA

Table 2.18 (continued) Central Region of SSA Countries

Major policy reforms/changes in HE that ensure relevance

34. Tanzania • Tanzania has been an inspiring country in terms of university establishment and political assistance to the neighboring states. After the split with today university of Makerere and Nairobi (cf. the consortium for the creation of the University of East Africa), the University of Dar-Es-Salam appeared in 1971; • Subsequently, the number of HEIs surged sharply and an estimated 11 HEIs were founded between 1971 and 2013. In addition, both regulatory and quality assurance mechanisms were set during this historical period.

Future initiatives

Tanzania seeks to ensure relevance of universities by addressing both the arenas of knowledge production and skills that are essential for the market

Southern Region Major policy reforms/changes in HE that of SSA ensure relevance Countries

Future initiatives

35. Angola

• Increasing access to HE; • Adoption of new/ alternative means of funding universities

36. Botswana

• Invests in regulation reforms that assure autonomy of universities mainly since 1995; • There has been a sharp minimization of control over universities from the state authorities and a quick rise of both private and public institutions under decree 3/93, which accounted for restructuring academic degrees. • Slight legislative reforms are considered to have been emphasized in Botswana HE; • The government has often prompted to steer universities; • Encouragement of teacher and vocational training is increasingly emphasized.

• Confer more autonomy to universities; • Constantly adjusting curricula in order to respond to the population needs (continued)

2  THE MEANING OF UNIVERSITY AND ITS PLACE IN AFRICA 

43

Table 2.18 (continued) Southern Region Major policy reforms/changes in HE that of SSA ensure relevance Countries 37. Lesotho

38. Madagascar

39. Malawi

Future initiatives

• Lesotho initiated a system of HE in • Invests more on 1945, and after independence, adopted technical and vocational indigenous regulations to expand both training universities and participation; • Distance learning and cooperation with South African universities are some of the measures undertaken by this country in order to quickly strengthen universities; • HE which initiated in the 1940s gained a • Strengthen the links novel structure in the 1950s and in the between universities years that followed through prioritization and the labor market of the fields of law, sciences and arts; • Since the 1990s, Madagascar accelerated measures for the balance between teaching and administration and further reforms for planning within universities were introduced; • Current reforms in Madagascar’s HE system include a recurrent identification of the main problems that affect the country and in compliance with those steer universities to generate knowledge and skills that are relevant. • Malawian reforms in HE commenced in • Invests on quality of 1963 when the University of Malawi was universities by showing instituted; the link between access • In 1985, Malawi introduced cost sharing to knowledge and to address the conflict expenses versus eradication of poverty. maintenance of continuity of HEIs; • From 2000, the Malawian HE was mingled in a crisis which affected funding of research initiatives and raised awareness on reinventing indexes that assess relevance. (continued)

44 

P. J. UETELA

Table 2.18 (continued) Southern Region Major policy reforms/changes in HE that of SSA ensure relevance Countries 40. Mauritius

41. Mozambique

Future initiatives

• HE is a 1965 case (establishment of the • Expand higher university of Mauritius) after a period of education and turn existence of the schools of administration, gender balance in access agriculture and industrial technology; to higher education as • Later on, Mauritius created schools priority aligned to the domains of medical research, distance learning, information and technology. Here we mention the programs that were considered as priority • In 1962, Mozambique initiated a system • Attempts to establish of HE and prioritized knowledge to strong and stable instruct the elites of the country; networks between • In 1976, the unique national university universities, the state that existed was transformed into and the market; Eduardo Mondlane University (UEM) • Improve both technical and extended to the mid-1990s, together and professional skills with ISRI (high institute of international necessary for the labor relations) and UP (Pedagogical market University), a moment followed by liberalization and resurgence of private HE; • Changing policies that subsequently appeared (in the 2000s) included provision of equal opportunities to enter HE and the country went further instituting entities that assured meaning with focus on (i) national assessments, accreditation and quality assurances, (ii) qualifications for HE, (iii) national systems of academic credits and accumulation, (iv) license and regulation of HEIs and (v) national counsels for HE; • HE in Mozambique is expanding rapidly. (continued)

2  THE MEANING OF UNIVERSITY AND ITS PLACE IN AFRICA 

45

Table 2.18 (continued) Southern Region Major policy reforms/changes in HE that of SSA ensure relevance Countries 42. Namibia

43. Seychelles

44. S. Africa

Future initiatives

• HE is a 1980 concept in the country • Invests on steering when Technikon of Namibia and the mechanisms of College for school training were created; universities in order to • Subsequent to independence in 1990, assure their relevance to additional key transformations indulged society in the Namibian HE extending to the creation of Namibia Department of Higher Education Affairs in 1993, which fostered the accreditation frameworks of universities. • HE in Seychelles is least reported and • To introduce HEIs on there have been concerns of Chinese indigenous context that influence and other international agencies contribute for (UNESCO and UNICEF) in funding socio-­economic Seychelles’ HE. transformation. • HE in South Africa is considered as the • The challenge for South strongest in the entire SSA with many Africa rests upon universities leading the table of ranking increasing participation and the main programs related to higher especially in universities education at the master’s and PhD level that remained segregate as indicated before (see Universities of for a long period Cape Town, Stellenbosch, Witwatersrand, (especially during the KwaZulu Natal, Western Cape). The case apartheid regime) of South Africa, complies to the explanation of the parallel between economy, investment on universities and the role they play on development; • The rise of universities in South Africa goes back to 1916 through till the 1990s, HEIs that existed in South Africa remained elitized overall. • Major reforms progressed in 1990s with focus on accountability, inclusion, regulatory frameworks and other relevant/related access policies. (continued)

46 

P. J. UETELA

Table 2.18 (continued) Southern Region Major policy reforms/changes in HE that of SSA ensure relevance Countries 45. Swaziland

46. Zambia

47. Zimbabwe

Future initiatives

• There have been several transformations • Links skills that are in the actual Eswatini HE. Emerging in generated by the early 1960s, the initial focus was on universities to the labor teacher training; market • In the 1980s, the first initiatives for policy regulations, governance and expansion were considered and subsequent adjustments to this measure occurred as HE continued to expand. • Zambia embarked on introducing HE in • Future initiatives rest 1964 when the university of Zambia upon increasing the started to operate. In the 1980s, number of HEIs and regulatory frameworks for sharing costs minimizing tuition fees of high learning between students and in order to integrate the the state were implemented and majority of applicants additional rules related to accreditation of and prove relevance of institutions, quality assurance and universities university counsels followed subsequently. HE transformation in Zambia prevails until now (moment of research). • There have been few reforms in the • Revitalize universities Zimbabwean HE before and after 1957, after the political crisis the moment when the institutionalization that demanded new of the university college of Rhodesia models of HEIs occurred. When the university of Zimbabwe started operating, the main arenas of focus became agriculture, commerce and law; • Since the 2000s, political instability affected universities leading to brain drain, decreasing enrolments and inability of the state to invest on universities.

Source: Adapted from Varela (2017: 55–73), Uetela (2017: 50–93), Assie-Lumumba (2016) and Bloom et al. (2006)

1. Countries that invested in Educational Training (38)

2  THE MEANING OF UNIVERSITY AND ITS PLACE IN AFRICA 

40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

1

2

3

4

47

5

2. Countries that invested in vocational and Professional Training (9)

Fig. 2.1  Summary of courses/areas of knowledge production that initially fostered relevance of universities in SSA during and immediately after the inception of universities based on Table 2.18 findings. Source: Hermeneutics of SSA inception of universities: Table 2.1

20

9 10

0

10 4

8

9

16 7

Fig. 2.2  Areas of knowledge production that shape/d SSA HE after independence and currently. Source: Critical hermeneutics of SSA HE education

48 

P. J. UETELA

Third and lastly, as part of reinvesting the meaning of universities, there is a new trend of epistemologies/models of knowledge generation that dawn within a triple-inter-relation concept (teaching-research and market) within the main fields of knowledge generation as summed in Fig.  2.2 again. This trend remains novel and contradictory to the initial stem of HEIs conceptualized in the region. The novel feature, which appears to derive from the necessity of standardization with the global landscape of universities, is significant in a sense that it places SSA institutions competing with their counterparts in the international context on one hand. On the other, it confirms the new vision of universities as places where universal knowledge necessary for the integration of the human kind in society is cultivated, a position which increases their role for both development and response to the initial quest of what is the function of universities and whether they are relevant. From this research, future policy measures need to be undertaken. These are to lead to revitalization and empowerment of vocational and professional university. A position which will result in a combination of theoretical and practical knowledge outstanding as the future index that will continue defining the relevance and essence of universities in the context of the SSA region.

References Armel, N. D., & Shizhou, L. (2022). The evolving role of higher education in national development plans in Cameroon: Focus on the period 2000-2030. International Journal of Science and Research, 11(5). Assie-Lumumba, N. (2016). Higher education in Africa: Crises, reforms and transformation. Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa, 2005. Retrieved July 1, 2016, from https://www.codesria.org.pdf Barnett, R. (1992). Improving higher education: Total quality care. Society for Research into Higher Education and Open University Press. Beverwijk, J. (2005). The genesis of a system: A coalition formation in Mozambican Higher Education, 1993-2003. CHEPS/University of Twente. Bloom, D., Canning, D., & Chan, K. (2006). Higher education and economic development in Africa. Human development sector. Harvard University Press. Brito, L. (2003). The Mozambican experience in initiating and sustaining tertiary education reform. In Paper presented at Africa regional training conference on improving tertiary education in Sub-Saharan Africa: Things that work! Castells, M. (2001). Universities as dynamic systems of contradictory functions. In J.  Muller et  al. (Eds.), Knowledge production and contradictory functions in higher education. African Minds.

2  THE MEANING OF UNIVERSITY AND ITS PLACE IN AFRICA 

49

Clark, B. (1973). Development of sociology of higher education. In P. Gumport (Ed.), Sociology of higher education: Contributions and their contexts (pp. 3–17). The Johns Hopkins University Press. Cloete, N., et al. (2011). Universities and economic development in Africa. Chet Publications. Delbanco, A. (2013). College: What it was, is and should be (pp. 1–27). Princeton University Press. Dil, D. (2007). Will market competition assure academic quality? An analysis of the UK and US experience. In D. F. Westerheijden, B. Stensaker, & M. J. Rosa (Eds.), Quality assurance in HE. Trends in regulations and transformation (Vol. 26, pp. 47–73). Springer. Retrieved from http://www.springerlink.com/content/p527170r71068v5m/ Giddens, A. (2008). Sociologia (8a edn). Polity press. Tradução de Alexandre Figueiredo, Ana Patrícia Duarte Baltazar, Catarina Lorga da Silva, Patricia. Matos e Vasco Gil-coordenação e revisão científica de José Manuel Sobral. Gumport, P. (2000). Sociology of higher education an evolving field. In P. Gumport (Ed.), Sociology of higher education: Contributions and their contexts (pp. 17–50). The Johns Hopkins University Press. Langa, P. (2010). Poverty fighters in academia: The Subversion of the notion of socially engaged science in Mozambican higher education. In M.  Burawoy, M.-K. Chang, & M. Fei-yu Hsieh (Eds.), Facing an unequal world: Challenges for a global sociology (pp. 245–267). International Sociological Association and Academia Sinica. Langa, P. (2011). The significance of Bourdieu’s concept of cultural capital in analyzing the field of higher education in Mozambique. International Journal of Contemporary Sociology, 48(1), 93–116. Langa, P. (2013). Higher education in Portuguese speaking countries. A five country baseline study. African Minds. Macfarlane, B., & Grant, B. (2012). The growth of higher education studies: from forerunners to pathtakers. Higher Education Research & Development, 31(5), 621–624. https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2012.719283 Manthalu, C. H., & Waghid, Y. (2019). Education for decoloniality and decolonization in Africa. Palgrave Macmillan. Mário, M., Fry, P., Levey, L.  A., & Chilundo, A. (2003). Higher education in Mozambique. James Curry. Rothblatt, S. (1997). The modern university and its discontents. The fate of Newman’s legacies in Britain and America (pp.  1–50). Cambridge University Press. Stensaker, B. (2007). Quality as fashion: Exploring the translation of a management idea into higher education. In D. F. Westerheijden, B. Stensakerand, & M. J. Rosa (Eds.), Quality assurance in higher education. Trends in regulations, translation and transformation (pp. 99–119). Springer.

50 

P. J. UETELA

Stensaker, B. (2011). Accreditation of HE in Europe-moving towards the US model? Journal of Education Policy, 26(6), 757–769. Teferra, D., & Altibach, P. (2004). African higher education: Challenges for the 21st century. Journal of Higher Education, 42, 21–50. Teichler, U. (2005). Research on higher education in Europe. European Journal of Higher Education, 40(4), 447–469. Tight, M. (2012). Levels of analysis in higher education research. Tertiary Education and Management, 18(3), 271–288. Uetela, P. (2017). Higher education and development in Africa. Palgrave Macmillan. Varela, B. (2017). Regulação e avaliação da qualidade do ensino em Cabo Verde. Contributo da cooperação brasileira. In J.  Freire, B.  Varela, J.  Pacheco, & M. G. Baptista (Eds.), Educação Superior, Desenvolvimento e Cooperação Sul-Sul (pp. 55–73). Edições Uni-CV.

CHAPTER 3

The Role of Higher Education in Nurturing Labor-Market in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA)

3.1   Introduction This Chapter embarks on investigating the interconnection between universities and employability as a means of addressing the contribution knowledge domains make for African industry with focus for SSA. It stems from the inquiry on the shifting dynamics that shape (d) higher education in the region, and it maps the discussion on universities, graduates and the labor-market nexus.

3.2  The Role of Universities As indicated in Chaps. 1 and 2, the inception and development of HE studies as a field of research in the 1980s increasingly instigated debates on key agendas that needed scholarly explanation. Since then, the classics of the domain (see Clark, 1983) advocated the necessity of researching HE subsystems as academic organizations that can be explained in cross-­national perspectives. Other proponents of HE who advanced the scope of debate about the field, include Castells (2001) who described universities as institutional sub-systems that contain contradictory functions. Recently, Teichler (2005) and Tight (2012) enlarged the scope of discussion by mapping the evolution of HE research with focus for key thematic areas that are explored aligned to the growing interests of the experts in the terrain of HE. There is at least a fourfold dimension of critics to the above approach. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 P. J. Uetela, Higher Education and Decolonization in Africa, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-38973-3_3

51

52 

P. J. UETELA

Firstly, the underpinning concerns on HE research as we know today both evolved and developed in the context of the advanced world (Zavale & Langa, 2018: 1) rather than on the least advanced where SSA is located. Based on this categorization, the place of the African continent is marginalized and under-researched even though the emergence of the concept “forms of universities” is attributed to this latter region (see, Teferra & Altbach, 2004: 21–50) “universities in Africa are as old as the pyramid of Egypt.” Uetela (2017: 15, 2019: 28–44) have similarly incremented the debate on universities in Africa in line with Teferra and Altbach (2004) by arguing that some research centers existing on the continent especially Ez-Zitouna Madrassa in Tunis (732  AD), Karaounine of Fez (859) and Al-Azhar (970) were instituted before the European hubs “Bologna, Paris or Oxford” prospered. Secondly, the research topics, which consequently erupted about the meaning of universities, appear to have been acquainted with the contradictions between developed and undeveloped world debate on the origin of universities. Based on these foundations, investigating the linkages between universities and labor-market in a holistic perspective entails a novel approach that is beyond geographical locations. Specifically, the investigation of the contribution universities make to the industry in Africa implies underpinning historical perspectives that marginalized research agendas. Even though both research and public debates have considerably advocated for a necessary connection between universities and work, empirical evidence has contradicted this approach. Hunter et al. (1981) show how the demise of such interconnectedness between HE and labor-market at times depends on the stages at which universities and employability occur. The key argument is that (i) some graduates enroll at university while working. Therefore, HE does not implicitly guarantee them jobs. Instead, universities nurture the skills that become indispensable for productivity in the workplace. It is also undeniable that (ii) other graduates seek jobs while in university and (iii) for some after university, the priority becomes the upgrading of their knowledge. Under this reason, Castells (2001) explained the role of university as not solely justified by the direct labor-­ market interconnectedness but instead by other functions (i) production of knowledge, (ii) transmission of knowledge and (iii) maximization of the human capital. Thirdly, the global debate has often prescribed African universities as outlets that neither generate skills that are relevant for society nor are

3  THE ROLE OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN NURTURING LABOR-MARKET… 

53

channels for the development of the continent (see Bloom et al., 2006). Thus, even though Zavale and Langa (2018), Teferra and Altbach (2004) would feature as advocates of the African legacy of universities, the propelling dominium of world journals that capture the developed countries’ data puts Africa behind. Lastly, there are growing concerns on the revitalization of African HE as a means of contesting the propelled domination of the developed world dependency. However, systematic research in Africa seems to be lacking. Furthermore, upgrading the contribution universities should make for development especially through linkages between HEIs and industry, instead of being a dividing debate, still lacks empirical scholarship for SSA. Based on literature review that captures the spectrum of employability of the graduates as an emerging research theme, this section captures the diversity of university functions to society with focus for graduates, university and industry linkages. It is oriented by the following questions; how has African scholarship addressed the connection between universities and industry? What are the levels of approach privileged by each country in investigating the link between graduates, employment and economy? What has been the contribution of universities to the labor-market in Africa and SSA particularly? These research questions enable filling the gap between existing knowledge based on research dominated by the developed world with the few studies debating Africa. Subsequently, specific data ascribing to the SSA landscape will be presented before discussion and concluding remarks. In spite of the increasing interests in researching HE in Africa because of the rapid growth of the field, the review of literature as a method captures the speed at which African countries are undertaking scholarship is least (Zavale & Langa, 2018: 1–49). The argument is supported by evidence on bibliometric review of literature as shown previously. In addition, the growing public and research debate delinks universities from employment, which grows faster in developed rather than in developing economies.

3.3  Discussion of Results Higher education research is emerging in Africa as it counts an approximate of 17 pool of journals that only debate about high learning and universities as indicated in Chap. 2. Furthermore, the level of debate about HE, labor-market and industry linkages is still at low stage in the region

54 

P. J. UETELA

analyzed as evidenced by the findings and data presented. The 17 journals analyzed in Chap. 2 of this book account for at least three categories of countries from which the role of universities is mingled in SSA. First are those nations which do not feature in the debate either of HE as a field of research or of universities as institutions that interconnect with the industry based on the skills that its participants acquire. Note that we only focus on existing journals that are specialized in African HE. Second are those that have increasingly invested in the arena of HE emphasizing a complexity of research topics that are by far not integrating either employability and industry linkages or unemployment concerns. From the articles analyzed, various SSA countries embarked on individual agendas of research. Last are few countries that even though are included in the second category are unique in the sense that they went further investing in both wider and specific range of themes that characterize HE research. Within the latter countries, there are various strategies adopted to intensify the discussion on the link university-labor market-industry. The way such interconnection is made varies from one perspective (see the case of Ethiopia) to seven diversified sets of explorations of university skills and their contribution to the industry investment (see South Africa). The case of South Africa, accounts for this highest degree of application as Fig. 3.1 sums up the placement of the countries that in SSA have carried research at different levels of interlinking universities with the labor market, which nurture the growth of the economy. Based on the articles, journals and countries selected for the study, there is a diversity of research topics from where the link between universities and labor-market is framed. Firstly, Cameroon for example, prioritized tracing studies to address the interconnectedness between universities and the labor market. Precisely the country has been engaged in understanding the usefulness of engineers to the economy considering that this was the unique study encountered addressing the concept of employability in connection to universities in the 17 journals analyzed. In Ethiopia, the magnitude of debate is at the same level as Cameroon (4%), since only one research met the criterion defined in the methodology for the journals surveyed addressing employability. However, there are some distinctions between the two countries. Contrary to Cameroon, Ethiopia, does not specify the analysis behind employability. Whether employability and contribution to the labor markets is a problem that shapes both research and public debate either as a result of the failure of universities in producing skills that are relevant to the economy or it is

3  THE ROLE OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN NURTURING LABOR-MARKET… 

Other C 9% Cameroon Ethiopia

Uganda 14%

Ghana

55

Cameroon Ethiopia 4% 4% Ghana 5% Kenya 14%

Kenya Nigeria S. Africa Uganda Other C

S. Africa 32%

Nigeria 18%

Fig. 3.1  Levels of approach and countries that focused on employability & industry linkages (cf. Countries researched)

simply due to the decline of the power of the state and industry in assuring job opportunities. At a sharply equal level as Cameroon and Ethiopia is Ghana at 5% efforts to understand the function of the labor market as interdependent with the contribution of universities. Research findings from Ghana have investigated the topic “graduates’ unemployment” as emanating from the shifting trends in the field, especially in 1990s, when liberalization led to surging graduation rates and compromised the interconnection between HE and direct contribution to the industry. In Kenya, at least three categories are applied in the investigation of linkages between HE and labor-market through (i) tracey studies for assessment of universities (ii) the causes of unemployability and (iii) what does life look like after school for the participants. At the same level as Kenya, 14% of efforts is found in Uganda with focus on the commitments undertaken by employers in order to show how their assessments foster interdependence between the labor market and HE. Uganda also researches on graduates’ vocational skills and indicates the role they play in nurturing the industry. Graduates at different degrees are classified with distinctive notions of knowledge that turn into necessary instrument to feed the industry and then account for the relevance of universities.

56 

P. J. UETELA

In Nigeria, the understanding of the challenges shaping universities and the industry is framed through the analyses of the implications of population growth and expansion of universities in a disproportional landscape. Nigeria also conceptualizes the relation between career guidance and success in employability as indexes that measure HE and labor market extending to entrepreneurship as a new model of employability that transfer skills to the industry. Researchers about Nigerian education perceive the maximization of technical-vocational skills as a guarantee for work and HE versus market debate is at 18% of the total share that deemed employability and labor-force as a topic that merits attention. Among all SSA countries that have made efforts to research the link between graduates’ employability and contribution to the industry, South Africa overtakes by far Cameroon, Ethiopia, Ghana, Uganda, Kenya and Nigeria contributing by 32% to the debate. South Africa emphasizes on (i) graduates employability skills (ii) doctorates and work place demands, (iii) transition from HE to work, (iv) students and future work, (v) competence and employability, (vi) HE and employability and (vii) unemployment and failure of universities. The case of South Africa shows that whereas the relationship between universities and labor-market is under-­ researched in the region, here instead, researchers have addressed the topic at least in seven diversified formats of investigation. Lastly, the link between HE, employability and contribution to the industry is also undertaken at global level, influenced by a sharply growing interest about SSA. As the data illustrates, 9% of the discussion ascribing graduates’ contribution to the labor force focused on the region as a whole and is denominated as “others.” Thus, the categories of analyses under this classification centered on how learning in engineering occurs and in which ways that interrelates with graduates’ employability. The results of the research confirm that various SSA countries have put in efforts in understanding emerging topics of HE at various and different degrees of analyses. As a matter of fact, the complexity of focus for the region in the countries selected is explained by eight indexes, namely the (i) number of articles published per country, (ii) number of authors that participate in research, (iii) their affiliation in the country researched, (iv) in other country in Africa than that researched, (v) outside Africa, (vi) with double affiliation (one in country researched and the second in other African country), (vii) from country researched and other outside Africa and (viii) those that wrote from outside Africa as indicated in overall perspectives in Fig. 3.2.

3  THE ROLE OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN NURTURING LABOR-MARKET… 

57

600 500 400

S. Africa Tanzania Tunisia Uganda Zambia Zimbabw Others

Egypt Eswatini Ethiopia Ghana Kenya Lesotho Malawi Morocco Mozamb Namibia Nigeria Rwanda Senegal Seychelles

I. Coast

Botswan Burkina F Camer DRC

Algeria

300

Articles

Tot authors/C

Affl. In Count

Other C. than Af.

Outside Af

Both count and Africa

Africa and Global

Fig. 3.2  Placement of countries (cf. the countries researched)

The findings show that approximately 30 SSA countries have now embarked on the debate about the role of universities, though at different levels. Figure  3.2 describes the status quo of the countries that focused either on the linkages between universities and labor market or at a wider range of research topics. The efforts undertaken by each country evidenced in terms of visibility of those states that emerged in research, enables at first glance the placement of countries in compliance with the degree of performance. South Africa, Nigeria, Uganda, Ethiopia, Ghana Zimbabwe and “others” again dominate. The fact that South Africa remains the hub of higher education research is undeniable considering its ranking shown as the highest level. However, the findings highlighted also indicate that the understanding of the role of universities including the way they empower the labor market are still insignificant in the majority of countries surveyed. Specifically, individual countries efforts are represented by the findings evidenced in the journals. The categorization of the visibility of each journal in compliance to its contribution is prescribed in Fig. 3.3. Figure 3.3 accounts for both visibility and degree of impact of the 17 journals covered in the study with only nine featuring most. These highlighted publications overcome others by far as to the total number of articles they published, number of researchers and affiliation in the countries scholars undertook their investigations. The Journal of HE in Africa, for example, outstands as having more scholars from other African countries

58 

P. J. UETELA

300 Articles

200

authors

Global Journal of Education Research

Zimbabwean Journal of Education…

International Journal of education…

Journal of Perspectives in Education

Journal of Students Affairs

Makerere Journal of Higher…

African Journal of Health…

Journal of African Studies Review

South African Journal of Science

Journal of Education as a Change

Independent Journal of teaching…

Journal of Higher Education Online

South Africa Journal of Education

Journal of Education Review

Journal of Higher Education in…

South African Journal of Higher…

0

International Journal of African…

100

Aff. In the countries researched In other african countries Outside and Africa Both country researched and other African

Fig. 3.3  Approaches to employability in countries selected (cf. the Journals searched)

than those investigated when compared to the Journals of Education Review and Students Affairs. These results suggest that in SSA there is a growing concern of researchers interested in investigating national levels of HE as compared to either global or continental. In fact, from 1179 authors that contributed in the 17 journals with 676 articles, 835 were affiliated to African institutions, whereas only 11 are categorized as global researchers, that is, they investigate African Higher Education while based outside the continent and had no past connections with the region. The latter statistics can justify lack of presence of African HE research in the global context initially described as underrepresented when compared to the first world. For the above description, see Fig. 3.4. The results confirm that in the SSA region, the dawn of HEIs was conceived as a direct connection to the labor market considering universities prepared skills for engagement in politics, governance and administration of the main sectors of the economy (Mugabushaka et al., 2003: 57, 77). Furthermore, universities were seen as places where professions are conceived and the foundations for upgrading the economy of any country and productivity were built (Roizen & Jepson, 1985: 44). Under this theory (see Bose et al., 1983), the outcomes of training graduates were seen as indispensably utilized in industry, and Hunter et  al. (1981)

3  THE ROLE OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN NURTURING LABOR-MARKET… 

59

1179

1200

835

676

1000 800

117

104

11

1

Series1 ive n tg

ch er s

ry

Gl

ob

al

an ch ed

re se ar

no

d

ot

Af d an e

ts id Ou

re se ar

he r..

ric a

rie s nt co u

ca n

ot

he ra

fri

es ea r

th

co u

nt

In

Bo

Af

f.

In

th

e

co u

nt

rie sr

au

Ar

th

or

ch ed

s

tic le s

.

600

109

Fig. 3.4  Explanation of the eight categories applied to analyze the articles (cf. research landscape of the journals)

conceptualized universities as institutions that generate the manpower for the labor force. However, the rapid expansion of universities and population entering HE led to the demise about the interconnection between transitions from university to employability. Hence, in the context researched by Hunter et al. (1981), universities were urged for a cautious production of skills that often needed to be absorptive to the market. As for the specific context researched in this section, the shifting trends characterizing HE included (i) population growth, (ii) expansion of universities, (iii) increasing population of graduates, (iv) changing discourses with regards to universities, (v) the mismatch between public perception of universities versus scholarly and (vi) imbalance between the fields from where skills are generated (see Sanyal & El-Sammani, 1979 who have incremented the debate on universities’ role). In addition, drifts of employer requirements (expectations) for the graduates also accelerated the connectivity between HE and industry (Roizen & Jepson, 1985: 98). Despite these conflicting and contradictory debates, the data outlined in the results is essential in mapping the contribution made by universities to the labor market in SSA. Universities produce and transmit skills that enact jobs (see Castells, 2001; Mann, 2004) enhancing in this perspective collaboration between HE and market (Zavale & Langa, 2018). The productivity and the economy of many countries is driven by knowledge bases of which universities are key and indispensable outlets.

60 

P. J. UETELA

Various countries are attempting to respond to this in a complex manner. Specific reforms are being undertaken in Ethiopian HE sector to align skills that universities provide with the demands of the market (see Reda & Gebre-Eyesus, 2019). In Ghana, universities have instigated awareness within students for the necessity of their knowledge to the enterprise. The results from investigation also show that graduates seek employment in either public or private sector and will barely choose entrepreneurship (see, Zakaria & Alhassan, 2018). Thus, part of the achievements attained in both public and private labor market is attributed to both university graduates and skills. In the process of instigating the appropriate abilities that will nurture the industry, career guidance and university scrutiny are some of the initiatives undertaken in countries like Nigeria, South Africa and Uganda (Pitan & Adedeji, 2016). University man-power in those countries is considered essential for development of the economy. In South Africa, for example, research has been undertaken with findings suggesting that the labor force is lowly skilled. Hence, universities have since then integrated innovative policy frameworks that respond to the high demand of skilled labor/man power and through income generating activities (see Erasmus et  al., 2005: 16–39). In all these reforms, the view that knowledge is important to the industry and that universities are institutions responsible for generating highly skilled graduates who will contribute to the development of the economy outstands in all countries that link labor market with universities based on informed knowledge. Part of research undertaken in South Africa, for example, indicates how techno lab initiatives are valued to interconnect schools and universities so that students cultivate technical skills especially in domains of engineering and mathematics. The initiative is supported by the fact that technicians, technologists and engineering skills are vibrant for both labor market and then to the economy (Venter & Nieker, 2018: 113–127). As a result, university reforms inform new policies that promote competences necessary for the labor market including graduates that are ready for the different roles. The initiative is extended to establish cooperation with the main employing sectors so that key actors interlinking competences and work are in constant dialogue.

3  THE ROLE OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN NURTURING LABOR-MARKET… 

61

3.4  Concluding Remarks The aim of this section was to expand the debate on university labor-force linkages and highlight the major contributions SSA makes on the basis of specific journals that uniquely focus on the continent. It applied a bibliometric review as a methodology to capture the magnitude at which the discussion has encouraged scholarly initiatives. As a result, both universities and the role they play for the economy in SSA have barely preoccupied scholarly debates, a gap previous research has been unable to fill. There are various positions undertaken to justify the fallacy of demise of universities in the region researched. Firstly, the inception of HE that in the first world is prescribed as having contributed to the economy (the modern university) is both novel and contradictory to the typology of universities that have emerged in northern Africa which produced the kind of knowledge that served early civilizations. Secondly, universities in Africa are contested by global theories of development (universities are not channels of development) rather than by local politics. Lastly, despite local initiatives that the findings of this chapter outline as major reforms that revitalize universities as engines for economic development through competences, they nurture graduates who serve the industry, funding the continuity of HE for success has been conflicting with the dominant theories of the global economy. This approach will be developed in the following section. This contestation positioned universities in Africa as irrelevant, and places SSA as the least researched region. In applying the bibliometric review analyses, this section intended to reposition Africa by showing the knowledge pool it contributes on the continent based on results universities make to the economy in various countries. The findings indicate that there are levels/degrees of understandings shaping policy initiatives that inform the interconnection between universities, graduates and the contribution they make to the labor market. Among SSA countries, some have not yet integrated HE as the main agenda. Others have embarked on the debate even though the way they link universities and economy is at different degrees of analyses and research topics which captured many themes including leadership, management, teaching and learning, funding, university crises management, quality in HE among others.

62 

P. J. UETELA

Lastly, only Cameroon, Ethiopia Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, South Africa and Uganda are classified as countries that have gone a step further in comparison with the rest of states. In the latter highlighted countries, the way under which universities contribute to the local economies is through the (i) provision of skills that are relevant to the industries, (ii) inspiration of competences that are aligned with the country needs, and (iii) stimulation to nurture cooperation initiatives between universities, graduates and the labor market as a means of updating the correlation between competences that universities generate and those that employers require. There is therefore a growing interdependence between universities and the industry based on competences that can be defined mutually and which will serve the economies of the countries researched. Under this interdependency, relevant knowledge (skills) outstands as the key component that universities are challenged to maximize being the legitimate sites that both produce and steer the industry. At this stage, the information on how industry captures the contribution of both graduates and universities to their sites has not yet been the case of discussion. This will be done in the subsequent chapter, even though the fact that economies are knowledge driven and universities have been since the legitimate institutions that generate skills and competences that ensure high productivity, remains the thesis either for this chapter or for the subsequent sections. The present study initiated by pointing to the prevailing debate characterizing public opinion and based on the position that a failure for direct connection between university graduates and integration in the labor force implied irrelevance of universities and lack of a necessary interconnectedness between HE and the economies. Based on the results outlined before, the above-captioned assumption grounded on opinion rather than on research as the findings captured up to this stage of investigation appear to contest the demise of linkages between universities and labor market. Furthermore, the shifting trends that have shaped higher education with focus on rapid population growth willing to access higher education, the inquiry on the role of universities, the increment of scrutiny mechanisms on the meaning of universities, the mismatch between graduates and the capabilities of the industry, all these changing dynamics have apparently misguided popular debate to inference that universities were irrelevant and lacked contribution to the economy. However, the initiatives undertaken by African scholarship (specific journals that disseminate research findings only about Africa) show that

3  THE ROLE OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN NURTURING LABOR-MARKET… 

63

universities have constantly generated and transmitted knowledge that served society. In addition, universities have been able to adjust competences they generate with the demands of the labor-market and went further instigating production of skills that not only serve either the public or private labor force but also are essential for individual gains, though yet at lower and undesired level. Hence, SSA universities are contributing to the economies and productivity of various states, a perspective that encourages researchers that have solely considered the first world scholarship as the unique effort that interlinks HEIs with labor-market. Bibliometric research literature review analyses need to be emphasized in context of both developed and underdeveloped world as it will shed light on understanding the position that the contribution universities make to the economies is not determined by region. Instead, it is reared by empirical evidence, which is also informed in the data presented in this research for SSA.

References Bloom, D., Canning, D., & Chan, K. (2006). Higher education and economic development in Africa. Human Development Sector. Harvard University Press. Bose, P., Sanyal, P., & Mukherjee, S. (1983). Graduates employment and higher education in West Bengal: A study undertaken jointly with the department of statistics. University of Calcutta Paris, UNESCO. Castells, M. (2001). Universities as dynamic systems of contradictory functions. In J. Muller (Ed.), Higher education and the network society. Springer. Clark, B. (1983). The higher education system: Academic organization in cross-­ national perspective. University Press. Erasmus, J., Steyn, S., & Mentz, P. (2005). Expectations of the unemployed in South Africa: An education system perspective. Africa Education Review, 2(1), 16–39. Hunter, L., et al. (1981). Higher education and the labour market. In L. Robert (Ed.), Higher education and the labour market: Program of study into the future of higher education. Society for Research into Higher Education. Mann, P. (2004). Employment equity at south African universities: Centre for Applied Legal Studies. Carol Cooper Publishers. Mugabushaka, A., Teichler, U., & Schomburg, H. (2003). Failed or self-hindering prophecies? Employment experiences of African graduates in the 1990s. Journal of Higher Education in Africa/Revue de l'enseignement supérieur en Afrique, 1(1), 57–77.

64 

P. J. UETELA

Pitan, O., & Adedeji, S. (2016). Demographic characteristics as determinants of unemployment among university graduates in Nigeria. Africa Education Review, 13(3–4), 157–171. Reda, N. W., & Gebre-Eyesus, M. T. (2019). Graduate unemployment in Ethiopia: The ‘red flag’ and its implications. International Journal of African Higher Education, 5(1), 31–43. Roizen, J., & Jepson, J. (1985). Degrees for jobs: Employer expectations of higher education Guildford. SRHE & NFER-Nelson. Sanyal, B., & El-Sammani, Y. (1979). Higher education and employment in the Sudan: Higher education and employment case studies. UNESCO. Teferra, D., & Altbach, P. (2004). African higher education: Challenges for the 21st century. Journal of Higher Education, 42(21–50), 2004. Teichler, U. (2005). Research on higher education in Europe. European Journal of Higher Education, 40(4), 447–469. Tight, M. (2012). Levels of analysis in higher education research. Tertiary Education and Management, 18(3), 271–288. Uetela, P. (2017). Higher education and development in Africa. Palgrave Macmillan. Uetela, P. (2019). A Universidade na África e a Geraçäo de Pensamento: Questōes de Moçambique e a Empregabilidade dos Graduados (1975–2012). Appris. Venter, J., & Nieker, D. (2018). A contact-based practical approach to STEM projects in South Africa. The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning, 13(2), 113–127. Zakaria, H., & Alhassan, Y. (2018). Tertiary students’ perceptions about the prospects of their employability: The case of tamale polytechnic and UDS students of Ghana. Africa Education Review. Zavale, N., & Langa, P. (2018). Universities industry linkages’ literature on sub-­ saharan Africa: Systematic literature review and bibliometric account. Scientometrics, 2018(116), 1–49.

CHAPTER 4

Colonization and Decolonization of HE and Development Nexus

This chapter is about higher education and development nexus in Africa. It does so by making a comparative analysis between Africa and the West. Furthermore, there is a cautious look at authors that have addressed the idea of colonization and decolonization.

4.1   Introduction As indicated in Chaps. 1, 2 and 3, the inception of HE as a field of study in the 1970s and 1980s (Clark, 1983; Trow, 1970) increased the scope of debate on global north versus global south origin of knowledge production. The rise of the debate was due to the complexity and growth of HE sub-systems globally, rooting in the standardized model of university “the modern university,” which is the European typology imposed on many African countries by colonization. Cross and Ndofirepi (2017) simply asserted that the university is a European and colonial institution. The evolvement of modern HE under this theory is then colonial. It is against such imposition that some African scholars embarked on revitalizing the African knowledge. The view is grounded on the theory that since both universities and knowledge emerged in Africa (cf. Teferra & Altbach, 2004), a new scholarship based on southern epistemologies and claim of African HE should re-emerge on sustainability of circle that “universities and knowledge-epistemologies on the continent are a long debate.” © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 P. J. Uetela, Higher Education and Decolonization in Africa, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-38973-3_4

65

66 

P. J. UETELA

The colonization and decolonization debate of African higher education and southern epistemologies of which this book addresses can be understood on analyses of HE transformation. Primarily, is when universities firstly emerged in Africa with the old ones being (e.g. Ez-Zitouna Madrassa in Tunis instituted in 732 (AD), Karaouine of Fez-Morocco established in 859 (AD), Al-Azhar Cairo- Egypt in 970 and Sankore in Timbuktu-Mali, which appeared in 1100 (AD)). Scholars proposing decolonization of HE are at times concerned with the position that African civilization evolved prior to any other format of the global north as it served as an inspiration to Europe (cf. the stolen legacy from Africa). The popularization of modern university is an example that the Eurocentric model of knowledge is undeniably related to early African civilizations that influenced Europe. This corresponds to the first stage of Africanization of scientific knowledge and its application which was locally determined by southern epistemologies. However, the European presence in Africa, especially in the fifteenth century, replaced southern epistemologies by northern categories of reasoning, production of knowledge and definition of science. The type of university that had previously loomed, collapsed as a result. Furthermore, the parallel between HE access, knowledge and employability took a different direction as it was defined by Eurocentric interests rather than African/local concerns. Southern epistemologies at this stage became under-developed as the modern university imposed by colonization became both popular and the absolute reality. After independence, a new era was restored as specific models emerged considering the ideology of both decolonization and Africanization of science to emerge. The same applies for the neoliberal period when a market kind of university and knowledge dominated Africa, that is, decolonization of HE in Africa meant at this stage contextualizing university contents and production of skills that would serve to address local problems. Capturing graduates’ employability can be one among the various and different formats of unpacking local interests of university importance. Southern epistemologies and decolonization of African HE are in parallel as skills transference and employability of graduates may vary in compliance with the dominant ideology. There are different models of epistemologies favored at different moments of African high learning development. This new and emerging scholarship of the global south based on decolonization of science has some implications. It emphasizes that production and recognition of knowledge should be (i) heterogeneous rather than homogeneous (that

4  COLONIZATION AND DECOLONIZATION OF HE AND DEVELOPMENT… 

67

Eurocentric categories of reasoning are absolute and shape knowledge), as was the case with the imposition of the European university in Africa. This approach proliferates scientific injustice rather than justice between global north and south perspectives on the definition of knowledge. In addition, (ii) global south epistemologies and decolonization of universities/knowledge vary on learning and acquisition of knowledge as transient (dynamic) rather than static. It is within this definition that decolonization and Africanization of university entails “inter-­ institutionalizing and inter-disciplining knowledge” rather than “institutionalizing and disciplining” science, a form popularized by modernity. The premise that epistemologies are localized ideologies/categories, fixed and determined by the global north, is challenged in the new and emerging model of decolonizing science. Consequently, whereas before (under the Eurocentric model of university) production of knowledge was for its own sake, in the new epistemologies of the global south, production and relevance of knowledge should be aligned to the context of application, which entails that the skills acquired in the decolonized university become relevant when applicable to addressing local problems. Furthermore, the link between HE access and employability as linear is questioned in the new and decolonized model of university. Graduates employability can serve as an index that determines the magnitude at which decolonization of African HE and the new and evolving scholarship of the global south are interconnected based on local skills acquisition, transference to context of application and solution to local problems. Global south epistemologies align to decolonization of African higher education and support inter-hierarchies rather than hierarchical knowledge (which dominated during colonization and African partition). They (global south epistemologies) are an attempt to fight against social injustices, inequalities in knowledge access and “employability conception” being our focus of analysis at this stage. Concerning decolonization and how its discussion can be comprehended on the historical construction of un-employability versus employment analyses, Mkandawire (1996), for example, addressed the dynamics/ struggles of decolonizing African HE and epistemologies in terms of either stages or generations of scholars that evolved across the continent. He prescribes the key moments of growth in skills acquisition and local intelligentsia/knowledge within this scope of generational scholars. The application of either skills or abilities achieved by these scholars served as an asset of both employability and transference of abilities to specific

68 

P. J. UETELA

contexts of application./usefulness. All the aforementioned debates suggest that African epistemologies are meaningful within localized contexts/ moments of universities’ growth and transformation. The utility of universities and epistemologies under this perspective can be comprehended at least in three domains: (i) the view of universities as driven by public good purpose, (ii) the view of universities as a private good (as essential for specific individuals) and lastly, (iii) as both individual and public purpose. In all the categories of analyses earlier indicated, the significance of both HE and knowledge for society through skills transference and utilization is undeniable. Furthermore, and within this context that Castells (2001), for example, indicated that universities serve society at least in four dimensions: (i) generation and transmission of ideology, (ii) selection and formation of the dominant elites, (iii) training of the skilled labor force, and (iv) production and application of knowledge through research. The ways in which university functions is debated within decolonization and Africanization of HE, deserves special analyses in Africa. In the global south, this empirical evidence shows that universities either apply these roles differently or emphasize some rather than others, the public versus private purposes of HE in serving society, which again merits a cautious understanding of specific localities. Within this scope, does HE and African epistemologies generated within local universities “matter”? If yes in which circumstances? An analysis of the third university functions earlier indicated, which is the center of the debate, accounts for a range of stages of development of universities and influence they have in local communities in Africa. It also explains ongoing debates on how university skills acquisition and applicability through employment are interconnected. Furthermore, are the ways in which African epistemologies have influenced graduates that enhance the growth of both society and the economy at large. African HE and epistemologies under these perspectives also influence politics, environment, social justice and other areas based on the specific knowledge prioritized. All these assertions account for the starting point that whereas there are emerging studies about HE covering a range of topics, the role of African HE, epistemologies and decolonizing models for development has least been explored, that is, not much was done on questioning the relationship between HE, local knowledge and economic growth. Furthermore, the least studies that have addressed the topic focused more on the global north rather than on the global south making an injustice to the African

4  COLONIZATION AND DECOLONIZATION OF HE AND DEVELOPMENT… 

69

HE and further imposing colonization/domination of global north meanings. How was this constructed? Actually, the World Bank (WB) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) previously proposed under-funding policies for African HE that would generate local epistemologies on basis that return indexes and investment are contentious. National governments in Africa have since done an about-turn on this position and now argue that African universities are key drivers of economic growth in the knowledge economy. This chapter identifies and reviews the existing literature about the role of universities, African knowledge and decolonization with a particular focus on employability as one index that assesses the role of universities in economic development. How does global literature position Africa then? As the initial consideration of the literature reveals, bibliometric research is under-considered in capturing African science even though there have been some countries that embarked on the investigation. Further understanding of how those countries have been progressing turns into a key focus in the subsequent section which addresses university, employability interconnection as a category of analysis of the debate.

