Heritage Tourism Beyond Borders and Civilizations: Proceedings of the Tourism Outlook Conference 2018 [1st ed.] 9789811553691, 9789811553707

Citation preview

İnci Oya Coşkun · Alan Lew ·  Norain Othman · Gökçe Yüksek ·  Semra Günay Aktaş   Editors

Heritage Tourism Beyond Borders and Civilizations Proceedings of the Tourism Outlook Conference 2018

Heritage Tourism Beyond Borders and Civilizations

İnci Oya Coşkun Alan Lew Norain Othman Gökçe Yüksek Semra Günay Aktaş •

•

•

•

Editors

Heritage Tourism Beyond Borders and Civilizations Proceedings of the Tourism Outlook Conference 2018

123

Editors İnci Oya Coşkun Faculty of Tourism Anadolu University Tepebaşı, Eskisehir, Turkey Norain Othman Faculty of Hotel and Tourism Management Universiti Teknologi MARA Puncak Alam, Selangor, Malaysia

Alan Lew Department of Geography, Planning and Recreation Northern Arizona University Flagstaff, AZ, USA Gökçe Yüksek Faculty of Tourism Anadolu University Tepebaşı, Eskisehir, Turkey

Semra Günay Aktaş Faculty of Tourism Anadolu University Tepebaşı, Eskisehir, Turkey

ISBN 978-981-15-5369-1 ISBN 978-981-15-5370-7 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5370-7

(eBook)

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

Preface

Heritage, both tangible and intangible, is one of the fastest-growing and most vital segments of the contemporary tourism industry. This emphasis has increased steadily since UNESCO initiated the World Heritage List in 1972, and a wide range of heritage phenomena have evolved since then to attract recognition and value. In addition to its support in heritage conservation and the promotion of varied forms of culture, heritage tourism is important due to its socio-economic impacts. Communities benefit from this type of tourism because it raises their awareness of the social and economic value of their local natural and cultural heritage. For tourists, heritage sites provide personal encounters with traditions, history, culture, and natural resources and a chance to listen and learn their distinctive stories. The UNESCO World Heritage Centre defines heritage as “our legacy from the past, what we live with today, and what we pass on to future generations. Our cultural and natural heritages are irreplaceable sources of life and inspiration”. When recognized, natural and cultural heritage sites, including scenic landscapes and revitalized historic towns, are prized tourism assets that distinguish one place from another. These resources are often unique and fragile by nature; therefore, it is essential for tourism authorities and academicians to study how communities can benefit from them as attractions, while protecting and preserving them in a sustainable manner. The papers in this volume explore heritage tourism in four main aspects: People, Food, Planning, and Roads. They were selected from the successful 11th Tourism Outlook Conference, held in Eskişehir, Turkey, October 2–5, 2018, and reflect the range of topics covered at that meeting. The conference was organized by the Anadolu University (ANAU) along with international collaborators. The Eskişehir conference focused on the challenge of understanding and preserving cultural and natural heritage, and seeking a better awareness of their values. Eskişehir was a perfect venue to address these issues due to its location in Anatolia, the ancient peninsula with a rich and diverse cultural and natural heritage due to its being a crossroad between Asia and Europe. The editors of this volume appreciate the efforts of the conference organizers and sponsors, which included: v

vi

Preface

• Anadolu University, Faculty of Tourism, Turkey • Universiti Teknologi Mara, Shah Alam (UiTM), Faculty of Hotel and Tourism Management, Malaysia • Northern Arizona University (NAU), Department of Geography, Planning and Recreation, USA • International Geographical Union (IGU), Commission on the Geography of Tourism, Leisure and Global Change • Tourism Geographies journal, Routledge, UK The selected chapters provide a platform for tourism scholars, tourism industry practitioners, public and private tourism decision-makers, and others interested in heritage tourism to share, exchange and debate ideas and knowledge. The authors and researchers who contributed to this book present a wide range of perspectives on heritage and its relationship to tourism. They, and the editors of this volume, appreciate this opportunity to contribute their knowledge to the world. Tepebaşı, Turkey Flagstaff, USA Puncak Alam, Malaysia Tepebaşı, Turkey Tepebaşı, Turkey

İnci Oya Coşkun Alan Lew Norain Othman Gökçe Yüksek Semra Günay Aktaş

Contents

Heritage Tourism and People Myths and Legends in Destination Tourism Marketing: The Story of Hero and Leander—Canakkale, Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mustafa Boz

3

Locals’ Motivations for Recreational Visits to Urban Cultural Heritage Sites: The Seyh Edebali Tomb, Bilecik, Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . Ayşe Okuyucu and Mehmet Somuncu

15

The Gamification of Museum Attractions: The Perspective of Visitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Majd Tayara and Hakan Yilmaz

31

Effects of Participation on Place Attachment in Diaspora Tourism of Circassians Living in Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ufuk Çevik and Semra Günay Aktaş

45

Tour Guides as Sustainable Cultural Heritage Tourism Interpreters: The Case of the Odunpazari Historical Urban Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Merve Kalyoncu and Gökçe Yüksek

57

Cultural Heritage of Ottoman Anatolia Through the Eyes of Female Travelers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Azade Özlem Çalık, Gülsel Çiftçi, and Duygu Yetgin

71

Heritage Tourism and Food Gastronomy Tourism in the Eyes of the Local People: The Bergama Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Berrin Güzel and Ceren İşçi

87

An Evaluation of Chefs’ Views on the Culinary Arts and Design Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Sema Ekincek and Semra Günay Aktaş vii

viii

Contents

The Potential of Amasya Cuisine for Gastronomy Tourism . . . . . . . . . . 115 Önder Yayla and Şeyda Yayla Gastrotourism According to the 24 Solar Terms Regimen . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Deniz Orhun and M. Kutsi Akilli Heritage Tourism Planning The Role of Industry Museums in Promoting Industrial Heritage Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Kudret Gül and Melike Gül Tourism Management Planning Approach in Cultural Heritage Sites: Principles for Istanbul’s Historic Peninsula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Ayşe Nur Canbolat and Dilek Erbey Architecture’s Role in New Tourism Trends: Cases from Poland and Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Adam Siniecki and Ayşe Nilay Evcil Evaluation of Rural Culture in Ödemiş-Lübbey Using Creative Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Seval Durmuş and Gözde Emekli The Evolution of Heritage Tourism Destinations in Protected Rural Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Barış Seyhan and Antonio Paolo Russo Anadolu University Aviation Park as Part of a Cultural Landscape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Semra Günay Aktaş, Önder Yayla, and Sema Ekincek Heritage Roads Sustaining Cultural Routes: The Case of the Phrygian Way . . . . . . . . . 243 Kübra Aşan and Medet Yolal Management of Sustainable Tourism and Cultural Heritage for the Ancient Hittite Road . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 Nevin Turgut Gültekin and T. N. N. Özbek Çetin Cultural Route Management Through Collaborative Efforts . . . . . . . . . 267 Burcin Kalabay Hatipoglu, Yasemin Keskin, and Seyma Yetgil

Heritage Tourism and People

Myths and Legends in Destination Tourism Marketing: The Story of Hero and Leander—Canakkale, Turkey Mustafa Boz

Introduction Today, tourism is seen as a key driver of socioeconomic development through the creation of jobs and enterprises, export revenues, and infrastructure development by many countries and destinations. In recent decades, tourism has continually expanded and diversified to become one of the largest and fastest-growing economic sectors in the world (UNWTO 2017). As new destinations enter the international tourism market and tourist preferences change over time, competition among countries and destinations increases. The increasingly competitive environment and the growing similarity of products and services cause tourists to look for something exotic and different (Pérez-Aranda et al. 2015). Instead of lying on the beach or at the pool as part of an all-inclusive package tour, more tourists want to see and experience new cultures, encounter and engage with local people, and have authentic experiences (ITB 2018). Tourists now desire innovative and memorable experiences during their holidays (Oh et al. 2007). During their travels, tourists “are in a quest for psychological rewards such as inspiration, authenticity, belonging to a meaningful community, value and meaning in general” (Pérez-Aranda et al. 2015). In this context, cultural tourism is gaining importance in responding to the new tourist demands and in increasing the competitive power and branding of tourist destinations. Tourist destinations are searching for differentiation to improve their attractiveness. Enriching experiences in local culture are highly valued. European Commissioner for Education, Culture, Youth and Sport Tibor Navracsics (2018) states that a destination’s culture, history, and traditions can generate economic growth, employment, and social cohesion. According to the findings of the Tourism and Culture Survey 2015 by UNWTO (2018), international cultural tourist arrivals are

M. Boz (B) Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Canakkale, Turkey e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 ˙I. O. Co¸skun et al. (eds.), Heritage Tourism Beyond Borders and Civilizations, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5370-7_1

3

4

M. Boz

growing steadily compared to overall tourist arrivals. Forty percent of international tourist arrivals are categorized as “cultural tourists.” The European Union (2018) declared 2018 the European Year of Cultural Heritage. Their aim was to encourage more people to discover and engage with Europe’s cultural heritage, and to reinforce a sense of belonging to a common European space. The slogan was “Our Heritage: Where the Past Meets the Future.” UNWTO and UNESCO (2017) agreed on the “Muscat Declaration on Tourism and Culture: Fostering Sustainable Development” by recalling previous conventions and conferences, reaffirmed their commitment to: 1. Strengthen the synergies between tourism and culture and advance the contribution of cultural tourism to the 2030 Agenda on Sustainable Development and the 17 Sustainable Development Goals 2. Enhance the role of tourism and culture in peace-building and heritage protection, especially in conflict-affected areas 3. Promote responsible and sustainable tourism management of cultural heritage 4. Encourage a creative and innovative approach for sustainable urban development through cultural tourism 5. Explore the inter-links between culture and nature in sustainable tourism Cultural tourism includes mainly cultural heritage (tangible and intangible heritage) and contemporary culture (film, performing arts, design, fashion, exhibitions, new media, and others) (UNWTO 2018). Intangible heritage assets attract more tourists year by year. People like to learn and feel the stories and the emotions behind tangible heritage assets. As Kearney (2009, p. 210) puts it, intangible heritage gives meaning to the tangible. All tangible heritage products have intangible values associated with them (Park 2010, p. 116). Any tangible cultural heritage asset must be supported by intangible value, and any intangible cultural heritage asset must rely on the tangible to be better visualized (Yuan 2008, p. 8). Travelers’ enjoyment of intangible heritage assets is generally part of the cultural tourism experience, which can also be manifested in combination with other types of tourism (ecotourism, educational tourism, rural tourism, etc.) (UNWTO 2012). An important part of intangible cultural assets are myths and legends. Myths and legends can play an important role as a memorable tourism product. As they are unique/authentic, they can be used in tourism branding of a destination. The events and characters that play a part in the history of a place are important sources of themes around which tourists can construct stories and narratives with tourism potential (Pérez-Aranda et al. 2015). Examples include the legend of King Arthur, the legend of Robin Hood of Nottingham, the myth of Atlantis, the Count Dracula legend of Transylvania, the legend of the Trojan Horse of Troy, the legend of the Gordian knot of Phrygia, the Loch Ness Monster of Inverness, and many others.

Myths and Legends in Destination Tourism Marketing …

5

Methodology The main purpose of this conceptual study is to reveal the importance of cultural heritage tourism. In the first part of the study, the concept of cultural heritage is explained, and legends and myths from intangible cultural heritage types are identified. In the second part, the story of Hero and Leander is examined as a case study. In conclusion, a festival program is proposed to foster the development and branding of Canakkale tourism.

Myths and Legends as Cultural Heritage Heritage may be described as physical artifacts and intangible attributes of a group or society that are inherited from past generations and can be passed down to future generations (Pearce 2000; Arbach 2019). Heritage refers to everything that has been handed down from the past. Although not all heritage is uniformly desirable, it is widely viewed as a precious and irreplaceable resource, essential to the personal and collective identity of communities and necessary for self-respect (Lowenthal 2005), pride, and cultural and natural richness. UNESCO (2018) categorizes heritage mainly as cultural and natural heritage. Heritage can be classified as in Table 1. Some special places are both cultural and natural heritage sites. In 1992, UNESCO decided that places that show the relationship between people and their environment could also be cultural landscapes (SAHO 2017). Intangible cultural heritage is defined as “the practices, representations, expressions, knowledge, skills—as well as the instruments, objects, artifacts and cultural assets associated therewith—that communities, groups and, in some cases, individuals, recognize as part of their cultural heritage” (UNWTO 2012). A community’s inherited culture (tangible and intangible) should provide a community with a competitive advantage and uniqueness, one that differentiates it from all other communities (George 2010). Myths and legends are important elements of intangible cultural heritage. All cultures have stories that have been passed down from generation to generation. Some are known as legends, while others are known as myths. The Cambridge Dictionary (2018) defines “myth” as “an ancient story or set of stories, especially explaining the early history of a group of people or about natural events and facts.” It defines “legend” as “a very old story or set of stories from ancient times, or the stories, not always true, that people tell about a famous event or person.” A legend is presumed to have some basis in historical fact and tends to mention real people or events. Historical fact morphs into a legend when the truth about real people or events has been so exaggerated that they have taken on a romanticized, “larger than life” quality. For example, a widely known folktale of an excellent marksman who is forced to shoot an apple, hazelnut, or some other object from his son’s head has become associated with the Swiss hero William Tell (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2018). In contrast, a myth is a type of symbolic storytelling that was never

6

M. Boz

Table 1 Classification of Heritage Elements Cultural heritage

Tangible cultural heritage

Intangible cultural heritage

Natural heritage

Natural sites with cultural aspects

Movable cultural heritage

Paintings, sculptures, coins, manuscripts

Immovable cultural heritage

Monuments, archaeological sites, and so on

Underwater cultural heritage

Shipwrecks, underwater ruins, and cities

Traditional craftsmanship

Arts and handicrafts (e.g., authentic handicraft souvenirs, paintings)

Gastronomy and culinary heritage

Wine and gastronomic routes, food festivals, complimentary activities from cooking workshops to collecting and processing local forest fruits and medicinal herbs

Social practices, rituals, and festive events

Displays of century-old customs, pilgrimage routes, festivals

Music and the performing arts

Cultural expressions such as music, theater, plays, puppet shows, dancing and singing, and other celebrating, traditional instruments combined with folklore

Oral traditions and expressions

Transmission of cultural understanding through language learning and storytelling (e.g., tales, legends, myths, epics, stories, poems, prayers, chants, and other elements)

Knowledge and practices concerning nature and the universe

Land use, traditional farming and fishing practices, historical agricultural and eco-friendly traditional practices, ancient astronomy, folk medicine, and indigenous beliefs about land use

cultural landscapes, physical, biological or geological formations

Rare natural formations, like unique rock shapes, habitats, and species of animals and plants

Source designed by the author, based on Kurin (2004), UNWTO (2012), UNESCO (2018), SAHO (2017)

Myths and Legends in Destination Tourism Marketing …

7

based on fact. Throughout time, myths have sought to explain difficult concepts (such as the origin of the universe) with the help of common story devices, such as personification and allegories (Diffen.com 2017). The myths are based on an extraordinary number of gods, goddesses, demigods, and heroes that feature in the legends of classical mythology, such as King Midas and his donkey ears, titans and titanesses, the Egyptian myth of Ra, and the Mesopotamian myth of Marduk. Myths and legends have grown in importance in the promotion of tourist destinations. The utilization of enticing tales can increase the desirability of destinations and add value to the tourists’ experience (Razak and Romle 2016). The uniqueness, authenticity, and attractiveness of myths and legends as tourism products enhance and ease the marketing and branding of destinations.

Myths and Legends in Destination Marketing Many host destinations around the world have started offering intangible resources such as myths and legends as cultural tourist products. These include Moai (Easter Island, Chile), Tutankhamun (Valley of the Kings, Egypt), Robin Hood (Nottinghamshire, England), the Golem (Prague, Czech Republic), Ramayana (Angkor Wat, Cambodia), the Trojan horse (Canakkale, Turkey), Jure Grando, the vampire from Kringa (Istria, Croatia), and many others. Three interesting examples are briefly reviewed below. Dracula, Romania—Count Dracula is one of the most famous fictional characters of all time. The novel Dracula, by Irish novelist Bram Stoker, was published in 1897. The name “Dracula” comes from the nickname of a ruler from Romanian history called Vlad the Impaler (Mellan 2013; Candrea et al. 2016). The historical truth related to the life of Vlad the Impaler, prince of Wallachia, favors the exploitation of the Dracula myth in the Romanian tourism context. However, the location of Dracula’s castle is debatable. Dracula tourism is stimulated by the novel, plays, musicals, and more than 200 films that have either exploited the nineteenth-century Dracula story or the vampire myth (Hovi 2014; Candrea et al. 2016). Dracula tourism started to grow in Romania slowly during the 1970s, and the socialist state’s reaction towards it was tolerant but not encouraging. In 2000, the Romanian Ministry of Tourism took an official position. It declared that Romania should regard the Dracula story as an opportunity to attract tourists (Candrea et al. 2016). Today, Romanian tour operators base most of their Transylvania packages and tours around Dracula and offer some special experiences around Halloween (Mellan 2013). Romania is the only country in the world that can claim to be Dracula’s “home.” This could be considered a competitive advantage for Romania as a tourist destination (Cosma 2008). Count Dracula is transforming into a perfect instrument to promote the destination and increase the influx of tourists (Stoleriu & Ibanescu 2014). International tourists

8

M. Boz

ranked Dracula’s Castle the second most attractive tourism asset in Romania. Categorizing those tourists by origin, Dracula’s Castle was ranked first by Americans, third by Austrians, fourth by Brits, and fifth by Italians (Candrea et al. 2016). Santa Claus, Turkey—also named Saint Nicholas (Nicolaos, Nick), delivers presents to children at Christmas. His historical journey is even longer and more fantastic than his annual, one-night circumnavigation of the globe. Santa Claus is known around the world; he is “Father Christmas” or “Old Man Christmas” in England, “Père Nöel” in France, “Sveti Nikola” in Macedonia, and “Ded Moroz” in Russia. Finland’s tourism office welcomes children and adults coming to meet Santa Claus and cross the magical Arctic Circle every day at the Santa Claus Village in Lapland (Visitfinland 2018). In the U.S. state of Indiana, a little town named Santa Claus is inundated every year with more than 20,000 letters addressed to Santa Claus. And a group of volunteers—known locally as Santa’s Elves—answer each one (Gabbatt 2017). According to legend, Nicolaos was a bishop in Myra in Turkey around the year 300. Nicolaos was the son of a wealthy family but spent his fortune on good deeds. Nicolaos also worked miracles. The story goes that he once brought three schoolboys back to life (Skagen-tourist.dk 2018). St. Nicholas is the saint not only of children but also of sailors. St. Nicholas was exiled from Myra and later put in prison during the persecution by Emperor Diocletian. He died on December 6, in either 345 or 352. In 1087, his bones were stolen from Turkey by some Italian merchant sailors. The bones are now kept in the Basilica di San Nicola in the Italian port of Bari (Handwerk 2017; whychristmas.com 2018; Nicholas Center 2018). The church of St. Nicholas in Demre is a popular destination for pilgrims as St. Nicholas’s final resting place, and archaeological excavations have been taking place there for 20 years (BBC 2017). Loch Ness Monster, Scotland—Some people believe that a huge marine creature by the name of Nessie lives in Loch Ness, Scotland. It is widely thought that the monster is a myth. The story of Nessie dates back to ancient times. Nessie was first mentioned in 565 in a biography of the Irish monk Saint Columba. In 1933 the Loch Ness monster’s legend began to grow, after a road was built alongside Loch Ness. Within months, several people came forward claiming to have seen a giant beast lurking near the water (Ailes 2013; Tikkanen 2017; Hughes 2018). Many of these alleged encounters seemed inspired by Scottish folklore, which abounds with mythical water creatures (Tikkanen 2017). More than 1,000 sightings have been reported, and as the legend gathered popularity, Nessie became the subject of a host of documentaries and feature films. The Scooby Doo cartoon gang tried to solve the mystery in 2004. Ted Danson starred in the 1996 family drama Loch Ness. In 2003, the BBC conducted the largest-ever search for Nessie, using 600 sonar beams and satellite tracking to explore the loch— but nothing was found. The Loch Ness monster is now officially the UK’s greatest unexplained mystery; the legend of the beast is known far and wide (Morton, 2008; Ailes 2013; Hughes 2018). Morton (2008) admits, “It’s a persuasive idea, but the truth is that Nessie is a vital and complex icon. We need her, or him, or them, as a guarantor of national identity and distinctiveness.”

Myths and Legends in Destination Tourism Marketing …

9

The Loch Ness Monster is at the center of a campaign to inspire international visitors to book a trip to Inverness and Loch Ness out of the tourist season. Joss Croft, Visit Britain’s director of marketing, says, “The Loch Ness and Inverness area is a fantastic destination to be enjoyed all year round. We want to inspire visitors to book a trip and come and visit right now so the economic benefits of tourism are spread throughout more of the year.” The figures from Visit Britain show that there were more than 260,000 international visits to Inverness in 2014, and 2.7 million visits to Scotland (Visit Scotland 2016). Interest in the Loch Ness Monster is believed to generate nearly $80 million annually for Scotland’s economy (Tikkanen 2017).

Case Study: The Story of Hero and Leander The story of Hero and Leander is a folktale/myth throughout Europe, Egypt, and India. Hero was a priestess of Aphrodite who dwelled in a tower in Sestos on the European side of the Hellespont (today’s Dardanelles). Leander was a young man from Abydos, on the Asian side of the strait. At the festival of Adonis, she met Leander, and they fell in love. He would swim every night across the Hellespont to be with her. Hero would light a lamp at the top of her tower to guide his way. They made love through the summer nights. Winter came and the sea grew stormy. One stormy winter night, the waves tossed Leander in the sea and the breezes blew out Hero’s light; Leander lost his way and was drowned. When Hero saw his dead body, she threw herself over the edge of the tower to her death to be with him. This folktale/myth has been remembered through time, both on account of its powerful themes of love, passion, and death, and on account of its setting (Minchin 2016, p. 276). The story of Hero and Leander has been the subject of numerous works of literature and the arts. Some examples are given below (Byron 1821; Norwood 1950; Waters 1967; Lenihan 1969; Tjarks 1981; Golahny 1990; Johnson 2009; Spiegelman 2009; Encyclopedia Britannica 2016; BBC 2016; Minchin 2016; Cambridge Dictionary 2018; Harrow 2016; Sagona et al. 2016; Witte 2016). • The earliest sources for this story are Roman (Vergil and Ovid). But the myth dates back earlier. • An epic poem of 342 lines on the subject of Hero and Leander was written by Musaeus. The name is not clear but is accepted as Musaeus by many researchers. He probably wrote the poem sometime in the late fifth or early sixth century AD. • Christopher Marlowe (1564–1593), Elizabethan poet and Shakespeare’s most important predecessor in English drama, wrote an unfinished poem titled “Hero and Leander” (1598) that was completed by George Chapman. This version was often reprinted in the first half of the 17th century. • Sir Walter Raleigh (1552–1618), adventurer, courtier to Elizabeth I, navigator, author and poet, alludes to the story in his poem “The Ocean’s Love to Cynthia.”

10

M. Boz

• Francisco Gómez de Quevedo (1580–1645), Spanish writer, poet, and master satirist of Spain’s golden age, mentions Leander in “En crespa tempestad del oro undoso.” • John Keats (1795–1821), one of the greatest English romantic lyric poets, wrote a sonnet, “On an Engraved Gem of Leander,” that narrates this myth. • Friedrich Schiller (1759–1805), a leading German dramatist, poet, and literary theorist, wrote the ballad “Hero und Leander” based on the legend. The ballad is 260 lines, and most of it concerns the night of the storm that was fatal for Leander. • Lord Byron (1788–1824), the British romantic poet and satirist whose poetry and personality captured the imagination of Europe, wrote the poem “Written after Swimming from Sestos to Abydos.” He was moved to emulate Leander’s feat of swimming the “broad Hellespont” in 1810. Lord Byron wrote to Francis Hodgson and said, “I plume myself on this achievement more than I could possibly do on any kind of glory, political, poetical, or rhetorical.” Aside from poems, many other literary and artistic works are associated with this legend. For example: • Shakespeare mentions this story in the opening scene of Two Gentlemen of Verona. • The story in Milorad Pavic’s novel Inner Side of the Wind parallels the myth. • Robert Schumann’s piano work “Fantastestucke Op. 12 in der Nacht” contained the story of Hero and Leander. • Georg Friedrich Handel’s solo cantata in Italian, “Ero e Leandro,” is based on the folktale. • Franz Grillparzer produced a five-act tragedy based on the story in 1831. • Victor Herbert wrote a long and ambitious symphonic poem titled Hero and Leander.

Conclusion and Proposal The legend of Hero and Leander can be regarded as an important tourism product in Canakkale. However, few steps have been taken to develop this product. There is only an annual swim event on the Hellespont each August 30, from the European shore (Eceabat) of the Dardanelles to the Asian shore (Canakkale), in memory of Byron. The strait is closed to all boat traffic during the swim. An international festival could be organized every year in memory of Hero and Leander. A festival program may be recommended as follows: Hero and Leander culture and sports festival template program: 1. Day: Arrival of guests to Canakkale Dinner, Musical performance: Georg Friedrich Handel’s solo Italian cantata “Ero e Leandro” Robert Schumann’s piano work “Fantasiestucke Op. 12 In Der Nacht”

Myths and Legends in Destination Tourism Marketing …

11

2. Day: Canakkale culture tour: Full day—Troy, Alexandria Troas, Apollon Smintheion, Assos, Gallipoli 3. Day: Swimming the Hellespont (Dardanelles) from Sestos (Eceabat) to Abidos (Canakkale) Lunch, swimming award ceremony Dinner Poetry concert: Poems on Hero and Leander Theater performance: The opening scene of Two Gentlemen of Verona, in which Shakespeare depicts the legend of Hero and Leander. As part of the festival, poetry, story, and painting contests can be organized. Artifacts can be exhibited during the festival. Such a festival, which would encompass culture, arts, and sports and become an annual tradition, has the potential to make a significant contribution to the socio-cultural and economic development of Canakkale. It would contribute to the recognition of Canakkale as a cultural tourism destination. In addition to this legend, Canakkale has many other cultural, historical, and mythological assets, such as Homer’s Troy, Aristotle’s Assos, Zeus’s Mount Ida, and the battlefields of Gallipoli. It is the basis for an unprecedented epic holiday. As an important part of cultural heritage, myths and legends can play an important role in the promotion of destinations’ tourism marketing. All cultures have myths and legends that have been handed down from generation to generation. Remote rural areas in particular can benefit from this opportunity. This intangible cultural heritage can be organized and promoted as cultural tourism products. Tourism and cultural heritage support and strengthen each other. The tourism industry can play an important role in preserving cultural heritage by contributing to the increase of tourism income for the local people and the country. As with everything, there are pros and cons to developing cultural heritage as a tourism product. If it is not managed well, the cultural heritage may deteriorate and lose its originality. It must be planned, evaluated, and applied in a sustainable manner. The local community must also benefit and take initiative in developing and marketing cultural heritage as a tourism product.

References Ailes, E. (2013). Loch Ness Monster: Is Nessie just a tourist conspiracy? http://www.bbc.com/news/ uk-scotland-22125981. Accessed 20 March 2018. Arbach, M. (2019). Tangible cultural heritage. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/cairo/culture/ tangible-cultural-heritage/. Accessed 02 January 2019. BBC (2016). History Walter Raleigh (c. 1552–1618). http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_ figures/raleigh_walter.shtml. Accessed 06 September 2016. BBC. (2017). Has the original Santa Claus been found in Turkey? http://www.bbc.com/news/worldeurope-41504172. Accessed 10 December 2017. Byron, G. G. (1821). Lord Byron’s works. Vol. 1, Paris, sold by François Louis. Cambridge Dictionary (2018). Myths, legends. https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/ myth. Accessed 06 February 2018.

12

M. Boz

Candrea, A. N., Ispas, A., Untaru, N., & Nechita, F. (2016). Marketing the Count’s way: how Dracula’s myth can revive Romanian tourism. Bulletin of the Transylvania University of Bra¸sov Series V: Economic Sciences, 9(58), 83–90. Cosma, S., Pop, C., & Negrusa, A. (2007). Should Dracula myth be a brand to promote Romania as a tourism destination? Interdisciplinary Management Research, 3, 39–56. Diffen.com. (2017). Legend vs. myth. https://www.diffen.com/difference/Legend_vs_Myth. Accessed 09 July 2017. Encyclopedia Britannica (2016). Francisco-Gomez-de-Quevedo-y-Villegas. https://global. britannica.com/biography/Francisco-Gomez-de-Quevedoy-Villegas. Accessed 06 December 2016. Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2018). Legend literature. https://www.britannica.com/art/legendliterature. Accessed 10 February 2017. European Union. (2018). The European year of cultural heritage 2018. http://europa.eu/culturalheritage/about. Accessed 27 December 2018. Gabbatt, A. (2017). Santa Claus, Indiana gets 20,000 letters a year—and ‘elves’ reply to all of them. https://www.theguardian.com/usnews/2017/dec/09/santa-claus-indiana-gets-20000letters-a-year-and-elves-reply-to-allof-them. Accessed 10 December 2017. George, E. W. (2010). Intangible cultural heritage, ownership, copyrights, and tourism. International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, 4(4), 376–388. Golahny, A. (1990). Rubens’ Hero and Leander and its poetic progeny. Yale University Art Gallery Bulletin, ISSN, 0360–3180, 21–37. Handwerk, B. (2017). Saint Nicholas to Santa: The surprising origins of Mr. Claus. https://news. nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/12/131219-santa-claus-origin-history-christmas-facts-stnicholas/ Accessed 10 December 2017. Harrow, S. (2016). British sporting literature and culture in the long eighteenth century. 1st ed., Routledge, 298. Hovi, T. (2014). Heritage through fiction. Dracula tourism in Romania. Ph.D. thesis. Turun Yliopiston Julkaisuja—Annales Universitatis Turkuensis, Turku. Hughes, D. (2018). Is the Loch Ness Monster real? Sightings, pictures, Nessie theories, myths and facts. https://www.thesun.co.uk/news/2086120/loch-ness-monster-photos-sightingstheories/. Accessed 10 March 2018. ITB. (2018). World travel trends report 2016/2017. Prepared by IPK International on behalf of ITB Berlin—the world’s leading travel trade show. Johnson, K. J. (2009). Love, lust and literature in the late sixteenth century. Electronic Theses & Dissertations. Paper 165, Georgia Southern University. Kearney, A. (2009). Intangible cultural heritage: Global awareness and local interest. In L. Smith & A. Natsuko (Eds.), Intangible Heritage (pp. 209–227). Abingdon: Routledge. Kurin, R. (2004). Safeguarding intangible cultural heritage in the 2003 UNESCO convention: A critical appraisal. Museum International, No. 221–222, 56 (1–2), 66–77. Lenihan, W. S. (1969). Marlowe’s Hero and Leander: Theme and form. Retrospective Theses and Dissertations, Paper 16091. Iowa State University. Lowenthal, D. (2005). Natural and cultural heritage. International Journal of Heritage Studies, 11(1), 81–92. Mellan, J. (2013). 16 destinations for myths, legends and folklore. http://www.femalefirst.co.uk/ travel/16-destinations-for-myths-legends-andfolklore-275803.html. Accessed 10 March 2018. Minchin, E. (2016). Remembering Leander: the long history of the Dardanelles swim. Classical Receptions Journal, 8(2), 276–293. Morton, B. (2008). Nessie is much more than a monster to us. https://www.theguardian.com/uk/ 2008/nov/16/scotland-tourism-loch-ness-monster. Accessed 20 March 2018. Navracsics, T. (2018). Tourism and culture synergies, Foreword. UNWTO, Madrid, https://doi.org/ 10.18111/9789284418978. Norwood, F. (1950). Hero and Leander. Phoenix, Classical Association of Canada, (1) (Summer), 9–20.

Myths and Legends in Destination Tourism Marketing …

13

Oh, H., Fiore, A. M., & Jeoung, M. (2007). Measuring experience economy concepts: Tourism applications. Journal of Travel Research, 46, 119–132. Park, H. Y. (2010). Heritage tourism: Emotional journeys into nationhood. Annals of Tourism Research, 37(1), 116–135. Pearce, S. M. (2000). The making of cultural heritage. Research report. Avrami, E., Mason, R., & Marta de la T. Values and Heritage Conservation. Getty Conservation Institute, Los Angeles, 59–64. Pérez-Aranda, J. R., Guerreiro, M., & Mendes, J. (2015). Are myths and legends used in tourism communication as a resource? The case of Algarve online brochures. Enlightening tourism. Pathmaking Journal, 5(1), 65–99. Razak, N. A., & Romle, A. R. (2016). Representation of native myths and legends and cultural values in the Malaysian tourism promotional brochures. Research Journal of Applied Sciences, 11(11), 1379–1383. Sagona, A., Atabay, M., Mackie, C. J., McGibbon, I., & Reid, R. (eds.) (2016). Anzac battlefield: A Gallipoli landscape of war and memory. Cambridge University Press. SAHO. (2017). Definition of natural and cultural heritage sites. http://www.sahistory.org.za/topic/ heritage-sites. Accessed 10 December 2017. Skagen-tourist.dk. (2018). Santa Claus—myths and facts. https://www.skagen-tourist.dk/ln-int/ toppenafdanmark/santa-claus-myths-and-facts. Accessed 20 March 2018. Spiegelman, W. (2009). Seven pleasures: Essays on ordinary happiness. MacMillan. 207. St. Nicholas Center (2018). Who is St. Nicholas. http://www.stnicholascenter.org/pages/who-is-stnicholas/. Accessed 10 March 2018. Stoleriu, O., & Ibanescu, B. (2014). Dracula tourism in Romania: From national to local tourism strategies. SGEM International Multidisciplinary Scientific Conferences on Social Sciences and Arts. ISBN 978-619-7105-26-1. Tikkanen, A. (2017). Loch Ness monster. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Loch-Ness-monsterlegendary-creature. Accessed 10 March 2018. Tjarks, L. (1981). Tragic fate in Marlowe and Chapman’s Hero and Leander. Brno Studies in English 14. UNESCO. (2018). What is meant by “cultural heritage”? http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/ themes/illicit-trafficking-of-culturalproperty/unesco-database-of-national-cultural-heritagelaws/frequently-askedquestions/definition-of-the-cultural-heritage/. Accessed 03 March 2018. UNWTO. (2012). Tourism and Intangible cultural heritage. Madrid: UNWTO. UNWTO. (2017). Tourism highlights. http://www.eunwto.org/doi/book/10.18111/9789284419029. Accessed 03 March 2018. UNWTO (2018). Tourism and culture synergies, UNWTO, Madrid, https://doi.org/10.18111/ 9789284418978. UNWTO & UNESCO. (2017). Muscat Declaration on Tourism and Culture: Fostering Sustainable Development. Second UNWTO/UNESCO World Conference on Tourism and Culture: Fostering Sustainable Development. Muscat, 11–12 December 2017. Visit Scotland. (2016). New Nessie campaign to inspire more international tourists to visit Inverness & Loch Ness. http://mediacentre.visitscotland.org/pressreleases/new-nessie-campaignto-inspiremore-international-tourists-to-visit-inverness-loch-ness-1345089. Accessed 20 March 2018. Visitfinland. (2018). Meet Santa Claus. http://www.visitfinland.com/article/meet-santa-claus/. Accessed 10 March 2018. Waters, E. N. (1967). Victor Herbert: Romantic idealist. Western Pennsylvania Historical Magazine, 50(2), April. 125–132. Whychristmas.com. (2018). St. Nicholas, Santa Claus & Father Christmas. https://www. whychristmas.com/customs/fatherchristmas.shtml. Accessed 03 March 2018.

14

M. Boz

Witte, W. (2016). Friedrich Schiller. Encyclopaedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/ biography/Friedrich-Schiller. Accessed 10 November 2016. Yuan, W. (2008). The conservation of intangible heritage. ICOMOS 16th General Assembly and International Scientific Symposium, 29 September–04 October 2008, Québec City, Canada.

Mustafa Boz teaches marketing and tourism-related courses such as marketing management, brand management in tourism, destination marketing, consumer behavior, marketing research, and entrepreneurship. He is an expert in sustainable-tourism marketing, cultural tourism, and community-based tourism.

Locals’ Motivations for Recreational Visits to Urban Cultural Heritage Sites: The Seyh Edebali Tomb, Bilecik, Turkey Ay¸se Okuyucu and Mehmet Somuncu

Introduction Heritage and cultural tourism are among the oldest types of travel (Ramires et al. 2018, p. 49). Cultural heritage artefacts, attractions, and activities provide an important motivation for travel and tourism (Richards 2018, p. 12). The cultural heritage issue is discussed in various dimensions in the context of tourism. Some of the major research themes that emerged included motivations for visiting cultural heritage sites, cultural consumption, and the impact of tourism on cultural heritage (Pizam 1978; Egresi and Kara 2018). The cultural capital, protection of the cultural heritage and visitor management are other research themes that emerged (Jimura 2011; Altunel and Erkurt 2015). However, motivation was an important topic in early studies of cultural heritage tourism (Richards 2018, p. 12). Relaxation, escape, knowledge and experience, family togetherness, learning and curiosity, and fun and adventure are major cultural tourism motivations (Özel and Kozak 2012). Heritage and cultural tourists’ motivations are also linked to tourist satisfaction and loyalty. Motivation is also linked with the identity of locals (Richards 2018, p. 12). Locals in the tourism industry are considered to be anyone who is impacted by development positively or negatively (Aas et al. 2005). Thus tourists are distinguished from locals. Tourists and locals have different visions and expectations of the same place (Rye 2011, p. 265). In addition, locals are often studied as service providers and impact receivers rather than recreational and social users of a heritage site (Su and Wall 2017, p. 16). However, locals use the tourist sites for recreational purposes. Therefore, the motivations of locals are as important as those of tourists. However, the literature is extremely A. Okuyucu (B) The Faculty of Sciences and Arts, Bilecik Seyh Edebali University, Bilecik, Turkey e-mail: [email protected] M. Somuncu The Faculty of Languages, History and Geography, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 ˙I. O. Co¸skun et al. (eds.), Heritage Tourism Beyond Borders and Civilizations, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5370-7_2

15

16

A. Okuyucu and M. Somuncu

limited on locals’ motivations for using heritage areas, especially in non-Western countries. Moreover, little tourism research has been done that studies locals as recreational users of cultural and heritage sites in Turkey. For this reason, this study sought to evaluate locals’ motivations for recreational use of urban cultural heritage sites. This study focuses on the Seyh Edebali Tomb in Bilecik, Turkey, which is an urban cultural heritage site used by both heritage tourists and locals for touristic and recreational purposes. The Seyh Edebali Tomb was chosen because it is a place that is used by both tourists and local residents.

Literature Review Let us examine some of the major research themes that emerge from the literature about cultural heritage. The literature on the development of world tourism has examined the effects of tourism on locals, because locals are directly affected by the various pressures created by tourism development (Su and Wall 2017, p. 16). There are many ways to classify the impacts of tourism (Pitkänen and Vepsäläinen 2008, p. 2). However, economic, environmental, and socio-cultural effects are discussed more intensively in the literature. There is a relationship between cultural tourism and economics. Cultural and heritage attractions create income streams. The income derived from tourism also supports the preservation of cultural heritage (Richards 2018, p. 14). Heritage conservation and environmental impacts are high priorities in the literature. Wear and tear, war, graffiti, litter, and pollution are indicated as major problems (Timothy and Boyd 2006, p. 4). Tourists’ perceptions of a heritage site and understanding their motivations, expectations, and behaviour are also important topics in the literature (Poria et al. 2005; Özel and Kozak 2012; Ramires et al. 2018; Murdy et al. 2018). Motivation is also linked with tourists’ satisfaction and intention to return (Chang et al. 2014). As can be seen here, the heritage areas are mostly evaluated from a tourist perspective. In the literature, the relationship between locals and tourists is also studied. Murphy (1985) and Mathieson and Wall (1982) noted the many factors affecting their relationship. These factors include the frequency of encounters, the extent to which they share a common space, the socio-demographic variables of the locals, how long they have lived in the area, the numbers and activities involved, the stage of tourism development, personal benefits from tourism, and seasonality (Bayno and Jani 2016; Zhang et al. 2016; Almeida-García et al. 2016). However, it should not be forgotten that locals are also recreational or touristic users of heritage areas. Not all local residents receive, or only receive, economic benefits from tourism. Heritage areas are seen as a place of relaxation—quiet, natural, green areas that serve as a venue for community reinforcement (Zhang et al. 2016, p. 416). Local residents are also potential users of tourism and heritage resources (Su and Wall 2017, p. 34).

Locals’ Motivations for Recreational Visits to Urban Cultural Heritage Sites …

17

Methodology Study Site The Seyh Edebali Tomb is located in Turkey’s Bilecik province. Bilecik is the place where the Ottoman Empire was founded. Bilecik is located 200 km from Istanbul and 316 km from Ankara (Fig. 1). Bilecik is also close to other developed cities such as Adapazari, Eskisehir, and Bursa. The Seyh Edebali Tomb is located in the city centre of Bilecik and is the most visited destination there, for both visitors coming from other cities and for locals. Seyh Edebali (1208–1326) was the head of the Ahi organisation. He contributed greatly to establishing and developing the Ottoman Empire. Seyh Edebali was also the father-in-law of Osman Bey, founder of the Ottoman Empire. He studied the commentary on the Koran, the Prophet Muhammad’s sayings/deeds, and Islamic law. He also corresponded with famous scholars such as Mevlana Celaleddini Rumi and Hacı Bektasi Veli. He had a dervish lodge in Bilecik. He hosted Osman Bey in this dervish lodge many times. For this reason, Seyh Edebali is known as a founding father of the Ottoman Empire. Seyh Edebali interpreted a dream of Osman Bey. According to him, this dream heralded the establishment of a great empire. His prediction came true. The Ottoman Empire governed territory across three continents for 600 years. Seyh Edebali died in 1326 in Bilecik. When he died, he was 120 years

Fig. 1 Location of the Seyh Edebali Tomb

18

A. Okuyucu and M. Somuncu

old. The Seyh Edebali Tomb was built by Osman Ghazi (Yeniakit 2018). It is visited by many people every year. The tomb was visited by almost 1 million people in 2017. Local people also use this place for recreational and social purposes. The city’s population is 65,548 as of 2017 (TSI 2018). Most residents of Bilecik earned their livelihoods in the agriculture sector until the early 1990s. Bilecik was one of the development priority provinces between 1985 and 1990. Therefore, investment has increased since the 1990s. However, the military and administrative functions in the city have increased over time. The city population has increased since 2007 after the establishment of Bilecik Seyh Edebali University. As a result of these developments, the rural population in Bilecik has decreased, and a structure that emphasised employees in the service sector has emerged (Özgür 1994, p. 182). The increase in urbanisation in Bilecik caused changes in society’s behaviour and expectations. Bilecik residents’ recreational needs and expectations have increased. However, the recreational opportunities and facilities in the city of Bilecik have not developed enough. The number of cafés, restaurants, and stores has increased in recent years. In addition, the municipality has created various indoor-and-outdoor, active-and-passive recreational areas. Pelitözü Pond Park, the Urban Forest, and the Seyh Edebali Tomb and its surroundings are the main outdoor recreation areas in the city. Because the Seyh Edebali Tomb is located in the city centre, it is more accessible than the others. There are not enough district parks, neighbourhood parks, and pocket parks (mini-parks) in Bilecik city. The Seyh Edebali Tomb and the surrounding area are thus important for families because they provide space for outdoor recreation, and because the surroundings of the tomb are wooded and calm. Previously, the tomb and its surroundings were visited primarily for religious reasons. The tomb is still visited for religious reasons, such as to pray, to vow, and attend Islamic memorial services. However, such visits are now made mostly on remembrance days.

Data Collection In this study, a qualitative approach to data collection has been used. This study is based on data from 10 qualitative single interviews. The in-depth interviews were conducted at Seyh Edebali Tomb. The interviewees were residents of Bilecik. Four key questions formed the basic structure of the interviews; they are listed in Table 1. There are also several sub-questions about the motivations for visiting. For example, Table 1 Base questions for interviews Respondents

Interview questions

Local residents

Why are you visiting this tomb? What is your main reason for visiting? What kind of activities do you engage in at the tomb and its surroundings? What do you know about Seyh Edebali? What do you know about the Seyh Edebali Tomb? Do you have any suggestions for improving the tomb and its surroundings?

Locals’ Motivations for Recreational Visits to Urban Cultural Heritage Sites …

19

when locals were asked about their motivations for visiting the tomb, the related subquestions were ‘Who do you come with the tomb with? How long do you spend time here? Why?’ The interviews took place 15–18 August 2018. The primary criterion for the selection of respondents was that they visited the Seyh Edebali Tomb for recreational purposes. Potential respondents were first asked whether they had resided in Bilecik for at least a year. The research objective was then explained, and they were invited to participate. In order to obtain knowledge about the locals’ motivations for visiting, semi-structured qualitative interviews were employed. More general questions such as ‘Why do you visit the Seyh Edebali Tomb and the surrounding area?’ were asked. This question was to ascertain visitors’ motivations. Research questions were read to the participants, and answers were written by the researchers. Only three participants’ interviews were audio-recorded. Each interview lasted about 30–40 min.

Data Analysis The interviews were transcribed and then analysed by the two researchers to illuminate the locals’ motivations. The data collected from interviews were qualitatively analysed. The recorded interviews were transcribed into Microsoft Word. Content analysis was carried out with Microsoft Word software in order to explore the patterns in answers and group them into broader categories of motivation. The coding was carried out based on previous literature reviews on motivations for cultural heritage site use (Zhang et al. 2016; Su and Wall, 2017). This method also helps facilitate the understanding of the motivations.

Results Demographic Profile of Respondents The sample for the semi-structured interviews consisted of 10 residents (Table 2)— six females and four males. More than half (seven respondents) are middle-aged people, and the oldest respondent is 65 years old, while only five of the total sample are above 40 years of age; the youngest is 19 years old. Three of the respondents are private-sector employees, two are employers, and two are students. All of the respondents live in the city centre of Bilecik, but the majority (eight respondents) reached the tomb using their own car.

20

A. Okuyucu and M. Somuncu

Table 2 In-depth interview participants by nationality, age, and gender Abbreviations

Age

Gender

Occupation

R1_65_M

65

Male

Employer

R2_42_F

42

Female

Private sector employee

R3_48_M

48

Male

Public employee

R4_35_F

35

Female

Employer

R5_19_F

19

Female

Student

R6_43_F

43

Female

Housewife

R7_48_F

48

Female

Retired

R8_44_M

44

Male

Private sector employee

R9_37_F

37

Female

Private sector employee

R_10_24_M

24

Male

Student

Locals and Their Motivations for Visiting the Tomb Many local residents visit the tomb almost daily, especially in summer. Table 3 presents the main motivations the respondents gave for visiting. Nine main reasons emerged from the study results. The nine themes support the previous literature on motivation (Zhang et al. 2016; Su and Wall 2017). Seven of the respondents stated that they visited the tomb in order to see the natural and cultural landscape (Fig. 2). Of the 10 respondents, seven came to the tomb to enjoy time with family and friends. Figure 3 shows that many local residents came to the tomb to chat with friends and enjoy free time with family at these simple facilities, such as the tea garden. The interview results also revealed that worship is a popular reason for their visits. Figures 4 and 5 show that many locals came to the tomb to pray. Locals can pray both inside and outside the tomb. The major motivational themes were evaluated in the Table 3 Respondents’ main motivations for visiting the Seyh Edebali Tomb Motivations of Respondent

Frequency

%

Viewing the natural and cultural landscape

7

15.2

Enjoying time with family and friends

6

13.0

Fresh air

6

13.0

Worship

5

10.9

Food

5

10.9

Experiencing the culture and history of the Ottoman Empire

5

10.9

Affordability

4

8.7

Outdoor spaces and green areas

4

8.7

Relaxation

4

8.7

Total

46

100

Locals’ Motivations for Recreational Visits to Urban Cultural Heritage Sites …

21

Fig. 2 View of natural and cultural landscape at the tomb

following sections. The answers of the respondents have been cited and interpreted for each theme.

Viewing the Natural and Cultural Landscape For locals, the natural and cultural landscape at the Seyh Edebali Tomb, including the greenery, the tomb, the historical structures, and the mystical atmosphere, is an important reason to visit. One respondent remarked: I come here because the landscape of this place impresses me. The tomb and historical structures are quite impressive. When you look down from the tomb, the vegetation and mountainous landscape provide a different atmosphere here (R9_37_F).

Another respondent confirms this: It’s the landscape that interests me. There are green and wooded areas. There are also historical and religious buildings. It is a quiet place, and you have many opportunities to think here. You can drink your tea and watch the landscape. Trees and tombs can inspire lots of thought (R7_48_F).

22

A. Okuyucu and M. Somuncu

Fig. 3 A family tea garden around the tomb

Enjoying Time with Family and Friends Crompton (1977; cited by Vuuren and Slabbert 2011) identified seven sociopsychological factors. One of them is strengthening family ties. Travel or recreational activities create an opportunity to strengthen family ties. While traveling or visiting a recreational place, family and friends can engage in activities together. Six participants said that enjoying time with family and friends was an important motivator. As one respondent commented: The area surrounding the Seyh Edebali Tomb is a comfortable place for families. Children have fun outdoors. They play games and run around freely. There is some equipment for games as well, such as table football. Children love playing games with them (R6_43_F).

Along the same lines, another female respondent said: You can sit and chat with your friend, and on the other hand, you can take photos or videos of your children. I think this place is family-oriented, because it is quiet. While your children are playing, you can relax and eat something here. Children can also enjoy nature in the meantime. These days, kids are just spending time indoors. They should spend time outdoors, and they should also appreciate the nature (R9_37_F).

Locals’ Motivations for Recreational Visits to Urban Cultural Heritage Sites …

23

Fig. 4 People are praying outside of the tomb

Fresh Air Most participants cited the fresh air of the site. Six out of 10 respondents stated that fresh air was their main motivation for visiting the Seyh Edebali Tomb. One respondent stated: Fresh air is the essential reason to visit the area. This place is located in the city centre but isolated from the city, so the air is quite clean. It is also a cooler place than the city centre. Therefore, especially in the summer, we come here to cool off and relax (R6_43_F).

Another respondent had similar thoughts about the fresh air: Although we live far away, we come here, especially in the summer. It is tiring to work in indoor air the whole day. Fresh air makes me feel good. I feel more energetic. Because this place is wooded, the air is also clean. Especially in the summer, cool air is an essential motivation for us to come here (R2_42_F).

Worship Worship plays an important role in motivating visitors to come to the Seyh Edebali Tomb. The oldest respondent stated:

24

A. Okuyucu and M. Somuncu

Fig. 5 The symbolic coffin inside the tomb

Seyh Edebali was a great scholar. He enlightened Osman Ghazi. He was also a great wise man. Therefore, local people visit his tomb and pray to his spirit. It provides local people with spiritual enlightenment. There is one memorial day each year. This commemoration day takes place every year on 6 September. At the commemoration day, an Islamic memorial service is held for Seyh Edebali’s spirit, and people pray for him and other martyrs. Medicinal pilafs and grapes are distributed after the Islamic memorial service. A lot of people come from the towns and villages of Bilecik province and join the event on the commemoration day (R1_65_M).

Worship is especially important for the women respondents. R2_42_F, R6_43_F, R7_48_F, and R4_35_F made similar statements about worship. They said that Seyh Edebali was a holy man. They said that they prayed for the spirit of Seyh Edebali and received peace of mind here. According to them, praying in this sacred place makes the prayers come true.

Food Five participants said the opportunity to have a meal at the site was a motivating factor. But these respondents said that the establishments in the area serving food and beverages were too limited. When we asked them, ‘Do you have any suggestions for

Locals’ Motivations for Recreational Visits to Urban Cultural Heritage Sites …

25

improving the tomb and its surroundings?’ they suggested opening more eateries. They stated that restaurants and the like were not suitable for the site. However, participants suggested that a place offering breakfast would be good for the area. One respondent stated: I usually come here to spend time. Sometimes I bring my friends and guests coming from outside the province. The atmosphere here is very nice. The outdoors and the heritage area are good for spending time with family and friends. However, the variety of food and beverages is limited. I think this is the biggest problem with the site. The only food in the area is pancakes. If the variety of food increases, we might spend more time at the site. For example, if there is a place to have breakfast, we can bring our guests here. So they have breakfast and then they can visit the tomb and other structures at the site (R7_48_F).

Experiencing the Culture and History of the Ottoman Empire Five participants described experiencing the culture and history of the Ottoman Empire as an important criterion for visiting the site. For example, one respondent stated: Seyh Edebali is the spiritual founder of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Empire ruled across three continents over 600 years. That is why we visit the Seyh Edebali Tomb. Seyh Edebali heralded the establishment of the Ottoman Empire. He was a saint. He could see the future. Visiting the founding leader of the Ottoman Empire makes us proud (R4_35_F).

Another respondent discussed the foundation of the Ottoman Empire and echoed the previous respondent. This place is where the Ottoman Empire was established. Osman Ghazi was the founder of this great empire. However, Seyh Edebali was guided by him. Therefore, many people visit here. The tomb is quite sacred. There are many sacred tombs in Anatolia. But this tomb is more famous than others. This place has become even more famous in recent years. The television series Resurrection: Ertugrul contributed to this. Ertugrul Ghazi was the father of Osman Ghazi. The television series is about his life. His tomb is in Sogut. Sogut is a district in Bilecik province. After Ertugrul Ghazi died, Osman Ghazi became the leader. Then he founded the empire. Therefore, Bilecik is famous as the city of the foundation (R8_44_M).

Affordability Four respondents said they chose the Seyh Edebali Tomb for its affordable food and tea garden. R1_65_M, R3_48_M, R10_24_M, and R6_43_F noted that the tea garden at the Seyh Edebali Tomb is much less expensive than those in the city. The oldest respondent stated: Prices are cheaper than at businesses in the city. For example, while the price of a tea is 4–5 TL in the city, the price is 1.5 TL at the Seyh Edebali Tomb. The service was also nice, and the place was clean (R1_65_M).

26

A. Okuyucu and M. Somuncu

Outdoor Spaces and Green Areas The green area surrounding the tomb is an important motivation for locals to visit. Although tourists come to visit the tomb itself, locals mostly visit the surroundings of the tomb. The outdoor spaces and green areas surrounding the tomb create a recreational place. Four respondents cited the outdoor spaces and green areas as factors in their decision to visit. As one respondent stated: We usually come here on afternoons and evenings in the summer months. We spend time with my family and friends until 11 p.m. We don’t come on weekends, because it is very crowded. Generally, we do not visit the tomb. We come here in order to spend time in outdoor spaces and green areas. We meet friends and eat something and chat together (R4_35_F).

Another respondent echoed the previous respondent: We always come here. We come more often in the summer than in other seasons. Sitting outdoors relaxes me. This place is also green and quiet. This place also has a mystical atmosphere. When I come here, I put away worldly concerns (R2_42_F).

Relaxation Relaxation and escape are often a strong motivation for visitors. Krippendorf (1987) posits that relaxation is the most important psychological drive. In our study, four respondents cited relaxation as their motivation to visit the tomb. All four were women. This concurs with Andreu et al. (2005, p. 9), whose study shows that female tourists’ motives to relax were significantly stronger than that of males. A woman respondent in our study said: This place is quite a relaxing place. I don’t need to do anything here. There is no noise, no responsibility, and so on. I have no leisure time when I’m at home. Cleaning, cooking, ironing, and so on—never-ending work. It feels good to rest here (R6_43_F).

Conclusion Motivation is an important factor in understanding visitor behaviour, experiences, and satisfaction. Heritage sites are used by tourists and local residents. Especially in urban heritage areas, local residents use the same place, and for the same purposes (Su and Wall 2017, p. 17). Identifying the reasons why locals visit the Seyh Edebali Tomb allows destination managers and planners to understand their interests and expectations and thus to better design tourism and recreational products and services. Thus in this study, we examined the motivations of locals visiting the

Locals’ Motivations for Recreational Visits to Urban Cultural Heritage Sites …

27

Seyh Edebali Tomb. Ten qualitative interviews were conducted. The Seyh Edebali Tomb is a touristic heritage site. However, the research results show that this heritage site serves as a recreational park for locals. According to the results obtained from qualitative interviews, the natural and cultural landscape of the Seyh Edebali Tomb plays an important role in motivating locals to visit. They enjoy time with family and friends at the tomb and the surrounding area. Meeting with family and friends was the second most often cited motivator for local visitors. Fresh air was also important. Locals no longer visit the tomb and its surroundings for religious purposes as frequently as they once did. Nowadays they mostly visit the tomb for religious purposes only on commemoration days. The availability of food at the site motivates locals to visit. However, the locals stated that the variety of food and beverages on offer should be increased. There are only two eateries in the area, and they only cook local pancakes. Seyh Edebali is acknowledged as the founding father of the Ottoman Empire. Locals visit the site in order to experience the culture and history of the Ottoman Empire. The affordability of the site is another motivator for local visitors. Because cafés, tea gardens, and other establishments in the city centre charge high prices, this place is more attractive to visitors. There are outdoor spaces and green areas at the site, which locals enjoy using; four respondents cited spending time outdoors as a good form of recreation. The last motivator for locals to visit is to relax at the site. It is considered an ideal place to escape from the city. Locals recognise the site as a tourism asset. The Seyh Edebali Tomb and the surrounding areas are a convenient, affordable, and hospitable place for locals. Locals usually visit the site in the afternoons and early evenings. They also visit on weekdays, because the site is crowded on weekends, when many tourists come. However, as observed, very few people come to the site to pray during the day. The Seyh Edebali Tomb and the surrounding areas are used intensively in touristic and recreational ways by both tourists and locals. Because the two groups tend to use the site at different times, potential conflicts between them have thus far been minimal. However, several respondents complained about crowding on weekends. If respondents’ complaints are neglected, this may cause problems in the future. Locals like the calm they experience at the site. They are also satisfied with the facilities and services. Several respondents called for better facilities for seniors, such as escalators or lifts to improve access to the tomb. In addition, they said, more chairs and benches could be made available at the site. This would provide visitors with more places to rest. Tourism development both supplies economic opportunities to and satisfies the recreational and social needs of local people. Heritage sites in urban areas are gaining importance along with tourism development. Therefore, understanding the locals’ evaluations and expectations is important in managing the area. This information on local visitors’ motivations and patterns of use could serve practical purposes for the managers of the Seyh Edebali Tomb.

28

A. Okuyucu and M. Somuncu

References Aas, C., Ladkin, A., & Fletcher, J. (2005). Stakeholder collaboration and heritage management. Annals of Tourism Research, 32(1), 28–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2004.04.005. Almeida-García, F., Peláez-Fernández, M. Á., Balbuena-Vázquez, A., & Cortés-Macias, R. (2016). Residents’ perceptions of tourism development in Benalmádena (Spain). Tourism Management, 54, 259–274. Altunel, M., & Erkurt, B. (2015). Cultural tourism in Istanbul: The mediation effect of tourist experience and satisfaction on the relationship between involvement and recommendation intention. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 4, 215–221. Andreu, L., Kozak, M., Avci, N., & Cifter, N. (2005). Market segmentation by motivations to travel. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 19(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1300/J073v19n01_01. Bayno, P. M., & Jani, D. (2016). Residents’ attitudes on the contribution of cultural tourism in Tanzania. Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change, 16(1), 41–56. https://doi.org/10.1080/14766825. 2016.1211663. Chang, L. L., Backman, K. F., & Chih Huang, Y. (2014). Creative tourism: A preliminary examination of creative tourists’ motivation, experience, perceived value and revisit intention. International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality, 8(4), 401–419. Egresi, I., & Kara, F. (2018). Residents’ attitudes to tourists visiting their mosques: A case study from Istanbul, Turkey. Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change, 16(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10. 1080/14766825.2016.1192182. Jimura, T. (2011). The impact of world heritage site designation on local communities A case study of Ogimachi, Shirakawa–mura, Japan. Tourism Management, 32, 288–296. Krippendorf, J. (1987). The holidaymakers: Understanding the impact of leisure and travel. London: Heinemann-Butterworth. Mathieson, A., & Wall, G. (1982). Tourism: Economic, physical and social impacts. London: Longmans. Murdy, S., Alexander, M., & Bryce, D. (2018). What pulls ancestral tourists ‘home’? An analysis of ancestral tourist. Tourism Management, 64, 13–19. Murphy, P. E. (1985). Tourism A community approach. London: Methuen. Özel, Ç. H., & Kozak, N. (2012). Motive based segmentation of the cultural tourism market: A study of Turkish domestic tourists. Journal of Quality Assurance in Hospitality & Tourism, 13(3), 165–186. Özgür, E. M. (1994). Bilecik ˙Ilinde farklı karakterde iki s¸ehir: Bilecik ve Bozüyük [Two different characteristic city in Bilecik Province: Bilecik and Bozüyük]. Ankara Üniversitesi Türkiye Co˘grafyası Ara¸stırma ve Uygulama Merkezi Dergisi [Journal of Ankara University Research Center of Turkish Geography], 3, 179–193. Pitkänen, K., & Vepsäläinen, M. (2008). Foreseeing the future of second home Tourism: The Case of finnish media and policy discourse. Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism, 8(19), 1–24. Pizam, A. (1978). Tourism impacts: The social costs to the destination community as perceived by its residents. Journal of Travel Research, 16, 8–12. Poria, Y., Reichel, A., & Biran, A. (2005). Heritage site management motivations and expectations. Annals of Tourism Research, 33(1), 162–178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2005.08.001. Ramires, A., Brandãob, F., & Sousa, A. (2018). Motivation-based cluster analysis of international tourists visiting a World Heritage City: The case of Porto, Portugal. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 8, 49–60. Richards, G. (2018). Cultural tourism: A review of recent research and trends. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 36, 12–21. Rye, J. F. (2011). Conflicts and contestations. Rural populations perspectives on the second homes phenomenon. Journal of Rural Studies, 27, 263–274.

Locals’ Motivations for Recreational Visits to Urban Cultural Heritage Sites …

29

Su, M., & Wall, G. (2017). Residents’ recreational and social use of and perspectives on aWorld Heritage Site: Temple of Heaven, Beijing, China. Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change, 15(1), 15–36. Timothy, D., & Boyd, S. (2006). Heritage tourism in the 21st Century: Valued traditions and new perspectives. Journal of Heritage Tourism, 1(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/17438730608668462. TSI. (2018). Turkey Statistical Institute. Retrieved March 12, 2018, from Turkey Statistical Institute: https://biruni.tuik.gov.tr/medas/?kn=95&locale=tr. Vuuren, C. V., & Slabbert, E. (2011). Travel motivations and behaviour of tourists to a south African resort. International Conference on Tourism & Management Studies. I, pp. 295–304. Algarve: Book of Proceedings I. Yeniakit. (2018). Yeniakit Newspaper. Retrieved May 10, 2018, from Yeniakit Newspaper: https:// www.yeniakit.com.tr/kimdir/%C5%9Eeyh_Edebali. Zhang, X. N., Ryan, C., & Cave, J. (2016). Residents, their use of a tourist facility and contribution to tourist ambience: Narratives from a film tourism site in Beijing. Tourism Management, 52, 416–429.

The Gamification of Museum Attractions: The Perspective of Visitors Majd Tayara and Hakan Yilmaz

Introduction The role of attractions in a destination forms only a single part of a complex network of tourism service providers within the scope of the broader tourism product; nevertheless, attractions are frequently utilized as key products in marketing activities (Leask 2003). It is crucial that tourism marketers reach potential tourists before they leave home or make their decision regarding cultural attractions. For this reason, marketers in the tourism industry have to classify their cultural attractions and promote various attractions to every respective segment (Kim et al. 2007). They also have to plan how their cultural attractions should appeal to potential tourists or even actual cultural tourists (Kantanen and Tikkanen 2006). Although not always implemented, it has traditionally been ideal for museums, as an important cultural attraction, to focus on the authenticity of the objects displayed and to provide areas where visitors can celebrate the past (Tufts and Milne 1999). The mission of museums was mainly to educate and enlighten their audience, to preserve more than to entertain. Museums were institutions of knowledge, and their main goal was to impart a scientifically based understanding of the past (Edson and Dean 1994). Because of the radical changes of the information age, digital technologies now constitute a significant role in tourist experiences. Hence, museums have ceased to be product-centered organizations and have become audience-led in their approaches; therefore, museums are seeking new ways to offer enjoyment to their visitors, and they are expected to be more engaging tourist attractions (Black 2005).

M. Tayara (B) Graduate School of Social Sciences, Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey e-mail: [email protected] H. Yilmaz Tourism Faculty, Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 ˙I. O. Co¸skun et al. (eds.), Heritage Tourism Beyond Borders and Civilizations, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5370-7_3

31

32

M. Tayara and H. Yilmaz

To meet the goal of being audience-centered, however, museums are required to develop strong relationships that can create interactions between their displayed collections and audiences. At this point, gamification can be considered a new innovative tool that can serve this purpose. As Koivisto and Hamari (2018) state, gamification is useful in and applicable to such activities where continuity and long-term participation are necessary to achieve lasting results. Gamification is a very new strategic tool that allows companies to create strong and unique links with stakeholders (Zichermann and Linder 2013). Gamification attempts to promote the desired behavior within the game elements through rewards, competition, and scores, and owing to its motivational role, gamification provides interaction and increasing loyalty (Yılmaz and Co¸skun 2016). Nonetheless, after clarifying what gamification is and is not, as well as the concept of attractions, this chapter attempts to explore the use of gamification as a tool to enhance the attractiveness of museums from the perspective of visitors.

Tourism Attractions Attractions have been considered a core element of the tourism industry and a fundamental reason that tourists visit a particular destination and participate in specific activities (Richards 2002). In other words, attractions are the main motivators for tourists or visitors to consume tourism products. In the absence of attractions, there other tourism services would not be necessary, and tourism would not even have come into existence (Swarbrooke 2002). Attraction can be thought of as a psychological phenomenon that is the driver by which an object draws the attention of visitors (Chang and Lai 2009). At the same time, tourists themselves can sometimes become attractions (MacCannell 1976). However, the term tourism attraction in its broader meaning was originally defined as “all of those elements of ‘non-home’ place that draw directionary travelers away from their homes” (Lew 1987). Boorstin (1964) suggested that the term “tourist attraction” dates back to 1862 and that the concept of attraction is essentially modern. He disparaged tourist attractions as being a diminished cultural form with little intrinsic value yet also being a magnificently saleable touristic product. Gunn (1988) discussed how since classical times, attractions have had a “pulling power” and how this magnetism does not only appeal to the interest and preferences of tourists or visitors but also mirrors the quality of the design, the development and the operation of attractions. MacCannel (1976) has defined the concept of an attraction as “an empirical relationship between a tourist, a sight and a maker—a piece of information about a sight”. As suggested by this definition, while attractions can exist without the presence of significant sights, it is stressed that they must be consumed through sightseeing (Richards 2002). Furthermore, the word “appeal” has also been used by different scholars, such as Kolotouchkina and Seisdedos (2016), to refer to the values and offerings of destinations.

The Gamification of Museum Attractions: The Perspective …

33

Later, by reformulating MacCannell’s definition, Leiper (1990) provided a definition from a systematic perspective using systematic terms and replaced the “sight” with Gunn’s (1988) notion of a “nucleus”. He asserted that the tourist attraction system comprises three elements—a tourist or human element, a nucleus or central element and a marker or informative element—and this system exists when these elements are connected to each other. Despite the fact that the definitions given above have made a significant contribution to the concept of attraction, they are insufficient in covering all types of tourist attractions. For this reason, several attempts have been made by different authors from social science disciplines to produce various ways of classifying attractions (Mehmeto˘glu and Abelsen 2005). For instance, Lew (1987) divided attractions into three broad categories: the ideographic perspective, the organizational perspective, and the cognitive perspective. Gunn (1988) proposed a classification in terms of length of stay that consists of short-stay touring circuits and longer-stay focused attractions. Leiper (1990) emphasized the connection between attractions and tourist motivation. He used the term “nuclear mix” to describe a hierarchical set containing “primary”, “secondary” and “tertiary” attractions that have different values for tourists. He defined nuclei from the standpoint of motivations that stimulate the visitation of tourists. A primary nucleus is an attribute belonging to a place, sight, location, or cultural element that can play an influential role in the previsit decisions of tourists regarding a particular destination. A secondary nucleus is an attribute that is known before visitation but that does not carry a significant role in the itinerary, and a tertiary nucleus is an attribute that is discovered after arriving at the desired destination. Caccomo and Solonandrasana (2002) stressed the link between length of stay and satisfaction and suggested that attractions can possibly be classified into only two types: “D-attractions”, which are known as “discovery” attractions, and “E-attractions”, which refer to “escape” attractions. Swarbrooke (2002) split attractions into four main groups: natural environment, human-made buildings that were not originally designed for touristic purposes, human-made buildings that were fundamentally planned to attract visitors, and special events. Inskeep (1991) proposed that attractions can be distinguished into three types: natural attractions, cultural attractions, and unique attractions. Typologies of attractions, by all means, might change throughout time and become broader in scope, yet culture will certainly manifest itself as the most important and common element.

Cultural Attractions As evidenced by the development of the Grand Tour in the 16th century, experiencing culture has always been the main objective of traveling (Towner 1985). However, since the 20th century, tourism has become the culture itself and has ceased to be the objective of tourism (Urry 1990). As discussed by Richards (1996), one of the

34

M. Tayara and H. Yilmaz

essential drivers that stimulate the increase of cultural visits is the fact that there are more cultural attractions to visit. Regardless of the fact that Leiper (1990) has asserted that attractions do not literally ‘attract’ visitors, attractions obviously offer a focused insight into much tourist activity and are fundamental tools for tourism destinations that are engaged in a competitive struggle for tourist business (Richards 2000). On the other hand, MacCannel (1976) claimed that cultural attractions have become “must-see sights.” Additionally, because culture is considered crucial in attracting tourists and visitors to many destinations, cultural attractions have been taken into account as an important tool in cultural policy and in efforts to promote cultural development. Sites such as the Topkapı Place Museum in Istanbul, the Louvre in Paris and the British Museum in London, which attract thousands of visitors to their displays of culture, are arguably considered the basic markers for tourists. Furthermore, attractions such as the pyramids in Egypt, the Ottoman mosques in Turkey and the Eiffel Tower in France can sometimes reflect an entire culture. These attractions have become significant icons that represent national or even international identity and consciousness, but they are not only touristic objects to be gazed upon by those who travel (Richards 2001a). To further the understanding of cultural attractions, it is important to overview the typologies provided by different scholars to describe the diversity of these attractions (Richards 2001b). For example, Polácek and Aroch (1984) developed a typology that consists of seven groups: settlements of significance for tourism; open spaces for hiking and hunting; natural phenomena; cultural and historical monuments, such as museums; artistic and cultural manifestations, including folklore and customs; traditional events with international participation; and other aspects, such as ethnicity. Hall and McArthur (1993) considered elements such as sites, landscapes, townscapes, artifacts and buildings to be heritage attractions. Richards (2001b) proposed a typology in the context of form and function where the dimension of cultural purposes ranges from “educational uses of culture to culture as the basis of entertainment” accordingly, ranging in time from the past to the present. For instance, in his typology, the traditional cultural attractions that are largely based on the cultural and heritage products of the past include museums, monuments, and art galleries.

Museums as a Cultural Tourist Attraction Generally, the development of cultural monuments, especially museums, is a milestone in the production of experiences. Museums play a particularly significant role in destinations because they act as “factories of meaning” and enhance the cultural experience of their visitors (Rooijakkers 1999). Like other formal cultural institutions, museums are inseparable from cultural mosaics, including popular and informal culture. Museums are part of a developing and interrelated cultural life that promotes the discovery of culture as a whole in a diversity of manifestations (Kotler 2001). Museums have become important vehicles not only for attracting visitors and tourists but also for encouraging inward investments in urban areas (Richards 2001b).

The Gamification of Museum Attractions: The Perspective …

35

Ambrose and Paine (2006) stated that museums can provide a wide range of cultural and social benefits for their locations or destinations. In real terms, museums have the ability to inspire people and improve their quality of life. In addition, museums are able to play an important role in creating a sense of identity and community harmony for the areas in which they are located. Whether from the cultural or economic point of view, however, museums constitute a substantial proportion of the cultural attractions that can serve as attractors for a tourist destination. As McPherson (2006) has described, today’s museums are not only accepted as information providers but also as tourist attractions that must provide their visitors with an experience. To become successful tourist attractions, however, museums have to participate in the tourism industry like every other commercial attraction.

Gamification Deterding et al. (2011) state that the term gamification first emerged in 2008 and is defined as the integration of game mechanics into a nongame environment in order to create a game-like feeling. As the definition implies, gamification consists of four dimensions, namely, a game, a nongame context, elements and design (Yılmaz and Co¸skun 2016). According to Yılmaz and Co¸skun (2016), these dimensions relate gamification to games, not to play, as play is considered a category that contains but is different from games. Houtari and Hamari (2012) refer gamification to a process of improving service with affordances for gameful experiences to support the user’s overall value creation. Zichermann and Cunningham (2011) suggest gamification for establishing a brand, engaging users, and influencing users’ behavior by using game mechanics in an area other than traditional gaming contexts. According to Caillois (1961), gamification is still contested, and many games and user experience designers have come up with other terms, such as gamefulness and gameful design. However, it is important to distinguish between various terms that might be related or named in the context of gamification. One of these is the distinction between playing (paidia) and gaming (ludus), as those represent two different types of activities. Playing involves free-form, non-rule-based and expressive actions, whereas gaming represents a rule-based and goal-oriented form of playing. Established research theories on games and gaming consistently confirm the previous definition, as they characterize ludus through explicit rule systems and outcomes (Zimmerman and Salen 2004; Juul 2005). To provide more details about the game concept, McGonigal (2011) suggests four fundamental features a game must include so it can fit in this classification of ludus and paidia: • Clearly defined goals that provide players with a purpose for playing the game; • Consistently defined rules that represent the limitations and boundaries of how to achieve the given goals;

36

M. Tayara and H. Yilmaz

• A steady feedback system that guarantees the players that the goals can be reached if the game rules are respected; • The free will of accepting participation in the game and thus following its rules to reach the goals. Nonetheless, Seaborn and Fels (2015) discuss that sometimes it is not easy to identify game elements. Therefore, it is necessary that a fully-fledged game and a gamified system that uses some game mechanics—but does not use them to create a whole game—are subjectively differentiated. However, gamification differs from games for the purpose of play. Gamification focuses on changing players’ behavior and engagement with their environment and coplayers, who may also be fellow customers or service providers, in an effort to achieve meaningful interaction and engagement and potentially achieve rewards. In contrast, games focus more on entertainment and pleasure (Xu et al. 2016).

Gamification Framework From a systematic point of view, the model MDA (Mechanics-Dynamics-Aesthetics) can explain game design (Hunicke et al. 2004). Furthermore, Hunicke et al. (2004) define game mechanics as game tools that describe the specific components of the game, which usually include achievements, collections, badges, etc. Game dynamics connect the player with the system by providing, for example, the freedom to make choices, progression to the next level, and teamwork or competition with other players. Aesthetics refer to the emotions and feelings of users while they are playing the game. Aesthetics can be created when the dynamic and mechanic elements work together properly. Elements such as challenge, fantasy, discovery, expression, narrative, and fellowship can be examples of aesthetics. Hunter and Werbach (2012) proposed a hierarchical framework of game elements that consist of three categories: dynamics, mechanics and components (see Fig. 1). These categories are arranged in descending order of abstraction, where each element of mechanics should be in accordance with dynamics and each component should be connected with mechanics. Dynamics are the basic elements, such as progression, relationships, constraints, narratives, and emotions, that constitute a gamified system. Mechanics define more specific actions within the structure of gamification. Mechanics can direct players toward the desired behavior and engage them in the game process, and they contain elements such as feedback, chances, resource, acquisition, win states, transactions, competition, challenges, cooperation, and rewards. Components are the least abstract and closest elements to the real gaming process. Gamification systems include 15 components: badges, combat, gifting, levels, collections, teams, points, virtual goods, content unlocking, leaderboards, social graphs, avatars, quests and achievements (Hunter and Werbach 2012).

The Gamification of Museum Attractions: The Perspective … Fig. 1 A Hierarchical framework of game elements (Hunter and Werbach 2012)

37

Dynamics

Mechanics

Components

Motivation is a core topic in gamification because gamified systems are implemented to change behavior toward wanted and desirable activities. Motivation in the context of gamification consists of two complementary approaches. First, extrinsic motivation focuses on applying gamified elements into a nongaming context to stimulate external motivation. Second, game thinking and motivational design have a positive influence on intrinsic motivation because of an internal desire to play (Ryan and Deci 2000). As Ryan and Deci (2000) state, assignments that enhance the intrinsic motivation fall under a hedonic context and are theorized to improve the learning outcomes of the users, whereas extrinsic motivation “is viewed as a person being driven to complete the task to achieve some other outcome, such as earning a discount as a reward after completing a mandatory task.” Extrinsic rewards may be more effective at altering behavior in some contexts, whereas intrinsic rewards may be more effective in other contexts. However, it is worth noting that extrinsic motivation should not be considered weaker than intrinsic motivation (Landers et al. 2015), and both intrinsic and extrinsic motivations need to be considered to develop a meaningful gamified experience (Xu et al. 2016). Extrinsic gaming motivators usually include elements such as points, badges, collecting, gifting, reinforcement, feedback and achievements (Zichermann and Cunningham 2011). According to the self-determination theory, intrinsic rewards comprise three groups: relatedness, autonomy, and competence (Ryan and Deci 2000). Relatedness refers to the connection and interaction between the player and users (Schell 2008). Messages, blogs, chats, groups, and social network connections are generally representative elements of relatedness (McGonigal 2011). Autonomy relates to the desire to take action and have control in the game, including controlling privacy and using an avatar. Competence often includes elements that describe the challenging situation in the game and motivate the players’ will to achieve the goals. The progress bar, leaderboard, and levels can be considered examples of the competence factor (McGonigal 2011; Schell 2008).

38

M. Tayara and H. Yilmaz

Gamification in Tourism Gamification has been used in a wide range of fields and applications, such as educational purposes (Kim et al. 2018), the health industry (Cafazzo et al. 2012), business training (Barata et al. 2013), marketing campaigns (Lucassen and Jansen 2014) and tourism. However, gamification is not very novel for the tourism industry, and it is possible to find several applications, such as the earning of miles in a frequent flyer program, that are frequently used in tourism, particularly by airlines (Yılmaz and Co¸skun 2016). However, gamification can be used by tourism organizations for marketing, sales and customer engagement (external application) or in human resources, training, productivity enhancement, and crowdsourcing (internal application). Gamification can also benefit tourism marketing by raising brand awareness, enhancing the tourist experience, engaging visitors, improving customer loyalty, managing employees and providing entertainment (Xu et al. 2016). Chaffey and Ellis-Chadwick (2012) propose gamification as an important trend for marketing. In this regard, Yılmaz and Co¸skun (2016) consider gamification as a new tool of marketing communication in tourism. Vargo and Lusch (2008) introduce the customer’s role in value cocreation. Neuhofer et al. (2012) further state that the tourist and the service providers cocreate tourism experiences. The extent of consumer integration in value creation relies on how tourism enterprises allow tourists to play a role in the development of new products (Houtari and Hamari 2012). Within service systems, tourists interact with tourism companies for experience cocreation. Gamification can be applied in two ways in these systems. The concept can be used either to encourage customer engagement and enhance the experience or to improve employee engagement within an organization (Houtari and Hamari 2012). Moreover, we have recently witnessed the utility of games and gamification for cultural heritage purposes, such as enhancing museum visits and the teaching and learning experience regarding historical values (Anderson, et al. 2010). However, when gamification is under consideration for implementation in tourism enterprises, and more specifically in museums, in order to develop cocreated and engaging experiences, interactivity becomes an important factor. Kim et al. (2018) conclude that the characteristics of games are goals, rules, and interactions. Kim et al. (2018) further describe goals as the desired outcomes for the user who plays the game. Rules are predefined agreements and promises for playing the games, and interactions refer to mutual and reciprocal actions between a player and another player, a group of players and another player group, a player and the game and a player group and the game. Interactions through games include control, competition, conflict, the perception of an event, challenge, reaction, passion, and the game results (Rogers 2017).

The Gamification of Museum Attractions: The Perspective …

39

The Gamification of Museum Attractions The developments in mobile communication technologies, together with the growth in the number of mobile devices and the usage of the internet, have pushed the tourism industry to take advantage of these technologies and develop applications, as many other industries have (Yılmaz and Olgaç 2016). This, in turn, has brought along new ways of considering cultural enjoyment from the perspective of visitors. As tourism is a dynamic industry, a lack of planning and the implementation of new technologies in the information age can be considered a weakness, particularly for cultural attractions such as museums. This might even lead to the wasting of resource interpretation. Accordingly, it is vital that museum managers keep pace with the new emerging technologies in order to reach a greater number of visitors, then gain their attention and meet their needs. In addition, utilizing new communication technologies can also allow museums to enhance visitor engagement and interaction and offer their visitors a more active role to play. Museums have to change the way they approach their visitors and transform them from one-off users into visitors who perceive themselves as active participants engaging with the collections and works in the museum (Black 2012). In other words, this process is about transforming them from being “visitors” to being “participants” to guarantee that their experience is enjoyable and providing interaction, whether between visitors and the collections that are displayed or between the visitors themselves. Nevertheless, as new museums are seeking to be more engaging in their approaches, new communications technologies and, more particularly, gamification have become remarkable tools owing to their enjoyable and engaging natures. At the core of gamification, there is the engagement with and enjoyment of the gameful process of activities outside of games (Koivisto and Hamari 2018). By offering such experiences, gamification aims to capture users’ attention. However, where the attraction of museums is concerned, the term interaction becomes a keyword to describe the relationship between museums and their visitors, which gamification has the ability to provide. By using a well-designed process and deploying appropriate game elements, gamification can serve as an effective tool for creating an interactive tourist experience. For instance, the “Capture the Museum” app was developed for a museum so that visitors can use their smartphones to explore the collections and solve exhibit-related puzzles. The game allows users to play with a specific time restriction and in a multiplayer mode so they can play in groups (Fernandes et al. 2018). In this example, while the time pressure and problem-solving elements of the game bring challenges as well as interactions with the displayed works, the multiplayer mode offers social interactivity between the users. To further emphasize the significance of gamification as a tool for enhancing the attraction of museums from the viewpoint of visitors, the term “prosumers” can be utilized. Co¸skun and Yılmaz (2016) point out the evolution of consumers in the tourism industry and state that the developments in communication technologies have increased the rate of the metamorphosis of consumers into prosumers. Laconically, prosumer refers to the dedifferentiation between the producer and consumer.

40

M. Tayara and H. Yilmaz

Having said that gamification has the ability to blur the relationship between producers (museums) and consumers (visitors) and to create meaningful interactivity. For example, visitors play games offered by museums for cultural purposes to complete the levels and get rewards such as discounts or free admission tickets; by playing the game, or consuming the experience that is offered, they are, however, producing new products for themselves.

Conclusion Tourism attractions are a prerequisite for the tourism industry, and they are the core, indispensable elements that pull visitors or tourists toward a specific destination. Museums, as attractive cultural institutions, have a significant impact on destinations owing to their cultural and educational purposes. However, in the 21st century, museums have witnessed an important switch, ceasing to be only collections-centered organizations and becoming audience-focused in their approaches. That said, they are now considered a main place for leisure activities. This has led museums to seek new methods and strategies to not only inform audiences about culture and the past but also provide interactive and enjoyable experiences. The use of communication technologies to visit and explore museums will certainly help visitors improve their museum experiences. Using interactive communication technologies, particularly gamification, in museums can encourage museum visitors to become more engaged and immersed and can help them obtain information about artifacts more effectively, whether in a previsit period or even a during-visit period. Moreover, such technologies have the ability to enhance the attractiveness of museums from the visitor perspective. The philosophy of gaming is an intrinsic phenomenon that can be found frequently in our daily life, yet we often do not realize it. People labor for years, and they are ultimately rewarded with a holiday or a visitation to a particular destination. Furthermore, gamification is the systematic and gamified form of this process. Nevertheless, from a marketing point of view, the marketing communication strategies of tourism enterprises, particularly of museums, that are well designed by gamification enable their users to have an enjoyable and engaging experience and increase the users’ motivations. With the rapid development of communication technologies, however, the behavior and expectations of visitors and tourists have evolved accordingly. Incorporating gamification into museums’ strategies can both stimulate the attraction of visitors and offer visitors an active role to play throughout their experience. Additionally, in a correctly designed scenario, collaboration opportunities can be created between museums and their different stakeholders. Information and communication technology is growing rapidly, and the internet is becoming an indispensable part of our lives. Especially given the scope of upcoming 5G technology, new interaction modes such as object-object and human-object that

The Gamification of Museum Attractions: The Perspective …

41

have the capability of reshaping industries, including the tourism industry, will be used more effectively in practice (Yılmaz and Olgaç 2016). It is unavoidable that new emerging technologies such as 3D printing, virtual reality, and augmented reality will also bring new opportunities for museums. Having said that, museums can hold interesting and unique values, though they will be unlikely to maintain their attractiveness unless they choose innovative and creative methods to transfer these values to new generations. Therefore, the use of gamification for cultural purposes, as an innovative and interactive technology, will be both effective and efficient. Lastly, the main goal of this chapter has been to explore the usage of gamification as a tool to increase the attraction of visitors regarding museums. For future research, the effect of gamification as a tool to enhance the attraction of museums from the perspective of visitors can be empirically conducted. Hopefully, this chapter can constitute a substantial reference for the respective researchers or museum professionals to enhance museums’ attraction and experiences.

References Ambrose, T., & Paine, C. (2006). Museum Basics. Oxon: Routledge. Anderson, E. F., McLoughlin, L., Liarokapis, F., Peters, C., Petridis, P., & Freitas, S. d. (2010). Developing serious games for cultural heritage: a state-of-the-art review. Virtual Reality, 14(4), 255–275. Barata, G., Gama, S., Jorge, J., & Goncalves, D. (2013). Engaging engineering students with Gamification. In Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Games and Virtual Worlds for Serious Applications (VS-GAMES). Poole: IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/vs-games.2013. 6624228. Black, G. (2005). The engaging museum. Oxon: Routledge. Black, G. (2012). Transforming museums in the twenty-first century. London and New York: Routledge. Boorstin, D. (1964). The Image: a Guide to Pseudo-events in America. New York: Harper and Row. Caccomo, J. L., & Solonandrasana, B. (2002). Réflexions autour du concept de l’attraction touristique: Analyse et taxonomie. Téoros, 21(3), 68–71. Caffazo, J., Casselman, M., Hamming, N., Katzman, D. K., & Palmert, M. R. (2012). Design of an mHealth app for the self-management of adolescent type 1 diabetes: A pilot study. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 14(3), 70. Caillois, R. (1961). Man, play and games. Chicago: University of Illinois Press. Chaffey, D., & Ellis-Chadwick, F. (2012). Digital marketing, strategy, implementation and practice (5th ed.). UK: Pearson. Chang, H. H., & Lai, T.-Y. (2009). The Taipei MRT (Mass Rapid Transit) tourism attraction analysis from inbound tourists’ perspectives. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 26(5–6), 445–461. Co¸skun, ˙I. O., & Yılmaz, H. (2016). An Introduction to Consumer Metamorphosis in the Digital Age. In E. Sezgin (Ed.), e-Consumers in the era of new tourism (pp. 1–12). Singapore: Springer. Deterding, S., Dixon, D., Khaled, R., & Nacke, L. (2011). From game design elements to Gamefulness: Defining “Gamification”. In MindTrek’11 Proceedings of the 15th international academic MindTrek conference: Envisioning future media environments (pp. 28–30). Tampere: ACM. Edson, G., & Dean, D. (1994). The handbook for museums. London: Routledge.

42

M. Tayara and H. Yilmaz

Fernandes Vaz, R. I., Fernandes, P. O., & Rocha Veiga, A. C. (2018). Interactive Technologies: How Digital Installations and Media are Enhancing the Visitors’ Experience. In J. M. Rodrigues, C. M. Ramos, P. J. Cardoso, & C. Henriques (Eds.), Handbook of research on technological developments for cultural heritage and eTourism applications (pp. 30–53). Hershey PA: IGI Global. Gunn, C. (1988). Vacationscape: Designing tourist regions. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Hall, M., & McArthur, S. (Eds.). (1993). Heritage management in New Zealand and Australia: Visitor management, interpretation and marketing. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Houtari, K., & Hamari, J. (2012). Defining gamification: A service marketing perspective. In MindTrek’12 Proceedings of the 16th International Academic MindTrek Conference (pp. 17–22). Tampere: ACM. Hunicke, R., Leblanc, M., & Zubek, R. (2004). MDA: A formal approach to game design and game research. In Proceedings of the Challenges in Games AI workshop, 19th nationl Conference of Artificial Intelligence (pp. 25–29). California: AAAI Press. Hunter, D., & Werbach, K. (2012). For the Win: How game thinking can revolutionize your business. Philadelphia: Wharton Digital Press. Inskeep, E. (1991). Tourism planning: An integrated and sustainable development approach. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Juul, J. (2005). Half-real: Video games between real rules and fictional worlds. London: MIT Press. Kantanen, T., & Tikkanen, I. (2006). Advertising in low and high involvement: Four cases. Tourism and Hospitality Research, 6(2), 99–110. Kim, H., Cheng, C.-K., & O’Leary, J. T. (2007). Understanding participation patterns and trends in tourism cultural attractions. Tourism Management, 28(2007), 1366–1371. Kim, S., Song, K., Lockee, B., & Burton, J. (2018). Gamification in learning and education. Switzerland: Springer. Koivisto, J., & Hamari, J. (2018). The rise of motivational information systems: A review of gamification research. International Journal of Information Management, 45(2019), 191–210. Kolotouchkina, O., & Seisdedos, G. (2016). The urban cultural appeal matrix: Identifying key elements of the cultural city brand profile using the example of Madrid. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 12(1), 59–67. Kotler, N. (2001). New ways of experiencing culture: The role of museums and marketing implications. Museum Management and Curatorship, 19(4), 417–426. Landers, R. N., Bauer, K. N., Callan, R. C., & Armstrong, M. B. (2015). Psychological Theory and the Gamification of Learning. In T. Reiners & L. C. Wood (Eds.), Gamification in education and business (pp. 165–186). Switzerland: Springer. Leask, A. (2003). The nature and purpose of visitor attraction. In A. Fyall, B. Garrod, & A. Leask (Eds.), Managing visitor attractions (pp. 5–15). Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Leiper, N. (1990). Toursit attraction systems. Annals of Tourism Research, 17, 367–384. Lew, A. A. (1987). A framework of tourist attraction research. Annals of Tourism Research, 14, 553–575. Lucassen, G., & Jansen, S. (2014). Gamification in consumer marketing—Future or fallacy? Procedia—Social and Behavioral Sciences, 148(25 August 2018), 194–202. MacCannell, D. (1976). The tourist: A new theory of the leisure class. London: Macmillan. McGonigal, J. (2011). Reality is broken: Why games make us better and how they can change the world. New York: Penguin. McPherson, G. (2006). Public memories and Private Tastes: The shifting definitions of museums and their visitors in the UK. Museum Management and Curatorship, 21(1), 44–57. Mehmeto˘glu, M., & Abelsen, B. (2005). Examining the visitor attraction product: A case study. Tourism Analysis, 9(4), 269–284. Neuhofer, B., Buhalis, D., & Ladkin, A. (2012). Conceptualising technology enhanced destination experiences. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 1(1–2), 36–46. Polácek, M., & Aroch, R. (1984). Analysis of cultural sights attractiveness for tourism. The Tourist Review, 39(4), 17–18.

The Gamification of Museum Attractions: The Perspective …

43

Richards, G. (1996). Cultural tourism in Europe. Wallingford: CAB International. Richards, G. (2000). Cultural Tourism: Challenges for Management and Marketing. In W. C. Gartner & L. W. David (Eds.), Trends in outdoor recreation, leisure and tourism (pp. 187–195). Wallingford: CAB International. Richards, G. (2001a). The development of cultural tourism in Europe. In G. Richards (Ed.), Cultural Attractions and European Tourism (pp. 3–30). Wallingford: CAB International. Richards, G. (2001b). The Experience Industry and the Creation of Attractions. In G. Richards (Ed.), Cultural attractions and european tourism (pp. 55–70). Wallingford: CAB International. Richards, G. (2002). Tourism attraction systems. Annals of Tourism Research, 29(4), 1048–1064. Rogers, R. (2017). The motivational pull of video game feedback, rules, and social interaction: Another self-determination theory approach. Computers in Human Behavior, 73(2017), 446–450. Rooijakkers, G. (1999). Identity factory South-East. Towards a Flexible cultural leisure infrastructure. In D. Diane, & v. Annemoon (Eds.), Planning Cultural Tourism in Europe. A Presentation of Theories and Cases (pp. 101–111). Amsterdam: Boekman Foundation. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 54–67. Schell, J. (2008). The art of game design. Burlington: Morgan Kaufmann Publishers. Seaborn, K., & Fels, D. I. (2015). Gamification in theory and action: A survey. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 74(2015), 14–31. Swarbrooke, J. (2002). The development and management of visitor attractions. Woburn, USA: Reed Educational and Professional Publishing. Towner, J. (1985). The grand tour: A key phase in the history of tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 12(3), 297–333. Tufts, S., & Milne, S. (1999). Museums: A supply-side perspective. Annals of Tourism Research, 26(3), 613–631. Urry, J. (1990). The tourist gaze: Leisure and travel in contemporary societies. London: Sage. Vargo, S. L., & Lusch, R. F. (2008). Service-dominant logic: Continuing the evolution. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 36(1), 1–10. Xu, F., Buhalis, D., & Weber, J. (2016). Serious games and the gamification of tourism. Tourism Management, 60(2017), 244–256. Yılmaz, H., & Co¸skun, ˙I. O. (2016). New Toy of Marketing Communication in Tourism: Gamification. In E. Sezgin (Ed.), e-Consumers in the Era of new tourism (pp. 53–71). Singapore: Springer. Yılmaz, H., & Olgaç, S. (2016). Mobile Communication and Applications in Tourism. In E. Sezgin (Ed.), e-Consumers in the Era of new tourism. Singapore: Springer. Zichermann, G., & Linder, J. (2013). The Gamification Revolution: How leaders leverage game mechanics. New York: McGraw Hill Professional. Zichermann, G., & Cunningham, C. (2011). Gamification by design: Implementing game mechanics in web and mobile apps. Sebastopol: O’Reilly Media. Zimmerman, E., & Salen, K. (2004). Rules of play: Game design fundamentals. London: MIT Press.

Effects of Participation on Place Attachment in Diaspora Tourism of Circassians Living in Turkey Ufuk Çevik and Semra Günay Akta¸s

Introductıon “Every time the full moon comes out, wherever you will be, and here we, let’s look at the full moon. Let’s communicate with the full moon. Let Tha (God in Circassian) and the full moon help us to not forget each other and to come together again.” Circassians looked to the full moon and prayed to Tha during the period between 1864 and the early 1990s. They lived trying to protect their identities in diaspora so that one day they could reunite with their relatives and their homeland in Caucasia. After nearly 300 years of fighting with the Russians, on May 9, 1864, Circassians once again joined the Xodz War in Sochi, now a Russian holiday destination and onetime location of the Winter Olympics. They lost the war, after which Russia exiled the Circassians from Caucasia to the Balkans and Anatolia, where the Ottoman Empire needed fresh blood for its army. Considering the 19th century’s opportunities, this exile was tragic for the Circassians. Approximately 1.5 million people spent months crossing the Black Sea, stowed in ships like fish. Those exiled accounted for approximately 90% of the total Circassian population (Pap¸su 2005: 10). Individuals from the same families and ancestral lines boarded any ships they could find and landed at different ports. Almost every family was torn apart. Those who reached ports were quite fortunate in a sense, as thousands in exile lost their lives during the journey and their bodies were thrown into the Black Sea. During the Circassian exile, considered one of the largest mass population movements in modern history, blood was shed—like the sea. Those waiting as death groaned at the shore boarded the old ships that were already over capacity. Shipmen used to allow too many passengers so they could receive more money. Therefore, sinking ships were often seen having not traveled far. Today, Circassian elders refuse U. Çevik (B) · S. G. Akta¸s Faculty of Tourism, Department of Tourism Management, Anadolu University, Eski¸sehir, Turkey e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 ˙I. O. Co¸skun et al. (eds.), Heritage Tourism Beyond Borders and Civilizations, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5370-7_4

45

46

U. Çevik and S. G. Akta¸s

to eat fish, believing that the fish of Black Sea ate their ancestors, and they will eat their ancestors if they eat fish. According to the Russian consulate in Trabzon, in May 1864, 30,000 Circassians lost their lives from hunger and disease. If there was a sign of sickness on the ships, a person would be immediately thrown into the sea (Demokrat Haber 2018). As the result of losing the war against the Russians in the Balkans in 1877–78, approximately 500 thousand Circassians who were placed in the Balkans faced a second migration to Anatolia and to the Middle East. Today, Circassians predominately live in Turkey, Russia, Jordan, Syria, Israel, Lebanon, the U.S., and in various European countries. According to the results of the 2010 general census, 719,000 Circassians live in the Russian Federation territory. However, it is difficult to estimate the exact number of Circassians living outside of Caucasia (Besleney 2016). Because population censuses do not include questions about ethnic origin, it is impossible for us to determine the exact number of Circassians living in Turkey. Although the Federation of Caucasian Associations refers to the presence of 7 million North Caucasians in the majority of Circassians, Pap¸su (2005) indicated that approximately 3 million Circassians live in Turkey, which agrees with the European Union’s number (Ba¸syurt 2005). The main purpose of this study is to determine the impact of diaspora tourism on place attachment. For this, research was conducted on Circassians living in Turkey and their participation in diaspora tourism to the North Caucasus. To reveal the effects of diaspora tourism on place attachment, first it was necessary to determine the reasons for individuals’ participation in it, then whether their experience had an impact on place attachment. If there was an effect, the study aimed to determine how it was achieved. Another aim of this study was to determine the circumstances under which the effects of diaspora tourism on place attachment occurred.

Diaspora and Diaspora Tourism The word “diaspora” comes from the Greek word speiro (scattering, dispersing), with the verb dia (along, away) as the prefix. Even though diaspora is used to describe people, ethnic groups and religious communities who, for various reasons, are scattered outside the geographies they refer to as the “motherland,” there is no definitive consensus on the definition (Besleney 2016). For example, in 1998, at a conference in Paris, the expression “diaspora” was used to describe 38 different groups (Safran 2004). According to Remenncik, ethnic groups who live far from their homelands are included in the concept of diaspora, although the vast majority have maintained some ties to these countries, even if symbolic or emotional, for at least a few generations (Remenncik 2007).

Effects of Participation on Place Attachment in Diaspora Tourism …

47

Shulz and Hammer defined diaspora as something more than an ethnic minority that emerged from immigration. “Transnational existence” is required to be considered a diaspora, as well as a “time” away from a homeland and an ongoing situation (Shulz and Hammer 2003). While Safran listed certain criteria that a community must fulfil in order to be considered a diaspora, James Clifford (1994) developed the concept of semi-diaspora based on Safran’s 1991 description. According to Clifford, “the existence of the diaspora today cannot be explained only by the desire to return to the motherland, as Safran said. In addition to the feeling of return and belonging, the pain of the experience of alienation, the problems encountered in the adaptation process and the common consciousness of dissent have an important influence on the formation of diasporas.” The most basic criterion for identifying a group as diaspora is its commitment to the members’ homeland and, therefore, to their own cultural identity. In fact, each diaspora is also a “cultural” diaspora. The collective identity of the motherland and nation leads individuals to act in accordance with their own interests (Cohen 1997). According to Cohen, the Kurds and Sikhs are the first groups that come to mind based on the concept of an “imagined homeland.” Cohen also defines “ideal types” for diaspora and classifies diasporas like Jews, American Blacks, and Armenians as “victim diaspora”; Britons as “imperial diaspora”; Lebanese and Chinese as “merchant diaspora”; Indians working under a contract, Turks, Italians, and North Africans in northern Europe as “worker diaspora”; and Caribbean, Sindhis, Parsis, Romans, and Muslims as “diaspora, which is not related to a particular geography” (Besleney 2016). According to Cohen’s classification, the Circassian exile can be regarded as a “major traumatic event” and can be classified as “victim diaspora.” According to Coles and Timothy (2004), visits to the motherland occur as a result of the movement of individuals who feel a spiritual bond to ancestral lands. In addition, diaspora and tourism overlap in many cases, including: (a) travel to the homeland (b) research on family trees and roots (c) visits by homeland citizens to diaspora communities. Duval (2004a) considered the strong relationship between homeland visits and transnational or diaspora groups when examining the motives of “belonging and longing” rather than politics, such as “being able to influence the political movements in the homeland and the current country” or “orienting to the goals.” Despite the positive aspects of living in a different country, motivational factors such as nostalgia, longing for people and places, or seeking or strengthening cultural and social identities lead to visits to the homeland. Visits to lands from where people have migrated has been the subject of various research, such as “individual heritage tourism,” “ethnic tourism,” “visiting friends and relatives tourism,” “origin tourism,” and “diaspora tourism” (Kaygalak et al. 2015). Ting and McKercher (2016) attempted to classify Chinese participating in diaspora tourism and formed five tourist categories: “verifier,” “researcher,” “reconnect,” “distance, “and “independent.”

48

U. Çevik and S. G. Akta¸s

Roberts (2012), after attempting to define diaspora tourism based on his study of Caribbean immigrants living in the United States who visited the Caribbean islands, considered the potential socio-economic contributions of diaspora tourism and proposed what he considered necessary strategies. In his work “Nostalgia and Utopia,” Argın (2003) described tourism as “a distant home.” According to him, diaspora is created by a mandatory exile situation dependent on economic, historical, social, and political developments. It is hard to believe that people who were sentenced to exile do not long for the homeland to which they once belonged. At this point, tourism, in contrast to exile, conforms to the definition of a “distant home.”

Place Attachment The concept of place not only defines a physical area, but also has a psychological aspect (Günay 2017). Gieryn stated that a place has three components: geographical settlement, physical structure, and the value and meaning attributed to the place (Gieryn 2000). Being more than just a physical environment, a geographical area is also a feature that includes interaction and communication with the environment in which it is located. In addition, a place has a meaning in terms of both individuals and groups (Gustafson 2001). In generally accepted approaches about place, there is more emphasis on its stability and continuity than its alteration characteristics (Gieryn 2000; Gustafson 2006). In the context of environmental psychology, a place is defined as the relationships constructed based on individual psychology and people’s social interactions within surroundings (Smallone 2005). As SOJA noted (1996), a place cannot be considered in the absence of people’s feelings and its meaning to them. A place is also a phenomenon that can be interpreted, emulated, perceived, sensed, and imagined. It is clear that a place cannot be identified without people’s psychological connections, otherwise the evaluation would be inadequate (Ujang ve Zakariya 2015: 710). While place attachment refers people’s emotional, affective, conceptual, and behavioral ties towards a specific location, in most studies, emotional bonds were given priority (Gustafson 2001). Likewise, Günay referred to the “emotional bonds that attract people to places they grew up in or experienced” to define the concept of sense of place, which is also used to distinguish the character of a place and region (Günay 2017). Günay also defined place as people’s attached fields due to family ties, history, and culture. In addition, Günay stated that ground dependency is conceptualized as an opportunity for various purposes and activities, the first of which is tourism. Studies that explain the relationship between tourism and place attachment are new and quite limited. Huang, Haller, and Ramshaw studied second-generation immigrants living in the United States, their attachment to their homelands, and the relationship with tourism. The authors found that there was a connection between the

Effects of Participation on Place Attachment in Diaspora Tourism …

49

stay duration and visit frequency to attachment (Huang et al. 2013). Another study was conducted by Li and McKercher on the Chinese diasporic communities living in the U.S. and Canada. Ting and McKercher suggested that there are four main issues affecting diaspora tourism: individuals-communities’ migration decisions; the form of migration; place attachment; the motivations of those who live in diaspora to participate in diaspora tourism; and the cultural identity of these individuals and communities. Ting and McKercher stated that, depending on how long an individual has lived in diaspora, place attachment experience and the individual’s motivation to participate in diaspora tourism will differ (Ting and McKercher 2016). One of the factors affecting place attachment is culture phenomenon. Culture is a process in which an individual learns and adapts behaviors from his or her own culture. When there are different cultures and ethnic communities trying to survive in diaspora, in addition to learning culture, development of diaspora identities is also important. From this point of view, the extent to which diasporic identities can be integrated into the societies in which people live, how they’ve assimilated in this society, or how much they can learn about their own culture is important. All three processes will produce different results in terms of place attachment and these differences are among the factors that affect participation in diaspora tourism. Each of the above-mentioned approaches toward place attachment may have significant and distinct differences. Place may differ depending on different geographical scales. Meanwhile, an individual’s attachment to a place may differ for physical, social, and psychological reasons. In terms of diaspora tourism, Ting considers the issue in three dimensions (Ting 2015): (a) Strong attachment to existing, habitual places (b) Mixed attachment to the place in which they live and the homeland from where their ancestors came (c) Strong attachment to homeland.

Methodology Qualitative research was applied in the study. From 30 semi-structured interviews, the researchers extracted the following information: family migration; history of Circassians living in Turkey; individual identities; place attachment; homeland visits; and the effects of homeland visits on individual identities and place attachment. Participants were selected based on the snowball method, and interviews were conducted with 30 people in 10 different provinces. There are over 19 h of interviews, with both video and audio recordings. The participants were asked 21 questions derived from the following main topics: migration history, perceptions of individual identities, place attachment, home visits, and changes resulting from visits. To gain more in-depth information, an additional 21 questions were asked based on the interviewees’ responses. Participants were third to seventh generation Circassians (mainly fifth generation) and between the ages of

50

U. Çevik and S. G. Akta¸s

16 and 69. There were 20 males and 10 females. In terms of education and economic status, it was noted that Circassians from Turkey who participated in diaspora tourism fell above the Turkish average.

Findings While 21 participants described the reasons for their ancestral emigration from the Caucasus as exile, six of them stated that, in addition to exile, their ancestors were subjected to genocide. Two participants described the events as mandatory migration and exile. One participant said his family voluntarily emigrated from Caucasia, but he described it as an exile for other Circassians. In terms of location, 33.3% of the participants stated that they knew exactly where their ancestors were exiled from. Conversely, 56.7% of the participants did not know the exact location but were familiar with region. Three participants (10%) were not familiar with this subject. Twenty-five participants (83.3%) stated that their families were torn apart during exile and now live in different Turkish provinces and in different countries (such as Syria, Jordan, and the Russian Federation). Nine of these 25 participants knew exactly where their relatives live, while 16 of them stated that they “had not met, but read or heard about them.” Only one participants knew his family departed from the Caucasus in 1857. While others did not specify an exact date, they accepted the year as 1864. Moreover, eight participants stated that their ancestors first arrived in the Balkans from the Caucasus, then immigrated to Anatolia following the Ottoman-Russian War in 1877. Twentyeight participants stated that their families arrived in Anatolia by sea, while two participants said that they traveled by road through Georgia. While 50% of the participants identified themselves as Circassians, 26.7% viewed themselves as both Circassians and citizens of the Republic of Turkey. Individual participants also referred to themselves by the following identities: “Turkish citizen and a Circassian,” “Circassian nationalist,” “Caucasian,” “Circassian and an Abkhaz,” “Circassian and a Muslim,” and “Muslim and a Circassian.” Seventeen participants (56.7%) expressed that they had no mental confusion in the past about their Circassian identity, while 13 respondents (4.3%) stated that they were confused by it. For example, Janberd Dinçer, a 48-year-old dentist, said “My grandfather had problems getting his last name in 1934. He wanted our original Circassian family name, but he could not use it because it was not Turkish and so it was against to law. My name is not Turkish, it is Circassian. When I was in primary school, a teacher repeatedly beat me up. I wanted to give my son a Circassian name in 2000. The population directorate didn’t accept it. I am a stubborn person, so my son lived without an ID until they accepted the name I wanted for him.” The problems associated with this topic are mostly noticed in school, along with friendships and misunderstandings with those who are not Circassian. For example, Kabardey Emel, a 44-year-old architect, said of her past, “I felt it at school. In Mara¸s,

Effects of Participation on Place Attachment in Diaspora Tourism …

51

we hesitated to say ‘I am a Circassian’. We were perceived as communists by the Turks.” Meanwhile, Shewdjen Gokhan stated, “The culture is totally different. It is not possible for them to understand you if you behave like yourself, and you cannot understand them either.” The first steps to form cultural identity take place in the family environment. Family structure is important for individuals to learn their traditions, values, and language, which are effective for forming their identities. In this sense, questions were asked about the participants’ family and ethnic structures. As such, 73% of participants’ parents were Circassians. Regarding participants’ marital status, 46% were married and 54% were single. Eleven of the married participants had Circassians spouses, two married Caucasians, and one had a Turkish husband. Ten of the 16 single or widowed participants were willing to marry a Circassian, five would marry a Caucasian, and one respondent stated that ethnic origin was not important to him. Among the important issues related to Circassian culture, the participants were asked what they thought about the “xabze” (tradition and customs, lifestyle), which 40% defined as “the constitution of Circassian life” or “the philosophy of Circassian life.” These participants said that they see themselves differently from the society in which they live, and the society views them differently as well. Yuksel Dincer, a 45-year old manager, said, “One day, the security officer in the 15-floor building we live in noted that we escort every guest to the parking area and said, ‘This is the first time in my life I’ve seen something like this with your family. Who are you and why are you so different?’” Participants also expressed that they felt sad because they find it difficult to apply xabze in their social relationships with those who are not Circassians. For example, Filiz Zabun, a 53-year-old retired officer, said “Xabze is culture, ceremony, nonwritten rules to be followed. It has a place in my life. Respect, love, tolerance. I’m happy to live according to xabze, but I can behave differently if one is not Circassian.” Language is another factor that is effective in forming identity. Among the participants, 34% did not know Circassian, while 53% responded that they know the language well, including reading and writing. The language fluency rate increased with middle-aged and older participants. Mufide, a 58-year-old housewife, said that being able to speak the language made her happy and she felt better as a Circassian, noting she “speaks in Circassian, even with my chickens.” Participants were asked about their homeland perceptions and the places they felt more attached to before their visit to the Caucasus. In their responses, 67% stated that they accepted the Caucasus as their homeland, while 23% accepted Turkey. Two of the participants stated it is meaningless to differentiate the terms “homeland and country,” noting “Only one place can be someone’s country or homeland.” One participant declared Ossetia to be her homeland. Similar to the place attachment question, while % percent of the participants expressed that they felt attached to Caucasia, 23.3% felt attached to both Turkey and Caucasia, 16.7% to Turkey, and 6% to both Turkey and Caucasia. We asked about their visits to the Caucasus over the last ten years. Thirteen participants (43.3%) said they visited once, while eight (26.7%) visited twice, two (6%) visited three times, and seven (23.3%) more than five times. While 29 of the

52 Table 1 Motivations of visits

U. Çevik and S. G. Akta¸s Aim of visit

Number of participants

Exploring his roots, seeing the places where their ancestors lived

12

Feeling the homeland, explore

9

Wondering how people live today in there

7

Seeing today’s conditions

8

Visiting friends and relatives

6

Participating to 21 May exile events, festivals

7

Participating to youth camps

2

Doing research for settlement

2

30 participants expressed that they wanted to visit again, only one, Beslan, a 72-year old retired academic, said that once was enough for him. Compared with Turkish tourists’ travels abroad, the visit durations and total expenditures were higher for trips to the Caucasus. Participants stated that they spent at least five nights in the Caucasus, with some stays extending up to two months. The motivations behind the visits were also different and participants had more than one motivation as shown in Table 1. All of the participants felt that they enjoyed their visits and benefited from their experiences. For example, Sinaxo ¸ Ozcan, who is 41 years old and self-employed, expressed his first impressions and the effect on him as follows: Everything was very nice for me from the first moment to the last. On the way, the native person who picked me up from Krasnodar said, “We will soon pass by the banks of the Kuban River.” This was a very special, sacred moment for me. All of our lives, we grew up hearing Kuban was known as a river dyed red with the blood of our ancestors in wars. However, we never saw it before. For me, the excitement of seeing Kuban in real life is not a typical emotion that can be expressed. Before then, you were inside, but you weren’t. Now you’re inside, you see and you live it. It is a very different feeling to see the nation, the state, the people, to see the Circassian flag sway on the parliament building. I spent half an hour watching this. You don’t have an opportunity to do so here (in Turkey). Here, you can enjoy the pleasure of living your culture (as much as you can), but you have no way of living as a people, a state, and a nation. Most of the participants thought that the xabze and the language in the Caucasus had a significant impact on everyday life, which is not the same in Turkey. Yuksel Dincer, a 45-year old manager who lives in Istanbul and previously spoke of her experience with the security there, summarized her hospitality experience in the Caucasus as follows: In Maikop, we had lunch at a cafe opened by returnees from Turkey. We were in a group of 28 people, most of whom were children, and we were having trouble with local food. There was not a lot of customers in the cafe except us, and I felt

Effects of Participation on Place Attachment in Diaspora Tourism …

53

like a native guy, around the age of 55 to 60, was staring at us. When we finished our long dinner and asked for the bill, we were told that the bill was paid. When I asked how, who, and when, they said that the person who was sitting alone had just paid our bill and left. I ran right after him and caught him at his car. I told him that we were overwhelmed by his gesture, and he said, “You overwhelmed me first. You have come all the way from Turkey to see your country, please do not begrudge me from buying you a meal.” Participants’ answers varied to the question of “whether they had any experiences that they perceived as negative that disturbed them during their visits.” Nine participants responded “no.” However, other participants reported the following negative experiences: police-military controls (4); heavy drinking, differences in lifestyle (4); Russian language and Russian influence (4); lack of physical facilities, lack of hygiene (4); lack of religion (2); and other (3). Memet Yildiz, a 66-year old retiredbusinessman, reported, “I traveled in Maikop and the entire Caucasus. I stayed in Maykop for a while to trade, perhaps to settle down. One day, we bought a car from the bazaar for my neighbor. The seller was also Circassian. The following morning, my neighbor woke up and saw that the car he bought had no tires. We went to the police. They found the thief. He was ex-owner of the car who sold it to my neighbor. How could such a thing happen, for God’s sake! It does not fit into Circassian xabze, nor does it fit into humanity.” Regarding identity consciousness, while 50% of the participants defined themselves as Circassians before their visits and 26.7% defined themselves as “Circassians and Turkish citizens,” after the visits, the percentage of participants who identified first as Circassian increased to 63.3% and while 20% considered themselves “Circassians and Turkish citizens.” Therefore, in total, approximately 6% of participants said that they felt differently about who they were as a result of the visits. Among participants who previously perceived themselves as Circassians, 60% indicated they had developed identity consciousness, while 40% indicated no change, noting their “Circassian identity was already at the peak, so nothing can increase it.” From what we observed, no visitor expressed that the trips had a negative impact on identity consciousness. Based on the participant’s responses, we observed the visits’ influence on place attachment. While 77% of participants expressed their commitment to the Caucasus increased, 40% of the participants’ indicated a decrease in their commitment to Turkey. Only one participant stated that his commitment to the Caucasus was diminished, while one participant said that his commitment to Turkey increased. Sevda, 53-year old housewife, said, “When I went there, I felt as if I had been on vacation in Turkey for 53 years and had returned home.” Oya, a 19-year old student, expressed, “I felt like I came home, and believe or not, I didn’t expect that to happen before my visit.” Janberd Dinçer, a 48-year-old dentist, said, “Every time I return from the homeland to Turkey, I feel depressed and believe me, it takes me a certain amount of time to return to normal.” However, Mehmet Yıldız, a retired-businessman who expressed his increased commitment to Turkey, said, “In fact, you can see the best examples of Circassian

54

U. Çevik and S. G. Akta¸s

xabze in Turkey than anywhere else in the world. We have to live and develop Circassians culture here.” When asked if participants who visited the homeland also made concrete changes in their lives, 67% stated that they made changes to their future plans after their visits. For example, Tobike Soner, a 37-year old engineer, said, “I bought a house and land. I’m planning to go back home step by step.” (Note: One month ago, Soner returned and settled in Kabardino-Balkaria) Chetaw Omer, 30 years old, said, “I realized that I have to learn Russian. After returning, I began Russian courses.” Hayati Ak, 42 years old, said, “I want to marry someone from there.”

Conclusıons In this study, it was determined that Circassians living in Turkey had several different motives for participating in diaspora tourism: exploring roots; seeing the places where ancestors lived; experiencing and exploring the homeland; curiosity about how people live there today; observing today’s conditions; visiting friends and relatives; participating in May 21 exile events and festivals; and participating in youth camps. During the interviews, it was observed that diaspora tourism is a phenomenon that has developed over the last 30 years. The main reason stems from when the Soviet Union dissolved in 1990, and the “fantastical Caucasus” finally became an accessible place for Circassians living in diaspora. Tourism movements that began between diaspora and their homelands after 1990 are interrupted from time to time, yet continue to increase. During this period, some negative socio-economic developments in diaspora, plus positive and negative factors in bilateral relations between Turkey and the Russian Federation, have affected Circassian visits. The Chechnyan conflict in the 1990s that also impacted the Circassian region and changes in the visa policy pursued by the Russian Federation are also among the negative factors. Compared to other studies related to diaspora tourism, Circassians participation in this type of travel has some unique characteristics. While in other examples this phenomenon has impacted first and second generations living in diaspora, for Circassians, the impact is more on the fourth generation and later. The oldest Circassians living in diaspora after exile represent the third generation today. Within this generation, it was observed that they were firmly attached to the culture (xabze) instilled by their families, and that they believed that the xabze should be kept alive without any changes and is best represented in Turkey. In addition, for the majority of their lives, this generation of Circassians has accepted the Caucasus as a “place that cannot be reached.” Some of them also referred to the Caucasus as the fatherland. Younger generations (fourth and above) began to establish relationships with homeland because of the Russian Federation’s relatively open door policies starting in the 1990s. Reciprocal visits, increasing opportunities through 21st century communication technologies, and finding relatives after 130 years and longer have shown that the homeland is not an “inaccessible place.”

Effects of Participation on Place Attachment in Diaspora Tourism …

55

For later generations, the forgotten language might at first be considered a negative. However, it has been observed that when people do not know the language, their visits to the Caucasus are so much more impactful. They realize what they lost in language and culture while living in diaspora, which in a sense, has a positive effect on homeland attachment.

References ˙ Ütopya Arasında, Birikim Yayınları. Argın, S. ¸ (2003). Nostalji Ile Ba¸syurt, E. (2005). Avrupa’da Azınlık, Türkiye’de Ço˘gunluk (A minority in Europe, the Majority in Turkey). Aksiyon 517. Besleney, Z. E. (2016). Türkiye’de Çerkes Diasporasının Siyasi Tarihi, ˙Istanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları. Clifford, J., (1994). Diasporas, cultural anthropology, c. 9. No. 3. Cohen, R. (1997). Global diasporas: An introduction. London: UCL Press. Coles, T., & Timothy, D. J. (2004). Tourism, diasporas and space. London: Commonwealth eastern Caribbean migrants in Toronto. Global Networks, 4(1), 17. Duval, D. T. (2004a). Linking return visits and return migration among. Gieryn, T. F. (2000). A space for place in sociology. Annual Reviews Sociology, 463–496. Gustafson, P. (2001). Roots and routes: Exploring the relationship between place attachment and mobility. Environment and Behavior, 33(5), 667–686. Gustafson, P. (2006). Place attachment and mobility, multiple dwelling and tourism: Negotiating place, home and identity. Günay, S. (2017). Turistik alanlarda Mekan Tasarımı. Basılmamı¸s Ders Notları: A. Ü. https://www.demokrathaber.org/guncel/cerkesler-soykirim-taninsin-anadilde-egitim-hakkiverilsin-h102084.html Huang, W., Haller, W., & Ramshaw, G. P. (2013). Diaspora Toırism and homeland attachment: an exploratory analysis. Tourism Analysis, 188, s. 285–296. Kaygalak, S., Dilek, S. E. & ve Günlü E. (2015), Diaspora Turizmi: Balkanlara Seyahat Edenler Üzerine Sosyolojik Bir Ara¸stırma, Ege Akademik Bakı¸s, Cilt 15, Sayı 3, s. 435–443. Pap¸su, M. (2005). Çerkes Dillerine Genel Bir Bakı¸s, Nart, 3. Remenninck, L. (2007). The blackwell enyclopedia of sociology. United Kingdom: Blackwell Publishing. Roberts, S. (2012). Assessing the potential of diaspora tourism. Journal of Eastern Caribbean Studies, Bridgetown 37. Routledge. Safran, W. (2004). Diaspora, identity and religion: New directions in theory and research. New York: Routledge. Schulz, H., & ve Hammer, J. (2003). The Palestinian diaspora: Formation of identities and politics of homeland. London: Routledge. Ting, L. T. (2015). The role of diaspora tourism in affecting the Diasporic individuals in place attachment: A study of Chinese diaspora in North America. Yayınlanmamı¸s Doktora Tezi: The Honk Kong Polytechinc University. Ting, L., & McKercher, T. (2016), Diaspora tourism and well-being: A Eudaimonic view. Annals of Tourism Research, 63. Ujang, N., & ve Zakariya, K. (2015). The notion of place, place meaning and identity in urban regeneration. Procedia—Social and Behavioral Sciences, 170, 709–717. http:// demokratikcerkeshareketi.org/.