4.2   Higher Education and Employability The purpose of modern university (the university which appears as a result of colonization) was mainly to instruct the colonial elites. The underlying concern under this approach (of instructing only the colonial intelligentsia) was that it would perpetuate the colonial ideology over Africa and Africans. Because of this ideology, there were growing initiatives towards determining specific strategies that aligned theory with practice, that is, encountering models of university structures that replicate domination was key. In English colonies, for example, universities were driven to implementing practical structures for producing specific knowledge. There was a consensus that universities should be pragmatic institutions. The case of early HEIs in Uganda, Nigeria, Ghana and other Anglophone countries testifies such perspective. On the other hand, the French typology of university focused on theoretical knowledge production. The two approaches are currently reflected on the overwhelming proliferation of more polytechnic universities in Anglophone countries, whereas Francophones were dominated by public administration, social sciences and humanities. The inheritance of the new model of university from colonization shows the influence of modernity and its ideology in Africa.

70 

P. J. UETELA

Lastly, the Lusophony Africa and its universities show a sharp relationship with the Francophone models in terms of emphasizing theory. Overall, the distinction between countries and the model of universities that was instituted across Africa before independence and over the domination of modernity may be aligned to position countries in the global economy (the imperial/global north) position of countries. Such imperialism also influenced the construction of the new and emerging empires we see in today’s Africa (Nigeria, South Africa, Ghana, Kenya) as the highly ranked ones. In addition, such imperialism is also reflected in terms of university ranking existing in those countries. Whereas Francophone states (Senegal, Congo, Mali, Mauritius and others) appear to be second, Lusophone (Mozambique, Angola, Guinea-Bissau, São Tomé and Cabo Verde) are least visible in the African competition (see Bloom et al., 2006). The aforementioned propositions suggest that modernity and the establishment of colonial university in Africa are necessarily aligned. What was then the relationship between university and graduate employment under the establishment of modernization/colonization? The notion of employability appears not to dominate the agenda of HE at this moment as the function of HEIs was mainly ideological (perpetuation of colonial empire) rather than provide skills that would serve the economy. Second, the notion of economy was not assessed by the actual categories/meaning in terms of exchange/sale of labor force to the institutionally organized state. Lastly, African states did not exist by then as the term applied to define today’s African states was either ultramarine territories or provinces of the European empires. Again, such nomination accounts for the necessary connection between modernity, colonization and imposition of the global north conception of university in Africa. At the period of the rise of modernity, the meaning of state in Africa was defined in terms of kingdoms and empires. There is a growing consensus that the way Ghana, Mali and Songhay ancient empires and kingdoms were developing would have turned into the autochthone political and administrative authority for Africa. However, modernity/colonization interrupted this conception. Considering that ancient African kingdoms and empires were replaced by the global north concept of political administration (national states after independence), there is an understanding that not only the state is colonized but also its institutions of which universities are indispensable parts. The discussions concerning decolonization theories about the disciplines and universities might be grounded within the Scopus that both the

4  COLONIZATION AND DECOLONIZATION OF HE AND DEVELOPMENT… 

71

model of state and institutions that African countries hold is an acquisition of the global northern empire. The inheritance of a state and institutions that deviated preliminary and localized meanings/senses resulted in new structures and categories of reasoning that might be contradictory to the continent. Part of the difficulties in addressing decolonization within Africa, is based on the assumption that theorizing decolonization from assumptions and categories of reasoning that were imposed in Africa by the global north empire, might be problematic. In spite of all the reasons earlier presented to unpack the contradictions and problems that the construction of the global north empire in Africa has caused, there is an undeniable finding. This is the notion that neither early modern concepts of state and institutions nor ancient Africa typology of political and administrative organization that existed before modernity consider higher education and employability as an arena for research/preoccupation. In Africa, the modernity/colonization was replaced/denied by the rise of pro-independence movements, which signaled the inception phase of decolonizing the model of state and institutions that have been imposed on the continent. There is in this perspective a parallelism between the theory proposed by Marx about the historical dialectic and construction between thesis-antithesis synthesis, an explanation that, when a dominant theory is no longer valid, must be negated (anthesis) and the result of such contradiction will be a novel theory (synthesis). In HE landscape, a similar approach was recently conceptualized by Kezar and Dee (2011) who classify the rise of any scientific theory as a result of the inability of the former in solving specific problems. Thus, new and emerging theories are interconnected with other pre-existing ones, as the latter have no meaning without reference to a principle of overcoming problem solving that would be impossible without a paradigm. The case of decolonization of African HE by questioning modernity, the state and the typology of university inherited from global imperialism is mingled within this dialectic debate of thesis- antithesis and synthesis. In practice, modernity was the thesis imposing a kind of a global north empire in knowledge production for Africa. Liberation movements and pro-independence struggles became antithesis and decolonization, the new and actual synthesis (see Altbach et al., 2014; Ajayi et al., 1996). Given that the transition from liberation struggles and pro-­independence movements was popularized in Africa as starting position for the new synthesis, which is also termed as independence of both African states and

72 

P. J. UETELA

universities, how was this new thesis then aligned with employability debate? During the independence of African states and universities, the discussions about HE and employment nexus was at a very low level of concern. However, as compared to the previous period of modernity where the role of university was that of instructing European imperialism and intelligentsia, during independence, there was a drift in the functions, mission and vision of universities. The independence period was remarkably concerned with knowledge production that would generate graduates with specific skills to maintain continuity of the European imperial institutions built on the continent after global north drift in Africa (Krücken, 2014; Teichler, 2005). However, the strengthening of the institutions projected by the independence project would be on lens of indigenous interests, which would build a new and African empire. A survey of the new agenda of the “African and independent” university reveals the consensus that the European imperialism that dominated Africa for approximately 400  years was structurally and institutionally replaced by local and new interests, the decolonization agenda. An evaluation of university mission, vision and function across Africa after or currently reveal how decolonization not only of universities but also of the disciplines is taking place as indicated in Table 4.1. From the table, HE development in Africa, has been characterized by both complex and contradictory functions. Either during modernity or independence, the purpose of HE remained that of (i) maximizing knowledge for the construction and maintenance of the global north empire. It was subsequently translated into (ii) strengthening public institutions in Africa after the colonial drift, and (iii) later on, universities became allies of instituting an autochthone African imperialism. The main purpose of university especially after independence was that of decolonizing the institutions, the discipline and knowledge rather than preparing students for future work. Given that the focus for the period of post-independence was the decolonization agenda, at the same period prominent African leaders “founding fathers” of African states, idealized a model of African imperialism that would replace the former ones imposed by the global north (see Mkandawire, 2016). As part of the novel decolonization project leading voices such as Julius Nyerere invented ujamaa, the sense of community. The role of universities was also driven to align knowledge with ujamaa as the new and ideal state that was being constructed and so were its institutions. Other African leaders and the new concept of state that would define

4  COLONIZATION AND DECOLONIZATION OF HE AND DEVELOPMENT… 

73

Table 4.1  Functions, mission and vision of African Universities in line with decolonization Country

Name of university

1. Algeria

1. Ferhat Abbas Sétif University

2. Angola

Mission of universities/decolonizing initiatives

• To work as a development driver for the country and region; • To promote innovation based on knowledge produced 2. University of Oran • To prepare students from different backgrounds for future life 3. University of Béjaïa • To apply research and knowledge generated within universities to influence students’ future 4. Agostinho Neto • To promote integrated learning for University students; • To produce, diffuse and transfer scientific knowledge; • To produce technologic and cultural knowledge to support local communities; • To value life-long learning and support development 5. Technical University • To produce, preserve and diffuse knowledge of Angola and culture; • To harmonize teaching, research and extension in compliance with local needs (economic, social and scientific necessities) 6. C  atholic University • Teach, learn and produce knowledge useful of Angola for contemporary society; • To develop, promote and diffuse fundamental and applied scientific research; • To influence academic and scientific training for people and entities; • To instigate dissociation of university functions from politics; (continued)

74 

P. J. UETELA

Table 4.1 (continued) Country

Name of university

3. Benin

7. University of Abomey-Calavi

4. Botswana

Mission of universities/decolonizing initiatives

• To train executives, who will enhance scientific research and progress of the country 8.University of Parakou • To train staff and specialists for the necessities of development in different levels (social, economic, cultural, intellectual and labor); • To participate in scientific research both fundamental and applied research; • To foster use of knowledge to rebuild the national economy; 9. National University • The mission of the National University of of Agriculture Agriculture (UNA) is to ensure the adequacy between research, training and employment in the agricultural field and the development needs in this area. It aims to encourage and support the development of a strong agricultural economy and is committed to creating a new generation of scientists and technicians capable of promoting technological innovations, as indicated by its motto which is “scientia, innovatio, laxamentu” 10. The University of • To build both economic and social Botswana conditions which will enable national development; 11. Botswana • To prioritize teaching, learning and Accountancy engagement of local communities in College determining knowledge and abilities important for business; • To raise consciousness about the new demands of the knowledge economy 12. Botswana • To foster application of research and International innovation in the domains of applied University of sciences in order to contribute for Science and advancement of industry; Technology • To steer development and maximization of knowledge economy (continued)

4  COLONIZATION AND DECOLONIZATION OF HE AND DEVELOPMENT… 

75

Table 4.1 (continued) Country

Name of university

5. Burkina Faso

13. Université Norbert • Seeks to excel through knowledge to better Zongo serve 14. Université Nazi • To give response to the necessities of Boni decentralizing HE in the country (production) 15. Université Joseph Site not encountered Ki-Zerbo 16. Light University of • Empowers organizations and people, with Bujumbura high quality information that enable them take action for the development of the continent 17. Bujumbura • To train future leaders, activists, innovators University and active citizens; • To train professionals adequately for the different roles in society 18. Hope Africa • Equip graduates with problem-solving skills university at individual, local and regional levels; • To establish programs that promote character development of students to serve god and humanity. 19. Universidade de • To provide a public service for the Cabo Verde qualification of citizens in the domains of economic, finance and management, legal and political sciences as well as in pluridisciplinary and interdisciplinary areas in compliance with the criteria of academic excellence. To contribute for sustainable development of Cape Verde 20. Universidade Jean • To promote entrepreneurship and Piaget de Cabo contribute for sustainable development of Verde Cape Verde in both economic and social domains 21. Universidade do • To influence development, strengthen the Mindelo productive sector and national service; • To build national development based on productivity

6. Burundi

7. Cape Verde

Mission of universities/decolonizing initiatives

(continued)

76 

P. J. UETELA

Table 4.1 (continued) Country

Name of university

Mission of universities/decolonizing initiatives

8. Cameroon

22. University of Yaoundé

• Develop and transmit knowledge, develop research and training of men, maximize high standards of research, provide access to higher education for all those in need and contribute to social, cultural development • To offer quality teaching and research which makes graduates important to the labor market; • To promote research and excellence, moral values and services relevant to the community; • To nurture creativity, innovation critical and independent thinking; • To construct networks and engagement between students, university and stakeholders. • The main vision is to become one of the leading private funded universities on the continent by providing education appropriate for the development needs of Africa. Site not encountered

23. University of Buea

24. University of Dschang

9. Central African Republic

10. Chad

25. UNESCO chair of science education for Central Africa university 26. Université Catholique d’Afrique Centrale (UCAC) 27. Université de Bangui 28. Université de Ndjamena 29. Université Emi Koussi 30. École Nationale d’Administration Tchad

Site not encountered

Site not encountered • To align HE knowledge with sustainable development Site not encountered • The key mission is to train both middle and senior management in the Chadian public administration (continued)

4  COLONIZATION AND DECOLONIZATION OF HE AND DEVELOPMENT… 

77

Table 4.1 (continued) Country

Name of university

Mission of universities/decolonizing initiatives

11. Comoros

31. Moidjio CRCAD Centre for Research Conservation and Development 32. University of the Comores 33. Université de Kinshasa

• To influence sustainable development of Comoros and Madagascar

12. Democratic Republic of Congo

34. Université de Lubumbashi 35. Université Officielle de Bukavu

13. Côte d’Ivoire

36. University of Cocody 37. University of Abobo-Adjamé 38. Pigier Group

Site not encountered • To influence teaching, research and service to the community; • To align student training and contribution to the economy; • Prioritize the functions of university and instill them on graduates, • Nurture national values and respect for the community Site not found • To prioritize teaching and research in terms of: • Maximization of quality training that is appropriate for targeting actual needs; • Promote research that is aligned to the Congolese practical problems and inform teaching in order to strengthen the university, society and the community; • To explore university’s influence on development in Congo, region and the world Site not encountered Site not encountered Site not encountered (continued)

78 

P. J. UETELA

Table 4.1 (continued) Country

Name of university

Mission of universities/decolonizing initiatives

14. Djibouti

39. Center for Studies and Scientific Research of Djibouti 40. Francais Joseph Kessel Secondary School 41. Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris, (IPGP) in Djibouti

Site not encountered

15. Egypt

16. Equatorial Guinea

Site not encountered

• To generate and transmit knowledge; • Observe natural phenomena and then determine production of knowledge that is useful; • To encourage research in all fields it offers (applied sciences) 42. Cairo University • To prioritize academic excellence; • To train competitive graduates, academically, professionally and ethically so that sustainable development of Egypt is attained 43. The American • To promote evidence-based decision, University in Cairo assessment mechanisms and peer planning; • To adopt strategic management and efficiency initiatives that will aid university recognition in Egypt and globally; 44. Ain Shams • To provide technical consultancies, promote University research, improve training of individual skills that have impact on local community, project assessment and consultancies that influence well-being, determine training and policy. 45. Universidad • To train national capacity; build scientific, Nacional de technologic, cultural knowledge including Guinea Ecuatorial values that enhance the development of the country; • To develop and maximize efficiency and productivity of academic professionals. To value teaching, research and extension that influences transformation of people’s lives and community. 46. C  ollege of Business • To become a highly ranked college which and Economics nurture exceptional business leaders and entrepreneurs that fit international labor market (continued)

4  COLONIZATION AND DECOLONIZATION OF HE AND DEVELOPMENT… 

79

Table 4.1 (continued) Country

Name of university

17. Eritrea

47. College of Nursing Site not encountered and Health Technology 48. University of Site not encountered Asmara 49. University of • To address national, international needs and Eswatini use teaching, learning, research, innovation, entrepreneurship and community engagement to propose solutions and nurture sustainable development; 50. Southern African • To maximize spirituality attributes in Nazarene shaping the character and values of people University and community; • To apply innovation, inquiry, interactive teaching, learning and transformational leadership. 51. Eswatini College of • To use research and development to technology advance technology, science, commercial education and training; • To expand commitment of being a market leader 52. University of • To enhance sustainable development of Gondar Ethiopia by training committed citizens under a curricula that solves problems as a result of research, community engagement and technology transfer 53. Addis Ababa • To provide innovative solutions to practical University problems, attracting and employing best scholars, foster quality management and build strong networks with external agents 54. Debre Markos • To train graduates that are competent, University ethical and innovate through quality education, problem solving and students’ involvement in local problems’ solution; • To provide community services that favor development of the country and position Debre Markos University as an African university (university of reference) by 2025

18. Eswatini

19. Ethiopia

Mission of universities/decolonizing initiatives

(continued)

80 

P. J. UETELA

Table 4.1 (continued) Country

Name of university

Mission of universities/decolonizing initiatives

20. Gabon

55. Omar Bongo University 56. African University of Sciences 57. University of Applied Computer Sciences 58. University of the Gambia

Site not encountered

21. Gambia

59. American International University West Africa 60. Euclid University (Gambia and Central African Republic and Belgium)

• To become a leading center of excellence in both research and HE Site not encountered

• To spread Islamic knowledge to the world on internet basis; • To provide global access to quality graduate and post-graduate education programs online and free of charge; • To apply appropriate education to change the Muslim nations and the world; • To promote non-discrimination values for access to HE; • To enhance quality work at university (for staff, students and other personnel under Muslim principles) • To become an institution that leads promoting human health

• To deliver good education and services about consultancy; • Train officials and employees of partner organizations; • Encourage high quality programs within the university for the benefit of the entire people in the country; • To establish networks with other relevant programs for education purposes; • To spread the values of distance learning including methods, norms and values applied to this model; • Train national capacity with skills that influence sustainable development. (continued)

4  COLONIZATION AND DECOLONIZATION OF HE AND DEVELOPMENT… 

81

Table 4.1 (continued) Country

Name of university

Mission of universities/decolonizing initiatives

22. Ghana

61. University of Ghana

• To transform university as a place where global and national development is matured on the basis of maximization of teaching, research and learning; • To become a global leading research and intensive HEI • To promote development of management skills for employees from both public and private sectors including civil organizations; • To improve the use of technology as a tool for national development; • To provide consultancies services and counsels to political authorities on development agendas; • To encourage research as an indication of development • To apply knowledge to advance science and technology by creating research initiatives, entrepreneurship and engagement of communities in transforming their living standards • To provide high quality training to its students to make them competent and useful executives for the economic, social and cultural development of the world of today and tomorrow. Site not encountered

62. Ghana Institute of Management and Public Administration

63. Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology 23. Guinea

24. GuineaBissau

64. Centre d’Étude et de Recherche en Environnement de l’Université de Conakry (CÉRE) 65. Ecole Préparatoire d’Ingénieurs de Foulaya- Kindia 66. Université Gamal Site not encountered Abdel Nasser of Conakry 67. Universidade Site not encountered Amílcar Cabral 68. Universidade • To promote higher education in all domains Lusófona da Guiné of knowledge dedicated to the creation, transmission, critique and diffusion of culture, science and technology. 69. University of Site not encountered Colinas de Boe (continued)

82 

P. J. UETELA

Table 4.1 (continued) Country

Name of university

25. Guinea-­ Conakry

66. Université Nongo Conakry UNC

26. Kenya

Mission of universities/decolonizing initiatives

• To encourage high quality instruction which enables both students and staff to acquire highly competent abilities and participate in national development agendas (socially, economically, culturally at the moment and in the future) • To strive for becoming a leading university in Africa 70. Université Kofi • To provide professional, university and Annan de Guinée post-university training, according to the needs determined by the country’s economic and social development plan; •T  o promote the development of scientific research and the popularization of its results; •T  o contribute to the development and promotion of cultural, sporting and socio-­ educational activities for young students; • To promote the development of the country in general and of its area of establishment in particular, by actively collaborating with the economic and social partners, with a view to carrying out projects and programs of collective interest; • To develop exchanges and cooperation with other public/private Higher Education and Research Institutions in Guinea, Africa and around the world. 71. University of •T  o provide quality university education and Nairobi training and to embody the aspirations of the Kenyan people and the global community through creation, preservation, integration, transmission and utilization of knowledge 72. Kenyatta University • To strengthen HE quality applying flexible models of teaching, technology and then empower development policies 73. Jomo Kenyatta • To provide training, research, innovation University of and entrepreneurship in order to supply Agriculture and leading professionals in areas of agriculture, Technology engineering, technology, entrepreneurial development and other relevant fields necessary for the dynamic world; • To strive for becoming a global leader in training, research, innovation and entrepreneurship which will enable development (continued)

4  COLONIZATION AND DECOLONIZATION OF HE AND DEVELOPMENT… 

83

Table 4.1 (continued) Country

Name of university

27. Lesotho

74. National University • To be a leading African university of Lesotho responsive to national needs and with high commitment to quality teaching 75. Lesotho College of • To both educate and train teachers who will Education later on offer quality service to the community 76. Institute of • To nurture relevant research aligned to Southern African world development challenges Studies (NUL) 77. African Methodist • To value education for leadership and foster Episcopal Christian values in the construction of the University country 78. Cuttington • To provide educational skills for life on basis University of the various programs students may enroll on 79. United Methodist • To provide quality education within a University Pan-African context through which persons can acquire general professional knowledge and skills within the framework of Christian values and ethics 80. University of Not found Benghazi (University of Garyounis) 81. Misurata University • To promote education and research that (Misrata makes the country globally competitive; University) • To value research that positions the university in the international landscape; • To train professionals that will contribute for development 82. University of • To develop academic performance and Tripoli scientific research, in compliance with international standards, and in order to develop knowledge capital, that serve the requirements of society, and meet the needs of the labor market 83. Université de Not found Mahajanga 84. Université • To train professionals who think globally d’Antananarivo and act nationally 85. Université Site not encountered d’Antsiranana

28. Liberia

29. Libya

30. Madagascar

Mission of universities/decolonizing initiatives

(continued)

84 

P. J. UETELA

Table 4.1 (continued) Country

Name of university

Mission of universities/decolonizing initiatives

31. Malawi

86.Malawi University of Science and Technology

• To offer appropriate environment for outstanding education, training, research entrepreneurship in order to acquire skills that promote economic development both in Malawi and abroad • To propitiate educational skills for global competition standards based on programs that favor critical thinking, knowledge application and production, • To become a center of excellence of HE that promotes national sustainable development Site not encountered

87. Blantyre International University 88. University of Malawi 32. Mali

33. Mauritania

89.Université des sciences, des techniques et des technologies de Bamako 90. Université des sciences juridiques et politiques de Bamako 91. Institut Polytechnique Rural de Formation et de Recherches Appliquées de Katibougou 92. Université des Sciences, de Technologie et de Médecine 93. Université Libanaise Internationale en Mauritanie 94. École Nationale d’Administration, de Journalisme et de Magistrature

Site not encountered

Site not encountered

Site not encountered

Site not encountered

• Has the mission of being responsible for the development of state’s personnel

(continued)

4  COLONIZATION AND DECOLONIZATION OF HE AND DEVELOPMENT… 

85

Table 4.1 (continued) Country 34. Mauritius

35. Morocco

36. Mozambique

Name of university

Mission of universities/decolonizing initiatives

95. University of Mauritius

• To encourage outstanding learning, which will have an impact on innovation research; • To propose entrepreneurial agendas on the programs taught 96. University of •To offer courses, teaching, research and Technology consultancies that respond to the needs of Mauritius; 97. Mauritius Institute • To turn MIE as an institute of excellence in of Education teaching, curriculum development and investigation; • To encourage creativity and engagement at all levels 98. Université Hassan Site not encountered II de Casablanca 99. Ibn Tofaïl Site not encountered University 100. University of • To promote initial and continuing training, Marrakech Cadi scientific and technological research and Ayyad disseminate culture, scientific and technical information; • Participate in regional and national economic development 101. Eduardo • To generate and disseminate scientific Mondlane knowledge; University • To promote innovation through research grounded in teaching, learning and extension; • To influence sustainable development 102. Pedagogical • To train highly qualified teachers for all University levels of education; • Train professionals in the field of education, research and extension; • To generate and disseminate knowledge for transformation of local people’s lives 103. Catholic • University of reference in the country, university of regional and international level based on Mozambique dynamism, creativity and excellence (continued)

86 

P. J. UETELA

Table 4.1 (continued) Country

Name of university

37. Namibia 105. Namibia University of Science and Technology (Polytechnic of Namibia) 106. International University of Management University of Namibia

38. Nigeria

39. Rwanda

Mission of universities/decolonizing initiatives • To offer outstanding HE • To be an engaged and responsive university in order to meet the needs of stakeholders through application of excellent education, applied research, innovation and services

• To contribute to both national and international development through research, training and innovation; • Through good teaching, • To train competitive human resources useful for the knowledge economy, economic 107. Federal University • To train highly innovative and skilled labor of Technology, force that will change the nation; Minna • To supply skills applied for quality goods and services founded on entrepreneurship, information and communication technology. 108. Ibrahim Badamasi • To produce highly competitive graduates as Babangida a result of quality research, teaching and University community engagement. 109. University of • To promote appropriate environments for Lagos exercising teaching, learning, research and development skills; • To encourage competition among its members. 110. University of • To promote outstanding learning, research Ilorin and community service 111. University of • To help Rwanda develop through discovery Rwanda and production of knowledge that prepares students to take the lead and bring solutions to diverse professional work after leaving university. 112. University of • To offer HE that complies to both labor Kigali market and development needs of Rwanda; •T  o train graduates who will acquire skills for national economic development and are competitive in the international labor market. 113. Kibogora • To potentiate progress of Rwandan people Polytechnic through education, offering quality learning, investigation and community engagement (continued)

4  COLONIZATION AND DECOLONIZATION OF HE AND DEVELOPMENT… 

87

Table 4.1 (continued) Country

Name of university

40. São Tomé and Príncipe

114. University of São Site not encountered Tomé and Príncipe 115. Universidade Site not encountered Lusíada de São Tomé e Príncipe 116. Université Cheikh • To train highly qualified graduates Anta Diop de technologically and scientifically capable of Dakar being integrated in the national and international context; • To encourage research in all domains of knowledge; • To mobilize intellectual resources that will be valuable to the solution of national and international problems. 117. Université Gaston • To foster research and interdisciplinary Berger de Saint training; Louis • To provide excellence in teaching and research, excellence in creativity, scientific rigor and critical thinking. 118. Université Assane • To instruct qualified personnel of Senegal SECK de and of other African countries based on the Ziguinchor necessities of the local economy, national and regional • To develop a scientific research of quality in compliance to the local and regional problems 119. University of • To foster a vibrant community where staff Seychelles and students excel in the following assets: Teaching, learning and research in an atmosphere of discovery, creativity and innovation, that drives and focuses on the building of the human resource capacity required to help Seychelles achieve its development goals and that contributes to solutions for emerging twenty-first century challenges. 120. Creole Institute Site not encountered of Seychelles

41. Senegal

42. Seychelles

Mission of universities/decolonizing initiatives

(continued)

88 

P. J. UETELA

Table 4.1 (continued) Country

Name of university

Mission of universities/decolonizing initiatives

43. Sierra Leone

121. Njala University

• To institute an outstanding HE institution that nurtures intellectual and human capacity resources grounded on quality teaching, research and creative thinking. • To capitalize development in the country at various levels and mobilize resources for the benefit of all • Promote teaching in order to produce, transmit and disseminate knowledge that is vital for sustainable development • To instill hope in the Somali society impaired by the collapsed state institutions and civil war, and revitalize communitybased initiatives Site not found

122. University of Makeni 123. University of Sierra Leone 44. Somalia

124. University of Muqdisho

125. Jaamacada Kismaayo 126. Jaamacadda Puntland State University 45. South Africa 127. University of Cape Town

128. University of Witwatersrand

129. Stellenbosch University

Site not found

• To minimize global problems through relevant teaching, investigation and scholarship; • To advance science in Africa by establishing partners and networks with peer institutions; • To encourage appropriate environment for networking and cooperation; • To train professionals that will take leadership roles nationally and internationally. • Train engaged and honest citizens. • To promote freedom of inquiry and investigation in search for knowledge and truth; • To become a leading industrial and commercial institution guided by research and quality teaching • To build adequate environments for learning and teaching in order to create a just society in South Africa (continued)

4  COLONIZATION AND DECOLONIZATION OF HE AND DEVELOPMENT… 

89

Table 4.1 (continued) Country

Name of university

46. South Sudan

130. University of Juba • To offer outstanding teaching and training based on scholarship, quality service, innovation and creativity including integration of moral values that are essential for both individual and society; • To promote knowledge and learning that are adequate for the socio-economic growth of the country; • To promote access to HE as a universal right 131. John Garang Site not encountered Memorial University of Science and Technology 132. The Catholic To provide an outstanding education to University of students from all backgrounds South Sudan 133. University of • To offer highly competent programs in Khartoum different specializations; (U of K) • Minister highly qualified teaching and learning equivalent to the international standards but also aligned to Sudanese values; • Apply updated models of research and establish scholarly environments that train highly qualified labor force; • To identify and address the needs for development of society, graduate students that are competent and hold skills to compete at national and international levels. 134. Sudan University • To prioritize applied research and teaching of Science and in the programs offered (especially in Technology applied sciences); (SUST) • To privilege applied research aligning it to practical problem solving and then encourage development; • To train scientists with highly qualifications skills and who compete both nationally and internationally; • To exercise the application of practical solutions that serve the community 135. University of • To address socio-economic development Gezira (U of G) needs for Sudan (its communities) and the rest of the globe

47. Sudan

Mission of universities/decolonizing initiatives

(continued)

90 

P. J. UETELA

Table 4.1 (continued) Country

Name of university

Mission of universities/decolonizing initiatives

48. Tanzania

136. U  niversity of Dar es Salaam new

• To build capacity on African students that target the challenges of the world; • To align education with employability skills, entrepreneurship and development of the country • To offer technical skills that are appropriate for local needs; • To maximize training, innovation, research and investment and discovery of relevant technology • To provide opportunities for acquisition, development, preservation and dissemination of knowledge skills through training • To train creative and innovative students with undiluted integrity in order to promote a culture of easy learning and strength of character • To apply Christian morality and values in addressing local problems; • Use Christian values to influence the staff, students and local community; • To offer a continuous reflection on catholic faith, attainment of human knowledge considered as indispensable for researchers • To train, scientific and technological research community services scientific, technical and cultural cooperation •To respond to the necessities of the country as far as education is concerned; • To disseminate knowledge and develop the necessary abilities for country’s growth and at different levels; • Develop knowledge and encourage technology research and innovation; • Promote individual and collective models of knowledge; • Participate in different actions that promote development of the country; • Invest and institute appropriate courses that are aligned with the necessities of the country; • To make the country famous in terms of research inputs and outputs

137. Sokoine University of Agriculture

138. M  zumbe University

49. Togo

139. Université de Lomé

140. Université Catholique de l’'Afrique de l’'Ouest

141. Université de Kara 142. Universite de Tunis

(continued)

4  COLONIZATION AND DECOLONIZATION OF HE AND DEVELOPMENT… 

91

Table 4.1 (continued) Country

Name of university

50. Tunisia

143.Universite de Sfax. Site not encountered Tunisia 144. Universite de • To value knowledge, empowerment and Carthage inspiration based on group work; • To explore the potential of university in building a better world for all 145. Mbarara • To offer outstanding education for both University of national and international recipients with Science and focus for science and technology and show Technology how this is aligned to community development. 146. Makerere • Generate knowledge that will influence University society and development • High commitment for transformation, innovation, teaching, learning and research that are essential for the dynamic world and necessities. 147. Kampala • To improve society and identify educational International imperatives through delivery of adequate University courses that are relevant to the economy; • To offer supportive learning environments for the different scholars to prosper 148. Uganda Christian Site not encountered University 149. University of • To offer HE of quality that supports Zambia socio-economic development 150. The Copperbelt • To enhance both development and University sustainability and encourage well-being of all Zambians and the world by providing very flexible programs that promote, innovation, entrepreneurship, inclusion, teaching, learning, research and service. 151. University of • To provide an outstanding education; Lusaka • To deliver programs aligned with present and future necessities of Zambia, the region and the world

51. Uganda

52. Zambia

Mission of universities/decolonizing initiatives

(continued)

92 

P. J. UETELA

Table 4.1 (continued) Country

Name of university

Mission of universities/decolonizing initiatives

53. Zimbabwe

152. University of Zimbabwe

• To promote tracey studies as a way of maintaining that graduates are in touch with their institutions of instruction and also promote the role/functions of universities (visibility) • To become a leading institution by engaging the community and encourage diversity on life-long learning basis • To train graduates that will innovate, will generate own knowledge, value entrepreneurship and serve the community through quality teaching, training and investigation using technology as an asset.

153. Midlands State University 154. Chinhoyi University of Technology

Source: Analysis of African higher education’s development

the new institutions was Nkrumah and advocates of Pan-Africanism as a means of promoting nationalism and socialism. Universities under this ideology were both nationalist and socialist weapons of decolonization. With Anta Diop, for example, there was a belief that Afrocentric approaches of then African states and institutions should determine the social contradiction of reality that the global north empire had built in Africa. At its establishment, the Cheikh Anta Diop University in Dakar, Senegal, the main target was to turn decolonization theories into practice or empirical evidence. Apart from Ghana, Senegal and Tanzania, in Central Africa, proAfrican imperialism was seen as a contradiction of the global north agenda. Amílcar Cabral, Patrice Lumumba, Kenneth Kaunda and Eduardo Mondlane are among many proponents of how decolonizing theorizing of the ideal state would turn into reality within social institutions (universities as part) as a starting point for both indigeneity and autochthony. Since all these prominent figures have advocated nationalism/nationalist reforms, decolonization and the establishment of state and institutions that would enable turning the project into empirical evidence was key. The theory of state building and university intelligentsia construction in Africa exists in the works of both Mandani and Mkandawire (2016), who point to the generations of African scholars as part of comprehending this process. The first generation is the colonial intellectuals comprised by

4  COLONIZATION AND DECOLONIZATION OF HE AND DEVELOPMENT… 

93

all the aforementioned nationalists that attended HE in the west and that with the rise of the socialist parties in either Europe or the USA, they developed the sense on national state ideology. One of the key remarkable features of this generation is the fact that the HE acquired by these intellectuals, though under the northern model of university, served as an instrument of protest against the model of university existing in Africa and also about the state imposed by the imperial north. They (the intellectuals) were revolutionary workers who applied knowledge to contradict the global north imperialism existing in Africa. Furthermore, there is a consensus that after the attainment of HE, most of this first generation of scholars returned to their home countries in order to use the knowledge obtained as a mechanism of contestation. The second generation of African scholars corresponds to the period of African independence in the 1960s and 1970s. Despite the crises of university during this period caused by the World Bank (WB) and International Monetary Fund (IMF), which prescribed universities and development for Africa as contradictory, the now existing HEIs established the first HE programs and instructed local graduates for the first time. It is this generation of scholars under which Mandani and other first Africa independent intellectuals were trained, especially at the university of East Africa. As previously indicated, the University of East Africa integrated Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda, though each country built its own HE sub-­system later on. The third generation of African scholars is related to those who through international cooperation and scholarship pursued their studies in the west. From this last group, the majority did not return to Africa as they became based in the west. Despite the authors having captured a tentative project of state building and university development, there is an apparent fourth wave of scholars that appear to emerge under the growing internationalization and globalization of HE. The new wave is of scholars holding double affiliation (in both north and south). With the growing field of HE research, it has become popular for scholars to work either in the north or south and then do research in either south or north. In addition, the growing concern from some of the northern universities in offering African studies has attracted African intelligentsia to have a double network (in Africa and Europe and in Africa and the USA) just to bring about some examples that sustain double affiliation and employability in compliance with generation of African scholars’ formation. Lastly, the operation of some northern university campus, for example, in the

94 

P. J. UETELA

south also attracts northern scholars to research either about northern or southern HE, though from a double geographical location. The development process of African scholarship and the construction of a national university may lead to an analysis of the alignment between access to university/HE and life after, which is mainly the focus on how acquired skills that enable promotion of a national agenda are constructed in Africa. In the global north context, for example, Gibbons et al. (1994) has characterized universities’ knowledge production under a moment of stability and certainties in terms of Model I. However, he sees Model II as corresponding to periods of instability and uncertainties within the HE realm instead. This categorization of knowledge production conceived by Gibbons et al. (1994) appears to have some commonalities with the aforementioned process of constructing and development of African national states and institutions. As to the independence moment of African countries, since there was an apparent certainty of the agenda of the state and its institutions, nationalism and decolonizing agendas were seen as the new imperialism universities should promote rather than preparing students for work. A description of how African universities conceptualized decolonization, nationalism and indigenization of universities as key priorities rather than concerns on employability at the initial state of HE construction is indicated in table below. There is a consensus that the conditions under which HE operated at least in the periods of modernity and subsequently at contestation period of colonization through the decolonization project in Africa reflects Mode I of knowledge production and its characteristics. Both modernity and decolonizing agendas that are result of African independence prioritized homogeneity, specific discipline for acquisition of specific skills, hierarchies in knowledge production and the idea that knowledge was localized dominated the early stages of construction of university in many African contexts. Again the main concern at this period is not yet employment, instead, the focus of university is mainly based on constructing a specific, localized and a known empire either for the global north through modernity or global south (Africa) on basis of independence and decolonization agenda. Contesting theories about homogeneity, discipline hierarchy and institutional ideologies as grounded on Model I emerged after a long period of independence. HE at this moment became complex, universities expanded rapidly, other institutions/stakeholders interested in producing

4  COLONIZATION AND DECOLONIZATION OF HE AND DEVELOPMENT… 

95

knowledge increased, the role of HE turned questioned and determinism/certainty was replaced by uncertainty. Within this scope, the debate “access to HE versus employment” emerged as the utility of knowledge also became complex. At this stage, the functions of HE included not only (i) generation of knowledge, transmission and transference of ideology (the case of modernity and decolonization where the problem was imperialism). Instead, universities were also seen (ii) as institutions that select and train specific elites in Africa. Under the complexity of HE and transition from independence to post-independence of African states, universities were imposed (iii) the mission of training/preparing students for work while at the same time maximized (iv) knowledge production for the purpose of utility/ application in contexts no longer defined or known. Any apparent mismatch between university access and unemployment, in many cases, led to a fallacious assessment of universities as either insufficient or irrelevant.

4.3  The Complexity of Universities and Graduates Employability Debate Subsequent to the independence of African states, in the 1960s and 1970s, there was a growing concern that both state and its institutions had specific and well-known agendas, based on decolonization project. Despite some African states having adopted a socialist approach of state governance and its institutions, after the failure of the socialist project in the majority of African countries, liberalization of the economies was seen as the new agenda. This new and dominating agenda led to a considerable complexity of the field of HE based on the number of graduates that entered HE in Africa. In addition, is the statistics of HEIs that became established both public and private, the rise of other stakeholders interested with HE agenda and the necessity of training administrators, leaders and human resources experts new complexity. In the new period, the certainty of knowledge to be produced, which dominated during independence period in terms of building the European empire of the African states and institutions, was replaced by uncertainty (lack of sure knowledge to be adopted). As a result, Model I that shaped HEIs in the aforementioned periods (colonization and independence) was replaced by Model II, and despite an explicit existence of the discussion, HE and employability, there is an assumption that whereas at the certainty

96 

P. J. UETELA

period the nexus between university and work was linear, at this new stage, such relationship became sharply non-existent. It becomes much more non-existent under the third wave of African HE transformation of which we designate model III, a moment of neoliberalism, strong capitalism and “macdonaldisation” of HE subsystems in Africa. At this stage, higher education became more complex in terms of size, typology and functions. Before describing such a moment and the implication for the alignment between HE and employability, there is a need to outline how model II and its characteristics are naturalized in African HE. HE and employability nexus’ debate in Africa, might be mingled within the scope presented in Tables 4.2 and 4.3 previously. The concern is aligned to the periodical routing function of universities of which preparing skills for the labor market becomes key. After independence of African states, there was a consensus that after universities establish the model of imperialism that was envisaged and after a long period of contestation and marginalization, universities would strengthen the economy through skills transference to the main sectors on knowledge basis. The project was nurtured by the new agenda of liberalism that accounted for the description of HE as no longer solely public good but also as private benefit (see, Gumport, 2000: 11). Picking one country in Africa (Mozambique), for example, a quick analysis on how the structure of the sectors of the economy is comprised may account for the initial debates on how such sectors of the economy are dependent on the knowledge universities produce. The key argument here is that after independence there was within Africa the position that knowledge economy and development were aligned. Therefore, universities should generate knowledge that aligns HE expansion and complexity with growth (for example see Fig. 4.1 for this particular). The results from this research suggest that HE in the country under evaluation for example, emerged in the 1960s though a considerable growth of both universities and graduations significantly increased in the mid-1990s overall. This fact led to an erupting concern on the link between universities and life after school in the 2010s, the moment the number of graduates in Social Sciences and Humanities surged considerably. However, there have been few studies undertaken in the topic. Furthermore, whereas in the international context both research on HE and reflections on the consequences of the growing statistics of graduates that terminated university became popular disputes in the late 1970s (cf. Tight, 2012; Teichler, 2005), the case of Africa features national analyses of unique conceptualization.

4  COLONIZATION AND DECOLONIZATION OF HE AND DEVELOPMENT… 

97

Table 4.2  Idealization of the African HE model at the period of independence Model I

Characteristics

Homogeneous knowledge

Defined and specific knowledge to address pre-defined problems Knowledge is static and specific for a known context There are specialists who define specific knowledge either for perpetuation of imperialism or decolonization Knowledge production is solely provided by institutions already determined/defined

Priority of discipline Hierarchy of knowledge Institutional/university/ unilateral knowledge

Source: Interpretation of Gibbons et al. (1994) and Becher (1994) and its alignment with Africa

Despite this unicity of Africa, the case of Asia today (see Altbach et al., 2014), for example, where investments on knowledge, universities expansion and response to the knowledge-based economy have been in parallel, serves as an uncontested evidence of university skills transference, graduates employment and development’s need. The rise of leading research centers across the latter context has also improved teaching and learning, collaboration and definition of skills that nurture employability of the graduates. All these remarkable reforms account for the rise of HE and employment debate not only as a localized problem for African HE but also as internationally concerned. The link between knowledge, knowledge economy and the role of universities in guaranteeing development has been evidenced by the emerging economies in the Asian context with focus on the rapid growth of Taiwan, China, South Korea and others. Research has evidenced that towards the independence of African states in the 1960s and 1970s (see the independence of Nigeria, Ghana, Congo, Tanzania and Kenya) just to mention some African national economies, the GDP of the aforementioned countries was at the same level as compared to the Asian contexts. However, at a certain point, the GDP of the former countries doubled in some instance, whereas that of the latter states did not show a considerable change. The underlying questions shaping research is what is that which Asian economies have been able to do that their counterparts in Africa were unable to? Despite the fact that part of the responses to this question will be analyzed in the subsequent chapters while discussing specific contexts of Africa in terms of regions, there are some implications meriting debate.

98 

P. J. UETELA

Table 4.3  Model II of knowledge and its alignment with employability conception Mode II

Characteristics

Interdisciplinarity

The knowledge produced and offered by universities should be multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary. This is contrary to the moments of certainty where specific disciplines are fostered to help build the kind of imperialism needed. University knowledge is no longer uniform but complex in compliance with integration of the graduates that is also characterized by uncertainties. Because of the complexity of HE, the traditional/public opinion that universities are the solely institutions that both determine and transmit knowledge is contested. Consequently, the case of who possesses and defined knowledge emerge. Due to the existence of a diversity of sites of knowledge production (industry, universities, research centers and academia), completion of knowledge production increases and universities at times contested. The rise of instruments of assessing knowledge (quality assurance agencies, national counsels for quality evaluation, national systems, regional and international) has increased the necessity of relevance of knowledge produced. Hence, utility and application of knowledge is what determines both relevance and who possesses knowledge (it can be universities, industry, academies and other stakeholders). Whereas in Model I (imperialism model), one of the characteristics emphasizes that specialists and professionals, determine knowledge, in Model II instead, there is (a) no specialist and professional as utility and application of knowledge is the most determinant factor of relevance. Such relevance and utility is not certain, determined, localized and fixed. However, it is uncertain, indeterminate and dynamic.

Heterogeneity of knowledge Inter-­ institutionalization

Variety of knowledge

Knowledge for application

Variety of learning and transient

Source: Contextualization of Uetela (2017), Gibbons et al. (1994) and Becher (1994))

Firstly, investment on local knowledge and universities made a remarkable contribution for the economies of the Asian countries, whereas marginalization and dependence on the colonization model of university in Africa might have accounted for its stagnation. Secondly, maximization of local knowledge and transference might have generated skilled and competent labor force in Asia (Tilack, 2007), which might have not occurred in Africa.

4  COLONIZATION AND DECOLONIZATION OF HE AND DEVELOPMENT… 

100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0%

2015

77.30%

0.50%

0.60%

2010

77.30%

0.60%

0.60%

2005

78.30%

0.60%

0.70%

2000

79.30%

0.60%

0.70%

1991

81.30%

0.60%

0.70%

Series1

Series2

3.10%

99

2.20%

1.20%

17.10% 100.00%

2.10%

2.10%

1.10%

16.20% 100.00%

2.00%

2.00%

1.00%

2.80%

2.10%

0.90%

1.60%

1.90%

0.80%

Series3

Series4

15.30% 100.00% 13.70% 100.00% 13.10% 100.00%

Series5

Fig. 4.1  Contribution of the sectors of the economy where graduates are employed. Source: Interpretation of Balchin et al. (2017: 16) versus data from the follow up of the graduates

To conclude this section and the quest of models of knowledge production, after discussing Model I (characteristic of the moments of certainty) and Model II shaped by university uncertainty, which in Africa was aligned to the consequences of independence and emergence of the intersection between HE and employability, there is also Model III, that is least debated in HE research. This third model of university knowledge production in Africa best prescribes the current moment of increasing uncertainty in (i) university function, (ii) type of knowledge that is relevant, (iii) the role of university and (iv) the consequences for the future of HE. Underlying this focus is the emergence of many agencies and stakeholders both interested in HE.  Also, these various stakeholders produce knowledge, and as a result, the sites of knowledge have increased considerably. How does the new Model III interconnect with the debate on higher education and employment? Firstly, with Model III there is an increase in the scope of debate concerning HE, and its role on producing skills that are adequate for employability. Secondly, the rapid growth of the gap between HE and students integration after graduation has called upon reconsideration of the function of HE. Lastly, there is an astonishing and ongoing debate affecting state authorities, government and researchers in unpacking the long-held fallacy that access to HE and employment are necessarily aligned.

100 

P. J. UETELA

Under the third wave of African HE transformation and discussion of the relationship between university and employment is the position that there was a misconception towards the independence that universities are guarantors of employability. As a result, any failure from a university graduate to be integrated in the labor market would necessarily imply a failure of the university. However, the argument might not be necessarily true. One of the contestations that African HE applies to show that the long-­ held tradition that access to HE and employment are interconnected is the adjustment of university programs. Most of the programs offered in many HEIs as previously described are aligned to local problems. Furthermore, employability of the graduates is re-signified in terms of attainment of the skills that are transferable to different contexts of application considering that the old concept of certainty has been replaced by uncertainty. All these new dynamics have explanation in the characteristics outlined (see table of Model II), where characteristics such as interdisciplinary, heterogeneity, inter-institutionalization, multidisciplinary and other new categories are emphasized. The concept of employability then is no longer implying a necessary direct employment, instead it implies the adjustment graduates make to the complex new situations in a world that is no longer fixed but is dynamic.

References Ajayi, J., Goma, L., & Johnson, G. (1996). The African experience with higher education. Association of African Universities Press. Altbach, P., et al. (2014). Higher education: A worldwide inventory of research centers, academic programs, and journals and publications (3rd ed.). Center for International Higher Education. Balchin, N., et  al (2017) Supporting economic transformation (SET): Economic transformation and job creation in Mozambique, synthesis paper. Retrieved December 21, 2018, from https://set.odi.org/wp-­content/uploads/2017/ 10/Economic-­t ransformation-­a nd-­j ob-­c reation-­i n-­M ozambique-­F ull-­ Synthesis-­Paper_Oct-­2017.pdf Becher, T. (1994). The significance of disciplinary differences. Studies in Higher Education, 19(2), 151–161. Retrieved from http://www.tandfonline.com/ doi/abs/10.1080/03075079412331382007 Bloom, D., Canning, D., & Chan, K. (2006). Higher education and economic development in Africa. Human Development Sector, Harvard University Press. Castells, M. (2001). Universities as dynamic systems of contradictory functions. In J. Muller (Ed.), Higher education and the network society. Springer.

4  COLONIZATION AND DECOLONIZATION OF HE AND DEVELOPMENT… 

101

Clark, B. (1983). The higher education system: Academic organization in crossnational perspective. University Press. Cross, M., & Ndofirepi, A. (2017). On becoming and remaining a teacher: Rethinking strategies for developing teacher professional identity in South Africa. Research Papers in Education, 30(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/ 02671522.2013.851729. Gibbons et al. (1994). The new production of knowledge: The dynamics of science and research in contemporary societies. Sage Publication. Gumport, P. (2000). Academic restructuring. Organizational change and institutional imperatives. Higher Education, 39(2), 67–91. Kezar, A., & Dee, J. R. (2011). Conducting multi-paradigm inquiry in the study of higher education organization and governance: Transforming research perspectives on colleges and universities. In J. Smart & M. Paulsen (Eds.), Higher education: Handbook of theory and research (Vol. 26). Springer. Krücken, G. (2014). Higher education reforms and unintended consequences: A research agenda. Studies in Higher Education, 39, 1439. https://doi.org/1 0.1080/03075079.2014.949539 Mkandawire, T. (1996). The social sciences in Africa: Breaking local barriers and negotiating international presence. The Bashorum M. K. O Abiola ­distinguished lecture presented to the 1996 ASA annual meeting. African Studies Review, 40(2), 15–36. Mkandawire, T. (2016). Running while others walk. Knowledge and the challenge of Africas’ development. [lecture video], 2011. Retrieved March 30, 2016, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D2U5omZtsJI Teferra, D., & Altbach, P. (2004). African higher education: Challenges for the 21st century. Journal of Higher Education, 42(21–50), 2004. Teichler, U. (2005). Research on higher education in Europe. European Journal of Higher Education, 40(4), 447–469. Tight, M. (2012). Levels of analysis in higher education research. Tertiary Education and Management, 18(3), 271–288. Tilack, J. (2007). Higher education and development in Asia. Asian Bank or Development Report. Trow, M. (1970). Reflections on the transition from mass to universal higher education. Daedalus, 99. The Embattled University. Retrieved from http://www. jstor.org/stable/20023931 Uetela, P. (2017). Higher education and development in Africa. Palgrave Macmillan Edition.

CHAPTER 5

Case Studies on Higher Education and Further Employability Linkages in Africa

5.1   Introduction The previous chapters outlined the context and landscape of the debate about HE genesis and the inception of the theories linking universities, skills acquisition and employment. The data indicated that at its establishment, HE in Africa was globally northern as it served to train the human capital that served to expand the European imperialism. However, northern imperialism was later on contested with the rise of a new conception of university in parallel with independence. The liberation of African states was initially thought in terms of establishing nationalism ideology, national states, autochthony and autonomy of state institutions of which universities were part. At this stage, the function of HE remained mainly ideological, that is, universities were seen as appropriate institutions that would guarantee contestation of the model of empire that the global north had built in Africa. Furthermore, and at the same period, there was an apparent alignment between access to HE and integration in the labor market. As earlier indicated, during the independence of African states, one of the role of universities was mainly that of generating skills that would aid strengthening state institutions after the European drift in Africa. Consequently, there was a mis-consensus that HEIs served to prepare graduates for work. Such misconception appears to have exacerbated with the rapid growth of capitalism.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 P. J. Uetela, Higher Education and Decolonization in Africa, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-38973-3_5

103

104 

P. J. UETELA

With the popularization of capitalism, the sense of competition for knowledge acquisition, access to HE, the application of knowledge in life after school grew considerably leading to debates and questions about the role universities play for society. It is within such competition and complexity of integration after university that the public opinion that lack of interconnection between leaving university and entering an occupation implied failure of HEIs was nurtured. In addition, this was the assumption that one of the indexes of measuring the importance of universities should be through assessment of the magnitude at which graduates are valued after completing training. Based on the previous assumption that “either integration of the graduates after leaving school or change in social status” would guarantee relevance of training institutions, there is a growing rise of research across Africa to unpack the magnitude of relevance on how African universities serve society on grounds of graduates’ employment. The position that the rapid growth of HEIs would lead to crises and recession of talents is a long debate, especially in the western context, though for Africa it remains incipient. In Africa, the debate about HE and employment linkages exacerbated with liberalism and strong emphasis of capitalism which led to the increment of public HE and the rise of private institutions and the concerns on private and popular gains of HE access (the public private good debate) in HE. Furthermore, the crises of African states emanating from the lack of economic independence led to perpetual capital dependence from the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund as previously indicated. This position compromised national states in securing wellbeing for its citizens raising the understanding that wellbeing was also an individual struggle. For the field of HE, for example, the fact contributed to the contradiction between graduate students and employability opportunities. The perplexities under which African states are mingled in currently raise some concerns. First is the fact that a triangle of cooperation between universities, states and industry needs be reinforced in Africa in contexts where it already exists and implemented where is not yet existing. Second is the reflection whether access to HE be limited by the future opportunities that the state launches for employability so that there is a perpetual alignment between access to HE and professional occupations. In case the misconception and public opinion that universities serve for employment becomes the norm, then limiting access to HE in compliance of statistics of government employment opportunities might be appropriate.

5  CASE STUDIES ON HIGHER EDUCATION AND FURTHER EMPLOYABILITY… 

105

The drawbacks of the policy/initiative above mentioned is that it will lead to an overwhelming elitisation of universities and access to HE in the continent though it assures all professionals completing university are employed. In addition, African HE is under the elite category on basis of Trow’s (1970) classification of universities in terms of (i) elite when the population that has access to HE ranges from 0% to 15% from the total population that is at the age of accessing university, (ii) massification when access is between 15% and 45% and lastly, (iii) universal higher education when access is at 45% and above. The case of Africa shows that HE is still at elite access as only 5% average from the total population that should be at university overall has access. Hence, limiting access to HE on grounds of incrementing employment access, would lead to an additional problem of making HE more elitist. Whereas the aforementioned subjects remain remarkably difficult to address and might vary in terms of specific country situation, the view that lack of African states economic independence has influence on university versus employability and in instituting the so-called “African HE” prevails. On the case of African independence versus dependence, there has been an ongoing debate on the implications of its essence. For some scholars, independence of African states remained in theory rather than an empirical evidence. Therefore, and as previously indicated, either contestation or skepticism of an existing “African Higher Education” is supported by this perspective of lack of economic freedom within African states as not only governments are affected but also their institutions. The scope of the African states, institutions and in/dependence debate is contained in the views of two researchers, namely Ki-Zerbo (2006) and Uetela (2017). Ki-Zerbo (2006), for example, proposed the idea that the way the structure of the global economy is defined, always leads to the dependence versus independence debate as it is analogously equivalent to the tail of the train versus its head. The more the head of the train moves faster the same occurs with the carriage though there is no possibility of the tail overtaking the head of the train. The complexity of economic structure dominating globally is explained/contained in this analogy of the train with its tail representing the global south and its head the global north. In addition, it is under this structure that both international and national state African institutions appear to operate. They are always influenced by top-brass policies and initiatives. Hence, it turns hypothetically impossible to affirm for an existence of “African universities” under

106 

P. J. UETELA

Ki-Zerbo’s (2006) perspective, as what occurs in practice is the tail to depend on its head in order to move, a concern that is appropriate to explain the historical construction of the African HE establishment. Furthermore, there is a narrow possibility of global south states and institution overturning the global north because whereas the former are pushed, the latter push the economy, the institutions and government agendas. Uetela (2017) makes an approximate concern to Ki-Zerbo (2006) as far as the dependence and independence debate is concerned. The authors are consensual that the structure of the global economy appears to be predefined and this has an impact on decolonization, Africanization and autochthony of the state, university, disciplines and science. As a starting point under this position, there are at least four categories shaping the position of the states and their institutions in the global economy. Such position affects the stage at which countries are either dependent or independent. First is the existence of countries belonging to the global north, which would correspond to the most affluent states with focus on the USA, France, England and Germany, just to name some. Second, there are the countries from the “global north of the global north,” that is, countries like the Netherlands, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and Japan to mention some, despite being located in the global north, they are not able to compete at the same level as those indicated in group 1 (global north)/first category. Thirdly, there is the position of the countries categorized as “global south.” In Africa, countries like Ghana, Nigeria, South Africa, Kenya, Zimbabwe, Zambia and Senegal just to point to some of the African hubs would fall under this classification. Lastly, the author refers to countries categorized as “global south of the global south” which capture states that are miserably poor like Chad, Zaire, Somalia and Comoros. In spite of lack of consensus that might rise, Mozambique also may fall under the fourth and last classification in the perspective of the authors. What does the classification or categorization of the countries mean? Simply that the structure of the global economy is aligned with interests and countries in the first category of domination of the economy are served by all the rest of the countries (namely second, third and fourth). On the other perspective, countries under the “global south of the global south,” those that are the poorest in Africa, are most likely to serve the interests of all other nations in the categories (first, second and third). Countries under the second and third group are minimally in advantage

5  CASE STUDIES ON HIGHER EDUCATION AND FURTHER EMPLOYABILITY… 

107

and might be able to share interests with others as they not only serve but are also served considering their positioning in the middle of the global competition. The cases outlined by Ki-Zerbo (2006) are consensual that instituting a so-called African Higher Education is contentious. The complexity of the project is in part associated to the fact that within Africa there are countries in the third category, whereas others are in the fourth classification (global south of the global south). Such classification contains difficulties when one reflects about “African Higher Education.” Should African Higher Education be referred to the countries in the third category or of the fourth? Is the position suggested by the author of the structure of the global economy that positions countries and then determine such positioning still called African? (see Said, 1990). If yes, how? Considering the fact that despite such structure of the global economy confirming the exacerbation of African governments’ dependence and then their institutions of which universities are part, the existence of African HE still prevails in terms of being a process under construction. How is such African HE then being aligned with employability of the graduates? Before developing on that, this book showed previously that despite African independence having not meant economic independence, some of the undergoing projects within HEIs in Africa are pro-independence and de-colonial (see Assie-Lumumba, 2019; Mattes & Luescher-Mamashela, 2010; Moyo, 2008; Lulat, 2003; Teferra & Altbach, 2004; Memmi, 1977, 2013; Mkandawire, 1996). What are the research findings then that address the interconnection between HE and employment discussions in Africa? An analysis of some of the international journals uniquely focusing on HE may serve to delineate the stage at which HE and employability concerns are placed within the continent.

5.2   An Analysis of Key Case Studies on HE, Graduates’ Employability and Interconnections with the Industry This section outlines some key ongoing debates that associate HE with employability across Africa in terms of regions comprising the administrative division of the continent. It does so by meta-analyzing some international research findings that have accounted for the discussion graduates employability and contribution of universities to local economies. The five

108 

P. J. UETELA

key regions being discussed are (i) Southern Africa Development Community-SADC with focus for Malawi, Mozambique and South Africa, (ii) West Africa, represented by Cameroon, Ghana and Nigeria, then (iii) Central Africa (Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of Congo and Burundi), (iv) East Africa, the key representatives were Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda and lastly (v) the northern Africa region, selected countries involved are Egypt, Libya and Morocco. The underlying focus in meta-analyzing African HE research is sustained by the position that it aids to encounter a systematic understanding of the empirical evolvement of the field and how differentiation and complementarity of HE sub-systems across regions account for commonalities and differences in the synergies that interconnect universities with development. There are fundamental reasons that accounted for both identification and selection of the regions under research. First was the necessity of capturing the picture of the entire continent concerning the topic HE and employability. Second is the fact of the complexity of the continent in terms of HE sub-systems and priorities, which unless these are analyzed from the perspective of regional blocks (aggregates), it may become impossible to capture the whole picture of the so-called African higher education. Third is the fact that selection in terms of regions aid to capture the overall commonalities given the existence of instituted regional organizations influencing governments, states and institutions of which universities are indispensably part. Uetela (2017) has indicated how regional blocks in Africa are significant in explaining both African diversity and unicity “Ubuntu,” that is, the sense of community. As a matter of fact, one can associate some of the dominant blocks and then show their interconnections with the countries sampled to meta-analyze. The structure can be presented as follows: (i) the Southern Africa Development Community with Malawi, Mozambique and South Africa having been selected as sample representatives. There is also (ii) ECOWAS—The Economic Community of West African States represented in the research by Cameroon, Ghana and Nigeria. Thirdly, there is ECCAS—the Economic Community of Central African States with DRC, Central African Republic and Burundi, as previously indicated. The Eastern African Community (EAC) is represented in the study by Kenya, Uganda and Ethiopia. Lastly, there is the Arab Maghreb Union (AMU), represented by Egypt, Lybia and Morocco (Uetela, 2017: 7). As to HE, it also remains a consensus that there is a possibility of the existence of an African HE within these aggregate common interests

5  CASE STUDIES ON HIGHER EDUCATION AND FURTHER EMPLOYABILITY… 

109

existing in compliance with the five regions aforementioned. Based on the rapid growth of HE in all the regions despite differences, there is a growing concern that HE in Africa is essential for the economy and development which contests the long-held fallacy of modernity that proliferated the vision that HE and development were not necessarily interconnected. The evidence of a common shared value within Africa and the importance of universities in fostering development has been addressed by some of the influential voices within Africa, including Kofi Annan in the following terms: The University must become a primary tool for Africa’s development in the new century. Universities can help develop African expertise, they can enhance the analysis of African problems, strengthen domestic institutions, serve as a model environment for the practice of good governance, conflict resolution and respect for human rights, and enable African Academics to play an active part in the global community of scholars. (Bloom et al., 2006 apud Uetela, 2017: 10)

How has SADC been understood in the global literature as to the interconnection existing between HE and employment debate?

5.3  Some Case Studies from the SADC Region (Malawi, Mozambique and South Africa) According to Manthalu and Waghid (2019), HE in the SADC region is still an infant as is the case in other localities on the continent with exception to the northern countries and west Africa where the position that “African Higher Education” is as old as the pyramids of Egypt has been made only on the basis of institutions that existed previous to modernity. This reference has been presented in African HE research in the following terms: Teferra and Altbach (2004) consider the conception of higher education (HE) in Africa as ancient as the construction of the pyramids of Egypt. Their argument is both theoretically and empirically substantiated by the permanence of universities such as Ez-Zitouna Madrassa in Tunis instituted in 732 Annum Domini (AD), Karaouine of Fez-Morocco established in 859 (AD), Al-Azhar Cairo-Egypt in 970 and Sankore in Timbuktu-Mali, which appeared in 1100 (AD). (Uetela, 2019a, b: 30)

110 

P. J. UETELA

The case presented by either Teferra and Altbach (2004) or Uetela (2017, 2019a, b) to position African HE as a long-held debate is only limited to covering some Arab Maghreb Union (AMU) countries as well as part of ECOWAS. Based on this assumption, for the rest of the locations (SADC, ECCAS, and EAC), HE is both novel and a contradictory phenomenon. Taking part of the countries herein indicated as sample representations of the SADC region, the development of universities, in Mozambique goes back to 1962 with the institution of Universidade de Lourenço Marques, which meant to serve the interests of Portuguese settled in the country. We have referred to this as global north imperialism. The institution of a national HE, which is under the category of African HE is only a 1976 phenomenon taking into account the invention of Eduardo Mondlane University, built on the ground of serving the interests of Mozambique (the construction of a local empire/national imperialism). From then, HE research did not follow until the 1990s with liberation of the economy, complexity of HE and emergence of scholars interested in researching universities. In spite of the rise of the researchers interested in HE, these remain at individual level rather than institutional or even internationally based, but who are interested in researching Mozambique. As a result, the data presented subsequently about this country will reflect findings from individual engagement in research rather than from research centers as has turned to be the case in South Africa that has rapidly become a hub of both HE research and interconnecting universities and employability debates. As to Malawi, national HE emerged in parallel with its independence in 1964 as similarly became the case in most of the African states that liberation from the colonial struggle at a certain point meant establishment of institutions in local perspectives (decolonization) of state and its institutions. In addition, before the Malawian independence, the function of HE (the colonial university) remained that of instructing the British intelligentsia that inhabited Malawi, which would aid to consubstantiate the British Empire not only in Malawi but also in other countries where British imperialism was extended. The fact that access to HE became restricted to few Malawians during its inception, was inherited and continued after independence. Thus, the position outlined previously that HE in Africa is elitist is self-evident not only in Malawi but also across the continent. In fact, for the case of Malawi, there are currently only four public universities that guarantee access to HE for the entire population of the country (approximately 18 million).

5  CASE STUDIES ON HIGHER EDUCATION AND FURTHER EMPLOYABILITY… 

111

Malawian public institutions are as follows: (i) the University of Malawi (UNIMA)-1965, (ii) the Mzuzu University (MZUNI)-1997, (iii) Malawi University of Science and Technology (MUCT)-2012 and (iv) Lilongwe University of Agriculture and Natural Resources. Data from Malawi shows that there is a total of 26 HEIs among private and public of which 22 are private and 4 are public as earlier indicated. Whereas public institutions existed before the liberalization of the economy (before and subsequent to independence), private universities are the result of economic liberalism. The new ones (private) include (i) Africa University of Guidance, Counselling and Youth Development-, (ii) African Bible College University, (iii) Blantyre International University, (iv) Catholic University of Malawi, (v) Central Christian University, (vi) Columbia Commonwealth University/Malawi, (vii) Daeyang University, (viii) St John the Baptist University, (ix) Exploits University, (x) Malawi Adventist University, (xi) Millennium University, (xii) Malawi Assemblies of God University, (xiii) Nkhoma University, (xiv) Pentecostal Life University, (xv) Share World Open University, (xvi) Skyway University, (xvii) St. John of God College of Health Sciences, (xviii) Unicaf University, (xix) University of Livingstonia, (xx) Riverton University, (xxi) Lake Malawi University, (xxii) Saint John Paul II Leadership and IT Institute. The case of Malawi indicates that private HE has grown rapidly as compared to public, which may suggest the position that HE is now seen as a private good rather than a public one. Furthermore, the situation may also elucidate the crisis of the state and its insufficiency in funding universities influencing marginalization of high learning agenda in the country. Lastly, the case of Malawi may suggest that HE as a public good is a long process to be set as priority in the country. The novelty of evolvement of HE in Malawi may have implications when one analyses, HE research either about the link between HE and employability or between HE and other related topics. After addressing the preliminary situation of Mozambique and Malawi, how does the context of South Africa looks like in the SADC? The case of South Africa is interesting as it is not only the hub of African HE research but also a new constructed national state that has been able to quickly be positioned in the global competition. The construction of South Africa as both a nation and dominating HE in the continent, is a result of conflicts between European imperialism reflected in the disputes over its domination. Firstly, there was a growing interest of the Dutch, then Germans and later on English in occupying the country. South Africa is a reference for the understanding of the position that in Africa and

112 

P. J. UETELA

during its inception, HE was not meant for indigenous citizens. Instead, HE was initially meant for the instruction of the Dutch, English and German people that have been occupying the country, a case that is selfevident when one follows the student protests and black revolts either within universities or outside. Another astonishing evidence in the analysis of the South African HE, is the coincidence between the placement of the country’s economy either in the continental or the global competition with the ranking of its universities/HEIs. Currently, South Africa dominates African economy and so its universities have been leading the league tables of ranking. The coincidence in South Africa between HE prosperity and its position in the global economy may recall some of the arguments outlined previously. Firstly, that the marginalization of universities in the 1980s on basis that HE and development in Africa were not necessarily aligned remains a fallacy. Secondly, HE and development nexus cannot be assessed by geographical location (African HE does not contribute for development, investment in HE and return indexes are contradictory in Africa and other assumptions). Instead, what the case of South Africa reveals is the necessity of prioritizing research as a means of capturing the contribution universities make for the economy. Despite contestations of the hypothesis concerning marginalization of African HE simply on the basis of geographical location and consideration that the South African economy is the leading one in Africa, HE sub-­ system is rapidly growing and raises a wider range of interpretations. The complexity of assessing HE and development debate is within this complexity of interpretations, though the fact that there is an empirical evidence between economic development of countries and their universities led national agendas. For example, the fact that Harvard, Princeton, Massachusetts Institute of Technology and other highly ranked institutions are all located in the United States of America, the global leading economy, is a strong evidence of a necessary connection between countries’ growth and the role of HEIs in helping build such development. There are various points for reflection concerning the case of Universities and development nexus project. First is the point for reflection on whether development comes first and then HE sub-systems or universities develop and dominate the league tables of global ranking because the country is already developed. If this is the case, then the role of universities in nurturing development is not necessarily aligned, based on the non-existence of a clear cause and effect

5  CASE STUDIES ON HIGHER EDUCATION AND FURTHER EMPLOYABILITY… 

113

between the two. Because of this assumption, there might be other indexes that foster economic development of the countries, and consequently, universities benefit indirectly. Let us then turn back again to the case of the coincidence of either South Africa or the USA and then evaluate the sense the aforementioned argument makes. Did not South Africa and the USA develop first and then universities and their HE sub-systems followed this path? The data we bring about South Africa in the subsequent sections might address the empirical evidence constituting this long and dividing discussion. Second is the fact that research shows that universities and development are necessarily aligned as HE knowledge nurtures economic growth. However, based on empirical evidence and historical antecedents, universities emerged in Africa. As a matter of fact, we indicated previously the greatness of Egypt, Mali, northern African Madrassas and then even Greece as the civilization that invented the idea of university and instituted the first HEIs that became reference afterwards within the African civilization. For Africa, we indicated this in terms of Ez-Zitouna Madrassa located in Tunis and instituted in 732 (BC); Karaouine of Fez-Morocco established in 859 (BC), Al-Azhar Cairo- Egypt in 970 and Sankore in Timbuktu-Mali, which appeared in 1100 (AD). These are some of the examples showing how universities evolved in Africa before the actual top-­ brass HEIs that dominate globally (cf. the previous data for Harvard, Princeton, MIT and others). In the case of Greece, for example, (see Stumpf, 1993; Abbagnano & Versalberghi, 1970) great minds like Plato and Aristotle popularized the first models of universities in terms of Academia and lyceum. The Academia of Plato in Ancient Greece became so popular that other great minds of the period including Aristotle went to the academy in order to acquire knowledge. Furthermore, there is a consensus that most of the teaching strategies/methodologies applied in universities today including dialectic, critical thinking and inquiry are all techniques that are inherited from either the Egyptians in North Africa and Greece under the Greek civilization. However, despite the greatness of either Greece or Egypt in inventing universities and consolidating methods that are still applied to date, these countries (either Egypt, Mali or Greece) are not economically wealthy to the level of the USA, England and other countries whose universities dominate the ranking tables today. Therefore, the idea that universities nurture development may be refuted when one considers the aforementioned cases of countries that have been pioneers in inventing the idea of

114 

P. J. UETELA

university, but today neither their HEIs nor their economies have been able to compete in the global landscape. The contesting arguments about the misalignment between HE and development that have characterized research, have been constructed under this empirical evidence. Considering that there are at least two contradictory positions arising from the debate attempting to interconnect HE and development, it is pivotal to outline the direction this research is inclined to take as it is built from the latter theory indicated before. Since there is no necessary relationship/coincidence between the evolution of universities and the development of the countries where the first models of universities emerged, then the case that universities nurture development might be refuted and hence HEIs are not contributing to development. There might be additional theories associated with universities that account for development, as those indexes have not been able to be captured/maximized by countries like Egypt, Mali and Greece where the models of universities were primarily invented. In spite of the latter evidence being at a certain instance self-evident, the direction this study undertakes as a starting point in addressing the link between HE and development based on the analyses of the SADC region hypothesizes a range of options. Nevertheless, the data collection following subsequently, will serve to test the validity and reliability of all the propositions outlined to this stage as they all serve as starting foundations in understanding the complexity of the ongoing debate as far as the relationship between African HE and development is concerned. As a primary probability, in Africa, HE and development are necessarily aligned, given they contribute to such development based on knowledge they generate and transfer to industry through graduates and skills acquisitions. Furthermore, the case of Egypt, Greece and Mali that despite having been the pillars of universities have been unable to link HE with prosperity of their economies, might have been caused by the failure of prioritizing the kind of science that nurture development in these countries and universities. Secondly and as earlier indicated, the model of university that research indicates to have evolved in Africa and Greece afterwards, prior to the rise of leading HEIs of modern times such as Bologna, Paris, Oxford and Cambridge, collapsed with colonization/modernity. The substitution/ replacement of this indigenous concept/idea of university by the modern typology might have had an impact on these countries.

5  CASE STUDIES ON HIGHER EDUCATION AND FURTHER EMPLOYABILITY… 

115

In part, they may have struggled to catch up with the demands of the new mode to the extent that a false hypothesis that HE and progress are delinked especially in Africa is not empirically evidenced and might be once again fallacious. An explanation that the denial of the correlation between HE and development might be a false problem seems to have been explored by Mkandawire (2016) when arguing that Africa “should run while others walk.” The sense of the analogy of “Africa should run while others walk” may be translated to mean the vision that modern HE in Africa replaced the meaning that was being constructed about the sense of university. It also retarded the inception of new “African HE” as it only appears under decolonization theories, emanating from the independence of African states and institutions. Thus, the necessity to quickly institute and adapt to the new kind of university and institution that has been inherited from the colonial imperialism. The most appropriate way of so doing would be through speeding the adjustment in a moment of total consolidation from the part of the “other” who might be content with the stage, which their civilization is at and has been able to impose itself on others. The data collection from where we test the aforementioned hypotheses is built from a selection of the main studies that have been conducted in Malawi, Mozambique and South Africa as to the debate about HE and development. As earlier indicated, despite the three countries not including the entire SADC, at least the data and findings may serve as representatives for the understanding of the landscape of HE in the region.

5.4  Some Case Studies Undertaken to Capture HE, Employability in the SADC Region: Intersection Between HE and Employability of the Graduates Malawi 1. Education and Employment (2010) The paper captures a one-year period debate (2004–2005) on the interface between HE and employment in Malawi. Key objectives include: 1. Understanding the extent to which education and employment are necessarily interconnected; 2. How university knowledge and access to university skills have impact on people’s earning;

116 

P. J. UETELA

3. Capture whether low wages and low education skills are necessarily interconnected; 4. How gender and best opportunities of employability are inter-related (Castel et al., 2010). What the study seeks to understand in the case of Malawi is a fivefold perspective of analyses: (a) To see the parallel between the age under which participants enrolled in HE and how this affects future chances of employment; (b) Account for the increasingly growing number of graduates and show how this will impact absorption concerns in the near future; (c) To understand how universities, the state and the industry are combining efforts in responding to skills provisions that are essential in coping with the complexities of the growing number of graduates; (d) Evaluate gender, age and HE in Malawi and then see how they inter-relate; (e) Assess enrolments in HE, in Education and interconnection with employability (Castel et  al., 2010). All the aforementioned perspectives explain both approaches and meanings in HE research on the interconnection between universities and work is framed. There is a consensus that graduates’ employability in this sense may vary in terms of (a) age, (b) gender, (c) generation of graduates and moments of enrollment and (d) the magnitude of interconnection between universities and the industry (Stampini Marco, 2010). 2. Links Between Higher Education and Employers in Malawi: The need for a dialogue? The study explores the interconnection existing between HE with graduates by focusing on vocational training, that is, has vocational training always meant conditions and possibilities for work? How addressing these complexity of the linkages aid in informing policies’ impact on the eradication of poverty and nurturing socio-economic development? How strengthening synergies on the interconnection between key stakeholders in HE helps in comprehending what skills for employment are necessary in the country in line with the demands of the moment? (Hall & Thomas, 2005). The concerns presented at this stage to describe part of the Malawian

5  CASE STUDIES ON HIGHER EDUCATION AND FURTHER EMPLOYABILITY… 

117

perspectives in addressing the interconnection between students’ termination of school and future life suggests that (i) there is an evolving research agenda on HE and its complementary topics of which employment is part and (ii) there is also an illustrative focus for the dimensions of institutions in at least two categories. These are classified in terms of (a) universities and (b) vocational and training institutes and centers of which the results and impact these categories may have on employability might be divergent. That is disproportionality of graduates employment either in Malawi or elsewhere might be related to both differentiation of HEIs and arenas of specialization. 3. Improving Higher Education in Malawi for Competitiveness in the Global Economy The aims of the study were to capture how HE in Malawi makes the country competitive in the global economy by re-searching the following questions: 1. What are the constraints of the Malawian HE in offering graduates that respond to the market needs? 2. What are the factors influencing contestation on the alignment between HE and development in the country? 3. What are the immediate actions that the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MoEST) should implement to foster quality education which will constructively be aligned to the vision and demands of the knowledge economy? Either this approach or the previously indicated may illustrate the magnitude of exploring synergies on graduates’ occupations as a relevant concern that influence society and economy (universities outputs); There is also a concern that researching the complexity of HE of which graduates employability is part may aid in informing both government and other key influencers of HE policies/strategies; furthermore the view that interpreting HE dynamics on lens of research may lead to changes and application of strategies that help construct the undeniable knowledge world and economy, of which knowledge is indispensable (Mambo et al., 2016).

118 

P. J. UETELA

4. Psychology Brewed in an African Pot: Indigenous Philosophies and the Quest for Relevance The study applied the decolonization theory to capture Malawian HE transformation, that is, how the key changes shaping national HE sub-­ system should be reversed to comply with the notion that universities should serve the needs of the local community. The underlying focus behind such a notion is to deconstruct the argument that since African HE including Malawian has been built on western model of universities, it also produced graduates that acquired both concepts and structures of knowledge of northern reality rather than African. Consequently, the case that HE contributes for socio-­economic development becomes an interesting area of debate in Malawi as the study seeks to highlight. The main intriguing concern in the attempt to associate university knowledge and local interests rests upon the theory that since African HE is an inheritance from the global north paradigm, it generates as earlier mentioned western influenced graduates and perpetuate elite HE. This was the notion of HE when it was firstly instituted in Africa, that it should serve the interests of the colonial elite. What courses are offered within African HEIs with special focus for Malawi, and how do these translate national/local interests? How specific courses have evolved and their presence is explained in the country (e.g. Social and behavioral dynamics) seeking to train graduates that are concerned with indigenous population services and also maximize knowledge application on African perspectives (Bandawe, 2005). Therefore, the main question of interest this study addresses lead us to raise further inquiries that aid in comprehending either Malawi or other realities within the region. Therefore, the main question of interest this study addresses leads us to raise further inquiries that aid in comprehending either Malawi or other realities within the region. Thus, in part, the inheritance of western HE and application within national and local realities would account for the position that it would be impossible to think about HE in the region without the model colonially inherited. Thus, the challenge for Malawi and other states should not be limited to criticizing the global north HE that was imposed in Africa, but how African countries contextualize this university in addressing local problems on the basis of the diversity of courses they (universities) offer.

5  CASE STUDIES ON HIGHER EDUCATION AND FURTHER EMPLOYABILITY… 

119

Mozambique 1. 2019: University and Generation of Thought in Africa: What Linkages with Graduates Employability This study traced graduates from 5 Universities in the country in a 37-year period from 1975 to 2012. The aim of the study was to capture key moments of Mozambique’s HE transformation (i) 1975–1992; (ii) 1993–2006 and (iii) 2007–2012. Each of the three sub-periods corresponds to the key stages of decolonization of science, universities and knowledge in Mozambique. Furthermore, the sub-periods subscribe to the key differences in the national attempts to align universities and work. In addition, the investigation was an attempt to encounter the relationship existing between areas of expertise, timeframe spent to acquire employability, the relationship between specialization and field graduates are employed, and the dialogue between their social status previous to employment stage and access to university with the moment they were traced (Uetela, 2019a: 1–314). In part, unpacking the interconnection between the role of HE and the impact it has on employment in Mozambique entails a cautious analysis in the dimensions outlined. 2. 2018: Baseline Survey on University Students’ School-to Employment Transition The study was based on the literature review and interviews with graduates’ students from six Mozambican universities: (i) Eduardo Mondlane University, (ii) Saint Thomas University of Mozambique, (iii) Polytechnic University (Apolytechnic), (iv) the Pedagogical University, (v) The Catholic University of Mozambique and (vi) Zambeze University. It sampled 17,977 graduate students in a 14-year-period from 2003 to 2017 and in eight domains of specialization: (i) Education (ii) Arts and Humanities, (iii) Social Sciences, Management and Law, (iv) Natural Sciences, (v) Engineering, Industry and Construction, (vi) Agriculture, (vii) Health and Well-Being and (viii) Services.

120 

P. J. UETELA

The results from this study suggest that students involved in the research came from all the 11 provinces comprising the country. This might be an achievement as it shows that Mozambican HE has quickly expanded and now exists in the entire country. Furthermore, when HE is accessible to all regions, it lessens social inequalities at least in terms of access. It also contradicts the long-held fallacy that HE access is limited to the elite since its establishment in 1962, it only operated in the capital Maputo till 1995, when private HE evolved as part of decentralizing high learning. There is under this perspective a consensus that the stages of development of Mozambican HE had an impact on the stages we also see on graduate’s employability today in the country. It is also undeniable that graduates’ integration in the labor-market is determined by a range of factors (i) geographical location of the students, social capital (parents background), province of origin, influences and other categories. In addition to the different stages at which graduates seek employment, the area of expertise, the salary expectation and contribution they make to the country’s economy is also an ongoing process in Mozambique (Jone, 2018: 1–29). 3. 2018: Expansion Versus Contribution of Higher Education The study sought to capture key industries that employ university graduates per country and in Africa though with the main target of mapping the Mozambican landscape. It did so by meta-analyzing key research findings existing. Targeting the industry was strategic to capture the skills existing there on assumption that the contribution graduates make for the economies is only possible through skills transfer. The study implies ongoing debates on the link between universities, graduates and work though by focusing on the perception of the firms. 4. How and What Knowledge Do Universities and Academics Transfer to Industry in African Low-Income Countries? Evidence from the Stage of University-Industry Linkages in Mozambique The aim of the study was to map knowledge (research) underway in low-income countries with focus for Mozambique. It tried to show the way universities, the State and industry interconnect in Mozambique. The approach was extended to other countries of SADC with the main purpose of identifying socio-economic contribution of universities in the selected

5  CASE STUDIES ON HIGHER EDUCATION AND FURTHER EMPLOYABILITY… 

121

countries and regions. The results of the study are essential to understand the role of power in defining interconnectivity. As to the case of Mozambique under investigation, there is an apparent concern that power distance is high which affects the inter-relational alliances between universities, state and industry. The case of lack of proximities between key actors in Mozambique, for example, appears to lead to imposition of the state over universities. Lack of university autonomy especially in appointment of high levels of hierarchical leadership (rectors) is an example of high-power distance, at least between HEIs and government. Such distance may also affect the discussions existing on the role of university and the interconnection that universities build with firms that employ graduates. 5. From University to Work: A Study on the Destination of Graduates of 2011 Cohort from Mozambican HEIs This was one of the preliminary studies conducted in Mozambique after HE has emerged in the country as a field of study between 2010 and 2011. It resulted from a combination of efforts between two research institutions in two different countries, namely Mozambique and the Netherlands. Precisely, it was the first pilot study conducted by CESD— the Center for the study of HE and Development from the side of Mozambique—and CHEPS—The Center for Higher Education Policy Studies on the side of the Netherlands. The importance of this study in understanding the interconnection between HE and labor is threefold in perspective (a) Captures skill needs and gap (existing between aims and real evidence). Knowledge appears to be the ability that universities maximize and transfer to the industry through graduates’ training as this will in the future aid socio-economic development; The evaluation of the correlation between graduates application of the skills acquired in HE with the employers’ satisfaction through such application aid assessment of how all these considerations nurture well-being in the country. (b) The results are informative for policy/new policy reforms and curriculum re-structuring on the basis of graduates’ outcomes (interviews) and employers’ assessment of the current graduates preparedness

122 

P. J. UETELA

(c) Another key finding is that being the incipient Tracey investigation, it raises consciousness about following up graduates as mediums of informing quality planning for human resources, state, government and industry. In addition, to show the necessity of cyclical surveys might be the most reliable source of researching the contribution of HE for society. Based on the scope of the research and ongoing transformation of HE in Mozambique, the present investigation considers that: (a) employing sectors of the graduates after they leave university vary in size and arena of specialization; (b) the relationship between graduates’ areas of specialization with the kind of employment they hold may be at times complying whereas in others are contradictory; (c) HE nurtures the kind of competences that are required for employment and contribution to local economies. However, the assessment of such commitment might differ from the evaluators; (d) there are different ways through which graduates apply the skills acquired at university in their daily duties (theoretical knowledge, practical knowledge, combination of theory and practice and other formats); (e) HE has always been conceived to be relevant to the market. However, depending on the conditions and process of assessment, relevance might be translated into irrelevance; (f) the interconnection existing between the programs either universities offer or under which graduates were instructed and their relevance to the market are at times not necessarily aligned; (g) there are undeniable differences between areas of expertise and employment which translate the extent contribution to the economy varies in compliance with such programs and fields of specialization; Graduates’ employment acquisition vary/differ in terms of time, course undertaken while in HE and type of institution of instruction, as all these interplay with and either delay or quicken employability entry; (h) lastly, it is the fact that gender interplays with all the aforementioned concerns (Langa et al., 2016: xiii–206), especially in terms of areas of expertise, length it takes for employability and institutions of choice.