Tour Guides as Sustainable Cultural Heritage Tourism Interpreters: The Case of the Odunpazari Historical Urban Site Merve Kalyoncu and Gökçe Yüksek

Introduction Heritage is a wide term that incorporates history, nature, sociocultural elements and the environment. Heritage involves historical buildings, archeological sites, ancient cities, natural landscapes, biodiversity, and past and current cultural, knowledge and living experiences. Heritage tourism is evaluated as a type of cultural tourism. Cultural tourism is defined as the social aspects of people and generally attempts to introduce cultural values such as customs, historical places and traditional behaviors (Cooper et al. 1993). Intangible and tangible cultural heritage features are common subjects of both types of tourism. The term heritage tourism began in the 1990s when tourism marketing was segmented into niche markets (Cooper et al. 1993). According to Fowler (1992), as a result of changing technology and socioeconomic conditions, heritage and authenticity became popular issues to protect. Tourists demand to see more nostalgic items and places. In guided tours, interpretation gains importance because of the need to express cultural heritage. The narrative role of tour guides has been argued by some researchers, and in the 1980s, it gained an academic perspective (Holloway 1981; Cohen 1985; Pearce 1984; Pond 1993; Bras and Dahles 1999; Bradt 2000; Ap and Wong 2001; Cohen 2002). Generally, it is stated that tour guides impress destination’s image upon tourists and represent the culture that they guide (Ap and Wong 2001; Dahles 2002). Tour guides have a critical role in linking destinations that they describe and tourists who have taken part in guided tours (Cohen 2002).

M. Kalyoncu (B) · G. Yüksek Faculty of Tourism, Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey e-mail: [email protected] G. Yüksek e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 ˙I. O. Co¸skun et al. (eds.), Heritage Tourism Beyond Borders and Civilizations, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5370-7_5

57

58

M. Kalyoncu and G. Yüksek

According to Tilden (1977: 6), interpretation is an educational process that intends to explain meanings and relationships with the usage of original ideas by one’s own experience and by visual media, rather than only interacting with pure information. Tour guiding involves not only providing information but also supplying a stimulation so that tourists can link their experiences and the narration of the tour guide. Individuals, groups and local cultures have unique perspectives that inform interpretation and behaviors about the meaning of local resource processes and how such resources change over time (Tilden 1977). Odunpazarı was selected to be on the Tentative List of UNESCO World Heritage Sites on 13th April 2012. The inclusion of any country, land, city, area or other legal limit of territory in one of these temporary lists does not imply that the World Heritage Committee, the World Heritage Center, or the UNESCO Secretariat share any of the opinions reflected here. The subject of this study is the investigation of the sustainability and current circumstances of the Odunpazarı Historical Urban Site according to the interpretation of the tour guides.

Literature Review The role of tour guides is complex and consists of numerous “sub roles” (Holloway 1981: 385–386). Relevant studies by Zhang and Chow (2004: 83) recorded almost 16 different roles that are now attributed to tour guides. “Tourist guides are the essential bridge between the host destination and its visitors” Ap and Wong state, adding that the tour guide is “the key front-line employer in the tourism industry”, as tour guides are completely in charge of the tourists during the tour as well as their satisfaction with all the services about the tourist destination (Ap and Wong 2001: 551). According to Boyle and Arnott (2004: 75), the primary aim of a tour guide is to facilitate the experiences of tourists in an interesting and culturally sensitive way. Weiler and Ham (2001) emphasize that the impact of a quality presentation on tourist satisfaction. However, tour guides are still underdeveloped and inadequately supported human resources, despite their widely accepted benefit to and significant roles in the tourism system (Dioko and Unakul 2005: 16). Cohen states that interpretation as a term means intercultural mediation and translation of foreign and unknown elements of a host’s culture into cultural aspects that are familiar to tourists (Cohen 1985: 15–16). According to Moscardo (in Jafari 2000: 327), all interpretations have three factors in common. First, interpretation is generally viewed as a form of interaction whose purpose is to attract an interest in learning and watching. Second, to help tourists comprehend a destination, interpretation brings about support for the sustainability of that destination and its cultural aspects. Third, interpretation may be evaluated as a tourism planning strategy for tourism, recreation and resources. Interpretation is also a kind of negotiation. According to Tilden (1977: 14), it is “an educational activity that tries to explain meanings and relationships by the use of original meanings, by firsthand experience rather than simply communicating

Tour Guides as Sustainable Cultural Heritage Tourism Interpreters …

59

skills”. Brochu and Merriman (2007: 3) note that “interpreters or tourist guides help audiences/tourists make connections with history, culture, science, and the special places” and “…handle a very sacred trust—the stories of ancient times”. The interpretation of heritage sites as part of a guided tour is not generally intended for expert audiences; it is very important that an interpreter is not only knowledgeable but also aware of “the art of guiding, as well as his ability to put it forward”. Navigation includes specific skills, such as positioning the group, evaluating the skills of the group, timing, storytelling, audibility, and nonverbal presentation (Rabotic 2008: 232). Cherem (cited in Christie and Mason 2003: 5) highlights the significance of the skills involved in transferring knowledge for guiding, claiming that all the tour guides are interpreters first and specialists second. Tour guide who guides visitors in the language of their choice and interprets the cultural and natural heritage of an area which person normally possesses an areaspecific qualification usually issued and/or recognised by the appropriate authority. Tour guides have an important and multifaceted role in tourism industry. The role is defined as the expected behavior from the person who is in a specific location or is assigned with a specific function (Köro˘glu 2013: 91). Yetgin (2017) classified the role of the tour guides as Manager/Leader role, Educator/Instructor role, Cultural Ambassador/Representater role, Mediator role, Environmental protector role and Entertainer/Delightful role (Yetgin 2017: 15). The tour guides’ performance even influences a tourists’ perception of the host destination. Also their performance potentially influences tourist satisfaction and loyalty, the company’s image, and the overall travel experience and it is a primary attribute of a successful tour (Koroglu and Guzel 2013: 2). Tour guides have a crucial role in representing a destination, a region or a country, and transferring information about the culture, history and social life of the place he/she represents. Tour guides are those who spend the most time with tourists, share the same environment with them, and interact closely with the most (Kalyoncu andYuksek 2017: 15). Tour guiding is so complex as a profession that some specific aspects of tour guiding can cause psychological pressure on tour guides and lead them to experience burnout syndrome (Yetgin and Benligiray 2019: 334). As a tourism destination which is favourite place of the guided tours the Odunpazarı Historical Urban Site, the traditional civil building design of the houses reflects the daily life, traditions and religion of ancient times impressively. On facades of the houses, there are bay windows and consoles. The cottages usually consist of a sofa (hall) and other rooms encircling it. If the house consists of two floors, the first floor was used for services and the second floor formed the living area (Olcay Uckan and Uckan 2002: 53). The corner room in the front of the house, with windows on two sides, is larger and more important than the others. The two-story houses, made of a wood and adobe mix, are thick and durable. The single-story structures are made of adobe and are simple. The two-story buildings are mansion-type structures supported by carved struts and consoles called Ba˘gdadi. The houses were built according to the size of the facade. The harmony provided by the doors blends the upper floor of the house with the lower floor of the house as well as the upper floor of the fountain or

60

M. Kalyoncu and G. Yüksek

the woods (Ertin 1994: 27). The Odunpazarı Historical Urban Site is a remarkable example of civil architecture founded completely by the Turks in Anatolia. The architectural style of Odunpazarı houses, which is adapted specifically for the local geographical conditions, also reflects the characteristics of traditional Turkish residential architecture. Both the individual structures and the harmony of the houses with each other and with their surroundings are remarkable features within the site. In addition to the architectural features of a certain period that can be observed in Odunpazarı, the social and cultural values of the period are also seen. In addition, the materials, techniques and workmanship used in the houses of Odunpazarı are precursors of modern technology. In addition to regional, geographical and climatic aspects, the site is a significant example of how the texture of an old city is shaped by religious life, beliefs and customs. The texture of the Odunpazarı Historical Urban Site, which was developed around the Kur¸sunlu Mosque and Complex, is a place that has hosted Sufism for four centuries. The mosque in the center, the southern chambers (dervishes), the south Sufi house (a kind of Sufi ritual area), the southwest hospice and almshouse, the kitchen in the west, the caravanserais in the northwest and the Ottoman style school compose the Kur¸sunlu Mosque Complex, which became one of the leading educational complexes of its period (http://whc.unesco.org/). In this view, the Odunpazarı Historical Urban Site is an advancing place that can be described and designated as a World Heritage site owing to the sociocultural, tangible and characteristic aspects of the site. The site’s Cultural heritage includes the relics and ruins of a society, which are inherited from antecedent generations and transferred to subsequent generations. Housing magnificent samples of Seljuk and Ottoman civil architecture, the Odunpazarı Historical Urban Site has the same characteristics as Safranbolu, which is currently on the UNESCO World Heritage List. In addition, Cumalıkızık and Beypazarı have similar characteristics to Odunpazarı, which they continue to exist in the present. However, Odunpazarı is home to Sufism, and the other sites do not represent religious life the way Odunpazarı does. On the other hand, Konya, which is the capital of Sufism and home to the tomb of Rumi, does not testify to Ottoman monumental and civil architecture as noticeably as Odunpazarı does. Therefore, the sustainability of Odunpazarı has become more crucial, and the tour guides of Eski¸sehir are responsible for transferring knowledge of the site to tourists.

Methodology The purpose of this study is therefore to define the effects of the tourist guides’ interpretation and what the guides’ roles are in ensuring sustainable cultural heritage tourism. To accomplish this aim, first, the literature relevant to the study has been established, and in accordance with the literature, the interview form was developed and distributed to the tour guides of Eski¸sehir.

Tour Guides as Sustainable Cultural Heritage Tourism Interpreters …

61

Analysis and Findings The findings of this study, in which qualitative research methods were used and a phenomenological approach was adopted to reveal the subjective side of the interpretative role of the tour guides who actively work in Eski¸sehir. This research philosophy, which was improved by Husserl, is based on a theory that tries to determine the experience we come across in our routine daily life and how this experience is built by our consciousness (Srubar 2004: 557). Phenomenological work “describes the common meaning for several individuals of their lived experiences of an issue or a phenomenon” (Creswell 2013: 76). Within this context, semistructured interviews were conducted with 9 tour guides from Eski¸sehir between 1st and 17th August 2018. Open-ended interview forms were used in the interviews. Using the interview form, tour guides’ opinions were solicited on the question “What is the role of the tour guides of Eski¸sehir as sustainable cultural heritage interpreters about Odunpazarı?” in order to show the present situation of Odunpazarı. The interviews were then deciphered, and different codes were assigned to each participant. The data collection tool was a six-question interview form that was created by examining the related literature and taking expert opinions about the form. Data were analyzed and interpreted by means of both descriptive analysis and content analysis method. The findings were checked by two experts and discussed with the researchers. Data collected from tour guides were analyzed, and the data coded by the researchers were grouped and identified by theme by specialists, after which the researchers worked together to analyze the data reached an agreement. Within the scope of this study, tour guides who actively work as tour guides were consulted about their opinions about the sustainability of Odunpazarı. The data obtained have revealed the perspectives of the tour guides who actively working in the Odunpazarı Historical Urban Site. The issues discussed are also matters that need attention and improvement to inform sustainable cultural heritage tourism. The data obtained with this scope have been examined under six themes as follows: the opinions of the tour guides about sustainable tourism development in Odunpazarı, the perspective of residents about tourism in Odunpazarı, the opinions of tour guides about the natural environment, the economic contribution of tourism to Odunpazarı, the arrangements needed in Odunpazarı by the tour guides and the cultural heritage of tour guides’ interpretations about Odunpazarı (Fig. 1). The opinions of the tour guides about sustainable tourism have been assessed in three dimensions: Sociocultural requirements, economic requirements and natural requirements. The sociocultural requirements are protecting urban texture (7) and raising awareness of residents about tourism (6). Protecting urban texture is important for sustainability. Odunpazarı is protected due to its—unique urban texture. It is clearly understood from the data collected from the following answer of one tour guide. (The abbreviation TG is used for tour guide while writing descriptive analysis) (Fig. 2). “…Therefore, the sustainability of Odunpazarı is achieved through the preservation of its architecture and its historical texture…” (TG3).

62

M. Kalyoncu and G. Yüksek

Theme 1

Subthemes Sociocultural Dimension

Sustainable Tourism

Economic Dimension

Natural Dimension

Codes Protecting urban texture (7) Raising awareness of residents about tourism (6) Improving the variety of tourism products (6) Creating a tourist experience (1) Increasing green landscapes of Odunpazarı (4) Limiting traffic (2) Taking carrying capacities into account (2)

Fig. 1 The opinions of tour guides about sustainable tourism development in Odunpazarı

Theme 2

The Perspective of Residents about Tourism

Subthemes

The thoughts about Odunpazarı

The regulations impacting residents

Codes The positive awareness of residents (11) Hospitality (6) The integrity of tourist attractions, tourism stores and residents (6) Increasing the awareness of residents (11)

Fig. 2 The perspective of residents about tourism in Odunpazarı

Residents play a crucial role in tourism planning, and the effects of tourism influence residents more than they do tourists. For his reason, “Residents should always be careful. On the one hand, they are one of the most important stakeholders. Since the 12th century, Odunpazarı has had over 300 historic mansions that reflect innovative traditional Turkish architecture. Protection and accommodation of these mansions may be in question. Odunpazarı, which is included in the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List, aims to bring both its unity and its heritage together with a management plan.” (TG2). According to tour guides of Eski¸sehir, the perspective of residents is generally positive, but the guides think that the residents need to know about tourism and its positive effects. One guide remarked that “…I am very positive about the relationship of the people of Odunpazarı with tourism. They know the value of tourism, they know what they have earned. Of course, there is another community that thinks vice versa…” (TG4).

Tour Guides as Sustainable Cultural Heritage Tourism Interpreters …

Theme 3

Subthemes

The Opinions of Tour Guides about Natural Environment

Protecting the natural environment (7) The precautions Reducing the number of about the natural tourists (4) environment Limiting the traffic (3) Protecting the originality of Odunpazarı (2) The regulations The regulations about the about the natural environment (7) environment Replanting the natural environment (1)

63

Codes

Fig. 3 The opinions of tour guides about the natural environment

On the other hand, to provide integrity for tourist attractions, tourism stores and residents, some regulations should be planned in Odunpazarı. According to TG7, “ (Fig. 3). …There must be more integrity between tourist attractions, tourism stores and residents.” (TG7)

The natural environment is one of the dimensions of sustainability. For this reason, the protection of the environment means a lot. According to TG8, “… Eski¸sehir is generally green but this is not seen in Odunpazarı. The garbage is everywhere due to the crowds. If precaution is not taken, it will destroy its environment as a result of the traffic and crowds, Odunpazarı is going to lose its worth and attractiveness. It attracts tourists in this way, but everything is not just about tourists. The number of visitors is too much, but the visitors are also doing too much damage. This situation affects sustainability.” (TG8) Another guide added that “…The green places of Odunpazarı must be increased and the traffic road passing through it must be removed.” (TG2) (Fig. 4). One of the dimensions of sustainability, the economic dimension, plays a crucial role for residents and the destination itself. According to tour guides, the tourists who visit Odunpazarı have not been satisfied with there. We can understand this from the comment that “…Large galleries for large tour groups should be opened. Craftsmen should be informed. There are a few tradesmen who understand the meerschaum. Or they cannot show what they know…” (TG7). In economic circumstances, the core product is important for marketing, and “…Meerschaum must find its value. It must be handled carefully. Everyone should learn what sustainability is. How many pipes are sold? Always magnets, always bracelets. Only meerschaum, only glass should be sold. It must be a core and traditional product; the presentation should be made about meerschaum” (TG8). Tourists want to see original items, not artificial things (Fig. 5).

64

M. Kalyoncu and G. Yüksek

Theme 4

Subthemes The issues for tradesman

The Economic Contribution of Tourism

Codes The dissatisfaction of tourists (8) The lack of information for tradesmen (3)

The contribution of The deficiency of businesses (7) businesses The deficiency of restaurants (2) A lack of experience about tourist products (6) The contribution of The negative issues about the tourist product meerschaum (5) A lack of a core product (5)

Fig. 4 the economic contribution of tourism to Odunpazarı

Theme 5

Subthemes The arrangements about traffic issues

Codes Odunpazarı should be closed to traffic (7) Parking problems (4)

Regulating the working hours of the museums (6) Regulations need to Increasing the direction be done by the signboards (5) The arrangements local government Touring an Odunpazarı house in needed by the tour exchange for extra fee (1) guides Souvenir shops should be regulated (3) The arrangements The tourism business should not for tourism block sidewalks (2) facilities Increasing alternative restaurants (2) Fig. 5 The arrangements needed in Odunpazarı by the tour guides

The Odunpazarı Historical Urban site is the most visited region of the city center in Eski¸sehir. For this reason, its carrying capacity is crucial to the site being a sustainable cultural heritage site as well. According to TG9, “Traffic and parking problems should be solved (especially on weekends). There should be a solution to the stalls that are overflowing onto the streets. In addition, there is an urgent need to do something

Tour Guides as Sustainable Cultural Heritage Tourism Interpreters …

65

to prevent the region from becoming only a commercial identity (market, shopping, etc.)…” While directing tourists, the tour guides encountered issues. They expressed their thoughts about this issue as “The names of the mansions can be further clarified by street names. The signboards are insufficient…” (TG5). To show the authenticity and originality of the houses Odunpazarı, a mansion or civil house should be shown to the tourists who accept paying an extra fee. According to TG2 “…One or two of the historic mansions that reflect the cultural heritage of the Odunpazarı should be opened to visitors for a reasonable fee. Visiting the mansions that reflect the sociocultural life of the region from outside the city will be of interest to those who are interested in cultural tourism to explore different cultures.” (TG2) (Fig. 6) Tour guides’ interpretations of the Odunpazarı historical site are investigated in two categories. First is the intangible cultural heritage subtheme, which includes local features such as residents’ life style, customs, traditions, gastronomy culture etc.… “We are talking about the history of Odunpazarı, daily life styles in old houses, features of houses, myths and stories I know about the Odunpazarı” (TG5). Second is the tangible cultural heritage subtheme, which includes the Kur¸sunlu Complex, as

Theme 6

Subthemes

Codes Local architecture features (10) Sufism (5) Odunpazarı daily life style (4) Meerschaum (2)

Intangible Cultural Heritage

Çibörek (2) Glass arts (2) Met halva (1)

Cultural Heritage

Ebru art (1) Wood arts (1) Legends and Myhts (1) Traditions (1) Kurşunlu Complex (9) Tangible Cultural Heritage

Odunpazarı mansions (8) Atlıhan (2) Alaaddin Mosque (1) Wax Museum (1)

Fig. 6 The cultural heritage of tour Guides’ interpretations of Odunpazarı

66

M. Kalyoncu and G. Yüksek

“…the most important culture of the Odunpazarı’s legacy of Kur¸sunlu Complexes offers textures about the complex.” (TG2). “…Ottoman houses and their properties and local architecture…” (TG6). Odunpazarı has had a dynamic and diverse history. For instance, the Kur¸sunlu Complex had a school for religious-based education. Thanks to its educational function, the Kur¸sunlu Complex is still protected as part of the area’s complex social life. The insights of tour guides about tangible cultural heritage are similar to their insights on intangible cultural heritage. For instance, tour guides have used the Kur¸sunlu Complex to interpret the cultural heritage of Odunpazarı. According to TG4, “…Generally, Kur¸sunlu Complex, which has Caravanserais, Sufism, Dervishes, Sufi House, religious-based education, Meerschaum, glass arts and wood arts… these are among the subjects I have interpreted.” Odunpazarı houses are the second repeated tangible cultural heritage of tour guides: “I’m talking about the Odunpazarı houses in the historical site, especially Hafız Ahmet Efendi Mansion, which is one of the historical mansions too…” (TG2).

Conclusion The sustainability of the Odunpazarı Historical Urban Site is related to its sociocultural, economic and natural features, which are the three dimensions of sustainability and the issues interpreted by the tour guides. In this study, the experiences of the tour guides revealed which regulations should be done by the stakeholders in Odunpazarı. The guided tour experience differs from nonguided experiences in terms of the interpretation of the site. The tour guides who share their thoughts have common senses and anxieties and are not satisfied with some current regulations. The Odunpazarı Historical Urban Site should protect its originality and historical value, and the texture of its tangible and intangible cultural heritage by the interpretation of the tour guides. The Odunpazarı Historical Urban Site is the most visited region of the city of Eski¸sehir. Carrying capacity is crucial to the sustainability of cultural heritage sites. Odunpazarı has its own dynamic and diverse history. For instance, the Kur¸sunlu Complex had a school for religious-based education. Thanks to its educational function, the Kur¸sunlu complex is still protected as part of the area’s complex social life. According to the perspectives of tour guides, the Odunpazarı daily lifestyle has been a mirror of the soul of Odunpazarı. The ways in which tour guides interpret Odunpazarı offer an opportunity for the site to fully realize its potential because every tour guide who was interviewed was aware of the value of Odunpazarı. The data obtained with this scope have been examined under six themes as follows: the opinions of the tour guides about sustainable tourism development in Odunpazarı, the perspective of residents about tourism in

Tour Guides as Sustainable Cultural Heritage Tourism Interpreters …

67

Odunpazarı, the opinions of tour guides about the natural environment, the economic contribution of tourism to Odunpazarı, The arrangements needed in Odunpazarı by the tour guides and the cultural heritage of tour guides’ interpretations about Odunpazarı. The results of the study are similar to the study of Io and Hallo (2012). Their study is about how Jarash is interpreted in such a way that it is separated from its residents. In addition, there are parallels with the studies by Quinn and Ryan (2016), Ryan and Quinn (2011) and Wong (2013), which state that heritage interpretation is affected by the differing skills of guides. Effective heritage interpretation may attract the tourists’ attention, meet the tourists’ experiential needs and increase the value of the heritage (Dijk and Weiler 2009). However, this study stresses the fact that the interpretation of the tour guides at Odunpazarı focuses completely on the dimensions of sustainability in cultural heritage tourism. According to the opinions of the tour guides who participated in this study, the guides are aware of what sustainability is. Concerns about “protection of urban texture”, “improving the variety of tourism products” and “increasing the green landscapes of Odunpazarı” are the most repeated answers about sustainability. The residents also have positive thoughts about tourism, and their interest and consciousness about tourism is increasing day to day. The natural environment of Odunpazarı is deficient in some aspects, and protecting the natural environment is a serious issue according to tour guides. In addition, they state that urgent regulations about the environment should be put in place by the local government immediately. According to the tour guides, Odunpazarı should be closed to traffic to create a peaceful space. The working hours of the museums should be planned, and the crowds and souvenir shops should be regulated. The stakeholders should be aware of the value of the Odunpazarı Historical Urban Site. Tourism planning is important for ensuring sustainability in Odunpazarı. Residents should be aware of what is planned for tourism. The most repeated intangible features of Odunpazarı by the tour guides are the local architecture features and Sufism. The most repeated tangible features of Odunpazarı are the Kur¸sunlu Complex and the Odunpazarı houses because of their authenticity. As interpreters, the tour guides should be responsible for relating the issues of sustainability of the Odunpazarı Historical Urban Site.

References Ap, J., & Wong, K. K. F. (2001). Case study on tour guiding: Professionalism, issues & problems. Tourism Management, 22(5), 551–556. Boyle, A., & Arnott, A., What tour guide stories can tell us about learning, education and training. Creating Tourism Knowledge, 75. Bradt, H. (2000) ‘On the Ground’ Tourism in Focus, 36, Summer, 17. Bras, K., & Dahles, H. (1999). Pathfinder, gigolo & friend: divering entrepreneurial strategies of tourist guides on two Indonesian islands. In H. Bras & H. Dahles (Eds.), Tourism & small entrepreneurs, pp 128–145. New York: Cognizant.

68

M. Kalyoncu and G. Yüksek

Brochu, L., & Merriman, T. (2007). Personal interpretation: Connecting your audience to heritage resources (National Association for Interpretation). InterPress. Christie, M. F., & Mason, P. A. (2003). Transformative tour guiding: Training tour guides to be critically reflective practitioners. Journal of Ecotourism, 2(1), 1–16. Cohen, E. (1985). The tourist guide: The origins, structure and dynamics of a role. Annals of Tourism Research, 12(1), 5–29. Cohen, E. (2002). Authenticity, equity and sustainability in tourism. Journal of sustainable Tourism, 10(4), 267–276. Cooper, C., Fletcher, J., Gilbert, D., & Wanhill, S. (1993). Tourism: Principles and practice. London: Pitman. Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Dahles, H. (2002). The politics of tour guiding image management in Indonesia. Annals of Tourism Research, 29(3), 783–800. Dijk, P., & Weiler, B. (2009). An assessment of the outcomes of a Chinese-language interpretive tour experience at a heritage tourism attraction. Tourism Analysis, 14(1), 49–63. Dioko, L. A. N., & Unakul, M. H. (2005). The need for specialized training in heritage tour guiding at Asia’s world heritage sites: Preliminary findings on the challenges and opportunities. Heritage Tour Guide Training and Certification for UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Macao: Regional Consultation Meeting. Ertin, G. (1994). Eski¸sehir Kentinde Yerle¸smenin Evrimi. Eski¸sehir: Anadolu University Press. Fowler, J. (1992). The past in contemporary society: Then, now. London: Butterworth-Heinmann. Ham, S. H., & Weiler, B. (2002). Toward a theory of quality in cruise-based interpretive guiding. Journal of Interpretation Research, 7(2), 29–49. Holloway, J. C. (1981). The guided tour: A sociological approach. Annals of Tourism Research, 8(3), 377–402. Io, M. U., & Hallo, L. (2012). A comparative study of tour guides’ interpretation: The case of Macao. Tourism Analysis, 17(2), 153–165. Jafari, J. (2000). Encyclopedia of tourism. Routledge Taylor and Francis Group. Kalyoncu, M., & Yuksek, G. (2017). The Effect of impression management techniques which tourist guides use in package tours on personal interaction quality. Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Management, 5(1), 15–25. Koroglu, O., & Guzel, O. (2013). Visitor perceptions of the role of tour guides in natural resource management and sustainable tourism. Romanian Economic Business Review, 8(4.1), 69–80. Olcay Uckan, B. Y., & ve Uckan, E. (2002). Eski¸sehir Odunpazarı Evleri, Ankara: T.C. Kültür Bakanlı˘gı. Pearce, P. L. (1984). Tourist-guide interaction. Annals of Tourism Research, 11, 129–146. Pond, K. (1993). The professional guide: Dynamics of tour guiding. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Quinn, B., & Ryan, T. (2016). Tour guides and the mediation of difficult memories: The case of Dublin Castle Ireland. Current Issues in Tourism, 19(4), 322–337. Raboti´c, B. (2008). Tourist guides as cultural heritage interpreters: belgrade experience with municipalitysponsored guided walks for local residents, MSc. The Proceedings Book of the International Tourism Conference’Cultural and Event Tourism: Issues & Debates’, Alanya, Turkey, 213–233. Ryan, T., & Quinn, B. (2011). Lost in translation: Interpreting and presenting Dublin’s colonial past. 4th Critical Tourism Studies Conference. 2nd–5th July, 2011. Srubar, I.(2004). “Phenomenology”, Encyclopedia of Social Theory, G. Ritzer (Ed.), Vol 2. (557– 562) USA: Sage. The ICOMOS Charter for the Interpretation and Presentation of Cultural Heritage Sites. Retrieved Jult 1, 2018, from http://www.enamecharter.org/downloads/ICOMOS_Interpretation_Charter_ EN_10-04-07.pdf. Tilden, F. (1957). Interpreting our Heritage, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina BTA, (2000) Structure & Demand of Visitor Attractions Review, London. UK.

Tour Guides as Sustainable Cultural Heritage Tourism Interpreters …

69

Tilden, F. (1977). Interpreting our heritage, Vol. 3. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press. Web: http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5733/. Accessed 16 June 2018. Weiler, B., & Ham, S. H. (2000). Training ecotour guides in developing countries: lessons learned from panama’s first guides course. Faculty of Business & Economics: Monash University. Wong, C. U. I. (2013). The sanitization of colonial history: Authenticity, heritage interpretation and the case of Macau’s tour guides. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 21(6), 915–931. Yetgin, D. (2017). The Effect of Economic Anxiety and Occupational Burnout Levels of Tour Guides on Their Occupational Commitment (Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis). Turkey: Anadolu University, Graduate School of Institute of Social Sciences, Department of Tourism Management. Yetgin, D., & Benligiray, S. (2019). The effect of economic anxiety and occupational burnout levels of tour guides on their occupational commitment. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 1–15. Yu, X., Weiler B., & Ham, S. (2001). Intercultural communication and mediation: A framework for analysis the intercultural competence of Chinese tour guides. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 8(1), 75–87. Zhang, H. Q., & Chow, I. (2004). Application of importance-performance model in tour guides’ performance: Evidence from mainland Chinese outbound visitors in Hong Kong. Tourism Management, 25(1), 81–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0261-5177(03)00064-5.

Merve Kalyoncu is a Research Assistant in the Department of Tour Guiding in Anadolu University, Eski¸sehir, Turkey. Her research focuses on impression management, tour guiding and cultural heritage. Gökçe Yüksek is an Associate Professor in the Department of Tour Guiding in Anadolu University, Eski¸sehir, Turkey. She teaches courses on Cultural Heritage, Ecology and Tourism and Destination Management. Her research focuses on marketing, destination management and tourism planning.

Cultural Heritage of Ottoman Anatolia Through the Eyes of Female Travelers Azade Özlem Çalık, Gülsel Çiftçi, and Duygu Yetgin

Introduction Travel experiences and gender are constructed socially and culturally, requiring female tourist research that is sensitive to the socio-cultural context (Yang et al. 2017). The concept of travel has long stirred the interest of humankind, and many people have set out on journeys to discover and see new places. In particular, the mystical and mysterious atmosphere of the East has been the focus of interest for Europeans since the 16th century. Many Turkish, German, Austrian, British, Swedish, French, Hungarian, and Austrian travelers, military and political officers, spies, consuls, meerschaum merchants, naturalists, historians, geographers, geologists, archaeologists, and missionaries have stayed in and mentioned Turkey in their travelogues (Yılmaz and Yetgin 2018). The Ottoman Empire also received its share of interest and was visited by many travelers. Male and female travelers who were curious about the governance and the modus vivendi of the Ottoman Empire visited Anatolia. Since men were not allowed in and/or had limited access to certain places as required by the rules and laws of that era, female travelers had a gender-based positive advantage, and these female travelers had the opportunity to gather more information about some mysterious places, such as the Harem or the hammams.

A. Ö. Çalık Beypazarı Vocational School, Ankara University, Beypazarı, Ankara, Turkey e-mail: [email protected] G. Çiftçi School of Applied Sciences, Trakya University, Edirne, Turkey e-mail: [email protected] D. Yetgin (B) Faculty of Tourism, Anadolu University, Eski¸sehir, Turkey e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 ˙I. O. Co¸skun et al. (eds.), Heritage Tourism Beyond Borders and Civilizations, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5370-7_6

71

72

A. Ö. Çalık et al.

One of the main reasons for the journeys of the travelers to Anatolia may have been their great interest in discovering the East and the main trade routes passing through Anatolia. Although historic travel books spark continuous debate in terms of whether they should be accepted as historical sources, they always draw attention, as they are picturesque representations of that particular time and place, they reflect the cultural structure of the era, and they allow us to have a different viewpoint of history (Yılmaz 2013). Unlike male travelers, Western female travelers played a significant role in disrupting the fictionalized perceptions and visions produced by Western Orientalist male travelers about the “Eastern Women and Harem” (Sancar 2010). One of the most important destinations where Western travelers stopped while reconstructing the East in their travel books was the Ottoman territories. Since the 16th century, the European States had begun to appoint envoys to various Ottoman cities, especially Istanbul, and these officials began to record their experiences and impressions. These officials included diplomats, tradesmen, the clergymen, the missionaries, and researchers who were sent by kings to the Ottoman territories to collect information about the Ottoman society (Üçel-Aybet 2003). The information and impressions about the Ottoman Empire and the works of these travelers that were sent to their own countries as letters or reports were published as books either before or after these travelers’ deaths (Sahin ¸ 2007). The sustainability of the ruins of extinct civilizations depends on the degree of protection provided to them by modern people. However, the majority of historical and cultural heritage sites are damaged by both natural disasters and humans. The fact that travelers provided us with an opportunity to adapt their historical impressions, descriptions of artifacts and recorded information into our modern day and age has become the starting point of this study.

Conceptual Framework The Concepts of the Traveler and the Travel Book The word for “traveler” that is used in Turkish is originally an Arabic phrase and defines a traveler as someone who travels to distant places. Today, it is used interchangeably with the term “voyager”. Throughout the history, humans have always been curious about the unknown, and they have always attempted to move to different places for various purposes. Pursuing this curiosity, travelers have played a significant role in the transfer of culture and information in times when technological means were mostly limited. Many societies learned detailed information about other cultures through travelers under various names and titles, such as military and political officers, agents, ambassadors, pilgrims, missionaries, tradesmen, and scientists (Dü˘ger 2015).

Cultural Heritage of Ottoman Anatolia Through the Eyes of Female Travelers

73

The letters, diaries, and pictures written and drawn by the travelers were regarded as historical archives about the places those travelers had visited. The works that tell what a person or a committee saw, experienced, or learned about that specific place within or outside of a country are called travel books. The texts that take shape with the observations of the writer provide information about various subjects, such as the social, political, economic, cultural, architectural, and artistic works, physical properties, and climate, of the visited region (Madran 1989). The purpose of travel books is to learn about and promote the histories, cultures, natural beauty, social lives, customs, and traditions of the visited areas. In this respect, the travel books assume a significant role as written sources. The travel books also reveal the histories and interesting historical diversity of the cities visited. The literary narratives in the travel books are not only informative but also provide an opportunity to have a different viewpoint on that specific period (Yılmaz and Yetgin 2018). Travel books reflect interesting aspects of places through plain and unceremonious descriptions. The East as described in travel books has long constituted a mystical world for the West. For various reasons, it has been important for the West to learn more about the East and to rebuild itself through the cultures and values of the East (Sahin ¸ 2007). In the 18th and 19th centuries, which correspond to the decline of the Ottoman Empire, European travelers, in particular, visited Anatolia for various reasons and wrote reports on their detailed travel experiences.

The Concept of Heritage The main driver of tourism, which is known as the biggest show on Earth, is heritage (Boniface and Fowler 1993). UNESCO defines the concept of heritage ‘as the legacy of physical artifacts and immaterial attributes of a group or society inherited from past generations, maintained in the present and granted for the benefit of future generations’ (UNESCO 1972). Cultural heritage can be defined as the whole corpus of material signs, whether artistic or symbolic, passed on by past generations to every culture and, consequently, to all of humanity. As a component of the affirmation and enrichment of cultural identities and as a legacy belonging to all humanity, cultural heritage gives each place its recognizable characteristics and acts as the custodian of human experience. Therefore, the preservation and presentation of cultural heritage is a cornerstone of any cultural policy (ICCROM 2005). Cultural heritage should be taken into account in both time and space. First, the creation of cultural heritage did not stop at the dawn of the 19th century; cultural heritage also includes records left during the 20th century. Second, the aim is not only to preserve an increasing number of cultural objects but also to protect physical sites far beyond large monuments or individual buildings. The idea of heritage has now been expanded to include both the human and the natural environment, architectural complexes and archeological sites, and not only rural places and rural heritage but also urban, technical or industrial heritage, industrial design and street furniture (ICOMOS 2018).

74

A. Ö. Çalık et al.

Research Methodology The Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study is to identify the cultural heritage assets that were mentioned in the travel books of female travelers who visited Anatolia. The travelers who visited Anatolia in the era of the Ottoman Empire made references in their letters to tangible and intangible cultural heritage elements in Anatolia. In addition to shedding light on history, these letters are significant sources of information. In light of these data, another purpose of this study is to ensure that these cultural heritage narratives of female travelers are related by tour guides to special interest groups. Special interest groups usually ask for more comprehensive information from their professional tour guides. The more information the tour guide has, the more information he/she can give to the group. In this way, tourists are satisfied and leave the tour happy.

Method In this study, qualitative research methods, content analysis, and descriptive research under the review model were employed. Qualitative research contributes to an understanding of the human condition in different contexts and of perceptions of situations. Several methods of analysis can be used in qualitative research, such as phenomenology, hermeneutics, grounded theory, ethnography, phenomenography and content analysis (Bengtsson 2016). Qualitative analysis examines data resulting from open data collection techniques focused on capturing detail and depth instead of on measurement (Forman and Damschroder 2007). The review model is suitable for research that aims to describe a past or present situation (Karasar 1999). Document analysis was used as part of the review model of this descriptive study. Document analysis covers the analysis of the written materials that contain information about the fact or facts to be researched (Yıldırım and Sim¸ ¸ sek 2011). Within this context, letters, published memoirs, and some visual documents, such as the oil paintings of Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, Lady Elizabeth Craven and Mary Adelaide Walker, who visited Anatolia in the era of the Ottoman Empire, were analyzed.

Findings and Discussion In this study, the letters and books of Lady Mary Wortley Montagu (1689–1762), Lady Elizabeth Craven (1750–1828), and Mary Adelaide Walker (1820–1905), who visited Anatolia in the era of the Ottoman Empire in 17th and 18th centuries, were

Cultural Heritage of Ottoman Anatolia Through the Eyes of Female Travelers

75

reviewed, and their viewpoints on the places they visited in Anatolia and on the cultures that prevailed in those places were analyzed.

Three Women Travelers Lady Mary Wortley Montagu (1689–1762) Lady Montagu was born in England in 1689 and was raised by her father Pierrepont, the Duke of Kingston. She moved to London after getting married to Edward Wortley Montagu and became well-known thanks to her close friendship with famous British poet, Alexander Pope. She came to Istanbul with her husband and son after her husband was appointed as the British ambassador to the Ottoman Empire in 1716 and lived in Istanbul for approximately two years (Demir 2003). She wrote detailed letters to her friends in England about life in the Ottoman Empire, and these letters became one of the most important collection of documents that shed light on that period. Since her husband was the ambassador, Lady Montagu always had opportunities to visit the houses of senior executives of the Empire, and since she was a woman, she was able to enter into the Harems of the palaces and hammams of the cities. She had seen things that a male traveler would have never been able to see and wrote about these in her letters. She was the first female traveler to travel around Anatolia in the era of the Ottoman Empire. The letters from Turkey, which were a part of her letters that were published one year after her death, were praised by many people, especially Voltaire. A book of the letters was published by Ahmet Refik in 1912 under the name, “The Letters from the East”, in Turkey (Demir 2003). The journey of Lady Montagu paved the way for the travel stories about the East, which would later be written by other female travelers (Konuk 2008). She started her journey from England in 1716 and arrived at Istanbul in May 1717. In June 1718, she set off from Istanbul to Tunisia, traveled around many places in the Aegean, and finally settled in London (Table 1). In the Letters from the East, Lady Montagu wrote that they set sail from Istanbul in June 6, 1718 with a ship that they passed the Dardanelles Strait and that she was very excited to be in Homer’s world. She also mentioned that she passed through the Gallipoli Peninsula and the Dardanelles Strait after leaving Istanbul, which used to be called Sestos and Abydos. She wrote that she was very impressed by this region and mentioned that this region was called the Dardenelli and had two small castles. She also touched upon the legends of Hero and Leander and the story of the Persian King Xerxes making his men whip the water since he could not build a bridge over the Strait. She also wrote about Juno, and she reported that she had gone to the highest part of the city of Sigeum (Ezine), where the Trojan King Priam’s wife, Hecuba, and Achilles were believed to be buried. She also mentioned the relief on the sarcophagus in a small church. She made references to the verses from Homer to explain that the Simoeis River (Dümrek) ran through Mount Ida. She commemorated

76

A. Ö. Çalık et al.

Table 1 The places visited by Lady Montagu within the borders of the Ottoman Empire EDIRNE Name of the Host/Place

Descriptions

House and Harem of Kethude’s Wife, Fatma

The architecture of the house and the Harem, the condition of the handmaidens, the elaborate details of the house’s architecture, the protection of the house by the shade of the trees, rooms adorned with flowers, and the wonderful hospitality of Fatma

House of the Grand Vizier Halil Pasha

Ottoman cuisine and recipes and the hospitality of the Vizier and his wife

Selimiye Mosque

Traveling in Turkish apparel (ethno-masking)

Meriç (Evros) River and the Bazaar

The 360 shops, sorbet, and coffee

Kaptan (Captain) Pasha Palace

Watching the regiments and ceremonies from the window for 8 h

ISTANBUL Name of the Host/Place

Descriptions

Hammam

Hammams were considered a place where women socialize

Bo˘gaz/Bosphorus

Taking a boat trip on the Bosporus; detailed explanations of the Asian and European coasts

Pera

Renting a mansion, touring the port and the palace, and seeing the distant hills of the Anatolian Side

Marmara Sea, Büyük and Küçük Çekmece Lakes, Sultan Hafize Mansion, Tophane, Galata, Topkapı, Hagia Sophia, Süleymaniye, Valide Mosque, Bedesten, Hippodrome and Serpentine Column detail, Beyo˘glu, Anatolian Coast, Rumelia, Fatih Mosque, Valide Sultan Mosque, Sultanahmet Mosque, Kuyumcular Çar¸sısı, Monastery Rituals

How Saint Paul Church in London paled in comparison with Valide Sultan Mosque; playing a reed flute in monastery rituals that took almost an hour; dervishes spinning in intense concentration

Sultan Mansion

Life in the mansion, the decorations and clothing.

The bridge with 32 arches in Silivri and the Old Greek Church

Visiting the bridge and church

Kadıköy

Taking a boat trip; seeing the now-demolished palace of Fatma Sultan, the daughter of Ahmet the 3rd in Salacak

TEKIRDAG-ÇORLU Name of the Host/Place

Descriptions

Cruise

The Dardanelles, Assos, Troy

Source Montagu (2009). Sark ¸ Mektupları (Letters from the East). Antik Yayınları, Istanbul

Cultural Heritage of Ottoman Anatolia Through the Eyes of Female Travelers

77

Troy with Strabo and made references to the conflict between Menelaus and Paris. She gazed upon Rhoeteum (Intepe). She made references to Apollon and Daphne in Tenedos and wrote about the excellent wines of this region (Michigan University 2018). Lady Montagu finished her letter with the following statements while providing elaborate details on the hammam and bathing ceremony in Sofia on 1717: “Adieu, Madam. I am sure I have now entertained you with an account of such a sight as you never saw in your life and what no book of travels could inform you of. Tis no less than death for a man to be found in one of these places” (Bohls and Duncan 2005). She was fascinated by the mosaic tiles that she saw in Hagia Sophia. In her letter to the Countess, she wrote: “Unfortunately, I am leaving Constantinople. I had rather be a rich effendi with all his ignorance, than Sir Isaac Newton with all his knowledge.” Again, this quote shows her admiration for Istanbul.

Lady Elizabeth Craven (1750–1828) Lady Elizabeth Craven, the daughter of Henry Drax, the Count of Charborough, was born in England on December 17, 1750. She visited many countries and the Ottoman Empire. Her 68 letters that she wrote during her journeys between 1785 and 1786 were published as a book in 1789 with the name, “A Journey through the Crimea to Constantinople”. The parts of the book that were about Turkey were translated into Turkish by Re¸sat Ekrem Koçu in 1939 and published with the name, “Turkey in 1786”. She passed away in Italy on January 13, 1828 (Karabulut 2017). Elizabeth Craven ‘s trip lasted for approximately 18 months and took her to very varied and remote places. She crossed France and stopped in several towns, such as Genoa, Florence and Venice, starting her tour in Paris. In February 1786, she left for Vienna before undertaking a long tour of Russia through St. Petersburg and Moscow, which led her to Sebastopol in Crimea. She took a boat from there to Constantinople, visited Greece and returned to London throughout Eastern Europe (Palma 2017) (Table 2). Lady Craven (1789) expressed her first impressions about Constantinople with the following statements: “But I am certain no landscape can amuse or please in comparison with the varied view, which the borders of this famed Straight compose— rocks, verdure, ancient castles, built on the summit of the hills by the Genoese— modern Kiosks, Minarets, and large platane-trees, rising promiscuous in the valleys; large meadows. The coast is so safe that a large fleet of Turkish vessels is to be seen in every creek, masts of which are intermingled with the trees, and a graceful confusion and variety make this living picture the most poignant scene I have ever beheld. Constantinople, and the entrance of Bosphorus by the sea of Marmora, is the most majestic, magnificent, graceful, and lively scene the most luxuriant imagination can desire to behold. It was no wonder Constantine chose it for the seat of empire.” Lady Craven continuously repeated her admiration for Constantinople in her letters. “This beautiful enchanting country, the climate, the objects, the fituation of it, makes it an earthly Paradise” (Craven 1789). “The cleanliness of the streets of

78

A. Ö. Çalık et al.

Table 2 The places visited by Lady Craven within the borders of the Ottoman Empire ISTANBUL (She stayed at the Palais de France which was then located in Pera.) Name of the Places

Descriptions

Constantinople

Her fascination with the city’s view; the exceptional cleanliness of the city

Hagia Sophia

The majesty of Hagia Sophia’s huge dome; the spectacular beauty of the entrance to the Piraeus Port

Boshporus

The most majestic, magnificent, graceful, and lively scene that was well worth seeing

Princes Islands

The finest weather in the world

Trojan shore

Nothing to see on the surface of the ground

Source Craven (1789). A Journey through the Crimea to Constantinople, London

this town, the admirable setting of the city of Constantinople, the majesty of Hagia Sophia’s huge dome, the spectacular beauty of the entrance to the port of Piraeus: all fill her with wonder. Encountering unknown people and manners can also make her extremely admirative: the Italians’ kindness, the Turkish most elegant feminine outfits are described at length, as well as all the private spaces that as a woman she can visit, like the baths and harems” (Palma 2017). Lady Craven, who admired the Mosque of St. Sophia, spoke highly of this Mosque in her letters: “I have been to see the Mosque of St. Sophia, with two others. The dome of St. Sophia is extremely large, and well worth seeing, but some of the finest pillars are set topsy-turvy, or have capitals of Turkish architecture. In there holy temples neither the beautiful statues belonging to Pagan times, nor the costly ornaments of modern Rome, are to be seen. Some shabby lamps, hung irregularly, are the only expence the Mahometans permit themselves, as a proof of their respect for the Deity or his Prophet. Mosques are constantly open” (Craven 1789). Lady Craven was very impressed by the city walls around Constantinople. She expressed it as follows: “The city is almost surrounded by a very high wall, turreted and flanked by large square towers, built by the Greek Emperors—the style of architecture exactly like that of Warwick and Berkeley” Castle (Craven 1789). She also visited Büyükada: “It was the finest weather in the world, and we passed those islands, called the Princes, to the left, which are seven miles and half from Constantinople” (Craven 1789). Lady Craven left Istanbul and continued her journey by sea, and her next stop after Istanbul was the Trojan Shore: “When we were just over against the Trojan shore, I would fain have landed, but as there is nothing to see on the surface of the ground, and we had not time to stay, and dig for the ashes of the heros’ buried there, we contented ourselves with supposing what we might have found” (Craven 1789). In addition to arousing the interest of the travel book enthusiasts, Craven’s travel book also portraits many significant historical events that occurred in that period (Karabulut 2017). In her letters, Craven wrote that Constantinople, which she thought

Cultural Heritage of Ottoman Anatolia Through the Eyes of Female Travelers

79

should be the capital of the world, should definitely be visited, and she had three reasons to visit Constantinople: the Ottoman Empire’s underdeveloped commercial and industrial policies, the Ottoman oppression over Greece, and her interest in the harem (Turhan 2004). Craven, who was the second female traveler to visit Istanbul after Lady Montagu, made fundamentalist interpretations in general about the Ottoman Sultan and his governance, and she followed the footsteps of Lady Montagu in her views of women, the harem, and hammam. She also mentioned the natural beauties and minority women groups in Istanbul (Dü˘ger 2015).

Mary Adelaide Walker (1820–1905) Mary Adelaide Walker was a British traveler. Her brother was the British chaplain in Istanbul during the 1850s. She arrived in Istanbul in approximately 1856 and stayed in the East for approximately 40 years. She wrote several books on her travels in modernday European Turkey and especially Bithynia. She wrote “Through Macedonia to the Albanian Lakes” (1864), “Eastern Life and Scenery, With Excursions in Asia Minor, Mytilene, Crete, and Roumania” (1886), “Untrodden Paths in Roumania” (1888), and “Old Tracks and New Landmarks: Wayside Sketches in Crete, Macedonia, Mitylene, etc.,” (1897). Lady Montagu and Lady Craven tried to describe the Ottoman territories, where they stayed for a short period of time or they only passed through, through the eyes of female travelers. However, they inevitably focused on Istanbul and the surrounding cities and other important cities. Mary A. Walker was slightly different than the others, since she stayed in the Ottoman territories longer and described many other cultural assets in various cities of the Ottoman Empire besides Istanbul. The most significant aspect that distinguished Mary A. Walker from the other female travelers was her ability for visual presentation. She drew and illustrated the remarkable views, scenes, and monuments that she saw along the way. In an era when photographic reproduction was not yet available, her drawings acted as irreplaceable documentaries of places and views that are now ruined and will never be the same (Table 3). Walker traveled around Haydar Pasha and the surrounding areas in Istanbul and expressed her impressions as follows: “The site is a land projecting point on the Asian coast of the Bosphorus, forming one side of the old Chalcedon bay: a breezy spot shaded by two groups of noble Oriental planes; in the foreground, some old masonry, with a rough descent, leading to a small, dark, vaulted chamber by an iron door, in which a holy well was found, once enclosed in the precincts of the great Church of St. Euphemia, the scene of the celebrated Council of Chalcedon. You can see another mass of stone or marble near the shore through an opening; it may also have been connected to the ancient church. The calm beauty of the scene has vanished, and the noise and bustle of a small but insignificant railway station has enclosed the holy well of St. Euphemia in its grim precincts. It is not destroyed, but it is lost to view somewhere in the lower parts of the straggling building” (Walker 1897 Today, the

80

A. Ö. Çalık et al.

Table 3 The places visited by Mary Walker within the borders of the Ottoman Empire ISTANBUL Name of the Places

Descriptions

Haidar Pasha

A projecting point of land on the Asiatic shore of the Bosphorus

Chalcedon (Kadiköy)

A breezy spot

Church of St. Euphemia

The scene of the celebrated Chalcedon Council with a mass of stone or marble near the shore that could be seen through an opening and may also have been linked to the ancient church. The hill rising to the left of the valley was the site of the ancient church of St. Euphemia, built by Constantine on the site of the Apollo temple. After the fall of Constantinople, the church was destroyed, and the materials used in the building of the Solimanyeh were the most beautiful of the mosques in Stamboul that had not been a Christian church (pp. 5–6)

Solimanyeh (Süleymaniye Camii) ˙ IT ˙ IZM

The most beautiful of the mosques in Stamboul

City Center

The calm beauty of the scene is gone, and the noise and bustle of a small but still insignificant

The God Augustus and the Goddess Rome

‘Engulfed the power and pride of ancient Rome’

The Great Church of St. Euphemia

The Church of St. Euphemia, which was utterly destroyed more than four centuries ago (p. 2) ‘The God of Augustus and the Goddess of Rome,’ the temple on whose walls the greater part of the famous Testamentum Ancyranum (carved in the marble, while the metal plates of the original inscription)

Source Walker (1897). Old Tracks and New Landmarks, London

church does not exist anymore. Thus, this travel book is a significant source that conveys firsthand information about the works and monuments that no longer exist. Another architectural marvel that did not survive to present day was the Ancient Chapel of St. John Chrysostom. Walker expressed her impressions as follows: “With its holy well under the shade of giant plane trees, next to the beautiful cypress-covered Fanaraki headland, where many a piece of sculpted marble, handfuls of mosaic cubes, fragments of ancient vases, are found on the sides of the cliff or on the shore below the spot where once stood a summer palace of Justinian. Then, the bright chaplet of the Princes’ Islands, sparkling with their luxuriant gardens. Mosaic tesserae and other fragments may still be found on the summit, where, under the Greek Empire, a church and a celebrated monastery existed.” Walker also expressed her opinions about Bostancı Bridge, Tuzla, and Gebze: “We pass an interesting Bostandji Keupru, which reminds us that, until recently, there were

Cultural Heritage of Ottoman Anatolia Through the Eyes of Female Travelers

81

considerable Byzantine ruins there. Belisarius, the famous general of Justinian, had a lot of land in the neighborhood. From here, three objects of the greatest interest are within reach of the burial site of Hannibal on a lonely hilltop, marked by two gigantic cypress trees; the ruined castle near the shore” (Walker 1897). The author continued her journey through Izmit: “From this point on, the views are extremely wonderful. On the one hand, the town rises in terraces with its varied houses, gardens, minarets, groups of cypresses, crowned by the great Mosque of Orchan, built on the site of the ancient church and seen in parts in the midst of foliage masses. The ruins of the ancient wall, reinforced by towers, can be traced down the length of the hill. Near Pythia, Justinian built a Pythia palace, which was the ancient name of some mineral springs in the vicinity of Constantine. Von Hammer speaks of the place as having been a strong Byzantine fortress, and it is stated that it resisted the power of the Ottoman Turks until long after Nicomedia, Nicea, and the whole of the surrounding districts, had fallen into their hands. Some authors think that it was at this place that Constantine the Great died. Small lighthouse on the point of Dil-Iskelessy (Gebze-Dil ˙Iskelesi): The baths founded by St. Helena, the mother of Constantine, can be pointed out” (Walker 1897).

Conclusions Travel books play an important role in revealing the cultural and social structure of a country. The subjects, which are not usually discussed in detail in history books, such as historical traditions of a country and lifestyles of communities, are discussed in travel books. Thus, these travel books provide supplementary information about the political history of a country. Such information is particularly important for a country such as the Ottoman Empire, of which the social life practices were mostly unknown (Demir 2003). Three prominent women of their time, Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, Lady Elizabeth Craven, and Mary Adelaide Walker, happened to pass through the Ottoman Empire for various reasons, and they took notes of their experiences and observations. In those days, there were not many female travelers, and the few that there were rarely dared to travel to the East; thus, the objective narratives of these three female travelers, their conflicting views with the previous “Orientalist” viewpoint, and the significance of the time period for Anatolia made their works historically more enlightening. The monuments of various civilizations that were visited by these three female travelers and that did not survive to the present day, are described in the traveler’s letters. For instance, the castles that Lady Montagu saw in Çanakkale or the Ottoman Resting Palace in Tekirda˘g have vanished and cannot be seen today. These travel books provide more realistic and detailed information about Ottoman women, who were depicted in various mythical stories and biased representations by Western societies. The travelers also observed that the Harem was not as it had been pictured by male travelers, who could only enter some certain parts of the Harem or could not

82

A. Ö. Çalık et al.

enter at all. To travel unobtrusively, Lady Montague preferred to dress like Ottoman women and had significant painters of that era paint her while she wore those clothes. The narratives of these prominent women can certainly provide information for the historians. It is also recommended that tour guides who show the tourists around the places mentioned in these memoirs and letters read them to enrich their descriptions of the sites. The descriptions of the secret lives of 18th century Ottoman women through the eyes of unbiased European women are valuable historical sources.

References Bengtsson, M. (2016). How to plan and perform a qualitative study using content analysis. NursingPlus Open, 2, 8–14. Bohls, E. A., & Duncan, I. (Eds.). (2008). Travel writing 1700–1830: An anthology. Oxford University Press. Craven, E. L. (1789). A Journey through the Crimea to Constantinople, etc.[With plates.]. H. Chamberlaine. Demir, A. (2003). Lady Montagu’nun mektuplarinda osmanli kadini. Kadin/Woman 2000, 4(2), 129–143. Dü˘ger, S. (2015). Batılı Kadın Seyyahlar ˙Imgeleminde Osmanlı Kadını. Kocaeli Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 29, 71–90. Elaine Chiao, L. Y., Catheryn, K.-L., & Charles, A. (2017). A narrative review of Asian female travellers: Looking into the future through the past. Current Issues in Tourism, 20(10), 1008–1027, https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2016.1208741. Forman, J., & Damschroder, L. (2007). Qualitative content analysis. In Empirical methods for bioethics: A primer (pp. 39–62). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. Fowler, P. J., & Boniface, P. (1993). Heritage and Tourism in” The Global Village”(Heritage). Taylor & Francis Group/Books. ICCROM. (2005). https://www.iccrom.org/sites/default/files/2018-02/iccrom_newsl31-2005_en. pdf, Access 10 Aug 2018. ICOMOS. (2018). Retrieved from http://cif.icomos.org/pdf_docs/Documents%20on%20line/ Heritage%20definitions.pdf, Access 10 Aug 2018. Karabulut, A. ˙Ingiliz Seyyah Lady Elızabeth Craven’in Gözünden 1786 Tarihinde Kırım. Marmara Türkiyat Ara¸stırmaları Dergisi, 4(2), 431–448. Karasar, N. (1999). Bilimsel Ara¸stırma Yöntemi. Ankara: Nobel Yayınevi. Konuk, K. (2008). Osmanlı ve Avrupa Arasındaki Kar¸sılıklı Etkile¸simde Etnomaskeleme: Lady Mary Wortley Montagu’nun Rolünü Yeniden Canlandırmak, Cogito, 55. Madran, E. (1989). Seyahatnamelerde Anadolu Kenti. IX. Türk Tarih Kongresi Kongreye Sunulan Bildiriler (21–25 Eylül 1981), 2, 226–237. Montagu, L. (2009). S¸ ark Mektupları. ˙Istanbul: Antik Yayınları. Michigan University Library. (2018). Retrieved from http://quod.lib.umich.edu/e/evans/N31507. 0001.001/1:49?rgn=div1;view=fulltext, Access 10 Aug 2018. Palma, H. (2017). Elizabeth craven: from London to constantinople, from escape to emancipation. Imaginaires. ˙ Sahin, ¸ G. (2007). Ingiliz seyahatnamelerinde Osmanlı toplumu ve Türk imajı. Gökkubbe. Sancar, A. (2010). Osmanlı Kadını Efsane ve Gerçek, ˙Istanbul: Kaynak Yayınları. Sim¸ ¸ sek, H., & Yıldırım, A. (2011). Sosyal bilimlerde nitel ara¸stırma yöntemleri. Ankara: Seçkin Yayıncılık. Turhan, F. (2004). The Other Empire: British Romantic Writings about the Ottoman Empire. Routledge.

Cultural Heritage of Ottoman Anatolia Through the Eyes of Female Travelers

83

UNESCO. (1972). Paris, The Convention Concerning The Protection Of The World Cultural And Natural Heritage, Paris, Retrieved from http://portal.unesco.org/en. Access 08 Aug 2018. Üçel-Aybet, G. (2003). Avrupalı seyyahların gözünden Osmanlı dünyası ve insanları (1530–1699). ˙Ileti¸sim Yayınları. Walker, M. A. (1897). Old tracks and new landmarks. London: Richard Bentley and Son. Ya¸sar, Ö. 19. Yüzyıl Seyahatnamelerinde Yozgat Ve Çevresi. Akademik Bakı¸s Uluslararası Hakemli Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, (51), 49–61. Yılmaz, A., & ve Yetgin, D. (2018). Seyyahların Anlatımı ile Osmanlı’nın Son 30 Yılındaki ˙ Eski¸sehir (1892–1922). Akademik Incelemeler Dergisi, 13(2), 159–182. Yılmaz, Ö. (2013). Osmanlı Sehir ¸ Tarihleri Açısından Yabancı Seyahatnamelerin Kaynak De˘geri. ˙ Tarih Incelemeleri Dergisi, 28(2), 587–614.

Heritage Tourism and Food

Gastronomy Tourism in the Eyes of the Local People: The Bergama Case ˙sçi Berrin Güzel and Ceren I¸

Introduction Eating is a basic routine for humans. Since life has emerged on Earth, humans sought food; they hunted animals, fished, and cultivated and gathered fruits and vegetables. As hunting methods have changed during history, developments have accelerated hunting and farming (Timothy, 2016). Today, food is not only a basic need; it has become a motivation for people to visit a destination (Tikkanen 2007). Apart from being an essential part of travel (Fields 2002; cf. Sanchez-Canizares and LopezGuzman 2012), it is also a source of joy and beautiful memories (Boniface 2003; Long 2004; cf. Sanchez-Canizares and Lopez-Guzman 2012). In a traveler’s budget, food is considered to be the second largest expenditure (Hall and Sharples 2003) and regarding this, countries are developing new tourism policies to increase their tourism revenues, including gastronomy tourism. Although they set up festivals and events related to food to promote this new type of tourism, these festivals and events are organized by municipalities, ministries, or other tourism organizations which have one-sided perspective as local people are not always considered as a part of this planning but as part of the event itself. Thus, the aim of this study is to investigate the thoughts of local people about the gastronomic position of Bergama, as according to Harrington and Ottenbacher (2010) there are many studies on food tourism, and the motivations of tourists towards food studies have increased significantly in recent years. Besides, although every city has its own council to develop the vision and citizenship of a city and to enhance sustainable development and environmental awareness (City Council Regulation 2006, s. 1.1, Turkey), they B. Güzel (B) Faculty of Tourism, Aydın Adnan Menderes University, Aydın, Turkey e-mail: [email protected] C. ˙I¸sçi Faculty of Business, Manisa Celal Bayar University, Manisa, Turkey e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 ˙I. O. Co¸skun et al. (eds.), Heritage Tourism Beyond Borders and Civilizations, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5370-7_7

87

88

B. Güzel and C. ˙I¸sçi

may not function well in every city. Thus, this study will give information about the opinions of local people living in Bergama on the festivals and gastronomic side of Bergama.