5  CASE STUDIES ON HIGHER EDUCATION AND FURTHER EMPLOYABILITY… 

123

South Africa 1. Evaluating Postgraduate Preparation in the South African Context This study researches in part how life looks like after graduates leave university and how such placement is related to relevant training. It considers insufficiency of postgraduate programs that would benefit students in acquiring highly competitive skills. Such failure may lead to under-­ consideration of the role of universities. Furthermore, this might be a contradiction for the context of South Africa with high demand for increasing the number of black researchers and intellectuals. Such aim might be impossible without considering knowledge as a key driver for growth of the economy and reinforcement of universities. Postgraduate programs within HEIs is seen from the perspective of research as an engine that will accelerate competence and quality knowledge to other sectors of the economy. From the research, the number of students at master’s, doctoral or other postgraduate programs has been low in South Africa which affects the quality of knowledge transferred to the industry. Lack of evaluation studies for the few existing programs that prepare students for post-­ graduation is another factor lessening participation in postgraduate programs. To conclude, this study suggests that contribution for development on university basis is not solely assessed by employability but also on conditions under which HEIs intensify postgraduate studies that address local problems at a high level (master’s, PhD and post-doctoral levels) and instigate quality thinking and knowledge production (Whitehead, 2015: 914–927). 2. From Study to Work: Methodological Challenges of a Graduate Destination Survey in the Western Cape, South Africa The aim of the study was to indicate both unreliability and limitations of tracing studies as synergies that capture the role of HE and its contribution for the economy. Tracing graduates as a method of comprehending the interconnection between the transitions from university to work has drawbacks. Part of the limitations the methodology shows are linked to graduates dispersion and change of addresses (physical address, cellphones, emails, alumni). Furthermore, the longer graduates have left university, the higher is the chance of forgetting all what they learned and probably do false declarations.

124 

P. J. UETELA

Despite the aforementioned limitations in tracing graduates as a method on the one hand, tracing methodology, on the other hand, aids to capture the skills transfer from universities, graduates’ application and then understand how economic growth is either interconnected or not to HE (Du Toit et al., 2014: 853–864). 3. Providing Opportunities for Student Self-assessment: The Impact on the Acquisition of Psychomotor Skills in Occupational Therapy Students. The study aimed at assessing how a specific test (self-evaluation) was either adequate or not for specific skills acquisition that enabled students act proactively in their specific profession depending on the moment it (the assessment) takes place (pre-intervention or intervention moments). Specifically, the study describes how in a certain department (of occupational therapy) responsible for certifying students in health care skills, application of some assessment criteria to ensure appropriate abilities necessary for future employment in the field is determined. Following strictly the assessment criteria, is potential for becoming a specialist in their area of instruction, which guarantee future integration and success of the graduates after leaving university. From the framing of the research, universities are key in nurturing economic growth and solution to local problems depending on the extent to which practical abilities of the fields they offer are internalized by students. Another concern contained in the study is how quality work after graduation in specific areas/fields of instruction are constructed through different typologies of students’ assessment (Jay & Owen, 2015: 1176, 1192) 4. The Development and Evaluation of a Chemistry Course for Paramedical Students This study signals how understanding the dynamics and complexities of the world is essential in assessing the link between HE access and employment. Also, the skills that universities should guarantee for graduates. In the 1970s, for example, the moment the research was conducted, both medical and paramedical students did the same course of chemistry though assessment at entry moment and pass grades were distinct. The case shows that depending on historical moments either of high competition or less, skills acquisition may not account for employability though assessment is

5  CASE STUDIES ON HIGHER EDUCATION AND FURTHER EMPLOYABILITY… 

125

pivotal to position students at different stages of learning and assimilation of the learning process. The frame of the argument may explain employability constraints not in terms of skills insufficiency but in terms of recession of abilities universities offer, which results is high competition. The study indicates follow up of the graduates and questionnaires with practitioners as applied in nursing and therapy courses to be assets in re-­designing the courses (researched and not) on basis of market needs. Also, the way in which they respond/address the questionnaires and interviews as a result of their daily experiences in the work place is important to inform policy change, curricula and teaching methodologies (Daniels & Staskun, 1979: 89–9). In summary, the necessity to interconnect universities, research and industry is complex and there is no a unique formula to assess such linkages. 5. Communities and Scholarship in Supporting Early Career Academics at the University of the Witwatersrand The study shows how support on early career academics makes them feel fully integrated in the academic profession. It explores the impact of early support for new employees (academics) as potential for a successful career in terms of good exercise of teaching skills and practices (Osman & Hornsby, 2016: 1835–1853). This case study suggests that it is not adequate solely to secure HE and employability linkages. It is also relevant to monitor how professionals at different stages nurture the skills they have acquired while at university. This includes assessing and accompanying the integration of early career workers in both of their knowledge. It is within this context that socio-economic development occurs locally. Considering that many of the interviewed professionals started their teaching career without experience, support from the department, discipline and faculty staff made them improve their career and task performance, which subsequently had an impact on the development of the institution, community of practice and country as a whole. 6. Doctoral Rites and Liminal Spaces: Academics Without PhDs in South Africa and Australia This study highlights that, despite the growing concern that holding a PhD is a must for employability in HEIs given it assures quality, in most of the global south (developing) contexts the theory has been contrary to the

126 

P. J. UETELA

facts. There is a growing number of university employees (lecturers) without the minimum of the requirements. Based on the interview method carried out with non-PhD lecturers in Australia and South Africa, such a contradiction between aspirations and actual facts remains visible. There are two models of feeling employers at this category have while constructing their identities namely (i) non-PhDs and post-PhDs and (ii) staff and students. Based on the two categories, employability/occupation can be either transient or permanent. It is transient for the lecturers who do not hold a PhD, will become students later on and finally return to work and secure a permanent occupation (Breier et al., 2019). These analyses illustrate how employment might have different meanings at different stages of career progression. Findings Depending on circumstances and demands of either HEIs or sectors of the economy, degrees might not be a must for work performance. Instead, skills/abilities to execute the tasks while workers expand their degrees might be a solution. This has been common in developing countries (southern countries), where many bachelor’s students have been recruited to work/ teach at bachelor level (bachelor counterparts) on the basis that they are capable of maintaining continuity of universities while at the same period are prepared to acquire the legitimate requirements to teach at university. For the case of Africa, for example, the practice became popular especially during the independence of African States and colonial drift, which left local institutions orphaned in terms of qualified staff. Lack of qualified university staff as a consequence of decline of the global north imperialism in Africa (return of European intellectual capital to Europe) led to an employability model classified by Breier et al., 2019 as transient. Despite the practice having been popularized during periods of scarcity (independence), it is still dominant today with many more non-PhD staff than PhD working at university level. An overview of the universities existing in Africa indicate many HEIs have been relying on both master’s and BA lectures; if they had depended on PhDs, the majority would have collapsed 7. The Possibilities for University-Based Public-Good Professional Education: A Case Study from South Africa Based on the “Capability Approach” The research addresses how universities link HE skills-learning and graduates’ future preparation. It captures the solutions to poverty and

5  CASE STUDIES ON HIGHER EDUCATION AND FURTHER EMPLOYABILITY… 

127

considers the role of universities as indispensable institutions that legitimize public good mission. It also emphasizes how professional education (the study of hard applied sciences) is being seen in South Africa as a model of learning that guarantees future employability. The study does so by analyzing one course of Engineering in order to evaluate the alignment existing between professional education and the chances of direct integration of the graduates in the labor market (McLean & Walker, 2012). The discussion of findings, indicate that the case of applied education (Engineering) in South Africa is an adequate example that aligns theory (idealism) and practice (realism) as to the functions of universities not only in the country but also in the region (SADC). Many nations are implementing professional education (know-how) as a solution to the complexity of limited employment opportunities resulting from the decline/ minimization of the state in securing occupations to all graduates leaving universities. In addition, there is the increasing population and competition for such employability. Professional education in this perspective becomes an asset as it provides skills for work. The research addresses how universities link HE skills-learning and graduates’ future preparation. It captures the solutions to poverty and considers the role of universities as indispensable institutions that legitimize public good mission. It also emphasizes how professional education (the study of hard applied sciences) is being seen in South Africa as a model of learning that guarantees future employability. The study does so by analyzing one course of Engineering in order to evaluate the alignment existing between professional education and the chances of direct integration of the graduates in the labor market (McLean & Walker, 2012). 8. Organizational Climate, Person–Organization Fit and Turn-Over Intention: A Generational Perspective Within a South African Higher Education Institution The article shows that the simple fact of employing graduates is not a guarantee that employers are content with the fact of having hired employees. As is the case in one researched university, employers reflect/make introspection about the extent to which their workers are integrated institutionally. Based on the aforementioned assumption, whereas some employees are loyal to their jobs, others tend to shift for other roles and other organizations. Either shift or permanence of employees in the work place is determined by the environmental conditions that either favor or

128 

P. J. UETELA

are against the feelings and expectations of the employees (Grobler & van Rensburg, 2018). The discussion of results, lead to at least two dimensions under which workers most probably abandon their work depending on age. Firstly, older employees would weigh the advantages between institutional demands and remuneration whereas younger generations would value leadership impositions on them as well as how they (the leaders) fit within the organization. Again, employability in itself is not a guarantee for socio-­ economic development to occur as transformation is also nurtured by the way graduates employed perform their tasks as a result of happiness, wages, motivation and whether leaders within institutions are approachable and easy going. All these particularities affect performance and results. 9. A Balancing Act: Facilitating a University Education Induction Programme for (Early Career) Academics Reddy et al. (2016) conducted this study as a result of having noted inappropriateness of the position that universities are the only institutions that do not teach their newcomers (newly employed lecturers) how to teach. This might be a contradiction considering that what professionals spend much time doing should constantly be practiced. Thus, one of the universities in South Africa (The University of Kwazulu-Natal) introduced a program named “University-Education-Induction Program” meant for both junior and senior academic staff. The project is a kind of continuous learning for staff as a realization that this strategy is important for task performance and quality work (Reddy et al., 2016). The findings of the research can be interpreted in the perspective that employability in itself is not enough for the employees. There are other additional assets (ongoing learning, continuous learning, career development guidance for both junior and senior professionals), the so-called life-­ long learning in order to keep an update of skills and usefulness. All these remarkable components nurture highly competent staff that is needed in the knowledge economy. 10. Early Career Academic Support at the University of KwaZuluNatal: Towards a Scholarship of Teaching The study analyzed how complexity of HEIs, global competition and the idea of the knowledge economy has increasingly put pressure on universities to recruit highly skilled and qualified professionals that are able to

5  CASE STUDIES ON HIGHER EDUCATION AND FURTHER EMPLOYABILITY… 

129

correspond to the new impositions. The key argument here is that the more universities are capable of employing the most skilled staff, the higher is the chance of also training graduates that are highly competitive. As part of maximizing the achievement of these targets, there are remarkable reforms underway within HEIs. Such adjustments shape key changes verified at the university of Kwazulu-Natal with focus for, knowledge of the discipline, knowledge of pedagogical methods, provision of appropriate environments for professional development from the side of institutions. The study then surveyed early career professionals at the aforementioned university in order to comply idealism with realism that current demands of the knowledge economy are leading to the recruitment of highly qualified professionals within HEIs. The underlying focus within the reforms is the provision of quality teaching, and as a result, highly competitive graduate (Subbaye & Dhunpath, 2016: 1803–1819). The results from the study show that almost half of the professionals included in the sample are second career experts. The fact raises a number of concerns in the interpretation of the link between HE and employability as follow: Firstly, the fact that the rise of second career professionals within HEIS might be aligned to the unsatisfactory wages they earn. Secondly, there is in their perspective an imbalance between qualifications and expectations, that even though theoretically the article alludes to emphasis in recruiting highly qualified staff that will aid in training qualified graduates too, workload may compromise such target. In countries like Mozambique and other developing countries, for example, second career professionalism has led to maximization of monetary capital rather than quality research. In addition, the case of second career professionals in developing countries (in the global south) appears to be contradictory to the definition of the second career professional in the global north. Whereas in the former, second careers are result of contradictions between wages, expectations and cost of life, in the latter perspective, this has been associated with recognition and quality work assessed by research outputs. Lastly, from the study and responses captured from the data collection of the research, there is lack of confidence in academic identity/meaning of being academic. Thus, results from the study (employment of the university staff) at this specific university might have implications. To start, lack of confidence might be extended to the graduates, which compromises socio-­ economic development on the basis that graduate skills grounded on the assumptions that whereas theoretically universities assume to recruit highly

130 

P. J. UETELA

competitive staff who will transfer knowledge to the graduates, empirically this might not be the case. Consequently, graduates’ employability is not in part aligned with solely the state insufficiency in providing employment opportunities but is also due to unskilled graduates that might be instructed as a result of second career professionals. Despite all this, the remedy is to support early career graduates towards the construction of their identity and relevance to local economies. 11. Negotiation of Learning Medical Students

and

Identity

Among

First-Year

The study aims at showing that acquisition of skills that lead to specific job application are at times difficult of attainment in certain groups of students. Whereas some are socially in advantage for quick learning and consequently rapid integrity in their fields of study, others might be in disadvantage considering their historical background. Specifically, the study shows how some universities in South Africa are responding to the growing demands of training highly qualified doctors that respond to health necessities of South African citizens. As a result, a very elite university introduced a problem solution methodology as an asset for learning in the curriculum program. Peer learning is promoted with emphasis on the possibility of students learning from each other. However, since the strategy of learning did not take in the alignment between learning and identity, some students (mainly black) failed the course (Badenhorst & Kapp, 2013: 465–476). The failure of the black students, for example, as compared to their white counterparts may reveal the extent to which some ethnical groups have been in advantage in the transition from university to work. Furthermore, successful employability of all classes and social status of students which contributes in part to the socio-economic development of the country as a whole, is at times related to the teaching methods and how these are aligned to social contexts of students. Otherwise, HE access will be a place of legitimation of social inequalities with some groups being in advantage whereas others in disadvantages in the learning process and subsequently employment. 12. Organizing the University–Industry Relationship: A Case Study of Research Policy and Curriculum Restructuring at the North-West University in South Africa

5  CASE STUDIES ON HIGHER EDUCATION AND FURTHER EMPLOYABILITY… 

131

The research focused on evaluating some of the remarkable changes characterizing/shaping policy and curriculum at the university of North West in South Africa. Key objectives of the research included (i) capturing the alignment between universities and industry in terms of skills production and abilities needed in the market, (ii) constructing a permanent dialogue between university graduates’ expertise and the necessities of the knowledge economy, and specifically (iii) investigating how business mathematics and informatics are becoming part of the curriculum and demand for graduates at the aforementioned university (the university of the North-West). Having traced the graduates trained under this new policy, the findings reveal that almost all students are employed in the financial sector–related jobs, which are the main areas that contribute to the development of the economy (Boersma et al., 2008). What are then the implications of this? The study shows that the success of the knowledge economy either for the global south or global north is dependent on the production of graduates who match the solution of the current problems. Secondly, the success of the initiative depends on building strong networks between universities—state and the industry. Thirdly, that universities are the drivers of development is unquestionable and occurs through interconnection between knowledge generated by HEIs and that necessary to the progress. 13. Reflections of Black Women Faculty in South African Universities The study captures gender differentiation in staff employability in a South African university. It builds from the popular theory that women in HE have been always underprivileged/in disadvantaged position. Hence, understanding institutional environments and how these are being created to support either women academics or other groups turned into the research question the study sought to investigate. For the entire country, the share of women employed in HE as compared to men is between 32% for females and 68% for males. However, the difference might be greater in white-dominated universities with women and black with less representation (Mabokela, 2002: 185–205). The reflections about the subject of employability and development either in South Africa or any other country in Africa is a complex topic to think about as it entails that development and HE are aligned when gender equilibrium is promoted between university access, skills acquisition and contribution to the economy. Furthermore, the incentive for

132 

P. J. UETELA

women’s participation either in HE or HE employment is an asset for lessening social inequalities based on inclusion and class differentiation struggles. The case of South Africa indicates that, the interface between HE and development is only possible when not only gender disparities are lessened but also when race segregations is targeted. The case of both race and gender under-representation in HE employment might be extended to the differentiation in leadership of both women and black who have been in disadvantage position on the basis of historical construction of the South African national State. 14. The PhD Conundrum in South African Academia This study, similar to others that have been conducted in South Africa on the subject, aimed at addressing employability of the PhD graduates within HEIs, that is, what the actual situation is concerning university staff and the titles they hold. The study was conceived from the perspective of analysis of academic titles held by historically disadvantaged groups in the country and their representation at HEIs level. Other aims of the study included the fact of hypothetically assessing how the existence of highly qualified PhD as represented in all social groups of the country would improve academic qualifications and graduates’ qualification capitals. However, the desire of having more staff with PhD tittles within HEIs in South Africa, especially those from the least advantaged groups, will always be contradictory considering that production/enrolment of PhD candidates from these historically underprivileged groups has been considerably low. There are many factors accounting for lack of PhDs and employees from these socially disadvantaged groups in South Africa. These include the fact that (i) whereas some HEIs have been traditionally white dominated (Cape Town and Stellenbosch), others are either colored or black dominated; (ii) secondly there is also the point whether the institution was created on molds of technikon or as a traditional university; (iii) the institution’s classification in terms of being in advantage or in disadvantage under the apartheid regime (leads to black versus white) categories of universities and proliferation of social inequalities. Other important factors to consider under this project is, whether the institution under analysis was merged after 2004, and if yes, with which category/typology this occurred, and was it a technikon or traditional? (Breier & Herman, 2017: 352–368).

5  CASE STUDIES ON HIGHER EDUCATION AND FURTHER EMPLOYABILITY… 

133

All the factors herein presented show that access to employability would depend on the social status. Universities then and under this classification, may not be regarded as institutions that foster equality and equity. Instead, they promote inequalities, which again takes us back to the debate: advantaged versus disadvantaged groups and universities in South Africa. In the global north research, Bourdieu and Passeron (1970) have alluded to this aspect describing social institutions as places that legitimize and reproduce social inequalities. Based on the findings of the study, in 2014, for example, only 43% of the entire academic population held a PhD degree, which is a challenge in building the knowledge economy of which part of the possibilities for the construction requires highly competent skills at PhD level as indispensable. Secondly, the fact that some universities are either white or black dominated is associated to quality and determines those that are top-brass. White-dominated institutions have always been at an advantage, and as a result employability, graduates and rank of universities have always been in an alignment. Graduates from top-brass institutions (UCT, Stellenbosch, Pretoria and others) who are mainly white dominated appear to dominate the labor sector. Higher Education and socio-economic development in Africa might be affected by the difficulties national countries struggle to implement equitable institutions and socially equal HE subsystems. Furthermore, it depends on the position of PhD programs that are offered and whether there are qualified supervisors or program coordinators to manage the projects efficiently. 15. The Gendered Shaping of University Leadership in Australia, South Africa and the United Kingdom The study analyzed career trajectories of managers in different countries, both in the global north and in the global south. For the specific situation of South Africa (global south), emphasis was given to the evaluation of the type of skills that are appropriate for managers and that once acquired there is a high probability of performing their duties/tasks effectively. The focus here is, what are the employability skills required for managers. The case of South Africa and based on the structure of the courses, there is a consensus that their organization favors male skills rather than female. Therefore, there is a high probability for career trajectory of the vice chancellors being made by males, which suggests that

134 

P. J. UETELA

graduates’ employability and other dimensions of occupations can be understood in terms of gender and abilities universities foster (White et al., 2012: 293–307). The discussion and interpretation of the results from the study indicate how the masculinity versus feminist debate shapes HEIs structures and as a result, institutions like universities replicate such ideology. The structure naturalized by universities can be replicated in the industry, which also define the structure as either male or female dominant. The case of program structure in South Africa that emphasizes skills and abilities that privilege men rather than women again reflect the criticism Bourdieu and Passeron (1970) make to the global north structure of institutions that the kind of ideology that dominates countries is justified by the model of institutions existing (either family, church, schools, universities or other domains). Hence, universities by adopting male and female skills for managers may replicate the kind of employees that is supplied to the firms. Furthermore, from the results of the study it is also possible to hypothetically draw some conclusions. In part, the alignment between HE and development on the basis of decolonization requires not only the idealism of what it means but also the realism of a decolonized model of university with programs that are inclusive rather than exclusive in terms of gender, race and social class. The specific case of South Africa where university programs emphasize production of skills that favor men rather than women in leadership positions replicates the Cartesian theory/categories of reasoning in terms of black–white, tall–short, north–south, which are all models of global north reasoning and colonization. This suggests that whereas theoretically African states assume to the decolonizing science, empirically they are reproducing colonization. Furthermore, there is a concern that African countries have inevitably inherited the model of university from the global north, some of those have not yet been fully decolonized in their structure of knowledge production to the extent of an African science. As a result, those that are still struggling to become de-­ colonial are mingled between the challenges of gender, social classes, minority groups and other social constructions of realities that inhibit countries to develop. Finally, the case of South African programs that favor skills acquisition that are appropriate for male dominance in university career and other related professions, might indicate Africanization of universities has been taken to the extreme as masculinity rather than feminists is part of the African identity.

5  CASE STUDIES ON HIGHER EDUCATION AND FURTHER EMPLOYABILITY… 

135

16. Counting on Demographic Equity to Transform Institutional Cultures at Historically White South African Universities The study outlines how post-apartheid South Africa initiated remarkable changes with focus for the employability policy for black academics within its HEIs. The underlying focus behind the initiative was to potentiate inclusion and integration of minority groups, which is part of decolonization initiatives. However, the study also shows the existence of contradictions between idealism and realism. The idealism proposed by the policy was to fight against inequalities and promote equality between minority groups, blacks and whites and socially underprivileged groups. However, in terms of realism and based on history, some of the universities have been white dominated and maintain such a tradition until today. Such structure appears to institutionalize, legitimize and reproduce inequalities instead of fighting against them. Furthermore, the case of divergences between theory and practice of the policy of inclusion of black academics within HEIs is related to the fact that theoretically, historically white universities have justified segregation on basis of the necessity of maintaining excellence of universities, quality and dominance in the table leagues. As a result, competence should be the condition guiding these HEIs in order to maintain the hegemony. This prescription of universities leads to high proportionalities of inequalities. Despite all the aforementioned hindrances replicating inequalities and social differentiation between blacks and whites in South Africa, which may hinder development, some of the historically white dominated universities have gone a step ahead in terms of inclusion initiatives. Part of ongoing projects include the accelerated establishment of accelerated development programs (ADP) to recruit black academics to work in historically white universities. However, the identity of the university, social and cultural reproduction, racial class and gender appear to remain white dominant based on interviewed academics that have joined the researched institution and also looking at their social and economic background despite being blacks (Booi et al., 2017: 498–510). What do all these propositions imply? They account for a considerable number of hypotheses. Firstly, (i) accelerated development programs (ADPs) that are being applied in South Africa as a strategy to theoretically include blacks and less advantaged groups of academics in historically white universities is a dividing policy. In part, it is an incentive to strengthen community life and sharing of spaces between whites, blacks and colored South Africans, which is part of the

136 

P. J. UETELA

decolonization agenda. When such incentive of community life is emphasized between privileged and underprivileged groups at a high level of university, the initiative is most likely to be successful and rapidly spread to other sectors and locations of the country in mitigating social inequalities. Secondly, (ii) it is the fact that since university identity and racial ideology is maintained in some contexts, there is much probability for the rise of conflicts between the newly employed blacks and under the accelerated development programs with their counterpart’s academics that are implicitly, socially and racially part of the institution. These propositions suggest some of Bourdieu (2000, 2002), Bourdieu and Passeron (2013) perspectives. Initially, (i) despite intellect capital that is apparently granted for black academics who benefit from accelerated development programs in order to acquire employability in South African HEIs, lack of economic and social capital, that is, the fact that they do not belong to the dominating field, makes them unequal within the institution. Furthermore, accelerated development programs as a means of fostering equality, social and racial integration has been criticized in some perspectives (contexts). In Brazil, for example, where quota scheme policies have been applied either to aid underprivileged racial and social groups (blacks) compete at the same pace with historically advantaged groups (either for employment or access to education especially at university level) has led to questions about the meritocracy. Black minorities in the work place have been reported to be victims of the reform process. Furthermore, blacks and minority groups that have succeeded in achieving high positions have been regarded not as competent but as individuals that are less capable of competing leading to discrimination, hatred and increment of social distancing between historically minority groups and privileged ones. In the case of South Africa and other countries, projects such as Accelerated Development Programs and Quota Scheme lead to entry as either HE students or university staff are not unanimously considered as meritocratic and are simply initiatives that serve to accommodate the minority groups. From the findings outlined, there is a consensus that they are all initiatives that are applied within the region to decolonize science, university and knowledge. Last is the fact that projects such as accelerated development programs, which are in part reflected in adjustments in teaching and learning contents and methods, may imply that decolonization of the university in Africa is also manifested in the way curricula is being re-structured in order to respond to local demands and priorities of the countries and that academia in general is sharply becoming de-­colonial.

5  CASE STUDIES ON HIGHER EDUCATION AND FURTHER EMPLOYABILITY… 

137

The proposed strategy also leads in the long term to a classification or categorization of academics in terms of academics of the first and second category, academics that are leaders and those that are subalterns, those that are real academics and those that are copies of the academics. Whereas this categorization is empirically constructed based on the strategy applied by universities to lessen prejudice about minority groups, the practice and ideal should be of treating, regarding and classifying all academic staffs equally independent of the manner in which they reached employability as meritocracy is a condition applied to be selected even though accelerated development programs or quota were additional means. 17. Life After a Humanities Degree The theoretical framework of the research was built on the assumption that graduates integration after leaving university might vary in terms of area of specialization and university of instruction. Thus, the study followed graduates from humanities in order to capture the kind of lives they undertook after leaving university. The research is also an attempt to link the researcher’s experience of having graduated in humanities in a period of remarkable changes in the South African context of HE with depreciation of humanities on the one hand and on the other, how traced graduates were driven to select humanities despite such new landscape. As part of the preoccupations of the study (questions), it asks the kind of challenges graduates encounter in choosing such course of humanities in a moment where the chances for employability on the basis of the courses have declined, and secondly, what future is reserved for the humanities as both chances for employability and university courses appear to favor applied sciences? Lack of information about the course may misguide candidates to select an arena that is not of interest. Insufficient explanation and mentoring from parents are also hindrances for selecting humanities considering that some of the traced population were the only ones holding university degree or firstly went to HE.  Social contexts, economic and racial identities are at times the factors influencing selection of the courses. Again, the intellectual capital, social and economic may be significant for Humanities deemed as being not lucrative as compared to other disciplines of applied sciences such as engineering and medicine (Masola, 2016: 160–163). What are these findings indicating? From the researcher’s perspective, despite devaluation of humanities currently, her experience is different as

138 

P. J. UETELA

over the 1990s when he/she graduated, competition was lesser than actually. Less versus high competition may explain the long lack of debate of interconnection between access to university and work. Part of the findings indicate that the case of South African HE, fields of specialization and employability, is a complex subject to address. Firstly, the decline of the value of humanities in society and hence the current un-­ employability for the majority of the graduates from this arena has been linked to the necessity of development of practical skills for solution of practical problems. As a result, there is a considerable focus in instituting more courses aligned with Engineering, Medicine, Agriculture, Agronomy and other related areas as potential and solution to specific problems that hinder development in the country. This might have, in part, lessened socio-economic growth from the perspective of the relationship between access to higher education, skills acquisition and employment at the national level. However, at the global level, South African students have been always scoring lower in Sciences and Mathematics, that is, whereas the score of hard applied sciences is higher within South Africa, globally the same arenas are less appreciated based on national candidates’ performance. Despite humanities having been assessed as appropriate for promoting critical thinking, problem solving and training active students, the fact that the production of graduates in numbers has lessened the chances of the students from these fields to be easily integrated in the labor market, remains a fact. The sciences and humanities graduates’ employability in South Africa has under these perspectives led to increasing inequalities on the basis of qualifications and background of students. Therefore, whereas research is in part showing that universities lessen inequalities, this specific case of South Africa accounts for universities as both perpetrators and reproducers of social differentiation. In addition, though HE is at times regarded as a channel for development theoretically, empirically and in the perspective described by humanities’ case of the graduates, it both reproduces and proliferates poverty. Part of the reproduction is seen from the perspective that the middle class has accessed university and privileged courses whereas lower classes under this perspective either have accessed social sciences and humanities or have been excluded from HE. The fact that the study questions the future of humanities is built on the assumption that given the rapid rise of graduations in the field on one hand and decline of employability opportunities on the other as compared to sciences and applied sciences, certain areas of knowledge production will considerably decline in terms of visibility. HEIs and departments that offer

5  CASE STUDIES ON HIGHER EDUCATION AND FURTHER EMPLOYABILITY… 

139

such kind of programs are most likely to see their funds reduced. The latter argument is supported by the view that both funding agencies and local governments, either in SADC countries or Africa overall, have set funding strategies and have positioned relevance as the key index for steering. This means that unless there is a demonstration that humanities are approached from the perspective of applied sciences, the chances for funding are reduced. However, and analyzing the perspective of other countries within the region, the fact that many people who are unemployed come from humanities and are still young may lead to other additional consequences for universities that (i) they are irrelevant, (ii) universities serve to produce skills that at the end are deviated and (iii) beneficiaries end up in criminal actions. All the aforementioned discussions lead to new concepts in the discussion of African HE such as historically white, historically black and historically white Afrikaans and other terminologies, which affects colonization versus decolonization debate of HE in Africa. The employability and unemployability debate for graduates from social sciences, humanities, applied sciences and other categories in the SADC region is in this study framed into two fold. First is the position that universities have repetitively produced graduates in domains of knowledge production that are at this stage of knowledge economy deemed obsolete. The fact has exacerbated the availability of skills and abilities of the same categories, which in part has led to recession in the integration of the talents within the labor market sector. Second is the position previously discussed that whereas universities had quickly grown in the region and became complex, the pace at which coordination between industry, state and HEIs had been established was neither consensus nor harmonious. Thus, it may appear that humanities and social sciences are in crises and that the typology of knowledge is irrelevant. There might be a challenge not to structure humanities and social sciences, but instead, to re-structure universities to always plan ahead and predict the relevance of skills they provide either in humanities or social sciences in forms that are translated into application. By maintaining a constant dialogue with the community in addressing local problems, universities in the region account for their significance not in terms of aggregation of arenas of knowledge (sciences, social sciences, humanities and other domains) but that they are pivotal as a whole (see Pinheiro et al., 2015: 233–249).

140 

P. J. UETELA

18. Analyzing the Accreditation of Engineering Education in South Africa Through Foucault’s Panopticon and Governmentality Lenses The study applies Foucault’s concept of power and shows how the South African counsel of Engineering, Government and Universities in Quality Assurance, exercises it (power) in defining knowledge that is relevant for the country and local communities. In addition, the study reveals how the South African government has transferred power, authority and autonomy to universities in order to structure curriculum in line with the skills that are worth applying. The counsel of Engineering in a specific university of technology serves only as a controlling and quality assuring platform. However, despite power and autonomy of the specific university, there is an imposition for a caution that curriculum does not solely serve to prepare graduates for employment but also to both reproduce and nurture abilities that are useful for society and for students themselves in their daily lives. In summary, there is in the context of South Africa an emerging concern on the interconnection between the key factors influencing HE on the definition of knowledge (Mutereko, 2017: 235–247). The discussion of the results leads to multiple concerns: (i) unemployability discourse has been caused by an apparent wrong conception emphasizing that the role of HEIs is solely to provide skills for employment; (ii) more emphasis on developing skills that nurture employment may have led to decline of acquisition of other abilities that complete graduates and influence society especially education for citizenship; (iii) given that in some instances over graduations in certain areas of specializations (the case of social sciences and humanities previously discussed) has led to unemployment, strategic deviation in understanding the role of universities that is not only to instruct for labor market may result in devaluation of HEIs. It appears then that public opinion rather than research in SADC region and Africa overall has suggested education (HE) as indispensable in solving local/societal problems. However, the wrong assumption held by the majority that the unique form through which such socio-economic problems can be resolved is through employability has a consequence in the narrowing vision of assessing the role, mission and vision of universities either in the SADC region or in any other part of the globe. 19. Can we Augment Web Responses with Telephonic Responses to a Graduate Destination Survey?

5  CASE STUDIES ON HIGHER EDUCATION AND FURTHER EMPLOYABILITY… 

141

This study followed up graduates from one specific university in South Africa for the year (2010). It did so by attempting to show how a mixed method based on website exploration, alumni and telephone interviews aids capturing accurately graduate students’ occupation after leaving HE rather than depending on a single-sided method (Du Toit, 2015: 560–574). The results from the research primarily account for the importance of defining methodology as key for the acquisition of reliable data. The case of method is important, either for HE and employability of the graduates or other research topics selected of any dimension and subject. The scope of the focus here is that considering one strategy (e.g. either telephone, website, alumni or snowballing) may not give a complete picture of graduates’ destination when one considers the specific case of HE and employment interconnection. Instead, application of diversified methodology allows diversification of data attainment and subsequent selection of that which is most likely describing the reality under research. This case presented by Du Toit (2015: 560–574) for South Africa suggests the need for a cautious analysis of the studies that have been carried out either across Africa or in other geographical locations. It also urges for reconsideration of the methods applied and how such selected strategy leads researchers to reaching the kind of conclusions presented and test how those results are reliable and accurate. Lastly, the findings of the study may serve as a challenge for researchers to undertake several additional studies on a single subject/topic and then apply a range of methodologies in order to both validate and confront information. Another perspective this study proposes in terms of diversifying methodology and drawing of conclusions from reliable collection of information can also be acquired in what we term as the second dimension of diversification. Let us say a researcher applies interviews for study 1, website application for study 2, alumni for study 3, telephone interviews for study 4 and snowballing for study 5, this diversity would aid him/her assess the findings in terms of reliability and accuracy in a longitudinal setting. Different modes of research methods may lead to different responses. The underlying implications behind this include (i) looking at the same problem from different angles, (ii) make inferences on methods that are most likely to lead to approximate results, (iii) in the specific case study of employability of graduates it aids evaluate which strategy is applied at low cost and is quicker in terms of time of operationalization. At the end, there is also the potential of informing policy changes that are most likely to influence high impact.

142 

P. J. UETELA

20. Collaborating Within the “Risk Zone” This study sketched on the extent to which universities are realizing that the success on graduates’ employability also depends on application, adjustment and integration of Information and Communication technology (ICT) within HEIs and across programs so that after terminating university, they (graduates) become highly competent and skilled especially in the current context of knowledge-based economy. Another concern of the study was the question about the possibility of ICT influencing training of graduates that are competitive in the knowledge economy. The main challenge in both implementing and aligning technologies with universities has been reported as residing in a context of resistance of some of the university staff for ICT use in a moment that knowledge of technologies has been indispensable for selection, inclusion and exclusion of the graduates in the labor market. In this perspective, knowledge of the ICT is in part either an asset or intellectual capital recruiters look for in the selection process of the candidates. As part of the key objectives of the study was an understanding of how academics employed at the University of Cape Town in South Africa aligned their practice on one hand and the demands of the knowledge economy that position ICT knowledge as an asset for success for the staff and for graduates that they train on the other (Nomdo, 2004: 205–216). What does the discussion of both findings and approach of the research lead us to? Part of the problems affecting unemployment debate on graduates of which research appears to least address, is related to the quality skills HEIs offer. Again and as part of constantly re-structuring universities in order to comply with the demands of the knowledge economy, there is a necessity of constantly reinventing both leading and managing strategies. The magnitude at which different universities cope with these innovative impositions suggests that some HEIs are able to “catch up” (innovate, transform and adjust to key reforms) at local, national and international dimensions (see Mkandawire, 2016). Consequently, the case studies that have been captured in the SADC region allude to variations of employability in terms of (i) efforts universities of students’ instruction put forward, (ii) the area of specialization and (iii) also the popularity of such institution of graduation. The exclusion for employability on the basis of institution of instruction is at times explained by the aforementioned categories, which suggest the significance of rank of institution in the national or international competition. In many contexts either within Africa or elsewhere, graduates from the least ranked

5  CASE STUDIES ON HIGHER EDUCATION AND FURTHER EMPLOYABILITY… 

143

universities are least preferred by employers which imposes on them the challenge of often aiming access to highly ranked HEIs. This increases competition from the side of students to go to the most highly ranked university and also from university institutions themselves, as they constantly aim to be a reference and attract best graduates. Higher education and employability under these perspectives is a constant war of competitions. The underlying reason behind competition has been suggested by research as a means of positioning graduates and universities under quality training and merit of the graduates as the position of the institution of instruction will often determine either inclusion or exclusion in the labor market. 21. Determinants of Skills Demand in a State-Intervening Labor Market: The Case of South African Transport Sector The growing complexity and dynamics of the current world makes it difficult to determine the appropriate skills that are relevant for graduates and industry. This study was an attempt to capture employers’ views about the skills they demand/seek while hiring graduates as another dimension of capturing curricula change as a result from policy information. It interviewed employers and stakeholders from a specific domain (transport firms) in order to evaluate the strategies they planned to employ graduates and how it responds to the vision that South Africa is a country that must develop. Actually, the research also sought to understand the factors that contribute to dynamics/changes in the abilities employers look for, what are the driving forces behind specific skills demands in the context of South Africa. In order to attain the desired objectives, the research applied interview method with different boards of the transport sector (employers, stakeholders, quality controllers, trainers) and additionally reviewed planning skills acquisition and training plans within the transport sector (Tsotsotso et al., 2017: 408–422). What do the results suggest? There are many factors reported by the interviewees as determinant concerns for skills’ constant plan shift and demands of external forces. First is the growing level of competition in the labor market, which imposes highly qualified skills for the sector of transports in South Africa, as is also the case in other sectors. Given that many other sectors are constantly changing strategies in order to comply with the demands of the knowledge society, change in competition has had an impact in the traditional work operation, and adjusting skills constantly has become a

144 

P. J. UETELA

solution. Second is the growing concern on the application as earlier mentioned of ICT in work place at these different sectors. The transport sector being a work-place herein under analysis is forced to integrate ICT in order to cope with the knowledge and technological society. Within ICT application, there have been concerns about a new complexity that hinders changes in skills employment sector. It has been considered as the problem of aging. Whereas the older generation were required to have specific skills in order to be employed, due to complexity and the dynamic world, for the new generations and graduates, the future is uncertain and unpredictable. Hence, specific skills for specific work are no longer relevant for younger generations. Instead, newer and quickly adjustable abilities to the current complexity of difficulties with ICT use, is considered as appropriate. Fourth is the market structure itself that is dynamic. Before, markets were sharply predictable and as a result, there was a certainty in the determination of skills that were appropriate for such markets that were stable and certain. Actually, and with the dynamic world and knowledge economy everything became unpredictable especially labor-markets. Hence, reflecting upon plans of constant skills drift and diversification in the work-place has become a norm. To finalize, local government agendas that give directions to countries (pathways for development) either in South Africa or elsewhere have been planned in compliance with the demands of the rapidly changing world which makes it all difficult for universities, training institutions, work-training centers and other institutions to define appropriate and specific skills required by the employers. All these debates suggest that the question of employability of the graduates that is at times difficult to address is associated with the complexity of the competitive and rapidly changing world, which makes it difficult to determine the skills that are adequate for a situation that is unknown. It is possible that by the time HEIs, training centers for work and training providers by the moment they affirm to have identified the necessities of the market and adjusted curricula programs that will nurture skills that are aligned to employability, then the marked has either shifted or will have shifted once more. The struggle of contradiction between institutional arrangements and market dynamics might be on the struggle for what lead to unemployability. Once again, the need for trinity coordination between state, universities and the market become essential for graduates’ success in terms of employability and contribution to the socio-economic development either in SADC region or in elsewhere.