Literature The terms gastronomy tourism (Walter 2017), culinary tourism (Long 2004; Harrington and Ottenbacher 2010; Green and Dougherty 2008), and food tourism (Shenoy 2005; Everett and Aitchison 2008) are used interchangeably. Although there are many definitions for culinary tourism (Hall and Sharples 2003; Kivela and Crotts 2005; Harrington and Ottenbacher 2010) according to Hall and Mitchell (2005) it is the “visitations to primary and secondary food producers, food festivals, restaurants, and special locations for which food tasting and/or experiencing the attributes of specialist food production is the primary motivation for travel” (p. 20; cf. Smith and Costello 2009). However, it should be noted that the food that is experienced is not similar to everyday routine meals (Quan and Wang 2004) and causes worry mainly due to hygiene and health, communication gaps, and the limited knowledge of the visitors about the food in the visited destination (Cohen and Avieli 2004), which is termed “scary food” by Gyimothy and Mykletun (2009). Despite this, it can create a holiday atmosphere that is enjoyable and memorable (Quan and Wang 2004). Gastronomy tourism, which is considered part of cultural tourism (Santich 2004) and intangible heritage (Okumus et al. 2007), is a 24/7 and global type of tourism, since a visitor can find food every hour of the day and night. This type of tourism shifted for two reasons in recent years due to the interest of people in knowing the origin of the food they experience and experiencing new and different foods and preparations (Stanley and Stanley 2015). However, Timothy (2016) has questioned that people who own these authentic foods are not the privileged people of the area. Yet, the culture of food can not only rely on the built heritage of kings, queens, popes, prime ministers, etc. Thus, what tourists experience in a destination for food is not only the “privileged” but also the food of the “non-privileged.” A country can promote its culture by using its cuisine, as it can be used as a unique product for branding a destination (Telfer and Hashimoto 2003: 158; cf. Gyimothy and Mykletun 2009) due to its inseparable structure (Kivela and Crotts 2006). Thus, the combination of gastronomy and tourism enables them to protect their heritage and build a bridge between different cultures (UNWTO Report 2017). However, this bridge is not built by itself. Smith and Xiao (2008) named this the typology of culinary tourism resources, which has four categories such as facilities (buildings, land use, and routes), activities (consumption, touring, education), events (consumer shows and festivals), and organizations (restaurant, wine classification and associations). As mentioned before, countries take advantage of the gastronomic elements of a destination to promote the area, as they admit that gastronomy is a unique and vital element to brand a destination (UNWTO Report 2017), even if it has a declining product lifecycle (Sánchez-Cañizares and Tomás López-Guzmán 2012). Moreover, it

Gastronomy Tourism in the Eyes of the Local People: The Bergama Case

89

serves as a useful tool for economic, social, and environmental sustainability (Everett and Aitchison 2008). For active promotion, tourism organizations have their own gastronomic strategies in Tourism Plans (UNWTO Report 2017), such as food festivals and special events (Getz 1991; cf. Tikkanen 2007), which can contribute to a visitor’s experience (Levinsanomat 2006; cf. Tikkanen 2007). For example, in Turkey, the “olive corridor” development plan related to tourism and gastronomy tourism is explained in the Turkey Tourism Strategy Action Plan (2023) (Ministry of Culture and Tourism 2007). Besides, statements such as “local food and regional wineries will form the main tourism activities” and “gourmet tourism will be promoted with a sustainable tourism development understanding” are stated in the Cappadocia Culture and Tourism Development Region plans. Likewise, in the 10th Development Plan Tourism Specialization Commission Report (2014–2018), investments in gastronomy tourism towards development are suggested. Additionally, regarding promotion, both in the “Turkey Home” tourism promotions and “Home of Poetry” introductory film, gastronomy was one of the featured themes (Ministry of Culture and Tourism 2017). Also, at the Travel Turkey ˙Izmir Fair held in 2014, in nearly 45% out of 46 destinations’ promotion booklets, the local food of the destinations was used (Saatçi and Bulat 2016). However, research by UNWTO revealed that not every organization accepts the promotion of gastronomy because (UNWTO Report 2017): • • • • •

they do not think it is a motivation for tourists to visit the destination. they do not have sufficient monetary resources. they do not think that gastronomy has a high potential to attract tourists. in the future, they are planning to promote it. they do not think of gastronomy as a tourism product itself.

Within gastronomy tourism, local food is also another attraction which contributes to the reputation of the destination. It has a positive impact on the local economy and can be developed throughout the year independent of weather conditions (SánchezCañizares and Tomás López-Guzmán 2012). Apart from this, Sims (2009) states that local food is not only consumed for its taste, but also consumed for meaning, which seeks existential authenticity. It creates a connection with the destination and the visitor in terms of culture and place, and according to Okumus et al. (2007), it reduces the distance between the visitor and local people. Moreover, Santich (2004) explains that the increasing interest on unique or special experiences, such as local food, may be the reason to escape from the homogenizing influence of globalization. While some visitors still look for everyday products, gastronomy-motivated tourists are looking for unique and authentic experiences during their trip. While Horng and Tsai (2010) categorize food visitors according to their expectations, Quan and Wang (2004) explain food consumption behavior in two types of variety-seeking, which are routine variety seeking and novelty variety seeking. Bergama is the only ancient city that has four ancient theatres and, together with the archeological values and protected urban area, it was registered in the UNESCO World Heritage List as a “multi-layered cultural landscape” on June 22, 2014 (Visit

90

B. Güzel and C. ˙I¸sçi

˙Izmir, Bergama). Owing to its nomadic lifestyle structure and intensive livestock raising activities, the cuisine mainly depends on meat, milk, and wheat (˙Izmir Provincial Directorate of Culture and Tourism). Some of the local foods are ‘çı˘gırtma’ (fried eggplant with tomato sauce), ‘Bergama köftesi’ (meatballs), ‘Bergama Tulum peyniri’ (local cheese), and ‘nohut böre˘gi’ (chick-pea patties) (Bergama Municipality, Local Tastes). Although Bergama has its own local foods, the Ministry of Culture and Tourism of Turkey did not use the local foods of Bergama in their promotional posters with “Home of” slogans. Instead, Bergama is promoted with its ancient theatre (Ministry of Culture and Tourism). Also, Bergama Municipality has published three brochures to promote Bergama. One of them is the Japanese version of the Pergamon Introduction Brochure which is in English with 24 pages. The other one is UNESCO Information Brochure which has 40 pages and many photographs taken in Bergama (Bergama Municipality, Brochures). Unfortunately, none of the photographs in either brochure are related to local food. In Bergama, villagers living in Göbeller and Demircidere villages, located in the Kozak highlands, provide local food and beverage services to tourists visiting the area through tour operators in their own country houses. This facility is increasingly continuing. Additionally, every year Bergama has its own International Bergama Kermis. During the kermis, there are events and attractions. On September 2, 2018, the Bergama Kozak Highland Festival was held, and in this festival, local producers promoted their own products The Morchella Esculenta is an edible kind of mushroom that grows in forests in groups during spring months. It is an essential element of French cuisine and has a high economic value.

Methodology In this study, the interview technique was used for data collection. Interviews were conducted in April-May 2017 and data from 54 interviews were analyzed. The interviews were conducted by eight independent researchers with Bergama residents. The sampling method for the collection of data was purposive sampling. In this method, samples are chosen according to a previously defined and determined purpose (Erdo˘gan 2003). Assuming that they will know more about the local food of Bergama, people who are living, or have been living for many years, in Bergama were chosen for data collection. The aim of the purposive sampling method was that the interview ends when new knowledge cannot be obtained from an interviewee (Merriam 2015). Thus, sample size was determined according to the repeated data principle. During data collection, semi-structured questions were used. There were four primary and five sub-questions addressing the knowledge of gastronomy and gastronomy tourism in Bergama. These questions are: • What are the local foods of Bergama? Can you explain the food culture of Bergama? • Do you think tourists are visiting Bergama to experience local food/products?

Gastronomy Tourism in the Eyes of the Local People: The Bergama Case

91

Table 1 Themes and Codes Themes

Codes

Theme 1: Local food/products

Food culture

Theme 2: Tourist local food experience

–

Theme 3: Promoting local food/products

The lack of tourism marketing Events organized Event suggestion

Theme 4: The evaluation of food and beverage establishments in Bergama Theme 5: The evaluation of Bergama’s gastronomy tourism potential

• Do you think Bergama cuisine should be used to promote the destination? If yes, how? Are there festivals or events introducing Bergama cuisine, such as gourmet tours, traditional food festivals, or local food markets? If yes, what types of events? If no, what types of events should be planned? • What do you think about the number, service quality, and qualifications of restaurants and other food and beverage establishments in Bergama? Each interview took around seven minutes, and they were recorded via a voice recorder. Later they were transferred verbatim to MS Word; every record was gathered in one file and transferred to the NVivo 11 data analysis program. During the transferring process, the expressions of the interviewees were taken verbatim. For data analysis, content analysis was preferred; for the five themes that were formed before the analysis, four codes were obtained during the analysis process. Themes and codes obtained are shown in Table 1. After the coding process, for five themes “word clouds” were formed according to the frequency of words, and according to the similarity of words, clustering analysis was made. For the reliability and validity of this study, triangulation that predicts the participation of more than one person in the data analysis process and comparison of the same qualitative results obtained from an independent analysis, and the continuance of data analysis until contradictory and adverse conditions are eliminated, which is defined as sufficient participation and maximum variety principles (Merriam 2015), were adopted. Additionally, demographic characteristics of the interviewees, such as age, occupation, and length of residency are also analyzed. These are listed in Table 2.

Theme 1: Local Food/Products The participants were asked to identify Bergama’s local food and/or products, and according to the frequency of use of words, word clouds were formed, and frequency analysis was conducted (Fig. 1 and Table 3). Names of the products that have more

Gender *

M

M

M

F

F

F

F

M

M

F

M

F

M

M

M

F

F

Participant number

#1

#2

#3

#4

#5

#6

#7

#8

#9

# 10

# 11

# 12

# 13

# 14

# 15

# 16

# 17

62

38

66

43

65

50

87

30

23

25

24

48

30

45

39

34

Age

62

38

66

43

65

50

87

16

23

25

10

48

10

30

45

39

34

Length of stay (years)

Table 2 Demographic characteristics of participants

Cook

Cook

Chick-pea producer

Butcher

Parchment producer

Business owner

Artisan

Marketing staff

Artisan-cheese monger

Beekeeper

Clerk

Artisan

Teacher

Production operator

Pre-accountant

Electrician

Work technician

Occupation

# 44

# 43

# 42

# 41

# 40

# 39

# 38

# 37

# 36

# 35

# 34

# 33

# 32

# 31

# 30

# 29

# 28

Participant number

F

F

F

F

M

M

F

F

F

M

M

M

F

F

M

M

M

Gender *

39

35

38

53

32

32

42

36

39

51

57

36

60

22

60

52

66

Age

39

12

38

22

32

25–26

42

36

14

51

57

36

45

22

45

25

66

Length of stay (years)

(continued)

Business owner

Private sector worker

Housewife

Housewife

Teacher

Electrician

Housewife

Housewife

Artisan

Worker

Retired teacher

Artisan

Retired

Waiter

Retired

Officer

Electrician

Occupation

92 B. Güzel and C. ˙I¸sçi

Gender *

F

M

M

M

M

F

F

F

M

M

Participant number

# 18

# 19

# 20

# 21

# 22

# 23

# 24

# 25

# 26

# 27

Table 2 (continued)

47

42

34

41

57

71

25

63

56

50

Age

20

40

31

41

38

30

25

30

56

25

Length of stay (years)

National coach

Barber

Hairdresser

Greenhouse owner

Housewife

Market owner

Restaurant owner

Stationer

Artisan

Tourism staff

Occupation

# 54

# 53

# 52

# 51

# 50

# 49

# 48

# 47

# 46

# 45

Participant number

M

M

F

M

F

M

F

F

F

F

Gender *

42

32

39

47

51

44

44

54

42

73

Age

19

32

15

47

51

44

44

18

8

73

Length of stay (years)

Sales manager

Security guard

Housewife

Canteen owner

Cleaning staff

Tailor

Artisan

Housewife

Cook

Housewife

Occupation

Gastronomy Tourism in the Eyes of the Local People: The Bergama Case 93

B. Güzel and C. ˙I¸sçi

94 Fig. 1 Bergama local food/products word cloud

Table 3 Bergama local food/product word frequencies Word

Count

Weighted Percentage (%)

Çı˘gırtma

47

25.27

Bergama Tulum Peyniri

41

22.04

Leblebi (karanfilli)

25

13.44

Bergama Köftesi

22

11.83

Bergama Helvası/Tatlısı (Ramazan Helvası)

14

7.53

Ke¸skek

7

3.76

Kozak Çam Fıstı˘gı

6

3.23

Nohut Böre˘gi

5

2.69

Fıstık Helvası

4

2.15

Hö¸smerim

4

2.15

Zeytin

4

2.15

Zeytinya˘gı

4

2.15

Sura Kebabı

3

1.61

than a one-word group, such as “Bergama Tulum Peyniri,” are transformed into one word. Also, conjunction words that are used frequently and have no direct relation with the study and repeated words less than two are not analyzed. According to the results of the analysis, five foods and products that are used frequently are çı˘gırtma (fried eggplant with tomato sauce) (f = 47) (25.27%) Bergama Tulum peyniri (local cheese) (f = 41) (22.04%), leblebi (roasted chickpeas)(f = 25) (13.44%), Bergama köftesi (meatballs) (f = 22) (11.83%), and Bergama helvası (helwa aka Ramadan helwa) (f = 14) (7.53%). The word cloud for Theme 1 is shown in Fig. 1. Frequently used food/products are centered and in bold, while less frequently used ones are peripherally located and are in a small font size. The interviews provided information about the ingredients and their distinguishing characteristics in Bergama’s local food/products. For example, “although çı˘gırtma is made of eggplant, it should be local. The type of the eggplant that will be used in

Gastronomy Tourism in the Eyes of the Local People: The Bergama Case

95

çı˘gırtma is critical, not every eggplant is appropriate for the food. It should be pointed eggplant” (Participant #14); “Bergama halva is endemic in Bergama, it cannot be found elsewhere, you can find it only for a month… it is doughnut shaped, as a side dish Turkish delights named-sucuk- are served…” (Participant #13); “Bergama has its own style meatballs… for example, the spices are different; the meat is also different… the meat should be from completely local breeds… a different taste” (Participant #14); and “we have pine nuts… it is our greatest richness. They grow up, are reaped, and produced in Kozak highlands” (Participant #4).

Theme 1: Local Food/Products Seventeen of the participants stated that Bergama cuisine is affected by other cultures and cuisines. Some examples of their answers about the influence are “it is affected” (Participant #14); “Bergama allowed many immigrants. Cultures are mixed. Today there are many foods based on migration” (Participant #19); “In the past, Armenians and Greeks were living [here], there are many food and beverages [from] them…” (Participant #23); and “I think it is certainly affected by the Greek culture, yet many different societies lived here having different origins… it is affected, for sure” (Participant #36).

Theme 2: Tourist Food Experience Of the 35 participants who answered about the food experience of tourists visiting Bergama, 10 of them stated that local food is tasted by visitors, 25 of them expressed tourists do not taste local food, and 19 of them had no idea about the answer. Participants who answered the question positively explained why tourists prefer local food. These visitors are trying to escape from standard food (fast food, etc.) and tend to consume local food, which has a better taste than any other foods. The reasons participants answered negatively are that tourists are not staying in Bergama and Bergama is a beaten track on the way to somewhere else, thus not having sufficient time to taste, as well as the preference of tour operators to have a meal at other restaurants outside Bergama. Additionally, 21 participants stated that tourists are visiting the destination because of the ancient city and unfortunately the cuisine is not known.

Theme 3: Promoting Local Food/Products Forty-four of the participants answered the question about the promotion of local food positively, and 10 of them were irresolute. None of the participants answered

96

B. Güzel and C. ˙I¸sçi

the question negatively. Within this theme, three subcodes were obtained, namely “lack of promotion,” “events organized,” and “event suggestion.”

Code 1: Lack of Promotion In Theme 3 questions, participants frequently stated the lack of promotion in their answers; 19 sources and 26 references (repeated) explained the deficiency of promotion. For example, Participant #42 said that “Local food should also be promoted while promoting Bergama because foods are a part of our culture but unfortunately they are not promoted.”

Code 2: Events Organized Events including gastronomic facilities stated by the participants are the International Bergama Kermis (28 participants) and ˙Izmir Fair (Travel Turkey ˙Izmir Tourism Fair) (11 participants). The relation of Kermis with gastronomy is explained by Participant #4 as follows: “By the way, we have Bergama Kermis every year. One week. Mostly women living in villages of Bergama are opening their stands. They can introduce their own villages’ local food, easily. So that you can taste and see them. You can also see different local products also. And taste as well…” Two of the participants talked about events held in the Kozak highlands: “We have Kozak highland. It has a positive impact on the area. It is a pinetum and has recreation areas there. From time to time events are organized here…” (Participant #17).

Code 3: Event Suggestions Nine of the participants have suggested events to be held in Bergama. Among the suggestions, there are gourmet tours, food contests, attending different fairs than ˙Izmir Fair, and themed festivals (i.e., çı˘gırtma theme).

Theme 4: The Evaluation of Food and Beverage Establishments in Bergama In this study, participants were asked to evaluate the food and beverage establishments located in Bergama. Forty-five participants answered the question, and 30 of them indicated dissatisfaction (39 references), while 15 of them (16 references)

Gastronomy Tourism in the Eyes of the Local People: The Bergama Case

97

used satisfaction statements. The participants were dissatisfied with the inadequate number of the establishments, the type of the restaurants as they are mostly not for tourists (mostly artisan restaurants), the inadequate number of local foods in the menu, and the unattractive presentation of the meals. On the other hand, participants were satisfied with the hygiene and cleanliness of the restaurants. The statement of Participant #31 can be given as an example of dissatisfaction, “Although Bergama is a small town, there are two universities here and because there are many students, fast-food products are consumed more than local. Thus, there are many places such as cafés. For example, if there are 30 cafés here, there are only 2 or 3 local restaurants.” Another example can be given from the words of Participant #40, “They have both low service quality and they appeal to everyone. Mostly there are local artisan restaurants.” Participant #41 is another example, “As I said before, there is not a place for traditional food, mostly pita restaurants or hamburger restaurants.”

Theme 5: The Evaluation of Bergama’s Gastronomy Tourism Potential The participants also stated their opinions about the advantages (16 participants) and disadvantages (31 participants) of Bergama considering gastronomy tourism. The main advantages of Bergama in gastronomy tourism are: having a varied cuisine, having healthy food and local products, and being listed in UNESCO World Heritage List. The disadvantages of the town are the inadequate number of food and beverage establishments, lack of promotion, and small number of events. For advantages, representative statements are “… I think the local foods of Bergama are healthier than others because it is made of organic products and does not contain any harmful ingredients.” (Participant #27); “Bergama is convenient for agriculture, and I mean, it is rich… the soil is suitable to grow every kind of vegetable” and “… we have unique and rich cuisine… with our olive oil, olives, honey, pine nut…”.

Conclusion Culinary tourism is an essential type of tourism for a destination which has a large variety of food. Bergama has a cuisine which is known nation-wide. The aim of this study was to reveal the thoughts of the residents of Bergama about the local cuisine and its promotion. The results showed that Bergama’s local cuisine is not promoted sufficiently even if it has a rich food variety. Still, the culinary tourism market segment appears to be a critical factor in creating return visits (Harrington and Ottenbacher 2010). The richness of Bergama cuisine mainly depends on the immigration from and hosting of many societies in the past. However, in Bergama’s case, due to lack of promotion of local food, the industry is

98

B. Güzel and C. ˙I¸sçi

not gaining the speed needed, and that causes a sustainability problem for the local food which may result in facing extinction and economic problems for the residents. Another problem the town facing is that the tourists cannot experience the local food properly. As mentioned before, they either have no time to visit and taste the food, or are on the way to another place, or are visiting the town only for the Bergama ancient city. Besides, the municipality is not emphasizing the cuisine of the town well. The brochures published have many pictures and photographs in them. However, none of them are related to local food or products produced by local people. This also causes a sustainability problem for both the products and residents. To overcome this problem, cooperation with tour operators is essential. With effective communications, the negative impacts of this problem can be reduced, but by itself, it is not enough. Local people themselves are also aware that the food and beverage establishments are not adequate in both number and service quality. As Gyimothy and Mykletun (2009) stated, the role of the restaurants is also important in attracting tourists and 34–54% of tourists indicate that restaurants influence their visit to a destination. For Sparks et al. (2003), they affected the image of a destination with their reputation. They found that 60% of visitors to a destination stated that restaurants are essential in the decision process. Considering the Bergama case, the service quality of the establishments should be enhanced. The main problem is that due to the number of students in the town, which provides an income for the artisans, many of the food and beverage establishments in the town are concentrating on fast food. Also, because the presentation of the meals is not attractive, tourists may hesitate to try them. Yet, a meal does not consist only of taste but also presentation. Thus, garnishing the dishes should be suggested to restaurant owners. To develop a destination concentrated on gastronomy, Sims (2009) suggests that an iconic food/drink should be promoted to create a brand that will create a bond between the visitor and destination. For Bergama, this product can be “çı˘gırtma” as the local food. The main problem determined from this study is that local people believe that promotion is lacking. Visits to fairs and one festival are not considered adequate. Yet, because Bergama is 110 km from ˙Izmir, people living in ˙Izmir do not drive to Bergama only to taste the foods. Thus, if the town aims to attract more gastronomy tourists, it should offer more attractions apart from the ancient city visits, such as festivals and kermis.

Limitations and Future Studies This study has its own limitations. The first limitation is that the results are relevant for Bergama as a destination. Thus, the results cannot be generalized to other destinations. The second limitation is that among the questions, the residents were asked whether they know if tourists are visiting the destination for its gastronomic attributes, but what if the resident has not interacted with tourists? Thus, there should be a question related to the interaction frequency of the resident and tourist. The third limitation is that the researchers do not have any information about the frequency of

Gastronomy Tourism in the Eyes of the Local People: The Bergama Case

99

the residents’ dining out habits, such as frequency of eating out or the quality of the restaurants in which the residents preferred to eat. For future studies, it is suggested to eliminate the limitations of the current study to observe and reveal the differences in gastronomic destinations.

References Bergama Belediyesi, Bro¸sürler, http://www.bergama.bel.tr/Home/Page/154. Accessed 12 March 2018. Bergama Belediyesi, Yöresel Lezzetler, http://www.bergama.bel.tr/Home/Page/675. Accessed 11 March 2018. Boniface, P. (2003). Tasting tourism: Traveling for food and drink. Burlington: Ashgate Publishing. Cohen, E., & Avieli, N. (2004). Food in tourism: Attraction and impediment. Annals of Tourism Research, 31(4), 755–778. ˙ Erdo˘gan, ˙I. (2003). Pozivist Metodoloji: Bilimsel Ara¸stırma Tasarımı Istatistiksel Yöntemler Analiz ve Yorum. Ankara: Erk Yayınları. Everett, S., & Aitchison, C. (2008). The role of food tourism in sustaining regional identity: A case study of Cornwall, South West England. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 16(2), 150–167. Fields, K. (2002). Demand for the gastronomy tourism product: Motivational factors. In EnA.-M. Hjalager & G. Richards (Eds.), Tourism and Gastronomy (pp. 36–50). London: Routledge. Getz, D. (1991). Festivals, Special Events, and Tourism. New York: Van Nostrand. Green, G. P., & Dougherty, M. L. (2008). Localizing linkages for food and tourism: Culinary tourism as a community development strategy. Community Development, 39(3), 148–158. Gyimothy, S., & Mykletun, R. J. (2009). Scary food: Commodifying culinary heritage as meal adventures in tourism. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 15(3), 259–273. Hall, C. M. & Mitchell, R. (2005). Gastronomic tourism: Comparing food and wine tourism experiences. In M. Novelli (Ed.), Niche tourism: Contemporary issues, trends and cases. Oxford: Butterworth. Hall, C. M., & Sharples, L. (2003). The consumption of experiences or the experience of consumption? An introduction to the tourism of taste. In C. M. Hall, L. Sharples, R. Mitchell, N. Macionis, & B. Cambourne (Eds.), Food tourism around the world development, management and markets (pp. 1–24). UK: Butterworth-Heinemann. Harrington, R. J., & Ottenbacher, M. C. (2010). Culinary tourism—a case study of the gastronomic capital. Journal of Culinary Science & Technology, 8(1), 14–32. Horng, J.-S., & Tsai, C.-T. (2010). Government websites for promoting East Asian culinary tourism: A cross-national analysis. Tourism Management, 31, 74–85. Kivela, J., & Crotts, J. C. (2005). Gastronomy tourism: a meaningful travel market segment. Journal of Culinary Science & Technology, 4(2/3), 39–55. Kivela, J., & Crotts, J. C. (2006). Tourism and gastronomy: gastronomy’s influence on how tourists experience a destination. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 30(3), 354–377. Long, L. (2004). Culinary tourism: Exploring the other through food. Kentucky: University of Kentucky Press. ˙ Merriam, S. B. (2015). Nitel Ara¸stırma Desen ve Uygulama Için Bir Rehber. Nobel Yayıncılık, Ankara: Çeviren. S. Turan. Okumus, B., Okumus, F., & McKercher, B. (2007). Incorporating local and international cuisines in the marketing of tourism destinations: The cases of Hong Kong and Turkey. Tourism Management, 28, 253–261. Quan, S., & Wang, N. (2004). Towards a structural model of the tourist experience: an illustration from food experiences in tourism. Tourism Management, 25, 297–305.

100

B. Güzel and C. ˙I¸sçi

Resmi Gazete, Kent Konseyi Yönetmeli˘gi (City Council Regulation). 2006, s. 1.1, Turkey, http:// www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2006/10/20061008-5.htm Accessed 07 April 2018. Saatçi, G., & Bulat, Ö. G. (2016). Yöresel Yemeklerin Bro¸sürlerde Tanıtım Unsuru Olarak Kullanılmasının Analizine Yönelik Bir Ara¸stırma. Uluslararası Sosyal Ara¸stırmalar Dergisi, 9(42), 1999–2006. Sanchez-Canizares, S. M., & Lopez-Guzman, T. (2012). Gastronomy as a tourism resource: profile of the culinary tourist. Current Issues in Tourism, 15(3), 229–245. Santich, B. (2004). The study of gastronomy and its relevance to hospitality education and training. Hospitality Management, 23, 15–24. Shenoy, S. S. (2005). Food tourism and the culinary tourist. The Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Parks, Recreation, And Tourism Management, Graduate School of Clemson University, South Carolina, United States. Sims, R. (2009). Food, place and authenticity: Local food and the sustainable tourism experience. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 17(3), 321–336. Smith, S., & Costello, C. (2009). Segmenting visitors to a culinary event: Motivations, travel behavior, and expenditures. Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 18(1), 44–67. Smith, S. L. J., & Xiao, H. (2008). Culinary tourism supply chains: A preliminary examination. Journal of Travel Research, 46, 289–299. Stanley, J., & Stanley, L. (2015). Food Tourism a Practical Marketing Guide. UK: CABI. T. C. Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlı˘gı, Tanıtım Görselleri, http://www.kultur.gov.tr/TR,120659/tanitimgorselleri.html Accessed 17 April 2018. Tikkanen, I. (2007). Maslow’s hierarchy and food tourism in Finland: five cases. British Food Journal, 109(9), 721–734. Timothy, D. J. (2016). Introduction: Heritage Cuisines, Foodways and Culinary Traditions. In D. J. Timothy (Ed.), Heritage cuisines traditions, identities and tourism (pp. 1–24). United Kingdom: Routledge. UNWTO. (2017). Second Global Report on Gastronomy Tourism (Vol. Sixteen). Spain: UNWTO. Visit ˙Izmir, Bergama, http://www.visitizmir.org/tr/sayfa/nereye-gitmeli/bergama. Accessed 26 March 2018. Walter, P. (2017). Culinary tourism as living history: Stating, tourist performance and perceptions of authenticity in a Thai cooking school. Journal of Heritage Tourism, 12(4), 365–379.

An Evaluation of Chefs’ Views on the Culinary Arts and Design Processes Sema Ekincek and Semra Günay Akta¸s

Introductıon The word “gastronomy” was formed by merging the Greek words gaster (stomach) and nomas (law). In the Physiology of Taste, written in 1825, the French gastronome Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin stated, “Gastronomy is the intelligent knowledge of whatever concerns man’s nourishment” (Civitello 2004: 174). Gastronomy has also been defined as the art or science of good eating. Over the course of history, cooking became an art, and the term gastronomy is now, according to the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, defined as the “art and practice of cooking and eating good food” (Wehmeier 2000). Gastronomy is, therefore, the overall practice of cooking and enjoying food. The “culinary arts” are defined similarly as the “art of cooking food” (Bober 1999). The “culinary arts” form a discipline that encompasses knowledge of food science, food preparation, nutrition, cooking techniques, aesthetics, and culture (Jeou-Shyan and Lee 2007). Culinary artists should have professional knowledge and skills as well as cultural and artistic training. However, creativity is the key ingredient in culinary art, and the most essential one in elevating the culinary profession (Jeou-Shyan and Lee 2007: 5–6). Studies have shown that visual factors, such as color and balance in a plate, can affect the perception and responses of the person eating a dish (Michel et al. 2014). Preparing food, cooking, and presenting the delicacy of the food are important, but the aesthetic values that affect the visual presentation of food also translate into actions. Academicians have begun to explore the meaning of this relationship by S. Ekincek (B) Department of Gastronomy and Culinary Arts, Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey e-mail: [email protected] S. G. Akta¸s Department of Tourism Management, Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 ˙I. O. Co¸skun et al. (eds.), Heritage Tourism Beyond Borders and Civilizations, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5370-7_8

101

102

S. Ekincek and S. G. Akta¸s

using many approaches to interpret gastronomy, including anthropology, sociology, and even visual art techniques (Piatti 2014). The relationship between food, art, and design has gained importance with the realization of the aesthetic and visual aspects of food and the increase in efforts to express beauty through food. When looking at food presentation from the perspective of art, the plate serves as a canvas and the food becomes an integral whole with its flavor and presentation (Deroy et al. 2014). Escoffier emphasized that cookery is an art and that it will continue to be, such that the kitchen can be divided into chapters and fundamental changes in the kitchen can be realized (Durand et al. 2007). Chefs have a major role in associating cookery with art and design. The chefs of the past, who were trained by their mentors, focused on skills and techniques lacking modern management and innovation (Jeou-Shyan and Lee 2007). For this reason, many of the chefs worked in small- and medium-sized enterprises, and there were few chefs with a global perspective. However, in recent years, the establishment of high-level institutes for cooking education has brought forward new attitudes and a global perspective; as a result, chefs have increasingly become creative professionals (Jeou-Shyan and Lee 2007). Preparing food, cooking, and presenting the delicacy of the food are important, but the aesthetic values that affect the visual presentation of food also translate into actions. For this reason, culinary artists should receive cultural and artistic education in addition to learning professional knowledge and skills. When the literature is examined, it can be seen that there are studies examining the relationship between food and art (Quinet 1981; Gazzoli 1995; Telfer 1996; Wood 2000; Kuehn 2005; Strycker 2013; Piatti 2014). Because cooking is considered only a skill-focused discipline, there have been few studies on the food design process. This study focuses views of chefs on culinary arts and food design. The study is important in terms of revealing the definition of culinary arts, the qualifications of culinary artists, the design process of chefs, and their criteria when evaluating a presentation.

Methodology The aim of the study is to reveal how chefs define the culinary arts, their opinions on the qualities of a culinary artist, and to determine chefs’ creative design process and presentation criteria. The study was based on qualitative research methods and faceto-face interviews conducted with experts in the field of gastronomy. The interviewers employed a data collection tool designed to reveal what people think about and what they think, their feelings, attitudes, and the factors that direct their behavior (Ekiz 2009). A semi-structured questionnaire was used in the study. Literature on the topic of the study was used to create the questions for the interview form. In this context, the semi-structured interview form was used in interviews with seven chefs. On the interview form, chefs provided their opinions on the definition of culinary art, the qualifications of a culinary artist, the food design process, and presentation criteria.

An Evaluation of Chefs’ Views on the Culinary Arts and Design Processes

103

The interviews lasted half an hour and the participants were asked for their permission to record the interviews. The data for this study were collected from May 10 to 15, 2016. The participants were selected based on their knowledge of the culinary arts, the awards that they had won in culinary competitions, their jury experience, and their willingness to be interviewed. In this context, the participants determined by a purposive sampling method. The interviews were held in Istanbul at an event for chefs and gourmands, and they were conducted with only seven chefs due to time constraints. A descriptive analysis method was used to analyze the interview data. In descriptive analysis, direct quotations are frequently given to reflect the views of the interviewed or observed individuals. The purpose of this analysis is to present the findings to the reader in an edited and interpreted way (Yıldırım and Sim¸ ¸ sek 2003). The aim, of course, is to examine the views of the chefs about the culinary arts and the qualities of a culinary artist holistically and in detail, to analyze their perceptions, to analyze the research data on the basis of the interview questions, and to reveal the similarities and differences in the chefs’ responses to each interview question. The data are then summarized and interpreted according to the previously determined themes. The voices recorded during the interviews are transferred from the audio recorder to the computer and then deciphered. Recording the participants, checking the accuracy of castings, establishing interview indices, and conducting reliability studies are important stages in the analysis of qualitative research data based on interviews (Kvale 1996). In order to ensure the reliability of the research, a variety of researchers were consulted, and an expert review was conducted. Data analysis was carried out by two different experts in the field. The researchers evaluated the study together with a person who had general knowledge about the research subject and specialized in qualitative research methods. Another means of demonstrating reliability is to take quotations directly from the text to show the links between the data and the findings. In the present study, direct quotations from the participants have been presented in relation to each finding. The subjects who were interviewed for the analysis were given a code number (C1, C2, C3, etc.).

Findings Demographic Data of the Chefs Demographic information of the chefs are presented in Table 1. Seven chefs were interviewed. While six of the participants lived in Istanbul, one chef lived in Ku¸sadası. Four of the chefs participating in the survey were men and three were women. While three of the participants were single, four were married. Six of them had undergraduate degrees and one participant had a master’s degree. Many of the participants stated that they completed more than one undergraduate degree in order to improve themselves in different fields. In addition, all of the participants

33

Istanbul

Single

Undergraduate

Sugar paste artist, Instructor chef

Age

Home city

Marital status

Educational Status

Area

F

Gender

C1

Instructor chef

Undergraduate

Married

Istanbul

33

M

C2

Table 1 Demographic information of the chefs C3

Instructor chef

Undergraduate

Married

Aydin

37

M

C4

Sugar paste artist, Instructor chef

Undergraduate

Single

Istanbul

36

F

C5

Instructor chef

Master degree

Married

Istanbul

46

M

Instructor chef

Undergraduate

Single

Istanbul

37

M

C6

Sugar paste artist, Instructor chef

Undergraduate

Married

Istanbul

50

F

C7

104 S. Ekincek and S. G. Akta¸s

An Evaluation of Chefs’ Views on the Culinary Arts and Design Processes

105

stated that felt they served as teachers as well as serving in the professional sense. The participants’ ages ranged from 33 to 50 years. All the chefs participating in the research had represented our country in international competitions and had won many awards. The findings derived from the opinions of the chefs on the design process, aesthetics, and presentation criteria were presented by including direct quotations from the participants under the relevant theme headings. The questions used in the study were taken as the themes. These themes were culinary arts, qualifications of culinary artists, design process and presentation evaluation criteria.

Culinary Arts The ideas of the chefs about the relationship between the kitchen and art and the definition of the culinary arts were included in this theme. C1 stated that he defined culinary art as a “tasteable” art and explained the permanence problem of the culinary arts as follows: There are different art movements. Those who break what they do, disrupt what they do, installation art, active art and artworks, interactive art.

In other words, theater is also temporary. He also emphasized that cuisine is art: In Turkey, there are chefs who really made it in flavor. So, when you eat, there are those who appeal to both your eyes, your soul, your taste, everything you can feel. When you eat, this really is a beautiful memory, really that art, that you understand that it belongs to that person who has created works of style. This is both in taste and visuality. For example, in vegetable carving and in our oil sculptures.

On the other hand, K1 stated that aesthetics is an important element in the kitchen: It has to create desire to taste when you look at the work. For example, the product has sometimes tasted good but it consists of a dirty image. It should not look dirty. I think that in my profession (sugar dough artist) there should be vivid colors, not dark, and that proper coloring is important. In fact, it is important to know the material well. You must be one with the material you use. So now that you touch it, you need to know how you can shape it and how it will react so that you can use it in its most aesthetically pleasing way.

C2 stated that cookery was an art and expressed his recommendations for his students as follows: It is art to design a beautiful dish presentation and to make good food. There is something I always say to children, come out, live, go around the museum, go to the theater, see. Because all of them evoke something, pressing some buttons. In fact, you are making too many connotations from those pictures that you look at. See as many plates as possible. Because when you think of what you use when making a plate, it can be very disturbing or very classic if the visual weights are very symmetrical. Where will you use color contrasts? What kind of texture do you want? How it will it taste?

C3 also emphasizes the importance of the cost of the culinary arts, as well as the taste and visual elements of cookery:

106

S. Ekincek and S. G. Akta¸s

What we call the culinary art, it contains flavor and then it contains visuality. I don’t really want to emphasize this, but I have to say it’s worth the cost.

C4 explained that there is no awareness of the relationship between the kitchen and art: Actually, cooking is an art anyway. I mean, for example, I went from the normal pastry to this sugar dough, but it would be very wrong to just consider the sugar paste as art. Food is also an art. When you look at the plate presentation, you must look at the color harmony, you must look at what goes with it. How does it taste? Which dishes are compatible with each other? In fact, this area is an art that includes all this technical information. But, unfortunately, we are not aware of this.

In addition to the statements above, K4 also expressed their views on the aesthetics of the kitchen: Now there is such a thing as the golden ratio. When you look at a man’s face, if he doesn’t have this, he’s ugly. This is something that’s in our subconscious. Maybe the person who passes through this road does not know what the golden ratio means, but we live in our subconscious, we live in aesthetics, in fact. For example, color harmony. The sun has red tones at dusk and these colors are contrasted with green. So, in fact there is art in life, so why not in cookery?

C5’s statements regarding the culinary arts are given below: I think the culinary arts require 10% talent. The rest is a discipline that can be learned. A very enjoyable discipline. One of the most important needs of people. It even appeals to multiple needs. You may also be using your stomach to satisfy your hunger, or you may also be using it to satisfy your ego. The work has a visual dimension and a creative dimension. I think culinary arts are a complex and complementary system.

C6’s definition of the culinary arts is as follows: For me, the culinary art means that you can imagine what people cannot imagine in their current life, and that you can imagine it, present it, and make them happy.

K7 expresses a view about the architectural design of the kitchen that is parallel to those of the other chefs: Art is all over the kitchen. Cooking is an art, dessert is an art, pastry is an art. Everything about food, as well the architectural design of the kitchen, is an art.

Qualifications of Culinary Artists This theme explores the evaluations of the chefs regarding the qualifications of culinary artists. K1 explains the characteristics of the kitchen artist in the following terms: He must be original. If he wants to be a culinary artist, he must have an artistic vision. Because when knowledge is not put into practice and supported, it does not mean anything. He must be interested in a branch of art. Music, painting, theater. He must be interested in art.

An Evaluation of Chefs’ Views on the Culinary Arts and Design Processes

107

K3 expresses the culinary artist’s qualities as follows: First of all, he must be a clean man. Second, one must be a man of mathematics. Third, one must be a very talented man. Of course, creativity is important, but sustainable creativity. This is very important.

K4 reveals the qualities that the culinary artist should possess: I think we can say that the person who uses the food in an artistic way is a person who reflects every area of the art in his plate in a way that will satisfy both his sales and his own ego. You can’t be an artist if you look at life the way everyone else looks at it. So, we need to change a little.

K5, while explaining the culinary artist’s qualities, divides the kitchen workers into two groups and emphasizes the importance of experience. I think there are standard chefs. The standard means those who come from the core of this work and intend to feed people. There are also chefs who are addressing higher levels, more creative ones. So, as I said, this discipline is a discipline that can be learned because it is entirely a product of will. You gain experience in that work tempo. The more you gain experience, the more you create, or you start to produce.

K6 refers to aspects of the culinary arts like observation and research: He must be a really good observer and a good researcher. He must have good culinary knowledge. Must be a good cook before all. He must master techniques. He should watch life. Life should follow well. He should follow the current situation well. He must observe the world well. So, by this synthesis, one can become a good culinary artist.

K7 focuses on the qualities of the artistic spirit, experience, and pleasure that should be the focus of the culinary artist: He has to be interested in the kitchen. He must have an artistic spirit. He needs to be in the kitchen. He needs to cook in the kitchen, cook dessert, bake a cake. If he has already had two experiences and enjoyed it, he may decide to do it as a profession.

Design Process When the chefs were asked about the elements that influenced them during the design phase, C1 answered: …I am very impressed by the Gothic style, from illusion and humor. For example, there may be rebellion. The things that stick to the general perceptions of society. I actually want people to see my character when they look at my business. But of course you can’t do this to any order from the customer, but you can do it in a cooking competition.

C2 stated the elements that influenced their designs: The thing that feeds me the most is the dishes I’ve seen before and the plates I’ve made before.

108

S. Ekincek and S. G. Akta¸s

C3 cited the role of nature in the design process: Everything is nature. There’s no other explanation for that. Don’t we all do that? It’s like a tree branch. We’re pouring the sauce with the back of the spoon. We are inspired by nature, we are not doing anything else. Cakes have always been round, but now we’ve just started to make them in other ways. We take our designs from nature.

On the other hand, C4 indicates that she draws inspiration from gothic style and is inspired by art in her work: My head works a little differently. I grew up in a family of artists and my life was always intertwined with art. That was an advantage for me. My work is a little wild and gothic. My outward appearance certainly does not reflect this. Those who see my work are surprised and ask, ‘Where do you find these creative ideas in your work?’ I’m telling you, I’ve expressed these feelings inside of me that I have nothing about it. I usually deal with fantastic things, computer games, flying people, things with special powers, stories, fairy tales, or something. We need to follow the outside world in our work, not just chefs or other people in our industry. I, for example, follow the sculptors, follow the painters, I’m inspired by them. One needs to know himself, what he likes, and what he can do.

C5 emphasizes the need to read and investigate a lot while shaping the design process: I read a lot, I can say that. I mean, I’m getting too many books. Both in terms of design and to make a recipe. Because what you’ve done is going on in a very short time. After transferring the information to the students, they assimilate it very quickly. You do the same thing every year, you leave yourself on the same level and you cannot give the student something new. In order to overcome this, I read a lot of research. I had the opportunity to study molecular gastronomy at the master’s level. Maybe it’s been around for 15 years in Europe, but it’s new to Turkey. There is a high demand for it now.

Finally, C6 expressed what fed his designs: Life, technology, environment, success, success stories. Many things are life itself.

C7 explained that we should strengthen visual memory by emphasizing the importance of nature: Visual memory is very important. For example, I’m working on a flower. I take a picture of flowers. I think about how I can paint them. I’m taking flowers home, I’m looking at how many petals there are and examining their colors. I take a lot of photos. I’ve got a live flower sample. There are hundreds of thousands of examples on the Internet, good and bad. Even from the worst, you can get something to inspire you. So, you must watch and follow a lot. Visual memory needs to be strengthened. I think the artist’s biggest thing is visual memory. You absolutely need to develop it.

Presentation Evaluation Criteria When evaluating a presentation in a food/pastry contest, the subjects were asked about the criteria they considered, and their answers are given below.

An Evaluation of Chefs’ Views on the Culinary Arts and Design Processes

109

C1’s criteria were based on certain rules: We are bound to them by the rules of the International Chefs’ Association in competitions. There were more categories in live competitions, and 4 of them were in visual arts. Hygiene, category compatibility, application, and authenticity. In the category of flavor, there is more to consider. Likewise, compliance with the category, preparation, hygiene in the work area, preparation of the materials used, presentation, everything enters the work. It’s more because we’re also tasting it. And in the live competition, you must taste it right away. Whether the dishes fit the menu, they are preparing the menu, whether it’s already prepared or not, because they’re very important.

C2 uses the following criteria when evaluating a presentation: Consistency, first. Tissue consistency and balance, flavor consistency and balance, texture consistency and balance. What do I mean? If you don’t want to push the boundaries with a plate, you don’t make a main meal that you create from only crunchy things. There must be an element of crustiness there. Isn’t a plate that you create entirely from sauces very empty? Interesting, it seems like you’re eating paint, but it doesn’t create the satisfaction of eating. So, what is it that we want to reach? In which context is the goal desired? So, what is the concept? Is it a starter plate, a main dinner plate, or a dessert plate?

C3 states that the evaluation criteria are addressed in two different ways: First of all, we have the criteria of paying attention when cooking the food. We look at cleaning, selection of materials, and how it works. In the presentation, we look at originality, the techniques used, the taste, and the appearance. We look at everything.

C4 says he considers different criteria in pastry and cooking competitions: At least three techniques must be used. It’s not gonna be fingerprints, it’s gonna be clean. He will not have time to learn everything in a day. After that, he needs to know the color harmony, he needs to know the anatomy very well. If he’s going to make a human figure or an animal figure, he should know the anatomy. These are all things we know. It also must be based on a theme. It must be an original idea, so it must be based on an original foundation, not an imitation of something. These should receive attention in the presentations. When tasting, the taste, the heat of the dish and the cooking properties are very important. Is the preliminary preparation enough? Have you paid attention to hygiene and sanitation? These are all very important criteria in cooking competitions.

C5 states that he has paid attention to the degree of cooking, the suitability of the material used, and color harmony: The presentation, of course, is related to food. For example, be careful not to cut the béchamel sauce. If something is made of macaroni, I care that the pasta is cooked on an al dente setting. In other words, it is a situation that changes according to which food is made. If I were judging a soup, I would pay attention to the density of the soup or I would look at the density of the amount of sauce or the amount of flavor in it. I’d be looking at whether she’s used broth or chicken broth. There is a lot of difference between making soup with normal water and making it with meat or chicken. It takes you three hours to make one, and the other, half an hour. I mean, I’m looking at whether he makes a great effort or not. I’ll check the color harmony. For instance, by dividing the plate into four, did the person pay attention to color harmony? Did he take care of the cut? Is the cooking technique done right? These are the features that usually arise. You look at them, but color matching is very important. In other words, did he use colors that match each other, or colors that contrast with each other? Color harmony is very important.

110

S. Ekincek and S. G. Akta¸s

C6 says he cares about new ideas: I think the originality that one wants to reveal is more important than anything else. So, for the moment it may not have a very good flavor. But if he puts a unique idea there, he will get it right someday. If he couldn’t do it that day, then he’ll do it one day. Original ways of thinking are very important to me. So, it may not taste good at that moment, but the idea is very important. The exit point is very important because it will determine your branding and those ideas that are not ordinary in the future.

C7 states that criteria such as technique, color, taste, hygiene, and presentation are important: It is very important for me to use the right technique when doing a job because our job is a little technical. If you do the job according to the technique, it goes more smoothly. Then, the color harmony is important to me. 50% of the visual element, in my opinion, involves playing with color. If you do not use the colors properly, even if the technique is correct, the work never shows itself. If you think artfully, color transitions and light are important. The flavor is also very important. For example, we received Wax’s jury training. If you are judging a cooking competition, you need to look at the techniques and hygiene of the chefs. Chefs have beards and mustaches lately. I think they shouldn’t. In addition to this, it is very important whether the food is brought to the place in the appropriate cold chain. In pastry competitions, we do it visually, but there are a lot of criteria in the edible part of its every detail, and of course we must look at the details. Now, the first is that when you bring it from the kitchen to the presentation table, the holding area should not be full. We’re putting more minimized things in it, not fusion cuisine. You will leave a finger-sized area which is supposed to be left empty on the plate to carry for service. Proportion is important. When you look at the plate the proportion is important. How much of the plate was empty, how much was filled out, and has he made an original design? Taste is important.

Conclusion The aim of this study was to define culinary art and the culinary artist’s qualifications and to investigate the factors that influenced the chefs during the design stages and the criteria they used to evaluate the presentations. As a result of the study, it can be seen that most of the chefs considered cookery an art. Based on these evaluations, it can be defined as a “tasteable” art that shows a chef’s originality and creativity, has a visual element, appeals to all the senses, and has been prepared within the framework of aesthetic rules. The studies in the literature also contain statements supporting this definition. For example, in his study, Brady (2005) emphasized that the development of aesthetic sensitivity is a very valuable activity and that smell and taste should be a part of it. According to Kuehn (2005), the meal is part of a very basic, accessible level of aesthetic interaction. Horng and Hu (2008) have also developed the culinary creativity process model, emphasizing that creativity is an essential part of the kitchen. According to Strycker (2013), art can utilize all our senses, and it is about creating a sensory experience for people to see, feel, and hear, through painting, sculpture, installation art, dance, and music. In addition, he emphasized the element

An Evaluation of Chefs’ Views on the Culinary Arts and Design Processes

111

of creativity by saying that the preparation and transformation of food with elements of color, texture, smell, and flavor is an art and that the selection and transformation of these elements is a creative process. The qualities of culinary artists are defined by the chefs as follows: originality, creativity, cleanliness, artistic vision, concern for art, experience, knowledge of the kitchen and culinary techniques, perceptiveness and research skills, innovation, and familiarity with technology and life. Similarly, Jeou-Shyan and Lee (2007) found that a creative culinary artist has the qualities of openness to new ideas, an interest in art, curiosity, the willingness to learn, and a high degree of creativity. In this context, it is necessary for a culinary artist to master the knowledge of basic kitchen and culinary techniques use them effectively, as well as to perceive cuisine as an art and to reflect this art in the taste and presentation of the food. The aesthetic and visual elements of each dish designed by the culinary artists cause them to think of their food as a work of art; the culinary artist is a person who can appeal to many senses, such as sight, smell, taste, and touch. In designing their own business and food presentations, the chefs were inspired by a certain understanding of art, tried to form their own style, and drew inspiration from many sources, such as previously seen or prepared dishes, gothic and illusion styles, traditional Turkish cuisine, nature, and art. In addition, the chefs emphasized that it is very important to develop the visual memory by examining everything in the nature and the environment. The chefs stated that they paid attention to art, studied and researched a lot, and they created their designs with influences from technology and life experiences. Parallel to the results of this study, Ottenbacher and Harrington (2007) pointed out that the sources of inspiration for Michelin-starred chefs were visiting colleagues’ restaurants, reading cooking literature, using new cooking technologies, visiting food markets and cooking shows, traveling abroad, remembering experiences with previous employers, and getting ideas from customers. The criteria used by the chefs in evaluating food presentation in competitions were flavor, hygiene, compliance with the category, originality, consistency (texture consistency and balance, flavor consistency and balance, and visual consistency and balance), material selection, theme selection, technical proficiency, use of sauce, temperature of cooking, use of space, and color harmony. Consequently, it was observed that most of the chefs used design elements such as composition, color, texture, visual integrity, line, shape, and form in the design process. Dahl (2009) also emphasized the importance of visual presentation: “The taste sense is evoked by the five flavors (sweet, salt, sour, bitter, and umami), and finally the visual is stimulated through presentation and composition of color and aesthetics.” When we look at the literature on design process, it can be seen that principles such as direction, space, balance, proportion, hierarchy, emphasis, continuity, and integrity are mentioned; however, it was observed that the chefs only addressed the principles of space and balance. By contributing to the literature related to the field of gastronomy, this study can increase chefs’ awareness of the design process. In addition, we expect that the study will shed light on the preparation process, food design, and cooking competitions for future chefs. The only limitation of the study is that the chefs interviewed for the study

112

S. Ekincek and S. G. Akta¸s

were all sugar-paste artists, except for one culinary instructor. In further studies, a larger, more representative sample should be provided by including vegetable carving experts, ice sculpture carvers, hotel chefs, and independent restaurant chefs. Acknowledgements This study was supported by Anadolu University Scientific Research Projects Commission under the grant no: 1806E231.

References Bober, P. (1999). Art, culture, and cuisine: Ancient and medieval gastronomy. Chicago, USA: University Chicago Press Ltd. Brady, E. (2005). Sniffing and savoring: The aesthetics of smells and tastes. In The aesthetics of everyday life (pp. 177–193). Civitello, L. (2004). Cuisine and culture: A history of food and people. Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley. Deroy, O., Michel, C., Piqueras-Fiszman, B., & Spence, C. (2014). The plating manifesto (I): From decoration to creation. Flavour, 3(1), 6. Durand, R., Rao, H., & Monin, P. (2007). Code and conduct in french cuisine: Impact of code changes on external evaluations. Strategic Management Journal, 28(5), 455–472. Ekiz, D. (2009). Bilimsel ara¸stırma yöntemleri [Scientific research methods]. Ankara: Anı Yayıncılık. Gazzoli, J. J. (1995). The recipe for “three star” management success. Trusts and Estates-Atlanta, 134, 8–15. Horng, J. S., & Hu, M. L. (2008). The mystery in the kitchen: Culinary creativity. Creativity Research Journal, 20(2), 221–230. Jeou-Shyan & Lee, H. Y. C. (2007). What does it take to be a creative culinary artist? Journal of Culinary Science & Technology, 5(2-3), 5–22. Kuehn, G. (2005). How can food be art? A. Light (Ed.), In The aesthetics of everyday life (194–213). New York: Columbia Press. Retrivied 15 June 2017, from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ anadolu/detail.action?docID=895209. Kvale, S. (1996). The 1,000-page question. Qualitative Inquiry, 2(3), 275–284. Michel, C., Velasco, C., Gatti, E., & Spence, C. (2014). A taste of Kandinsky: Assessing the influence of the artistic visual presentation of food on the dining experience. Flavour, 3(1), 7. Ottenbacher, M. & Harrington, R. J. (2007). The innovation development process of Michelinstarred chefs. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 19(6), 444–460. Piatti, C. (2014). Art and haute cuisine: A contribution. In P. Stupples (Ed.), Art and Food. Newcastleupon-Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Quinet, M. L. (1981). Food as art: The problem of function. The British Journal of Aesthetics, 21(2), 159. Strycker, J. (2013). From palate to palette: Can food be art? Retrivied 10, July 2017, from http:// createquity.com/2013/01/from-palate-topalette-can-food-be-art/. Telfer, E. (1996). Food as art. In Food for thought: Philosophy and food (41–61). London: Routledge. Retrivied 4, July 2017, from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/anadolu/reader.action? docID=168836&ppg=8. Wehmeier, S. (2000). Oxford advanced learner’s dictionary (6th ed.). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Wood, R. C. (2000). Is food an art form? Pretentiousness and pomposity in cookery wood. In R. C. Wood (Ed.), Strategic questions in food and beverage management (pp. 153–171). Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.

An Evaluation of Chefs’ Views on the Culinary Arts and Design Processes

113

Yıldırım, A., & Sim¸ ¸ sek, H. (2003). Qualitative research techniques in social sciences. Ankara: Seçkin Publications.

Sema Ekincek is a research assistant in the Department of Gastronomy and Culinary Arts, Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey. Her research focuses on Tourism, Gastronomy and Culinary Arts. Semra Günay Akta¸s is a Professor in the Department of Tourism Management, Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey where she teaches courses on tourism development and tourism geography. Her research focuses on Geography, Tourism Geography and Geographic Information Systems.

The Potential of Amasya Cuisine for Gastronomy Tourism Önder Yayla and Seyda ¸ Yayla

Introduction The environment, climate conditions, lifestyles, and beliefs play an essential role in the formation of culture. Foods eaten in a community provide us with significant clues about the culture of the community because each region has its own taste and food culture. The eating habits of communities are affected by the geographic, agricultural, and socio-cultural characteristics of the region they live in as well as their interaction with other societies (Baysal 2001). Since the third century BC, the Turks, who established many states in many different geographies, have had a rich culture because they have interacted with many civilizations. This richness is reflected in the eating and drinking habits and culinary culture in modern-day Turkey (Güler 2008; Erta¸s and Karada˘g 2013). The influence of Central Asian Turks, Seljuk and the Ottoman Empire in the formation of Turkish Cuisine has been significant. In addition, the impact on the shaping of modern Turkish cuisine and the enrichment of civilizations who have lived in Turkey is large (Güler and Olgaç 2010). Subsequently, Turkish cuisine is one of the world’s great cuisines. The kitchen as a whole has a significant place in the lives of Turkish people, who are well-known for their hospitality. Amasya, one of the oldest settlements of Anatolia, and with a long history of 7500 years, is an exemplary Turkish city in Anatolia in terms of cultural tourism. Amasya, where artifacts can be found from every period with its historical structures, cultural accumulation and the magnificent art elements reaching up to the present day, also creates a unique structure with its literary and folkloric values. It is one of Ö. Yayla (B) · S. ¸ Yayla Department of Gastronomy and Culinary Arts, Osmaniye Korkut Ata University, Osmaniye, Turkey e-mail: [email protected] S. ¸ Yayla e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 ˙I. O. Co¸skun et al. (eds.), Heritage Tourism Beyond Borders and Civilizations, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5370-7_9

115

116

Ö. Yayla and S. ¸ Yayla

the provinces which has kept the Anatolian traditions and customs until today. Looking at the traditions of Amasya, it is possible to see the subtleties of Turkish Cuisine. It has a rich culinary culture with different tastes from Anatolia (Governorship of Amasya 2007: 8). Amasya was influenced from various cultures like Hittites, Phrygians, Cimmerians, Scythians, Medes, Persians, Pontus, Romans and Byzantines. Amasya is starboard where the most important sultans such as Bayezid I (Yıldırım Bayezid), Mehmed the Conqueror (Fatih Sultan Mehmet), Selim I (Yavuz Sultan Selim) had taken their first training before they came to the throne. Therefore, even today, Amasya is called as the city of princes. Amasya has continued to be an important place in Turkish history after the Ottoman era, and the birth certificate of the Republic of Turkey called “Amasya Circular” was signed here as well. Therefore, Amasya is a fascinating city where a variety of resources reaching our day can be found in every period (Çelik 2014: 191). The long history, which dates back to ancient times, has left its traces in Amasya, and the traditions of the old civilizations have survived up until today. Amasya, aiming to be the capital of Turkish cultural tourism with its rich cultural and natural heritage spread all over it, is within the scope of the Brand City Project of the Ministry of Culture and Tourism (Ünsalan et al. 2018: 12). Within the scope of the Brand City Strategic Development Plan, it is planned to increase the share of the tourism market, and to be a trademark city with the concept of Living Ottoman City Brand. The fact that Amasya is the city of the princes causes Ottoman food to come to the fore. The layers of civilization in the province have also been reflected in the food culture, and the feast culture has emerged over time. Amasya is famous for the feasts organized between local people and the governors from the Roman period to the present day. In other words, the ambassadors of other countries visiting the Ottoman Empire were given superb feasts in Amasya. It can be said that the feasts continued from the Roman period to the present. Roman Feasts in Roman Period, Embassy Dinners in the period of the princes, Ferfene (Teltele) entertainments still going on to our day from the Ottomans, Velime Dishes, Bridal Bath Dishes, Circumcision Bath Dishes and Pilgrims Dishes show that there are many ceremonial customs for important days. The province of Amasya is located in the inner part of the Central Black Sea Region. However, as it does not have a seashore, it shares the social, economic, and cultural characteristics of the Central Anatolia Region (Governorship of Amasya 2007: 8–9). A transition climate between the Black Sea climate and the continental climate prevails in Amasya. In the summer, the continental climate does not have as much rain as the Black Sea climate. In the winters, the Black Sea climate is not as severe as the continental climate. The summers are hot and dry, and the winters are wet, but spring is the wettest season. Due to the Black Sea climate and the continental climate transition, the vegetation of the area has the characteristics of the two climates (Kaya 2012: 126). In addition, the transition climate makes the region rich in terms of plant diversity. There is land, sea, and air transportation infrastructure in the region. The city, which is interconnected by historical bridges, is divided into two parts and Yesilirmak (Green River), located between two peaks resembling a statue, influences every visitor to the area (Zengin et al. 2014: 5). Ye¸silırmak valley is the

The Potential of Amasya Cuisine for Gastronomy Tourism

117

most important and longest valley in the province and consists of very fertile alluvial soils. The climate in the valley is characterized by a microclimate. In particular, fruit and vegetables stand out as an important agricultural activity (Amasya agriculture and development action plan 2018: 18). Amasya Province, which is established in a narrow valley surrounded by steep and high rocks on both sides formed by Ye¸silırmak, expands in an east-west direction due to this location. These rocks surrounding the city have protected the city from external attacks, and therefore many powerful states have struggled to take over this region. This feature of the province has led to great cultural accumulation (Ku¸s 2016: 257). Gastronomy tourism is a type of tourism that is aimed at recognizing different culinary cultures and tastes. The main purpose of such tourism is mainly based on eating and drinking. Therefore, the abundance of eating and drinking diversity raises the potential of this tourism. Apart from eating and drinking, gastronomy tourism is also associated with identity, culture, production, consumption and sustainability issues that are increasingly important (Hall and Mitchell 2005). With the preservation of the historical values and the revival of the new ones, Amasya can attract more tourists in the field of cultural tourism. Therefore, having the potential of gastronomy tourism with its unique cuisine can be one of the reasons for the preference of tourists in Amasya province. Since food culture is very important in Amasya and it is possible to taste not only local dishes but also Ottoman dishes (Zengin et al. 2014: 15). The main determinants of the food culture of a region or province are climatic conditions, historical accumulation of the region, and interaction with other societies. Amasya is one of the major cities in terms of its agricultural assets, land, and variety of crops. In Amasya, soil with different characteristics has been formed due to the topography, climate, and geological structure and this has led to differences and diversity in vegetation. Field crops such as wheat, sugar beet, onion, sunflowers, and poppies as well as fruit such as apples, cherries, and peaches, are important agricultural products. Most of these agricultural products are an important source of the authenticity of Amasya food culture. In addition to its history and deep-rooted culture, Amasya has rich vegetation with a rich ecological structure and rich culinary culture. Amasya also is an important area for livestock breeding. Animal products in the province and the use of these products in food making provide a significant contribution to the development of the areas of food culture. Amasya has hosted many civilizations with different cultures and these cultures, which affect each other, have increased and improved the nutritional culture of the region. The existence of people belonging to various parts of the Turkish nation within the borders of the province has contributed to the formation of a unique cuisine in every district, town, and village in the province (Yayla and Günay Akta¸s 2017: 232–233). Amasya, which demonstrates the traces of its long history and the diversity it creates from the culture of its past, has also brought together the most delicious and original dishes of both the Black Sea Cuisine and the Inner Anatolia Cuisine. In addition, the climate between the Black Sea climate and terrestrial climate provides fertile soil that has allowed the development of a variety of vegetation. Due to the fact that its agricultural economy is predominant, the basis of the province’s local cuisine is based on cereal products and vegetable dishes. As an indicator of the agricultural economic structure, pastries

118

Ö. Yayla and S. ¸ Yayla

are also very common and are an example of a part of the cuisine that has been developed from animal products. Food and beverages from a region affect not only tourists traveling for gastronomic tourism but also the satisfaction levels and loyalty to that destination of tourists traveling for different purposes (Quan and Wang 2004: 302; Kivela and Crotts 2005: 51). In this context, regional food and beverages have potential in the regional development of gastronomic tourism (Björk and Kauppinen-Räisänen, 2016: 179). According to 2017 data, the number of visitors visiting the area for tourism purposes was 615,907 (Ünsalan et al. 2018: 17). In the Amasya Province, Culture and Tourism Sectoral Action Plan (2014–2023), the potential of Amasya Province was demonstrated not only for cultural tourism but also for gastronomy tourism (Ünsalan et al. 2018: 21– 25). In this context, the aim is to evaluate the potential of the province for developing gastronomy tourism, and in this study, the aim is to develop a local food inventory and create a roadmap for Amasya, which is an important place for the development of gastronomy tourism.