5  CASE STUDIES ON HIGHER EDUCATION AND FURTHER EMPLOYABILITY… 

145

22. Social Entrepreneurship in South Africa: Context, Relevance and Extent. The study formulates the thesis that whereas different waves of employability including social entrepreneurship have dominated the global north narratives, in the case of the global south, this perspective is still under construction. Hence, the main inquiry constituting the research was to capture why such novel wave of employability (social entrepreneurship) is arising, and what have been the factors influencing Africa to embrace the model even though the level of engagement is still considerably low. Previous data showed that late institutionalization of HE in Africa might have accounted for the challenges HEIs and the contribution they should assure for the economy is characterized. The underlying focus supporting the rise of the novel model of employment then emanates from the position that employability has often been inclined to enterprises and government institutions (cf. the case of independence of African countries where the role of the state remained that of guaranteeing wellbeing). However, due to limitations of national governments in either the global north or global south in addressing all the arenas that envisage socio-economic development in a holistic perspective, there is in developed economies a new turn. The construction of philanthropic organizations aim to increase the potential of development and also engage either graduates or non-­ graduates in working conditions that aid to develop countries (Visser, 2011: 233–247). Social work at this stage is then seen as a sector that needs graduates in specific skills in order to influence local communities. In Social entrepreneurship as a new employing sector deconstructs the problematic of development as solely determined by the graduates’ employability and government enterprises that exist or may exist in a determined country, a view that dominated as earlier indicated the initial phase of construction of African National states. Socio-economic development is also determined by the efforts countries engage in social investments and philanthropic programs provided they promote the wellbeing of the population. South Africa and many other countries are engaging in social entrepreneurship with the rise of many NGOs acting for the wellbeing of the population and contribute for socio-economic development. By targeting/serving disadvantaged population as an asset in promoting socio-economic development, philanthropic organizations transfer knowledge to the different groups of population. The rise of social entrepreneurship suggests that despite some decline in the role of HEIs and the

146 

P. J. UETELA

increase in contestation that HE and socio-economic development are necessarily interconnected, the case of SADC suggests that HEIs are also required to partner with social enterprises that also need knowledge for the wellbeing of national states. Universities are indispensable in promoting quality social enterprises based on knowledge, as they are the legitimate institutions that both generate and transfer knowledge. 23. The Role of HEIs in an Entrepreneurial Renaissance in South Africa The study problematizes the extent to which entrepreneurship is becoming an essential asset for the employability of graduates globally. Due to increasing graduations and competition for limited vacancies, many students enrolling in HE have developed interests in learning for skills acquisition that will enable them to create their own occupations. Some local governments are adopting different steering schemes, credits and loans for graduates to start their own business and become self-­ employed. Despite such new initiatives, the case of South Africa reveals that there is least emphasis on entrepreneurship as a new solution for reducing graduates’ unemployment and contribution to the economy through the creation of self-sustainability for students after leaving HE (Maas & Herrington, 2011: 225–232). There are many implications for the thesis of self-entrepreneurship. The approach is being applied in the SADC region overall in spite of some studies revealing that South Africa has least considered this as an asset to address lack of integration of graduates in the labor market. In Mozambique, for example, university programs have been re-structured in order to include entrepreneurial skills and agendas. There are university courses being instituted specifically for entrepreneurship. As a result, universities that are innovating and offer such programs have been the first priority for new entrants to HE. Furthermore, Tracey studies conducted to capture the state-of-the-­ art about the field show a consensus that both governments and the industries in different countries are realizing their insufficiency in providing occupations for all students leaving HE. As part of this realization, while universities have prioritized curricula adjustment by adding skills that prepare graduates for self-employment, government authorities nurture allowance grants and loans for new graduate students to aid them initiate their own business. In countries like Mozambique, for example, there are ongoing projects in this sense. The aim of the projects (such as 7.000.000 de meticais, Jovens para distrito-youth for district and others) is to help

5  CASE STUDIES ON HIGHER EDUCATION AND FURTHER EMPLOYABILITY… 

147

applicants establish and expand initiatives of development that are financeable. The winners should come from various districts of the country, which enable local development. Despite successful experiences, there are some limitations from the side of the government (the main steering agent of the various projects of entrepreneurship in the country). Part of those is lack of risk of investments solutions in case of unsuccessful entrepreneurship projects from the side of graduates. In moments of failure (recession of projects), how new graduates and unemployed will be in a position of refunding the government considering that the funds were provided on loan mechanisms and there is a specific time for re-funding? There is also the case of transparency and trustworthiness for both graduate students embracing such projects and governments funding the initiatives. In certain countries within Africa that have been vulnerable to corruption, entrepreneurship employability based on loan and other funding strategies of self-employment might be a risk. These are some examples of ongoing projects and implications on entrepreneurship as the new model for employability. Whereas theoretically graduate loans have been applied as a solution to fight against unemployability of the graduates on the basis of self-employment, the model of finance adopted has further implications. It may lead graduates to more disgrace in moments of crises considering that they may not have sufficient funds to repay the government, as there is no 100% certainty that the engagement in entrepreneurship projects will lead undeniably to success. In addition, self-employability under this conception is risky and many students might not be ready for the venture. 24. Exploring Entrepreneurial Activity at Cape Town and Stellenbosch Universities, South Africa The study shows that the reason why entrepreneurship studies are dominating national agendas especially in developed countries as previously outlined is the concept of market-driven university. Despite various countries taking different directions towards the market-oriented agendas, for example, Gumport (2000) has envisaged not only in the United States of America but also elsewhere, a transition from public-oriented universities to market orientation. Consequently, there is a new and current tradition of universities that constantly innovate in order to always comply with the demands of the market. Under this new university, entrepreneurship has been adopted by developed countries and is now becoming an agenda for developing nations too. Overall, developing countries have been slow

148 

P. J. UETELA

in adopting a market-oriented university and as a model of transfer of both technology and science to markets. This study undertaken in South Africa then attempted to capture how two universities (Cape Town ans Stellenbosch universities) are engaging in entrepreneurship university as HEIs applying questionnaire and interviews to assess such presence and how under this conception, universities can transfer technology to markets (industry) and academic knowledge to the industry (Jafta & Uctu, 2013: 117–128). There are various implications and interpretations that emanate from the study presented, as it unpacks the conditions under which African universities are complexly mingled. To start with, most of the key reforms underway not only in South Africa but also in other countries of the region are influenced by the global dynamics. The specific sharp shift noticed in South Africa from public-oriented university to a more entrepreneurial market-oriented university did not originate within a national context. The fact may imply that decolonization initiatives though are underway both in South Africa and abroad are at times conceived under external influences that have strong imposition on African countries. Secondly, the integration of entrepreneurship agendas within HEIs in order to nurture and strengthen the market and industry, are indispensable signs that position universities as the unique sites that both produce and transfer knowledge that is indispensable for socio-economic development. In addition, at the same magnitude that universities need markets to sell their products and markets need universities as institutions that supply relevant knowledge, this interdependence suggests once again a constant dialogue that promotes socio-economic development. Understanding market opportunities and functionalities is key for universities’ survival in a moment that increasing questions for their relevance are dominating research. The fact that most of the regional universities are moving slowly in addressing market opportunities may suggest that decolonizing HE in the region is still a challenge too as local and commercial opportunities are not yet fully explored, that is, there has been least investment. Given that the study compares global north (developed) countries versus global south (developing nations) and draws the conclusion that global north states have moved quickly as compared to South Africa with the exception of China, this raises questions on the categories of comparison. There is a

5  CASE STUDIES ON HIGHER EDUCATION AND FURTHER EMPLOYABILITY… 

149

comparison herein of HE sub-systems that are already consolidated with others that are emerging. Perhaps for Africa, the case of entrepreneurship and market-oriented universities are not necessarily moving slowly. Instead, it is the process under which African countries have encountered within their conditions and processes of building their national HE sub-system. 25. Lifelong Learning, Human Capital Development and the Career Advancement of Women in the Telecommunications Industry in South Africa Dosunmu and Adeyemo’s (2018) main concern in this study is to capture the parallel between life-long learning and human capital development in order to assess how the two determine career upgrades for women in managerial positions. The study was based on interviews with about 133 junior workers in an enterprise linked to telecommunication network (Dosunmu & Adeyemo, 2018: 192–199). From the study, there are various hypotheses that arise. First is the fact that human capital development is an essential tool for quality work execution, career progression and struggle against discrimination, especially for African women who have been at lower positions, and at times, justified by masculinity dominating many African countries. There is a consensus from the outcomes of the research that employability in itself is not the ultimate goal both employees and employers require. Instead, employability is either a transition or channel for the highest achievement (career development) employees strive for while constructing their personal identities. From the study, it is transparent that access to HE which in some instances leads to access to quality work as compared to other employments that are not aligned with university levels is not enough. Therefore, the conditions that employers build within the working place through continuous learning and human capacity development for the workers will make institutions successful through the quality work offered and upgrade in career for employees. All these are assets—incentives driving workers towards performing activities that in the end foster socio-economic development through the institutional transformation under which they are linked

150 

P. J. UETELA

26. Entrepreneurial Knowledge and Aspirations of Dentistry Students in South Africa The study by Brijlal and Brijlal (2013) sought to interpret aspirations and the notions about “knowing to do” shaping students of the final year in dentistry course. It also considered how concerns on gender and race influence the debate of entrepreneurship knowledge within the groups of study selected. Lastly, there was also the case of understanding how students surveyed assess relevance of entrepreneurship abilities and what variations exist in terms of race and gender. Another focus was the evaluation of the institution where the study was undertaken as to whether it was appropriate for the existence of such diversity of categories (gender and race) and how all the debates inform socio-economic differentiations (Brijlal & Brijlal, 2013: 389–398). From the framing of the study, there are various perspectives to outline: Knowledge of either doing or performance has been encountered as constituting the aspirations and desires of all students independent of gender and race. These results reveal how as part of reforms, universities are imposed to restructure curriculum and programs in order to integrate “skills and training” that lead to “knowing by doing.” This is not only an imposition for HEIs solely. The demand for the change is extended to the students and graduates who must develop capabilities of rapid learning and transference of knowledge. Successful graduates then will be those that will apply the skills that universities generate under the entrepreneurial model. Once again, an entrepreneurial typology of education in itself is not self-sufficient either in south Africa or in any other part of the region. It must be complemented by both competent and committed graduates that will translate socialization of the skills nurtured by the entrepreneurial education into their practical lives. The fact that most of the students interviewed within the course of dentistry were consensual that after graduation they were keen to start their own practice is key. It confirms our previous theory that the implementation of an entrepreneurial education per se may not be self-sufficient to lead to graduates’ integration unless these graduates are committed to the new demands themselves (the dialogue between universities and graduates they train). The new model of university accounts for less burden on local governments in promoting wellbeing of society through provision of employability. Instead, local governments are turning into more regulatory agents rather than employment providers. The case of employability and integration of the graduates in the labor market then has sharply

5  CASE STUDIES ON HIGHER EDUCATION AND FURTHER EMPLOYABILITY… 

151

become an individual agenda (private) rather than public. This is in part how African states and universities are decolonizing science and knowledge. The actual scenario under which universities operate and the role states play, once again expand the scope of debate earlier prescribed in terms of the following propositions. Even though after independence African states promised the guarantee of wellbeing and provision of conditions leading to the population’s wellbeing, these promises were not fully accomplished and the current gap between HE and employability is confirming that the agenda of wellbeing is more individual and private rather than public or state constructed. It is guaranteed by the individual, and in the case of graduates, it will be guaranteed by the conditions students encounter in reverting entrepreneurial education into individual business potentials. The specific case of South Africa indicates for more male and black graduates that were ready to enter into own businesses rather than females and white or colored students. Less and high opportunities for each category of groups may explain such differentiations 27. Pedagogical Approaches to Cooperative Education in South Africa This study is an attempt to show that the identification of an appropriate pedagogy that leads to appropriate skills acquisition relevant to industry has considerably become a concern for many universities in South Africa. Based on this interest, South African HE has seen remarkable changes in terms of university programs restructuring, teaching and learning methods, prioritization of skills that prepare students for work place by professionals (staff) working in HE. Furthermore, projects such as internship and simulation of work place practices are shaping the current pedagogies applied in HEIs in either South Africa or elsewhere. The intriguing inquiry of the study then was to capture key components of work-­ integrated learning, that is, what are the constituents that nurture a kind of teaching and learning strategies that if properly assimilated would lead to acquisition of skills that define employability, either public work (offered by the state) or private and entrepreneurship (self-employability). The study further inquired on students experiences concerning the alignment between how they learned, what skills they received at university and the extent to which they internalized those in their occupations. In summary, Rampersad (2010) looks for teaching qualities that lead to the intersection between theory and practice by capturing graduates’ experiences being the direct actors in the process (Rampersad, 2010: 279–286).

152 

P. J. UETELA

The discussion of the results suggests some perspectives and positions. Primarily, understanding employability of graduates is a long path that is constructed by both universities, academic staff and graduates themselves. Second is the fact that success in the employability market is conditioned by the ability these graduates have to integrate the lessons taken while in university with the actual challenges of the market. It is the combination of two experiences, one from learning and the other from application of the skills acquired while learning. Thirdly and as previously mentioned, professionalization of teaching by combining theory and practice (lessons and work practice) is a determinant factor for integration of the graduates and contribution to the socio-economic development either in South Africa or in the region. From this specific study, participation in HE is not a guarantee for employability as it has been the tradition and public opinion that often accounted for an alignment between access to university and labor market. The data shown by Rampersad (2010) account for graduates’ employment as a long-held thrive between the culture of universities and that of the industry. The way students will both assimilate and cope with the demands of the two conflicting identities. It is the capabilities that students develop along their learning process that will count for either failure or success in the labor market. Based on this approach, the failure and considerable rise of unemployability among graduates is not necessarily the failure of the state in assuring wellbeing as previously outlined. Instead, it might be a manifestation that unemployed graduates have been unable to align capabilities they developed while at university with the demands of the work performance required by either industry or self-occupations 28. University Versus Practice. Industry and Higher Education The study by Van Romburgh and van der Merwe (2015) was undertaken with the aim of identifying the skills that exist and those lacking in first year students from the course of accountancy. In so doing, the research captures the challenges graduates will face in the future as to the alignment between theory acquired in HE and practice demanded by the work place. After the administration of a questionnaire with main firms, managers and trainers around Gauteng province in South Africa, the study suggests steps forward for universities, students and labor markets as to the conditions necessary to assure that the skills recommended for accountants are all attained by students adequately in the year of instruction (Van Romburgh & van der Merwe, 2015: 141–149).

5  CASE STUDIES ON HIGHER EDUCATION AND FURTHER EMPLOYABILITY… 

153

The findings suggest the need for some actions to be undertaken by universities as a means of addressing the case “adequate skills and appropriate integration in the industry.” Given that the appreciation from the firms and managers indicated that accountant students under research lacked professional communication skills and knowledge of software packages that are essential for computer accounting, this influenced practical success and universities were to be blamed as they did not guarantee that these abilities would be transferred to the trainees. From the shortage of the skills on the trainees, there are also implications. Firstly, the necessity to adequately and constantly evaluate the programs offered by HEIs as to the compliance between theoretical frameworks they propose and empirical evidence as to the attainment of the abilities proposed in the program by students. The fact may impose an establishment of internal mechanisms of assessment either at university level, department or at program or course level. The case under evaluation may also suggest that with the liberalization of the economy, many HEIs were aleatorily established without being cautious on the role they should play in order to foster socio-economic development through the labor force they generate. Hence, strengthening cooperation between universities and the industry again remains a key factor in fostering the contribution of universities to local development on the basis of skills transference. In addition is the increment of key evaluation mechanisms boards to guarantee both accountability and commitment of HEIs in aligning theory and practice. In the SADC region, especially in Mozambique, there is a considerable rise of control mechanism agencies such as (i) national system of evaluation, accreditation and quality guarantee of higher education, (ii) the law of HE, (iii) the national board of qualifications in HE, (iv) national system of credit accumulation and transference, (v) national council of HE, (vi) counsel of HE, (vii) counsel for legitimacy, license, regulation and establishment of HEIs, (viii) national council for quality evaluation and assurance and others (Uetela, 2017: 139, 2019b: 126–145). All these denominations do exist in many other countries across the SADC region though there might be distinctions and differentiations in terms of either terminologies or designations and applicability. In the SADC region the main challenges that might have influenced organizations not to avoid that universities equip trainees with adequate skills that make them successful are various. The most adequate is the fact that these organizations have been implemented in moments of the inception of HEIs, especially during the liberalization of the economies, and became,

154 

P. J. UETELA

in some cases, a copy-and-paste of what global northern reforms of universities were implementing, which makes them both new and alien. Furthermore, even though the initiatives may serve as appropriate tools for aligning and guaranteeing skills acquisition for professional practice, these agencies might have been led by inexperienced leaders considering the complexities of the inception of HE in Africa. Therefore, the apparent failure of universities in equipping trainees with adequate skills that the study points out may have been associated with the novelty of HE sub-­ systems, the novelty of decolonizing initiatives and of organization instituted to guarantee quality including checks and balances of what is going on within HEIs, departments and university program. As a way forward, there is an urgent and strong necessity of training senior professionals, managers and partners of university quality assurance and dialogue between HE and industry. 29. Articulation of Industrial R&D with Higher Education in the Telecommunications Sector in South Africa The research by Paterson (2005), aimed at identifying both mechanisms and channels of communication between HEIs (universities) and the industry. Specifically, it considered the South African telecommunication sector as an index (sample) that helps understanding assessment of such interplay, that is, the relationship between universities and labor market. Graduates are key actors making possible the dialogue between the two (Paterson, 2005: 179–188). From the findings, there is a consensus about the rapid growth and competing telecommunication technologies sectors, which creates a range of opportunities in the South African market. How higher education is then engaging with the industry especially in this factor? University planning, teaching and learning are being guided by the industry initiatives and knowledge. The drawback for this drift is the shift from the perspective of universities as public good driven to more privatization. In countries like Mozambique and South Africa, for example, there have been growing protests on the new and exacerbated privatization of universities revealed by the rise of tuition fees for students in a context that they are not 100% certain about the future after leaving university (cf. protests of 2016 in South Africa and 2021 in Mozambique-Faculty of Engineering at Eduardo Mondlane University). Secondly, often when any growth of a specific industrial sector occurs, there will be a necessity to re-structure

5  CASE STUDIES ON HIGHER EDUCATION AND FURTHER EMPLOYABILITY… 

155

HEIs in order to respond to such dynamics, though and always guided by research and development principles. Hence, maturation of HE research in specific arenas must go in parallel with new developments in the aligned industrial sectors. All these majors have been undertaken as part of the appropriate solutions in addressing recession of employment in the global south. 30. The Relationship Between Levels of Education of Entrepreneurs and Their Business Success The scope of the study conducted by Peters and Bridjlal (2011) emerges from the proposition that in either South Africa or other developing countries, socio-economic development is engineered by small, medium and micro enterprises. Based on this assumption, South Africa created specific indexes to support the magnitude at which some of these sectors apply knowledge to contribute to socio-economic development. The South African 1995 national small business strategy, for example, sought to identify key constraints that inhibited such development to occur. As part of the problems identified, there was a mention of lower skills and education levels, lack of access to information and shortage of adequate support to institutions. The study then sought to identify the degree of correlation between the level of education of the staff that held small, medium and micro enterprise (owners of the firms) with the success of the businesses, that is, do educational skills really account for the success of the organization? The application of return indexes (gains of the enterprise and qualifications of the labor force existing) has been applied as key factors to capture such correlation between education of the owners with the success of the businesses (Peters & Bridjlal, 2011: 265–275). What implications does the study by Peters and Bridjlal (2011) suggest then? First is the existence of a necessary correlation between the level of education of managers (owners of the businesses enterprises) with high achievement of their firms. Such success is either in terms of increasing labor force (the number of qualified employees) and return indexes (productivity or revenues) because of job performance by the managers themselves and the staff they employ. The aforementioned findings suggest the indispensability of knowledge for quality performance and results. Given that universities are the legitimate institutions that both define and transfer knowledge, this case presented about South Africa indicates that socio-­economic development may occur both directly and indirectly, that is, necessarily or not

156 

P. J. UETELA

necessarily attained. The specific case of the application of university knowledge by the managers in the small, medium and micro businesses in South Africa in order to increase revenues and labor force that is highly qualified is an undeniable contribution of HE to economy within direct or indirect dimensions. University skills and knowledge was transferred first to managers, then to the workers they hired and the organization they instituted, and lastly, to quality job performance creating a chain of knowledge transference and contribution to the socio-economic development for the country as a whole. The case of South Africa, indicating that the level of education of an entrepreneur has a strong impact on the success of a business may sustain the position that HE is essential not only for South Africa but for Africa as a continent as it is the industry of knowledge generation. Second is the fact that even though the study does not explore the other side of managers (who do not have university education), for example, see Isaacs (2007: 31–42), who thinks that it is not knowledge that matters for successful work but policy, the fact that there is a higher probability of disadvantage in return revenues within firms managed by non-university managers than those whose staff hold HE skills remains a fact. Thirdly, the case of investment in small, medium and micro enterprises in South Africa reveals the effort the country is making in fostering industries that supply job opportunities for many local citizens, promotion of wellbeing and empowerment of the economy. Therefore, there is a consensus that the successful experiences of South Africa can be expanded in the region (SADC), though with the imperative of an emphasis on local agendas. The fact that today leading economies in the global north (see the USA, Europe, China and other developed countries) have secured such progress on the basis of strong investment in small, medium and micro enterprises is an incentive. However, the fact that while these countries should engage with establishing small, medium and micro enterprise at the same level they invest in strong universities needs to be prioritized considering that knowledge application is key for revenue returns and institutional success (Peters & Bridjlal, 2011: 265–275). In the case of South Africa, for example, decolonization of both universities, knowledge and enterprise implies increasing access to those spaces for both socially and racially disadvantaged citizens. The point here is that if knowledge is the underlying feature guiding both small, medium and micro business and also determines success within the businesses sector, it raises further analyses for the case of South African HE. The fact that revenues and labor force that is highly knowledgeable determine success. The fact that historically racial and socially disadvantaged population has been excluded from knowledge

5  CASE STUDIES ON HIGHER EDUCATION AND FURTHER EMPLOYABILITY… 

157

(participation in HE) questions the real meaning of success/ development in a national perspective. Despite the public opinion suggesting theoretically that South Africa is developing on the basis of investment on small, medium and micro enterprises, this view is contested empirically. The evidence of minority groups that are not present either in the panaceas of HE spaces or in the management of such small, micro and medium enterprises position the argument of development a dividing subject. There is a consensus then that inequalities and socio-economic development are contradictory. 31. Meeting the Knowledge Needs of the Academy and Industry Cele (2005)’s research investigated the new pacts that are indispensably instituted between HEIs and the industry through knowledge collaboration and transference. Specifically, it analyzed the kind of interconnections emerging between the University of Cape Town and the South African Coal Oil and Gas Corporation (SASOL) in terms of researching universities, knowledge and work. The underlying focus from the emphasis on interconnectedness between HE and firms is based on the concern that they both need each other in order to steer impact on the economy. It is also undeniable that by establishing channels of collaboration, universities can plan and structure projects of development though theoretical. It is then worth noticing that whereas universities nurture theory, industries have established appropriate environments for turning theory into practice (Cele, 2005: 155–160). The propositions underlying the focus of the debate concerning how the knowledge required for work is determined, in the perspective of Cele (2005), raises certain dimensions of analyses in the subject (i) the impact on individual academics (researchers) (ii) the impact on human resources management/development, technology and (iii) the influence on teaching programs of different domains and meanings. What does this mean? Primarily, it means that what accounts for the changes that have considerable impact in society on basis of research are the individual academic potentials, that is, the extent to which researchers internalize and apply investigation techniques, identify relevant problems and approach those scientifically and in methods that are most likely to either add new knowledge to that existing or show novelty. The fact that individual efforts and mastery of scientific techniques are essential for researchers and that existing, has been addressed in modernity (cf. Newton’s assertion that “I have

158 

P. J. UETELA

seen further it is by standing on the shoulders of the Giants”). This modern assumption of conceiving science is in part an extension of the Greek mythology applied by Orion concerning the greatness of his student (servant) Cedalion who sits on his master’s shoulders in order to see far (retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing-­on-­the-­ shoulders-­of-­giants on the 25th May 2021). Individual research means engaging with theories that have been previously formulated in order to assess the weaknesses and gaps existing between the problems these previous theories were set to address and the new and current problems. Based on these assumptions, the researchers’ findings and engagement in investigation is a personal and self-interiorness that leads as Kuhn asserted to new structures of scientific revolutions and by building new theories on the basis of others. Such exercise is more inward than outward to the extent that the position assuming that the culture of the university, including relevant drifts in research activities of the researchers captured by Cele (2005) at the Department of Chemical Engineering, were only made possible by individual academics rather than by the contribution of the industry (SASOL) makes sense. From the study, what was then the contribution of SASOL to both research and university, and to what extent the theory that universities and firms are either interconnected or must collaborate in order to generate and transfer relevant knowledge that steer development finds relevance in this specific case study? The influence of SASOL was not directly to academics but it strengthened human resources (technologies, hiring strategies), technological innovation and development of infrastructure. The example suggests that depending on the specialization of the firms, the impact that would derive from the collaboration between the counterparts would result in different reforming sectors or fields of specialization between stakeholders. Furthermore, the case study may suggest for a cautious organization of universities in terms of introducing programs and curriculum prospects that are paralleled to outside application. A failure to re-structure universities in a holistic perspective (compliance of all courses offered within HEIs to firms or potential firms in the labor market) may lead to disparities in terms of relevance of programs. The recession of certain programs (cf. the case of humanities and social sciences) previously indicated as being either undervalued, less privileged and compromising the future of the graduates might be justified by the weakness in collaboration between HEIs or departments with specific firms aligned to these programs. The contribution science makes should be on the basis of adding new knowledge to pre-existing knowledge.

5  CASE STUDIES ON HIGHER EDUCATION AND FURTHER EMPLOYABILITY… 

159

Part of the reasons for this failure might also be attributed for nonexistence of employing institutions under these categories, which makes collaboration impossible even if HEIs that offer social sciences and humanities consent to cooperate. In terms of mutual achievements between universities and firms on collaborative channels for knowledge production, transference and application, key actors work in close cooperation and encounter support on specific arenas based on feedback. 32. Academic Entrepreneurship in South African HEIs Grundling and Steynberg (2008) conducted a study that sought to address how entrepreneurship ideology is now shaping academics and academic lives. It investigated the underlying scope behind which entrepreneurship as an academic ideology is maximized (in HEIs and academia). The point here is that research is accounting for a considerable rise of HEIs and also academics that are entrepreneurial driven. However, there is less scholarship on the underlying forces behind such new phenomena, a part from the growing public opinion that speculate the justification of such new dynamics (Grundling & Steynberg, 2008: 9–17). The discussions the study proposes account for a diversity of perspectives at which South Africa’s engagement in an entrepreneurship model of HE and academia is found. Firstly, the model is still at inception phase as it has evolved shortly at least from the research perspective. Therefore, any assumption that the gains of entrepreneurial HE either in South Africa or in other countries in the SADC region led to successful experiences that nurture developmen, is worthy of contestation. Based on the results that entrepreneurial HE has offered the impact of this model of learning and the contribution it makes for the economy remains theoretical rather than empirical. Considering then the position that entrepreneurship education is at the inception phase as previously outlined, (i) there is no evidence yet that graduates’ employability on the basis of this new structure is due to either HE knowledge or students’ arrangements to adjust to the new complexities of the new world, and (ii) there is also no full certainty for the sustainability of the position. The case here is that part of socio-economic development that most of SADC states have reported to achieve in the last decades is guaranteed by the drift of universities from the traditional models of teaching, learning and research rather than on entrepreneurial perspectives. There might be other indexes accounting for the socio-economic development seen in either South Africa or elsewhere. Thus, the

160 

P. J. UETELA

skepticism that universities are not panaceas of economic development might make sense. The thesis we make in all these assumptions is that despite entrepreneurship evolving as part of the dominant features of academia and academics within which the debate HE and socio-economic development are aligned, there might be additional indexes that need to be explored in order to link universities with development in SADC. To conclude, (i) despite becoming popular, entrepreneurship university is novel and (ii) global south countries including SADC are still struggling to ensure both employability and development on grounds of this new asset. 33. Factors Influencing the Career Choice of Undergraduate Students at a Historically Disadvantaged South African University Abrahams et al. (2015) are concerned with the bias disadvantaged students face as to career piloting (guidance) on the basis of history. The study indicates that the apartheid regime privileged specific groups (socially advantaged majority) as to guidance on what professional work would best suit them in the future. The public opinion dominating then was that after the collapse of apartheid, discrimination would decline and minority groups would benefit from the policies. However, ideology did not turn into practice even though there has been a long period since the apartheid regime collapsed. The understanding of the factors that account for the decision on career path and what are the barriers affecting choices in the context of South Africa, became key (Abrahams et al., 2015: 209–219). The debate herein proposed suggests the importance of establishing programs aligned with career guidance within HEIs in either South Africa or other countries in the region. Lack of similar projects may most probably lead to deviation in graduates’ occupations and compromises appropriate contribution of these graduates for the local economies. The fact that career guidance is granted mainly by parents as the findings of the research reveal explain the lower stage at which universities are operating on the subject. In addition, it reveals the insufficiency of the state in instituting external agencies that mentor university student candidates on the potentialities prior to entering HE, a fact that would enable the candidates to enroll in programs that are relevant to their expectations, abilities and growth of the local economies. Even though apartheid regime has ended in practice the few career guidance projects still exclude the historically disadvantaged population which has some implications. It is an indication

5  CASE STUDIES ON HIGHER EDUCATION AND FURTHER EMPLOYABILITY… 

161

that even though HEIs in Africa have gone a step ahead in terms of adapting additional measures of inclusion and diversification of the population entering HE, in practice there is still a wider gap between the aspirations and actual reality. Furthermore, HEIs are apparently failing to fight against divisionism of ideologies which weakens their responsibility in both guiding the entire student population as to which programs are correlated with their future occupation after leaving universities. All these conditions reveal the concern that HE is still under transformation and that full decolonization of universities in Africa is yet to be attained. Lastly, the fact that the studied population accounted for earnings and promotion in their work place as the conditions that determined their option by the program may also unpack the contradiction existing between the graduates’ focus (which is a personal gain) with the role of university and the state (which is to promote public good and benefits). 34. Is Entrepreneurial Education at South African Universities Successful? Mentoor and Friedrich’s (2007) research makes the argument that despite hope and expectations that the transition from apartheid regime to democracy in the 1990s South Africa would lead to wellbeing especially for black minorities and democracy was a solution to unemployment, the theory did not turn into practice. There has been a significant rise of unemployability between graduates terminating university. The scenario is even more complex among black graduates and other minority groups. The study then sought to capture how, for example, a specific course of business administration fostered entrepreneurial skills and how those are reported to most likely have an impact on students after graduation. The case of this study reveals lack in development of entrepreneurship orientation among the students after terminating the course under evaluation (Mentoor & Friedrich, 2007: 221–232). Implications for the debate presented: The fact that the hope which most of vulnerable and minority groups developed throughout was not totally fulfilled calls upon the concern that neither independence nor democratization of African states (see apartheid for the case of South Africa) meant assurance for the wellbeing of the population. In South Africa, this is still under construction. The evidence that the guarantee of the wellbeing will continue being a long process is the fact that there is a sharp growth of these minority groups entering HE despite their

162 

P. J. UETELA

integration in the labor market remaining a debate. The fact that the students from the program analyzed (business management course) did not show possession of entrepreneurship abilities might in part be justified by the distinction between disciplines and courses. Whereas disciplinary skills are narrower than course structures, the consequences might have been reflected on the failure of the researched population to possess entrepreneurship abilities. 35. Postgraduate Student Experiences of Workplace Learning for a Professional Psychology Qualification in the South African Context The study applies the lens of psychology “connectivity” to show that there has been a strong emphasis in South Africa to expand access to higher education and then assure employability of the graduates. Universities have then been unceasingly working towards granting the best possible attributes that lead to work integration after graduates leave school. However, at times, expectations and reality have been contradictory. So, the problem of employment and unemployment of graduates is then justified by the potential of students’ connectedness between (i) work-­ integrated learning, (ii) expectations for the work environment after leaving university (iii) and study success which builds strong foundations for work readiness (Long & Fynn, 2018: 341–350). The relevance of this study is the importance it offers for the exploration of the relevance of psychology of HE as a key asset in affecting comprehension of the success or failure of integration of students in the labor market. Connectivity becomes then the prior asset that universities, graduates and employing sectors need to develop to succeed in life after leaving HE, especially the graduates. That is why this concern on connectivity should not be solely limited to graduates. Universities and HEIs need to nurture the vision that they are the driving forces that guide connectivity to occur. 36. Relevance for Work in the Western Cape Tourism Industry of the National Certificate Vocational in Tourism Education at TVET Colleges. The study reveals that as part of the efforts in instituting linkages between HE and the labor market, South Africa went far in introducing a

5  CASE STUDIES ON HIGHER EDUCATION AND FURTHER EMPLOYABILITY… 

163

reform policy in 2007, the National Certificate Vocational offered in a program of tourism industry. The research then inquired the relevance of such a program in terms of skills it offers and how those comply with those needed in the tourism industry. The underlying reasons behind such engagement is to gather relevant data on the state-of-the art on (i) universities’ reforms and agendas for employability, (ii) industry demands, specifically the tourism sector and then (iii) how university program reforms and labor necessities are correlated (Engelbrecht et al., 2017: 328–334). The study and findings account for a diversification of hypotheses. Firstly, there is the undoubtable fact that graduate students from the National Certificate Vocational Program of Tourism have encountered employment in their respective fields of expertise after completing university. This is in part a strength and encouragement for universities to constantly innovate and implement curricular projects that are novel and relevant to the market. The findings may also contest the long-held debate between skepticism (marginalization) of universities on one hand and support of HEIs on the other. The findings show strong evidence in the contribution universities make for local growth. However, in spite of either employability or alignment between National Certificate vocational students and performance in the specific arenas of expertise, the findings from the employers presented contradictions. From the employers’ side, admission of employees (graduate) in their firms was a fact though they lacked the most complete appropriate skills that are required that would enable them execute the work accordingly. Considering the fact that the case of employability, skills appropriateness and the role of universities is at times divisive, the debate may suggest a cautious reflection. HEIs mainly popularize the vision that are on the right track especially in their mission and vision (instruction for employability), whereas the industry has also been in part insisting that there is a contradiction between university training and appropriateness of the skills they require. There are at least two immediate measures that need to be undertaken to lessen the apparent conflict between universities and the industry. Firstly, the industry has been ready for continuous learning (life-long learning projects) as part of completing graduates’ skills that were not covered while at university. On the other hand, the complexity of the knowledge economy has become a burden to HEIs based on the diversification of knowledge they need to produce in order to supply the industry. Under this perspective, diversity of knowledge about the possibilities of transference on basis of contexts graduates encounter after leaving HE has been adopted as the appropriate solution.

164 

P. J. UETELA

Therefore, the complaints that university graduates lack specific skills required by the specific industry of tourism, as they thought may make sense, they will probably continue considering that knowledge economies and markets that are all dynamic institutions. As part of the solution for the problem, research may suggest for strengthening of collaborations between specific programs within HEIs and correlated industries in the labor market. The collaboration for internships between universities and industries prior to graduates’ employability would serve as a means of both developing and adjusting university abilities to working conditions in advance. 37. Diverse Enterprising Needs and Outcomes: A Case for Experiential Learning The study by Dorasamy (2009) accounts for the expansion of the theory that there have been remarkable changes on the conditions under which both economies and institutions operate. The changes impose new models of education (teaching, learning and research) guided by the assumption that since knowledge defines both organizational institutions and economies, the more any change occurs, the higher is the probability of learning institutions adapting alternative measures of making sense for the new conditions. As part of the attempts to respond to the new changes and impositions of the knowledge economy and organizational change, there have been growing concerns from the side of universities as to what kind of programs they should offer. Enterprise education is becoming under these settings an imperative. The underlying features behind enterprise education lies on the fact that entrepreneurial programs will lead to an entrepreneurial society, which is the most appropriate model for the most competitive and knowledge reality. The study then questions the foundations of the enterprise education, the complexities around its implementation and what are the underlying theories and meanings that are evolving to explain this typology of learning? (Dorasamy, 2009: 405–412). In addressing the meaning and theories behind enterprise education is in itself complex as different stakeholders may have opposite concerns about the same subject. There are at least four stakeholders involved in the debate about the meaning and benefits of education, which may lead to conflicts on the definition of meanings these four actors, may have (i) government, (ii) universities, (iii) students and (iv) industry. The narratives each of the four agents may hold as to the meaning of a relevant enterprise education, skills and how it is operationalized might be

5  CASE STUDIES ON HIGHER EDUCATION AND FURTHER EMPLOYABILITY… 

165

different. Preliminarily, due to a diversity of actors interested in unpacking the meaning and relevance of HE from different perspectives there might only be a “consensus” of the key actors “not being consensus” as the expectations each one has might be conflicting. Part of the theories leading to contestations about HE in Africa, for example, emanates from the difficulty of building reconciliations between divergent narratives each of the key actors may hold about the meaning and relevance of HE and knowledge. Thus, concerns on diversification and diversity when addressing the case of enterprise university are to be considered in order to lessen bias and prejudices on the subject. 38. Academic Capital and the World of Work: Experiences of Mature Students The study sought to capture the underlying reasons behind mature students attending HE. The research is grounded in the perspective that the attainment of specific capitals such as academic and cultural motivates the search for knowledge independent of the age of the students. The study questions the extent to which universities (the university of Cape Town) are ready to support students under this category entering HE and how within entrants the perspective of gender is accounted. It does so by conducting interviews with a certain group of students who are enrolled in a program of management. Most interestingly, while the students are enrolled on the category of part-time, they are full-time workers. The data which either the University of Cape Town, South Africa, and any other country of the region may present with reference to mature students (employed students seeking for HE) lead to a number of hypotheses. First is that whereas the public opinion has mismatched the debate between access to HE and employment, that is, that overall, the search for HE access was justified by future employment and that universities guarantee such correlation, this specific case indicates that this has not always been the norm. Since the findings reveal that the search for academic and cultural capitals are the driving forces motivating employed candidates seek for a HE degree, the role of university is not solely limited to provision of abilities that are required for employability. Universities can also serve as panaceas of work-long learning, promotion and wages increment in an employment that is already attained. Secondly, the scenario represents the complexity at which the idea of university and state decolonization in Africa is mingled. Research has increasingly indicated that as part

166 

P. J. UETELA

of the institution of the global north empire in Africa, access to HE was segregation-oriented. Therefore, the new practices of decolonization of university of which local citizens and minority groups should benefit at large from HE have incremented policy reforms of inclusion and participation in HE spaces independent of the background. Thirdly, the case of employed students in the context of Africa may reveal the stage at which universities are becoming more market oriented and the degree of state decline in steering universities. Consequently, HEIs are adopting new, creative and strategic reforms to maintain sustainability. Admitting working participants is in part seen as strategic for the sustainability of HEIs through monthly tuition fees and other means of payment. Furthermore, given that the burdens of sustainability of HEIs have not only affected universities but also national states, admitting employed students to HE is a reform grounded on cost-sharing initiatives between the direct beneficiaries (participants in higher education) and the indirect winners (state, industry and stakeholders). This measure (of cost sharing) is becoming popular not only in Africa but also elsewhere considering it is supported by the empirical evidence that the gains of HE knowledge and training aggregates a wider range of both audience and contenders who should all participate in the expenses of high learning. Lastly, admittance of employed students to universities also imply transference of the responsibility of continuous learning from the employers to either universities or employees (students). Under this latter position, there are at least two perspectives of employed students: (i) those that are supported by the employer to pursue further education and then return to the institution in order to perform the activities at the most required and adequate level, and (ii) those who by their own initiative decide to self-­ finance further education in order to achieve work benefits with focus for promotion in the work place, better salaries and other advantages (Source: Meta-analyses of key studies that have been conducted on the subject in Africa).

References Abbagnano, N., & Versalberghi, A. (1970). História da Pedagogia (tradução). Livros Horizonte. Abrahams, F., Jano, R., & van Lill, B. (2015). Factors influencing the career choice of undergraduate students at a historically disadvantaged south African university. Industry and Higher Education, 29(3), 209–219.

5  CASE STUDIES ON HIGHER EDUCATION AND FURTHER EMPLOYABILITY… 

167

Assie-Lumumba, N. (2019). Higher education in Africa: Crises, reforms and transformation. Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa, 2005. Retrieved February 4, 2019, from file:///D:/Downloads/Ndri_ lumumba.pdf Badenhorst, E., & Kapp, R. (2013). Negotiation of learning and identity among first-year medical students. Teaching in Higher Education, 18(5), 465–476. Bandawe, C. (2005). Psychology brewed in an African pot: Indigenous philosophies and the quest for relevance. Higher Education Policy, 2005(18), 289–300. Bloom, D., Canning, D., & Chan, K. (2006). Higher education and economic development in Africa. Human Development Sector. Harvard University Press. Boersma, F. K., Reinecke, C. J., & Gibbons, M. (2008). Organizing the university–industry relationship: A case study of research policy and curriculum restructuring at the North-West University in South Africa. Tertiary Education and Management, 14(3), 209–226. Booi, M., Vincent, L., & Liccardo, S. (2017). Counting on demographic equity to transform institutional cultures at historically white South African universities? Higher Education Research & Development, 36(3), 498–510. Bourdieu, P. (2000). O Campo Económico. A dimensão simbólica da dominação. Tradução de Roberto Leal Ferreira; Revisão técnica Daniel Lins. Papirus. Bourdieu, P. (2002). Pensamento Contemporaneo: Entrevista com Maria Loyola. Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro. Bourdieu, P., & Passeron, J. (1970). A Reprodução: Elementos para uma Teoria de Sistema do Ensino. Tradução de C. Perdigão Gomes da Silva Ed. Veja. Vega. Bourdieu, P., & Passeron, J. (2013). Os Herdeiros: Os estudantes e a cultura. Tradução de Ione Ribeiro Valle e Nilton Valle. Editora UFSC. Breier, M., & Herman, C. (2017). The PhD conundrum in South African academia. Higher Education Quarterly, 71(4), 352–368. Breier, M., Herman, C., & Towers, L. (2019). Doctoral rites and liminal spaces: Academics without PhDs in South Africa and Australia. Studies in Higher Education, 45, 1–13. Brijlal, P., & Brijlal, P. (2013). Entrepreneurial knowledge and aspirations of dentistry students in South Africa. Industry and Higher Education, 27(5), 389–398. Castel, V., Marta, P., & Marco, S. (2010, June). Education and employment in Malawi. African Development Fund, Working paper Series. Development Research Department of the African Development Bank Group, No 110. Cele, M. G. (2005). Meeting the knowledge needs of the academy and industry. Industry and Higher Education, 19(2), 155–160. Daniels, D. J., & Staskun, M. G. (1979). The development and evaluation of a chemistry course for paramedical students. Assessment in Higher Education, 5(1), 89–98. Dorasamy, N. (2009). Diverse enterprising needs and outcomes: A case for experiential learning. Industry and Higher Education, 23(5), 405–412.

168 

P. J. UETELA

Dosunmu, A.  G., & Adeyemo, K.  S. (2018). Lifelong learning, human capital development and the career advancement of women in the telecommunications industry in South Africa. Industry and Higher Education, 32(3), 192–199. Du Toit, J. (2015). Can we augment web responses with telephonic responses to a graduate destination survey? Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 41(4), 560–574. Du Toit, J., Kraak, A., Favish, J., & Fletcher, L. (2014). From study to work: Methodological challenges of a graduate destination survey in the Western Cape, South Africa. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 39(7), 853–864. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2013.875118 Engelbrecht, M., Spencer, J., & van der Bijl, A. (2017). Relevance for work in the Western cape tourism industry of the National Certificate Vocational in tourism education at TVET colleges. Industry and Higher Education, 31(5), 328–334. Grobler, A., & van Rensburg, M. J. (2018). Organizational climate, person–organization fit and turn over intention: A generational perspective within a south African higher education institution. Studies in Higher Education, 44, 1–13. Grundling, J.  P., & Steynberg, L. (2008). Academic entrepreneurship in south African HEIs. Industry and Higher Education, 22(1), 9–17. Gumport, P. (2000). Sociology of higher education an evolving field. In P. Gumport (Ed.), Sociology of higher education: Contributions and their contexts (pp. 17–50). The Johns Hopkins University Press. Hall, D., & Thomas, H. (2005). Links between higher education and employers in Malawi: The need for a dialogue? Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 27(1), 67–79. Isaacs, E. (2007). Role of support organizations for SMMEs in a global environment. Industry and Higher Education, 21(1), 31–42. Jafta, R., & Uctu, R. (2013). Exploring entrepreneurial activity at Cape Town and Stellenbosch universities, South Africa. Industry and Higher Education, 27(2), 117–128. Jay, J., & Owen, A. (2015). Providing opportunities for student self-assessment: The impact on the acquisition of psychomotor skills in occupational therapy students. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 41(8), 1176–1192. Jone, S. (2018). Baseline survey on university students school-to-employment transition. Copenhaga & Maputo. Ki-Zerbo, J. (2006). Para Quando a África (p. 2006). Pallas. Langa, et al. (2016). From university to work: A study on the destination of graduates of 2011 cohort from Mozambican HEIs. Eduardo Mondlane University Press. Long, E., & Fynn, A. (2018). Postgraduate student experiences of workplace learning for a professional psychology qualification in the South African context. Industry and Higher Education, 32(5), 341–350. Lulat, Y. (2003). The development of higher education in Africa. A historical survey. In D. Teferra & P. Altbach (Eds.), African Higher Education: An international reference handbook (pp. 15–31). Indiana University Press.

5  CASE STUDIES ON HIGHER EDUCATION AND FURTHER EMPLOYABILITY… 

169

Manthalu & Waghid. (2019). Education and decoloniality. Palgrave Macmillan. Maas, G. J. P., & Herrington, M. (2011). The role of HEIs in an entrepreneurial renaissance in South Africa. Industry and Higher Education, 25(4), 225–232. Mabokela, R.  O. (2002). Reflections of Black women faculty in South African Universities. The Review of Higher Education, 25(2), 185–205. Mambo, M., Muna, M., Tanaka, N., & Salmi, J. (2016). Improving higher education in Malawi for competitiveness in the global economy. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank. Masola, A. (2016). Life after a humanities degree. Arts and Humanities in Higher Education, 15(1), 160–163. Mattes, R., & Luescher-Mamashela, T. (2010). The roles of higher education in the democratization of politics in Africa. Survey reports from HERANA.  In N.  Cloete et  al. (Eds.), Historical development of higher education in Africa. Politics and democratisation: Higher Education Masters in Africa Course Reader (HEMA). Herana. McLean, M., & Walker, M. (2012). The possibilities for university-based public-­ good professional education: A case-study from South Africa based on the “capability approach”. Studies in Higher Education, 37(5), 585–601. Memmi. (2013). The colonizer and the colonized. JSTOR, 34(5), 929–941. Mentoor & Friedrich. (2007). Is entrepreneurial education at South African Universities successful?: An empirical example. Sage Journals. Memmi, A. (1977). Retrato do Colonizado Precedido pelo Retrato do Colonizador. Tradução de R. Corbisier e M. P. Coelho. Paz e Terra. Mkandawire, T. (1996). The social sciences in Africa: Breaking local barriers and negotiating international presence. The Bashorum M.  K. O Abiola distinguished lecture presented to the 1996 ASA annual meeting. African Studies Review, 40(2), 15–36. Mkandawire, T. (2016). Running while others walk. Knowledge and the challenge of Africas’ Development. [lecture video], 2011. Retrieved March 30, 2016, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D2U5omZtsJI Moyo, D. (2008). The dead aid. Why aid does not work in Africa (p.  2008). Routledge. Mutereko, S. (2017). Analysing the accreditation of engineering education in South Africa through Foucault’s panopticon and governmentality lenses. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 43(2), 235–247. Nomdo, G. J. (2004). Collaborating within the “risk zone”. Active Learning in Higher Education, 5(3), 205–216. Osman, R., & Hornsby, D. J. (2016). Communities and scholarship in supporting early-career academics at the University of the Witwatersrand. Studies in Higher Education, 41(10), 1835–1853. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2016. 1221659 Paterson, A. (2005). Articulation of industrial R&D with higher education in the telecommunications sector in South Africa. Industry and Higher Education, 19(2), 179–188.