Method Qualitative data collection methods including observations, interviews, and document analysis were used for this research to evaluate perceptions of the natural environment realistically and holistically (Yıldırım and Sim¸ ¸ sek 2013: 45). This study was carried out in June–July 2018 in the central district of Amasya. In the scope of the study, 38 people who had lived in Amasya for at least 30 years were interviewed, and all of the participants in the study were women. For approximately one and a half months, volunteers from the local community were observed while they prepared and ate their meals, over a total of 645 min in six different observations. After the observations, interviews were conducted with the participants and food recipes were collected. The data obtained from the observations and interviews by the researcher were first written in a computerized form and then analyzed by using content analysis. In order to increase the reliability of the study, an expert analysis was applied, and reliability was taken into consideration by considering commonalities. After the research was conducted, a regional food inventory was created.

Results Amasya has a rich cultural heritage and vegetation due to its ecological structure. Amasya’s local dishes, which reflect the influence of this heritage in the kitchen, are quite diverse. There is a wide range of dishes in terms of a variety of soups, meat dishes, vegetable dishes, desserts, and pastries. Amasya has developed its own unique dishes that are distinctive in taste, appearance, and quality. In total, 38 people were interviewed during the study, and as a result of the interviews, 10 different types

The Potential of Amasya Cuisine for Gastronomy Tourism

119

of soup, 15 meat dishes, 17 vegetable dishes, 19 pastries, 7 pilafs, and 15 desserts were recorded (Table 1). Table 1 Selected Meals from Amasya Cuisine Soups

Meat dıshes

Vegetable dıshes

Pastrıes

Pılafs

Desserts

Toyga Soup

Keskek

Stuffed Pods

Sinisu Pie

Pilaf with noodles

Apple Dessert

Catal Soup

Mumbar Iskembe

Eggplant Silkme

Yakasal pie

Lentil Pilaf

Baked rice pudding

Sakala Carpan Soup

Cured Spiced Beef Galle

Eggplant Pehli

Iskefe Pie

Seasoned Rice

Unutma Beni (Do Not Forget Me) Dessert

Shredded Dough Soup

Lung Roasting with Yoghurt

Eggplant Soup

Poached egg

Pumpkin Pilaf

Cherry Bread

Helle Soup

Whole Meat

Mücver

Amasya Cake

Strained Bulgur Pilaf

Dene Hasudasi

Bidikli Soup

Stewed Dough

Gumbo with meat

Pie with poppy seed and walnut

Eggplant Pilaf

Tırtıl Baklava

Squeezing Tarhana Soup

Quince Galle

Roasted Beans

Hengel

Pilaf with Vermicelli

Kalburabasti

Kidney Bean Soup

Singir Kebab

Purslane meal

Oily Dough (Katmer)

Kuymak

Kipe

Onion yuvalama

Kete

Hosmerim

Liver wrapping

Madimak

Cizlak

Amasya Teltel (Cotton Candy)

Juicy Meatball

Beet meal

Pisi

Gomlek Kadayif

Bat meal

Bread Vaccine (Papara)

Yoka Dessert

Borani (a vegetable dish with yogurt and rice)

Dondurme

Paluze

Eggplant Pickle Cilbir

Gombe

Sugar Rolls

120

Ö. Yayla and S. ¸ Yayla

Food culture has an important place in the social and cultural life of Amasya. The traditions and customs of food culture enhance the relations between people and families and strengthen sharing, helping the province to retain social unity. One of the best examples of the importance given to table culture in Amasya is the custom of not starting the meal before the head of the house. In addition, noisy conversations and jokes are not socially acceptable while eating. These traditions, which have been going on since ancient times, still retain their characteristics and almost every family complies with these traditions. One of the oldest traditions in Amasya is the Zekeriya Sofrası, which consists of eating raw food. This table is prepared to make a wish come true. According to customs, the person whose wish comes true will do it again in his house. No invitation to join the table is necessary, and anyone can join. Zemzem, date palms, black cumin, yogurt, cheese, olives, and pita are all part of this meal. Apart from these foods, there must be forty different types of food at the table. Preparations for winter meals in Amasya cuisine begin in the summer months. Foods that are usually dried in the summer are used in winter meals. Two meals are usually eaten in the morning and in the evening. However, sometimes another meal called Yatsılık is eaten after dinner. The most important feature that distinguishes Amasya’s breakfast from other regions is the addition to the classic Turkish breakfast of the Amasya muffin, which is consumed in the province. The tools and equipment used in Amasya Cuisine are similar to the tools and equipment used in Anatolian Cuisine. However, the local Amasya names for these tools have different. The local names of some of the tools used in Amasya Cuisine are Tekne, Bi¸sirgeç, Tandır (Bread) Sacı, Oklava, Tava, Göveç, Kazan, Baklava and Örek Trays, Dibek, Sini, and ˙Ilistir. Amasya is one of the provinces with high agricultural potential in terms of land existence and variety of crops. The diversity in climate and soil structure also creates variety in agricultural products. Field crops such as cereals, sugar beets, onions, sunflowers and poppies are commonly grown in the province. Nevertheless, Amasya is more known for its fruits. When Amasya is mentioned, its apples and cherries come to mind first. The biggest feature of its apple called “Misket Apple” is that the star shape is seen when it is cut in the middle. It is thin-skinned, aromatic, juicy and suitable for long-term storage. In Amasya songs, apple is a common theme. Apple and cherry are the products that have been grown and produced with the bestquality in Amasya. Especially high-quality cherry production for foreign markets has become widespread in Amasya. Amasya dishes are adequate and balanced when evaluated in terms of nutrition. Different food groups are used, and so balanced nutrition is provided in this way. The abundant use of vegetables and fruit, especially in Amasya cuisine, allows for the consumption of sufficient levels of minerals and vitamins. The consumption of various cereal groups also means the cuisine is sufficient in terms of carbohydrate consumption. Meat, fish, eggs, and dairy products are all included in Amasya cuisine demonstrating that the cuisine represents healthy and balanced food. However, the frequent use of frying food in oil in the preparation of meals is one health concern for Amasya cuisine.

The Potential of Amasya Cuisine for Gastronomy Tourism

121

The general characteristics of Amasya food culture are as follows: • Most vegetables are served in Amasya food culture. A wide variety of dishes are made from eggplant, which has an important place in Amasya food culture. There is said to be at least 20 different types of eggplant in the region. The most common vegetables used in Amasya meals are okra, beans, peppers, hibiscus, beetroot, and purslane. • Among the main food groups, cereals have an important place in Amasya cuisine. The most commonly consumed grain is wheat, and it is usually consumed as flour. In the food culture of the province, pastries have a special place, and a wide variety of pastry-specific foods are made. • Amasya has a significant level of livestock production, and many different meat products are produced in the province. Subsequently, the use of meat and meat products is high. The cooking time of meat dishes (3–5 h) adds a distinct flavor to the dishes. Traditional dishes made with meat are important elements of the cuisine. • Usually, oil is used in preparing and eating meals. It is an essential ingredient in the formation of certain Amasya flavors. • In Amasya, plain rice is not preferred. Pilafs are cooked with vegetables such as zucchini, eggplant, carrots, or dried legumes such as lentils and chickpeas, or with noodles. • Elma is indispensable to Amasya Cuisine. Apple production and exports play an important role in the income of the province. Apple jam is consumed during breakfast and added to desserts. Today, lokum and cologne are also made from apples. • The main ingredients of Amasya culinary culture are wheat, onions, sugar beet, sunflowers, eggplants, poppy, okra, apples, and cherries. • Fruit such as apples, plums, pears, and quince are consumed fresh, and they are also dried and used in winter. Ayva sherbet, cranberry sherbet, sherry sherbet, and lohusa sherbet are drinks that originated in the Ottoman period and are still part of the provincial cuisine. • Although spices are widely used in Amasya cuisine, the most commonly used spices are black pepper, red pepper, cumin, thyme, mint, and cinnamon. • There are special feasts in Amasya cuisine, and these feasts are an important part of the traditions of the province. Local Amasya foods have to be added to the content of cultural tours of the region. However, there is not enough gastronomy tourism planning or organization (festivals and events, and so on). In addition, local dishes are not included in the menus of most of the restaurants in Amasya. Although there are many unique flavors in Amasya cuisine that have survived over time, most of the food and beverage companies in the province do not include local food on their menus. As local dishes are not in high demand regularly, restaurant owners removed Amasya’s local cuisine from their menus. However, the fact that local food and beverages are not included on menus means that tourists do not experience local food during their visit to the province and these foods will not be seen as a reason to visit the destination.

122

Ö. Yayla and S. ¸ Yayla

With its meat dishes, vegetable dishes, stuffed rice, pilafs, herbs, pastries, dairy products, and desserts, Amasya cuisine has one of the richest cuisines in Anatolia. One of the most important distinguishing features of Amasya dishes is the abundant use of vegetables and meat. Another important feature is the use of pastry in the kitchen. Tourists who visit Amasya for cultural tourism, normally stay for one or two days in the province, and mostly they visit the city during the day. Considering that the duration of the visits are normally short and they normally eat lunch in the city, it is evident that they do not prefer local dishes. To ensure that tourists stay for longer, Amasya must become a tourism destination with a particular focus on culture and gastronomy. A lot of the food dishes in Amasya cuisine have unique stories. As food and beverages are important to the local culture, in the transfer of cultures to future generations, it is important to keep food culture alive. In this respect, the spread and awareness of local dishes are important. In the literature review, it was found that there were not enough studies about Amasya’s culture, regional cuisine, and its importance.

Conclusion In light of the results of the research, the traces of the culinary cultures of the civilizations that have lived in the region from the past to the present can still be seen in Amasya cuisine. It also is seen that the Turkish culture and traditions continue in the Amasya cuisine and have gained diversity with the civilization of the Ottoman geography. Amasya may come forward for Ottoman dishes. Considering the unique geography and climate characteristics of the region, the gastronomic culture can be considered as an important attraction factor in terms of tourism. Amasya is a city with significant potential in terms of cultural aspects. Tourists traveling to Amasya usually participate in cultural tourism. The city, which has a deep-rooted history, hosts Ottoman cuisine in its cuisine, and still preserves its originality. It should come to the forefront not only with cultural tourism but also with gastronomy tourism. In this context, promotion and marketing activities for the purpose of gastronomy tourism should be emphasized and the Ottoman emphasis in the province should be highlighted. Due to the fact that Amasya is a province where Ottoman culture can be experienced, and flavors of that period can be tasted. Booklets and videos about the food and drink culture of Amasya should be prepared and shared in the social media environment. This will help to spread Amasya cuisine and culture to wider audiences. In particular, videos of the food and drink production will attract the attention of tourists traveling for gastronomy and will enable them to come to the destination in order to both taste and participate in the preparation stages personally. Although the city of Amasya, which is dominated by many different cultures, has a varied and different culinary culture, the culinary culture of the region is not

The Potential of Amasya Cuisine for Gastronomy Tourism

123

considered as a tourist attraction, and it has not been promoted sufficiently. As a result of this research, it is determined that Amasya cuisine has potential. However, there are deficiencies in the marketing of the main dishes of Amasya cuisine. In this direction: • An area in the city should be established for the promotion of local Amasya products. • Local food should be brought to the fore and should be included in more restaurant menus in the province. • Within the scope of gastronomy tourism, TV programs should be created, and the effective use of social media should be developed. • In the case of visits to Amasya, the content of gastronomic tourism should be included within the scope of travel agencies’ programs. • The number of feasts, regional food competitions, and festivals should be increased, and gastronomic products should be emphasized at these events. In addition, promotion and marketing activities are very important for the continuity of the organized activities. • Provincial food and gastronomic products should be introduced at fairs and visitors to these fairs should be allowed to see how they are made and taste various food products. • Famous chefs should be invited to participate in events, and this should be publicized in newspapers, on TV, and in magazines. • A food booklet with descriptions of the regional food and drinks should be prepared, and an interactive website should be created. • Promotional stands for Amasya cuisine should be developed, and they should be included in national and international events. • Public and private sector cooperation, the analysis of the potential of the provincial gastronomic tourism, and using advertising to promote local cuisine must be carried out by a single organization.

References ˙ Baysal, Ay¸se. (2001). Türk ve Çin Mutfa˘gının Kar¸sıla¸stırılması, Içinde; Türk Mutfak Kültürü Üzerine Ara¸stırmalar 2000. Ankara: Türk Halk Kültürü Ara¸stırma ve Tanıtma Vakfı Yayınları. Björk, P. & ve Kauppinen-Räisänen, H. (2016). Local food: A source for destination attraction. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 28(1), 177–194. Çelik M. (2014). Amasya Marka Kent Stratejik Kalkınma Planı, http://www.oka.gov.tr/Documents/ AMASYA%20MARKA%20KENT%20STRATEJ%C4%B0K%20KALKINMA%20PLANI. pdf, (ET: 05.09.2018). Erta¸s Yasemin ve Karada˘g Gezmen Makbule. (2013). Sa˘glıklı Beslenmede Türk Mutfak Kültürünün Yeri. Gümü¸shane Üniversitesi Sa˘glık Bilimleri Dergisi, 2(1), 117–136. Güler, S. (2008). “Türk Mutfak Kültürü ve Yeme ˙Içme Alı¸skanlıkları”, Cognitive Approaches to the Concept of Food in the Mediterranean. Girne Amerikan Üniversitesi, Girne, KKTC, 7–8 Mayıs.

124

Ö. Yayla and S. ¸ Yayla

Güler, Sibel ve Olgaç Serkan. (2010). “Lisans Düzeyinde E˘gitim Gören Ö˘grencilerin Türk Mutfa˘gının Tanıtım Ve Pazarlanmasına ˙Ili¸skin Görü¸sleri” (Anadolu Üniversitesi Turizm ve Otel ˙I¸sletmecili˘gi Yüksekokulu Örne˘gi), Dumlupınar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 28, 227–238. Hall, C. M., & Mitchell, R. (2005). Gastronomic tourism: Comparing food and wine tourism experiences. In Novelli, M. (Ed.) Niche Tourism: Contemporary issues, trends and cases (73–88). Oxford: Routledge. Kaya, A. (2012). Amasya. Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlı˘gı Dergisi, 1(1), 1–130. https://docs.google. com/file/d/0B3Rls1eNkK6BUWFJYldpQlktbE0/edit (Date of access: 19.05.2018). Kivela, J., & ve Crotts, J. C. (2005). Gastronomy tourism. Journal of Culinary Science & Technology, 4(2–3), 39–55. Ku¸s, A. (2016). Henry John Van Lennep’e Göre Amasya. Gaziosmanpa¸sa Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Ara¸stırmaları Dergisi, 11(1), 253–276. Quan, S., & ve Wang, N. (2004). Towards a structural model of the tourist experience: An ˙Illustration from food experiences in tourism, tourism management, 25(3), 297–305.Governorship of Amasya. (2007). Amasya Sehir ¸ Rehberi [Amasya City Guide]. Amasya Special Provincial Administration, Ankara: Anıt Printery. http://www.amasyakulturturizm.gov.tr/Eklenti/ 7063,rehber-tr-mailpdf.pdf?0 (Date of access: 21.06.2018). Ünsalan, E., Yancı, A. Sel, H., & Polat, I. (2018). Amasya ili kültür ve turizm sektörel eylem planı (2018–2023) [Amasya province culture and tourism sectoral action plan (2018– 2023)]. http://www.oka.org.tr/Documents/Amasya_Kultur_ve_Turizm_Eylem_Plani.pdf (Date of access: 19.05.2018). Yayla, Ö., & Günay Akta¸s, S. Türk Mutfa˘gında Lezzet Bölgelerinin Belirlenmesi: Adana-OsmaniyeKahramanmara¸s Örne˘gi. 1. Uluslararası Turizmin Gelece˘gi Kongresi (Futourism) Bildiriler Kitabı, 28–30 Eylül, Mersin, 231–241. Yıldırım, A., & Sim¸ ¸ sek, H. (2013). Sosyal bilimlerde nitel ara¸stırma yöntemleri. (9. Baskı). Ankara: Seçkin Yayıncılık. Zengin, B., Öztürk, E., & Salha, H. (2014). Amasya ilinin alternatif turizm potansiyelinin de˘gerlendirilmesi [Evaluation of alternative tourism potential of Amasya province]. Sosyal Bilimler Metinleri, 6, 1–22.

Önder Yayla is an assistant professor in the Department of Gastronomy and Culinary Arts, Osmaniye Korkut Ata University, Osmaniye, Turkey. His research focuses on Gastronomy Tourism and Food Geography. Seyda ¸ Yayla is an instructor in the Kadirli School of Applied Sciences, Osmaniye Korkut Ata University, Osmaniye Turkey. Her research focuses on Local and World Cuisines.

Gastrotourism According to the 24 Solar Terms Regimen Deniz Orhun and M. Kutsi Akilli

Introduction Foods taste best when eaten where locally grown and when ripe. Traveling to remote countries, meeting new people, experiencing new cultures, tasting exotic foods, lying in the sun all day without doing anything, and enjoying the view are the most common descriptions of how vacations are best spent. However, we will focus on exotic foods and traveling for food.

Analysis and Findings Exotic foods have become quite easy to obtain because of the development of cold chain and shipment technology. Conversely, the exotic foods which are associated with our theme, are difficult to obtain despite these developments. Before moving on to tourism, we will look at the current situation of foods and drinks and the fact that quantity rather than quality has gained importance due to the increase in the population of the world, which is reducing the importance of the taste of produced food. The underlying reason for this is that the world population which was 7.3 billion in 2015 is predicted to be 8.5 billion in 2030, 9.7 billion in 2050, and 11.2 billion in 2100 (World Population Prospects 2015).

D. Orhun (B) Turkish Cuisine Culture Research and Application Center, Ba¸skent University TGA, Ankara, Turkey e-mail: [email protected] M. Kutsi Akilli Food sciences and culture, Ankara, Turkey e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 ˙I. O. Co¸skun et al. (eds.), Heritage Tourism Beyond Borders and Civilizations, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5370-7_10

125

126

D. Orhun and M. Kutsi Akilli

Consequently, this suggests that production must be increased without interruption. Production of genetically modified organisms (GMO), artificial fertilizer, different production methods, fish farms, integrated facilities, etc. are increasing; however, the cost of this increase is the taste of foods. People have started to miss the taste which is lost daily as well as the joy offered by this taste. According to the data provided by the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), 6000 plant species have been grown throughout history. Today, the number of plants grown for food is about 150 and only about 30 derivatives of these are used in our diets. Diversity, different tastes, and taste pleasure have narrowed and continue to narrow. One of the best examples of this situation was provided by Evliya Çelebi. He was told that 170 species of pears were grown in Peçoy and the governor of the troop who hosted him served him 47 species of pears from his own garden to make him believe this, so he had to believe [2]. How many pear species exist in our supermarkets, greengrocers, and marketplaces? How many different pears have you consumed throughout your life? 10? 15? 20? Next, I will address the issue of taste. Tomatoes are not as delicious as the ones produced in the past and when you boil milk or chickens are cooked in a very short period of time, the smells do not emanate. The sour tastes of plum or lemon and the hot taste of peppers, which are necessary for our health, or perhaps for the triggering of some of our hormones, do not exist anymore. We are growing peppers, cherry tomatoes, parsley, etc. in cities, in our balconies, or in any pots in front of our windows with the ancestry seeds that we can find in order to get the old, delicious tastes we remember, only in order to consume them on special days and strengthen our happiness. Urban farming has become more widespread, particularly in metropolitan cities. People plant anything whenever they find a handful of soil in order to produce better taste and palatal delight. We know that food has been one of the keystones of elite joy throughout history. A feast is always mentioned in any speech when talking about wealth and joy; the abundance of the table, the taste of food, and its rareness are also depicted. Being an important figure in Arab literature, el-Cahız said: “You can understand that rich Arabians eat and know delicious food if you review their poems because delicious food is only for rich people” [3]. Joy is one of the most important foundations of the desire to live. Delicious foods are among our main sources of joy, especially during a vacation, which is regarded as a renewal period. There is a gastrotourism phenomenon which has frequently been mentioned in recent years but whose existence is not sufficiently experienced. It seems that, currently, it is difficult for this field of tourism to create economic value with the exception of in a few places, despite its potential. Additionally, this type of tourism is definitely promising due to the fact that the taste of foods is being increasingly lost. Based on an optimistic prediction, we suggest that a field of tourism intended only for experiencing the joy of food will be developed in the near future. The European Union has realized the potential of gastrotourism and taken actions which will raise its value to tourism in the future. The European Region of Gastronomy platform under the leadership of the International Institute of Gastronomy, Culture, Arts, and Tourism (IGCAT) [4] selects two or three regions in Europe as the

Gastrotourism According to the 24 Solar Terms Regimen

127

“Gastronomy Region” each year within the scope of the implementation started in 2016. The purpose is to raise awareness for cultural and nutritional uniqueness, support the desire to live in the European region with a long term higher quality of life, feature different food cultures, be healthier and provide training for its sustainability, encourage creativity in food, improve tourism standards, and trigger gastronomic innovation. Food is directly related to the feeling of joy during a vacation and has a high potential when combined with an existing field of tourism because food is not simply food. Besides providing the calories required for energy, it offers joy both during and after eating, accompanied by a sense of satisfaction without sleepiness or indigestion. It is possible to continue your activities at the desired level as long as the menus are prepared masterfully. France has achieved the best gastronomy culture across the world by long years of working on it. Brillat-Savarin recognized gastrotourism and became the first person to analyze this type of tourism which has been successfully sustained by France. “What rescued us? What was the divinity underlying this miracle? Loving eating” [5]. This sentence explains the recovery from the serious debt required to be paid by France to its allies under the November Agreement executed in 1855. Gastrotourism not only allowed France to recover from its debts but also made it richer while everybody was pessimistic. The Breton, Germain, Teutons, and Scythians… They were gorging themselves on meat, fish, meat of game animals, truffles, cakes, and especially our fruits… …This effect is still ongoing. Foreigners travel to France at the time of peace all around Europe to refresh their dessert habits formed during the war. These people have to visit Paris and they have a feast at all costs… [6]

This requires work rather than simply luck. You must have a serious tradition and some people dealing with this issue in order to create such a trend. You can seize an opportunity only if you are prepared to do so when you have a chance. France was well-prepared. Well, shouldn’t we mention that pack of chefs who left France to discover exotic tastes during centuries past? Many of them were successful and they brought the fruit of their savings to France based on an immortal instinct. This had a higher contribution than thought. [6]

It is almost the same today. You are not considered to have visited Paris if you do not eat in a good restaurant there. We can consider that Europe, being aware of this, is taking action in order to set the standards for “food in life quality” with its title of an “old and polite continent.” The ambassador of Europe in this process is, of course, France. This can also be interpreted in such a way that it tries to expand its authority in terms of high level eating with the infrastructure of the European culture and this is proved with Michelin stars. This is because people like taking a vacation at a higher level than their social status. This ensures that they will relax and rejuvenate themselves in order to maintain their regular daily lives. Similar to the joy of eating on the upper layer of a pyramid, such niche concepts will likely spread

128

D. Orhun and M. Kutsi Akilli

to wider areas in the near future. What can these areas be? One of the possibilities is the conversion of gastronomic regions into gastronomic trips and vacations which are significantly supported by gastronomic activities as a minimum requirement. Gastronomic experiences are partially part of tourists’ travels. “Authentic” foods are generally served for one or two nights and shops that manufacture any products that are famous in that region, such as wine, beer, chocolate, cheese, etc. are visited. However, these gastronomic experiences are an extension of a cultural, resting activity or sport-based tourism. The concept of gastrotourism to be depicted herein is a little bit different from these gastronomic activities. When you travel to a city, visiting any of the famous chocolate, cheese, or wine factories in that city is a good activity. Tasting different foods and buying some of them both for you and your relatives and talking about that city when you are showing the photos taken during your trip by saying: “They know the proper way to prepare these foods; they use the special ingredient, …………, in order to achieve this taste,” will boost your holiday memories; however, the gastrotourism we are presenting here is not the same. For experiencing the phenomenon of gastrotourism, the process must be designed excluding the primary goal of obtaining souvenirs. In other words, food must be the inevitable objective of the vacation. Gastronomy can be used in tourism in two different ways from the traditional methods, which are namely deductive gastrotourism and inductive gastrotourism. Deductive gastrotourism suggests the evaluation of the existing potential of the region whereas inductive gastrotourism offers the involvement of a gastronomic side of an existing potential. What is important in both tourism methods is the uniqueness of the gastronomic experience. This uniqueness refers mainly to material in deductive gastrotourism and mainly to the production method in inductive gastrotourism. Turkey is divided into seven regions and these seven regions have their own characteristic cuisines. Spring is the tearing of the death cover made of snow on the soil. This also means that this time period is the richest growing season for the endemic species of the flora of that region. It means that there will be growth of some plants which do not grow in any other period of the year or in any other place. The seven regions have cuisines which are unique to this period with different endemic plants. A “hidden kitchen” appears in the region during a certain period of spring even though the region mainly relies on meat, sea products, or legumes/cereals. Although the majority of these plants grow in the spring, the issue does not only occur in the spring. Nature has an inherent pharmacy offering different plants for human health in each season. It is important to try traditional uses of this pharmacy with scientific methods and clarify the benefits and then be able to offer them for functional use. Gastrotourism can be directly associated with health tourism. Having a diet in consideration of the seasonal climate change is something like cooking the meals and organizing travels and places to visit or putting on certain clothes according to the weather. For example, food should be consumed in accordance with seasons for our health just like when our destinations are adjusted according to the seasons, and, this concept must be introduced through tourism.

Gastrotourism According to the 24 Solar Terms Regimen

129

We can eat fresh and useful traditional borage/hodan/ıspıt [7] food which is made from the Galdirik plant of the Black Sea in April or eat the food made of Tır¸sık from the Mediterranean in winter. Being an ingredient of a sour and fermented soup, the plant of Tır¸sık has a different function in our nutrition from many plants. It must never be consumed without cooking because it has critical toxic effects. Similar to rockling, it is gathered before flowering. When it is cooked and prepared accordingly, it significantly supports the immune system. It is one of the body-friendly foods for the region in the winter when diseases are commonly encountered. One of the important elements in the modeling of food in Eastern Anatolia, which is famous for its dried fruits, honey, other dried food, and herby cheese, is the relation of the season to the environmental conditions. Because the region is mountainous and challenging to traverse and it is common for communication to cease, it has become a necessity for the settlements there to ensure self-sufficiency and this, in turn, has developed food protection technologies. Additionally, the relationship of food to environmental conditions has been clarified. For example, they say that: “Gooses are not carved without experiencing snow.” In other words, environmental conditions must be cold and challenging and the animal must become fatty to overcome these conditions, and this fat makes the full taste of the goose available, making it more delicious. This is the point where taste and health come together because the taste of the goose maximizes, its calories significantly increase, and the agents which boost resistance and strengthen the immune system are absorbed by the body via this fat. The area in which we introduce our food culture associated with health within the scope of a diet directly affecting our health is “Gastrotourism.” Another example is that the levels of components in the blood of people vary according to temperature and seasons and our culture shows that we need to eat accordingly. The cheese produced by peasants and kept in natural refrigerators caused by stable moisture and temperature for 3 months in the concaves resulting from climatic changes, deflection of underground waters, geological movements, and many other factors is worth trying and it also has an important effect on our health. The famous cheese of Dible concave in Konya matures from the end of August through September. Another example is that April is the period of gathering and cooking morel mushrooms (Morchella Conica) which are available at Fethiye mountains and can be found in Mediterranean and Aegean forests and are currently sold at 500 EUR in France. In other words, Fethiye should not be visited only for its history or for a vacation but also for gastrotourism based on seasonal healthy nutrition in April for the mushrooms. The geographically indicated agricultural products also shown in the healthy nutrition chart must be regarded as gastrotourism. If proper mushroom hunting is sufficiently advertised, tourists will visit this place in order to pick/hunt the morel mushrooms and taste them for the first time. This will allow them to have a weekend trip for the same price as the cost of two portions of morel mushroom in a luxury restaurant in Paris; they will then be able to talk about this experience throughout their lives. This activity and any similar activities allow the tourism season to open much earlier (ürk Mutfak Kültürü Ara¸stırma ve Uygulama Merkezi et al. 2017).

130

D. Orhun and M. Kutsi Akilli

The festivals organized to show the benefit of the “black fig” of Bursa on our health and serve it in its fresh state during its season in addition to preserving it as a jam and drying it can be held in accordance with the 24 Solar Terms Regimen and serve as gastrotourism. The following eating culture based on the 24 Solar Terms Regimen can be used for planning the dates of gastronomy in terms of tourism in consideration of climate, season, geographical conditions, etc. and establishing the them on a proper calendar. The 24 Solar Terms Regimen Gastronomic Culture has been protected by UNESCO and put into writing in Ancient China by the West Han Dynasty. It is the best way to remember and implement our culture of consuming food in their seasons, which dates back to our ancestors in Central Asia based on technology and culture depending on the first Cemre in air, second Cemre in water, and third Cemre in soil, which is sometimes utilized, but also has been partly forgotten over time. This culture can be a guideline for gastrotourism in order to eat healthily based on seasonal food and enhance our health and efficiency. Table 24 Solar Terms (UN,UNESCO,CCA,WCF International Forum for 24 Solar Terms Regimen Gastronomic Culture, Pingdu China 2018) – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

The beginning of Spring, beginning of Feb (first Cemre in air) Rain Water, mid of Feb (second Cemre in water) The waking of insects, beginning of Mar (third Cemre in soil) The Spring Equinox Mar 20, 21, 22 Pure Brightness Apr 4, 5, 6 Grain rain Apr 19, 20, 21 The Beginning of Summer May 5, 6, 7 Lesser Fullness of Grain May 20, 21, 22 Grain in Bread Jun 5, 6, 7 The Summer Solstice Jun 21, 22 Lesser Heat Jul 6, 7, 8 Greater Heat Jul 22, 23, 24 The Beginning of Autumn Aug 7, 8, 9 The End of Heat Aug 22, 23, 24 White Dew Sep 7, 8, 9 The Autumn Equinox Sep 22, 23, 24 Cold Dew Oct 8, 9 Frost’s Descent Oct 23, 24 The beginning of Winter Nov 7, 8 Lesser Snow Nov 22, 23 Greater Snow Dec 6, 7, 8 The winter Solstice Dec 21, 22, 23 Less Cold Jan 5, 6, 7 Greater Cold Jan 20, 22

In fact, the purpose is to establish such a gastrotourism concept that is based on medicine and follows the eating culture of “what we eat becomes how we act” with healthy foods of the future in the right place and right season. This concept will be integrated into our cultures over time with the movement of “do not wait for the

Gastrotourism According to the 24 Solar Terms Regimen

131

food, it may decay during transportation, it is better to go for them” and it will be transferred to future generations with culture and tradition even if its underlying reason is forgotten. Sustainability of tourism can be achieved with the integration of these regimes into our cultures. Our old seasonal festivals are indeed very relevant greetings. When we review 24 Solar Terms according to the Turkish seasonal nature calendar, the first Cemre, regarded as the beginning of spring, occurs in air. The Arabic word, “Cemre” means “fire glow.” In this context, it means a revival for nature and heating of the air, water, and soil respectively and symbolizes the shift from winter to spring. There are similar nature calendars in almost all cultures. In the Arab culture, Cemre determines the time of departure for Arab clans who leave for the winter. They used to set up large tents and make three fires for bovine animals, small cattle, and people, respectively. When such fires were blown out, this meant that it was time to migrate (Besim 1985; ERKAL, Abdülkadir (Yrd. Doç. Dr.) TÜBAR-XXXVI-/ 2014; Ayan 2007). A nature calendar is a phenomenon which affects literature, military, diet, and health. It is naturally effective on tourism. Although people have taken control of environmental conditions, it is inevitable to keep pace with the order of nature. For example, in the period of the “Chestnut Black Storm,” the chestnuts on the trees are collected and only the ones at the inaccessibly higher parts of trees are left. The mature and darkened chestnuts remain there until the time that very severe winds start. The period of the “chestnut black storm” starts when severe winds occur and the chestnuts on the tops of the trees fall down. That is the time during which the chestnuts that fall from trees are eaten. Nature directs the way nutrition is required for the human body. The nature calendar used for nutrition is also an ideal compass for gastrotourism. Although the expression “Seeing or tasting on site” seems utopic, it is necessary, particularly if you are a taste hunter. It takes hundreds of years for a plant to grow at a specific location. Even if it eventually exists there, it will still not have the same taste. Prevailing winds, spores, pollen balances, the degree of acidity of the soil, water hardness, and many other things which affect and change its taste will be near that plant. In fact, this is not only applicable to plants. Today, a chicken may taste different depending on the location in Turkey in which it is grown. The area where an animal grows will completely change its taste. Tasting on site also has another significance. One of the most important issues in terms of taste is timing. You must discover the best time, which is generally a very short period of time, with a limited opportunity to discover it. If you cannot discover it, only the similarity to the original taste is taste is remembered. The most important point prioritized by global trade today is shelf life. Shortness of shelf life classifies the material as a luxury product and puts profit margins at risk. For this reason, food either cannot be imported or made available for import. In other words, some precautions are taken to extend the shelf life. These are natural or chemical precautions; however, the outcomes of both are similar: loss of taste.

132

D. Orhun and M. Kutsi Akilli

If tropical fruits are picked before they ripen, then packaged and taken to supermarkets, they cannot produce the same taste they would have if they matured naturally. This is true for bananas, kiwis, and any other fruit. The best example for natural maturation and taste is the Trabzon persimmon (Diospyros kaki). The most delicious Trabzon persimmon is obtained when it is still on the branch of the tree and is soft when you gently touch it instead of trying to pick it up. It can be preserved for one or two days at most in this state. If it is picked up at this state, it even cannot be placed one on the top of another. No load must be placed on it. It can burst and spread around with the load of a second persimmon. It can be damaged easily and turn sour quickly. In other words, it is very risky in commercial terms. Being extraordinarily delicious, this fruit has a very harsh taste when it is raw. It is resistant though. Thus, it is picked before maturation and then its ripening is awaited. It becomes semi-ripened just like all picked fruits and its certain part is generally consumed with a harsh taste. In this sense, the Trabzon persimmon is one of the fruits which represent what people have lost due to urbanization and complete abandonment of nature. We can also say that it is one of the best symbols of the advantages offered by gastrotourism. When the menus of gastrotourism lead to the feeling of joy in tourism, they will be a source of great outcomes, allowing a trip to the temples of taste three times a day. Based on plants, this movement will particularly draw the attention of those following a vegetarian or vegan diet. It not only offers a new tourism field if associated with trekking, a sport, or a cultural activity, but it also expands and extends the tourism season into spring. There will be more of a demand for this movement which is expanding every passing day in this alternative world where people who follow a vegetarian or vegan diet with limited food options will then encounter a variety of tasty options. This type of tourism is, of course, not limited to herbs and mushrooms, etc. It will be attractive both for vegans and other groups who are fond of eating delicious foods thanks to the ability to expand the range of available foods. For example, stuffed lamb (minced liver wrapped in lamb’s fat), fresh snail, milky foods, and desserts made of spring herbs and beestings (colostrum) will become important ingredients on gastrotourism menus. Turkey is located in one of the richest regions of the world in terms of archaeological areas; it is the area of the earth where history started. We have many classical and pre-historical workpieces and settlements. When the workpieces of the Seljukians, the Period of Principalities, and the Ottoman Empire are included in what we listed above, this is the region where the majority of the world’s history occurred. We also include the archaeological and historical areas where historical structures are generally on the top of any previous historical structures. The trips to these valuable archaeological areas in the summer, which is the tourism season, are often either interrupted due to hot weather in the afternoon, completed when the sun goes down, or are limited to where you visited by that time. This means that Turkey has a chance to extend the tourism season. Gastrotourism activities which can be organized in the spring will ensure that relatively hot months will also

Gastrotourism According to the 24 Solar Terms Regimen

133

be preferred, particularly for visiting archaeological tourism areas. Historical and archaeological tourism, which can supersede sea tourism thanks to proper planning, is an experience which can be supported both by inductive and deductive gastrotourism thanks to the menus that contain any existing, seasonal, special, and natural plants and foods of that region based on deductive gastrotourism or thanks to the feasts involving the use of the elements of inductive gastronomy. The method of implementing deductive tourism in our country with a preventive medicine history may be a little bit different. In other words, you can combine gastrotourism with health or remedy tourism in addition to sportive, cultural, or historical tourism. By health tourism, we mean hair transplantation, plastic surgery, avoiding unnecessary medical operations, etc. Conversely, remedy tourism includes thermal springs, mud baths, etc. Modeled on an existing tourism field with its clear characteristics, the expansion of gastrotourism will not only lead to higher spending by tourists but also enhance satisfaction. A cumulative gain can be obtained and the cures can be made more effective by combining the menus of gastronomic products intended for health which were previously called a “secret kitchen” with the elements of remedy tourism. For this purpose, critical research must be prioritized and carried out by the leadership of universities and the findings must be accurately marketed. Conversely, inductive gastrotourism will be provided with the foods to be prepared according to the archaeological remains and data available in the region. These will be in the form of the preparation of the foods of those periods with the technology and equipment used in those ages in any archaeological region of the world. In other words, they refer to the extinct foods which are almost impossible to cook at home and which have never been tasted and will be eaten for the first time. Each tourist will be able to record these experiences at outdoor kitchens under the conditions of that time thanks to the current technology and share them on social media and will show the excitement of their participation. Inductive gastronomy will make your holiday unforgettable if its taste resonance is based on current trends or if these types of foods are selected and cooked. For example, a carbonated bread in Pompei was recooked in 2018 according to its original recipe in Ba¸skent University (Ö˘gretim Üyesi Albustanlıo˘glu/E˘gitmen Chef Cevdet Sökmen and May 2018). This and similar studies must be methodically maintained and developed and different disciplines must be combined, and recommendations, researches, and presentations must be performed. These studies must be supported firstly by the government and secondly by the tourism industry. New trends grow in the hands of the ones who “hype” them up and this makes it profitable for them. When sufficient scientific publications and the news which draws the attention of the press are included in the research concurrently conducted by four to five universities, inductive gastronomy will soon become a global economic phenomenon, as opposed to now, when it is non-systematic and random without any standard or even a name. The countries which will get the greatest advantage from this are, of course, the ones with historical backgrounds, just like us. A menu containing meat cooked with fruits as a dinner after a morning visit to Topkapı Palace, a feast based on Islamic Monastery procedures following a tour of

134

D. Orhun and M. Kutsi Akilli

mosques in Istanbul, a goat with garum sauce to be eaten in a room possibly furnished with a “triclinium” [14] after visiting Byzantine remnants, a table equipped with olive oil dishes, some hot meals like meat and shallot stew seasoned with garlic, vinegar, and cumin to feel the shift of time following a tour to the churches in Istanbul, or a dinner with the foods of the Reform Era after the Dolmabahçe Palace is visited, will entirely change how that vacation is remembered. Tourists will feel that they not only ate food but also had a chance to witness their physical link with historical romance to which they already tend. The soup cooked with the addition of hot stones in engraved pots made of stone rather than boiling during the visit of Göbeklitepe, bread, cheese, and wine combination with the products of the region just like Christians used to eat in Cappadocia, examples from the period of Selçuklu or Principalities while the hostels are visited, starting the dinner with specialty meats according to the recipe of Homeros after Troy is visited, and cooking meat on long skewers with some suet, salt, and flour will differentiate the perception of the region and deepen empathy. Getting drunk with mead, dipping your Pramnia (ürk Mutfak Kültürü Ara¸stırma ve Uygulama Merkezi et al. 2017) during the break in Foça or Teos, service of double-cooked paximadia (UN, UNESCO, CCA, WCF International Forum for 24 Solar Terms Regimen Gastronomic Culture, Pingdu China 2018) which was given to Constantinapolis by his father Justinos the first as a provision while they were climbing to the ruins of Rome up the hill, or drinking the same water with the emperors of Rome, Byzantine, and Ottoman during a visit to Haghia Sophia will bring a completely new joy to your vacation. Your food and drinks will not be the identifier but the complementary aspects of the visited area. Of course, there will be some problems with these gastronomic selections in the countries like ours where civilizations overlapped. “You will of course protect it. But which one? This is a challenging question in countries like Turkey.” This sentence was uttered by Mr. Mustafa Uz, acting as the president of the excavation in Teos in his capacity as an excavation architect, when he noticed another temple under the Teos temple. In other words, if you are dealing with inductive gastrotourism and if you are in a lucky country like ours, you can create at least four to five cuisines because you can follow the traces of any civilization selected by you based on your selective perception. Establishing new trends in gastrotourism, just like in every other field, and achievement of popularity, thanks to these trends, increase the chance of recognition and economic success. The first step to take for this is to design these trends so that they can be put into practice in the most useful and simplest way. Deductive or inductive gastrotourism takes place with the performance of agriculture or animal breeding under the local conditions there. A cow which is moved to somewhere else because of her excess milk production may start producing poor quality or, most importantly, less delicious, milk. Animals achieve that yield under the effect of the flora and climate where they were born and are genetically linked. Fluctuation is inevitable by the time a new environment, vegetation, and climate provide a coherent result, just like the bread

Gastrotourism According to the 24 Solar Terms Regimen

135

yeast brought from abroad by you. It will soon start deteriorating and convert into a structure formed by the spores produced by the flora where it exists. Maximization of benefit requires evolution and smooth adaptation to the environment.

Conclusion All of this means that you must mainly aim to protect the seeds of your ancestors and prioritize such a food policy that attaches importance to quality rather than quantity in order to establish gastrotourism in the region. You need to protect animal species, prevent environmental pollution, and maintain biodiversity, not only in your soil but also your sea. Reduced biodiversity in the sea will affect the taste regardless of the ring you select on the chain, due to environmental pollution, over-hunting, etc. When you take these steps, you will ensure having a natural and organic food market which is gaining a larger commercial volume every day in addition to gastrotourism. In other words, organic agriculture, geographically indicated products, and endemic plants and herbs are not enough, but are preconditions of gastrotourism (both for inductive and deductive gastrotourism). Even organic and authentic production takes place with interdisciplinary coordination and cooperation of ministries. You cannot protect the environment without cooperating with the Ministry of Industry. You cannot make a plan without approval from the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock. You cannot set a standard without the Ministry of Environment. You cannot present the these without the Ministry of Culture and Tourism. You cannot take your efforts to an international platform without the Promotion Fund. Everybody who knows the taste of a cage-free and nibbling chicken will discover that it is different from the standard industrial chicken. The tastes of a farm turbot and naturally hunted turbot are not the same. This is similar to the different tastes of a hormone-injected tomato and organic tomato. As we mention in our book, “What You Eat Affects How You Behave,” to be printed soon, the conditions and materials when a food is popular are quite important. For instance, the so-called “Eight Tastes” Byzantine text makes a definition of “reasonably sour foods like quince, apple, pear, etc.” [15]; however, you cannot have the original taste with the assumption of “Ottoman taste” if you cook stuffed apple with the apples which have been sweetened for the last 200 years. It is also necessary to know and research the material in addition to finding it. One of the most important points in the service of food to tourists who are especially accustomed to western gastronomy is the aura created in service. The area of collection of the ingredients and the ways of processing them as well as the accompanying tastes will improve the label of the food and equip it with an aura. Romanticism is a very important factor in a dinner where not only the physical needs are met. It will offer a wisp of smell and taste from ancient ages. At this point, we will need to make use of the digital world for presentations.

136

D. Orhun and M. Kutsi Akilli

References Andrew Dalby - A.G.E. ATALAY, Besim (1985), Divanu Lûgat-it-Türk Tercümesi I, TDK Yay., Ankara. Ayan, D. (2007). Astronomik Düzenlilikten Sosyo-Matematik Uyla¸sıma Takvim, Osmanlı Bilimi Ara¸stırmaları IX/1-2, s.231. Ba¸skent University- Thermopolium. Gastronomy Academy – Archaeologist Dr. Ö˘gretim Üyesi Albustanlıo˘glu/ E˘gitmen Chef Cevdet Sökmen, May 2018. ERKAL, Abdülkadir (Yrd. Doç. Dr.) TÜBAR-XXXVI-/2014-Güz, Artvin Çoruh Üni. Fen Edeb. Fak. Türk Dili ve Edb. Böl. “Divan Siirinde ¸ Bosnalı Sabit’in Cemreviyyesi”, s:5. Hodan yeme˘gi tarifini www.kuzubudu.com. International Institute of Gastronomy, Culture, Arts and Tourism. Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin, Physiology of Taste, 1st Chapter, Thought 12 (About Lovers of Eating) P 128 O˘glak Publishing House, 1st edition. Savarin - A.G.E. Translation of Kitabü’t-Tabih, Kitap Printing House, 1. Edition, Nazlı Pi¸skin – Preface, P10. Travel Book of Evliya Çelebi, VI 118. Triclinium in Latin means a room with 3 sofas. If defines 3 sofas places at 3 corners of a square room. The food dating back to Konstantinopolis as well is a long lasting tradition. Andrew Dalby—Taste of Byzantine, Alfa Publishing House, P. 125. Türk Mutfak Kültürü Ara¸stırma ve Uygulama Merkezi, GastroShow Deniz Orhun, Kuzugöbe˘gi mantarı notları, 2017. UN, UNESCO, CCA, WCF International Forum for 24 Solar Terms Regimen Gastronomic Culture, Pingdu China 2018, Meeting notes. UN DESA report, “World Population Prospects: The 2015 Revision”.

Heritage Tourism Planning

The Role of Industry Museums in Promoting Industrial Heritage Tourism Kudret Gül and Melike Gül

Introduction Many historical industrial sites and machines are outdated, owing to resource exhaustion, loss of function, or loss of demand. As a result, these historical industrial sites have the potential to become industrial heritage tourism attractions. The attractiveness of industrial heritage and its demand stimulus have increased rapidly around the world in recent years. In this process, industrial museums play an effective role in transferring their industrial heritage to future generations. However, in the development of an industrial museum, it is not enough to merely put artifacts in the museum. According to Hocao˘glu (2016), classification, operation, promotion, and bringing public awareness to these artifacts are also necessary. This study aims to determine visitors’ satisfaction, interest, anticipation, and benefit in regard to industrial museums, as well as the problems that museums face. This study also aims to develop an understanding of the contribution that the exhibited industrial artifacts make toward transferring cultural heritage. The Rahmi M. Koç Museum operating in Ayvalık, Balıkesir, Turkey, was selected as the research area. Ways to increase the number of visitors to industry museums and the duties of public and non-governmental organizations regarding this issue are also discussed in this study. It is considered that the research findings will contribute to future studies as well as to future plans and policies.

K. Gül (B) Balıkesir Vocational School, Balıkesir University, Balıkesir, Turkey e-mail: [email protected] M. Gül Sındırgı Vocational School, Balıkesir University, Balıkesir, Turkey e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 ˙I. O. Co¸skun et al. (eds.), Heritage Tourism Beyond Borders and Civilizations, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5370-7_11

139

140

K. Gül and M. Gül

Literature Review Change and innovation development have accelerated dramatically in recent years through all industries, including the tourism industry. Social changes based on the effect of the Industrial Revolution have also increased vulnerability. According to Parrinello (1993), tourism is immersed in a universe of signs, which also spill over into working hours, thus creating continuity between work and leisure. This relationship is typical of post-industrial societies. Granot (1998) suggests that the development of a vastly expanded scientific enterprise provided the initiative for the technologies that drastically changed society during the second half of the twentieth century. In recent years, studies on museums in Turkey have revealed many problems related to administrative and legal regulations (Özkoç and Duman 2008). When studies in the literature are examined, it is seen that museums are usually visited once, and the rate of repeat visits is low. Yılmaz’s survey (2011) revealed that 83% of the visitors to Göreme Open Air Museum were first-time visitors. Özkasım and Ögel (2005) argue that museums in Turkey have failed to implement the objectives of the requirements of modern museology in terms of diverse collections, new exhibits, guidance, new narrative methods, and social networking. Akta¸s (2006) states in his study that the general functions of the museums in Turkey are not well known; most visitors have no information before the visit, and after the visit, they leave museums unsatisfied. In their survey conducted at the Konya Mevlana Museum, Sezgin et al. (2011) found that domestic tourists use friends and relatives as information sources and that foreign tourists use tourism information offices and travel agencies. In Sezer’s research (2010), it became clear that visitors learn more from museum books, brochures, catalogs, and advertisements. According to Ba¸saran (1996), the museum should be considered as a “cultural unit” with all its departments, not as a single organization. For this reason, relevant public and non-governmental organizations should help to increase the museums’ contributions to cultural tourism. Harman and Akgündüz (2014), in their survey conducted at the Ephesus Open Air Museum, found that visitors’ experiences are significantly different according to their demographic characteristics. According to Kaçar (2016), industrial sites, artifacts, and images of collective memory are significant in helping us to understand a territory’s complex structure and physical conformation. In this context, Pintér and Csapó (2016) indicate that industrial heritage (the process of production, antique machineries, warehouses, power plants, transport vehicles, industrial cities and landscapes, and buildings established for industrial production) is a part of cultural tourism and industrial archeology, and transformation of these heritages can appear within the framework of tourism by generating or increasing the number of tourists as well as local visitors in the given tourism destination. In this context, by comparing two industrial railway heritage attractions (Australia and Malaysia), Bhati et al. (2014) rank the important attributes for heritage attractions as economic justification, community perceptions, agreement of key stakeholders, potential to succeed, and authentic experience. In their survey at nine sites along the Path of Progress National Heritage Tour Route in the USA,

The Role of Industry Museums in Promoting Industrial Heritage Tourism

141

Kerstetter et al. (1998) identified four “types” or dimensions of industrial heritage attractions as flood sites, railroad sites, battlefields and forts, and mines. They also argue that visitors can easily recognize industrial heritage sites that are naturally and thematically organized. On the other hand, Chen et al.’s (2001) study, which was conducted with individuals visiting nine industrial heritage sites in southwestern Pennsylvania, discovered eight major reasons that tourists visit a site, including interest in the site, visiting families and friends, recreation, promotional information, been-here-before, having some knowledge of the sites, road signs, and curiosity. The findings of the survey also revealed that tourists’ reasons for visiting industrial heritage sites differed based on travel experience, gender, and time in which they visit. Hospers (2002) stresses that restoring and exploiting former industrial sites for touristic purposes is regarded as a useful strategy for regional renewal, initiatives, and regenerating the local economy in the EU. Bhati et al. (2014) indicate that heritage visitor attractions generally include nostalgia for the past and a desire for conservation. This judgment is in keeping with the work of Chen et al. (2001) that past experience with heritage tourism affects tourists’ reasons for visiting heritage sites. Boros et al. (2013) state that many factories and machines represent milestones in the history of technology and have architectural values beyond their historic meanings by contributing to heritage protection and helping to strengthen local identities. Otgaar (2012) emphasizes that industrial tourism has been an effective tool for cobranding a region if public and private actors participate and want to emphasize their embeddedness in the image of a region. Lira (2007) implies that the process of deindustrialization created the opportunity for developing industrial museums where there is preservation of a deeply rooted industrial memory. He indicates also that industrial museums usually develop their collections with objects that range from huge machines to trivial objects of daily life, some of them for domestic use, and they provide information from the memories of the living who used to have a direct or indirect relation with the factory and who, in many cases, bore witness to its creation, apogee, and decadence. As a consequence of deindustrialization, currently unutilized industrial inclusions such as factory sites can be promoted to tourism attractions, following new, creative, and alternative directions of postindustrial tourism (Pintér and Csapó 2016). Kift (2011) states that industrial history moves from the documentation of work to the analysis of its representation in art and commercial culture as well as areas such as industrial and labor museums. He also suggests that it is rational to use historical industrial buildings as museums and to integrate the history of these buildings into permanent exhibitions. Forga and Valiente (2017) stress that traditional industries give tourist nostalgic and novel experiences. They also foresee that industrial tourism will emerge as a way of valuing industrial heritage without forgetting that the subjects of material heritage encompass the material remains of industry such as sites, buildings and architecture, plants, machinery, and equipment. Li and Soyez (2017) argue that industrial heritage reflects disquieting stories of war, occupation, other form of imposed foreign influence, disasters, social unrest, and the suffering of individuals or groups triggered by or leading to crises, failures, relocations, and

142

K. Gül and M. Gül

destruction. By taking the industry type, year, development process, and surroundings for 16 industrial heritage sites in Shanghai, Liu et al. (2018) determined the value weight for surviving industrial heritage as historical value having the greatest weight, followed by the weights of artistic value, technological value, social value, and economic value. According to Cirer-Costa (2014), social consensus, informal relations of recommendation, and second-level flows of information provide continuous feedback for the system and protects tourism when the industry is under threat and when there is predatory or opportunistic behavior from its members. On the other hand, Yılmaz (2014) suggests that presenting emotional appeals with realistic benefits in industrial heritage tourism enhances the success of the communication strategy.

Methodology The aim of this study is to determine how promotion can affect industrial heritage tourism at an industry museum. The aim of this study is to determine the promoting effect of an industrial museum on industrial heritage tourism. A qualitative research method was applied in this study. As mentioned previously, a face-to-face interview was held with a museum official in August 2018. The questions to be answered in this study are regarding the mission of the museum, ways to increase the number of visitors, and how the museum creates industrial heritage awareness, visitor satisfaction, and visitor interest. Data from the interview was analyzed by descriptive analysis technique. Interview questions were accepted as a theme. The answers given by the interviewee to the questions are divided into categories so that they can go under each theme. In addition, findings were supported by direct talks with the interviewee.

Analysis and Findings This study was held at the Ayvalık Rahmi M. Koç Museum, which is located in Ayvalık, Turkey. The building was first built as a church by the Greek Orthodox community in 1873 and was called “Taksiyarhis,” after the guardian angels, Gabriel and Mikhail. The church turned into a ruin over time and finally began to serve as a museum in 2014 after its restoration. The museum collection has a wide range of artifacts such as toys, steam models, children’s car, time-measuring instruments, etc. The museum also has a café and a store that sells specially designed gift items that reflect the mission of the museum. The private museum structuring model of old industrial companies that exhibit all their products from past to present was taken as an example in the establishment of the museum. The museum is a non-profit, private institution, and its mission is to collect, host, research, preserve, and exhibit industrial and engineering objects and documents. Parallel to this mission, the museum aims to investigate the history of

The Role of Industry Museums in Promoting Industrial Heritage Tourism

143

local industry, informing the public about the collections to increase and disseminate museum visits in Turkey. In this sense, as Akta¸s (2006) pointed out, informing visitors about the museum and its artifacts is vital for visitor satisfaction. The museum has about 1,000 artifacts (228 recorded and others on temporary loan). The museum official who was interviewed also stated that visitors are particularly interested in the machinery and models of the Industrial Revolution as well as objects related to maritime history. The museum had approximately 94,000 visitors in 2016 and 110,000 in 2017. In future years, the target is to reach 1 million visitors. The museum manager stated that 11 staff was employed by the museum, and personal artifacts are exhibited under predetermined topics. The museum management suggests that these artifacts reflect the artistic vision of the collectors and give the visitors a different perspective. Museum awareness is promoted through the official website by sharing photos and videos on social media about artifacts on exhibit, free brochure distribution, and visitor advice based on feedback. Museum management suggests that increasing visitor satisfaction is what excites and motivates them. By emphasizing the importance of innovation in museums, the museum administration clarified the issue and made the following comment: Museums need to be vibrant and dynamic. Visitor expectations in the museums should be constantly monitored, and necessary innovations should be made according to these expectations. We explore the industrial museums abroad. They are, of course, richer and bigger than ours are. No more collections and artifacts [are] in Turkey. We provide most of them from abroad. We repair and restore them in our workshops. Repaired and restored artifacts are very expensive. Therefore, we take artifacts from domestic and foreign auctions, junkmen, and antique dealers and bring them here. As we are well-known in time, those who want to sell such artifacts, even from Western European countries, are contacting us. Offers come to us from all over the world. We are pleased with this.

The museum manager also talked about the importance of many social responsibility projects carried out jointly with public institutions and non-governmental organizations. In this context, it is argued that the cultural activities jointly organized with the stakeholders have increased the operability and recognition of the museum. Emphasis has been placed on the importance of including education institutions in particular. In fact, students constitute the most important visitors. By identifying this phenomenon, the museum administration attaches particular importance to the cooperation strategy with school administrators to increase the number of visitors. This mass of visitors is especially interested in toys, cars, and other vehicles. Museum management also commented: This is not a toy museum alone, but a multi-faceted museum. You can say “industry and transport museum.” You can say “a museum with antique value.” So, our goal is to be able to attract the attention of every incoming visitor, whether child or adult, male or female. Many people spend only 5–6 min or half an hour at most in the museum; they get tired. However, they only spend more time if they see something different or interesting objects at every step and every exhibition vitrine. Of course, every museum should have a small cafeteria, a souvenir shop. It is the other social side of the museum.

In this statement, the museum management emphasizes that museums must have aspects that attract all visitors’ attention to the site. As Özkasım and Ögel (2005)

144

K. Gül and M. Gül

argued, diversity collections, new exhibits, and social networking are the main drivers of the museums. The museum director suggested that donations from private collectors motivate them and contribute to exhibition development, and the diversity of artifacts in this way enhances visitor satisfaction. It was also emphasized that contributions from donors and temporary artifact holdings increase their recognition, which is effective in increasing the number of visitors. In addition to the monographic exhibitions in the museum, it was emphasized that an increase in the unique artifacts added to the collection would also increase the attractiveness of the industrial museum. It is also expected that free admission for students by local administrations and featured parking facilities for tour buses will facilitate access to the museum.