170 

P. J. UETELA

Peters, R. M., & Bridjlal, P. (2011). The relationship between levels of education of entrepreneurs and their business success: A study of the province of KwaZulu-­ Natal, South Africa. Industry & Higher Education, 25(4), 265–275. Pinheiro, R., Langa, P. V., & Pausits, A. (2015). One and two equals three? The third mission of higher education institutions. European Journal of Higher Education, 5(3), 233–249. Rampersad, R. (2010). Pedagogical approaches to cooperative education in South Africa. Industry and Higher Education, 24(4), 279–286. Reddy, S., Searle, R.  L., Shawa, L.  B., & Teferra, D. (2016). A balancing act: Facilitating a university education induction programme for (early career) academics. Studies in Higher Education, 41(10), 1820–1834. Said, E. (1990). Orientalismo: O oriente como invenção do ocidente. Tradução de Tomás Rosa Bueno. Companhia das Letras. Stampini, M. (2010). Labor market dynamics in Tunisia: The issue of youth unemployment. Review of Middle East Economics and Finance, 7(2), 1–35. Stumpf, S. (1993). Sócrates to Sartre. A history of philosophy (pp.  30–80). University Press. Subbaye, R., & Dhunpath, R. (2016). Early-career academic support at the University of KwaZulu-Natal: Towards a scholarship of teaching. Studies in Higher Education, 41(10), 1803–1819. Teferra, D., & Altbach, P. (2004). African higher education: Challenges for the 21st century. Journal of Higher Education, 42, 21–50. Trow, M. (1970) Reflections on the transition from mass to universal higher education. Daedalus, 99(1), 1–42. The Embattled University. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/20023931. Tsotsotso, K., Montshiwa, E., Tirivanhu, P., Fish, T., Sibiya, S., Mlangeni, T., et al. (2017). Determinants of skills demand in a state- intervening labour market. Higher Education, Skills and Work-Based Learning, 7(4), 408–422. Uetela, P. (2017). Higher education and development in Africa. Palgrave Macmillan. Uetela, P. (2019a). Higher education and funding strategies for knowledge generation of releance: A comparative study between Mozambique and Brazil. International Journal of Sociology of Education, 8(1), 28–44. https://doi. org/10.17583/rise.2019.3539 Uetela, P. (2019b). A Universidade na África e a Geraçäo de Pensamento: Questōes de Moçambique e a Empregabilidade dos Graduados (1975–2012). Appris. Van Romburgh, H., & van der Merwe, N. (2015). University versus practice. Industry and Higher Education, 29(2), 141–149. Visser, K. (2011). Social entrepreneurship in South Africa: Context, relevance and extent. Industry and Higher Education, 25(4), 233–247.

5  CASE STUDIES ON HIGHER EDUCATION AND FURTHER EMPLOYABILITY… 

171

White, K., Bagilhole, B., & Riordan, S. (2012). The gendered shaping of university leadership in Australia, South Africa and the United Kingdom. Higher Education Quarterly, 66(3), 293–307. Whitehead, Y. (2015). Evaluating postgraduate preparation in the South African context. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 40(7), 914–927. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2014.957152

CHAPTER 6

Case Studies for West Africa

6.1   Introduction This section adresses the case of Western Africa including some of the key studies that have been conducted to capture the interconnection between HE and employability of the graduates. The section accounts for the great narratives shaping the debates in the region which is represented by three main countries (Cameroon, Ghana and Nigeria).

6.2  Case Studies: Discussions Here, we structure the debate that has been undertaken in West Africa concerning HE, universities, industry and employability. We do so by mapping some key investigations that have dominated both this geographical location and in the subject topics under analyses. Intersection between HE, universities, employability of the graduates and industry linkages in the Western Africa region is debated. Ghana 1. “The older women are men:” Navigating the Academic Terrain, Perspectives from Ghana

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 P. J. Uetela, Higher Education and Decolonization in Africa, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-38973-3_6

173

174 

P. J. UETELA

The study builds from the perspective that social factors and construction towards culture, gender and profession may have an impact on the academic careers of the staff working in universities. It also evolves from the assumption that in Ghana and elsewhere in Africa, women academics have been scarce, that is, HE employability has been predominantly a male rather than a female profession. Because of such conception (socially constructed vision) that HE employment should be reserved for males, there have been remarkable policy changes as part of decolonizing HE, its sub-systems and institutions. Consequently, and as part of these reforms, the number of women academics that are employed in HE settings is sharply growing across Africa as is indicated by the statistics of Ghana. Thus, the study sought to unpack aspects such as socio-cultural and institutional arrangements that to some extent do influence the success of these women with focus for the strategies that they have employed to succeed in a context that becoming a university employee has been historically against them. In brief, history has often not been supportive for the employability of women in Ghana or elsewhere in Africa (Mabokela & Mlambo, 2014: 759–778). What are then the implications this study suggests? First is the position that variations in the social construction of gender (masculinity and feminism) determines either support or lack of support for males and females’ employability versus un-employability. This structure also affects academic settings and other arenas. The data from Ghana, for example, evidences that there might be a misconception that knowledge is defined and produced on gender basis, which might per se build, the foundation for exclusion. Under this perspective and cultural construction of reality, universities are institutions of reproduction of masculine ideology and therefore further policy reforms and decolonization projects that support female empowerment in the academic arena become a priority. Secondly, from the findings, family perceptions of gender also affect future employment and unemployment conceptions. From the sampled population and popular debate undergoing in West Africa as to women’s participation in HE and consequently employability, there are some elements to consider. The level of education of parents and the value they give for education and social background are key factors determining females’ participation in HE and consequently employment after leaving university. It is hypothetically true that lack of emphasis on the aforementioned concerns has led to women’s exclusion in HE and employment opportunities. Therefore, government initiatives

6  CASE STUDIES FOR WEST AFRICA 

175

and institutional arrangements that support women’s participation in HE may aid to lessen the prejudice that has dominated either Ghana or other surrounding nations. The institutional or organizational arrangements’ reform as key to empower women’s participation in HE and subsequently establish conditions of support for their participation in academic occupations has been suggested in the previous chapter as evolving from the colonial inheritance of universities. The struggle to decolonize such model of universities may have led to the severe consequences under analysis in Ghana and west Africa that institutional politics, at times, perpetuate female scarcity in academic life. 2. Expectations and Integration of Early Career Academics into the Teaching Career The employability of early career academics is least explored either in Ghana or elsewhere. Alabi and Abdulai (2016) aimed at investigating the state-of-the-art of early career academics and explore how it looks like based on reviewing existing policy documents and interviews with deans including heads of departments within five aleatorily selected universities with expectation that most early career academics are most likely to be employed and capture their observations (Alabi & Abdulai, 2016: 1754–1771). Findings: The study shows that reviewed policy documents were neither clear nor specific as to which skills constitute a requirement for candidates before embracing work environment (early career academic profession). In addition, there was a lack of which specific training employing institutions offer to the new entrants. Other constraints that affected integration of early career academics, are extended to internal working conditions and environment in the working universities that are contrary to expectations. In instances where some conditions do exist, these are not yet adequate to the level expected. What are the implications for all these findings? That HE, employability of early academics and the conditions under which HEIs should operate (structures, systems and resources) are still under construction either in Ghana or elsewhere in Africa. Second is the position that whereas graduate employees that work outside universities (in the industry) have been prescribed by employers as lacking the adequate skills that are indispensable for appropriate work delivery, this has not solely been observed in the contexts of the firms. Eventually, employees initiating their career in the institutions that guarantee the skills for employment

176 

P. J. UETELA

(universities) are also not content with the workers at an earlier stage of whom they trained themselves. Once again strengthening cooperation between the industry and universities in order to provide continuous learning would potentially nurture the highest qualities on graduates that are employed either in the industry or in academic settings. 3. Redefining Entrepreneurial Learning Paradigms in Developing Countries The work of Owusu-Manu et al. (2013) builds from the assumption that the world in which we live is comprised of rapid and dramatic changes and as part of strategic methods for survival, some countries have remarkably undertaken immediate actions and practices. These include research and innovation, advancements in technology and science and entrepreneurship. However, whereas developed nations (global north in general) have been faster and successful in considering entrepreneurship as the measure for development, global south countries are still at the inception phase. In addition, the diversity of stages of implementation process is also a concern in Africa and Ghana among countries within the global south that are maximizing entrepreneurship as part of their development agendas. The underlying reasoning behind engaging into entrepreneurship agendas is supported by the assumption that countries that have empowered their graduates with enterprise skills have been in part successful in improving their GDP.  The study herein under analysis sought to capture how Ghanaian universities are engaging in introducing inter-disciplinary courses and institution of strong networks led, for example, by the Business School of Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology. All what Ghana is doing through the Business School of Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology is to define key mechanisms that encourage emergence of talents, solutions to local problems on the basis of business-oriented solutions and innovation including the integration of such practices into both graduate and postgraduate programs. In brief, business and entrepreneurship are becoming stimulus of development in Ghana as universities are internalizing these concepts into teaching and learning programs (Owusu-Manu et  al., 2013: 105–116). What are then the implications of the new adventure for Ghana and other countries in the global south or north? The implications include that business solutions and entrepreneurship are being popularized not only in Ghana but across West Africa and other regions.

6  CASE STUDIES FOR WEST AFRICA 

177

The implementation is occurring on expectations that graduates’ self-­employment will work as a solution to GDP increment and build strengths between universities and the industry. The venture of Ghana and the study herein presented accounts for interesting comparisons between global north and south initiatives in addressing the new role of universities and its contribution they make to the economy. The concern is that, whereas some countries in the global north have advanced in implementing business entrepreneurship as part of securing graduates’ employment and then empower their economies, Ghana and Africa are still at the looming phase and far from attaining the degree at which developed nations are. This position aligns to Mkandawire’s (2016) concern that Africa should “run while others walk”. For this specific case, running should stand in terms of either establishing HE or in validating the contribution universities make for the solution of local problems 4. Development of a Procurement Management Framework in Ghana The study of Owusu-Manu et al. (2011) evolves from the assumption that selling services and goods in today’s world, which is dominated by corporate perspectives, entails understanding the complexity and the need of interdisciplinary knowledge production and sales. Thus, part of the objectives of the research sought to investigate the existing conditions and possibilities of instituting competencies that account for procurement management. Based on the ongoing public opinion, debates and findings, this model of procurement management package explains the new composition of graduate, postgraduate programs including existing students in the country (Ghana). The process under which both theoretical framework and conclusion were constructed was on basis of inductive methodology, that is, it observed particular and specific policy documents, review of literature and interviews and then emerged on encountering the competencies required for the new procurement management practice (Owusu-Manu et al., 2011: 289–305). The findings from the study are astonishing as they attempt to map the various external forces influencing current procurement management systems that are corporately based. These external forces include (i) shift in steering mechanisms, (ii) the dynamics of society, (iii) the rise of community governance, (iv) reforms in science and technology, (v) the consequences of globalization and lastly, (vi) the growing concerns on knowledge based on research and team construction. There is a consensus that, the aforementioned

178 

P. J. UETELA

dynamics also impose reforms of their dimensions to the extent that the new competencies nurtured by graduate, post-graduate programs and students for the corporate world seek the competencies and skills that account for the fact that funding is competitive, diversified and scarce. Second is the idea that whereas some skills were applicable for all contexts on the basis that there were stable problems, currently, both society and problems that exist and need goods and services are no longer static but dynamic. Considering the new model of corporate governance, requires that staff from different areas of expertise and specialization cooperate, diversifying procurement management skills acquisition for graduates, postgraduate programs and students foster the institution and transference of abilities that instigate corporate governance. This is a model of leadership that has been supported by the knowledge-based economy. HEIs then have increasingly adjusted teaching, learning and research agendas as a means of responding to the impositions of the novel society, funding policies for university survival and for the specific case of this study, HE reforms are part of university adjustments to produce competencies that are appropriate for the new suggested management model. Another factor influencing diversification of competencies in the new type of management being researched is the concept of globalization. Despite research pointing to the fact that globalization leads to standardization and uniformity, there is also the position that local realities are contextualized within such standardization and uniformity. Contextualization then is what results in diversification, which accounts for the new competencies of procurement management characterized by corporate and enterprise models. 5. An Assessment of the Level of Emotional Intelligence Attributes of Undergraduate Built Environment Students in Developing Countries Owusu-Manu et al. (2018) study was aimed at understanding the implications behind graduates having one category of skills (executive skills or technical) which are appropriate to perform the work. However, the same students were seen as not possessing leadership abilities. In addition to lack of leadership skills, the graduates under study lacked what the research indicated as emotional competences (emotional intelligence). The study was conducted for the fourth year graduate students at Kwame Nkrumah university of Science and Technology in Ghana (Owusu-Manu et al., 2018). The results from the study show that in order to execute the work in its

6  CASE STUDIES FOR WEST AFRICA 

179

completeness and bear sound results, technical skills, which are related to the expertise of the area of instruction, are not sufficient. There is a necessity of developing on graduates’ emotional intelligence skills as potential to cope with stress, emotions and other anxieties at work place. Since these abilities were found lacking in graduates, our concern is that on one hand, universities should not solely focus on technical skills that lead them to perform/execute the work, but also on additional abilities that integrate citizens in their daily lives. In addition, the industry can establish strong networks with HEIs as to identify which abilities universities do not offer so that they introduce in work-settings; (the case of emotional intelligence skills) are examples of abilities that graduates can encounter in the work place in terms of life-long learning. Owusu-Manu et al. (2015) are concerned with the implication of the twenty-first century in the organizational conduct of universities, the programs they offer as well as the meaning this may have for professional practices and their relevance for the employability perspectives. The consequences of these reforms in the specific case of Ghana, have led to university programs’ re-structuring. There was under these new demands and changes the replacement of traditional PhD projects by new and equipped ones that strengthen the encounter of the new demands. In spite of Ghana being a pioneer in restructuring its PhD courses as a potential to meet the imposition of the knowledge society that was initiated in the twenty-first century, developing countries lag behind overall. Building from the point that there is little being done across West Africa and other developing nations on the subject, the study explored what new synergies are potentially underway at the Center for Doctoral training in Business enterprise and professional studies in the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (Owusu-Manu et al., 2015: 197–207). The findings from the investigation suggest a diversity of measures for both research and developing countries’ attempt to align professional practices, universities and the demands of the twenty-first century. Such potentials invested in the doctoral programs at the Center for Doctoral Training in Business Enterprise and Professional Studies in the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology are in fivefold dimension of developing of learning and training within the professional doctoral program established in terms of the following:

180 

P. J. UETELA



(a) Business: The fact that entrepreneurial attitudes and skills are vital forces in promoting survival synergies and adaptability to the ­twenty-­first century shaped by highly competitive environment and scarcity of employability opportunity appears to characterize teaching and learning politics within the center. Hence, the potential may not solely benefit Ghanaian graduates and Ghana as a state nation. Instead, it serves as a mirror for the region of West Africa and the rest of the continent. (b) Research: Is another aspect that the Center for Doctoral Training in Business Enterprise and Professional studies in the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology considers as an asset to embrace a professional doctoral program that aligns the vision and mission of HE with the demands and complexities imposed by the twenty-first century. The concerns that universities should become not only teaching panaceas but also research institutions in order to address local problems is a long-held debate. It evolved in the global north context with the rise of the Von Humboldt model of university in the 1800s, a typology that later on emigrated to the United States of America. The fact the Center for Doctoral Training in Business Enterprise and Professional Studies in the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology is part of Ghana engagement in instituting a research model of university consubstantiate the rapidly commitment and stage at which the country is responding to the twenty-first century imperatives on the relationship between HE and the labor market. In addition, the case of Ghana accounts for an apparent compliance between global reforms and those that are locally determined. (c) Creativity: The engagement and prioritization of creative thinking and management of professional studies in the new Doctoral Program Award consubstantiate the commitment Ghana and the region are promoting to address both complexities and diversities of the twenty-first century, which require creativity, innovation and technology. Hence, traditional mechanisms grounded on the assumption that problem solution, teaching and learning are stable and fixed are no longer justifiable in the twenty-first century. Ghana is equipping the doctoral training in





6  CASE STUDIES FOR WEST AFRICA 





181

business enterprise and professional studies in the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology to consider creative thinking and nurture approaches to the twenty-first century problems solutions as an asset. (d) As to the transferability of knowledge, research has shown that there have been ongoing debates firstly on the kind of knowledge that is relevant, and secondly, which one both universities and graduates are required to transfer to the labor market. The assumption that relevant knowledge is assessed by the assertiveness to be transferred has dominated literature especially during the transition from what we described in Chap. 4 as models I, II and III of knowledge production. With the complexity of HEIs and strong emphasis on scrutiny for specific typologies of the skills they should nurture, the concern that diversification of knowledge (interdisciplinarity, heterogeneity and multidisciplinarity) would result in the successful integration of the graduates in the labor market has been indicated as priority in HE research. By emphasizing transferability of knowledge to different and complex contexts of applications, universities are realizing in the case of Ghana that the twenty-first century typology of problems can only be addressed by diversifying knowledge. Again, the advances Ghana is making in restructuring its doctoral programs to become relevant and accountable to the complexities of the twenty-first century become inspirational to the region and the entire continent. (e) Lastly, and as part of the reforms emphasized by the Doctoral training in Business enterprise and professional studies in the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology in Ghana, is the focus on evidential learning. Evidence learning imposes that the success of the programs emerging to professional Doctoral Scholarship in Ghana minimizes the complexities of the knowledge economy should be built not only on structural (form) of the content but also should include “content.” This means that what training information and how this is structured is not sufficient. Instead, business enterprise and transferable professional skills to the different contexts of application is what should matter most.

182 

P. J. UETELA

Cameroon 1. Enhancing Graduate Employability in Cameroonian Universities Through Professionalization in the Context of the “Licence– Master–Doctorat” Reform In part, there have been concerns in the context of Cameroon HE that the remarkable transformations that were initiated in Europe with the so-called Bologna process have been applied in restructuring the university subsystem in the country (Eta, 2017: 309–332). In fact, there are growing concerns that the alignment of the changes that are implemented either in the country (Cameroon) or elsewhere in Africa on the basis of the Bologna model of high learning affect the key dimensions of university organization, especially teaching and learning and mainly the interconnection between HE and employment sectors. It is within this scope that Eta (2017) conducted a research project that unpacked the implications of Bologna adherence in Cameroon and Nigeria in terms of key agendas and impositions on graduates’ employment either before or after leaving university. The results from the study account for a diversification of evidence on the conditions under which Cameroon determines its HE and graduate employment agendas. In addition, both interpretations and analyses of the new university and the impact it has on graduates may inform new policies either in Cameroon or elsewhere in Africa. Hence, preliminary reflections on the results include a focus on (i) key conceptualizing agendas of employment within universities and their structures, (ii) how such agendas and projects for employability are defined, operationalized and turned into practice and (iii) lastly, the implications all these measures have on universities. In brief, there are concerns that the key politics Nigerian and Cameroonian universities apply to align university agendas with employment is through the establishment of a dialogue between strategic agendas with professionalization of HE. The case of professionalizing skills as determinant factors that either guarantee employment in the knowledge economy or contribution in the influence of assessment employers make about their employees has been a case of interest in Ghana as indicated previously and constitute a concern for the context of Nigeria and Cameroon. Professionalization of both graduates and university is under this perspective deemed as an essential operationalizing strategy for transforming universities into places of determination of work integration as it offers more skills rather than knowledge. The

6  CASE STUDIES FOR WEST AFRICA 

183

specific case of Cameroon then serves as a sample to indicate the process of constructing and decolonizing HE.  Furthermore, it shows the ways successful agendas on the interconnection between HE are defined, planned and executed. However, though these successful experiences may be inspirational to other countries that are still in an earlier stage process of building their HEIs and sub-systems, the case of Cameroon raises some concerns. First is the fact that from independence Cameroon and other countries within Africa have determined decolonization of university, knowledge production and science as key priority. The application and contextualization of the Bologna model of university in Africa even though it may lead to successful results as the case of Cameroon where professionalization of universities determines integration of graduates in the labor market, Bologna has been considered in part as a neo-colonization for the African context as it is not a model that was indigenously invented in the continent. Secondly, Bologna is being seen under this perspective as an emigration of European university to Africa. Third is the fact that there might be contradictions between the whole spectrum of Bologna implementation from the global north context (Europe) and its adaptability to the global south realities either in Cameroon or elsewhere. Infrastructure conditions, highly qualified staff, weak engagement in teaching and research pedagogies that are still under construction in Africa are consensually reported to affect the kind of professionalization agendas under which universities are embracing Bologna typology of university in Africa. Hence, there is a strong necessity of aligning theory (the view that Bologna typology of university guarantees professionalization and employment) on one hand, and the actual situation of the graduates at different stages of employment searching opportunities across Africa (which is practice). In countries like Mozambique, for example, the view that Bologna would become the future university was implemented in 2008, a moment that key university agendas, conceptualization, structures and employment prospective in line with Bolognization shaped HE research and HEIs. However, in 2011, the few HE institutions that had embraced such a model deemed as the university of the future reversed the steps that had taken (Uetela, 2019: 191). Concerns have been raised on the implications of Bologna in Africa and the consequences it may have for graduates’ employability. Despite the model promoting professionalization in some contexts, it has been

184 

P. J. UETELA

regarded as macdonalisation of high learning, that is, it leads to a quick training and graduation of universities’ students that may not have adequately reached professionalization. The implications for this is that premature candidates will enter labor-market and consequently are classified by employers as having been poorly trained within the macdonalization process of ­learning. Furthermore, as part of insufficient skills that they may have attained, the quality of services graduates offer to the employers may have an impact on local transformation. There is then within these contradictions and spectrum the necessity of again placing the debate of African HE, employability and decolonization as a process that is continuously an ongoing process. 2. Towards the Idea of the Interconnected University for Sustainable Community Development Concerns that higher education and development are interconnected has often characterized research in Cameroon, despite a long debate alluding to the irrelevance of high learning often sustained by the position that any attempt to invest in high learning in Africa will considerably lead to underdevelopment. Mbah (2016) study then sought to capture how universities influence local development and community in spite of contesting narratives. In brief, whereas popular debate has confounded for the capacity universities possess in fostering local progress either in Cameroon or elsewhere in SubSaharan Africa, there have also been complaints that HEIs in the continent are not yet certain on the paths they should undertake in order to influence either community transformation or local development. Hence, the aim of the research was mainly to understand how community transformation can be enhanced by establishing a communal work integrating universities, graduates and the local community. In simple terms, the study was an idealization of a model of development on the basis of cooperative work considering that integrating work between universities (graduates’ employment locally) and local communities there is a potential of developing synergies in the understanding of universities and the role they play in nurturing socio-economic transformation. What discussions do all these findings lead to? For the case of Cameroon, the research findings reveal that the conditions under which universities contribute to development is assessed by the level they engage with either local community or community at large in both identifying and addressing problems that affect socio-economic transformation. The level of maximization of the dialogue between universities, local and

6  CASE STUDIES FOR WEST AFRICA 

185

wider community is an indispensable asset for development. The point that herein remains is to explain what it means to make universities dialogue with the local community and who are the key agents sustaining such conversation. There has been a suggestion of a diversity of channels of dialogue applied in either Cameroon or sub-Saharan Africa to foster development especially with focus on (i) knowledge and skills transference from universities to the local and wider community. It is undeniable that graduates have been prescribed as the references who carry and deliver universities’ knowledge that serve to nurture transformation (Mbah, 2016: 1228–1241). 3. The Effects of Community, Coworker and Organizational Support to Job Satisfaction of Nurses in Cameroon The aim of the study was to assess job satisfaction of nurses in Cameroon. It applied indexes such as their job performance, wages they receive, promises of promotion, the way they are commanded and controlled and co-work relationships. The findings from the study suggest that the way either graduates or any others’ work performance is aligned with satisfaction can lead to satisfactory results. The study serves as an incentive and instruction for employers who always complain about the services offered by their employees as being neither satisfactory nor associated with the kind of knowledge and skills they require (Ndiwane, 2000). Nigeria 1. Preparedness to Teach: Experiences of the University of Ibadan Early Career Academics The background, data collection and findings of this study have been previously indicated in the case of either Ghana or South Africa. The study conducted by Udegbe (2016) was undertaken in Nigeria to capture early career academics’ experiences and the inter-relationship they make between universities skills and employability, that is, the extent to which they are prepared to embrace the teaching career (this means testing the link existing between university and life after university). The study sampled a considerable number of teachers within Nigerian HEIs. The results from the research lead to a number of assumptions. Primarily, the fact that the magnitude at which employees pursued experience in the field and were adequately trained to execute the job had a considerable impact on the success,

186 

P. J. UETELA

mastery, adequate skills and being highly engaged in the work they did (teachers). Second is the fact that the findings show a strong relationship between competences offered by HEIs, those retained by the graduates, the degree of readiness of the graduates to become part of the working industry, which is also revealed in the accomplishment of the tasks (work c­ommitment). The second finding accounts for a dialogue (dialectic) between universities, the programs they offer and the impact they make in the industry. Despite the study not having captured the concerns of the employers in terms of satisfaction, that is, their assessment as the degree of preparedness of the graduates for the work, the fact that both universities and graduates are consensual as to the impact they make, condition to the unquestioned relevance and contribution of universities to the economy either in Nigeria, in West Africa and the entire continent. The results also reveal an awareness on the maximization of knowledge as the solution to the current and practical problems. The third concern is that part of the assets early career academics applied in their daily activities and work performance was neither acquired from HEIs (as learning or providers of skills appropriate for work) nor from the work place (the universities they were employed). Instead, they achieved some of the additional abilities indispensable to act as academic professionals from other settings. The position may sustain the theory that even though universities offer training skills that are indispensable and transferable to the working environment, they do not offer all the requirements for graduates’ success in the labor market. As a matter of fact, research has shown that most of the academics in their early career stage have both supported and held the position that most of the attributes and specific strategies they apply in their working classes have been maximized either under experiences in the classroom, through peer learning and extra-curricular activities (cf Bodião & Formosinho, 2010: 403–418; Junckes, 2013; Brzezinski, 2014). Once again, the concern that access to HE including HE knowledge might not be sufficient and that maximization of different strategies that should support continuous learning and peer practice for success of organization and professionals at work place is also a case to consider for the context of Nigeria and west Africa. The fourth point that the research about Nigerian early career academics prescribes to capture the conditions and possibilities under which they construct their career and the intersection all these have with university versus employment debate, is the unanim-

6  CASE STUDIES FOR WEST AFRICA 

187

ity that all professionals experienced a considerable number of difficulties in the first years. Such consensus of difficulties is explained in terms of lack of adequate experience (cf. the earlier position that universities only offer generic skills but not specifics), and theory learned at university and practice in the classroom might be contradictory. Secondly, and most interestingly, is as Gorzoni and Davis (2017), Junckes (2013), Munsberg and da Silva (2017), Morgado (2011) and Perrenoud et al. (2002) indicated that part of the difficulties they faced included (i) the conflict of generation (either younger versus elder or experienced versus less experienced professionals). Those that were experienced have been in advantage as to the selection of areas of research they wished to act on, whereas early career academics were left without a range of options. In simple terms, academic freedom will tend to be higher for older academics, whereas for the younger scholars, their freedom will be lower. There are also reports that part of the difficulties early career academics do face, is related to the attribution of the most complicated tasks such as teaching the most demanding classes and engage in research projects that are either highly competent or most complicated to perform. Lack of experience and the requirements of the work performance that is considerably high are all conditions that affect rapid integration of the Nigerian early career academics. These upheavals, especially the conflict between younger versus elder researchers and most experienced versus less experienced might be explained either in Nigeria, West Africa or the entire continent on grounds of political theory and power distance. MUASHAMAELEE (HE course), considered either the gains or drawbacks that result from power distance, politics and HEIs governance in Africa. There is in this perspective a consensus then that the higher the position of either academic or political leader, the higher is the power distance between him as a leader and his/her subordinates. It is also research evidenced that in contexts where power distance is higher, the conditions and possibilities of negotiations for decision-making might be challenging. Hence, the conflict between younger and elder academics, which leads to difficulty of integration in the work place for the context of Nigerian higher education, is mingled/justified by this perspective. All the aforementioned concerns both prescribe the diversity of conditions under which HE sub-systems in Nigeria, West Africa and the entire Africa are engaged. They also remark that HE in Africa is still under construction, and lastly, that as part of the decolonization initiatives while Nigeria and west Africa decolonize

188 

P. J. UETELA

HE through educational reforms, there is also an imposition to decolonize political power and authority as they also have influence on the conditions and possibilities under which HE operates. Last is the poor mentoring for females as compared to their counterparts. In the previous point, we indicated the extent to which power distance influences early career academics’ autonomy and freedom, and how as a consequence, the difficulties employers under this category report to have are explained from the perspective of power, authority and degree of power distance. The power distance and the conception of authority in either Nigeria, West Africa or other geographical locations across Africa are not solely a constraint to the professionals that are emerging in their fieldwork. The understanding of power is also present in other domains extending to teaching and learning (power distance is higher and lower) between lecturer and students, between administrators and academics or between university, academics and administrators depending on the sub-system of HE and how it distributes authority. The same occurs with the case presented by early career academics who are unanimous that women academics are less privileged concerning access to mentoring opportunities, which would make them experts in their fields of actions. Again, the fact that masculinity is higher than femininity as reported for the case of the SADC region and that decision making in HE or other sectors of state institutions are at times determined by gender appears to be a strong evidence for the entire continent. When decision making is determined/inclined to gender, it contradicts the assumption that knowledge is the panacea that should guide both actions and agendas of HEIs. Second is that by applying gender index to provide further training and then integrate early career academics in their new jobs, there is a danger that institutions guided by this policy increment social disparities. However, the experiences indicate how within decolonizing agendas of HE in Nigeria and elsewhere, it is becoming difficult to dismiss decolonizing aspects that hinder integrity and social integration as it lessens career development of certain groups of society (women). 2. Labor Market Prospects for University Graduates in Nigeria The main objective of the study conducted by Dabalen et  al. (2001) was to capture the state of the art concerning the Nigerian graduates’ employability. It applies statistics and figures to describe the stage at which the debate on higher education and employment in the country is classed. The study indicates that during the period

6  CASE STUDIES FOR WEST AFRICA 

189

of the completion of the research, 22% of the graduates were unemployed, and prospectively, the case was accredited to rise. In brief, the study captured both graduates and employers’ concerns on the intersection between higher education and life after university access from the side of the graduates. Findings: The results from the research add new knowledge for ­re-­thinking about HE in Nigeria, West Africa and also on the continent as follows. Primarily, there is a consensus from the interviewed managers that the graduates they employ are poorly prepared to execute the tasks they are required to perform in the work place. From the managers’ perspective, universities and employment are not necessarily aligned, at least in terms of skills and application of such skills in an appropriate working environment. The question that evolves from the assumptions alluded to by the managers if the fact that graduates are poorly prepared, which entails weakness of HEIs, why did they decide to hire those graduates? There is an apparent overgeneralization from the interviewees concerning the quality of graduates and then the importance HE has in establishing the dialogue between graduates and the industry. Furthermore, whereas public debate including industry perception of graduates and universities has been built upon the misconception that university skills and employability are necessarily interconnected, the case of Nigeria reveals the opposite. It shows that despite universities playing an essential role in nurturing both skills and talents for work, these are not fully translated in the way graduates will both transfer and apply the skills in the real situation. As a result, there is an urgent need for the realization of firms concerning the necessity of complementing universities with the abilities HEIs are unable to offer due to the complexities of the labor market, uncertainties about the future and diversification of problems industries are solving. Apart from reports of poor preparedness of the graduates, managers report about unproductivity of the employees they hire from HEIs. There are at least three implications for this assumption. Firstly, that the decline of either Nigerian or African economies especially after independence (cf. the Nigerian GDP which was the same as most of the Asian economies and that at the moment Asian economies have grown twice the level of the Africans) is justified by the unproductivity of the graduates that universities offered to the industry. Secondly, it may reveal the weaknesses HE and industry interconnection may have either in Nigeria or elsewhere as to potentially identify the strengths and weaknesses each of the institutions has and how they can be mutually maximized as to benefit all. Lastly

190 

P. J. UETELA

is the hypothetical lack of self-responsibility from the Nigerian firms to accept unproductivity and less weak contribution to the economy as grounded on their limited managerial (leading models) and then transfer responsibility to the employed graduates. Outstanding scholars in the field of organizational theory (see Uetela, 2015a, b: 44–59) have been unanimous that the leadership determines either failure or success of the organization. Consequently, in case of organizational industry, in the case of Nigeria to contribute to the economy, it may not necessarily be associated with the poor instruction of the graduates as part of the managers have reported. Instead, it might be explained by failure of managerial strategies either to coordinate with universities or to further train their new hired staff in order to transform poor instruction and unproductivity in highly qualified workers and achievers. The second assumption drawn from the findings is the position that “graduates skills” have sharply deteriorated in the last decades. Again, there is a range of hypothesis that may be constructed from the aforementioned concern (assumption). The starting point is the admission that there was a time universities produced qualified graduates which is now deteriorating. Thus, the previous argument that graduates employed by the industry are poorly prepared and unproductive becomes a contradiction as it applies a vicious cycle argument to prove the relevance universities have in producing graduates that contribute to the economy. The second interpretation is the fact that obsoleteness of the skills of which managers report to have identified on graduates they employ might imply over training of talents from the HEIs in order to supply the market (the industry). This new scenario raises a twofold perspective: (i) universities are in Africa moving from elite to mass higher education by admitting a considerable number of entrants to high learning which leads to over-training and obsoleteness of skills, and (ii)the new concern should not be regarded as a drawback. Instead, it must be seen as an achievement to the industry in a sense that firms will have a wider range of talents to select and then hire those that meet the requirements of each employer and the conditions set to contribute to the success of individual organizations particularly, and the national economy generally. The third finding of the study is associated with lack of practical skills including oral and communicating abilities from the new employees. Once again, there is an apparent lack of complete information from the side of the industry just in case the interviewed

6  CASE STUDIES FOR WEST AFRICA 

191

managers are representative of the feelings of all employers in Nigeria. Universities have been assigned both the task and responsibility of training graduates for future employment. However, under such training complexities, HEIs offer generic skills that will enable these graduates to adjust to the different complexities of the situation they encounter. As to the perspective of lack of communication skills, though the position might be a fact, there is also a need to reflect upon the conditions under which higher education and universities in Africa generally were instituted. As previously indicated, both modern HE and languages of instructions applied by many HEIs across Africa are replicas of colonization. Whereas many African graduates undoubtedly possess two languages: (i) home language mainly acquired prior to entering HE and (ii) the academic language, the communicating abilities are only attained after students’ access to a formal education. The complaints about the graduates employed in the Nigerian industry, simply reveal the consequences and impact of an inheritance of a university that is both alien and contradictory to local communicating skills and organization of thought. The challenge of today’s African universities under this critic has been addressed by research with some educational universities adhering to some of the policies that foster teaching and learning in the local/national languages, a case that also imposes the necessity of constantly innovating their techniques of teaching, learning and research in order to offer the industry the kind of product that is valuable. Given that there has been a drift from thinking of universities as firms and that one of the assessment procedures to evaluate firms and other institutions is through either sale or appreciation of the products they offer to the market, HEIs are also required to strengthen the mechanisms under which they shape their products as a solution to the concern that practical skills constitute a burden for the new graduates entering the labor market. The earlier position that the contribution of the industry to the local economy of African countries has been considerably lower due to unproductivity of the graduates can be seen as a recommendation for HEIs to constantly reconsider the mechanisms under which they apply to both generate and transfer knowledge that is relevant to the solution of local problems. The research conducted by Dabalen et al. (2001) accounts for the position that firms in the Nigerian context do not simply limit themselves to blaming universities and graduates over the failures of increasing productivity, poor skills (both theoretical and technical), weaknesses in communicating and writing

192 

P. J. UETELA

abilities. Based on the findings from the research there are a number of measures that the industry has undertaken in order to minimize the insufficiency of HEIs in providing the model of a graduate they expect to employ. These include, nurturing the view that industries have no objection in compensating what universities have not fully granted to their graduates. These include provision of new and additional courses to the new hired graduates in order to potentially equip those with both practical and technical abilities that are indispensable for the kind of job they do. There are concerns that this new measure/additional work for the industry has drawbacks for the firms as it increases the burden based on the additional costs that are to be allocated for the sustainability of these programs. Since the success of the firms is measured by profitability and part of firms’ profit is then subtracted to support the new agendas, there is, yes, a certainty that the contribution firms make to local economies either in Nigeria, west Africa and other regions is questionable 3. An Analysis of Female Research Productivity in Nigerian Universities The study analyses the contribution of female academics in Nigeria, that is, how female participation in academic research productivity is determined and which factors do influence such participation. The objectives of the research were to identify key constraints that determine women’s unproductivity in their academic working place and also the concern on the strategies that foster productivity. The reason behind undertaking all the objectives was to propose key measures for the increment of women academics’ research outputs (Ogbogu, 2009: 17–22). Findings: The results from the study present at least three dimensions of analyses. Firstly, more than 50% of women academics only published one paper per year, whereas almost a quarter of those went as far as two research papers and the remaining representation did not publish at all. Second is the fact that there are many forces influencing less productivity among Nigerian academic women, namely (a) cultural perspectives with regards to the role of women, (b) the civil status of the researcher as either married or single, with single women most likely to publish more whereas married will be limited on basis of the load of the activities they may have at home and (c) the number of teaching hours that academics held also had a strong impact on the level of productivity as follows, less teaching hours high chance of productivity and more teaching hours less probability of publication.

6  CASE STUDIES FOR WEST AFRICA 

193

In general, women academics in Nigeria are most likely to be engaged in teaching roles rather than research activities. The findings from the state-of-the-art of women employability and productivity of academics in Nigerian universities may express the extent to which gender has influence not only on HE setting, but also on other sectors of the economy. There are concerns that cultural perspectives that are socially constructed about women either in Nigeria or elsewhere in West Africa determine the level of productivity that is reported by research as being significantly lower. There is under this position that less productivity is not defined by the incapability of women but by other external factors including (a) possession of a number of roles (being academic and care for the family) of which their counterparts (males) are not assigned. In addition, and from the case presented for the Nigerian situation aligns to the previous concerns on the managers that complained about graduate students that have been prescribed as being poorly prepared and of not holding the appropriate skills to perform the work they are assigned. Considering that there are also women employees within the group of managers that classify their staff as unprepared, there might be both a contradiction and lack of understanding that cultural factors, religion and number of hours that is distributed based on gender might have an impact on either lower or higher achievements 4. Employability Development Opportunities (Edos) as Measures of Students’ Enhanced Employability Pitan (2016) research is grounded from the perspective that in the case of Nigeria, there have been few studies that address the intersection between employability development opportunities on the one hand and university graduates’ employment. The aim of the study then was to capture the extent to which there is a compliance between theory and practice, that is, the extent to which employment development opportunities really cover graduates’ enhanced work/occupation. Findings: The results from Pitan’s (2016) research suggest a diversity of approaches for the understanding of either existence or lack of interconnection between work opportunities and university students’ occupations. First is the view that Nigerian graduates are not fully aligned to employment development opportunities, that is, there is a contradiction between the statistics of employability chances in Nigeria with the actual occupation/integration of the graduates. The case of Nigeria may not be isolated from the contexts in either west Africa or the entire continent. It is undeniable from the context of African states that

194 

P. J. UETELA

the insufficiency of national countries, the crises that affected the industry sector and also the recession in graduates trained in various universities as a result of marketization of HE, especially since the 1990s, are all factors influencing that most of the graduates are either left behind or excluded from enhanced employment. Second is related to the position previously captured accounting for the existence of the alignment between employment and development opportunities though are not in a satisfactory degree statistically. However, in the case of Nigeria, the results captured are classified as positive. The interpretation we make from the classification of the status of the development of employment opportunities with students’ strengthened opportunities, is that for the case of Nigeria, the number of graduates that are integrated in the labor market is higher than that of those that are reported to be excluded from enhanced employability. Despite this situation being suggestive for the rest of the West African countries, the fact that employability of the graduates is contradictory to the existing opportunities remains a fact. Furthermore, and as earlier indicated, HEIs are urged under this perspective to strengthen their politics in fostering teaching and learning that lead to entrepreneurship whereas at the same stage, local government adopt committed politics to both subsidize and support graduates that opt to embrace such self-employment opportunities (Pitan, 2016: 288–304) 5. Graduate Employees’ Generic Skills and Training Needs On his recent study, Pitan (2016) intended to assess Nigerian employers’ perception on graduates’ acquisition and application of generic skills needed in the work. Given that current changes over the conception of science and technology, the consequences of the so-­called second colonization (globalization) and other inter-related changes that are characterizing the knowledge-based economy, there has been a growing concern that acquisition of specific skills appear to be no longer applicable. Hence, institutions of high learning have been urged to maximize generic skills as it is on basis of these that graduates are able to transfer to the different contexts of application as these contexts of application are also complex and generic. It is within this perspective that Pitan (2016) sought to capture both students and employers’ perspectives on the extent to which such generic skills that are indispensable to the current demands are reported to be held by the graduates and how Nigerian universities

6  CASE STUDIES FOR WEST AFRICA 

195

are responding to the demands of the employers by training labor force that is not only specifically skilled but mainly generic (Pitan, 2016: 290–303). The results from the study again propose a diversification of perceptions. Since it defines attributes of skills that are generically grounded and then applies a scale of classification for both employers and employees to do assessment, primarily graduates have assessed all generic ­attributes as essential for their work. However, graduates that were then employed held a consensus that they least possessed such abilities and on that were unable to attain the demands of the employers. On the other hand, employers were consensual that their staff from university needed further training in order to achieve the demands of the work place. The degree of necessity of such training varied in line with the arena of expertise as social sciences and humanities required more than those in sciences. (analytical and problem solving) 6. Relationship Between Knowledge and Skills in the Nigerian Undergraduate Chemistry Curriculum and Graduate Employability in Chemical-­Based Industries The study conducted by Okunuga and Ajeyalemi (2018) envisaged to assess the conditions and possibilities of existence of an alignment between three concepts (a) knowledge, (b) skills in a BA program of Chemistry by focusing on its curriculum and (c) how these are related to employment conditions in the related field of study (Chemistry industry). From the framing of the study, it turns important that Okunuga and Ajeyalemi (2018) are concerned about comparison aspects between theory and practice, that is, the relationship existing between the skills that industrial firms demand and those that universities that are offering graduate courses in Chemistry teach. The research did so by inquiring an approximate of 20 Nigerian firms, which hired graduates whose arena of expertise and skills indispensably connected to their industry. An additional concern was whether the structure of the course including the kind of knowledge it offered were really appropriate to the demands of the industry sector (Okunuga & Ajeyalemi, 2018: 183–191). Findings: The results from the study allude similarities with other positions considered in the previous chapters especially the mismatch between universities services and the demands of the employment sector. Specifically, Nigerian graduates satisfactorily met the requirements of the chemical industry in terms of theoretical abilities. However, they were assessed low in practical abilities. Once again,

196 

P. J. UETELA

the conditions under which the interconnection between universities, graduate students, skills acquisition and the industry is based on lack of consensus. Moreover, contradictions are the apparently key factors that characterize HE versus industry relationship. The concern that either social institutions or society is shaped by contradictions has been indicated by Marx’s critique of capitalism and as an opposition to Durkheim’s ­analyses that society worked in a solidarity glue and that consensus within groups and institutions maintained such harmony (Uetela, 2015a, b). The findings from Okunuga and Ajeyalemi (2018) further explain the complexities under which African universities have been struggling to interconnect theoretical learning with practical skills that are classified as relevant to the industry. Furthermore, the fact that graduate students from Nigerian universities revealed higher knowledge as compared to that required by the industry but showed lower skills in comparison to those needed by the chemical factory may further unpack the insufficiency of curricula structure and university relevance to economy. However, such insufficiency can be placed under a process and conditions of a construction of HE sub-systems in the countries. They also show the limits of decolonizing both science and universities of which HEIs are engaged. Hence, within the scope of debate raised as to the case of Nigeria, West Africa and the entire continent, HEIs are urged to integrate within their curricula program reform agendas leading to more skills acquisition rather than solely knowledge. 7. Entrepreneurship Education and Economic Development in Nigeria: Policy Issues and Options Udefuna et al. (2013) are concerned with the standard of Nigerian HE that has been classified as declining. In parallel with the decline of HE quality is graduates’ unemployability that affects Nigeria and national economic development. The case of reflection the study engages in is the extent to which Nigeria HE sub-system continues emphasizing (i) irrelevant research and (ii) teaching activities which affect potentialities/engagement on entrepreneurship education in a period that it has become an arena of both increasing graduates’ employment and rise of the economy which provides professional occupations after students leave university. Entrepreneurship in the vision of the researchers should turn the future of HE instruction not only in Nigeria but also in the entire continent as it turns graduates into self-­employers (Udefuna et al., 2013: 343–348).

6  CASE STUDIES FOR WEST AFRICA 

197

There are several implications indicated from the study including the grounding concerns under which the current debates concerning the conditions under which Nigerian HE operates. First and most important is the fact that there is still lack of understanding in the Nigerian context that strong HE necessarily leads to greater transformation in the economy. Marginalization of HE not only in Nigeria but also in other geographical locations has been explained in terms of return indexes and expenditure. Given that for Africa in general investments and return indexes have been contradictory, public opinion rather than research has increasingly urged African states to invest on lower levels of education rather than high levels on the grounds that the return indexes in the lowest levels of education are considerably high. It might be within these concerns that the author places both decline and neglecting of HE. Secondly, the case addressed in Nigeria reveals that the conditions shaping HE’s late development or lower ranking in the global scale including its contribution to the economy has been associated not only within the HE sector that has constantly failed to align knowledge with skills and then become relevant to the industry and the economy. The failure of HE in either Nigeria, West Africa or other geographical locations in the continent have been associated with (i) corruption, (ii) changes in government agendas as some would see HE as priority whereas other would focus on other priorities, and lastly, (iii) the insufficient training for the staff working in HE. The case of lack of adequate qualifications in many HEIs across Africa and the impact this may have on both knowledge and skills production have been not solely upheaval for the case of Nigeria but a continental hindrance. There are several historical propositions that can be called upon to explain unqualified staff working in HEIs across Africa. As indicated previously, HE in Africa overall is inherited from colonization, and it has been struggling over the decades either to become African HE or to produce national intellectuals. Immediately after independence, many African countries relied on their former colonies to maintain continuity of HEIs and production of knowledge on the basis that the statistics of indigenous academics that would sustain HE was considerably lower. In addition, African governments compromised themselves to invest on universities and training of the local staff. Despite some countries having gone a step further in training local academics, there has been a contradiction between theory and practice. Research about HE staff working in Africa

198 

P. J. UETELA

appoint to the existence of university lectures with BA degrees, Licenciatura, master’s and PhDs. Whereas theoretically many university policies place a minimum of requirement and qualifications, either a master’s degree or PhD, many African universities have been found in a dilemma between highly demanding qualified staff and then cause the HE system to collapse or admit university staff though with lower levels and then maintain HE. In Mozambique, for example, there have been concerns on university staff that still work with licenciatura degrees and that they must choose between going for further studies or leaving HE (cf. Mozambican Ministry of Science, Technology and HE). The case indicated as to Mozambique might not only be limited to this country but also to the other realities across Africa that are still building their university sub-­ systems. Within this scope, a constant review of national HE policies within local governments in Africa, including university and industry strengthening of cooperation may make HE responsive to local necessities not only in Nigeria but also in the entire continent. 8. Inequitable Access to the Knowledge Market in Nigeria Akinyemi and Potokri (2016) use the lens of economics to explain that labor market is analogously compared to a commercial institution where transactions at different prices are set to both sell and buy knowledge, skills and all the abilities that foster socio-economic development in a country. Both selling and buying transactions differ in terms of value and prices. Given that different people (graduates) access the market at different levels, this becomes a concern as it accounts for diversity and diversification of HE and labor-market debates in Nigeria. It is within this scope that Akinyemi and Potokri (2016) intend to assess the implications of inequalities in access to the labor market especially for Nigerian graduates, universities and employment sector. It also analyses how the whole concerns are intertwined (affect) with HE, local development and transformation of local individuals. Other considerations included both interconnection and impact of national perspectives (Nigerian conception) of access to knowledge as a determinant factor of setting both prices and remuneration through employability (Akinyemi & Potokri, 2016: 424–432). The principal theories resulting from the study suggest that access to knowledge markets determine both employability and contribution to the local economy. However, Nigerian

6  CASE STUDIES FOR WEST AFRICA 

199

HE has been affected by a number of factors that diminish the chances of participation in the knowledge market and subsequently the achievement of abilities that nurture the economies of the countries and development. The fact that the majority of the Nigerian citizens are excluded from the markets that subsidized the prices of success, is explained by (i) the contradictions between living expenses (conditions) and the costs of access to knowledge market acquisitions. Whereas the demands for living standards are high, tuition fees for the access to this knowledge markets in the context of Nigeria are considerably high too. The facts entail at least two dimensions of analyses. Firstly, is the concern that in a context of high cost of living as has been reported for the case of Nigeria (cf. the need for USD 3.70 to 7.39 per day) to earn living, logically many Nigerians will not regard access to the knowledge market which grants then future integration and contribution to the local economy as priority. However, solving immediate demands of food, shelter and access to health services, for example, become a key priority. Second are the key implications of some of the measures defined by Nigeria, especially lack of balance between the high costs of living and the necessity of granting access to the market of knowledge for the majority of the Nigerians through lowering tuition fees and other related costs of HE, both at private and public HE. Though the measure might sound adequate in solving short-term problems as it stimulates quality education. However, the key complaints that have been indicated in the previous studies by employers who unanimously affirm that graduates students that they employed were poorly trained, that simply held knowledge but lacked skills and other attributes that have been conferred to the graduates, may account for a contradiction between theory and practice. As a result, whereas either Nigerian or African HEIs have been attracting participation to the knowledge market prices at the same time have created weak structures that guarantee quality training. Students’ loans and public funding of HE either in Nigeria or elsewhere are being suggested as the additional measure that stimulates more participations and lessens elitization of access of the knowledge markets that stimulate the economies.

200 

P. J. UETELA

References Akinyemi, S., & Potokri, O. C. (2016). Inequitable access to the knowledge market in Nigeria. Industry and Higher Education, 30(6), 424–432. Alabi, G., & Abdulai, M. (2016). Expectations and integration of early career academics into the teaching career: Empirical evidence from Ghana. Studies in Higher Education, 41(10), 1754–1771. Bodião, I. S., & Formosinho, J. (2010). A profissionalidade docente na educação básica em Portugal: depoimentos de alguns professores. Educação e Pesquisa, 36(1), 403–418. Brzezinski, I. (2014). Formação de profissionais da educação (2003–2010). MEC/ Inep (Estado do conhecimento, n. 13). Dabalen, A., Oni, B., & Adekola, O. A. (2001). Labor market prospects for university graduates in Nigeria. Higher Education Policy, 14(2), 141–159. Eta, E. A. (2017). Enhancing graduate employability in Cameroonian universities through professionalization in the context of the “Licence–Master–Doctorat” reform. Higher Education Policy, 31(3), 309–332. Gorzoni, S. D. P., & Davis, C. (2017). O conceito de profissionalidade docente nos estudos mais recentes. Cadernos de Pesquisa, 47(166), 1396–1413. Junckes, R.  C. (2013). Prática docente em sala de aula: Mediação Pedagógica. Simpósio sobre formação de professores. Desafios Frente as Desigualdades Educacionais. Mabokela, R. O., & Mlambo, Y. A. (2014). “The older women are men:” navigating the academic terrain, perspectives from Ghana. Higher Education, 69(5), 759–778. Mbah, M. F. (2016). Towards the idea of the interconnected university for sustainable community development. Higher Education Research & Development, 35(6), 1228–1241. Mkandawire, T. (2016). Running while others walk. Knowledge and the challenge of Africas’ development. [lecture video], 2011. Retrieved March 30, 2016, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D2U5omZtsJI Morgado, J. C. (2011). Identidade e profissionalidade docente: Sentidos e (im) possibilidades. Ensaio: Avaliação e Políticas Públicas em Educação Rio de Janeiro, 19(73), 793–812. Munsberg, J. A. S., & da Silva, D. R. Q. (2017). Constituição docente: formação, identidade e professoralidade. Revista Territórios, Interritórios, Revista de educação: Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, 3(4). Ndiwane, A. (2000). The effects of community, coworker and organizational support to job satisfaction of nurses in Cameroon. Official Journal of the Association of the Black Nursing Faculty in Higher Education., 11(6), 145–149. Ogbogu, C.  O. (2009). An analysis of female research productivity in Nigerian universities. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 31(1), 17–22.

6  CASE STUDIES FOR WEST AFRICA 

201

Okunuga, R. O., & Ajeyalemi, D. (2018). Relationship between knowledge and skills in the Nigerian undergraduate chemistry curriculum and graduate employability in chemical-based industries. Industry and Higher Education, 32(3), 183–191. Owusu-Manu, D., Badu, E., & Edwards, D. J. (2011). Development of a procurement management framework in Ghana. Industry and Higher Education, 25(4), 289–305. Owusu-Manu, D., Afrane, S. K., Badu, E., Edwards, D. J., & Brown, M. (2013). Redefining entrepreneurial learning paradigms in developing countries. Industry and Higher Education, 27(2), 105–116. Owusu-Manu, D., Edwards, D.  J., Afrane, S.  K., Dontwi, I.  K., & Laycock, P. (2015). Professional doctoral scholarship in Ghana. Industry and Higher Education, 29(3), 197–207. Owusu-Manu, D., Edwards, D. J., Kukah, A. S., Pärn, E. A., El-Gohary, H., & Aigbavboa, C. (2018). An assessment of the level of emotional intelligence attributes of undergraduate built environment students in developing countries. Industry and Higher Education, 33, 1–8. Perrenoud, P., et al. (2002). As competências para ensinar no século XXI: a formação dos professores e o desafio da avaliação. Artmed. Pitan, O.  S. (2016). Employability development opportunities (EDOs) as measures of students’ enhanced employability. Higher Education, Skills and Work-­ Based Learning, 6(3), 288–304. Udefuna, P. N., Akalefu, C., & Asogwa, C. (2013). Entrepreneurship education and economic development in Nigeria: Policy issues and options. Industry and Higher Education, 27(5), 343–348. Udegbe, I.  B. (2016). Preparedness to teach: Experiences of the University of Ibadan early career academics. Studies in Higher Education, 41(10), 1786–1802. Uetela, P. (2015a). Sociology of organizations as a mechanism of learning: An address from the Mozambican school organization. Meditações Journal, 9(16), 44–59. Uetela, P. (2015b). A Teoria da Ação Comunicativa de Habermas: Um Conflito ou Realidade Socialna Gestão da Educação em Moçambique. Revista Electrónica de Investigação, filosófica, ciência e tecnologica, 2(5), 1–13. Uetela, P. (2019). A Universidade na Áfricae a Geraçäo de Pensamento: Questōes de Moçambique e a Empregabilidade dos Graduados (1975-2012).

CHAPTER 7

Some Case Studies from Central, Eastern and Northern Africa

This section addresses the case of Central African countries, Eastern and Northern, as to the interconnection between HE and employability of the graduates and accounts for the great narratives shaping the debates in the countries selected. It also maps some of the case studies that have been undertaken to capture HE, employability, industry and entrepreneurship in the central Africa region: Intersection between HE and Employability of the Graduates in the Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS) region is debated. Central African Republic 1. There Is Neither Report Nor Research on Either HE or Graduates’ Employability in the Central Africa Republic The Central African Republic has been home to political arrest and perpetual civil wars. As a result, there is no updated information on the ongoing projects either on HE development programs or on employability. The case of the Central African Republic where universities and research about HE has not yet constituted key priorities in the country raises some implications. First is the parallelism existing between marginalization of HE and the country’s high level of poverty. Such evidence seems to suggest that whereas some countries that

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 P. J. Uetela, Higher Education and Decolonization in Africa, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-38973-3_7

203

204 

P. J. UETELA

have least invested in HE in Africa are coincidentally not wealthy, those that have prioritized the role of high learning in nurturing knowledge and skills production have been most likely to attain socioeconomic transformation. Secondly, the case of the Central African Republic appears to contradict the long-held theory that not investing on HE and then posit relevance on lower levels will turn countries into highly and economically developed on grounds of return indexes that will be considerably high at low investment. However, the case under report here evidences hypotheses contrary to the facts. Lastly, the case of the Central African Republic indicates the magnitude at which HE should turn into an urgent investment. In addition, countries under this category within either Africa or elsewhere it is impossible to predict the extent to which universities, employment and contribution to the economy are interconnected. Chad As was the case for the Central African Republic, in Chad too, there is neither report nor research on either HE or graduates’ employability. This turns it difficult to address and assess the role universities nurture on local growth. Central African Higher Education has been least featuring either in the Global arena or the African perspective. The case of Chad is among those where HE sub-systems have been dysfunctional due to political upheavals and civil wars. Countries like Chad, Somalia, Burundi, Central African and others are examples where the role of the state has become dysfunctional due to perpetual conflicts that have led to the destruction of the few existing HEIs. The spectrum of Chad indicates how various countries across Africa differ in terms of priorities. Whereas for some investing in HE nurtures the hope that socio-economic development may subsequently follow, others are still investing in peace and security. Hence, the fact that depending on the specific context of the African countries, national states are still under construction in the African continent remains a fact. Furthermore, there is also a revelation of how the consequences of both independence and national state building has been structured in different African realities. Whereas some have been able to quickly succeed in the construction of the so-called national state and then establish state institutions of which universities are a part, other countries struggle to consubstantiate their national states. The attempt exacerbates with the perpetuating conflicts that inhibit the development even of the idea of university in those countries.

7  SOME CASE STUDIES FROM CENTRAL, EASTERN AND NORTHERN AFRICA 

205

Democratic Republic of Congo Despite sharp increase on the debate concerning HE in the Democratic Republic of Congo, as compared to other surrounding countries, and an apparent indication that the country is transforming into the hub of HE studies at least in the Economic Community of Central African States, studies on the interconnection between HE and employment are rare. The few existing studies that have been featuring scholarly debate have focused on (i) institutional collaboration (cf Stevens et al., 2013: 1071, 1077), (ii) international partnerships (cf. Chiteng Kot, 2015: 41, 62) and (iii) stakeholders’ cooperation (see Chiteng Kot, 2014: 252–272). This may indicate some implications. First is that whereas other countries and regions we investigated have considered the rapid growth and transformation of universities in their countries as a concern that has implications for future employment of the graduates and then there is a necessity to reflect upon the consequences of this on lens of research, other national states such as Congo have remained indifferent. From the 45 research journals under which this meta-analysis study has considered, only two topics are captured for the case for the Democratic Republic of Congo: (i) institutional collaboration and (ii) institutional partnership, which place HE research in the country at the very inception phase/stage.

7.1   Case Studies for Eastern Africa This section addresses the case of Eastern Africa countries as to the interconnection between HE and employability of the graduates and accounts for the great narratives shaping the debates in the three sampled countries. It maps some of the case studies that have been undertaken to capture HE, employability, industry and entrepreneurship in the eastern Africa region: Intersection between HE and Employability of the Graduates in the East African Community States (EAC) region is addressed. Ethiopia 1. Effectiveness of Higher Diploma Program for Early Career Academics in Ethiopia The study by Gebru (2016) describes the consequences of the rapidly growing field of HE in Ethiopia in terms of size and number. Because of this rapid growth, the study indicates that there have been many early career academics embracing the employment sector

206 

P. J. UETELA

in HEIs. As is the case in any employment sector that new entrants are most likely to encounter difficulties in either transferring or applying knowledge, there was a concern in the case of Ethiopia that early career professionals need further training for success. The institution of the higher diploma program was implemented to secure that early career academics are adequately integrated in the new atmosphere of work. The study then inquired on the appropriateness of the program in addressing employees’ integration in HEIs (Gebru, 2016: 1741–1753). Findings: The results from the research indicate that despite the conception of Higher Diploma Program having been conceptualized externally, its impact occurred internally as it nurtured workers with the appropriate skills for the job they executed. Second is the fact that projects of this dimension are essential not only for early career academics but to everyone venturing in a new employment. Such examples of successful experiences for early career integration of the employment sector in HE when transferred to other realities of the industry on respect of contextualization are most likely to bear successful results and lessen complaints from the employers that employees are poorly prepared. 2. Linkage of Higher Education with Agricultural Research, Extension and Development in Ethiopia The fact that socio-economic development is both determined by specialists and the qualified professionals trained in the same arena has shaped research. In Ethiopia, for example, there are growing concerns that the main sectors of economic development should be nurtured by appropriate skills and knowledge produced in HEIs (Belay, 2008: 275–299). As part of further understanding the aforementioned concern, Belay (2008) undertook a research project that investigated the kind of skills (labor force) trained by Ethiopian HEIs and then assessed how this influences the economy. From the research, there are considerable hypotheses to be inferred, firstly, the consciousness that special skills training with focus on the main arenas influencing the economy (agriculture) should be prioritized by universities evolved in the 1950s in the case of Ethiopia. As a result and growing concern for investment in the sector of agriculture as the main arena that pushed development, more agricultural training institutions were added to the extent that today Ethiopia is comprised of approximately seven institutes that train graduates who will in the future contribute to the labor market in this sensitive field that is highly ranked in terms of nurturing the Ethiopian

7  SOME CASE STUDIES FROM CENTRAL, EASTERN AND NORTHERN AFRICA 

207

economy. Second is the fact that training in agriculture has also ­contributed to a considerable emphasis on technology application and incremented the number of professionals and skilled manpower. The case of Ethiopia then suggests that even though many countries either in East Africa or elsewhere on the continent have placed agriculture as the main sector that influences the rapid growth of the economy, there is also a consensus that such agricultural development initiatives have to be implemented in parallel with university cooperation. The case that universities legitimize professional knowledge, through research dissemination and technological investments indicates the extent to which African states must invest primarily on HEIs that will assure that highly competent skills and abilities are locally transferred to the so-­called main sectors of the development of the economy. Thirdly and as part of the key findings, the study of Belay (2008) indicates that even though there have been high achievements in both equipping universities and training more graduates in the competences required for the agricultural sector and local economy, there are insufficiencies in the structure of university programs as to how they assure certainty on full competences for a graduate student in the arena. Part of the insufficiency resides at times on the discrepancies between what the university programs determine with what are the necessities of the labor market. Within this perspective, there is a lack of alignment between the efforts considered by agricultural HEIs, the knowledge they maximize, disseminate and transfer to graduates on one hand and the requirements of the industry, demands of employers and then maximization of the impact the relationship between universities and the labor market make. Again, this perspective has been recurrent in other and previously analyzed regions and suggests the necessity for reinforcement on the models of network key stakeholders influencing HE make with focus for institutionalization of participation. For example, of the labor market representations in the curricula and program design, of increment of university research in other opportunities and environments so that graduates experience working conditions and demands prior to formal enrollment. The case of Ethiopia imposes the challenge that whereas national problems become complex and diversified, HEIs must constantly adapt new, updated curricular and programs that are aligned to those problems to identify and constantly integrate dissemination of skills and abilities relevant to the industry informed by research. Last is the increase from the side of the industry for internship.

208 

P. J. UETELA

3. Entrepreneurial Change in Government-Led Development: Ethiopian Universities In Ethiopia there have been concerns on investing in entrepreneurial universities as a means of both assuring national development and generating employability of the graduates on personal aptitudes’ application (Mudde et  al., 2019). The research by Mudde et  al. (2019) then intended to capture the meaning and extent to which Ethiopian HEIs are transforming into entrepreneurial ones and capture the kind of variations between institutions that have engaged in the entrepreneurial model of high learning. What are the findings from the research? First is the concern that despite engagement in implementing entrepreneurial high learning in the country, there are contradiction between theory and practice, that is, whereas there are ongoing projects either at university or state level to nurture the thesis that entrepreneurship will lead to individual employment, the proposal is still at its initial phase. Such infancy of the program leads to concerns that considering that entrepreneurship education will be the guarantee for future employability is premature. Hence, any conclusion about the consequences of entrepreneurial HE either in Ethiopia or in any other country within Africa may not be self-sustained or sufficient. However, the case of Ethiopia accounts for the efforts ongoing within Africa concerning both construction and decolonization of HE in terms of aptitudes, skills, knowledge and institutions themselves. The typology of the entrepreneurial university being established in Ethiopia holds the same characteristics to the extent that there is no distinction independent of the category or dimensions of HEIs embracing this new model of investment. The study also considers that top-down model of leadership that vigorates in Ethiopia has influenced the extent to which the aforementioned unanimity occurs. The implications these measures have for further research and university prosperity in Ethiopia and other geographical locations within the African continent rest upon transferring autonomy to HEIs. Through the delegation of both authority and autonomy to universities, they will apply appropriate techniques that are locally contextualized, serve the interest of the local communities and contribute to the growth of the economy. Again, the case that institutional success and failure is determined by the application of an adequate leadership comes in. It is sustained by the position that top-down government and imposition of the Ethiopian state on how HEIs should both idealize and give meaning to

7  SOME CASE STUDIES FROM CENTRAL, EASTERN AND NORTHERN AFRICA 

209

universities has led to a failure in a sense that it constructed a unified entrepreneurial learning in a context of complexity of problems. In brief, turning into government leadership will influence in turn HEIs and the contribution they make to the local economies in Africa. Despite all the apparent failures in the implementing process and the encounter of local cultural conflicts, the fact that entrepreneurial HE has become the potential investment for many African countries prevails. This is supported by the fact that such kind of high learning leads to self-­employability in a context where the rapid growth of universities has led to recession in graduates and insufficiency of national states in securing working environments for these growing numbers of the graduates entering labor market. As part of the recommendation, there is a necessity of exploring the diversity of entrepreneurial universities in Africa and the impact they make so that national governments dialogue with HEIs. The focus should be on how such models can become successful, not on grounds of topdown imposition as reported in Ethiopia on grounds of negotiation and triangle of coordination (cf. Clark, 1983) between state, university and the industry 4. Technical Vocational Education and Training for Micro-Enterprise Development in Ethiopia. There have been growing concerns that parallel to entrepreneurial HE investment is the Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) as an important model for both learning and employability. Actually, there has been a growing adherence to this typology either in Ethiopia and many other countries in Africa as it is assumed it stimulates graduates’ self-employment and fosters local developments and economies (Gondo & Dafuleya, 2010: 381–392). The case study undertaken by Gondo and Dafuleya (2010) aimed at capturing the extent to which both micro and small-sized enterprises have developed on incentives of the TVET (skills and knowledge transference). It does so by analyzing the parallel existing between transformation of nine Ethiopian institutions and the growth of the TVET model as a result of informed policy reforms in HE that nurtured an emphasis on professional learning by spreading TVET centers across the country. These results of such measure are explained in the rapid growth on sustaining the micro and small-­ business enterprises existing in Ethiopia. As captured from the study, the implementation of the TVET model has also not yet yielded results that can be consubstantiated as relevant either for the i­ndustry sector

210 

P. J. UETELA

or for the growth of economy. Part of the uncertainty is justified by the position that expansion of the model of the training may not necessarily be translated into either self-employment or development. The uncertainty requires a constant monitoring and evaluation mechanisms of the effect any policy change may bring to national states in either Ethiopia or elsewhere. In addition, it raises the consciousness that it is not the policy as such that leads to transformation. Instead, the results of the policy changes are the ones that serve as indexes to measure the impact a policy brings. All these uncertainties suggest the case that whereas African governments and policy makers engage in policy reforms that propositionally lead to successful experiences in graduates’ employment, knowledge production, skills transference and local development, there is also a necessity of ensuring the channels universities, government, small-­ sized enterprises benefit from TVET in order to transform local economies. Kenya 1. Universities, Dependency and the Market: Innovative Lessons From Kenya The study outlines the engagement both global north and south governments have made in adapting to the implementation of a corporate typology of colleges and universities. The study shows that the path Kenya is undertaking in adhering to the corporate university on grounds that it is the only one that addresses national problems, is not locally determined, that is, it is not a Kenyan discovery. Instead, it is a western initiative that has become so popular and is now being continued in the African perspective. The implications of such adaptation are enormous. Firstly, they reveal lack of locally grounded reforms that would sustain the relevance of HE. Second is the fact that global north notions of market HE might not be complying to the global south. Thirdly, market HE in the western context where it emanates is entrenched in the vision of being a good experience though it may lead to evil results when not appropriately defined. Lastly is the fact that all the aforementioned examples account for the indication of the novelty of market HE either in

7  SOME CASE STUDIES FROM CENTRAL, EASTERN AND NORTHERN AFRICA 

211

Kenya or elsewhere in Africa. Thus, the study sought to capture specifically the understanding of marketization of high learning, a model deemed as a channel of development in the country from the lens of faculty staffs’ understanding in Kenyan public universities (Johnson & Hirt, 2012: 230–251). The effectiveness of market HE and the way it impacts on development is locally defined and on perspectives of capitalism. Furthermore, teaching, learning and research strategies are also seen as assets for assessing both meaning and impact of the new model of HE. Again, all the prospective indicate the stage at which African HE is struggling to affirm itself as African, given that it has been often defined by external politics rather than local. The same occurs when analyzing the concept of development, which is not locally determined but has a global north inheritance in African countries including Kenya. This suggests that while they apply these externally motivated politics, they also need to both maximize and adopt locally, de-colonial and internal notions of academia’s development. 2. Reshaping Academic Capitalism to Meet Development Priorities: The Case of Public Universities in Kenya The study considers that despite the public opinion on HE having envisaged that African universities are grounded on dependency theory as they have been constantly receiving and implementing the global north models of institutions, the case of Kenya points to a different direction. It indicates that concerns on public and private good that are locally justified, determines the key university reforms that are ongoing. The study then investigated university reforms and its impact by sampling two Kenyan HEIs in order to assess how the market model that public opinion has characterized as globally north invented either comply or contradict the market university existing in Kenya. In addition, what is the true nature of the market university reform that Kenya has adopted? How marketization of university is associated with development? (Johnson & Hirt, 2011: 483–499). Findings: The understanding of HE as a social value has transformed in Kenya based on the findings from the Kenya National University and the University of Kenya. This entails that the rise of capitalism not only in the country but also in other geographical locations across the continent has imposed a shift from the perspective of HE as a social good to a private or personal gain. As a result,

212 

P. J. UETELA

despite the fact that African universities are in part reproductions of the northern type of HE and so is the market, local impositions and needs rather than reception of global north weighs more. Market university in Kenya is aligned to the concerns on utility and key reforms within HEIs present in program curricula, courses offered extending to teaching, learning and research. 3. Towards a National Graduate Destinations Survey in Kenya: An Exploratory Study of Three Universities The case study is built from the perspective that there are two contradictory facts in Kenya and in most of the Sub-Saharan Africa countries. On one hand is the rapidly growing number of unemployed, whether you are analyzing the Sub-Saharan Africa region or other locations and employability promptness from the side of the graduates on the other. The two are realities that to some extent are problematic as they show lack of connectivity between HE and the labor market. Most interesting is the insufficiency of research on the subject as to the destiny of the graduates after leaving university, which would nurture policy reforms towards the interconnection between HE and employment. As a matter of fact, McCowan et al. (2017) intended to capture the destination of graduates from three Kenyan universities in a diversity of fields of graduates’ specialization. The underlying focus of the research was to capture the interconnection between employability actions in which graduates are engaged in the work place, and secondly, the dialogue existing between the activities they perform with the graduates’ background in terms of social background and university training (McCowan et al., 2017: 97–119). Findings: The key findings indicate that it does not make sense to talk about universal unemployment in Kenya as the number of unemployed graduates is considerably lower as reported on the basis of popular opinion. However, there is a noticeable drop in the formal employability. The position is sustained by the overall increase in the new models of occupation such as part-time work, internship and occasional occupations. All the aforementioned examples characterize the diversity of African countries’ engagement in the interconnection between HE, graduates’ employability and the role universities have in promoting development. Furthermore, there is also an indication that despite Kenya being the sampled country in the Eastern Africa region, specific and individual national states either in East Africa or elsewhere in Africa may reveal unique

7  SOME CASE STUDIES FROM CENTRAL, EASTERN AND NORTHERN AFRICA 

213

c­haracteristics. However, overall features describing the inter-­ relationship between HE, unemployability and readiness of graduates to embrace the world of work have led to obsolete formal working conditions to the extent that the ongoing discourse in many African countries focus on self-employability, provisional occupations as dominant prior to the attainment of the expected job. This means that what many misconceive as employability of the graduates is an apparent survival for candidates terminating universities while they search for adequate employment. As a result, the fact that the surge of graduations as a result of rapid growth of universities and complexity of HEIs in Africa increasingly lead to unemployment, remains a fact not only in Kenya but in many other countries alike. The solutions for the problems alike (increase of part-time jobs and provisional occupations), can be fostered by local and national public policies that support institution of formal employability conditions while at the same period investment of marketization and entrepreneurial education turns into the short-term solution in the graduates versus employability nexus. Uganda 1. “Swim or sink”: State of Induction in the Deployment of Early Career Academics into Teaching at Makerere University The study by Ssempebwa et  al. (2016) sought to comprehend both experiences and expectations Sub-Saharan African early career academics do have with special focus for Uganda. In addition, the study was interested in capturing working experiences of the academics that initiated their profession as teachers at Makerere university. By so doing, the study sought to comprehend (i) key factors influencing employees experiences, that is, to what extent the work they perform is associated with previous knowledge and experiences, (ii) the problems they encounter in work performance (teaching) as early academics and (iii) what proposals do they have for the success of any early entrant to the work-force in the field under which they operate. Furthermore, additional information on assessment to the early career academics was requested to the deans and principals of the institution they interviewed were affected (Ssempebwa et  al., 2016: 1854–1868). Findings: The results from the study indicate that overall the success in work performance (teaching activities of the early career

214 

P. J. UETELA

academics) is a self-determined activity. The position suggests that unless early career academics engage in personal exercises and practice, they are unlikely to succeed. The success is also associated with the level of connecting their teachers’ experiences (knowledge, pedagogies, readings, the diversity of the situations they encounter in the fieldwork and other notes) transmitted to them by their masters. This is also due to the fact that there is no specific teaching program for specific contexts early career academics may encounter. Instead, there are general theories and pedagogies are transmitted to early career academics while still at university. Knowing how to contextualize these on specific contexts they may encounter is what determine success and successful experiences in the profession. There is an overall consensus that early career academics in their efforts to transfer skills previously acquired to the work place, they face problems such as (i) preparation for teaching, (ii) teaching itself, (iii) students’ assessment and (iv) to mentor and provide teaching methodologies. The aforementioned findings in the specific field of teaching reveal the fact that in the teaching profession, for example, career employers may not be informed about their employees’ work performance and execution as it is the case in other sectors of the economy where employers directly assess performance of their employees. The uniqueness of this sector is revealed in the study by the visions of the deans and principals. The two are the ones selected to assess work performance of the employees chosen for the interviews, that is, the direct hierarchical boards that work in close relationship with the new entrants both know and see better the conditions under which their work-mates construct their career. To conclude, there is a unanimous concern that the theories learned from universities may not correspond to the practice of any profession. The study points to the non-existence of courses teaching programs that prepare teachers/early academics to the teaching profession. Instead, specific context situation will foster re-call and contextualization of the theories learned in the training process. This has been pointed throughout the book as the main criticism for the graduates entering the employability field. Managers and employers have been ranking their employees as poorly prepared and unready for the working sector. Others have pointed to the insufficiency of the professional potentials though they praised the “knowledge” side graduates presented. On the basis of this study and the Ugandan findings, there is an apparent failure from the employing sector to understand that the function of the university is

7  SOME CASE STUDIES FROM CENTRAL, EASTERN AND NORTHERN AFRICA 

215

not mainly that of training for specific contexts. Instead, HEIs assist graduates in achieving general skills. It is these abilities that are later on transferred and contextualized to the diversity of problems characterizing the knowledge economy and the constantly changing world. 2. The Current Status of Teaching Staff Innovation Competence in Ugandan Universities: Perceptions of Managers, Teachers, and Students Instead of assessing graduates’ competences for employability, this study focused on universities and the extent to which they (the universities) are ready to deliver competent outputs that respond to the demands of the complex world. That is how graduates’ employment competencies are interconnected with the competences universities transmit in Uganda. The study targeted three dimensions (categories) of population engaged in the debate concerning HE and employability in the country (i) managers, (ii) students and (iii) lecturers of one specific university (Wilson Kasule et al., 2015: 330–343). The results of the study indicate that there are certain areas where teachers (employees) performance is considerably poor. These include the understanding of the relevance of innovation, the demands of the knowledge society, strengthening of collaboration, the conceptualization and meaning of HE, the sense the interconnection between HE and development would make. These findings may explain the complaints revealed by managers and analyzed in the previous section concerning graduates’ poor performance. There is in the results from Uganda a consensus that work performance and expertise may not fully correspond to the demands of both the new world and employers, which construct a new perception that employees’ lack of appropriate knowledge and competencies that often influence employers’ unsatisfactory assessments make part of the construction process of the interconnection between employability, universities and firms’ networks. In addition and as part of the evidence that implies the position that the assessment of the relationship existing between HE and employment will often lead to contradictory results in compliance of the population researched. As a matter of fact, whereas (i) managers would be consensual that their employees are poorly prepared for the position they hired, then (ii) graduates would most likely claim to being highly competent and that lack of appropriate working conditions and environment within their working institutions may lead to poor performance, and lastly, (iii) teachers would also build the perspective that are adequately

216 

P. J. UETELA

contributing in training graduates and are supporting them in acquiring all the abilities necessary for their integration in the labor market. All these positions are present in the population studied in Uganda as responses vary in compliance with the category of the respondent whether managers, students or teachers (interpersonal blames). Once again, this shows the necessity of African universities establishing a strong network with different stakeholders that contribute to the construction of a strong teaching profession as an employing sector that produces and trains competent employers. 3. Professional Development Status of Teaching Staff in a Ugandan Public University Another interesting study undertaken in the context of Uganda sought to assess the meaning of adequate job performance in a specific field (education) that is, what are some of the professional activities that are indispensable for the teaching and which result in successful experiences. From the study, it is important to highlight that what Uganda does, appears to address what research has not yet pointed, that is, the components constituting a good work performance, which when appropriately followed will, for example, reverse the position of the managers who often characterize their employers as poorly trained. The specific case of analyzing professional development activities in Uganda as means of work success serve as an example that can be transferred to other employing sectors interconnecting universities and productivity (Kasule et al., 2016: 434–447). Findings: Participation in activities that nurture professional development, further training, symposiums, in activities that make discovery of the necessities of the local community and other relevant experiences contributed to success. Once again, there is a consensus that success in the working industry is at times determined by the magnitude at which workers practice the work they do. The case is how many other employing sectors of the economy that hire graduates guarantee that constant practice for perfection to occur. 4. Collaboration with HEIs: A Key Capacity Building Block for the Uganda Water and Sanitation Public Sector The study is grounded on the perspective that there are a number of principles that need to be followed as to achieving the millennium development goals (MDG) in developing countries. Part of these requirements is the training of the public sector staff. Hence, there is a necesssity of either instituting or strengthening collaborations

7  SOME CASE STUDIES FROM CENTRAL, EASTERN AND NORTHERN AFRICA 

217

between HEIs and the industry in order to appropriately train ­public servants that will help build foundations for the attainment of the MDG)considered to guide developing countries for development. The point here is that by working with universities, industries will strengthen their human resources and capacities as staff is submitted to continuous skills upgrading. Thus, the study by Kayaga (2007) sought to capture the strengths and barriers shaping collaborations between HEIs and the industry sector in Uganda with special emphasis for the Ugandan industry of water and sanitation with local universities. The results indicate that both channels of collaboration and potential conditions for the establishment of networks that foster human resources’ capacity on the basis of continuous professional transformation is still at its infancy. Furthermore, the few reported as existing, are described as insufficient and not yet consolidated. The case of Uganda then as it may appear to be the reality of many African countries, graduates’ employability and the success of the interconnection between HEIs and the industry needs to be supported by quality dialogue and interconnectivity.

7.2   Case Studies in Northern Africa This subsection adresses the case of northern Africa countries as to the interconnection between HE and the employability of the graduates and accounts for the great narratives shaping the debates in the three sampled countries. Mapping some of the case studies that have been undertaken to capture HE, employability, industry and entrepreneurship in the northern Africa region is a key goal. Intersection between HE and employability of the graduates in the northern Africa region becomes an arena of study. Egypt 1. Inclusiveness in Higher Education in Egypt The study shows how Egyptian HE during its inception was destined for few elites. However, despite elite higher education continuing to characterize Africa overall, the case highlighted for Egypt consubstantiate the conditions under which HE operated during its establishment on the continent “was a mechanism of selecting the dominant elites.” It is also assumed that within this scope of admitting few candidates to HEIs in Egypt aligned with the integration of

218 

P. J. UETELA

the students in the labor market subsequent to leaving universities. The Egyptian ­Revolution of the 1950s, which aimed to promote social justice and equity in HE participation determined to interconnect HE access to university with development introducing measures such as termination of tuition fees and free access to HE for those entering public high learning. As part of the key reforms undertaken by Egypt at the moment of revolution, national government promised access to employment for all nationals finishing university (Cupito & Langsten, 2010: 183–197). This case of the Egyptian government grounded on the vision that the state was the guarantor of the well-being and sovereignty shaped the construction of African national states and strengthened state institutions of which HE is part. Furthermore, there is herein a confirmation of the overhead concern that the link between HE, employability and development in Africa has been different in terms of period of analysis, institution of HE, countries’ policies and period under investigation. In addition, is the fact that most of the current complexities seen either in Egypt or elsewhere in terms of lacking interconnection between HE and employability might be analyzed as a perspective beyond national states planning. They confirm that most of the politics early set by African countries as key priority for development may not have been turned into reality. The case that neither in Egypt nor in many other African countries all graduates are employed and that the number of places promised are yet and perpetually insufficient evidence of the extent to which aligning HE and development in Africa is and will continue being a long debate. The case of Egyptian reforms, for example, were sustained by the fact that increased access and employability chances would lessen inequalities and then foster socio-economic transformation. Whether expansion of HE access and increasing employability chances are leading to equality and then development raises debates within Africa as the degree of alignment between them vary as to national, institutional and regional reforms and priorities. For example, the chances of employability between wealthy and poorer graduates after leaving university, between women and men, and in other contexts, between blacks and white graduates are all complexities of the interconnection between universities and employment. Furthermore, is the extent to which checks and balance concerns are prioritized to ensure that theoretical promises are turned into practice.