Conclusion The success of a museum depends on the level of improving awareness and the power of memory that is created in the visitors’ minds. In this study, it was proven that the exhibited artifacts related to local industrial history and the Industrial Revolution were effective in bringing history awareness, and this is one of the most important visitor gains. From this point of view, if museums spread their stories and information about the exhibited artifacts, it will be an effective way to attract visitors. Research findings indicate that donations from private collectors and temporary artifact holdings contribute to the development of exhibitions and that this diversity of artifacts enhances visitor satisfaction. It is also effective in increasing the number of visitors. In addition, the increase in the unique artifacts added to the collection increase the attractiveness of the industrial museums. In parallel with these findings, Gül and Gül’s (2017) survey, which was conducted on ways to increase the number of visitors in private museums in Balıkesir, shows that there are four main strategies: (1) arranging temporary exhibitions of different artifacts with different themes, (2) acquiring artifacts from a greater number of donors and benefiting from their synergy for attracting visitors, (3) promoting free entrance, and (4) participating in all cultural and artistic events organized in the region and distributing brochures. In addition, Yılmaz (2011) considers temporary exhibitions as an effective way to solve the problem of low return visit rate, one of the most significant museum problems due to the low number of artifacts in the museums. Research findings indicate that sharing photos and videos of exhibited artifacts on social media, free brochure distribution, and visitor advice based on feedback are the most effective ways of creating museum awareness. Findings also show that social responsibility projects and cultural activities carried out jointly with public institutions, non-governmental organizations, and other stakeholders have increased the operability and recognition of the museum. Innovation in the museum is one of the most important issues that museum management handles. Dynamism, which includes constantly monitoring visitor expectation and making innovations, is necessary. To solve the problem of artifact fatigue,

The Role of Industry Museums in Promoting Industrial Heritage Tourism

145

“To see something different and interesting objects” is the key idea. These words call attention to the aspects that attract museum visitors to the site. In light of the research results, it can be suggested that museums should implement different visitor-attracting strategies based on their functional structures to increase the number of visitors and to overcome the issue of artifact fatigue. Using social media effectively can increase the museums’ visibility, and museums need to closely cooperate with local authorities, the business community, non-governmental organizations, and the press. The most important limitation of this study is that it only included examination of a single industrial museum operating in Balıkesir. The second limitation is the lack of obtained information related to research aims based on the time limit of the administrators. Conducting similar studies in other sites in the future and comparing the results could contribute to the literature.

References Akta¸s, Z. (2006). Etno˘grafya Müzesi’nin ziyaretçi gözüyle de-˘gerlendirilmesi (Unpublished Master’s Thesis). Ankara: Ankara Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. Ba¸saran, C. (1996). Ça˘gda¸s müzecili˘gimiz. Akademik Ara¸stırmalar, 1, 16–18. Bhati, A., Pryce, J., & Chaiechi, T. (2014). Industrial railway heritage trains: The evolution of a heritage tourism genre and its attributes. Journal of Heritage Tourism, 9(2), 114–133. Boros, L., Martyin Z., & Pal, V. (2013). Industrial tourism-trends and opportunities. Forum geografic. Studii s, i cercet˘ari de geografie s, i protect, ia mediului, 12(1), 108–114. Chen, J. S., Kerstetter, D. L., & Graefe, A. R. (2001). Tourists’ reasons for visiting industrial heritage sites. Journal of Hospitality & Leisure Marketing, 8(1–2), 19–31. Cirer-Costa, J. C. (2014). Majorca’s tourism cluster: The creation of an industrial district, 1919– 1936. Business History, 56(8), 1243–1261. Forga, J. M. P., & Valiente, G. C. (2017). Cultural change and industrial heritage tourism: material heritage of the industries of food and beverage in Catalonia (Spain). Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change, 15(3), 265–286. Granot, H. (1998). The dark side of growth and industrial disasters since the Second World War. Disaster Prevention and Management: An International Journal, 7(3), 195–204. Gül, M., & Gül, K. (2017). Özel Müzelerin Kültür Turizmi Potansiyeli Açısından De˘gerlendirilmesi: Balıkesir Örne˘gi. Türk Turizm Ara¸stırmaları Dergisi, 1(4), 52–65. Harman, S., & Akgündüz, Y. (2014). Efes Örenyeri ziyaretçilerinin müze deneyimi beklentilerini ˙ ˙ belirlemeye dönük bir ara¸stırma. Gazi Üniversitesi Iktisadi ve Idari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 16(2), 113–133. Hocao˘glu, D. (2016). Beypazarı’nın kültürel mirasa dayalı kentsel markala¸smasında tasarımın rolü. Milli Folklör, 28(109), 217–232. Hospers, G.-J. (2002). Industrial Heritage Tourism and Regional Restructuring in the European Union. European Planning Studies, 10(3), 397–404. Kaçar, A. D. (2016). Learning from the Ruhr: The case of the world heritage site zollverein as a model of conserving industrial culture in Turkey. Journal of Urban Studies, 19(7), 474–497. Kerstetter, D., Confer, J., & Bricker, K. (1998). Industrial heritage attractions: types and tourists. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 7(2), 91–104. Kift, D. (2011). Heritage and history: Germany’s industrial museums and the (re-) presentation of labor. International Journal of Heritage Studies, 17(4), 380–389.

146

K. Gül and M. Gül

Li, L., & Soyez, D. (2017). Transnationalizing industrial heritage valorizations in Germany and China - and addressing inherent dark sides. Journal of Heritage Tourism, 12(3), 296–310. Lira, S. (2007). The three main epistemological pillars of the contemporary industrial museum. Museum Management and Curatorship, 22(2), 201–218. Liu, F., Zhao, Q., & Yang, Y. (2018). An approach to assess the value of industrial heritage based on Dempster-Shafer theory. Journal of Cultural Heritage, 32, 210–220. Otgaar, A. (2012). Towards a common agenda for the development of industrial tourism. Tourism Management Perspectives, 4, 86–91. ˙ Özkasım, H., & Ögel, S. (2005). Türkiye’de müzecili˘gin geli¸simi. ITÜ Dergisi/B Sosyal Bilimler, 2(1), 96–102. Özkoç, A. G., & Duman, T. (2008). Müzelerde sergilenen eserlerin elde edilmesi ve korunmasına yönelik müze yöneticilerinin görü¸sleri. Anatolia: Turizm Ara¸stırmaları Dergisi, 19(2), 157–168. Parrinello, G. L. (1993). Motivation and anticipation in post-industrial tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 20, 233–249. Pintér, R., & Csapó, J. (2016). Industrial tourism as a chance for the diversification of the tourism of the Pécs-Mecsek Region. Journal for Geography, 11(2), 57–70. Sezer, M. S. (2010). Türkiye Turizm Sektöründe Müze Turizminin Payının De˘gerlendirilmesi (Unpublished Master’s Thesis). Ankara: Hacettepe Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. Sezgin, M., Ha¸sılo˘glu, B., & ˙Inal, E. (2011). Müze pazarlamasında mü¸steri ili¸skileri ve deneyimleri üzerine bir ara¸stırma. ZKÜ Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 7(13), 201–220. Yılmaz, H. (2014). Eski¸sehir’in Biricik Destinasyon Önerisi: Endüstriyel Miras. Dokuz Eylül ˙ ˙ Üniversitesi Iktisadi ve Idari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 29(2), 205–225. Yılmaz, ˙I. (2011). Müze ziyaretçilerinin hizmet kalitesi algılamaları: Göreme Açık Hava Müzesi örne˘gi. Anatolia: Turizm Ara¸stırmaları Dergisi, 22(2), 183–193.

Tourism Management Planning Approach in Cultural Heritage Sites: Principles for Istanbul’s Historic Peninsula Ay¸se Nur Canbolat and Dilek Erbey

Introduction With the recognition that cultural and natural heritage is under threat of extinction, the idea that these values should be protected as being the common heritage of all mankind has been accepted. The 17th session of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) General Conference in 1972 ratified the Convention Concerning the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage based on the protection of World Heritage Sites with outstanding universal value. The first article of the Convention categorizes monuments, groups of buildings and sites as cultural heritage. As a result of the definition of cultural or natural heritage as outstanding universal value, an increase in the number of the visitors who come for cultural tourism begun to be seen at World Heritage Sites. All journeys to visit historical places, participate in festivals and special events and experience different cultures include cultural elements. According to the World Tourism Organization, all movements of people can be included in the definition of cultural tourism because they encourage people’s tendency to increase their cultural awareness. Increasing their experience with new information and technology, it satisfies the need for diversity. The tourism sector’s share in the economy may yield positive and negative results in cultural heritage because tourism provides outputs within a short-term period of time and has economic, physical and social effects on the related fields. The uncontrolled development of tourism activities in cultural heritage sites threatens the sustainability of their values. For this reason, management is considered a method of A. N. Canbolat (B) Department of City and Regional Planning, Amasya University, Amasya, Turkey e-mail: [email protected] D. Erbey Department of City and Regional Planning, Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University, ˙Istanbul, Turkey e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 ˙I. O. Co¸skun et al. (eds.), Heritage Tourism Beyond Borders and Civilizations, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5370-7_12

147

148

A. N. Canbolat and D. Erbey

providing a balance between cultural heritage and tourism, which both have different priorities. The World Heritage Center emphasizes that every site must have a “management plan” and a “management system documenting how universal value is preserved.” In cultural heritage management and management plans, importance is given to tourism leading to the sustainability of cultural values, preservation, development and transmission to future generations. A cultural value on the World Heritage List is a point of attraction for visitors that and faces the threat of being under the pressure of tourism. For this reason, tourism management planning approaches should be developed to be in line with the heritage management plan to manage and plan tourism activities in cultural heritage sites and to create an effective programme that ensures the participation of all stakeholders. Each cultural heritage site on the World Heritage List has different qualities and must have a unique management system. Therefore, it is necessary to prepare tourism-oriented plans that are compatible with management plans, which can be considered both independent and a top scale parts apart from the management plans that draw general framework and vision. Although tourism-related strategies are included in management plans, creating tourism plans according to the cultural diversity and the size of the World Heritage Site will contribute to the realization of urban preservation and tourism purposes together. This study discusses the principles of a tourism management plan for Istanbul’s historic peninsula, which was put on the World Heritage List in 1985. The site’s management plan was made in 2011 and updated in 2016.

On Cultural Heritage Sites’ Need for Management Plans Following the destruction of cities in World War II, cultural heritage management began to be discussed. Today, management plans are a necessity for World Heritage Sites. To better analyse the requirements of tourism management, the concepts of cultural heritage and management planning need to be discussed. ICOMOS defines “heritage” as a broad concept that includes natural and cultural environments and encompasses landscapes, historic places, sites and built environments, as well as bio-diversity, collections, past and continuing cultural practices, knowledge and lived experiences (ICOMOS 1999). ICOMOS’ New Zealand Charter defines cultural heritage as aesthetic, archaeological, architectural, historical, monumental, scientific, social, spiritual, symbolic, technological, traditional, and other tangible or intangible values associated with human activity (ICOMOS New Zealand 2010). “The ICOMOS Charter for the Interpretation and Presentation of Cultural Heritage Sites” approved in 2008 by ICOMOS defines a cultural heritage site as “a place, locality, natural landscape, settlement area, architectural complex, archaeological site, or standing structure that is considered to have historical and cultural importance and is often legally protected.” (ICOMOS 2010; Akdo˘gan 2010).

Tourism Management Planning Approach in Cultural Heritage Sites …

149

Europa Nostra says that cultural heritage: “includes all kinds of cultural expressions transmitted from the past and inherited by today’s society. They may be an object, such as a building, or a tradition, a way of life, or a habit that has no material form” (Europa Nostra 2005; Abacılar 2008). The discussion of management planning for tourism, particularly for Istanbul’s historic peninsula, requires mentioning how cultural assets and values are defined in the Turkish legislative system. Article 3 of the Law on the Protection of Cultural and Natural Assets no. 2863, published in 1983, states that: “Cultural assets are all movable and immovable assets that are found or subject to social life, which are scientifically and culturally unique, on earth, underground or underwater, related to science, culture, religion and fine arts belonging to the prehistoric and historical periods.” The different definitions of cultural heritage are basically divided into two categories - intangible and tangible- and the tangible cultural heritage is classified as either movable and immovable. When the relationship between cultural heritage and space is taken into consideration, characteristics such as the outstanding universal value of the site and the relation between the tangible and intangible cultural values are at the forefront. One of the most common tools for carrying out urban preservation work in the management of cultural heritage sites is management and management planning. Management plans are used as a guide for preserving cultural values in cultural heritage sites, keeping them alive, transmitting them to future generations, establishing inter-institutional organizations for preservation practices, generating financial resources and preparing necessary analyses for implementation and action. A management plan is a regulatory tool provided by the UNESCO World Heritage Center for the values on the World Heritage List. The World Heritage Convention (1972), of which Turkey became a member in 1983, in concerned with the preservation and sustainability of heritage, which it is committed to protecting as an outstanding universal value, their work is made possible by management plans. The “Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention” (1977, 2012), which is the implementation guide of the World Heritage Convention states that: “Each nominated property should have an appropriate management system which must specify how the Outstanding Universal Value of a property should be preserved, preferably through participatory means. The purpose of a management system is to ensure the effective protection of the nominated property for present and future generations” (World Heritage Center 2012). The management plan as a written, published and accepted document describes the region or area and the opportunities and problems for management (Eurosite 1999; Ayrancı 2007). According to the IUCN, a management plan is a tool that explains how the area needs to be protected, used, developed and managed (Yazıcı 2007). Erbey emphasizes the participatory aspect of management plans. In the preservation of cultural heritage sites, management plans, unlike traditional planning methods, aim to create platforms where all stakeholders in the field can have a voice in governance, decision making and implementation processes (Erbey 2016).

150

A. N. Canbolat and D. Erbey

The concepts of site management and management planning were put on Turkey’s agenda by the Ramsar Convention on the Preservation of Wetlands and Waterfowl (1971), of which Turkey became a member in 1993. The issue of the preservation of cultural values has came to the fore with the “Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention 1977, 2008” (Gülersoy, 2012). The site management and management planning approach was introduced to Turkey’s legal system in 2004 with the Law on the Protection of Cultural and Natural Assets and Amendments to Various Laws, No. 5226, and the amendment to the Law on the Protection of Cultural and Natural Assets, No. 2863. These laws made the preparation of management plans not only for World Heritage Sites, but also for all sites compulsory in Turkey. Law, No. 2863, defines management plans as: “Plans reviewed in every five years, showing the annual and five-year implementation stages and budget of the protection and development project, which was created by taking into consideration the business project, excavation plan and environmental regulation project or preservation plan, in order to ensure the protection, survival and evaluation of the management site.” Canbolat examined sample management plans prepared in accordance with UNESCO’s Guidelines for Cultural Heritage Sites and reached the following conclusions regarding preservation, tourism and management: • The main objective of a management plans is to preserve and develop outstanding universal values. The method of preserving outstanding universal values and managing activities such as tourism on the site is to create management plans. • Recognizing the site and maintaining it in line with the principles of sustainability and protecting cultural assets should be the core principles of protecting and developing outstanding universal values. • In sites where urban preservation and tourism both occur, a management system should be developed for each site to protect its historical elements and address their its socio-economic needs. • Collaboration and participation are among the most important factors in the preservation and development of cultural heritage sites. The participation of local people and users in cooperation with local, national and international institutions is the key to the success of management planning. • The participation of citizens should be one of the key strategies and objectives in plans. Training-oriented objectives should be adopted to increase awareness and knowledge about cultural heritage sites. • It should be considered how the action plans prepared within the scope of management plans will be implemented in the easiest way and meeting real requirements will enable the plans to be effective in situ. • Management plans should not only be considered as technical documents containing analyses but should also be considered strategic tools that combine many dimensions, set objectives and stipulate concrete actions. • The main principle of management plans is to create a plan with a holistic approach to the site.

Tourism Management Planning Approach in Cultural Heritage Sites …

151

• Management plans are sets of principles that provide for the transmission of cultural heritage to future generations, the sustainable preservation and awareness of cultural heritage and the sustainable survival of cultural heritage with the approval of the responsible institutions. • Visions, principles, goals, strategies, actions, processes and a model should be defined for an effective management plan (Canbolat 2017). Management plans have a broad framework that can be defined as a combination of guidelines for the protection of cultural heritage sites, as well as methods for preservation, objectives, and strategies that aim to solve problems arising from the lack of coordination between national and local administrations, provide management in urban historical sites and establishing a fundamental development philosophy for the site. Although this broad framework provides a comprehensive approach to a site, it may be insufficient for sites that include many cultural heritage elements and are under intense tourism pressure, such as Istanbul’s historic peninsula. Therefore, tourism-oriented principles should be considered as a comprehensive chapter in the management plan or a thematic sub-scale plan linked to the management plan.

Tourism Management Planning Approach for Cultural Heritage Sites Since the late twentieth century, tourism has grown into one of the main economic sectors. World Heritage Sites play a major role in regional and national economies as they are the most frequently visited tourist destinations. Studies predict that growth in the tourism sector will continue and consider such growth to be an increasingly important factor in the planning and management of World Heritage Sites (Pedersen 2002). Tourism planning is carried out with the aim of minimizing the negative impacts of tourism, finding solutions to problems, and revealing and evaluating the positive elements generated by tourism. The most important challenge in heritage management is the difference in the priorities of tourism and cultural heritage preservation. While tourism focuses primarily on economic benefits, cultural heritage management focuses on long-term preservation and sustainability. Therefore, a balance between tourism and cultural heritage management needs to be maintained. Tourism planning, management and tourism management plans are effective ways to achieve this balance. Tourism planning is defined as “a progressive course of actions, guidelines, directives, principles and procedures that set out the objectives to be achieved in the tourism sector at a certain period of time, the tools to be used to achieve these objectives, the work to be done, and the financial and physical possibilities that reveal by whom, when and for how long the work will be done” (Edgell et al. 2008). Tourism management, on the other hand, is a complementary approach intended to minimize the adverse effects of tourism while protecting the best interests of local

152

A. N. Canbolat and D. Erbey

communities and their environments (Ecological Tourism in Europe and Unesco Bresce 2007). A tourism management plan, on the other hand, is a written, distributed, approved and periodically updated document that describes the possible threats and opportunities of tourism development based on detailed information about the environmental, social, cultural, political and legal aspects of the site and that produces a vision for tourism development (Ecological Tourism in Europe and Unesco Bresce 2007). Tourism is inevitable in historical cities with cultural heritage elements that are accepted as universal values of all humanity. Tourism has a large share in economic development and needs to be managed in coordination with preservation. To coordinate this cultural heritage sites must be identified, and the phases of the management plan’s preparation must be defined. As in all planning studies, the boundaries of the site should be determined by considering areas of influence, the process should be defined from the pre-monitoring and evaluation stage, and conformity between all the plans related to the site should be ensured. Tourism planning and management should be a means of ensuring urban preservation, and the development of tourism should not be restricted. Using tourism revenues to develop a preservation-oriented tourism will provide two-way benefits and will be a trigger for protecting sites. The most important reasons for the use of planning in the tourism sector are to encourage economic development, to increase the regional quality of life and the profitability of enterprises and to protect and ensure the sustainable use of tourism resources. Cultural heritage sites where the tourism sector is dominant and visitors exert pressure have problems such as the deterioration of cultural values and increased environmental degradation. Unplanned development, the inability to control the numbers of visitors and intense pressure on cultural heritage can deteriorate cultural fabric. These risks are higher especially in sensitive and protected environments such as World Heritage Sites. Therefore, tourism management plans are being made to regulate the development of tourism-related activities together with urban preservation in cultural heritage sites. The tourism management planning approach does not focus solely on tourism. It should be developed by incorporating sites that have cultural heritage values in need of urban protection that affect tourism and are affected by it. In the approach of tourism management planning, a plan that is compatible with upper-scale plans, is participation-oriented, can be revised according to changing conditions, and is based on the preservation of cultural heritage sites and the transmission of their values to the future should be established. Tourism management plans are considered a sub-stage of the management plans included in legislation and should be compatible with the vision and principles of the management plan. Provided that preservation work is a priority, tourism activities in historical urban centers where tourism is concentrated in a system that supports urban preservation depend on the harmony and co-operation between tourism management plans and site management plans. These are the main principles that tourism management plans should adopt:

Tourism Management Planning Approach in Cultural Heritage Sites …

153

• The main objective in the management of cultural heritage sites is to maintain outstanding universal values in a sustainable manner, to transmit them to future generations and to develop them. • Management plans should be guaranteed by the approval of the institutions responsible for the protection of cultural heritage. • In cultural heritage sites, management plans are the most important tool for managing all outstanding issues, especially those related to tourism. • Management plans should not only emphasize the protection of sites, but should also define how to protect sites, what to do to raise awareness and what the necessary training programmes are. • The main purpose of a tourism management plan is to define the kinds of tourism that preserve cultural heritage. Tourism should be regarded as a means of protecting cultural heritage, providing financing, promoting sites and highlighting cultural characteristics. • Tourism management plans should have principles to manage preservation and tourism development simultaneously and harmoniously. • The main purpose of management plans is to ensure cooperation and participation. They should bring institutions, organizations, non-governmental organizations, universities, local people and users together on common ground. • The following tasks can ensure that management plans do not just exist on paper, but are implemented in the field: detailed analysis of the field, precise actions, determining the means for realizing actions and proper management of the process. • Management plans are not just plans that comprise technical information and analysis or lead to physical decisions. The vision of the field, the basic principles of management, the goals and strategies to be used to achieve these goals, the action programmes and management plans to evaluate their success constitute the future model of the site. • The holistic approach, which has an important place in planning studies, should also be adopted in tourism management plans (Canbolat 2017). If the approach of tourism management planning is developed, the goal of the development of tourism and urban preservation will be attained together, and two-way benefits will be achieved. The approach of tourism management planning involves these objectives and results: • With the objectives of preservation, historical environment and cultural heritage sites will be preserved, cultural continuity will be ensured, and a balance between use and protection will be established. • Tourism objectives will provide a tool that contributes to the economy to achieve urban preservation. • With management objectives, sustainable and preservation-oriented tourism will be managed, supervised and controlled in a way that does not harm the historical environment. • Educational objectives will raise the awareness within the local community and users about cultural heritage, urban preservation and tourism.

154

A. N. Canbolat and D. Erbey

• The cultural characteristics of the site will be highlighted by using proper strategies with publicized objectives. • With visitor management objectives, a balance between protecting the site from intensive visitor pressure and keeping visitors satisfied with the site will be achieved (Canbolat 2017).

Istanbul’s Historic Peninsula: Management Plan, Conservation and Tourism Approaches Istanbul’s historic peninsula is a cultural heritage site with outstanding universal values as one of the city’s oldest settlements which has witnessed different historical periods and civilizations. Istanbul’s historic peninsula was put on the World Heritage List in 1985 after consideration of the following four cultural criteria: (i.) representing a masterpiece of human creative genius, (ii.) exhibiting an important interchange of human values over a span of time or within a cultural area of the world, developments in architecture or technology, monumental arts, town planning or landscape design, (iii.) bearing a unique or at least exceptional testimony to a cultural tradition or to a civilization that is living or has disappeared, (iv.) being an outstanding example of a type of building, architectural or technological ensemble or landscape that illustrates (a) significant stage(s) in human history. (Istanbul Historic Peninsula Site Management Plan 2011). The most important mission of a management plan is to ensure the sustainability of outstanding universal values of assets that need to be protected. The four areas of Istanbul’s historic peninsula are the Archaeological Park in Sarayburnu: the Suleymaniye quarter with the Suleymaniye Mosque complex, the bazaars and vernacular settlement around it, the Zeyrek settlement around the Zeyrek Mosque, and the area along both sides of the Theodosian land walls (Figs. 1 and 2). The vision of the Istanbul Historic Peninsula Site Management Plan approved in 2011 is defined as “a historic peninsula that protects its rich historical background, preserves its liveliness, produces and passes on its socio-economic, spatial and cultural identity to the future, a site management plan that protects the outstanding universal value of Istanbul’s historic peninsula and is executed by all relevant institutions and establishments in coordination and transparency with the participation of users and inhabitants” (Istanbul Historic Peninsula Site Management Plan 2011). The basic principles of the Istanbul Historic Peninsula Site Management Plan were developed using contemporary preservation principles and policies. Accordingly, the main principles of the site management plan are defined for cultural heritage, preservation and use, and planning and participation (Istanbul Historic Peninsula Site Management Plan 2011). Apart from these principles and policies, seven themes were

Tourism Management Planning Approach in Cultural Heritage Sites …

155

Fig. 1 Management Plan Boundaries (Istanbul Historic Peninsula Site Management Plan 2011)

Fig. 2 World Heritage Sites on Istanbul’s Historic Peninsula (Istanbul Historic Peninsula Site Management Plan 2011)

156

A. N. Canbolat and D. Erbey

generated to define objectives and strategies. Among them, those that can be examined in the context of tourism are visitor management, perception of the importance and value of the site, training, raising awareness and participation. Strategies such as enhancing and enriching the quality of the experiences of visitors, effective and efficient maintenance of visitor management in the site management plan, conducting studies on the recognition of the management plan area, establishing training programmes for the presentation and preservation of the site refer to the issue of tourism. There are 10,413 existing and disappeared cultural properties encompassing four areas that have outstanding cultural values within the boundaries of the site management plan. Of them, 10,183 are located on Istanbul’s historic peninsula, and 230 are in the buffer zone. Of the 9,421 existing monuments, 9,207 are located on Istanbul’s historic peninsula and 214 are located in the buffer zone (Istanbul Historic Peninsula Site Management Plan 2011). These data from the Istanbul Historic Peninsula Site Management Plan show that the preservation of the site is not sufficient, and that structures are being destroyed due to various factors of current fabric (Figs. 3, 4, 5 and 6). Tourism is an economic sector that is rapidly producing economic growth and development and is the fastest growing sector of the twenty-first century due to the development of transportation technologies and to its rapid return on investments. Competition in tourism has increased with the World Tourism Organization’s estimation that world tourism revenues will reach two trillion dollars in 2020 (Istanbul Development Agency 2012). The main objective of the long-term tourism strategy

Fig. 3 Aerial View of Sultanahmet Square (Blue Square) (www.alanbaskanligi.gov.tr)

Tourism Management Planning Approach in Cultural Heritage Sites …

157

Fig. 4 The Hippodrome and its Surroundings (Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality 2010)

in the Turkey Tourism Strategy 2023 document is the adoption of the sustainable tourism approach. The tourism and travel industry will be brought into a leading position for leveraging rates of employment and regional development, and it will be ensured that Turkey will become a world brand in tourism and a major destination on the list of five countries receiving the highest number of tourists and highest tourism revenues by 2023 (Ministry of Culture and Tourism 2007). With the rising interest in the tourism sector around the world, Turkey is also examining this issue in strategic studies. According to the Istanbul Tourism Statistics Report prepared in June 2018 by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, the number of foreign visitors coming to Turkey in May 2018 was 3,678,440. The number of foreign visitors to Istanbul was 1,082,399 in May and 1,225,304 in June. According to the report, the number of foreign visitors coming to Istanbul in the first half of 2018 increased by 49.5% compared to the same period in 2017 (Ministry of Culture and Tourism 2018). According to the statistics of the Ministry of Culture and Tourism (kulturvarliklari.gov.tr, accessed on August 15, 2018), of Turkey’s ten most-visited museums in 2017, four were within the borders of Istanbul’s historic peninsula. Istanbul Topkapı Palace Museum ranked

158

A. N. Canbolat and D. Erbey

Fig. 5 Sultanahmet Mosque (Blue Mosque) and Complex (www.alanbaskanligi.gov.tr)

Fig. 6 Hagia Sophia (www.alanbaskanligi.gov.tr)

Tourism Management Planning Approach in Cultural Heritage Sites …

159

second with 1,932,726 visitors, and Istanbul Hagia Sophia Museum ranked third with 1,892,250 visitors. The list includes the Istanbul Topkapı Palace Harem Apartments (ranked sixth with 353,285 visitors) and the Istanbul Archaeological Museums (ranked seventh with 299,616 visitors). Istanbul’s historic peninsula, which is the old centre of Istanbul, is at top of all the areas under the influence of the tourism and visitor pressures of the metropolis. Istanbul’s historic peninsula, where the cultural history of Istanbul is displayed almost like an open-air museum, has become a centre of attraction for the tourism sector. On Istanbul’s historic peninsula, there are some issues related to tourism and urban preservation, such as a lack of preservation of historical texture due to renewal practices, and a lack of an intangible cultural heritage inventory, improper restoration practices, the lack of regulatory plans such as a tourism and visitor management plans. The impact of intense tourism and visitor pressure caused by Istanbul being a metropolis is clearly visible on Istanbul’s historic peninsula. It is a necessary to reduce the pressure that exists at present and is expected to increase on Istanbul’s historic peninsula where cultural tourism is most intense, as it is the common denominator of all types of tourism. The 2011 Istanbul Historic Peninsula Site Administration Plan Area covers an area of 2,110 hectares (Istanbul: 535,249 hectares, European side: approximately 347,500 hectares). Due to the efforts to make decisions within the scope of the same plan for all of the architectural structures and cultural heritage areas that are different from each other in this area, and based on the question of how to increase the feasibility of the management plan by questioning the need for area boundaries and a thematic plan specific to the area, we conclude that the cultural heritage management and tourism management plans must be developed in accordance with each other, but with unique approaches.

Conclusion: Tourism Management Principles for Istanbul’s Historic Peninsula The management and planning of cultural heritage sites requires many disciplines to work together to make thematic studies of their characteristics and potentials. The four regions within the boundaries of the Istanbul Historic Peninsula Plan have different qualities and contain many cultural heritage items. Apart from the pressures imposed by the dynamics of being a metropolitan city, being exposed to the intensity of tourism threatens the sustainability of Istanbul. With the prestige and draw that comes from being on the World Heritage List, World Heritage Sites are under the pressure of intense tourism. Planning and urban preservation are disciplines that includes economic, physical and social phenomena. Therefore, the economic, physical and social phenomena that are prominent in and characterize a cultural heritage site are handled separately and are managed by creating thematic frameworks to obtain more accurate results for their sustainability. The most important factor in systematic preservation and achieving a balance of preservation and tourism in

160

A. N. Canbolat and D. Erbey

cultural heritage sites is management. The creation of area management and management plans for cultural heritage sites and the inclusion of vision, goals, actions, actors and processes in management plans are a necessary for the preservation of cultural values. Management plans are revisable plans that fundamentally define the urban preservation process and include analyses that ensure a better perception of sites and determine the resources and opportunities required for their management. The main objectives of a management plan are to develop a philosophy for the site, to solve the problems of the site in a way that aligns with the vision and goals determined by this philosophy and to provide cultural heritage management by revealing potentials and strengths. Management plans are very comprehensive, but they address tourism issues while focusing on other themes. However, intensive tourism, especially in World Heritage Sites, needs a separate planning and management. It is necessary to focus on the subject of tourism management as a thematic study in order to maintain the sustainability of the area and to sustain tourism activities in order to provide economic input for preservation. The following are the objectives and strategies in the categories of preservation, tourism, management, education, promotion, and visitor management that will contribute to the balance between cultural heritage and tourism priorities on Istanbul’s historic peninsula: Conservation objectives: • • • • • • • •

Ensuring the continuity of cultural heritage Carrying out studies to protect cultural heritage Functioning cultural assets on the basis of preservation Ensuring the participation of users and inhabitants Developing a model by measuring the effects of tourism on the environment Creating funds and resources for preservation work Carrying out renewal while preserving the original forms of structures Producing projects that are focused not only on buildings, but also on environmental organizations Tourism objectives:

• Providing the tourism-oriented use of cultural heritage • Obtaining economic resources for preservation • Highlighting the touristic aspects of the site through preservation Management objectives: • Providing a sustainable and preservation-oriented tourism of the site • Ensuring that tourism practices are sustained in a supervised and controlled way that does not damage the historical environment Educational objectives: • Raising the awareness of local people about cultural heritage issues

Tourism Management Planning Approach in Cultural Heritage Sites …

161

• Informing the public about the benefits of tourism management and tourism planning • Raising awareness by informing the public about the cultural values of the region Promotional objectives: • Identifying optimal promotional strategies for the management of the site without exposure to intense pressure • Highlighting the cultural characteristics of the site as a tourism asset • Informing and promoting the type of tourism at the site • Supporting cultural values with activities Visitor management objectives: • • • •

Informing visitors Managing the duration of visitors’ stays based on pressure on the area Establishing tourism routes Ensuring that the public can benefit from tourism activities (Canbolat 2017).

References Abacılar, P. (2008). Do˘gal ve Kentsel Sit Alanlarında Kültür Turizmi ve Yönetimi “Bo˘gaziçi – Arnavutköy Örne˘gi”. (Yüksek Lisans Tezi). ˙Istanbul Teknik Üniversitesi, ˙Istanbul. Akdo˘gan, A. (2010). Dünya Miras Alanlarında Turizm Etkinli˘gi. (Yüksek Lisans Tezi). Gazi Üniversitesi, Ankara. Ayrancı, ˙I. (2007). Koruma Alanlarında Yönetim ve Yönetim Planı Sürecinin De˘gerlendirilmesi. (Yüksek Lisans Tezi). ˙Istanbul Teknik Üniversitesi, ˙Istanbul. Canbolat, A. N. (2017). Kültürel Miras Alanlarında Turizm Yönetim Planlaması Yakla¸sımı. (Yüksek Lisans Tezi). Mimar Sinan Güzel Sanatlar Üniversitesi, ˙Istanbul. Ecological Tourism in Europe and Unesco Bresce. (2007). Sustainable Tourism Management Planning in Biosphere Reserves A Methodology Guide. Edgell, D. E., Allen, M. D. M., Smith, G., & Swanson, J. R. (2008). Tourism Policy and Planning: Yesterday. Oxford: Today and Tomorrow. Elsevier. Erbey, D. (2016). An Evaluation of the Applicability of Management Plans with Public Participation, ˙Ideal Kent (Kent Ara¸stırmaları Dergisi) Bellek ve Koruma 1, 19. Gülersoy, Z. (2012). Dünya’da ve Türkiye’de Alan Yönetimi Tanımı ve Örnekleri, Kültürel Miras Yönetimi (92–123). Eski¸sehir: Anadolu Üniversitesi Yayını. ICOMOS. (1999). International Cultural Tourism Charter Principles and Guidelines for Managing Tourism at Places of Cultural and Heritage Significance, International Cultural Tourism Charter. ICOMOS New Zealand. (2010). Charter for the Conservation of Places of Cultural Heritage Value. ˙Istanbul Büyük¸sehir Belediyesi. (2010). Adım Adım ˙Istanbul Avrupa Kültür Ba¸skenti, ˙Istanbul, 65–79. ˙Istanbul Büyük¸sehir Belediyesi. (2011). ˙Istanbul Tarihi Yarımada Yönetim Planı. ˙Istanbul Kalkınma Ajansı. (2012). Türkiye ve ˙Istanbul Bölgesinde Turizm. Retrieved 15, Aug 2018, from http://www.istka.org.tr/media/1074/türkiye-ve-˙Istanbul-bölgesi-nde-turizm.pdf. ˙Istanbul Sit Alanları Alan Yönetim Ba¸skanlı˘gı. ˙Istanbul’un Tarihi Alanları. Retrieved 15, Aug 2018, from http://www.alanbaskanligi.gov.tr/haritalar.html.

162

A. N. Canbolat and D. Erbey

Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlı˘gı, 14.02.1983 tarihinde 17959 sayılı Resmi Gazete’de yayınlanan Dünya Kültürel ve Do˘gal Mirasın Korunması Sözle¸smesi. Retrieved 15, Aug 2018, from http://teftis. kulturturizm.gov.tr/TR,14269/dunya-kulturel-ve-dogal-mirasin-korunmasi-sozlesmesi.html. Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlı˘gı, 23.07.1983 onaylı 2863 Sayılı Kültür ve Tabiat Varlıklarını Koruma Kanunu. Retrieved 15, Aug 2018, from http://www.mevzuat.gov.tr/Metin1.Aspx?MevzuatKod= 1.5.2863&MevzuatIliski=0&sourceXmlSearch=&Tur=1&Tertip=5&No=2863. Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlı˘gı, 27.07.2004 onaylı 5226 Sayılı Kültür ve Tabiat Varlıklarının Koruma Kanunu ˙Ile Çe¸sitli Kanunlarda De˘gi¸siklik Yapılması Hakkında Kanun. https://www.tbmm.gov. tr/kanunlar/k5226.html. Accessed 15.08.2018. Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlı˘gı, 27.11.2005 onaylı Alan Yönetimi ile Anıt Eser Kurulunun Kurulu¸s ve Görevleri ile Yönetim Alanlarının Belirlenmesine ˙Ili¸skin Uusl ve Esaslar Hakkında Yönetmelik. Retrieved 15, Aug 2018, from http://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2005/11/20051127-2.htm. Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlı˘gı, ˙Istanbul Turizm ˙Istatistikleri Raporu. Haziran 2018. Retrieved 15, Aug 2018, from http://www.istanbulkulturturizm.gov.tr/TR,204550/istanbul-turizmistatistikleri—2018.html. Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlı˘gı, Müze ˙Istatistikleri. Eri¸sim Tarihi: 15.08.2018. http://www. kulturvarliklari.gov.tr/TR,43336/muze-istatistikleri.html. Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlı˘gı, Türkiye Turizm Stratejisi 2023 Eylem Planı 2007–2013. Retrieved 15, Aug 2018, from http://www.kultur.gov.tr/Eklenti/906,ttstratejisi2023pdf.pdf?0. Pedersen, A. (2002). Managing tourism at world heritage sites: A practical manual for world heritage site managers (pp. 3–24). Paris: UNESCO World Heritage Center. Yazıcı, E. (2007). Özel Çevre Koruma Bölgelerinde Turizm Baskısı ve Datça-Bozburun Özel Çevre Koruma Bölgesi ˙Için Turizm Yönetim Planı Önerisi. (Yüksek Lisans Tezi). ˙Istanbul Teknik Üniversitesi, ˙Istanbul. World Heritage Center. (2012). Operational guidelines for the implementation of the world heritage convention. Paris: France.

Ay¸se Nur Canbolat graduated from the Department of City and Regional Planning at Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University Faculty of Architecture in 2015. She completed a master’s degree in the Urban Preservation and Renewal programme at Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University in 2017 with her thesis: “Tourism Management Planning Approach in Cultural Heritage Sites.” She began the City and Regional Planning Ph.D. programme at Gazi University in 2017. Since February 2018, she has been working as a lecturer in the Department of City and Regional Planning in Amasya University’s Faculty of Architecture. Her main areas of interest are urban preservation and cultural heritage. Dilek Erbey has been working as a lecturer since 1992 in the Faculty of Architecture, Department of City and Regional Planning, Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University, Istanbul. She gives courses on urban conservation, renewal, urban regeneration and heritage management at the undergraduate and graduate levels. She has several articles published. Her research interests are on the topics of urban conservation, heritage management and urban regeneration.

Architecture’s Role in New Tourism Trends: Cases from Poland and Turkey Adam Siniecki and Ay¸se Nilay Evcil

Introduction Many people enjoy visiting buildings as a tourist activity, even those that have been recently renovated or contemporarily designed by famous architects. This new form of tourism constitutes a growing global phenomenon (Ockman and Frausto 2005; Doganer 2013). Thus, it is clear that tourism can be fueled by architecture. According to Specht, “Exploring a city’s architecture is like reading in a three dimensional book about its history, with witnesses to important economic and cultural periods, scars recalling wars or disasters and experiments, once criticised, later accepted and today embraced as important parts of the distinctive urban atmosphere” (2014, p. 166). Architecture as an aspect of culture always attracts interest. Architecture is like the face of a culture, representing the society who built it (Mahgoub 2007). It provides tourists with a first impression of a city and its people. Therefore, the historical and cultural elements of a destination are the most important contributors to tourism (Yeniasır and Gokbulut 2018). Ismailova and colleagues (2015) explained that historical and cultural elements are important in tourism: as motives for tourism, as influencing factors in economic development, as regulators of the stream of tourism in an area, and as branding for a city or country’s tourism industry. Previous studies have shown that tourists want to see and experience local, authentic culture (Durmaz et al. 2010). Therefore, the characteristics of local people and places are essential in expanding the tourism industry. Recently, famous contemporary architects’ designs have been shown to directly increase tourism venues and add value to a city’s branding (Rahman et al. 2018). The most powerful example A. Siniecki Faculty of Architecture, Poznan University of Technology, Poznan, Poland e-mail: [email protected] A. N. Evcil (B) Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Beykent University, Istanbul, Turkey e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 ˙I. O. Co¸skun et al. (eds.), Heritage Tourism Beyond Borders and Civilizations, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5370-7_13

163

164

A. Siniecki and A. N. Evcil

of this is certainly Frank Gehry’s sculpture-like building in Bilbao. These modern architectural designs stand out vigorously as counterparts to other great architectural examples in the tourist arena. This paper examines architectural tourism as a new form of tourism centered on both old and new building examples from Poland and Turkey. It also outlines the architectural tourism potentials of the two countries. The research used the seek library source materials method and case studies (Foque 2010). Some of the objects studied are presented in the following article.

New Tourism Trends and Architecture It is well known that the tourism industry can increase countries’ revenues even in economic crises if it is managed effectively (FaladeObalade and Dubey 2014). However, there are also many examples in which mass tourism has had adverse effects, such as environmental pollution, destruction of coastlines, damage of natural life, destruction of local identities, etc. Most countries are aware of the importance of their local cultures. There is a growing number of cities that brand themselves using their architecture, regardless of whether it is historical architecture with roots in the local culture or contemporary architectural masterpieces by world famous architects. This new type of tourism, often referred to as architourism, likely has a strong relationship to cultural tourism, which typically involves visiting museums, art galleries, and historical places abroad. Indeed, it is extremely difficult to draw a clear line between these two types of tourism. What is the difference between cultural tourism and architecture tourism? Post-modern tourists who are ‘experience hunters’ (Hall 1992) or ‘versatile’ (Ye and Tussyadiah 2016) seek unique and self-selected destinations. It is obvious that architecture forms an integral part of culture. People who want to travel abroad to feel the spirit of a building might attach priority to heritage buildings while visiting contemporary modern designs at the same time. In addition, such tourists might be more interested in modern iconic buildings, but in passing by, experience other historical buildings or vernacular architecture in a casual or serendipitous manner (McKercher and Du Cros 2002; Specht 2015). In cultural tourism, people tend to visit museums, galleries, and art-related events. At first, it seems that people simply visit museums and galleries in architourism. The reason for this is because in architourism, people experience mostly public buildings, which contain mainly cultural- and art-related objects. However, as research in this area increases, it will become clear that ‘architourists’ are also interested in experiencing different types of buildings (i.e., houses, shopping centers, airports, bridges, mosques, churches, libraries, schools, etc.). On the other hand, some specialists have criticized architourism for causing tourism commodification (Della Lucia et al. 2016) such as ‘McGuggenization’ (McNeill 2000) or ‘Dubaization’ (Al Rabadya 2013). Gür (2017) defined the Bilbao effect as an ironic twist, since no other city can create this effect, as it was planned

Architecture’s Role in New Tourism Trends: Cases from Poland and Turkey

165

for the specific conditions of Bilbao. Curtis (2011) underlined Gür’s words with an example about containers without content. According to him, architecture is like a flashy container without much content to it. Stunning buildings are also being discussed from the urban planning perspective if they take place in historical environment (Golding 2001). The loss of local identity with the impact of globalization is a controversial aspect of iconic buildings creating a global branding effect. Urban regeneration projects commodify historic areas, which can cause these areas to lose their local identities in the pursuit of financial profits and to ensure global competitiveness. Art and culture are consumed in these iconic buildings and usually behind these projects, there is an economic elite. Therefore, the Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao is considered as a ‘metaphor of the impact of globalization on the European city’ (McNeill 2000, p. 490).

Architourism: Travels of Architecture Lovers According to Vukadinovic (2011, p. 20), ‘Architourism is a new concept which is interrelated to previous interest in architecture with new types of tourist behavior and tendencies.[…] With the expansion of architourism and enthusiasm about contemporary architecture alongside historical buildings, many stakeholders have recognized economical benefits [sic]’. In their book Architourism, Ockman and Frausto (2005) coined the term ‘architourism’, and used it as an analogy to compare with other types of tourism. Schwarzer (2005) defined architourism as tourism related to famous architects’ buildings that are intended to attract international tourists. According to him, designing an iconic building is not new, but what is new are the global marketing considerations as well as project planning for the stunning buildings. Jackson (2016) described architecture tourism as being centered on the world’s inspiring new architecture. She describes this new type of tourist as an ‘architecture lover.’ A broad range of tourists preferring this type of tourism also travel to experience the cultural events of a city, such as exhibitions, biennials, festivals, etc. The worldwide Guiding-architect network created by architects, which offers specialized tours in 41 cities across 22 countries for architecture lovers, is also new. According to the world’s largest architecture tour networks data, they organized 1822 tours for 36,142 participants in 41 destinations around the world in 2017 (visit for details: http://www.guiding-architects.net). Architourists mostly prefer to visit the following architectural destinations: • Modern architecture buildings: Contemporary architecture includes 20th and 21st century building designs. Skyscrapers and certificated buildings (LEED, BREEAM, etc.) belong to this subcategory (e.g., the MM Building in Poznan, POLIN museum in Warsaw, Levent Office, Kanyon Shopping Mall, Sapphire, and Crystal Tower in Istanbul). • New designs in historical contexts: This category includes new additions to heritage buildings. The examples might be contemporary conservation projects

166

A. Siniecki and A. N. Evcil

or some infill projects in historical areas. In this subcategory, famous architects play an important role because they create a brand unique to the city in which they formulate a new identity (e.g., Stary Browar, Fortezza, Brama Posnania ICHOT in Poznan; Ipera 25, Yapı Kredi Culture Center (YKKM), and Salt Galata in Istanbul). • Great architecture as heritage buildings: This category includes cathedrals, citadels, churches, mosques, bridges, palaces, etc. These are symbolic buildings of cities in which they are commonly referred to as landmarks. In other words, they are always must-see places for tourists (e.g., Ratusz of Poznan, Imperial Castle, and Poznan Cathedral; Hagia Sofia, Blue Mosque, and Topkapı Palace in Istanbul). Each type of architecture now plays a major role in tourism and city branding. Previously, tourist attention was paid to historical monuments; however, now interest in modern construction has increased. A similar change has also been observed in tourism. Several decades ago, tourists were attracted to only sea, sand, and sun destinations (Harrison 2001). Tourism motivated by architecture was rare. Currently, both architectural conservation and modern interventions in heritage and iconic buildings, such as adding a sculpture to a redevelopment project, become instant focal points for tourism. However, we should also keep in mind the adverse effects of new architecture on a city’s dynamics. The Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao is an example of successful, marketable, and high quality architecture by a famous architect, but can the success achieved in Bilbao be replicated by other cities and architects? According to Specht, ‘Architecture always evolves from a local, temporal, and cultural contact. Where modesty might be suitable for one destination, spectacular architecture could be a transformation catalyst or unique selling point for another. Therefore, project developers need to be aware of the local situation as well as the reciprocal relationship between the modern practice of tourism and the built environment’ (2014, p. X). Without considering a local area’s identity and urban context (i.e., functional, economical, architectural, etc.), destination development related to sculptural architecture might be wasting money.

Case studies: Poland and Turkey New Tourism Trends and Polish Architecture Architourism has been gaining popularity in Poland. This is the result of many factors, however, the most important factors include social changes and economic growth in Poland, increasing interest in Polish and foreign icons in modern architecture, and attempts by Polish city authorities to replicate the ‘Bilbao effect.’ Increasing financial possibilities for Poles, which have resulted from increasing incomes and decreasing expenses, has caused the average Pole to devote more money

Architecture’s Role in New Tourism Trends: Cases from Poland and Turkey

167

Ilustration

Fig. 1 Average month income (red color) and expenses (green color) on 1 person in housekeeping and quota of expense (blue line) during years 2004–2016. Source: https://www.bankier.pl/ wiadomosc/Tak-rosna-dochody-i-wydatki-Polakow-7526262.html, 15.10.2018

to his development: experience and knowledge. The manner in which people spend their free time has changed with the decrease in Poland’s financial problems; thus, people have more time to dedicate to their interests and curiosities (Fig. 1). The desire to broaden their knowledge partly results from the growing number of publications in nationwide and social media as well as social discussions about architecture. Since 2007, a plebiscite for ‘Bryła and Makabryła’ (which translates to, ‘The Beauty and the Macabre’) has been organized. Every year, the readers of the ‘bryla.pl’ portal choose objects that enrich or mar the Polish public space. Discussion of the results of the annual competition are widely commented on in various media and increases the interest of Poles in contemporary architecture. The award is not only a distinction for architects, but also for the city in which the most beautiful object of the year is located. Cities with featured objects are becoming destinations for architourists; unfortunately, this includes both the ‘beauties’ and the ‘macabres’ (“Bryła Roku 2017” 2018). Some of the ventures aimed at bringing fame and tourists to the cities in question ended in failure or became the basis of jokes or shame. A copy of the statue of Jesus ´ Christ from Rio was built in Swiebodzin (Fig. 2). Although the number of tourists visiting the city increased, it enjoyed far less success than the work of Frank Gehry in Bilbao. Increased interest transforms into high attendance during events related to visiting contemporary architecture. An example of this is ‘Nationwide Walks,’ organized by the National Institute of Architecture and Urban Planning. Tourists from various regions of Poland and the world come to see unique buildings with high architectural value. Very often a large part of the attraction involves the architect presentation of the object (Fig. 3).

168

A. Siniecki and A. N. Evcil

´ Fig. 2 The statue of Jesus Christ was built in Swiebodzin. Source: http://fotowojcik.pl/media/ watermark/POLSKA/Lubuskie/swiebodzin/WW147860.jpg, 14.10.2018

Fig. 3 Poster advertising the next edition of the “National Walk” in 2018. Source: https://niaiu.pl/ wp-content/uploads/2018/10/www_slajder_Obszar-roboczy-1.jpg, 15.05.2020

The above mentioned events enjoy a large turnout, as the visits to individual objects are not organized cyclically. In addition, during the visit, rooms that are not accessible even to regular users of these facilities are made available. This is also the case with the Keret House. The artistic installation was designed by architect Jakub Szcz˛esny from the Centrala design group, and was built in 2012 in Warsaw (Fig. 4). It is the narrowest house in the world. The installation was designed as a workshop for the Israeli writer Etgar Keret and intended as a place for cultural activities. The

Architecture’s Role in New Tourism Trends: Cases from Poland and Turkey

Fig. 4 The Keret House—physical model. Source: z14375701V,Jakub-Szczesny---Dom-Kereta-.jpg, 28.08.2018

169

http://bi.gazeta.pl/im/15/5b/db/

house will be rented to artists. There is also the possibility of visiting the interior during special events (karethouse.com). Undoubtedly, the attempts of Polish cities to recreate the Bilbao effect have had a large impact on the emergence of distinctive buildings in Polish cities. City authorities have invited world-renowned architects to cooperate, like Christian Kerez and Daniel Libeskind in Warsaw and Claudio Silvestrin and MVRDV in Pozna´n. The ‘Bałtyk’ office building of the Dutch architectural office MVRDV (Fig. 5) has already, during its construction phase, became an important accent in the Pozna´n landscape. The shape of the solid stems closely from the adjustment to the local context. The building looks different depending on where the viewer stands. It expands or narrows depending on where the observer is. The Baltyk is inspired by Pozna´n modernism. Another building that is considered an icon of this style is the Okr˛aglak by Marek Leykam (Fig. 6). Even though it fulfills the function of an office building, the building is visited by many tourists (among other things, due to the observation deck at the top). (“Bałtyk/MVRDV” 2017). The POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews is a museum on the site of the former Warsaw Ghetto (Fig. 7). The building was designed by Finnish architects Rainer Mahlamäki and Ilmari Lahdelma. It is constructed of glass, copper, and concrete. The central feature of the building is its cavernous entrance hall. The main hall forms a high, undulating wall. The empty space is a symbol of the crack in the history of Polish Jews. Due to the rich history of Poland, most of the designed objects refer to welldefined spatial, historical, or cultural contexts. The Interactive Center for the History of Ostrów Tumski (ICHOT) in Pozna´n was intended to be a Polish version of the Bilbao effect, introducing new life to one of the oldest districts of the city (Fig. 8).

170

Fig. 5 The Baltic office building

Fig. 6 The Okraglak—icon of modernist architecture in Pozna´n

A. Siniecki and A. N. Evcil

Architecture’s Role in New Tourism Trends: Cases from Poland and Turkey

171

Fig. 7 POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews in Warsaw. Source: http://www.polin.pl/ sites/default/files/styles/isocell_5_2/public/pictures/20130824_budynek_fot_maciej_jezyk_004_ 2.jpg?itok=cmOfpE8d, 25.08.2018

Fig. 8 The site plan of ICHOT. Source: https://images.adsttc.com/media/images/54d0/5741/e58e/ ce45/7a00/0474/slideshow/ICHOT_01_Urban_scheme.jpg?1422939950, 15.05.2020

The shape of the main building is a compact concrete cube. The glazed crack in the block does not divide the building functionally, it only creates an axis in the Cathedral. The exhibition interiors have been designed in accordance with the latest exhibition trends, offering visitors an exposition affecting all the senses. Thanks to multimedia presentations, film screenings, interactive mockups, and visualizations, visitors can take a historic journey beginning in the 10th century and ending in the 21st century. The building is connected by a footbridge with the Tumska sluice, a remnant of the Prussian fortification system of the city from the 19th century. Unfortunately, the simple concrete form, located partly over the Cybina river, arouses extreme emotions among the inhabitants of Pozna´n. For some, it is a symbol of wasted money, while for others, it is an icon of modern architecture (Fig. 9). Revitalized public spaces are an increasingly common recreational destination. ‘Architectural tourism is also a visit to fashionable districts, streets or urban spaces, including those that arise as a result of well-thought-out revitalization processes, f.e. post-industrial areas. […] The trend of architectural tourism has not only reached Poland, but we have managed to create in this field its own creative concepts that have

172

A. Siniecki and A. N. Evcil

Fig. 9 The Interactive Center for the History of Ostrów Tumski (ICHOT) in Pozna´n

evolved into well-thought-out cultural and tourist products. It took just a few years for us to discover, to be enchanted by what we thought so far to be the weaknesses in the tourist offer of many cities, that is, modernist architecture, industrial or worker housing estates. At present, at least a dozen cities in Poland are intensively developing the offer of cultural tourism based on interwar architecture’ (Debis 2016). ´ An example is the Sródka district of Pozna´n (already mentioned in relation to the ´ ICHOT). Although it is one of the oldest parts of Pozna´n, for a long time Sródka was ‘off the beaten track.’ Revitalization activities have contributed to the renewal ´ of this corner of the city. Sródka is famous for two landmarks: the already mentioned ICHOT and a spatial mural designed and installed by the architect Radosław Barek. ´ The mural was created on an unused wall of one of Sródka’s tenements (Fig. 10). Two of Filip Springer’s books played an important role in the protection of con´ urodzone (The Badly Born) published in 2012, temporary Polish architecture: Zle and Wanna z kolumnad˛a (The Bathtub with a Colonnade) published in 2013. The author describes in them the history of many buildings, architectural gems created after the Second World War, which due to the time of the uprising or bad decisions of the owners or authorities were destroyed or their condition significantly deteriorated. The publication of these widely read books resulted in increased interest among Polish people in Polish modernist architecture and its protection. In many Polish cities, building tours that recount their histories have gained popularity. An interesting example of such a tour is the ‘Modernist Pozna´n’ organized in Pozna´n. The tour participants are guided through subsequent interesting modernist objects in Pozna´n. The Gdynia Modernism Trail appeared as an element of events from the

Architecture’s Role in New Tourism Trends: Cases from Poland and Turkey

173

´ Fig. 10 The spatial mural in Sródka in Pozna´n

series of design days, and even the Open’er Festival, a music festival, as well as a pretext to initiate a new concept of events in Poland, such as the summer days of architecture, held since 2011 under the Weekend Architecture brand. Similar trips are organized in other Polish cities, such as Kraków, Wrocław, and Warsaw (Fig. 11).

Fig. 11 Trip “Faces of Upper Silesian Modernism”, organized Association for Cultural Heritage of Gliwice. Source: http://www.gliwiczanie.pl/Reportaz/modernizm/modernizm.htm, 17.09.2018

174

A. Siniecki and A. N. Evcil

Polish architects are successfully competing with foreign colleagues in international architectural and urban competitions. Among the Polish studios that have gained global recognition in the last few years, the following are worth mentioning: Silesian architectural companies KWK Promes, Medusa Group, Ewa, and Stanisław Sipi´nska Architectural Studio; Front Architects and Ultra Architects from Pozna´n; Ingarden and Ewa from Krakow; and HS99 with Koszalin. The last two have won awards from the most popular architecture portal in the world, Archdaily.com. Their popularity also contributes to the creation of new, valuable objects worth visiting.

New Tourism Trends and Turkish Architecture Turkey, with its numerous world famous areas, is also a well-known tourist destination. The most visited cities in Turkey include Istanbul, Antalya, Izmir, Gaziantep, SanlıUrfa, ¸ Mardin, Çanakkale, Mugla, Konya, Mersin, and Trabzon. However, in this paper, we chose to describe new tourism trends in the world metropole, Istanbul, where one of the author has lived here for more than 20 years. According to Kuban, ‘Istanbul is a treasure house containing fragments shedding light on a very long past, and a little knowledge of history will allow the visitor to form a picture of the physical history of Byzantion-Constantinople-Istanbul, one of the most beautiful cities in the world, with a past of 2600 years that no other city can equal’ (2007, p. 53). Today, with a population of 15 million, Istanbul is a city that tourists want to visit. Not only does Istanbul boast incredible historical architecture, but it is also home to contemporary modern buildings, local art, and culture. The new tourism trend of architourism takes place in Istanbul in a unique way since, even in professional guided tours, different facets of the city, even unsightly ones, are offered to visitors (http://ga-istanbul.com). These facets can be described as follows: 1. Monumental facet: Building reflecting its deep-rooted history such as, Hagia Sophia, Topkapı Palace, Blue Mosque, Hippodrome, Basilica Cistern, Covered Bazaar, The Mosque and Complex of Süleymaniye, The Church of the Pantacrator, etc. (Figs. 12 and 13). 2. Modern facet of the Republic era: New and modern buildings of the Turkish Republic era (1908-1970). The First and Second National Architecture movements’ samples are worth visiting. The First National Architecture Movement aimed to create a national style against in response to the Western effect on Turkish architecture, while the Second National Style emphasized the sense of locality as well as monumental quality. Many buildings belonging to these periods can be seen in Istanbul, such as Istanbul City Hall Saraçhane (1953, by Necdet Erol), Hilton Hotel (1950, by Sedat Hakkı Eldem), Zeyrek SSK Building (1960, by Sedat Hakkı Eldem), Karakoy Palas (1920, by Giulio Mongeri), etc. (Figs. 14 and 15). 3. Post-modern facet (1970—present): Architectural examples of the influence of the post-modern movement as it happened in the world and, current examples of

Architecture’s Role in New Tourism Trends: Cases from Poland and Turkey

Fig. 12 Hagia Sofia

Fig. 13 The Church of the Pantacrator

175

176

A. Siniecki and A. N. Evcil

Fig. 14 Hilton Hotel by Sedat Hakkı Eldem. Source: https://www.etstur.com/Hilton-IstanbulBosphorus, 15.05.2020

Fig. 15 Karakoy Palas, by G. Mongeri

Architecture’s Role in New Tourism Trends: Cases from Poland and Turkey

177

architecture in the 21st century are included. The following structures are examples of this period: Taksim Atatürk Library (1973, by Sedat Hakkı Eldem), Milli Reasürans (1992, by Sandor ¸ and Sevinç Hadi), Sabancı Center (1993, by Haluk Tümay and Ayhan Böke), ˙I¸s Towers (1999, by Do˘gan Tekeli and Sami Sisa), Metrocity Shopping Center (2003, by Do˘gan Tekeli and Sami Sisa), Kanyon (2006, by Jon Jerde and Tabanlıo˘glu Architects), Levent Ofis (2010, by Molestira Architects-the first LEED Certificated building in Turkey), Sapphire Istanbul (2010, Tabanlıo˘glu Architects), Ipera25 (2011, Ahmet Alata¸s), Naval Museum (2013, Teget Architects), Crystal Tower (2014, by Pei Cobb Creed Partners and Has Architects), etc. (Figs. 16 and 17). Fig. 16 Kanyon, by Jon Jerde & Tabanlioglu Architects

178

A. Siniecki and A. N. Evcil

Fig. 17 Is Towers, by Dogan Tekeli & Sami Sisa

4. Traditional facet-vernacular architecture: This includes traditional Turkish residential architecture with Turkish house plans. It is referred to as ‘Istanbul house,’ which composes the most characteristic examples of Turkish houses. It is also possible to distinguish street layouts that mostly preserve its traditional features. For this purpose, mansions along the Bosphorus, Fener-Balat (urban rehabilitation project 1996-2009), Kuzguncuk, and Galata can be seen (Figs. 18 and 19). In addition, it is also possible to come across several globally famous architects’ designs in this giant metropole, such as Norman Foster’s Ferko Signature (2015), Kristen Lees’ Koç Modern Arts Museum (under construction), and Pei Cobb Freed and Partners’ (with Has Architects) (2014) Crystal Tower, or some Turkish architects whose projects were internationally awarded like Han Tümertekin (Aga Khan

Architecture’s Role in New Tourism Trends: Cases from Poland and Turkey

179

Fig. 18 Levent Ofis, by Molestira Architects, the first LEED certificated building in Turkey

Award for Architecture in 2004), Emre Arolat (The World Architecture FestivalWAF Winner in 2012), Tabanlıo˘glu Architects (WAF Winner in 2012), Ergino˘glu and Çalı¸slar (WAF Winner in 2010). Nearly everyday, this metropole hosts numerous architecture and design events, such as conferences, fairs, exhibitions, and contests. Istanbul Biennial, Design Week, and Contemporary Istanbul are some examples, which contribute to the city’s cultural life and design world each year (Fig. 20). Iconic buildings, such as the Guggenheim in Bilbao, do not serve as a driving force in Istanbul’s tourism industry. The reasons should be discussed in another research paper, but Istanbul with its rich heritage and contemporary modern buildings will continue to be a world class travel destination.

180

A. Siniecki and A. N. Evcil

Fig. 19 Kuzguncuk

Results A new form of tourism, architourism, is developing in Poland and Turkey, despite having different cultural heritages. The growing number of buildings of high architectural value in these countries, as well as the growing interest in architecture among residents and tourists, suggest that architectural tourism in these two countries will continue to develop. The preservation and sustainability of the local cultural characteristics to which architourism owes its existence seems to be important for the future of tourism in both countries. An important role in them will be played by new revitalized public spaces (post-industrial and post-military). Architourists are not limited to traveling only in their own countries. They are well-educated, and interested in architecture and design. The goals of their trips are

Architecture’s Role in New Tourism Trends: Cases from Poland and Turkey

181

Fig. 20 Galata

located all over the world, such as the Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, designed by Frank Gehry, or the Jewish Museum in Berlin by Daniel Libeskind.

Conclusion Visually attractive buildings, including both historical and contemporary architecture, are important components of daily tourism activities. Their contribution to tourism is undeniable but we must be careful in the field of architecture. Especially the recently constructed sculptural buildings and new interventions in old buildings

182

A. Siniecki and A. N. Evcil

might be inappropriate to the historical contexts of local areas. The adverse effects of globalization, such as the loss of local identity, might also be a threat if appropriate measures are not taken. Nowadays, much of the tourism potential of many developed countries is directed toward architectural products. Not only heritage buildings but also contemporary architecture play an important role in tourism. For this reason, architectural tours have become a regular part of cities’ tourism programs, although this has given rise to controversies surrounding urban transformation in some cases. It is also worth mentioning that combining the passion of tourists and architecture lovers and their economic potential increase the chance for effective activation and revitalization of the areas surrounding the visited facilities. There is no doubt that architecture is a fundamental aspect of tourism and that it will continue to attract tourists in the future. Heritage buildings’ have already taken the lead in tourism and, now, modern buildings have begun to attract the interest of tourists, as they will eventually become historical sights as well. The tourist market, focused on specific tourist profiles with specific needs, requires further research, especially the influence of social media or cinematography on the development of interest in architecture among Poles and Turks.

References Al Rabady, R. (2013). Creative cities through local heritage revival: A perspective from Jordan/Madaba. International Journal of Heritage Studies, 19(3), 288–303. Bałtyk/MVRDV. (2017, June). ArchDaily. retrieved from https://www.archdaily.com/872767/ baltyk-mvrdv. BRYŁA ROKU 2017—wyniki. Poznajcie zwyci˛ezców i zobaczcie najlepsze polskie realizacje architektoniczne. (2018, May). Bryła.pl Retrieved from http://www.bryla.pl/brylaroku/ 56,157152,23398804,bryla-roku-2017-poznajcie-zwyciezcow-i-zobaczcie-najlepsze.html. Curtis, W. JR. (2011). Containers without content: The disastrous roll-out of the Bilbao effect across Spain. Uncube Culture & the City, 8, 27–34, Retrieved from http://www.uncunemagazine.com/ sizcms/detail.php?id=8840839&articleid=art-1363599588458-46#!/page27. Debis, J. (2016), Przyci˛aganie architektur˛a. TerazPolska: Magazyn Fundacji Polskiego Godła Promocyjnego. Retrieved from https://magazynterazpolska.pl/pl/a/przyciaganie-architektura, DellaLucia, M., Trunfio, M., & Go, F. M. (2016). Heritage tourism destinations, preservation, communication & development. In M. D. Alvarez, F. M. Go, & A. Yuksel (Eds.), Does the culture of context matter in urban regeneration process? (pp. 11–21). UK: CABI Publishing. Doganer, S. (2013). The New architourist destination: Dallas/Fort Worth, Texas. International Journal of Culture and Tourism Research, 6(1), 15–28. Durmaz, B., Platt, S., & Yigitler, T. (2010). Creativity Culture Tourism and Place-Making: Istanbul and London Film Industries. International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality, 4(3), 198–213. FaladeObalade, T., & Dubey, S. (2014). Managing tourism as a source of revenue & foreign direct investment inflow in a developing country: The Jordanian experience. International Journal of Academic Research in Economics & Management Series, 3(3), 16–42. Foque, R. (2010). Building knowledge in architecture. Brussels: UPA University Press Antwerp. Golding, F. (2001). Building in context, New development in historic areas. English heritage/CABE2001, London: Westerham Press.

Architecture’s Role in New Tourism Trends: Cases from Poland and Turkey

183

Gür, S. ¸ Ö. (2017). Bilbao Etkisi [Bilbao Effect]. Yapı, 433, 66–71. Hall, C. M. (1992). Hallmark tourist events: Impacts, management, and planning. London: Belhaven Press. Harrison, D. (2001). Less developed countries & tourism: The overall pattern. In D. Harrison (Ed.), Tourism & the less developed world: Issues & case studies (pp. 1–22). UK: CABI Publishing. Ismailova, G., Safiullin, L., & Gafurov, I. (2015). Using historical heritage as a factor in tourism development. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences., 188, 157–162. Jackson, B. (2016, September 23). Architecture tourism: The world’s inspiring new architecture. Retrieved from http://www.traveller.com.au/architecture-the-next-big-thing-grk5z9. Kuban, D. (2007). Imagining Old Istanbul, In Z.I. Boynudelik (Ed.), The Spirit of Istanbul (pp. 53– 65). Istanbul, Turkey: IBB Kültür ve Sosyal ˙Ili¸skiler Daire Ba¸skanlı˘gı A4 Ofset Matbaacılık. Mahgoub, Y. (2007). Architecture and the expression of cultural identity in Kuwait. The Journal of Architecture, 12(2), 165–182. McKercher, B., & Du Cros, H. (2002). Cultural tourism: The partnership between tourism and cultural heritage management. Philadelphia: Haworth Hospitality Press. McNeill, D. (2000). McGuggenisation? National identity and globalisation in the Basque Country. Political Geography, 19(4), 473–494. Ockman, J., & Frausto, S. (2005). Point of departure. In J. Ockman & S. Frausto (Eds.), Architourism authentic escapist exotic spectacular. NY: Columbia Book of Architecture, Prestel. Rahman, N. A., Halim, N., & Zakariya, K. (2018) Architectural value for urban tourism Placemaking To Rejuvenate the Cityscape in Johor Bahru. In IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering ICACE 2018, (pp. 1–9), Penang Malaysia. 401, 2nd International Conference on Architecture & Civil Engineering. Specht, J. (2014). Architectural tourism, building for urban travel destinations. Munich, Germany: Springer Gabler. Specht, J. (2015). Towards a new role model of the contemporary architectural tourist, In S. Sonnenburg & D. Wee (Eds.), Touring consumption, management, culture interpretation. Fachmedien Wiesbaden: Springer. Schwarzer, M. (2005). Architecture & Mass Tourism. In J. Ockman & S. Frausto (Eds.), Architourism authentic escapist exotic spectacular. NY: Columbia Book of Architecture, Prestel. Springer, F. (2013). Wanna z kolumnad˛a. Reporta˙ze o polskiej przestrzeni, [The Bath with a collonade. Reports on Polish space] Wydawnictwo Czarne, Warszawa. ´ urodzone. Reporta˙ze o architekturze PRL-u, [Bad Born. Reports About Springer F. (2017). Zle Architecture Of The PRL-U] Wydawnictwo Czarne, Warszawa. Vukadinovic, I. (2011). Architecture in tourism: Case of Copenhagen visitors’ perspective. Department of Service Management & Leisure Studies, Master Thesis, Lunds Universitet, Helsinborg, Sweden. Ye, H., & Tussyadiah, I. P., (2016). Tourists’ transformation experince: From destination architecture to identity formation. Tourism Travel and Research Association: Advancing Tourism Research Globally. Retrieved from https://scholarworks.umass.edu/ttra/2010/Visual/20. Yeniasir, M., & Gokbulut, B. (2018). Perception & attitudes of local people on sustainable cultural tourism on the islands: The case of Nicosia. Sustainability, 10(1892), 1–16.

Evaluation of Rural Culture in Ödemi¸s-Lübbey Using Creative Tourism Seval Durmu¸s and Gözde Emekli

Introduction Cultural tourism, one of the most important tourism types of the 21st century, is based on the use of resources for tourism purposes. While it has gained importance in the modern era as an alternative to mass tourism, cultural tourism is the most important tourism type of the postmodern tourism paradigm. Cultural heritage such as museums, ruins, historic buildings, and archaeological remains were the main priorities in cultural tourism developed to supply cultural heritage to tourists. Afterward, cultural heritage such as architectural structures, traditions and customs, music, dance, cuisine, and handicrafts attracted attention. Along with this aspect, the attractiveness of natural surroundings, traditional architecture, and the rural areas where the cultures are preserved and protected is increasing. Tangible and intangible cultural heritage such as traditional architecture, customs, crafts, and cuisine are referred to as rural heritage, creating a strong attraction and competitive power in combination with the changing trends in tourism. The most obvious benefit of cultural tourism is that intangible value is transformed into material value that contributes to the economy of the country (Emekli 2004, p. 45). Cultural tourism development in rural areas provides an important source of economic income for residents. To continue this contribution, the preservation of rural heritage and the continuity of its existence and delivery to future generations must be achieved. The objective is to develop tourism in the abandoned village of Lübbey in the direction of cultural tourism contributions and to preserve the rural heritage of the village. For this purpose, it is proposed to develop a creative tourism destination in Lübbey in line with postmodern tourism trends in the tourism sector and the new S. Durmu¸s · G. Emekli (B) Geography Department of Literature Faculty, Ege University, Izmir, Turkey e-mail: [email protected] S. Durmu¸s e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 ˙I. O. Co¸skun et al. (eds.), Heritage Tourism Beyond Borders and Civilizations, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5370-7_14

185

186

S. Durmu¸s and G. Emekli

generation of tourism approaches. A total of 45 houses, along with a village mosque, coffee shop, trade structure, and village hall, which is owned by Lübbey—second degree of immovable an urban protected area—the urban conservation area and the nature and the rural inheritance are abandoned, so the cultural heritage is facing the threat of extinction. Cultural tourism, which is proposed to be developed through a creative approach, will ensure that the ignored rural heritage of Lübbey is preserved and delivered to new generations. An in-depth interview technique was applied to qualitative research methods in the study. Managers of sports and culture communities with experience and knowledge about Lübbey constitute the sample group of working scholars, public administrators, photographers, and media representatives who have continued to work on Lübbey. In line with changing tourist expectations in tourism, there is increasing interest in cultural tourism from tangible cultural heritage to intangible cultural heritage, as well as authentic, different experiences. To understand the change in cultural tourism, it is first necessary to identify postmodern tourist expectations. With this aspect in mind, the trends in cultural heritage and creative tourism approaches are studied. Then, the potential for cultural tourism, which is proposed to be developed using the creative tourism approach in Lübbey, is presented.

New Approaches in the Relation Between Cultural Heritage and Tourism and Creative Tourism When current tourism movements are examined, it can be seen that the importance of tourism types characterized by the mass tourism concept is decreasing, and new tourism concepts and travel motivations are becoming popular. A clear travel plan, including sight-seeing, taking pictures, resting, and spending money and time, is less usual. Instead of this type, there is great interest in experiencing and being part of something authentic. Technological developments and cultural transformations, which related with the globalization process and revolution of information, increased the intellectual knowledge and tourism experiences of tourists. Technological developments after the industrial revolution have made it possible for more people to travel by offering more comfortable and easier conditions. As a result, the economic gains of the growing tourism sector have attracted attention to developed and developing countries and regions to create tourism sectors. Over time, the growth of the tourism market has increased tourism competition. Faced with an expanding market and increasing competition, countries have participated in the tourism sector based on the concept of mass tourism. However, adverse impacts of mass tourism on the natural environment and local culture have been noticed, leading to debates on sustainability in tourism. In addition to discussing sustainability, increasing tourism experiences and the intellectual knowledge of tourists have led to new search and alternative tourism alternatives.

Evaluation of Rural Culture in Ödemi¸s-Lübbey …

187

With the effectiveness of the sustainability concept in the tourism sector, a shift from mass tourism movements towards the types of tourism that involve the participation of individuals or fewer people has become a matter of course. Increased experiences in the tourism sector and people’s increasing intellectual accumulation has led the classical tourist type in a passive position to evolve into an active tourist type, who will contribute to personal development, have different experiences, coexist with local culture, and pursue tourism activities and adventure. To face changes in tourist expectations, the mass tourism concept in which tourists are left to participate in activities offered by tourism producers is abandoned, and the interests and expectations of the tourists become important. The interests of tourists, the time, and the types of tourism offered to tourists based on their characteristics have gained importance. Trends in 21st century tourism trends, especially, in this direction are increasingly important for shaping the tourism industry. Another factor in the development of postmodern tourism trends is the changing world population and changing tourist profile in this context. The decline in mortality rates is leading to an increase in the elderly population in the world, especially in developed countries, which also affects the tourism sector. A significant part of today’s tourists is the elderly population, who have enough leisure time and budget to travel, along with the young population, who have energy and excitement. While these two population groups, which are quite different from each other, are influential in the formation of today’s tourism expectations, the young population’s dominance especially in technological developments of the age and their active use provides the postmodern tourism paradigm and the opportunity for the next generation of cultural tourism to emerge. Cultural tourism has an important place among the two population groups, but their inclusion preferences are different. While the elderly population’s travels are modelled on the classical culture tourism concept, the young population plans their own journeys individually or with small trip groups, symbolising the new tourism trends. These different approaches to tourism in two different populations shape the difference between modern and postmodern tourism concepts and creative tourism. In the transition to the postmodern tourism period, cultural tourism has served as a bridge. The increase in tourist experiences, the stress of urban life, intense work and a monotonous life, crowded and superficial relations, and new tourism perceptions have led to the search for new tourism concepts to enable new experiences for tourist, while the mass tourism concept dominates coastal and cultural tourism. At the heart of the new tourism concept is a desire to have different experiences with natural resources and social and cultural associations, rather than a number of purchased products. In this context, the actors of the tourism sector must pay more attention to the thoughts and feelings of the new tourist typology (Reisinger 2009, pp. 10–11, as cited in Özda¸slı vd. 2010). Unesco (2006) stated the importance of current tourist expectations that administrators need to develop new features to meet the changing tourist attractions by defining the creativity of their own cities as a resource in the third wave of tourism. Success in tourism can be obtained by facing the changing tourism approach and tourists’ expectations in the best way possible.

188

S. Durmu¸s and G. Emekli

Tourist profiles have changed with the new tourism concept. In the postmodern tourism paradigm, there is interaction, and passive tourists become active ones. In other words, social, emotional, and educational interaction is established with the destination, rather than relying on tourism based on going, seeing, and consuming. This interaction is related to the changing tourist typology and expectations. After 2000s, the cultural tourism practices that put great emphasis on creativity and participation to active life rather than passive visit with a tendency towards “live like a local” as a product of sharing and experience economy have started to attract attention (Zo˘gal and Emekli 2017). In the postmodern tourism period, the tourist type is defined as an experiential tourist, and the type of experiential tourist is also the factor that produces the emergence of creative tourism, defined as the second generation of cultural tourism.

Today’s Tourist-Tourism Trends and Tourism Expectations Can Be Listed as Follows – Today, alternative tourism types that develop based on the basic principle of sustainability in tourism are highly diversified and attracting a great deal of attention owing to the diversity of tourists and increased travel time. – In today’s tourism trends, nature, society, and culture are intertwined. – Postmodern tourism tends to promote the experience of local culture, adventure, cuisine, and architecture, and learning while having fun, leading to the appreciation of benefits and hospitality, as opposed to classical mass tourism and the desire to eat, drink, and relax during leisure time. – This trend is expected to further increase with the new expectations of interest in local cultural and rural areas. – Like the transformation from 3S (sea-sun-sand) to 4E (education-entertainmentexcitement-event) from the modern period to the post-modern, the term 4E is now transforming into 3 M (hospitality, architecture, and cuisine). This shows that culture is especially important in authentic local culture tourism. – Together with the increasing world population, ‘Individuals will increase their education, culture and disposable income levels, thereby increasing participation in tourism activities’ (Uluçeçen 2011, p. 20). Tourism expectations have changed in line with changing tourist typologies. The changing typologies have necessitated a change of supply in the tourism sector and caused transformations in the tourism sector. In the postmodern tourism period, it has become important to follow these differences by moving away from the classical tourism concept. In this context, cultural tourism has undergone some changes during the postmodern tourism period, and a creative approach has been developed in the tourism sector. The change in cultural tourism has increased the attractiveness of rural areas with their cultural traditions, living local culture, and handicrafts, as well as tangible

Evaluation of Rural Culture in Ödemi¸s-Lübbey …

189

Fig. 1 Intangible cultural exchange from tangible culture in tourism (Richards and Wilson 2007, p. 18 revised)

cultural heritage such as the natural environment, historical and archaeological remains, and traditional architectural structures, providing a means to increase the importance of rural heritage (Fig. 1). Richards and Wilson (2007, p. 14) explain the answer to the question of why such a change occurred in cultural tourism, as follows. • Culture is often associated with ‘high culture’, which has a traditional, staid image. • The cultural sector is not perceived as being very flexible or dynamic. • The creative sector is broader than the cultural sector alone, covering more subsectors and having a greater total value and employment impact. • The creative sector is closely linked to innovation and change. The reasons stated by Richards and Wilson point out the changing tourist tendencies. Tourism expectations have changed over time. As one of the reasons for changing tourist expectations towards cultural tourism to creative tourism, cultural tourism is closely related to high culture, and the classical tourism approach is dominant. People experiencing cultural tourism have realized that historical architecture, structures, remains, museums, and tangible cultural elements included in high culture are not very different, and they have begun to pursue new attractions

190

S. Durmu¸s and G. Emekli

and unusual things while travelling. In cultural tourism, tourism based on tangible cultural elements creates the relation with the space, so the destination in increasing tourism competition has a weakening effect on competition power. On the other hand, all the tangible and non-tangible cultural elements, arts, cuisine, and so on in creative tourism can be created in various forms with unlimited subject, field, time, and space flexibility, depending on the level of creativity ability of creative class (Richards and Wilson 2007, pp. 8–9), and it has an important advantage in increasing tourism competition. In essence, many of these changing expectations “stem from the development of a postmodern, postmaterialist society, where consumption becomes an underpinning for particular lifestyles and identities” (Richards 2011;1229). The creative tourism idea seemed to catch on not only because of the evolution of tourist demand but also because it fitted a range of contemporary policy agendas. Creativity has indeed been broadly applied in several fields, most notably in the creative and cultural industries (Richards and Marques 2012;2). “Creativity is therefore attractive as a policy option for stimulating a range of economic, cultural and social outcomes. It is also attractive because of the argued advantages produced by networking and knowledge spillover which stimulate further creative activity” (Richards 2011;1231). If we examine the other causes of this transformation, which we call the second generation of cultural tourism, it is related to the fact that tourists are aware of each other’s different geographies and cultures and that they further increase their intellectual development because of globalization. This form of experiential tourist expectation causes tourism to change its leisure and entertainment bases; therefore, creative tourism is considered as the third generation of creative tourism, or new generation tourism. Knowledge, culture and education level of tourists and tourism experience have increase in cultural tourism from classical tourism approach to creative tourism approach. “One might, therefore, argue that creative tourism is also a development of cultural tourism that is more suited to contemporary social and economic structures than traditional forms of cultural tourism” (Richards and Marques 2012;5).

In Cultural Tourism, the Main Differences of the Classical Approach and the Creative Approach Are as Follows – Travel motivations are different. While the classical approach to cultural tourism focuses on motivations such as enjoyment, sights, and an increase in culture level, creative tourism is influenced by motivations of self-development, knowledge accumulation, ability and skill development, self-realization, experience, excitement, and learning motivation according to one’s own interests and curiosity. – While the classical approach involves limited activities, proper planning, and space dependence, the level of space dependence is reduced in the creative approach, and flexibility is at the forefront. – Technology use increases from the classical approach to creative tourism, and the use of the most advanced technology is available in creative tourism.

Evaluation of Rural Culture in Ödemi¸s-Lübbey …

191

– Consumption is reduced from the classical approach to creative tourism owing to the increased importance of the concept of sustainability from the classical approach to creative tourism. – Limitations of the duration of the tourism event are reduced from the classical approach to creative tourism. Creative tourism, defined by Richards and Raymond as part of cultural tourism, or as a reaction to tourism, is basically a type of tourism that offers tourists the opportunity to learn and develop through active participation in the attractions of their holiday destination (Richards and Raymond 2000, p. 18). According to Raymond (2007, p. 146), creative tourism is a kind of sustainable tourism that is presented with culturally creative experiences, where practical seminars are held when necessary and authentic experience are had. The common point of those definitions is that creative tourism “brings immediately to mind the upsurge of opportunities for tourists to learn new skills and undertake recognizably creative activities” (Cloke 2007;43). One of the major differences between creative tourism and cultural tourism is that thecreative tourist seeks to expand not just their knowledge of the places they visit, but also theirown creative skills. Many creative tourism experiences are based on the exchange of skills between hosts and visitors, which also increases the relational dimension of the experience (Richards 2017;2). Creative tourism can be defined as a new generation tourism type that offers travelling, entertainment and culture together and is also based on tourist’s recognizing different cultures, discovering local and regional values, experiencing cultural practices in person. The most important feature of creative tourism is it’s turning local/rural tourism into a tourist attraction (Gülüm 2015;87).

Cultural Tourism in Lübbey and Ödemi¸s Lübbey is a settlement located at a height of 467–517 meters in the Rahmanlar river valley on the southern slope of the Bozda˘g Mountains 13 km from the Ödemi¸s district centre in the east of ˙Izmir. It is located at 38° 18 North latitude and 27° 56 East longitude (Ba¸saranbilek 2015;7). The Manisa-Salihli is located in the north of the village. Derebebekler village and Ödemi¸s district, below the Rahmanlar, are located in the south of the village. Lübbey had the village status of Ödemi¸s until 2012, and in accordance with Law No. 6360, which was adopted the same year, became part of the Ödemi¸s neighbourhood. While Lubbey was a 96-dwelling rural settlement (wintering houses) of Lübbey residents, the inhabitants of Lübbey started to migrate to Çamyayla with the introduction of infrastructure services in Çamyayla, a winter plateau after 1960. Thus, Lübbey became an abandoned village of five inhabitants (Fig. 2). Lübbey is a village to be studied in the basin in terms of art history and architecture, attracting attention with its settlement texture that conforms to the topography, original examples of traditional rural house architecture, a mosque decorated

192

S. Durmu¸s and G. Emekli

Fig. 2 Map of Location of Ödemi¸s (Created by the authors)

with wall paintings (Fig. 5), and the old laundry, the source fountains in the village (Ba¸saranbilek 2015, p. 8). Lübbey is an example of cultural heritage with its architectural structure, but it has been abandoned. Ignorance regarding its abandonment threatens the existence of cultural heritage that must be preserved and conveyed to future generations. The most rational solution to this threat is to improve sustainable tourism in the region and to revive the inheritance by bringing back the migrating local people and the living culture (Fig. 3). The culture of Efe (swashbuckler) (Figs. 7 and 8) is the most important cultural heritage, along with being an intangible cultural heritage in the form of crafts, cuisine, and traditional and rural life. Swashbuckler played a critical role in defending the region against the enemy during the War of Independence and had a significant place in the social structure of the region. The concept of swashbuckler is especially popular in Western Anatolia, with studies on the role of this figure described in social life as a hero. Swashbuckler is a social figure who protects the people against bullies and is loved and protected by them. Whether the people were terrified, loved, and cared for, this figure has taken its place in society and culture, and today it survives as cultural heritage. In addition to the culture of swashbuckler, local crafts, rural culture-life, traditions and customs, and local cuisine in Lübbey may be offered as cultural heritage for tourism. Handicrafts such as ‘needle-piercing, wire-breaking, and cross-stitching’ in connection with silk-waving in Ödemi¸s are noteworthy as handicrafts that have

Evaluation of Rural Culture in Ödemi¸s-Lübbey …

193

Fig. 3 Cultural Heritage in Lübbey (Created by the authors)

succeeded in preserving their presence in the daily arena. In world literature, point lace, referred to as ‘Turkish lace’, is a three-dimensional motif made with a needlepin. Aside from Ödemi¸s, feminine scarves and the lace made with a needle around the scarves have unique features and are renowned for their handiwork, used in different sizes and purposes by combining the motifs of Swashbuckler’s Culture. In addition to needlework, motifs made with silver tulips and leafs are other traditional handicrafts, referred to as ‘wire-breaking craft’ (Fig. 9), which is a traditional term in Turkish culture. Wire-breaking craft is known in other parts of Turkey, though it is unique in the region of Ödemi¸s, with its indigenous patterns worked on silk. Petit Point, a traditional craft in Turkey, which is common in the region of Ödemi¸s and cultures of the region, has an important place in the culture for wedding ceremonies. An important element of rural heritage is the culture of Ödemi¸s-Lübbey’s rural life. The culture of rural life, which has been passed down from the past to the present, existed in the days of Lübbey. The culture will revive with the return of the old residents. Experience of rural life is an important cultural heritage for the development of tourism in Lübbey because it is very interesting for postmodern tourists.

Evaluation of Cultural Heritage in Lübbey with the Creative Tourism Approach Efe (swashbuckler), one of Lübbey’s cultural heritage items, has the potential to attract tourists by creating an authentic atmosphere with the creative tourism approach in Lübbey. Swashbuckler, a symbol of pre-existing cultism, is related to myths about

194

S. Durmu¸s and G. Emekli

the relationship of Lübbey as a shelter for swashbuckler. Lübbey’s rural heritage with its unique settlement structure has been shaped by the joint work of mankind and nature. The terraced settlement, in which the houses and some streets are built directly on the rock on the ground (Fig. 6). The houses are made of stone and houses do not hinder each other’s views along the slope, giving a unique settlement identity to the town (Güler 2016). The spatial distribution was shaped as the topography allowed, and Lübbey has its own unique rural architecture with its layout and structure established by nature, which provides the building materials of rock, soil, and wood from the surrounding area (Kut and Yörür 2016). The relationship of architecture to the culture of swashbuckler depends on the establishment of a valley slope in the upper part of the village Bozda˘g, the passages on the lower floors of the houses, and the absence of the mosque minaret. With these features, Lübbey attracted the notion that it was a village where swashbucklers could hide, causing them to be referred to with names such as ‘sacred tree’ and ‘eagle nest’. In Lübbey, the first proposal to be presented for the revitalization of efficacy is ‘swashbuckler of Today’ and the ‘Efe Museum’. Some of Lübbey’s houses that are being restored while the culture is revived in the streets are organized as the ‘HouseMuseum of Efe’. A small museum can be set up at ‘Efe Museum’ to introduce ‘Harmandalı’ (the dance of swashbuckler) (Fig. 8), which can be taught to tourists who wish to experience the dance figures of swashbuckler and see the live performances and some figures in the established Efe Museum. On this point, tourists visiting Lübbey can experience traditional dance, and this experience and training can attract tourists directly to Lübbey. In the Museum of Efe, one of the best-known heroes not limited to the Aegean region, for example, Çakırcalı Mehmet Efe, can be revived in the village theatre created in Lübbey. The Museum of Efe can be introduced to the experience of tourists by organizing a variety of activities such as visual displays, interactive sketches, and photo shoots. The handicrafts that reflect the cultures of the region in relation to the culture of swashbuckler are another cultural heritage that can be presented for the tourists’ experience with creative tourism approach. For example, in restored homes and streets, handicrafts and workshops should be held and presented for tourists to experience by demonstrating related texts, visuals, and materials, and then showing them how to do the activities. The products of the first experiences of tourists can be presented to tourists with the slogan ‘Make your own memories’. In addition to handicrafts, the crafts of silk, felting, woodworking, saddlery, and shoe-making can also be presented for the tourist experience with the creative tourism approach. Each handicraft must be presented in a separate house, and these houses can be gathered under the ‘Arts and Crafts Street’. In cultural tourism, the increasing interest of postmodern tourists in everything original and local and the desire to experience this authenticity, has made traditional rural life an important attraction. Today, tourists are looking for activities to experience rural life culture. In this context, those former inhabitants returning to Lübbey village can spend a day with them, hosting some of the arriving tourists in the guest houses to be created. In Lübbey, they could experience the life of the locals for a few days, while the tourists are guests. Thus, tourists not only experience rural cultures

Evaluation of Rural Culture in Ödemi¸s-Lübbey …

195

but also participate in various activities and trainings to extend their length of stay in the village. Thus, the fact that tourists will spend more money and increase the income provided by local people from tourism will allow the old residents of Lübbey to return to their homes and the village to return to its former vitality. Tourists who wish to experience rural cultures can offer a variety of themes such as daily life, crafts, and cuisine. Tourists can learn about daily life, local cuisine and handicrafts from experience, as mentioned above, by experiencing culinary cultures in local women’s kitchens. Having blended agricultural products obtained from fertile land with Aegean cuisine, Ödemi¸s has a rich culinary culture. As the tourism report of TURSAB (2016b) argued that local cuisine is one of the most important reasons for travel in the postmodern age. So, local cuisine of Ödemi¸s can offer with creative tourism abroach for postmodern tourist. What first comes to mind when the cuisine of Ödemi¸s is mentioned is the following: Ödemi¸s Kebabı, Töngül Pidesi, Ke¸skek, Köpüko˘glu Mantısı, Ya˘glı Ekmek, Heybeli Çorba, Dibile, Kompir Çıyartma, Galgıtma, Ya˘glı Sulu Akıtma, Hö¸smerim, Sinkonta, Bezdirme, Kömbe, Ekmek Dolması, Kestirme Çorbası, Isırgan Avukması, Ispanak Çorbası, Ispanak Pilavı, Tava Pidesi, Lahana Sarması, Kabak Tatlısı, Kurt Baklavası Ve Kalburabastı (Ödemi¸s Do˘ga, Kültür ve Turizm Rehberi sy.12)

In cultural tourism, art has always been one of the attracting elements of a destination, and today’s experiential tourist type is demanding the experience of this art, along with seeing the artistic product or activity. Because art is the product of direct creativity, art activities have a significant appeal for the creative tourism approach. In Lübbey, another attraction proposed to be established depending on the development of creative industry and creative tourism are ‘Art Houses’. Some of the houses in the village can be arranged in such a way that painting workshops, sculpture, music, and performing arts can take place. In particular, the exhibition of art activities and arrangement of art festivals are suggested as alternative attractions that will enable activities in the neighbourhood, extend the age range and diversity of visitors, spread tourism over the years, and extend time to be spent in Lübbey. The presentation of daily life, handicrafts, and culinary culture to tourists by local people is a very important attraction for postmodern cultural tourists. These practices, which extend the time spent in Lübbey, will provide economic and social development and revitalization of the village with local residents, especially women, as a new sector and source of income. Furthermore, creativity in rural areas “is resulting in a range of different practices and performative spaces in which the identity and subjectivity of the tourist can be reformed and enhanced” (Cloke 2007;47).

Results and Suggestions While the number of people participating in cultural tourism worldwide is increasing day by day, tourism trends, tourist expectations, and tourist products also covary with the globalization process and information revolution. Interest in cultural tourism

196

S. Durmu¸s and G. Emekli

has shifted from tangible cultural heritage to intangible cultural heritage owing to different tourist expectations. With the emergence of the postmodern tourist and cultural consumer, standardized experiences, like those provided by large entertainment venues, no longer satisfy the demands of these consumers. Instead, these postmodern tourists and the cultural consumers now seek opportunities for authentic and unique experiences through expressions of culture, heritage, recreational activities and natural landscape (Stolarick et al. 2010). In this context, the rural areas where local cultures preserve their existence are important destinations that respond to postmodern tourist expectations (Cloke 2007, Yalçın 2016 and TURSAB 2016b). Creative tourism, which regards itself as a postmodern tourism trend and tries to evaluate cultural tourism with a different approach, emerges with different applications in rural areas and cities. The rural areas and rural heritage in the study were addressed based on the creative tourism approach. Ödemi¸s-Lübbey village, the research area, is rich in nature, traditional architecture, cuisine, culture of Efe, and local culture and has an advantageous position in terms of creative tourism. Conducting inventory studies of rural heritage, promoting tourism to the public, and establishing heritage consciousness are thought to be the first studies. The second step in the development of tourism is to restore protected houses and obtain touristic functions. The restored houses can be used as accommodation or for food and beverage services, which are the main stakeholders of tourism, and shopping and experience workshops. In the interviews, responses to questions about accommodation trends have found that postmodern tourists tend to prefer accommodation in establishments that reflect and feel the spirit of their surroundings. Some of the restored houses, based on this finding, may be offered as boutique hotels by local people. Postmodern tourists want to experience culinary art in an authentic atmosphere, which affects accommodation preferences. Local foods made using products of the Ödemi¸s region will be much more attractive when presented to tourists in the atmosphere of Lübbey. Some of the restored houses are proposed to be used to meet tourists’ eating and drinking needs with two concepts. One of them is ‘Lübbey Cuisine’, formed when local women come together; the other is a restaurant run by locals. While the local cuisine is served in an authentic atmosphere, the ingredients to be cooked in the name of the ‘Pre-Dinner Tour’ can be collected together with the tourists from nature and/or gardens, to appeal to the interests of tourists. These tours will attract the interest of postmodern tourists who are hunters of experiences. Because the postmdern tourist want to go natural and rural areas (TURSAB 2016b), and they want to taste local cuisine, gastronomy is important part for travel (TURSAB 2016a). In Lübbey, which is tangible proof that culture and the natural environment are shaped by interacting with each other, organizing ‘Botanical and Cultural Tours’ to introduce plants in their natural environment is another activity proposed to increase experience activities. It is necessary to organize tours during which the trees, flowers, animals, and plants, which are the motifs of handicrafts such as wall decorations of Lübbey Mosque, swashbuckler’s clothes, canvas embroidery, wire-breaking craft,

Evaluation of Rural Culture in Ödemi¸s-Lübbey …

197

and point lace are introduced in their natural environment. In these tours, the cultural meanings of the motifs must be explained. Restored houses, apart from accommodation and eating and drinking functions, can be used as experience workshops and shopping areas offered by intangible cultural items for tourists. In rural areas where tourism has developed, local clothes are among the first valuables people give up. This abandonment is a weighty matter, for which precautions must be taken, because it is causing the disappearance of the destination’s authenticity. According to the cultural heritage to be introduced in Lübbey, different handicrafts, crafts, and intangible cultural items should be introduced in each house. In particular, walking around with women and men dressed in local or swashbuckler’s costumes, in the streets of Lübbey, will be an important attraction for taking photos and making them feel the traditional spirit. The most important point in tourism planning that is proposed to be realized in rural areas is that the local people are willing to develop tourism and are active in the whole process. During the interviews conducted within the scope of the research, the creative tourism model proposed to be developed in Lübbey was supported by other participants, especially the residents of the village, and considered as ideas to be realized. In this sense, local people, planners and decision-making bodies should work together on the development of tourism. In addition, informative and educational programs should be organized for local residents on the basis of the tourism-development relationship and the proposed tourism model. The interviews included questions about the relationship between tourism and social media. The finding that participants are aware that social media has a significant effect to tourism was obtained from the answers. The use of social media and sharing platforms will be a privilege when announcing Lübbey’s name in tourism. Every work activity and event held in Lübbey should be shared from the established partner social media account, as well as being shared individually. For this method to be effective, online tasting and experience activities should be arranged, and live broadcasts, instant sharing, and photographs should be published. Another proposal for the announcement of Lübbey’s name is to invite famous individuals, who have many followers, to Lübbey to share their experiences on social media. By pursuing the direction of the studies and suggestions made, Lübbey can be revitalized with its cultural heritage and become a living village.

Appendix See Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9.

198

S. Durmu¸s and G. Emekli

Fig. 4 Lübbey Village (Source http://www.milliyet.com.tr/burasi-hayalet-koy-gundem-2020871/ Accessed 12 February 2019)

Fig. 5 Inside of Lübbey’s Mosque (Source http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/tarihi-lubbey-mahallesi ndeki-arastirmalar-ilk-kez-kitaplastirildi-37151191 accessed 12 February 2019)

Evaluation of Rural Culture in Ödemi¸s-Lübbey …

199

Fig. 6 Architecture of Lübbey (Source https://www.cnnturk.com/yasam/izmirin-terk-edilen-koyulubbey accessed 12 February 2019) Fig. 7 Efe (Swashbuckler) (Source http://royaldans. com/project/zeybek/ accessed 12 February 2019)

200

Fig. 8 Efe and Harmandalı

S. Durmu¸s and G. Emekli

Evaluation of Rural Culture in Ödemi¸s-Lübbey …

201

Fig. 9 Wire-breaking craft (take by the author 02.07.2018)

References Cloke, P. (2007). Ceativity and tourism in rural enviroments. Tourism, creativity and development, PART 1-Space, enclaves and clusters. By Routledge, 37–48. Emekli, G. (2004). “Kültür mirasının kültürel turizm yakla¸sımıyla de˘gerlendirilmesi”. Co˘grafi Çevre Koruma ve Turizm Sempozyumu 16–18 Nisan 2003. Proceedings book. E.U. Edebiyat Fak. 43-49, ˙Izmir. Güler, K. 2016. “Batı Anadolu’da Terk Edilmi¸s Bir Köy: Ödemi¸s—Lübbey. Journal of Mimarlık, 50–55. Gülüm, E. (2015). Yaratıcı Turizm-Halk Kültürü ˙Ili¸skisi ve Yerelin Popülerle¸smesi. Journal of Milli Folklor, 27(105), 87–98. Kut, E., & Yörür, N. (2016). Terk Edilmekte Olan Köyler Üzerine Bir Ara¸stırma: Ödemi¸s Lübbey Köyü. Journal of Ege Mimarlık., 94, 36–39. Löschburg, W. (1998). Seyahatin Kültür Tarihi. Ankara: Dost Kitapevi Yayınları. Özda¸slı, K., Özda¸slı, E., & Alparslan, A. M. (2010). Yaratıcı Turizm: Bir Uygulama Modeli Önerisi ˙sletmecili˘gi, 7(1). ve Isparta ˙Ilinde Yaratıcı Turizm Envanteri. Journal of Seyahat ve Otel I¸ Raymond, C. (2007). Creative Tourism New Zealand: The practical challenges of developing creative tourism. In G. Richards & J. Wilson (Eds.), Tourism, creativity and development (pp.145–157). London: Routledge. Richards, G. (2011). Creativity and Tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 38(4), 1125–1253. Richards, G., Marques L. (2012). Exploring creative tourism: Editors introduction. Journal of Tourism Consumption and Practice, 4(2). Richards, G. (2012). Tourism, creativity and creative industries. In Creativity and creative industries in challenging times conference. Richards, G. (2017). Trends in cultural and creative tourism. Retrieved July 11, 2018, from https:// www.academia.edu/34871948/Trends_in_cultural_and_creative_tourism). Richards, G., & Raymond, C. (2000). Creative tourism. ATLAS News, 23, 16–20.

202

S. Durmu¸s and G. Emekli

Richards, G., & Wilson, J. (2007). Tourism development trajectories: From culture to creativity. In Tourism, creativity and development (pp. 1–33). By Routledge. Stolarick, K., Denstedt, M., Donald, B., Spencer, G.M. (2010). Creativity, tourism and economic development in rural context: The case of prince edward county. Journal of Community Development, 238–254. TÜRSAB. (2016a). “Gastronomi Turizm Raporu”. Retreved February 02, 2017, from http://www. tursab.org.tr/dosya/12302/tursab-gastronomi-turizmi-raporu_12302_3531549.pdf. TÜRSAB. (2016b). “Do˘ga ve Macera Turizmi Raporu”. Retreved February 02, 2017, from http:// www.tursab.org.tr/dosya/12897/tursabdogamaceraturizmi128955073669_12897_5119416pdf. Uluçeçen, T. (2011). Özel ˙Ilgi Turizmi: Kapsamı, Çe¸sitleri ve Türkiye’de Uygulanabilirli˘gi. Dissertation. Culture and Tourism Ministry. Ankara. UNESCO. (2006). Towards Substainable Strategies for Creative Tourism. Discussion Report of the Planning Meeting for 200. In International conference on creative Tourism, Santa Fe. Retrieved December 21 2016 from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0015/001598/159811e.pdf. Zo˘gal, V. And Emekli, G. (2017). “Yaratıcı Turizme Kavramsal ve Co˘grafi Bir Yakla¸sım”. Aegean Geographical Journal, 26(1). 21–34. Retrieved March,4 2017, from https://www.odemis.bel.tr/ odemis/doga-kultur-ve-turizm-rehberi.html. Retrieved April 21, 2017, fromhttp://gmdergi.com/ online/slide/turk-dizilerinin-turizme-etkisi-sasirtiyor/. Yalçın, B. (2016). Nasıl Zanaat ve Halk Sanatları Sehri ¸ Olunur. Journal of Uluslararası Türk Dünyası Turizm Ara¸stırmaları., 1(1), 22–31.

The Evolution of Heritage Tourism Destinations in Protected Rural Regions Barı¸s Seyhan and Antonio Paolo Russo

Introduction The transformation of physical or cultural landscapes has been the subject of inquiry of a vast array of research in tourism studies. The identification of the stages, phases and components of the transformation processes driven by tourism activity in an area has been investigated in consideration of some indicators in the social, economic or environmental milieu of the destination. However, there is a need for new approaches to tourism-led transformations in destinations that have specific conditions, such as protected areas, and new approaches for tackling more complex transformations, such as the tourismification of protected areas in rural destinations, as is frequently seen in coastal areas of the Mediterranean Basin. These transformations frequently leave observable impacts on the different dimensions of a destination, such as the social or environmental structures. Therefore, the stages or phases can be defined based on significant critical points in the process. In addition, the reasons or triggers that cause such evolutions through different stages or trajectories can be detected and deciphered in addition to the “modus operandi” of the whole process. From this point of view, the main objective of the paper can be stated as the definition of a new approach to illuminate the critical points, potential triggers and functioning of the tourismification process of historical and cultural protected sites in rural regions. To better understand tourismification, Christaller (1963) described the transformation of tourism destinations using the metaphor of the “artists’ colony”. In his B. Seyhan (B) Tourism Faculty, Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey e-mail: [email protected] Faculty of Tourism and Geography, University Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona, Spain A. P. Russo Department of Geography, University Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona, Spain e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 ˙I. O. Co¸skun et al. (eds.), Heritage Tourism Beyond Borders and Civilizations, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5370-7_15

203

204

B. Seyhan and A. P. Russo

case, artists discover an untouched place where a colony develops. As long as the artists’ colony becomes more attractive and gains popularity, more people come, and the original artists leave the colony to search out untouched places. As seen in the comment of Butler (1980), “The fisherman’s cottage and the shelter hunts become converted into boarding houses and hotels come on scene”, which can be referred to precisely as the defining moments of sequential stages in a morphological transformation. With the arrival of tourists into a destination, the character of the destination changes forever and the places in which tourismification occurred witness different phases or cycles of development (Uysal et al. 2012b). To conceptualize the process, there have been some definitions suggested for “tourismification”, such as “the transformation of natural and human-made landscapes for tourism purposes” (JansenVerbeke 2014) and for “touristification”, which refers to a socioeconomic and sociocultural process by which society and its environment have been turned into spectacles, attractions, playgrounds, and consumption sites (Wang 2000). The tourismification concept was proposed by Young (1983) to define the process of a six-sequential growth model that consists of early traditional, late traditional, initial tourism exploration, early tourism involvement, expanding tourism development and intensive tourism consolidation. Other perspectives have been generated based on tourismification. Jansen-Verbeke (1998) referred to the term as a dynamic process that affects the form and function of city. Shen et al. (2016) expressed tourismification as a result rather than as a process itself in historic cities, and Xi et al. (2014) defined the term as a factor facilitating regional vitality and economic growth (Wang et al. 2018). The interest in tourismification has received new impetuses in tourism studies through the evolutionary economic geography (EEG) approach. There are significant ties between tourism geography and economic geography. Tourism geographers have derived some theoretical notes from economic geography and vice versa (Ioannides and Debbage 1998). According to Boschma and Martin (2010), there is potential for the application of ideas and concepts from evolutionary economics in the analysis of regional and urban development. In particular, as a new paradigm in economic geography, EEG focuses on how the spatial economy transforms itself through irreversible and dynamic processes over time. EEG may offer new theoretical and empirical perspectives on tourism area development in different geographical contexts (Ma and Hassink 2013). EEG focuses on the process by which the economic landscape—the spatial organization of economic production, circulation, exchange, distribution and consumption—is transformed. In this framework, a ‘path metaphor’ (Sanz-Ibáñez (2017) has been used to understand the evolution of tourism destinations from a comprehensive point of view that includes sub-concepts such as path-dependence (Bramwell and Cox 2009; Ma and Hassink 2014)—which emphasizes the “lock-in” of places into specific paths and indicates the path-dependent dynamics of economic development in space and time in a given place or region (Anton Clave and Wilson 2017), path-plasticity (Halkier and Therkelsen 2013; Brouder 2014; Sanz-Ibáñez and Clave 2014; Anton Clavé and Wilson 2017)—and path-creation (Ma and Hassink 2013; Brouder and Eriksson 2013). The trajectories of the path evolution of mass tourism destinations in the

The Evolution of Heritage Tourism Destinations …

205

Mediterranean have been classified by Anton Clave (2012) based on development strategies that have been implemented by decision-makers. The first group consists of “reactives”, which refers to policies of renewal, differentiation, heritage preservation, image improvement and the maintenance of tourism activity. The second group, “creatives”, refers to destinations that are promoting new opportunities for differentiation based on the innovative use of potential attractions and of the innovation processes generated by their own visitors. The third group, “transitivies”, indicates destinations that can be characterized in terms of their development of strategies for the intensification of residential functions and the incorporation of permanent urban services. Moreover, Martin (2010) proposed an alternative path dependence model of tourism area evolution by explaining the process through phases in time. In the first phase, the “preformation phase” takes place with policy-driving, pre-existing tourism resources, adventurers’ experiences and location advantage. Then, the “path-creation phase” begins when entrepreneurs, local residents and governments are involved in establishing new paths for local tourism. The “path development phase” occurs with the emergence of increasing return effects, and spatial externalities as a result of spatial concentration reinforcing local tourism paths. After this point, the path may follow a “dynamic process” that leads to the “adaptation of local tourism paths” or a “stable state” takes place and proceeds toward “local tourism paths stasis or decline”. Both trajectories conclude as if they had been in the first phase of the cycle by generating the “preformation phase” of new settings. In a similar vein, Sanz-Ibáñez (2017) proposed the “moments” concept to identify and interpret the inflection points in the evolutionary process. This concept defines the anatomy of a particular moment that is significant in the evolutionary trajectories by focusing the moment’s flow—capital/knowledge/culture/labour/tendencies/demand markets- in time from the pre-moment landscape to the post-moment landscape. In pre-moment landscapes, pre-conditions in different contextual domains, such as economic, social environmental, political, cultural or historical stages, are spontaneous (e.g., shocks, structural/anthropogenic) or selective (e.g., consensusbased/imposed or ad hoc/strategic) trigger. Then, a change may occur based on the unique characteristics of the moment. The shifting in the evolution of a destination in a specific moment can be classified based on the intensity of the shift (path creation/path plasticity) or durability, scale and speed (permanent/temporary or reversible/irreversible). The post-moment scape, which becomes a pre-moment scape of future moments, can be analysed by impacts and post-conditions that are generated. Possible impacts are classified as path shaping, upgrading/up-scaling (renewal, extension or reinforcement), downgrading/downscaling (creative destruction, dissolution or abandonment) in conversations about redevelopment, metamorphosis or restructuring.

206

B. Seyhan and A. P. Russo

Evolution of HTDs As it has been one of the three major theoretical frameworks of EEG (Boschma and Martin 2010), Generalized Darwinism has also been used as a theoretical background of the well-known tourism area life cycle model (TALC). In 1980, Butler introduced the TALC approach to explain tourism area life cycles by identifying consistent stages in the development of destinations based on indicators such as the number of visitors and level of infrastructure. The TALC model is generated based on the “product life cycle” (PLC) and implies that tourism areas experience development and evolution through stages such as products. The PLC model consists of four phases, and in the “introduction” phase, the awareness of the product is at the lowest level, sales growth is slow and prices are high. During the “development” phase, the product gains recognition in the market, then sales rise and prices fall due to large-scale production. In the third phase, known as “maturity”, sales gradually slow down, and the product moves into the “decline” phase, where it becomes outdated and sales drop rapidly. In all phases during the process of change, there are some mechanisms that provide a transition from one stage to another. For instance, in social processes, a single point in development may push the whole process along, or an accumulation of changes may produce a change of stages over time. Mechanisms that encourage the advancement from one stage to another can be exemplified as “competition” in the product life cycle and “critical events” that catalyse tourism development in the TALC. A new type of construction that is built higher than local standards or a new airport can also be counted as triggers of change. The sequence of stages in a typical order can be defined similarly to the direction of the human life cycle, namely, from birth to death. In TALC, stage directionality is determined based on the evolution of the number of tourists over time. However, when a decline occurs in the number of tourists, morphological transformation, such as the number of accommodation units, still exists. In such circumstances, a reversal stage change does not take place. Therefore, some fluctuations or backwards movement in indicators may not always refer to new stages. A drastic action of locals against tourism, a changing resorts’ morphology from international to domestic and then local or macrostructural conditions such as war are examples of successful reversal stage changes in destinations. “Macrostructural” conditions refer to one of the most important components of the life cycles, as, if these change, the cycle frequently ends. The climate of ecosystems or natural disasters for tourism destinations can be stated as macrostructural conditions (Table 1).

The Evolution of Heritage Tourism Destinations …

207

Table 1 Some epistemological elements found in the literature on several types of process research (Source adopted from Johnston 2006) Unit-Entity

Human life cycle

Product life cycle

Port development

−Individual lives

−A specific product

−A coastal port

−Product type and modification, marketing and costs, parts and servicing etc.

−Port physiography, built environment of port, facilities + nearby urban areas, linkages to inland cities

Internal characteristics −Biological, cultural, psychological

Users

−None

−Consumers

−Shippers

Stages

−Infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood, old age

−Introduction, development, maturity, decline

−Primitive era, marginal quay expansion, marginal quay elaboration, dock elaboration, simple lateral quayage, specialized quayage

Mechanisms of stage change

−Generally “blurry transition”

−Competition

−Change in ship design

Typical sequence and variation in stages

−Precociousness premature aging

−Product −None non-acceptance, mass marketing, innovation

Macro-structural conditions

Family, community, society

Economic system, levels of technology and communication, organizational capability

Trade conditions

Evolution of HTDs in Protected Areas As it has been used to demonstrate the evolution of tourism destinations in a general manner, the EEG approach can be used to explain the evolution of tourism destinations that have particular conditions, such as HTDs in protected rural areas. HTDs may develop in extant complex systems such as urban systems or untouched, protected areas in rural regions. In rural contexts, in addition to historical preservation concerns, efforts to protect the natural landscape of the destination gain prominence. In other words, the significance of natural protection in rural areas brings more governance and policies or legal implementations than urban landscapes do. Therefore, in rural HTDs, the development of tourism facilities and tourism-related transformations are frequently seen as unfavourable or have low-level advancement. As exemplified in Anton Clave’s (2012) classification, protected areas may require “reactive” strategy implementations to avoid irreversible damage to the preserved heritage areas.

208

B. Seyhan and A. P. Russo

As an example of the tourismification of protected areas, each contextual domain (e.g., social, environmental) is preserved by “counter-discourses” such as protection, conservation, carrying capacity, sustainability, and governance within a specific legal framework. Therefore, identifying conservation and protection infringements as critical moments in HTD evolutionary trajectories and explaining how the evolution process proceeds from the pre-moment landscape that is ensured by counter-discourses may provide new approaches to the phenomena (Fig. 1). Wang and Bramwell (2012) illustrated these counter-discourses in the evolution of HTDs to understand efforts to keep such a delicate balance from a political economy and governance perspective. Additionally, the violation of carrying capacity limits of the area—especially in relation to the socioeconomic milieu (Russo 2002)—is seen as another risk and, in contrast, as a consciousness that can prevent the perverse dynamics of tourism evolution. Moreover, the classification and zoning of heritage sites for protection brings in the picture a diverse array of legal frameworks and governance mechanisms. The survival of both tangible and intangible heritage is conditional to legal frameworks, legislations and their implications (Yates 2011). In summary, while counter-discourses aim to keep pre-conditions in HTDs more “static” by providing prohibiting impediments against triggers, discourses on topics from capital to demand markets are co-catalysts of the “dynamic” evolution of HTDs.

Fig. 1 Adaptation of “Moments” concept to protected areas

The Evolution of Heritage Tourism Destinations …

209

As another example, Timothy and Boyd (2006) suggested that the modifications of the original TALC model provide opportunities to justify using models for landscapes that are in a protected situation. The model has been extended by referring to principles of sustainable development and has been applied by dividing the cycle into zones such as a “sustainable zone” that covers the exploration and involvement phases of the TALC model and by putting ecological integration into the centre. The second zone, the “conditional sustainability zone”, is divided into two sub-zones. The first sub-zone is related to the development phase, which includes efforts for economic sustainability and growth. The second sub-zone is also related to the development phase, but a slow decrease in the tolerance of the surroundings begins when the consolidation phase starts by reaching the critical tourist capacity range of the area. The third zone is called the “unsustainability zone”, and it is above the critical level of tourist capacity, resulting in ecological damage. As another example of research that addresses the identification of life cycle specificities, Weizenegger (2006) investigated the life cycle of protected areas in Africa based on the aggregation level and type of area. She argues that the development of the protected areas in Africa have advanced in two cycles. The first being the “hunting” tourism era in which an S-shaped curve has shown scenarios of decline, such as the extinction of a species or controlled hunting. With changing types of protected areas, tourism types have also shift from “hunting” to “photo-safari”. The non-consumptive use of a protected area constitutes the rejuvenation stage of the first cycle and the beginning of the second cycle. The non-consumptive usage of an area allows more visitors, and therefore, conflict with local communities takes place more frequently with an increasing number of tourists. Similarly, Johnston (2006) expanded the TALC approach by measuring the number of accommodation units and time and divided the development process into pre-tourism, tourism and post-tourism eras. Moreover, Kruczek et al. (2018) in the Antarctic region and Zhong et al. (2008) in Zhangjiajie Natural Forest Park in China, can be given as examples of applications of TALC in protected areas. In addition to the aforementioned implications and modifications of the TALC approach, the evolution of heritage tourism has also been investigated by means of tourism products by Meng et al. (2011). In their research in Macau, China, they identified supply and demand as the dominant factors of the life cycle. As in the PLC, the introduction, growth, maturity and consolidation stages were classified based on specific characteristics and strategies related to stages of the life cycle of heritage tourism as a “product”. Latterly, new approaches such as quality of life (QoL) were integrated into the TALC model. Another conceptual entry point that can be used to understand the evolution of tourist destinations with a focus on heritage destinations is the creative destruction model (CDM). The CDM is implemented by heritage tourism centres by analysing indicators from socio-cultural, economic, and physical environments and the general characteristics of the destination. The CDM has been tested and refined for over a decade in different countries such as Canada (Mitchell 1998; Mitchell and Coghill 2000; Mitchell et al. 2001; Mitchell and Singh 2010), Australia (Tonts and Greive 2002) and China (Fan et al. 2008). In the first applications of the model in the

210

B. Seyhan and A. P. Russo

Canadian cases, the model consisted of five stages, and the evaluation was carried out in terms of three variables: investments, visitor statistics and residents’ attitudes. The stages were called early commodification, advanced commodification, pre-destruction, advanced destruction and post-destruction. The model was used and upgraded in heritage tourism cities such as Zhu Jia Jiao, Luzhi, Ferryland, Niagara on Lake, Elora, St. Jacobs, Ontario. Almost a decade after the first implementations in 1998, the model was upgraded by Mitchell and de Waal in St. Jacobs in 2009. The drivers of investment were classified as profiteers, preservationists and promoters. They continued to use the number of visitors as an indicator. In addition to residents’ attitudes towards tourism, another variable was added to determine which landscape was dominant. The number of stages was increased up to six with the addition of a pre-commodification stage before the early commodification stage, and the name of the pre-destruction stage changed to the early destruction stage. Measuring the process by using indicators provided in the literature is advantageous for identifying the common characteristics of the units such as stages in the ongoing process.