7  SOME CASE STUDIES FROM CENTRAL, EASTERN AND NORTHERN AFRICA 

219

2. University and Innovation in a Knowledge Based Economy The study both describes and defines the meaning of university in the knowledge economy. It indicates that the knowledge economy has imposed a typology of universities designated as entrepreneurial. Under this model, its value is assumed to be measured by commercial importance. It appears then that the validity of universities under the entrepreneurial setting can be assessed by the way graduates (who are the products of the university) are successful in the labor market (consumed and valued as they are sold to the industry). Universities then are firms that produce and sell goods and services. Hence, this study conducted in Egypt indicates that the new approach and concern in turning HEIs and the current knowledge enterprises, that is, HEIs are panaceas of scientific production and sell to the industries. What is then being done in Egypt in order to assure universities are knowledge-­based enterprises? HEIs are strongly instituting channels of interconnectivity with the industry as part of the constructing process of the enterprise university (El Hadidi & Kirby, 2016: 140–148). However, there are challenges under the process of setting collaboration channels, the areas of collaboration, the content and how you collaborate in an effective manner. In addition, is the fact that both universities and the industry may still face internal difficulties of understanding the meaning and sense of innovation, which is key for the knowledge society and entrepreneurial university. The point here is that the establishment of collaboration mechanisms as a means of successful entrepreneurial university is externally driven rather than internally oriented (universities see collaboration as an imposition of the industry and the same occurs with the industry, it assesses collaboration as an imposition from the universities). Furthermore, is the position that strategic planning, the aims and interests of the collaborating institutions might be conflicting and then each will tend to push for its benefit? The case of Egypt, for example, indicates that most of the collation initiatives undertaken between the industry and university have been on project basis and funded. Part of the challenges of maintaining continuity of such collaborative initiatives is when the project ends and funding is no longer available. The interdependence of the industry and university collaboration associated with the external funding to support such network, account not only for the steering dependency under which HE in Egypt is mingled. It is also consubstantiating the failure of many ongoing projects aiming at interconnecting universities with the industry due to lack of financial independence. African states,

220 

P. J. UETELA

universities and employing sectors are under this measure urged to reconsider their funding sources and alternatives. Some HEIs either in Egypt and other parts of the continent have adhered to alternative sources of income in order to strengthen internal and external projects that make them transform into entrepreneurial HEIs and maintain relevance to the industry. The insufficiency of the African governments in steering universities on the basis that in other contexts HE is not yet a priority is leading some institutions, faculties, departments and individual academics to seek external sources of funding from AUSAID, SIDA, USAID, CAPES and other external agencies interested in steering African HE.  Underdevelopment of HE and industry linkagescollaboration in northern Africa and the entire continent have been influenced by the concerns herein indicated 3. University–Industry Collaboration in a Factor-Driven Economy The study presents that there are various perspectives of analyzing the linkages between universities and the industry. Previously, the researchers attempted to indicate the relationship from the perception of academics. Here, the focus is on the industry perspective. The study focused on both identifying and capturing firms’ perceptions and the mechanisms applied to network with the industry around Cairo (El Hadidi & Kirby, 2017: 195–203). What do the findings reveal? First, the level of industry university collaboration is still low as only 6% graduates employing firms considered collaboration with universities. The weakness in the linkages between industry and universities captured in Egypt may serve to unpack/reveal the current situation on the entire continent characterized by low level. In addition, is the fact that the firms alluding to lack of interconnection between them and academia justify the non-­ existence on the basis of insignificance for that to occur, that is, there is no need for them to establish linkages with academia. This suggests a conflict on the one hand between the interests of academia and industries and also the existence of levels and distinctions of employing enterprises that need academia to prosper. There are two directions of collaborations: (i) academia-industry when key relationship are mainly driven and highly interested to the university or HEIs and (ii) industry –university, when the reason behind establishing interconnection is mainly pushed by the industry and the collaboration mainly responds to their interests. Overall, the debate on triple-helix strengthening in Africa is still at low level of debate

7  SOME CASE STUDIES FROM CENTRAL, EASTERN AND NORTHERN AFRICA 

221

in a context wherein the global north has been considered as the key force driving HE-Government-Industry and development debates. 4. Universities and Innovation in a Factor-Driven Economy In Egypt, there are also concerns on investigating the meaning of triple-helix and how it is being debated within the consolidation process of the Egyptian HE.  Hence, the study by El Hadidi and Kirby (2015a, b) sought to capture ongoing debates in Egypt by analyzing three dimensions that influence graduates’ employability even though the influence might not be necessary. These dimensions included (i) how universities innovate in a context affected by the knowledge economy, (ii) how they are internalizing the components of entrepreneurial HE and (iii) how debates on triple-helix are maximized and serve as an asset that interconnect key stakeholders pushing HE in the country (El Hadidi & Kirby, 2015a, b: 151–160). In order to comprehend how universities innovate and contribute to the economy, the study sought to comprehend the opinions of Egyptian experts in the areas with focus for government representatives, non-governmental organizations (civil society) and the universities. The results from the interviews with the key stakeholders influencing HE in Egypt also account for a diversification of perspectives, namely that despite engagement in the innovation process by these key factors influencing HE in the country, the efforts reported to have been undertaken are still insignificant. HEIs, the government and civil society still have and need to strengthen the way they influence key policy changes that result in socio-economic transformation. This necessity of increasing efforts also implies that the diversification of the key factors influencing HE in the country may lead to a diversity of measures with each of the influencers pushing on its direction. Such complexity at times leads to incomprehension and conflict of interests, which overall affect transformation and contribution of the HE sector in nurturing development. The perspective under which the Egyptian HE is growing on basis of the study herein analyzed account for emerging concerns and difficulties in confirming the nexus between policy reforms influenced by the key factors influencing HE on the one hand and the perspective of decolonizing universities on the other. It appears that the key reforms that are characterizing the Egyptian HE including the ideology of entrepreneurship university, triple-helix, Bologna model and other key changes that have been presented throughout as shaping African HE are undoubtedly routed on the global north structures of HE reforms. As a result, whereas as re-­structuring HE in accordance

222 

P. J. UETELA

with international debates and structure may show the compromise African HE has to the internationalization it is also a weakness and total dependence from external sub-systems of HE.  The position then that what the key factors influencing HE in Egypt is not yet sufficient may make sense as the initiatives undertaken are made of theoretical grounds that will lead to decolonization of universities by copying and pasting the international models of policy changes may lead to a neo-colonization of African HE empirically. The suggestions for additional effort the study presents to the stakeholders impose a reflection on the conflicts and interconnections between internationalization of reforms, standardization, uniformity, decolonization and even neo-colonization 5. The Attitude of Egyptian SET Academics Towards Innovation There is a consensus that we live in the knowledge-based economy and the role of universities and the way they influence innovation turns into a key agenda in many countries. In Egypt, for example, universities are embracing entrepreneurial measures in order to cope with the demands of the knowledge economy. Furthermore, there is the concern that commercialization of the knowledge they produce will make then relevant to the labor market. Furthermore, there is the increasing consciousness that either in Egypt or elsewhere and either in Africa or internationally the position that commercialization, utility and application of the knowledge generated in HEIs and the difference it makes for the economy is only possible and measured by the interconnectivity between academy-industry-and government inter-relations. The development and integration of technological HE within the entrepreneurial landscape has been seen as the condition of ensuring commercialization, knowledge transference and innovation. Employees from different Egyptian universities were surveyed in the fields of engineering and technology in order to assess whether the entrepreneurial university is turning innovative: The results show that despite efforts to implement entrepreneurship university as a guarantee of innovation, the results are still insufficient. In addition, the employees (academics) interviewed are still uncertain on the means under which entrepreneurial university will implies innovation. Such uncertainty may reveal the extent to which university reforms in Africa are at times undertaken without planning and concern of the outputs. Furthermore, this reveals the novelty of the debate and the idea of

7  SOME CASE STUDIES FROM CENTRAL, EASTERN AND NORTHERN AFRICA 

223

university in Africa including the contribution and the difference it makes for the economy. Another key finding is that the results from the employees (academics) whose perceptions were captured allude to the failure of university as emanating from the insufficiency of the national government in either maintaining a tightened triple-helix and also in financing the continuity of the interconnection suggested. The last concern pointed as one of the hindrances of developing a consolidated entrepreneurial HE that leads to innovation and national development suggest that whereas national government steers HEIs and the interconnectivity they make with other key actors influencing HE, there is also a necessity of identification of alternative mechanisms for self-sustainability. Uetela (2017) has pointed to ongoing alternative sources HEIs are adapting in order to lessen the burden of government support with focus for (i) increasing tuition fees, (ii) implementation of evening classes for workers, (iii) infrastructure revenues and other measures (El Hadidi & Kirby, 2015a, b: 293–303). Libya Libya is among the north African countries with rare findings. Neither HE nor the link between HE and employability appears to be a concern in this country. From the approximately 49 research journals applied for the meta-analysis exercises, there is only one study reported in a field (cf. Almarghani & Mijatovic, 2017: 940–956) that is not even associated with the problematics we set to discuss: HE, employability, HE stakeholders’ collaboration. There is the political landscape that affected the country in 2011, which might have influenced the slow pace at which HE was transforming. As is the case in other regional contexts of many African countries, states such as Libya, Somalia, Chad, Sudan and others that have been severely affected by either internal civil wars or international conflicts, they have been coincidentally underdeveloped and their state institutions including HE affected. Despite research indicating that there might not be a necessary relationship between war, conflicts and underdevelopment of universities (see Uetela, 2017) in a sense that countries like Germany, the USA, Japan and others just to indicate some are example of success after wars, Africa merits special analysis. The point is that countries like Germany, the USA, Japan and others were directly affected by the two main wars but have been able to refinance their HEIs to the extent that the USA higher education has turned into the leading sub-system globally.

224 

P. J. UETELA

The case of African states and the magnitude of struggle they show to develop HE subsystems after conflicts indicates a contradictory experience. Furthermore, the contexts of the two wars and those affecting African states and from then their HE sub-systems might also be different. As a result, either the case of Libya or other African countries that have been continuously affected by unending conflicts may suggest that local governments have shifted investments from HE to conflicts logistics, and as a consequence, the slow pace at which higher education was following, exacerbated. Morocco HE in Morocco has been focusing on (i) evaluation and learning (see Seilstad, 2014: 229), (ii) student perception, evaluation and learning (see Salih Alj, 2015: 360–371), (iii) HE and development (see Buckner, 2016: 1295–1306) and (iv) students’ inclusion and HE expansion (see Clouder et al., 2018: 1–14). The case of Libya and Morocco instigate preliminary discussions for the diversity of HE either in northern Africa or the entire continent. Whereas in Libya, for example, we built the assumption that political arrest and conflicts might have influenced the low level of debates existing either about HE or the alignment between HE and employability, the case of Morocco does not indicate any political instability to have affected the country. Again, national agendas, strategies and priorities of development prioritized by individual countries may explain differentiation and diversities of initiatives undertaken to develop the HE field on the continent. In addition, such differentiation explains diversities and contradictory themes of debate that characterize specific countries.

7.3  Discussions and Conclusions Firstly, HE as a field of study is still emerging in Africa as it is not yet consolidated. The scope of debate outlined, the findings and efforts being undertaken in each region of Africa, indicate the extent to which not only HE and employability linkages are still insufficient, but the overall concern of HE as a domain of study is still difficult to map. Secondly, as a matter of support and evidence of the aforementioned finding, most of the analyzed studies have been conducted either by specialists that are internationally affiliated (outside Africa) or are experts in other arenas than HE, for example, sociology, economy, anthropology and other fields. There is

7  SOME CASE STUDIES FROM CENTRAL, EASTERN AND NORTHERN AFRICA 

225

still a misconception that HE as a field of research should be investigated from within (internally) rather than externally (outside). Thirdly, the results from the key studies (case studies) analyzed are consensual that HE development in Africa is occurring in terms of regional division rather than the existence of a holistic project that captures the entire continental development. Despite existence of organizations such as the Association of the African Universities and the Council for the Development of Social Sciences in Africa and other continental initiatives, the role of the region in pushing HE development is higher than continental overall. The predominance of regional blocks as the key grounds under which HE is developing, is consubstantiated by the existence of regional hubs that serve as role models for the surrounding countries. For example, Egypt is the hub of higher education in northern Africa, Uganda in west Africa, South Africa in SADC, Congo in Central Africa and Ghana in west Africa. The fact that there are countries that push the debate about HE to a higher level than others also indicate the differences and uniqueness existing and how these vary in terms of both national and regional agendas. Another key difference shaping HE across the regions and countries under research are the topics or themes of interests. These are not necessarily unanimous which shows differences in the priorities set by each country and which lead to the fulfillment of the various agendas of development. The aim of this book then was to comprehend decolonization of African universities and the role they play in fostering development. It addressed the subject from a wider range of perspectives. Firstly, we located Africa in the global landscape of the whole discussion about higher education. The continent overall lags behind when compared to other geographical locations, especially the West. Despite Africa lagging behind, there are ongoing debates attempting to revitalize HE and make it as a means of enhancing development. Secondly, there is the question of the meaning of university and an attempt to discover that which Africa failed to do in order to strengthen its higher education institutions. There was also an attempt to capture the ongoing efforts undertaken by scholars who are interested in researching African higher education. This was done through a revision of literature and application of bibliometric methodology. Furthermore, the book searched for an interplay between access to HE and employability of graduates and how Africa is situated under the perspective. Lastly, there were case studies undertaken in different countries to comprehend the alignment between access to higher education and life after university. From the findings, African HE is novel and under

226 

P. J. UETELA

researched. African countries have not yet placed HE as the main priority as they are still prioritizing primary and secondary education. The focus on primary and secondary education is supported by the international agencies that steer HE. The supporting argument they use is that return indexes for higher education are considerably lower as compared to investment. Given that most of the African countries still depend on aid in order to sustain their sub-systems, there has been a great adherence to the fact that higher education is less important. Dependence on aid means that even though African countries acquired independence, it remains only at the political level rather than the economic. As a result, in order for HE to prosper within Africa, there is a need for economic independence. Economic independence will aid steer research, teaching and learning and will lessen dependence.

References Almarghani, E. M., & Mijatovic, I. (2017). Factors affecting student engagement in HEIs  - It is all about good teaching. Teaching in Higher Education, 22(8), 940–956. Belay, K. (2008). Linkage of higher education with agricultural research, extension and development in Ethiopia. Higher Education Policy, 21(2), 275–299. Buckner, E. (2016). The growth of private higher education in North Africa: A comparative analysis of Morocco and Tunisia. Studies in Higher Education, 43(7), 1295–1306. Chiteng Kot, F. (2014). Stakeholder participation in international higher education partnerships: Results of a survey of two sub-Saharan African universities. Tertiary Education and Management, 20(3), 252–272. Chiteng Kot, F. (2015). The perceived benefits of international partnerships in Africa: A case study of two public universities in Tanzania and the Democratic Republic of Congo. Higher Education Policy, 29(1), 41–62. Clark, B. (1983). The higher education system: Academic organization in cross-­ national perspective. University Press. Clouder, L., et al. (2018). The role of assistive technology in renegotiating the inclusion of students with disabilities in higher education in North Africa. Studies in Higher Education, 44, 1–14. Cupito, E., & Langsten, R. (2010). Inclusiveness in higher education in Egypt. Higher Education, 62(2), 183–197. El Hadidi, H. E., & Kirby, D. A. (2015a). Universities and innovation in a factor-­ driven economy. Industry and Higher Education, 29(2), 151–160. El Hadidi, H. E., & Kirby, D. A. (2015b). The attitude of Egyptian SET academics towards innovation. Industry and Higher Education, 29(4), 293–303. El Hadidi, H. E., & Kirby, D. A. (2016). Universities and innovation in a factor-­ driven economy. Industry and Higher Education, 30(2), 140–148.

7  SOME CASE STUDIES FROM CENTRAL, EASTERN AND NORTHERN AFRICA 

227

El Hadidi, H. H., & Kirby, D. A. (2017). University–industry collaboration in a factor-driven economy. Industry and Higher Education, 31(3), 195–203. Gebru, D.  A. (2016). Effectiveness of higher diploma program for early career academics in Ethiopia. Studies in Higher Education, 41(10), 1741–1753. Gondo, T., & Dafuleya, G. (2010). Technical vocational education and training for micro-enterprise development in Ethiopia. Industry and Higher Education, 24(5), 381–392. Johnson, A., & Hirt, J. (2011). Reshaping academic capitalism to meet development priorities: The case of public universities in Kenya. Higher Education, 61(4), 483–499. Johnson, A. T., & Hirt, J. B. (2012). Universities, dependency and the market: Innovative lessons from Kenya. Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, 44(2), 230–251. Kasule, G.  W., Wesselink, R., & Mulder, M. (2016). Professional development status of teaching staff in a Ugandan public university. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 38(4), 434–447. Kayaga, S. (2007). Collaboration with HEIs: A key capacity building block for the Uganda water and sanitation public sector. Industry and Higher Education, 21(4), 287–294. McCowan, T., Oanda, I., & Oketch, M. (2017). Towards a National Graduate Destinations Survey in Kenya: An exploratory study of three universities. Higher Education Policy, 31(1), 97–119. Mudde, H., van Dijk, M. P., Gerba, D. T., & Chekole, A. D. (2019). Entrepreneurial change in government-led development: Ethiopian universities. Higher Education, Skills and Work-Based Learning, 9(10). Salih Alj, Y. (2015). Students’ preconception due to former students’ feedback about the difficulty of an undergraduate engineering course. Journal of Applied Research in Higher Education, 7(2), 360–371. Seilstad, B. (2014). Designing, implementing, and evaluating a department-wide service-learning program for English Language learners in Morocco. Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Engagement, 18(1), 229. Ssempebwa, J., Teferra, D., & Bakkabulindi, F.  E. K. (2016). “Swim or sink”: State of induction in the deployment of early career academics into teaching at Makerere University. Studies in Higher Education, 41(10), 1854–1868. Stevens, D., Hayman, R., & Mdee, A. (2013). “Cracking collaboration” between NGOs and academics in development research. Development in Practice, 23(8), 1071–1077. Uetela, P. (2017). Higher education and development in Africa. Palgrave Macmillan. Wilson Kasule, G., Wesselink, R., Noroozi, O., & Mulder, M. (2015). The current status of teaching staff innovation competence in Ugandan universities: Perceptions of managers, teachers, and students. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 37(3), 330–343.

Index

A Academic, vi, 8, 10, 18, 20, 28, 51, 125–126, 128–133, 135–137, 142, 148, 152, 157–160, 165–166, 174–176, 185–188, 191–193, 197, 205–206, 211–215, 220, 222–223 Academic degrees, 133, 165, 198 Academic freedom, 187 Accelerated development program (ADP), 135–137 Access, 2, 4–6, 62, 66, 67, 94, 95, 99, 100, 103–105, 110, 115, 119, 120, 124, 130, 131, 133, 136, 138, 143, 149, 152, 155, 156, 162, 165, 166, 186, 188, 189, 191, 198–199, 218, 225 Accountability, 6, 153 Acquisition, 2, 9, 67, 68, 71, 94, 103, 104, 114, 122, 124, 130, 131, 134, 138, 140, 141, 143, 146, 151, 154, 178, 194, 196, 199 Advantaged, 132, 133, 135, 136, 160 Africa, vi–viii, 1–8, 10, 15–48, 52, 53, 56, 61, 62, 65–72,

92–99, 103–166, 174–177, 182–184, 187, 188, 190, 191, 197, 198, 204, 208, 209, 211–213, 217, 218, 220, 222–226 Aid, viii, 103, 108, 110, 116–118, 121, 124, 129, 136, 141, 145, 146, 175, 226 Align, 2, 60, 67, 72, 96, 119, 127, 152, 177, 179, 180, 182, 193, 197 Ancient, 70, 71, 109 Anglophone, 19, 69 Arenas of knowledge, 6, 24, 139 Assessment, viii, 7, 20, 55, 95, 104, 121, 122, 124, 153, 154, 178–182, 186, 191, 195, 213–215 Autochthone, 70, 72 Autonomy, 103, 121, 140, 188, 208 B Bibliometric, 2, 53, 61, 63, 69, 225 Bildung, 4 Bologna, 52, 114, 182, 183, 221

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 P. J. Uetela, Higher Education and Decolonization in Africa, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-38973-3

229

230 

INDEX

C Capital, 18, 52, 103, 104, 120, 126, 129, 132, 136, 137, 142, 149, 165–166 Capture, vii, viii, 1, 2, 5, 21, 24, 53, 61, 62, 106, 108, 115–121, 123, 124, 126, 127, 131, 137, 143, 145, 146, 148, 149, 151, 152, 155, 161, 165, 173, 175, 176, 184–186, 188, 193, 194, 203, 205, 208, 211, 212, 217, 221, 225 Career, 56, 60, 125, 126, 128–130, 133, 134, 149, 160–161, 174–176, 185–188, 205–206, 213–215 Categories, vii, 12, 18, 19, 21, 54–56, 59, 66–71, 100, 105–107, 110, 117, 120, 126, 132, 134, 137, 139, 142, 148, 150, 151, 159, 165, 178, 188, 204, 208, 215, 216 Colonization, vii, 1, 19, 21, 65–100, 114, 134, 139, 191, 194, 197 Community, viii, 68, 72, 108, 109, 118, 125, 135, 136, 139, 140, 145, 177, 184, 185, 208 Compete, 106, 114, 136 Competencies, 56, 60–63, 122, 123, 135, 177, 178, 186, 207, 215 Competition, 70, 104, 107, 111, 112, 124, 125, 127, 128, 138, 142, 143, 146 Consensus, 16, 69, 70, 72, 93, 94, 96, 106, 108, 113, 116, 120, 133, 136, 139, 146, 149, 154, 156, 157, 165, 177, 187, 189, 195, 196, 207, 214–216, 222 Contentious, 69, 107 Contestation, 7, 8, 61, 93, 94, 96, 100, 103, 105, 112, 146, 159, 165

Continent, vii, viii, 3, 7, 17, 52, 53, 58, 61, 65, 67, 71, 72, 105, 107–111, 156, 180, 181, 183, 184, 186–189, 193, 196–198, 204, 207, 208, 211, 217, 220, 224, 225 Continental program, 10 Cooperation, 6, 9, 60, 62, 93, 104, 153, 159, 176, 198, 205, 207 Cost sharing, 166 Country, vii, viii, 2–3, 5, 7, 9–12, 15–22, 24, 30–46, 53–62, 65, 69–71, 93–98, 105–121, 125–127, 129–134, 136, 138–140, 143–149, 153–156, 159, 160, 165, 173, 176–177, 182, 183, 188, 191, 194, 196–199, 203–205, 207–209, 211–213, 215–218, 221–226 Creativity, 180 Crisis, 4, 61, 93, 104, 111, 139, 147, 194 D Debates, vii, viii, 2, 4, 5, 9–12, 15–17, 19–21, 51–54, 56, 57, 59, 61, 62, 65, 66, 68, 69, 71, 72, 95–100, 103–107, 109, 110, 112, 114, 115, 118, 120, 133, 134, 138, 139, 142, 144, 150, 151, 157, 160–165, 173, 174, 177, 180, 181, 184, 186, 188, 189, 196–198, 203, 205, 215, 217, 218, 220–222, 224, 225 Decentralization, 12 Decolonization theory, vii, 3, 70, 92, 115, 118 Decolonizing science, 67, 134, 151 Dependence, 98, 104–107, 222, 226 Depends, 52, 106, 131, 133, 142, 226 Devaluation, 137, 140

 INDEX 

Developing nations, 7, 147, 148, 179 Development, vii, viii, 1–3, 7–12, 15–19, 22, 26, 48, 51, 53, 60, 61, 65–100, 108–110, 112–118, 120, 121, 123–125, 128–135, 138, 144–149, 152, 153, 155–161, 176–178, 184–185, 188, 193–194, 196–199, 203, 204, 206–209, 211–212, 215–218, 221–225 Dialectic, 71, 113, 186 Differentiation, 108, 117, 131, 132, 135, 138, 150, 151, 153, 224 Disadvantaged, 131–133, 145, 156, 160 Diversification, 141, 144, 161, 163, 165, 178, 181, 182, 189, 195, 198, 221 Domestic, 109 E Economic and social capital, 136 Economic growth, 7, 68, 69, 113, 124 Economy, viii, 2, 6, 9, 53, 54, 58–63, 68–70, 95–99, 106, 107, 109–112, 114, 117, 120, 122, 123, 126, 128–131, 133, 139, 142, 144–146, 153, 156, 157, 159, 160, 163, 164, 177, 181, 182, 186, 189–193, 196–199, 204, 206–210, 214–216, 219–224 Empire, 3, 70–72, 92, 94, 95, 103, 110, 166 Employability, viii, 2, 21, 51–56, 58, 59, 66, 67, 69–100, 103–166, 173–175, 179, 180, 182, 184, 185, 189, 193–194, 198, 203, 205, 208, 209, 212–215, 217, 218, 223–225 Employee, 125–128, 132, 134, 149, 155, 163, 166, 174, 175, 182,

231

185, 189, 190, 193–195, 206, 213–215, 222, 223 Employer, 55, 59, 62, 121, 126, 127, 143, 144, 149, 163, 166, 175, 182, 184–186, 188–191, 194, 195, 199, 206, 207, 214–216 Employment, 2, 3, 5, 6, 53, 60, 67, 68, 70, 72, 94, 95, 97, 99, 100, 103–105, 107, 109, 115–117, 119, 120, 122, 124, 126, 127, 129, 130, 132, 136, 138, 140, 141, 144, 145, 149, 150, 152, 155, 162, 163, 165, 174, 175, 177, 182–184, 186, 188, 189, 191, 193–196, 198, 204–206, 208, 210, 212, 213, 215, 218 Empower, 57, 175, 177 Empowerment, 48, 156, 174 Encourage, 63, 176 Enterprise, 60, 145, 146, 149, 155–157, 164, 165, 176, 178, 179, 181, 209, 210, 219, 220 Entrepreneurship, 2, 56, 60, 145–151, 159–162, 176, 177, 194, 196–198, 203, 205, 208, 217, 221, 222 Epistemologies, 3, 6, 28, 48, 65–69 Equilibrium, 131 Equip, 153, 192 Essence, 17, 20, 48, 105 Eurocentric, 66, 67 Europe, 5–12, 16, 66, 93, 126, 156, 182, 183 European Association for International Research (EAIR), 9 Evaluating, 123, 131 Evidence, 7, 8, 12, 22, 52, 53, 63, 68, 92, 97, 105, 109, 112–114, 121, 153, 157, 159, 161, 163, 166, 174, 181, 182, 188, 203, 204, 215, 218, 224 Evolvement, 2, 24, 65, 108, 111

232 

INDEX

Exclusion, 142, 143, 174 Expansion, 2, 9, 10, 18, 56, 59, 96, 97, 120, 164, 210, 218, 224 F Factors, 1, 21, 117, 120, 123, 132, 133, 137, 140, 143, 145, 152–155, 160–161, 174, 178, 182, 192–194, 196, 198, 199, 213, 221, 222 Female, 131, 133, 134, 151, 174, 175, 188, 192–193 Field, v, vii, viii, 3–8, 12, 16–18, 21, 28, 48, 51, 53–55, 59, 65, 108, 119, 121, 122, 124, 130, 136, 138, 146, 158, 163, 185, 188, 190, 195, 206, 212–214, 216, 222–225 Field of HE, 2, 6, 9, 18, 93, 95, 104, 205–206 Findings, 11, 12, 16, 17, 21–48, 54, 55, 57, 60–62, 71, 107, 110, 115, 120, 122, 126–128, 131, 133, 136–138, 141, 142, 153–155, 158, 160, 163, 165, 174, 175, 177, 179, 184–190, 192, 193, 195, 196, 206–208, 211–216, 220, 223–225 Firm, 120, 121, 134, 152, 153, 155–159, 163, 175, 189–192, 195, 215, 219, 220 Function, viii, 2, 8, 20, 48, 51–53, 55, 68, 70, 72–92, 95, 96, 99, 103, 110, 127, 214 Funding, 12, 61, 111, 139, 147, 178, 199, 219, 220 G Gap, 53, 61, 99, 121, 151, 158, 161 Generate, 12, 52, 59, 62, 63, 69, 72, 96, 114, 118, 146, 150, 153, 158, 191

Global economy, 61, 70, 105–107, 112, 117 Globalization, 7, 9, 93, 177, 178, 194 Global north, vii, 3–5, 16, 65–72, 92–94, 103, 105, 106, 110, 118, 126, 129, 131, 133, 134, 145, 148, 156, 166, 176, 177, 180, 183, 210–212, 221 Global south, vii, 16–19, 65–68, 94, 105–107, 125, 129, 131, 133, 145, 148, 155, 160, 176, 183, 210 Governance, 58, 95, 109, 177, 178, 187 Government, v, 9, 15, 69, 99, 104–108, 117, 121, 122, 139, 140, 144–147, 150, 164, 174, 194, 197, 198, 208–210, 218, 220–224 Graduates, viii, 2, 5, 6, 9, 12, 21, 51–53, 55, 56, 58–62, 66, 68, 70, 72, 93, 95–97, 99, 100, 103, 104, 107, 114, 115, 119–133, 137–147, 150–152, 154, 158, 160–164, 173, 175–182, 184–186, 188–196, 198, 199, 203, 205–210, 212–220, 225 Graduates employability, 1, 56, 66, 67, 95–100, 107–109, 115–117, 119, 130, 134, 138, 142, 145, 159, 164, 183, 188, 203, 204, 212, 217, 221 Growing concern, 2, 3, 5–8, 10, 16, 53, 58, 93, 95, 109, 125, 144, 164, 177, 182, 194, 206, 209 Growing statistics, 5, 96 Growth, 2–5, 7–9, 15, 18, 53, 54, 56, 59, 62, 65, 67–69, 96, 97, 99, 103, 104, 109, 112, 113, 123, 124, 138, 154, 160, 161, 163, 204, 205, 207–210, 213

 INDEX 

H Harmonious, 139 Higher education institutions (HEIs), viii, 1, 2, 5, 6, 12, 15, 17–20, 26, 48, 53, 58, 63, 69, 70, 93, 95, 100, 103, 104, 107, 111–114, 117, 118, 121–123, 125, 126, 128, 129, 131, 132, 134–136, 138–140, 142–148, 150, 151, 153–155, 157–164, 166, 175, 178, 179, 181, 183–192, 194, 196, 197, 199, 204, 206–209, 211–213, 215–217, 219–223, 225 Higher education research, 8–12, 17, 53, 57 Higher education studies, 5, 16, 17, 51, 205 Higher education system, 9, 20, 25, 198 Hub, 17, 52, 57, 106, 110, 111, 205, 225 Human capital, 18, 52, 103, 149 Humanities, 4, 69, 96, 137–140, 158, 159, 195 Human resources, 95, 122, 157, 158, 217 I Idealism, 127, 129, 134, 135 Identity, 126, 129, 130, 134–137, 149, 152 Ideology, 2, 8, 66–69, 92–95, 103, 134, 136, 159–161, 174, 221 Imperialism, 3–8, 70–72, 92–96, 103, 110, 111, 115, 126 Inclusion, 132, 135, 142, 143, 161, 166, 224 Increasing inequalities, 138 Independence, 2, 18, 19, 25, 27, 47, 66, 70–72, 93–97, 99, 100, 103–107, 110, 111, 115, 126,

233

145, 151, 161, 183, 189, 197, 204, 219, 226 Indigenous, v, vii, 19, 72, 112, 114, 118, 197 Industry, vii, viii, 1, 2, 6, 21, 51–56, 58–62, 104, 107–109, 114, 116, 120–123, 125, 131, 134, 139, 143, 146, 148, 149, 151–154, 156–159, 162–164, 166, 173, 175–177, 179, 186, 189–192, 194–198, 203, 205–207, 209, 216, 217, 219, 220 Inequalities, 67, 120, 130, 132, 133, 135, 136, 138, 157, 198, 218 Infant, 20, 109 Influence, 2–8, 15, 17, 68, 69, 105, 117, 120, 140, 141, 145, 148, 150, 157, 158, 174, 182, 184, 188, 192, 193, 206, 207, 209, 221–223 Information and Communication technology (ICT), 142, 144 Initiate, 146 Innovation, 9, 10, 17, 158, 176, 180, 215–216, 219–223 Instigate, 12, 20, 123, 178, 224 Institution, 8, 12, 18, 20, 48, 54, 58–60, 62, 65, 69–72, 92, 94, 95, 103–112, 115, 117, 121, 122, 125–129, 132–136, 142–146, 148–150, 155, 159, 164, 166, 174–176, 178, 180, 183, 188, 189, 191, 194, 196, 198, 204, 206, 208, 209, 211, 213, 215, 218–220, 223 Institutionalization, 9, 145, 207 Institutions of high learning, 194 Integration, 28, 48, 62, 99, 103, 104, 120, 124, 125, 127, 135–137, 139, 142, 146, 148, 150, 152, 153, 162, 175–176, 181–183, 187, 188, 193, 199, 206, 216, 217, 222

234 

INDEX

Intellectuals, 92, 93, 123, 126, 137, 142, 197 Interconnect, 54, 60, 99, 108, 114, 120, 125, 196, 218, 221 Interconnectedness, 52, 54, 62, 157 Interconnection, 1, 6, 51, 54, 55, 59, 61, 69, 104, 107–109, 116, 117, 119, 121–123, 131, 138, 140, 141, 157, 173, 182, 183, 189, 193, 196, 198, 203, 205, 212, 215, 217, 218, 220, 222, 223 Interdependence, 55, 62, 148, 219 International, 6, 16, 26, 48, 93, 96, 105, 107, 142, 205, 222, 223, 226 International Monetary fund (IMF), 69, 93, 104 Interpretation, 112, 129, 134, 148, 182, 190, 194 Invest, 18–20, 156, 184, 197, 207 Investment, 6, 7, 27, 54, 69, 97, 98, 112, 145, 147, 148, 156, 157, 197, 204, 206–209, 213, 224, 226

L Laboratories of experiments, 9 Labor market, vii, 21, 51–63, 96, 100, 103, 120, 127, 138–140, 142–144, 152, 154, 158, 162, 164, 180, 181, 183, 184, 186, 188–192, 194, 198, 206, 207, 209, 212, 216, 218, 219, 222 Landscape, 2, 8–12, 16, 30–46, 48, 53, 56, 59, 71, 103, 114, 115, 120, 137, 222, 223, 225 Learning, 4–9, 11, 12, 19, 53, 56, 61, 66, 67, 97, 111, 120, 125, 127, 128, 130, 136, 146, 149–152, 154, 159, 162–166, 176–177, 179–182, 184, 186, 188, 190, 191, 194, 196, 204, 208, 209, 211, 212, 218, 224, 226 Liberalization, 55, 95, 111, 153 Liberation, 71, 103, 110 Local communities, viii, 68, 118, 140, 145, 184, 185, 208, 216 Lusophony, 70

J Job, 52, 59, 127, 130, 131, 155, 156, 185, 188, 192, 206, 213 Job opportunities, 2, 55, 156

M Management, v, 6–8, 10, 12, 61, 157, 162, 165, 177–178, 180 Manpower, 59, 60, 207 Marginalized, 52 Market, 2, 6, 8, 12, 20, 22, 48, 56, 59, 60, 66, 117, 122, 125, 131, 144, 147, 148, 152, 154, 163, 164, 166, 190, 191, 198–199, 210–212 Masculinity, 134, 149, 174, 188 Methodology, vii, 2, 20, 21, 54, 61, 113, 123–125, 130, 141, 177, 214, 225 Misconception, 3, 100, 103, 104, 174, 189, 225 Mission, 1, 72–92, 95, 127, 140, 163, 180

K Key transformation, 5, 6 Knowledge and Epistemologies, 3, 28 Knowledge based economy, 2, 15, 17, 97, 142, 178, 194, 222 Knowledge generation, 6, 24, 28, 48, 156 Knowledge production, v, 3, 4, 17, 21, 22, 28, 47, 65, 69, 71, 72, 94, 95, 99, 123, 134, 138, 139, 159, 177, 181, 183, 210

 INDEX 

Model I, 94, 95, 99 Model II, 94–96, 98–100 Model III, 96, 99 Modern SSA, 18 N Nation, 7, 19, 27, 54, 106, 111, 127, 147, 148, 176, 177, 179, 180 National, vii, 2, 6, 8, 9, 15, 20, 25, 58, 69, 94, 96, 97, 110, 112, 118, 119, 133, 138, 142, 145, 147–149, 153, 155, 157, 190, 191, 194, 196–198, 204, 207–210, 213, 218, 223–225 National assessments, 20 National states, vii, 7, 12, 70, 93, 94, 103–105, 111, 132, 146, 166, 204, 205, 209, 210, 212, 218 Networks, vii, 6, 93, 131, 149, 176, 179, 207, 215–217, 219, 220 New policy, 11, 60, 121, 131, 182 Nurture, 52, 54, 60–62, 97, 113, 114, 121, 122, 125, 128, 140, 144, 146, 148, 151, 157, 159, 162, 176, 181, 185, 199, 204, 208, 212, 216 O Occurs, 11, 26, 52, 56, 105, 106, 125, 128, 131, 154, 155, 162, 164, 188, 208, 211, 216, 219, 220 Offer, 118, 122, 124, 125, 138, 142, 146, 159, 162–164, 175, 179, 182, 184, 186, 187, 189, 191 Outstanding, 48, 190 P Perception, 59, 120, 174, 189, 194, 195, 215–216, 220, 223, 224

235

Performance, 20, 57, 125, 126, 128, 138, 150, 152, 155, 156, 163, 185–187, 213–216 Perspective, 5, 6, 9, 15, 17, 19, 21, 22, 25, 26, 51, 52, 54, 56, 59, 63, 67–69, 71, 105, 106, 108, 110, 116–118, 120, 121, 123, 127–129, 132, 136–139, 141–143, 145, 150, 152, 154, 157–159, 163, 165, 166, 173, 174, 177, 179, 182, 183, 187–194, 198, 204, 207, 210–212, 215, 216, 218, 220, 221, 225 Planning, 122, 143, 154, 218, 219, 222 Politics and power, 8, 58, 60, 61, 68, 175, 180, 182, 187, 188, 194, 211, 218 Position, 2, 4, 7, 16, 21, 28, 48, 61–63, 66, 69–71, 96, 100, 104, 106–112, 114, 118, 125, 128, 131–134, 136, 139, 142, 143, 145, 147–149, 152, 156–159, 166, 174, 175, 177, 178, 184, 186, 187, 190, 191, 193–195, 208, 210, 212, 214–216, 219, 222 Postgraduates, v, 123, 162, 176–178 Power, 12, 18, 55, 121, 140, 188 Power distance, 121, 187, 188 Practice, 4–6, 9, 10, 15, 69, 71, 92, 106, 109, 122, 125–127, 135, 137, 142, 150–154, 157, 160, 161, 166, 176, 177, 179, 182, 183, 186, 187, 193, 195, 197, 199, 208, 214, 216, 218 Preoccupation, vi, 71, 137 Private good, 6, 68, 111, 211 Productivity, 52, 58, 59, 62, 63, 155, 191–193, 216 Professionalization, 11, 152, 182

236 

INDEX

Professional skills, 20, 28, 181 Programs, 10, 11, 16–18, 93, 100, 122, 123, 128, 130, 133, 134, 139, 142, 144–146, 150, 151, 153, 154, 157, 158, 160–165, 176–181, 186, 192, 196, 203, 207, 208, 212, 214 Promote, 60, 94, 133, 135, 145, 148, 161, 218 Provide, 60, 70, 127, 139, 140, 176, 188, 196, 214 Public, 5–7, 9–12, 20, 26, 52–54, 59, 60, 62, 63, 68, 69, 72, 95, 104, 110, 111, 140, 151, 152, 157, 159, 160, 165, 177, 189, 197, 199, 211–213, 216–218 Public good, 68, 96, 111, 127, 154, 161 Q Quality, 7, 12, 20, 61, 117, 122–125, 128, 129, 133, 135, 140, 142, 143, 146, 149, 151, 153–156, 184, 189, 196, 199, 217 Quality assurance, 7, 20, 154 R Racially, 136, 156 Rank, 133, 142 Reference, 71, 109, 111, 113, 143, 185 Reflect, 94, 107, 110, 127, 134, 191, 205 Reflection, v, 96, 104, 112, 131–132, 163, 182, 196, 222 Reforms, vii, viii, 1, 3, 4, 10, 12, 20, 24, 28, 60, 61, 92, 97, 121, 129, 136, 142, 148, 150, 154, 163, 166, 174, 175, 177–182, 188, 196, 209–212, 218, 221, 222 Regulatory agent, 150

Relevance, 6, 7, 18–22, 25–27, 30–48, 55, 67, 104, 118, 122, 130, 139, 148, 150, 158, 162–165, 179, 186, 190, 196, 204, 210, 215, 220 Reliability, 141 Research, v–vii, 1–12, 15–21, 48, 51–63, 68, 69, 71, 93, 94, 96, 97, 99, 104, 107–114, 116, 117, 120–129, 131, 133, 137, 138, 140–143, 145, 148, 149, 152–155, 157–161, 163–165, 176–187, 189, 191–193, 195–197, 203–208, 211, 212, 216, 223, 225, 226 Research agendas, 7, 52, 117, 178 Residing, 142 Restructure, 150 Results, vii, 3, 5–11, 15, 18, 25, 48, 53–62, 66, 69, 71, 94–96, 99, 100, 110, 111, 117, 120, 121, 125, 128–130, 133–135, 138, 140, 141, 143, 144, 146, 150, 152, 155, 158, 159, 178, 179, 181–183, 185–187, 189, 192–195, 199, 203, 206, 209–211, 213, 215–217, 221–226 Revitalize, 61, 225 Role, 2, 6–8, 15, 27, 48, 51–63, 68, 69, 72, 95, 97, 99, 103, 104, 112, 119, 121, 123, 127, 140, 145–147, 151, 153, 161, 163, 165, 177, 184, 189, 192, 193, 204, 212, 222, 225 Run while others walk, 115, 177 S Scholarship, 15, 18, 53, 62, 63, 65–67, 93, 94, 125, 128–130, 159

 INDEX 

Science, vii, 1, 2, 4, 6, 11, 20, 28, 66, 67, 69, 106, 114, 119, 127, 134, 136–140, 148, 151, 158, 159, 176, 177, 183, 194–196 Scientific, 3, 4, 66, 67, 71, 157, 158, 219 Scope, v, 5, 17, 20, 28, 51, 65, 67, 68, 95, 96, 99, 105, 122, 141, 151, 155, 159, 182, 196, 198, 217, 224 Self-employability, 147, 209, 213 Self-sufficient, 150 Skepticism, 105, 160, 163 Skills, 9, 20, 27, 28, 52, 54–56, 58–60, 62, 63, 66–68, 70, 72, 94, 96, 97, 99, 100, 103, 114–116, 120–131, 133, 134, 138–140, 142–146, 150–156, 161–164, 175, 176, 178–182, 184–187, 189–191, 193–199, 204, 206–210, 214, 215, 217 Social differentiation, 135, 138 Socially, 132, 133, 135, 136, 156, 160, 174, 193 South Africa, 17, 18, 54, 56, 57, 60, 62, 70, 106, 108–115, 123–128, 130–162, 165, 185, 225 Specialization, 4, 11, 117, 119, 122, 137, 138, 140, 142, 158, 178, 212 State, vii, viii, 1, 2, 6, 7, 9, 12, 18, 19, 21, 27, 55, 57, 62, 63, 70–72, 92–97, 99, 103–106, 108, 110, 111, 115, 116, 118, 120–122, 127, 130, 131, 134, 139, 144–146, 148, 151, 152, 159–161, 165, 166, 180, 188, 193, 197, 204, 207–209, 213–215, 218, 219, 223, 224 Steer, 8, 10, 12, 20, 26, 62, 157, 158, 223, 226

237

Structure, v, vii, 4, 7, 69, 71, 96, 105–108, 118, 133–135, 139, 140, 144, 157–159, 162, 173–175, 182, 183, 195, 196, 199, 207, 221, 222 Students enrollment, 5 Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), viii, 15–22, 24–28, 30–48, 51–63, 184, 185, 212 Subscribe, 119 Success, vii, 8, 56, 61, 124, 131, 142, 144, 147, 152, 153, 155–157, 162, 174, 181, 185, 186, 190, 192, 199, 206, 208, 213, 214, 216, 217, 223 Supranational levels, 8 Sustainable, 184–185 System of academic credits, 20 T Teacher training, 22, 27 Teaching, 4, 6, 8–11, 26, 61, 97, 113, 125, 128–130, 136, 151, 152, 154, 157, 159, 164, 175–176, 178, 180, 182, 183, 185, 187, 188, 191–194, 196, 211–216, 226 Technical, 60, 178, 179, 191, 192 Theory, vii, 3, 5, 8, 10, 15, 18–20, 28, 58, 61, 65, 69–71, 92, 94, 103, 105, 114, 115, 118, 122, 125, 127, 131, 134, 135, 150–153, 157, 158, 161, 164, 165, 183, 186, 187, 190, 193, 195, 197–199, 204, 208, 211, 214 Threefold, 121 Tracey, 55, 122, 146 Train, 95, 105, 118, 142, 150, 190, 206, 216, 217

238 

INDEX

Training, 10, 27, 58, 68, 95, 104, 116, 117, 121, 123, 129, 130, 138, 142–144, 150, 154, 163, 166, 175, 179–181, 184, 186, 188, 190, 191, 194–195, 197, 199, 206, 207, 210, 212, 214–216 Transmitted, 63, 214 Tuition fees, 154, 166, 199, 218, 223 U Unemployability, 55, 139, 140, 144, 147, 152, 196, 213 Unemployment, 54–56, 95, 140, 142, 146, 161, 162, 174, 212, 213 United States of America (USA), 4–11, 16, 93, 106, 112, 113, 147, 156, 180, 223

Universities, v–viii, 1–12, 15–48, 51–63, 65–100, 103–166, 173–187, 189–198, 203–223, 225 University crisis, 4, 61 Unpredictable, 144 V Value, 9, 20, 109, 128, 138, 174, 198, 211, 219 Vocational, 22, 27, 48, 116, 117 Vocational skills, 55 W World Bank (WB), 69, 93, 104