Methodology The main concern of this research is to examine patterns, stages or phases of the tourismification process of protected historical and natural sites in rural regions by determining the distinctive/significant turning points in social, environmental, economic, and spatial dimensions of the evolutionary process of HTDs and their consumption. To do this, both qualitative and quantitative methods are employed. Semi-structured interviews with key stakeholders, such as local and central administrators, residents, and tourism business owners, were conducted. The questions reflected the main points of concern of the abovementioned literature and new subconcepts that came up during the interviews. A snowball technique was chosen to identify interviewees. The research was conducted in the Olympos tourism area due to its significant suitability and representativeness of both archaeological and natural protected and tourismified areas, which are frequently seen in the Mediterranean coastal regions. In addition, a survey was designed to understand the consumption characteristics of tourists and the changes in tourists’ consumption patterns. The proposed model is designed to focus on five aspects of the tourismification phenomenon and observable variables that have the ability to represent patterns of evolution of HTDs. The dimensions indicated in the model have been generated based on previous research, particularly HTD assessment models. First, as they have been frequently addressed in the literature, environmental, social and economic concepts that are the subjects of enquiry have been included. In addition to economic, environmental and social subjects, the consumption behaviour of tourists is added to the model to examine the relationship between the stages of evolution of an HTD and the changes in the characteristics of its consumption. Finally, the spatial development of tourism facilities in tourism systems will be analysed. In summary, five different dimensions of the phenomenon (economy, environment, socio-cultural, spatial and

The Evolution of Heritage Tourism Destinations …

211

consumption) are considered to be necessary to classify, categorize and scale based on possible turning points that have the ability to define stages in evolutionary trajectories. Therefore, during the participant observations, interviews, content analyses and surveys, the concepts mentioned below that are gathered from the tourism literature are necessary to illuminate the evolution of HTDs. First, tourism is an economic activity. The economic fabric of a destination, such as investments and entrepreneurship characteristics or the development of tourismrelated businesses, constitutes the economic atmosphere of a tourism destination. Additionally, tourism economy-based development or growth is seen as the driving force behind the development of destinations. Therefore, the evolution of HTDs has strong ties with economic development that can be observed, assessed and classified through stages in an HTD life cycle. Tourism is an economic activity that brings some changes to the economy of a rural community. Shifting from an agricultural economy into an industrial economy is common in most newly explored rural destinations. Previous research has underlined and used some indicators related to the economic life of a heritage destination, such as increased employment opportunities, improved local economy, increased personal income, the increased price of land and commodities and residents’ living standards. In addition, characteristics of entrepreneurship and investments are planned to reveal economic dimensions of the tourismification process. Second, the transformation of the space increases as long as the place becomes a popular tourism destination. Not only regimes of natural resources but also the risk of exceeding carrying capacity may lead to irreversible environmental damage. Thus, the tourismification process has significant impact on the physical environment. The depletion of natural resources, land degradation, pollution and noise, solid waste and littering and aesthetic pollution can be counted among the environmental impacts of tourism. In a rural setting, these impacts can be more visible than in urban archaeological areas. Rural areas are more sensitive, and it is easy to observe environmental transformation in these areas. In fact, assessing environmental indicators requires multidisciplinary work. However, tourism research that includes carrying capacity or biosphere reserve approaches provides the necessary data for evaluating the natural environment of a destination. Starting from this point of view, data from environmental engineering studies that are held in the case study area provide additional information for assessing environmental transformation. Additionally, residents of the case study area are frequently locals who grew up in the same area and have witnessed the transformation in the environment since the beginning of the tourism activity in the area. In addition to participant observations, content analysis is another way to understand environmental change from the tourist’s point of view. Frequently, social media users publish information on natural deteriorations or comment about tourism businesses that defile the environment. Therefore, a content analysis is performed on comments on social media to detect tourists’ perceptions of the environment of the Olympos tourism area. The indicators that are gathered from the literature and addressed during the analysis are the cleanliness of the river water (Leung 2001; Fan et al. 2008), the levels of damage due to careless use or overuse (Austin 2002),

212

B. Seyhan and A. P. Russo

Table 2 The environmental indicators to be addressed Level of cleanliness of the river water Amount of litter Amount of waste water discharge Amount of deforestation and plant destruction Level of wildlife destruction Level of land pollution Level of crowd intensity Level of Traffic congestion

the amount of litter and wear and tear (Timothy and Nyaupane 2009), air pollution (Gauri and Holdren 1981), water pollution, waste water discharge, wildlife destruction, plant destruction, deforestation (Andereck 1995), land pollution, crowd intensity, and traffic congestion (Uysal et al. 2012a) (Table 2). Third, the tourismification of everyday life is a socio-economic and socio-cultural process by which society and its environment have been turned into spectacles, attractions, playgrounds and consumption sites (Salazar 2009). Tourismification is a process of transformation in the social and cultural atmosphere of a community. As mentioned previously, the social and cultural impacts of tourism have been illuminated in tourism in general and in heritage tourism in particular. The most commonly featured sub-concepts in the literature are gathered to measure the social and cultural characteristics of tourismification in communities. The following concepts are accepted as indicators: the amount of inconvenience, the destruction of the friendly atmosphere and neighbourhood, the strengthening of local residents’ cultural identities, the level of emigration and forced displacement of locals, increased crime rates and types, the commodification and mutation of local handcrafts and food (Table 3). In addition, the spatial transformation of the built environment may also illuminate the evolution of HTDs. Inherently, conservation and protection concerns have been considered on a preferential basis by tourism managers and planners for decades. Notwithstanding, archaeological settlements can be found not only in modern urban areas and latterly urbanized areas but also in rural areas, as in most cases throughout the Mediterranean. Thus, tourismification takes place in different ways in rural areas Table 3 The social indicators to be addressed The amount of inconvenience Destroying friendly atmosphere and neighborhood Strengthening local residents’ cultural identity The level of emigration and forced displacement of locals The crime rate and types The level of commodification and mutation of local handcrafts and food

The Evolution of Heritage Tourism Destinations …

213

than it does in urban contexts. The boundaries of the archaeological heritage—where conservation and protection are priorities—can be more distinct in these places than in multi-layered historic cities, but tourism infrastructure and facilities can be expanded in a more uncontrolled manner due to the violation or neglect of conservation regulations. For that matter, new touristified zones may arise in which can neither be identified nor controlled. In other words, the illegal sprawl of tourism facilities can be seen even in or around strictly protected areas. Furthermore, if archaeological heritage is located in sensitive natural reserves such as natural protected areas or parks, then tourismification becomes a more complicated process. To study such complex areas, a territorial approach is found to be appropriate due to its ability to assess not only the physical borders but also the intangible assets that are interwoven. The term territory represents a network comprised of tourism-related activity and stakeholders, none of whom controls a majority of the network but all of whom are affected by the actions of any part of the network (Notarstefano and Volo 2012). Thus, stages and phases of evolution can be classified based on spatial reflections of the tourismification of territories and the components of constructed/built space. Johnston (2006) aggregated important internal characteristics of a tourism resort and made a classification based on Smith’s (1988) former work. In his research, the natural and cultural sources have been positioned as the base and the main attraction of the destination that provides the major experience of the visit to the destination. The core of the natural heritage or the archaeological site can be addressed as the “base source” of the destination that constitutes the basis for the institutional development of tourism. Base resources represent the environmental components of a destination as beaches and mountains and the cultural components as ethnic groups. Correspondingly, the heritage concept has similar classification and subtypes (tangible–intangible, natural/cultural/mixed heritage sites or movable–immovable). Service resources are sorted into four categories based on their direct or indirect relationships with tourism. Businesses that almost exclusively serve tourists, such as accommodation, food, and souvenirs, and new resource types, such as casinos, constitute the first category. The secondary category refers to those businesses that serve both tourists and locals, such as doctors’ offices. Those businesses that indirectly serve the tourist industry are in the third category, and those that only serve locals, such as housing, are the fourth group based on the characteristics of service resources in tourism destinations. Furthermore, the number of accommodation units and their annual changes seem to be an effective way to assess stage changes. On the governmental side, the post office and police operate as post hoc services, physical modifications of the beach and transportation operate as infrastructure services, and finally, development plans and legislation on a large scale serve as structuring documents that generate the internal characteristics or milieu of change in tourism destinations (Table 4). Finally, tourismification is a process; thus, there are changes not only in places, attractions, tangible and intangible assets or the social fabric of locals but also in

214

B. Seyhan and A. P. Russo

Table 4 The spatial indicators to be addressed The development of governmental resources (post hoc services, infrastructure) New resource creation Level of legal violations and spatial governance

Table 5 The consumption characteristics to be addressed Level of legal violations and spatial governance Socio-demographic characteristics The knowledge of the visited site (ICOMOS and WTO 1993) and the depth of information (McKercher 2002) The level of interest in visiting cultural heritage sites (Silberberg 1995) and the importance of the heritage tourism in their choice of visit (Shifflet and Associates 1999) Personal perspective towards heritage site (Poria et al. 2001)

tourist types who consume and experience the destinations in their entirety. Therefore, consumption aspects of the model are planned to paint a picture of consumers (tourists) by using particular questions that are derived from the literature. According to Adie and Hall (2017), a number of studies have focused on the demographic attributes of heritage tourists in general (Huh et al. 2006; Nguyen and Cheung 2014; Ramkissoon and Uysal 2011; Richards 2007; S´anchez-Ca˜nizares and L´opez-Guzm´an 2012). Heritage tourists are defined through a wide variety of case studies; for example, Light and Prentice (1994) indicated that heritage consumers tend to be from the middle classes, well-educated, middle-aged, in groups without children, on holiday away from home and possessing a prior interest in history. Chandler and Costello (2002) detailed in their heritage tourism research that the average respondents were middle-aged, college educated, employed full-time and married. Kerstetter et al. (2001) inferred that more than half of the participants in their study were between 30 and 59 years old and had a college degree. Martin et al. (2004) determined that cultural heritage visitors are five years older than other visitors. Another set of examples can be given (Nguyen and Cheung 2014) on the cultural and heritage tourist categories, such as the scholar-general-reluctant visitor and student (ICOMOS and WTO 1993), accidental-adjunct-in part and mostly cultural tourist (Silberberg 1995), core-moderate-low heritage tourist (Shifflet and Associates 1999) and purposeful-sightseeing-causal-incidental-serendipitous cultural tourist (McKercher 2002) (Table 5).

Analysis and Findings The evolution of the Olympos Tourism Area (OTA) has had a complex and irregular path. Before the beginning of modern tourism activities in the area in 1975, the

The Evolution of Heritage Tourism Destinations …

215

region was a haunt for nomads who were camping on the beach during the summers. Therefore, the area is known by residents in all nearby regions to be connected with nomadic culture. Moreover, the contemporary character of the built environment (bungalows) took shape based on the bower and arbour tradition of the nomads. It can be argued that illegal housing or shanty settlements in the area are not only created to flout the protection and conservation bans but also function as a continuation of the domestic architecture and local nomad culture. …In July, when all the nomads finished their duties in agriculture, they were coming to the Olympos Beach. Large nomad groups were settling on the beach in a double row…

On the other hand, the local gathering of nomads attracted to the tourists, and the first tourism activities in the area were focused around the ongoing local gatherings. During this process, restaurants, camping sites and caravan sites started to provide services to the tourists until the first survey and inventory was conducted. In 1985, concurrently with the announcement of the area as an archaeological and natural protected area, the nomads and other service providers declined to stay, but the landowners of the area continued to function as service providers. Those landowners (mostly locals) transformed their facilities into accommodation units in the beginning of the 1990s and built them in a style that was inherited from their nomad ancestors. During the 1990s, accommodation services were provided in simple structures, and toilets and bathrooms were in common areas. Later, as the demand increased, bungalows with interior and private toilets and bathrooms started to be built in the 2000s. Naturally, the consumption of water and the necessity of infrastructure for sewage disposal has increased. In 2004, the businesses that were illegal gained their business license despite having been built in a strictly protected area where it was forbidden to build any structures. As one of the interviewees said:

Social …after gaining our license from the special provincial directorate of administration in 2004, we have embraced our business more. Previously, there was always a risk of demolishment.

A legal process was been started against business owners with the announcement of the area as a protected area. Following the announcement, business owners were brought to the criminal court of Elmalı with accusations of having violated the heritage site. …the land owners who have built small structures have been acquitted, however, those who have built larger structures received penalties. The penalties are postponed, and demolishment decisions were neither applied nor followed.

It can be argued that the accuisitions were more than adequate for determining whether tourism development caused violations in the area and affected the management of the problem directly. While the announcement of the protected area was

216

B. Seyhan and A. P. Russo

provided as a strict way to ensure the conservation of the area and was perceived a positive action, the numerous acquittals had negative impacts on the solution of the problem. The legal process could not prevent the building of bungalows and tourismbased structures. By assigning legal control status to provincial private administrations in 2004, businesses gained their trading licenses. A conservation master plan started in 2009, following the demolishment decisions that were neither applied nor cancelled. Apart from the consequences of legal status changes, there were direct impacts of the uncontrolled development of tourism on the social life of the area. The interviewees expressed almost all of the social indicators that are most frequently referred to in the literature. …the locals have closed social milieus, it is very difficult to enter into them. On the other hand, they have open house events such as a farewell ceremony for soldiers (a common custom to see soldiers off on the last day before the beginning of the mandatory military service), local prayer events or requiems.

Economy In the OTA, the economy had been based on agriculture until the first tourism activity started. After the tourism service units were established, there was a shift from an agricultural economy to a tourism economy. Concordantly, employment was developed, and new opportunities have been created since the establishment of the tourism industry. …tourism and agriculture based economies are together in the area; however, latterly 90% of the economy is based on tourism now. The tourism economy has been more dominant since 2000. On the other hand, agriculture is still continuing in the area. Now, local farm products are being served to tourists. Also the majority of the young populations of the area used to go to other places to work but now, they are working in the tourism industry beginning in the tourism season in summer and the ending in greenhouse work in the winter… …this generation is the first generation transitioning from an agricultural economy to a tourism economy… …the tourism management started among all the locals together. Locals born in 1960 or 1970 have learned business management and been inspired by tourism destinations that are similar to OTA.

Another economic transformation mentioned by interviewees was about the increased land prices. Correspondingly with the development of tourism activities, land prices increased, and the area became open to investors. However, due to the legally problematic situation following the announcement of the protected site in the area, foreign investors have hesitated to invest in tourism businesses there. This has caused there to be locally based investments and the local economic development of tourism. Another economic transformation is that perceived by business owners concerning profitability ratios. With massive tourism, profit margins have decreased in parallel with the transformation of tourist types and their budgets.

The Evolution of Heritage Tourism Destinations …

217

Until the 2000s, almost 70% of the money the businesses received was profit. Extra sales such as food and beverage were very good. However, expenses for electricity and personnel costs have increased substantially. When expenses increase, the profit margins decrease. In addition, the characteristics of local entrepreneurship have introduced various investments into different branches of the tourism service industry. This diversification brought some positive effects to the local tourism economy. …until 2005, the average number of stays from tourism business was very low. Tourists were going a daily tour to a close natural attraction, and they were not coming back. However, many businesses owners started to establish travel agencies, and we have found opportunities to provide long-term holidays to tourists, and the average number of stays has increased…

Environment Environmental problems have been increased by the development of the tourism industry in the area. The effects of increased tourist populations, especially during the high tourism season, have become more observable. Some of the most significant impacts has been in the form of human-caused forest fires and increased clean water utilization. …the primary risk of the area is forest fires. Whoever was responsible for the previous forest fires was not found and punished. Additionally, illegal wood chopping is still very common. Reports on the environmental consequences of uncontrolled tourism development are insufficient. The protection and use balance are very bad. The river water has dried up, and the wastewater of tourism businesses mixes with the water of the river. As a result, some major diseases have been seen during the high tourist season.

It can be argued that the effects of insufficient infrastructure and superstructure are observable in the environment of the area. Additionally, there have been some attempts to prevent the negative consequences of such impacts of uncontrolled tourism development. For instance, GATAB (South Antalya Tourism Development and Infrastructure Management) was created to solve such problems. During the interviews, significant praise was made of GATAB and its success in its garbage collection efforts. Another transformation in the environment has been pointed about the flora and fauna of the area. A law society, an animal preservation society, various associations and locals protested the increased rate of animal deaths in the area after a massive poisoning of street animals in 2013. Deserted animals, especially street dogs, were the victims of the massacre. This is linked to tourists who came with their animals and deserted them in the area, which has been frequently mentioned. Another impact of environmental transformation is observed in the population of wild animals and the flora of the area. …The population of the caretta carettas, Mediterranean monk seals and fish have decreased a lot. The bird population is almost at the limit of extinction. Water birds and diversity in the bird population has decreased rapidly. The water of the river is drying day by day. The orchids and the flowers have begun to rarely be seen. There is almost no sustainability in the area…

218

B. Seyhan and A. P. Russo

Spatial Interviewees also expressed the spatial transformation of the built environment. The abovementioned bungalow-type accommodation units dominate the built environment due to both the spatial development that continues despite the protection laws and the legacy of the nomadic culture. However, shanty settling and construction that started with the rise in tourism have also been transformed into a new type of non-authentic, massive, ghetto-style settlements. For instance, treehouses were the most significant attraction in the advertising campaigns for the area, but the concept has been transformed into wooden bungalows with air conditioning and televisions that are built neither in nor under any tree. …There is confusion about the wooden bungalows and tree houses. There are no more houses in trees, and only a few original tree houses still exist. The number of groceries, bars and parking places has increased. The bed capacity of the OTA is increasing every year, and the building material has changed into steel construction. The illegal storey addition is continuing. The base stations are disgusting, and their numbers are increasing in parallel with the number of tourists. Power cuts are also occurring due to insufficient infrastructure. ….The development of the infrastructure ran up after 2010. The arc welders were built during 2005 and 2006. The mains water system came to the OTA in 2009. Additionally, between 2007 and 2010, the number of discotheques and bars increased, and effects on the area are still perceptible. The bed capacity was 1000–1500 until 2000 but it is now approximately 2500.

Consumption Since the beginning of the tourism activity, in parallel with the transformation of the area, consumers have also been changing. As pointed out by Christaller (1963), a significant change in the types of tourists has been observed. As the area has lost its idyllic character and changed into a mass tourism destination, both tourists interested in natural attractions and also those interested in cultural heritage have become scarcer. For instance, the transformation of authentic local products (gastronomic or handmade productions) into the mass consumption of tourism products can be listed as a consequence of the tourism-based commodification of local culture, and as a result, authenticity seekers have shifted to other destinations where the authenticity of the products is preserved. It can be argued that the change in tourist types is a long-term consequence of the transformation of all of the integrated elements of a destination that is also related to the changing popularity of the destination among different markets. …in the past, during the 1980–1990, August was called the “Italian month”. Italians were always coming. Also Germans were saying, “We are not going to Spain because it has become concrete. We prefer here because we can still find nature”. The first tourists were of European origin until 1995. Afterward, Anzacs started to come, and after 2007, domestic tourists became the majority.

The Evolution of Heritage Tourism Destinations …

219

The interviewees pointed out the changes in the cultural backgrounds of the tourists, which are frequently referred to as indicators of the distinctiveness between mass tourists and heritage tourists in the literature. …In the past, theatre players, authors, and cartoonists were coming. Almost all of them were culturally based professions. However, now, the majority of tourists are middle-aged and employed. In contrast, nowadays the OTA is a destination mostly for families…

Conclusion The OTA, as a heritage destination that has developed in a protected rural area, has witnessed a sequence of stages. The first distinction should be made between the pre-tourism and early tourism periods. During the pre-tourism period, the whole area was untouched or only held some agricultural activities. The traditional gatherings of the nomads during the summer period were some of the most massive events in the area. With the beginning of the first tourism activities, some temporary and simple structures were built, and the spatial transformation, which was concentrated on the beach, began. The early tourism period continued until the announcement of the archaeological site and ended with the movement of service units from the beach to the upcountry. The stakeholders and constituents of the issue seemed more obvious in the new accommodation areas of the destination. Regardless, after the beginning of the tourism and the announcement of the archaeological site–the milestone in the evolutionary trajectory–the process changed into an unwieldy and complex situation. First, the announcement of the archaeological site was supposed to provide holistic protection; however, though it provided a (positive effect) barrier against urbanization, excessive accusations and a lack of inspection caused locals to build service units based on legal gaps (a negative effect). Second, the imprecise implications of the governance did not provide any strategies for supporting locals in participating in tourism or management. After the pre-tourism period and the early tourism period, with the announcement of the archaeological site, the evolution of the destination proceeded through four stages.

1st Stage The economic indicators showed that the evolution of the OTA has passed through successive stages that are identified in the abovementioned assessment models. The recognition of the potential for local entrepreneurs and investments in handmade crafts and collectables provided by locals to satisfy increasing demands and generate profit are determined during the first stage of tourism evolution. In addition, the small significance of tourism in the local economy, the small number of providers, and the large investments in marketing promotion and publicity are determined. On

220

B. Seyhan and A. P. Russo

the environmental side, intact rural idyll and unchanged physical environment by tourism are observed. Social milieu characteristics can be assessed in a similar manner. The beginning of the commodification of handmade crafts and local gastronomy and the locals’ favourable perception of tourism for their economic wellbeing can be listed as consequences. Additionally, the functional change of buildings (family houses) into tourism service units, inadequate infrastructure for tourism, the basic construction of accommodation and food units and low access to the destination can be listed as characteristics of the first stage of the spatial transformation of the area. On the consumption side, well-educated visitors, scarce visitation, informative advertising, low publicity, adventurous and heritage-oriented visitors, the fulfilment of expectations and the rising consumption levels can be expressed as the characteristics of consumption in the OTA.

2nd Stage The second stage can be framed based on a rapid change in the similarly developing tourism industry in the Antalya region. The cooperative efforts of local investors, the escalating level of investments to satisfy visitors and the efforts made to join in the tourist market were seen following the first stage of the destination’s evolution. The partial destruction of the rural idyll took place, and the environmental consequences of rapid development were still ignored. The social atmosphere was still intact for the tourists. Those who did not benefit financially from the tourism activities began to perceive negative effects. During the second stage, the rapid and extended construction of the supporting facilities (changes from the treehouses to wooden bungalows) and the strong demand for improving the transportation facilities was seen. Additionally, an increase in consumption levels and awareness among the public can be considered the consumption characteristics of the second stage of tourism development.

3rd Stage The third stage refers to a period in which the consequences of tourismification were significantly observed by both locals and visitors. The locals began to reinvest the surplus value gained from the tourism economy into tourism businesses. Additionally, changes in production, such as shifting from authentic gastronomy to fast food, can be expressed as an economic indicator of the third stage. The tourism economy became the major part of the local economy, and efforts to access the market of general scope were observed. The negative effects of tourismification created concerns about sustainability and the balance between protection and utilization. A change in the

The Evolution of Heritage Tourism Destinations …

221

communities’ social milieu was seen due to escalating crime, crowding and congestion. The spatial transformation escalated to satisfy the rapidly increasing demand for facilities and services. A deeper exploitation of the aesthetic and historic value of heritage resources occurred. The construction of post hoc services and a noticeable change in the physical environment can be listed as spatial characteristics of the third stage. The change in the demand side became more significant. The first heritage-oriented tourists left their places to mass tourists and the flow of domestic youth tourism.

4th Stage The fourth and the last stage characterized a period that mostly consisted of the negative consequences of tourism development. A saturation of the tourist market and the levelling off the heritage-oriented tourist demand and, parallel to this, a decrease in accommodation prices and profit can be listed as indicators of the economic dimension of the fourth stage. On the environmental side, the destruction of the rural idyll and the observable changes in the flora and fauna took place. A decrease in the forested lands due to human-caused fires, especially during the summer seasons, was observed. The social atmosphere of the area was seen to change compared to the former stages, and the locals who could not adapt migrated away from the tourismconcentrated areas. During the fourth stage, the built environment in the area became the significantly dominant element of the area. Afterwards, the destination came to be defined as a “ghetto of bungalows” or a “tourist slum”. Additionally, changes in tourism service units, such as three-floored bungalows or inconsonant styles, have emerged. The evolution of the OTA took shape under the effects of some triggers that caused different trajectories. The triggers regarding protection, sustainability and carrying capacity were caused by amphoteric impacts on different dimensions that are interwoven. For instance, the announcement of the archaeological protection provided strict protection against the spatial destruction of the place but also resulted in excessive accusations against locals on the social side of the matter. Additionally, the lack of governance during the first efforts to build bungalows resulted in a ghetto of bungalows that consists of hundreds of beds in each business without any of the necessary infrastructure. As seen during the fourth stage, transformations in all of the dimensions resulted in a change in the types of tourists and in the profits of the businesses on the supply side. Finally, the overall consequences of the transformation caused an observable destruction of the natural environment. In summary, the evolution of the OTA proceeded through pre-tourism, early tourism and four successive stages that can be determined, measured and assessed. The characteristics of the stages showed that the social, environmental, economic, and spatial dimensions and the consumption of all of these dimensions are interwoven and interrelated.

222

B. Seyhan and A. P. Russo

Acknowledgements The research of this paper is financed by the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry and Competitiveness (POLITUR project. CSO2017-82156-R) and AEI/FEDER, UE and by the Department of Research and Universities of the Catalan Government (2017SGR22).

References Adie, B. A., & Hall, C. M. (2017). Who visits World Heritage? A comparative analysis of three cultural sites. Journal of Heritage Tourism, 12(1), 67–80. Andereck, K. L. (1995). Environmental consequences of tourism: a review of recent research. Environmental Consequences of Tourism: A Review of Recent Research, (INT-323), 77–81. Anton Clav´e, S. (2012). Rethinking mass tourism, space and place. Routledge handbook of tourism geographies. New Perspectives on Space, Place and Tourism. Routledge, Oxford 217–224. Anton Clav´e, S. & Wilson, J. (2017). The evolution of coastal tourism destinations: A path plasticity perspective on tourism urbanisation. Journal of sustainable tourism, 25(1), 96–112. Austin, N. K. (2002). Managing heritage attractions: marketing challenges at sensitive historical sites. International Journal of Tourism Research, 3(6), 447–457. Boschma, R., & Martin, R. (2010). The aims and scope of evolutionary economic geography (No. 1001). Utrecht University, Section of Economic Geography. Bramwell, B., & Cox, V. (2009). Stage and path dependence approaches to the evolution of a national park tourism partnership. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 17(2), 191–206. Brouder, P. (2014). Evolutionary economic geography and tourism studies: Extant studies and future research directions. Tourism Geographies, 16(4), 540–545. Brouder, P., & Eriksson, R. H. (2013). Tourism evolution: On the synergies of tourism studies and evolutionary economic geography. Annals of Tourism Research, 43, 370–389. Butler, R. W. (1980). The concept of a tourist area cycle of evolution: Implications for management of resources. Canadian Geographer, 24(1), 5–12. Chandler, J. A., & Costello, C. A. (2002). A profile of visitors at heritage tourism destinations in East Tennessee according to Plog’s lifestyle and activity level preferences model. Journal of Travel Research, 41(2), 161–166. Christaller, W. (1963). Some considerations of tourism location in Europe: the peripheral regions – underdeveloped countries – recreation areas. Regional Science Association Papers, 12, 95–105. Clavé, S. A., & Wilson, J. (2017). The evolution of coastal tourism destinations: A path plasticity perspective on tourism urbanisation. Journal of sustainable tourism, 25(1), 96–112. Fan, C. N., Wall, G., & Mitchell, C. J. (2008). Creative destruction and the water town of Luzhi China. Tourism Management, 29(4), 648–660. Gauri, K. L., & Holdren, G. C. (1981). Pollutant effects on stone monuments. Environmental Science and Technology, 15(4), 386–390. Halkier, H., & Therkelsen, A. (2013). Exploring tourism destination path plasticity. Zeitschrift für Wirtschaftsgeographie, 57(1–2), 39–51. Huh, J., Uysal, M., & McCleary, K. (2006). Cultural/heritage destinations: Tourist satisfaction and market segmentation. Journal of Hospitality & Leisure Marketing, 14(3), 81–99. ICOMOS International Committee on Cultural Tourism. (1993). Tourism at World Heritage cultural sites: The site manager’s handbook. World Tourism Organization. Ioannides, D., & Debbage, K. G. (Eds.). (1998). The economic geography of the tourist industry: A supply-side analysis. Psychology Press. Jansen-Verbeke, M. (1998). Tourismification of historical cities. Annals of Tourism Research, 25(3), 739–742. Jansen-Verbeke, M. (2014). Tourismification of heritage landscapes, emerging research issues. Discussion Note in Tourism Tribune, 4, 3–11. Johnston, S. (2006). The ontological foundation of the TALC. The Tourism Area Life Cycle, 2, 7–28.

The Evolution of Heritage Tourism Destinations …

223

Kerstetter, D. L., Confer, J. J., & Graefe, A. R. (2001). An exploration of the specialization concept within the context of heritage tourism. Journal of Travel Research, 39(3), 267–274. Kruczek, Z., Kruczek, M., & Szromek, A. R. (2018). Possibilities of using the tourism area life cycle model to understand and provide sustainable solution for tourism development in the Antarctic Region. Sustainability, 10(1), 89. Leung, Y. F. (2001). Environmental impacts of tourism at China’s World Heritage sites: Huangshan and Chengde. Tourism Recreation Research, 26(1), 117–122. Light, D., & Prentice, R. C. (1994). Who consumes the heritage product? Implications for European heritage tourism. Building a New Heritage: Tourism, Culture and Identity in the New Europe, 90–116. Ma, M., & Hassink, R. (2013). An evolutionary perspective on tourism area development. Annals of Tourism Research, 41, 89–109. Martin, B. S., Bridges, W. C., & Valliere, W. (2004). Research note are cultural heritage visitors really different from other visitors? Tourism Analysis, 9(1–2), 129–134. Martin, R. (2010). Roepke lecture in economic geography—rethinking regional path dependence: Beyond lock-into evolution. Economic geography, 86(1), 1–27. McKercher, B. (2002). Towards a classification of cultural tourists. International Journal of Tourism Research, 4(1), 29–38. Meng, Z., Wei, Y., & Yu, Y. (2011). On life cycle of cultural heritage engineering tourism: A case study of Macau. Systems Engineering Procedia, 1, 351–357. Mitchell, C. J. A. (1998). Entrepreneurialism, Commodification and Creative Destruction: A Model of Post-Modern Community Development. Journal of Rural Studies, 14, 273–286. Mitchell, C. J. A., Atkinson, G. R., ve Clark, A. (2001). The Creative Destruction of Niagara-onthe-Lake. The Canadian Geographer/Le Geographe Canadien, 45, no. 2, 285–299. Mitchell, C. J. A., & Singh, T. (2010). Creative Destruction in and Beyond the Rural-urban Fringe: a study of Elora, Ontario. In K. Beasley (Ed.), The rural-urban fringe in Canada: Conflict and controversy (pp. 237–250). Rural Development Institute, Brandon University. Mitchell, C. J. A., & Coghill, C. (2000). The creation of a heritage townscape: Elora, Ontario. The Great Lakes Geographer, 7(2), 88–105. Nguyen, T. H. H., & Cheung, C. (2014). The classification of heritage tourists: A case of Hue city Vietnam. Journal of Heritage Tourism, 9(1), 35–50. Notarstefano, G., & Volo, S. (2012). Measuring the impact of tourism: A ‘territorial’ approach. Rivista Italiana di Economia Demografia e Statistica, 66(2), 235–247. Poria, Y., Butler, R., & Airey, D. (2001). Clarifying heritage tourism (Doctoral dissertation, Pergamon-Elsevier Science Ltd). Ramkissoon, H., & Uysal, M. S. (2011). The effects of perceived authenticity, information search behaviour, motivation and destination imagery on cultural behavioural intentions of tourists. Current Issues in Tourism, 14(6), 537–562. Richards, G. (2007). ATLAS cultural tourism survey. Summary Report 2007. Retrieved March 21, 2018, from www.tram-research.com/atlas/ATLAS20Cultural%20Tourism%20Survey,202007. Russo, A. P. (2002). The “vicious circle” of tourism development in heritage cities. Annals of Tourism Research, 29(1), 165–182. Salazar, N. B. (2009). Imaged or imagined? Cahiers d’études africaines, 1, 49–72. S´anchez-Ca˜nizares, S. M., & L´opez-Guzm´an, T. (2012). Gastronomy as a tourism resource: Profile of the culinary tourist. Current Issues in Tourism, 15(3), 229-245. Sanz-Ibáñez, C., & Anton Clavé, S. (2014). The evolution of destinations: Towards an evolutionary and relational economic geography approach. Tourism Geographies, 16(4), 563–579. Sanz-Ibáñez, C. (2017). The evolution of destinations. An evolutionary and relational economic geography approach (Doctoral dissertation, Universitat Rovira i Virgili). Shen, S., Zhao, J., Xu, J., Guo, J., & Shi, L. (2016). Understanding tourism development of historic districts from a representational perspective. Journal of Tourism Cultural Change, 14(4), 291–306. Shifflet, D. K., & Associates. (1999). Pennsylvania heritage tourism study. Prepared for Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. McLean: Virginia.

224

B. Seyhan and A. P. Russo

Silberberg, T. (1995). Cultural tourism and business opportunities for museums and heritage sites. Tourism Management, 16(5), 361–365. Smith, S. L. (1988). Defining tourism a supply-side view. Annals of Tourism Research, 15(2), 179–190. Timothy, D. J., & Boyd, S. W. (2006). Heritage tourism in the 21st century: Valued traditions and new perspectives. Journal of heritage tourism, 1(1), 1–16. Timothy, D. J., & Nyaupane, G. P. (2009). Protecting the past: Challenges and opportunities. In Cultural heritage and tourism in the developing world (pp. 34–55). Routledge. Tonts, M., & Greive, S. (2002). Commodification and creative destruction in the Australian rural landscape: The case of Bridgetown, Western Australia. Australian Geographical Studies, 40(1), 58–70. Uysal, M. et al. (Eds.). (2012a). Handbook of Tourism and Quality-of-Life Research: Enhancing the Lives 423 of Tourists and Residents of Host Communities, International Handbooks of Quality-ofLife,https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-2288-0_25. ©Springer Science + Business Media B.V. 2012. Uysal, M., Woo, E., & Singal, M. (2012b). The tourist area life cycle (TALC) and its effect on the quality-of-life (QOL) of destination community. In Handbook of tourism and quality-of-life research (pp. 423–443). Springer, Dordrecht. Wang, F., Li, J., Yu, F., He, H., & Zhen, F. (2018). Space, function, and vitality in historic areas: The tourismification process and spatial order of Shichahai in Beijing. International Journal of Tourism Research, 20(3), 335–344. Wang, N. (2000). Tourism and modernity: A sociological analysis, Pergamon (p. 197). Wang, Y., & Bramwell, B. (2012). Heritage protection and tourism development priorities in Hangzhou, China: A political economy and governance perspective. Tourism Management, 33(4), 988–998. Weizenegger, S. A. B. I. N. E. (2006). The TALC model and protected natural areas: African examples. The Tourism Area Life Cycle, 2, 124–137. Xi, J. C., Zhao, M. F., Ge, Q. S., Kong, Q. Q., & Long, H. L. (2014). Changes in land use of a village driven by over 25 years of tourism: The case of Gougezhuang Village, China. Land Use Policy, 40(1), 119–130. Yates, D. (2011). Archaeology and autonomies: The legal framework of heritage management in a new Bolivia. International Journal of Cultural Property, 18(3), 291–307. Young, B. (1983). Touristization of traditional Maltese fishing-farming villages: A general model. Tourism Management, 4(1), 35–41. Zhong, L., Deng, J., & Xiang, B. (2008). Tourism development and the tourism area life-cycle model: A case study of Zhangjiajie National Forest Park, China. Tourism Management, 29(5), 841–856.

Anadolu University Aviation Park as Part of a Cultural Landscape Semra Günay Akta¸s, Önder Yayla, and Sema Ekincek

Introduction A landscape can be defined as an appearance that emerged as a result of the combination of natural and cultural environments. Landscapes are “areas of interaction, and action of natural and/or human agents as people perceive” (Çakcı and Çelem 2009: 89). The natural landscape is the appearance of the areas where the human being has no or little influence; therefore natural order is well preserved in those areas. Categorization can be made as mountain landscape, sea landscape, lake landscape and so on (Gül 2000: 100). Cultural landscapes are defined as “patterns that cultures imprint on the land” (Domosh 2004: 3081) and “to the sedentary record of human activities” (Macnaghten and Urry 1998). Also the cultural landscape is the area in which the natural landscape has been changed by people (Duran Gökalp and Yazgan 2013: 26). Some places have embraced the minds of societies with strong beliefs, artistic and aesthetic values, and traditional attire to embody the extraordinary relationship between people and nature. In addition, it displays the human relations developed with the natural environment. Cultural landscapes are linked to the characteristics of the natural environment in which human being lives. It is also the result of a special relationship between humans and nature. Cultural landscapes are indicators of the natural environment, humanity, S. G. Akta¸s Department of Tourism Management, Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey e-mail: [email protected] Ö. Yayla Department of Gastronomy and Culinary Arts, Osmaniye Korkut Ata University, Osmaniye, Turkey e-mail: [email protected] S. Ekincek (B) Department of Gastronomy and Culinary Arts, Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 ˙I. O. Co¸skun et al. (eds.), Heritage Tourism Beyond Borders and Civilizations, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5370-7_16

225

226

S. G. Akta¸s et al.

creativeness, social development, imagination, the evolution of settlement, land usage technologies, economic structure and cultural powers. Accordingly, cultural landscapes are geographical areas having cultural and aesthetic values related to historical events, activities and people, and keep natural and cultural resources together. A cultural landscape consists of physical elements such as roads, buildings, industrial sites, parks, gardens, graveyards, campus and vegetation as well as non-physical elements reflecting tradition, custom, cultural values. It can be said that cultural landscapes have three main components. Those are the natural structure, cultural life and historical process (Özsüle 2005: 8–10). UNESCO separates cultural landscapes into three groups. These are (https://whc. unesco.org/en/culturallandscape/): (a) The areas, which are clearly defined areas and deliberately designed and created by people, are the most easily identified geographic landscapes. These include parks, gardens, a majority of religious buildings and monumental buildings built for aesthetic reasons. (b) Geographically evolved landscapes constitute the other class. Initially, they were formed as a result of social, economic, administrative and/or religious necessity, and developed in accordance with the natural environment. They are divided into two subcategories: i. Relict/fossil landscapes: although the evolutionary processes have ended, important distinctive features and materials are still visible. ii. It is the geographical landscape of contemporary societies that are related to the traditional way of life, and the evolutionary process is still going on. (c) The last category is the associative cultural landscape. The inclusion of such landscapes on the world heritage list is justifiable by virtue of the powerful religious, artistic or cultural associations of the natural element rather than material cultural evidence that may be insignificant or even absent. Cultural landscapes have different characteristics and cannot be reduced to a single origin or dimension. They may be related to a person or event, and may range from a small area to a region that covers thousands of acres. What is important is that the cultural landscape includes the narratives of culture and expresses the regional identity. The cultural landscape foundation defines four types of cultural landscapes. These are (https://tclf.org/places/about-cultural-landscapes): – Designed landscapes: Areas designed in compliance with design principles in a recognized style or pursuant to a tradition. – Ethnographic landscapes: Landscapes including various natural and cultural sources concerning ethnographic structure. – Historical landscapes: Places that represent a historical phenomenon, event or person. – Vernacular (local) landscapes: Landscapes reflecting social and cultural behaviors of individuals, families or communities as well as physical, biological and cultural features of daily life.

Anadolu University Aviation Park as Part …

227

The cultural landscape has evolved by people who shaped it with their activities. The landscape reflects the physical, biological and cultural characteristics of everyday life with the social or cultural attitudes of an individual, a family or a community. Rapid population growth, development with increasing acceleration all around the world, urbanization, rural areas, expansion of industry, expansion of energy production areas, lack of sensitivity to the preservation of cultural geographical appearance in legal regulations and spatial changes represent the roots of the past threatens views. Cultural landscapes that help societies to understand themselves better and offer them natural, economic, ecological, social, entertainment and educational opportunities are a heritage for all people. Cultural landscapes that provide natural, economic, ecological, social, entertainment and educational opportunities that help societies better understand themselves are the heritage for all people (https://tclf.org/places/ about-cultural-landscapes). Due to the fascinating interplay between people and the environment, the cultural heritage and the preservation of traditional cultures are maintained by the UNESCO in the world heritage sites (https://whc.unesco.org/en/ culturallandscape/). Tourism develops in areas with high level natural and cultural landscapes. When it comes to touristic resources, the first things that come to mind are natural resources including geographical landscapes, landforms, water resources, vegetation and wildlife. Studies have shown that tourists see the geographical landscape of a place as an integral part of the culture of that place. Although national parks and wildlife can be classified as cultural landscapes such as natural geographical landscape, dress and dance, art and architecture, food and song. Tourists consider nature and culture as a single integrated entity that includes residents and lifestyles, even in rural areas. Even the Mongolian steppes are marketed as cultural landscapes (Buckley et al. 2008). Cultural landscapes are characterized by the regulation, processing or modification of natural resources by people as previously described. For this reason, it is a very important thing to do that. Tourists also change the physical and perceptual effects of tourism. Generally, all geographical aspects of these elements are attractive for tourists visiting an otherwise community, place or culture. There are very few academic studies in the literature about tourism and cultural landscape (O’Hare 1997; Buckley et al. 2008; Jewell and McKinnon 2008; Cunningham 2009; Ringer 2013). O’Hare (1997) introduces a multi-method research strategy for interpreting cultural landscapes of tourism with the case study of Noosa, a well-known resort area on the east coast of Australia. Buckley et al. (2008) state that the concept of the cultural landscape is heavily used in a World Heritage context, has a significant role to play in the global tourism industry, and deserves further investigation as a tool for analysis. Jewell and McKinnon (2008) point out that Movie Tourism could be a new form of the cultural landscape in their study. Also Cunningham (2009) suggests in his study by examining the Obeikei narrative, their cultural landscape comes into focus and explores the voice of the Obeikei community and its impact on the development of ecotourism at this site. Ringer (2013) presents new directions both for tourism and cultural landscape studies in geography, crossing the traditional boundaries between the research of geographers and scholars of the tourism industry.

228

S. G. Akta¸s et al.

Aim The aim of the study is to explain how the aviation areas impress tourists as a part of the cultural landscape of an urban area. The research was conducted in the Anadolu University Aviation Park. The study was driven by the following questions in accordance with its main purpose: 1. Is the Anadolu University Aviation Park part of the cultural landscape of Eskisehir? 2. Who visits the Anadolu University Aviation Park? 3. How does the Anadolu University Aviation Park impress visitors as a part of the cultural landscape?

Methodology The researchers visited the Anadolu University Aviation Park to describe the field of study, and at that time, they conducted an interview with the Head of the Anadolu University Aviation Park. The audio records that were recorded during the interview were transcribed, and a content analysis was performed afterward. Additionally, observations were made in relation to the park, and photos were taken to support those observations. Two weeks later, Anadolu University Aviation Park was revisited for a second round of observations. The findings were recorded, and the research was supported by images recorded by prior studies as well as images obtained from the archive of the management of Anadolu University Aviation Park concerning the development of the park. In this study, interviews were used as a data collection tool. Interviewing is a method for determining what people think about a phenomenon and why. It is also a data collection tool that tries to reveal the factors that direct people’s feelings, attitudes and behaviors about a case (Ekiz 2009). A semi-structured questionnaire was used in this study. Literature was used to create the questions of the interview form. Data for this study were collected on May 10, 2018. Interviews were carried out in Anadolu University Aviation Park with 33 participants. A descriptive analysis method, which is a qualitative research method, is used to analyze the interview data. This qualitative descriptive research approach was selected because it enables analyzing the research data on the basis of the interview questions and it reveals the similarities and differences in the opinions of the chiefs about each interview question. The data obtained were summarized and interpreted according to the previously determined themes. The purpose of this analysis is to present the findings to the reader in an edited and interpreted way (Simsek ¸ and Yıldırım 2003). The voices recorded during the interviews were transferred from the audio recorder to the computer and transcribed. In the analysis of qualitative research data based on interviews, the recording of audio recordings, checking the accuracy of castings, establishing interview indices and conducting reliability studies are important

Anadolu University Aviation Park as Part …

229

stages (Kvale 1996). To ensure the reliability of the research, a variety of researchers were consulted, and an expert review was conducted. Data analysis was carried out by three different experts in the field. The researchers evaluated the study together with a person who had general knowledge about the research subject and specialized in qualitative research methods. After analyzing all data, the findings were transferred with the help of word clouds. Word clouds consist of text images created with different patterns, themes and colors and are generally used to visualize the analysis findings according to word frequencies. Word clouds are a technique that selects frequent repetitions of words in fonts of different sizes, assembles them in a schematic layout and shows the most commonly used ones. In the research, the pro word cloud plugin for MS office generated a visual summary of annotations by displaying them as a word cloud where more frequent words are displayed using a larger font size.

Anadolu University Aviation Park Anadolu University Aviation Park is located in Eskisehir and has historical roots in Eskisehir. Eskisehir was a significant location for aviation both during the war for independence and in the early years of the Turkish Republic, and it even remains significant today. Many types of activities related to aviation are conducted in Eskisehir. The most distinguished engineer-soldiers of the air force command work in the air supply center located in Eskisehir. Supportive aviation activities are performed in the city. Anadolu University offers an associate’s degree, bachelor’s degree, postgraduate degree and doctoral programs concerning aviation. Even pilot training is provided. Anadolu University operates a civil airport and provides commercial air transportation training. There is also a company that produces parts for aviation. Anadolu University Aviation Park was established by the Eskisehir provincial environmental protection foundation in 1997. It was assigned to the air force command in 2006 and to Anadolu University in 2011. As Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, founder of the Republic of Turkey, stated that the “Future is in the sky”, its mission was specified in 2012 as aviation science communication. Eskisehir is also a significant center of the Republic of Turkey in terms of aviation history. Selahattin Re¸sit Alan was sent abroad by Atatürk, returned to Turkey after completion of his education and started his career in Eskisehir. He was also a pilot and designed Turkey’s second military aircraft. However, he did not receive the support he needed. Later, he resigned from the public service and produced the first Turkish aircraft with Nuri Demira˘g, who planned to establish a national aviation industry. He was martyred in 1938 when the aircraft that he built by himself hit a ditch on the runway while landing at the airport in Eskisehir. In his memory, the Selahattin Re¸sit Alan virtual reality hangar was built in Anadolu University Aviation Park.

230

S. G. Akta¸s et al.

Findings from Observations The area where Anadolu University Aviation Park is located is classified in the city plan as Greenfield for land usage. Aircraft constitute the main components of the park, and they are exhibited outdoors (see Fig. 1). Aircraft are exhibited in the park amongst trees, meadows, walking trails, pools and benches, and the park is arranged very beautifully. There are a controlled gate and a security officer at the entrance to the park, and entrance is free-of-charge. The park is centrally located in the city, and the intercity tramway station, which bears the park’s name, is in front of the park. After Anadolu University Aviation Park adopted the central mission of science communication in 2012, a number of projects were launched. Aircraft, which have cult followings of aviation enthusiasts, were moved to the park. Following a consultation with an expert, one aircraft in the aviation park was painted in colors that children would enjoy. Two aircraft were painted in their original colors by specialist teams in accordance with expert opinions (see Fig. 2). An aircraft from the Turkish Stars Acrobatics Team has become one of the most popular for visitors wanting to take pictures. A virtual reality hangar was built in the memory of Selahattin Re¸sit Alan, who is a very important figure in Turkish aviation

AN2

T37

Bellanca

Bellanca

Fig. 1 Some of the Aircrafts Exhibited In Anadolu University Aviation Park

Anadolu University Aviation Park as Part …

231

history, and virtual flights were organized with Vecihi XIV aircraft, with Vecihi Hürku¸s as the pilot. This has become an important event for aviation enthusiasts and students (See Fig. 3).

RF84F Fig. 2 Aircrafts Painted Back In Their Original Colors

Fig. 3 Selahattin Re¸sit Alan Virtual Reality Hangar

Turkish Stars

232

S. G. Akta¸s et al.

Fig. 4 3D Drawing of Vecihi XIV Aircraft

The Vecihi XIV aircraft is represented by a 3D picture (see Fig. 4) and has become one of the park’s most popular properties for taking pictures; it also raises awareness about Vecihi Hürku¸s. Vecihi Hürku¸s was a Turkish pilot who flew over Eskisehir, changing the course of the war for independence. In his memoirs, he mentions that he was embraced by the aviation enthusiasts living in Eskisehir. A 3D picture of the Vecihi XIV, an aircraft that Vecihi Hürku¸s designed and produced, is at the entrance of the Anadolu University Aviation Park. According to observations and the interview conducted with the head of the Aviation Park, visitors to the Park can be divided into six groups: (a) Schools bring their students for science communication events. (b) Aviation enthusiasts from all regions of turkey. There are enthusiasts who know all the stories about each aircraft exhibited. These aviation enthusiasts visit on various occasions, and they also follow the park on social media. There are also foreign enthusiasts who request information about the details of the projects such as the original colors of the aircraft. (c) Parents who want to show their children the aircraft. (d) Adults who have never seen an aircraft visit the park. For example, a large number of Syrian refugees living in Eskisehir visited the park. (e) Some tours that bring tourists to Eskisehir on weekends start at Aviation Park. They take pictures with 3D aircraft and Turkish stars. Visiting the park raises the awareness of tourists. Turkey’s aviation history, as well as aircraft that continuously make noise in Eskisehir, attract attention.

Anadolu University Aviation Park as Part …

233

(f) There are also visitors who use the park only for leisure purposes (i.e., nonaviation purposes). In particular, foreigners prefer to use the park more for leisure purposes. The park has also started to attract attention as an area for wedding photography, testifying to the beauty of the landscape.

Findings from Interviews The demographic information of the participants is presented in Table 1. As seen in Table 1, 42.42% of the participants are in the 18–25 year age range; 21.21% are 46 years old and above; and 18.18% are in the 26–35 age range. Regarding the education level of the participants, 48.48% have an Associate’s or Bachelor’s degree, 42.42% have a high school degree, and 9.09% have a Master’s or Doctoral degree. The majority of the participants were young and well educated. The findings arising from the participants’ views of the Anadolu University Aviation Park were interpreted by taking quotations directly from the participants’ opinions under the related thematic topics. The questions used in the study were taken as themes. These themes were examined under the following four headings of (1) reasons to visit the Anadolu University Aviation Park; (2) significant elements of the landscape of the park for visitors; (3) feelings aroused by Anadolu University Aviation Park; and (4) objects, people or events that make the visitors experience such intense feelings. Theme 1. Reasons for Visiting Anadolu University Aviation Park The findings obtained from this question, which was asked in order to determine the reasons for visiting the aviation park, are shown in Fig. 5 as a word cloud. Participants primarily visited Anadolu University Aviation Park to show their relatives (e.g., wives, children, and friends) around. It was also observed that participants generally wanted to show the planes to their relatives. When these findings are examined, it becomes clear that people who visit Anadolu University Aviation Park usually Table 1 Demographic information of the participants Age

Education level

Groups

f

%

18–25 years old

14

42.42

26–35 years old

6

18.18

36–45 years old

6

18.18

46 years old and above

7

21.21

High school degree

14

42.42

Associate’s or Bachelor’s degree

16

48.48

3

9.09

Master’s or Doctoral degree

234

S. G. Akta¸s et al.

Fig. 5 Answers about reasons to visit Aviation Park

want to show the area to their relatives and to share it with their loved ones. In addition, the participants express feelings such as wonder and a desire to visit the Park. In terms of tourism, it is clear that Anadolu University Aviation Park is an important attraction for tourists visiting Eskisehir. In addition, due to recommendations from others, visitors visit the park to see the planes. Theme 2. Significant Elements of the Landscape of Anadolu University Aviation Park for Visitors The findings obtained from this question, which was asked in order to reveal the most significant elements of the Anadolu University Aviation Park’s landscape, are shown in Fig. 6 as a word cloud. The most significant elements of the landscape of Anadolu University Aviation Park are the aircraft, the location itself, the planes, the historical background and the garden. As Anadolu University Aviation Park is also an aviation museum, the main elements that attract visitors to the park are the aircraft, airplanes and the area’s historical background. On the other hand, the garden in the museum is also seen as a significant element of the Park. When we consider all these elements overall, it is clear that the geographical location is considered a significant element. Visitors emphasize that the airplanes are in the garden, in the open air, and surrounded by greenery. Also, the park is on the ring road, so it is close to the main road and can be seen from the tram. Visitors also emphasize that there are areas to relax in the park. The placement of planes and the layout of the area are also considered interesting elements. At the same time, the historical narrative of the airplanes was also mentioned by the visitors, who found the airplanes and aircraft missiles were

Anadolu University Aviation Park as Part …

235

Fig. 6 The most significant elements of the landscape of Anadolu University Aviation Park

remarkable. Old warplanes and the variety of different planes are the first elements that attract visitors. For example, f104 is considered by many to be an interesting element, and the detailed information provided about the aircraft was also mentioned as an attractive element. Visitors also mentioned that touching the helicopters was a good experience. Theme 3. Feelings Aroused By Anadolu University Aviation Park The findings obtained from this question, which was asked in order to reveal the emotions aroused by the participants in the aviation park, are shown in Fig. 7 as a word cloud. The emotions that the aviation park arouses are pride, nationalism, happiness, thrill, and excitement. Nationalistic feelings come to the fore in the aviation park. The story of the old planes and their ancestors’ heroic stories affected the participants powerfully during their visit. Regarding this theme, the visitors stated that they wanted to be in the Turkish aircraft and that their feelings of nationalism were strengthened. The fact that there are many American airplanes made me sad. Most of the visitors were so proud of the Turkish aircraft that their national feelings were aroused. The visitors also stated that they were touched after they learned the history of the airplanes and that it was exciting to touch and watch the planes. They said that it made them happy to experience the moment of flight. Some visitors stated that they felt a sense of war. In addition to saying that their national consciousness and knowledge had increased, many participants emphasized that this visit brought about happiness and good feelings. Many visitors expressed that they liked to be close to–and perhaps even riding in–objects that they usually only saw in the sky. In addition, they stated that they felt national consciousness and admiration.

236

S. G. Akta¸s et al.

Fig. 7 Feelings evoked by Anadolu University Aviation Park

Theme 4. Objects, People or Events That Make You Feel Such Intense Feelings The findings obtained from this question, which was asked in order to determine the main source of the emotions evoked in the participants, are shown in Fig. 8 as a word cloud. The factors that play an important role in stimulating the emotions of the participants are airplanes, aircraft, Vecihi Hürku¸s and Cengiz Topel. This theme is expressed

Fig. 8 Objects, people or events that make you feel those intense feelings

Anadolu University Aviation Park as Part …

237

as a set of factors that cause people to see themselves in the history of aviation. Vecihi Hürku¸s and Cengiz Topel have been especially mentioned because they evoke many emotions due to their place and importance in aviation history. In addition to the airplanes and the aircraft, visitors mentioned the Turkish flags on the airplanes, the thing that the airplanes are real, and the thing that these men were solo-flying Turkish stars in time once upon a time.

Conclusion and Discussion Travel and tourism are associated with tourists’ quest for experiences. In the quest to provide tourists with experiences, places and the geographical landscapes belonging to those places are fundamental. The perception of the geographical appearance in the mind is shaped by the information or expectations that individuals have, and it helps tourists to experience places in an effective way. The image or branding of a place directs tourists’ expectations. To meet these expectations, regulations or activities made at the regional or local level cause changes in the geographical landscape. The experiences of the tourists are guided by these meanings given to places. A touristic place is often shaped by travelers, and the image of a touristic place originates from marketing practices. The continuous desire of tourists to see new places guides tourism more artificiality than originality does. However, the correct interpretation of local places and history, in combination with the local culture, makes a great contribution to tourism. The development of tourism based on cultural geographical landscapes brings with it a series of problems related to globalization/localization. Mostly, developed countries consume the cultures and cultural landscapes of developing countries. Cultural landscapes cover both urban and rural areas, including historic settlements (Mrda and Bojani´c Obad Š´citaroci 2016). Anadolu University Aviation Park is a part of the cultural landscape of the Eskisehir urban area, and both historical and technological processes are exhibited. Old aircraft, which are considered unique by aviation enthusiasts, are exhibited in their original and most attractive forms at Anadolu University Aviation Park. Events are organized for students and parents in compliance with the science communication mission regarding aviation. Aviation is an important activity for Eskisehir. For this reason, Anadolu University Aviation Park is a well-localized, well-arranged and well-managed area. Considering the roots of aviation history, it may be considered a historically designed landscape. In addition to the historical roots of the city, the park showcases important people and aircraft as well as events in aviation history. For this reason, it is appropriate to define it as a historic vernacular landscape. The park serves as a recreation area for the city residents. It also serves as a training area in terms of raising awareness about aviation. By means of this feature, it reflects daily life in the city by connecting with the departments, airports and even pilot training provided by the Anadolu University Faculty of Civil Aviation. The Park has been the first destination for some of the tours organized to Eskisehir. Kaya

238

S. G. Akta¸s et al.

(2002) states that tours are one of the most important tourist products in the cultural landscape. These elements ensure the development of tourism, and the local people are also affected by this development. Thus, the park has acquired a position such that information on aviation history is provided before visitors arrive at Eskisehir. Aviation Park, which has an important place in the cultural perception of Eskisehir, is a place that visitors frequently with their guests. It is the aircraft that makes this place so valuable. Visitors to the aviation park feel intense happiness, pride and nationalism at the park. The most important factors in the formation of such emotions are mostly the heroic stories of the aircraft and historical characters such as Vecihi Hürku¸s and Cengiz Topel. Thus, it is the first place where pictures of the city are taken. In particular, the aircraft used by Turkish stars and historical stories regarding Vecihi Hürku¸s are the most popular reasons for taking pictures. The fact that some foreigners living in the city and city residents often use the park as a greenfield and that it is used as a photography area for weddings may be considered proof of the beauty of the landscape. Acknowledgements This study was supported by Anadolu University Scientific Research Projects Commission under grant No: 1705E153 and 1805E172

References Buckley, R., Ollenburg, C., & Zhong, L. (2008). Cultural landscape in Mongolian tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 35(1), 47–61. Çakçı, I., & Çelem, H. (2009). Kent parklarında görsel peyzaj algısının de˘gerlendirilmesi [Assessment of visual landscape perception of urban parks]. Tarım Bilimleri Dergisi, 15(1), 88–95. Cunningham, P. (2009). Exploring the cultural landscape of the Obeikei in Ogasawara, Japan. Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change, 7(3), 221–234. Domosh, M. (2004). Cultural landscape in environmental studies. In N. Smelser & P. Bates (Eds.), International encyclopaedia of the social and behavioural sciences (pp. 3081–3086). New York: Elsevier. Ekiz, D. (2009). Bilimsel ara¸stırma yöntemleri [Scientific research methods]. Ankara: Ani Yayincilik. Gökalp, D. D., & Yazgan, M. E. (2013). Kırsal peyzaj planlamada agroturizm ve agriturizm [Rural landscape planning in agro-tourism and agri-tourism]. Karamano˘glu Mehmetbey Üniversitesi Sosyal ve Ekonomik Ara¸stırmalar Dergisi, 2013(1), 25–29. Gül, A. (2000). Peyzaj-insan ili¸skisi ve peyzaj mimarlı˘gı [Landscape and human being relation and lanscape architecture]. SDÜ Orman Fakültesi Dergisi, 97–114. Jewell, B., & McKinnon, S. (2008). Movie Tourism—A new form of cultural landscape? Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 24(2–3), 153–162. https://doi.org/10.1080/10548400802092650. Kaya, L. G. (2002). Cultural landscape for tourism. ZKÜ Bartın Orman Fakültesi Dergisi, 4(4), 54–60. Kvale, S. (1996). The 1,000-page question. Qualitative Inquiry, 2(3), 275–284. Macnaghten, P., & Urry, J. (1998). Contested natures. London: Sage Publications. Mrda, A., & Bojani´c Obad Š´citaroci, B. (2016). Relationship between tourism and cultural landscape—A new sustainable development model. Proceedıngs of Tcl 2016 Conference Infota, 2016, 376–384.

Anadolu University Aviation Park as Part …

239

O’Hare, D. (1997). Interpreting the cultural landscape for tourism development. Urban Design International, 2(1), 33–54. Özsüle, Z. (2005). Geleneksel yerle¸simlerin korunması açısından kültürel peyzaj de˘gerlendirmesi: Mudanya örne˘gi [An assessment of cultural landspace for the conservation of traditional settlements: A case study of Mudanya]. ˙Istanbul Üniversitesi/Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, ˙Istanbul: Doktora Tezi. Ringer, G. (2013). Destinations: cultural landscapes of tourism. Routledge. Sim¸ ¸ sek, H., & Yıldırım, A. (2003). Sosyal bilimlerde nitel ara¸stırma yöntemleri [Qualitative research methods in the social sciences]. Ankara: Seçkin Yayıncılık. Retrieved October 25, 2018, from https://whc.unesco.org/en/culturallandscape/. Retrieved August 15, 2018, from https://tclf.org/ places/about-cultural-landscapes/. Retrieved June 10, 2018, from https://tclf.org/places/about-cul tural-landscapes/. Retrieved June 15, 2018, from https://whc.unesco.org/en/culturallandscape/.

Semra Günay Akta¸s is a Professor in the Department of Tourism Management, Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey where she teaches courses on tourism development and tourism geography. Her research focuses on Geography, Tourism Geography and Geographic Information Systems. Önder Yayla is a assistant professor in the Department of Gastronomy and Culinary Arts, Osmaniye Korkut Ata University, Osmaniye, Turkey. His research focuses on Gastronomy Tourism and Food Geography. Sema Ekincek is a research assistant in the Department of Gastronomy and Culinary Arts, Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey. Her research focuses on Tourism, Gastronomy and Culinary Arts.

Heritage Roads

Sustaining Cultural Routes: The Case of the Phrygian Way Kübra A¸san and Medet Yolal

Introduction Trails and routes have been indispensable to travel and tourism over the centuries, helping to form the basis of mobility patterns of the past and the present (Timothy and Boyd 2014). Certain defined trails and routes have become well-trodden and have been utilized by many subsequent generations, providing a foundation upon which a distinct tourism product has emerged (Moore and Shafer 2001). Furthermore, trails provide access to facilities and attractions in protected areas, promote recreation opportunities and protect natural resources by concentrating visitor use (Farrell and Marion 2001). Trails can serve as catalysts for economic development, drawing recreationists from great distances. Recreationists and tourists who use trails may spend money at local businesses such as hotels and restaurants. Local people may also be employed as guides or in maintaining a trail (Halpenny 2004). As such, Buckley (2006) suggests that, though small in scale, a commercial trail sector does exist and natural and cultural trails are accepted as tourist products of this sector. Cultural routes are important trails with both cultural and natural values. These are organized ways for certain types of recreational activities such as cycling, walking, driving or riding to draw on the cultural heritage of a region and provide learning experiences and visitor enjoyment (MacLeod 2004). Many of the key reasons why users participate in recreation and leisure can be found in the experiences provided by trails. The benefits for individuals include the promotion of physical, psychological, and social well-being and education (Halpenny 2004). K. A¸san School of Tourism and Hotel Management, Sinop University, Sinop, Turkey e-mail: [email protected] M. Yolal (B) Tourism Faculty, Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 ˙I. O. Co¸skun et al. (eds.), Heritage Tourism Beyond Borders and Civilizations, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5370-7_17

243

244

K. A¸san and M. Yolal

In the long run, the preservation and sustainability of these routes are crucial for increasing the economic benefits in the local economy and, consequently, the wellbeing of the residents and visitors. Maintenance of these routes and trails, especially in the long ones, is a challenging task. The issue becomes more tragic in cases where institutional support is insufficient. In such cases, voluntary nongovernmental bodies or individuals take on the responsibility of maintaining the route. Previous literature on the trails and routes has handled the issue of sustainability in terms of ecological impacts (Peterson et al. 2018; Marion and Wimpey 2017; Tomczyk et al. 2017). For example, the study by Marion and Wimpey (2017) suggests that trail grade and slope alignment angle appear to have a significant influence on soil loss from recreational activities. Similarly, the influences of visitor use and organized events have been an important topic for researchers (D’Antonio and Monz 2016; Ng et al. 2018) who examine the relationship between levels of visitor use and spatial patterns of visitor behavior. Sustainable trails, as suggested by Marion and Wimpey (2017), are designed, constructed and managed to accommodate their intended types of users to provide high-quality visitor experiences. However, understanding the management strategies that mitigate undesirable ecological and manmade impacts in these trails while continuing to provide recreation experiences is of utmost importance (Monz et al. 2013). As suggested by Burde and Renfro (1986), trail degradation features compromise natural and recreational values and are typically expensive to repair. Therefore, careful management is needed to ensure the sustainability of these trails and routes. Although several researchers have studied routes and trails, the study of the sustainability of routes in terms of operational management is still in its infancy. Therefore, this study aims to examine the efforts to sustain the Phrygian Way. The Phrygian Way is one of the longest hiking trails in Turkey. Planned with great care for the comfort and enjoyment of hikers, the route passes through the renowned Phrygian Valleys, where hikers may visit the ruins of ancient civilizations and enjoy the natural beauty of the region (Cultural Routes Society 2018). The results and findings of the study have the potential to provide a reference for the sustainability of the Phrygian Way.

Conceptual Framework A route is generally more abstract and often based on a modern-day conceptualization and designation of a circuit or course that links similar natural or cultural features together into a thematic linear corridor (Timothy and Boyd 2014). Routes are marked on the ground with signs or other interpretive media and on maps that help guide visitors along their route (MacLeod 2004). Cultural resource-based routes provide considerable public enjoyment and recreation, both for residents and tourists. In addition, they serve a variety of important social, economic and political purposes. Cultural routes play four roles, as suggested by Timothy and Boyd (2014). One of

Sustaining Cultural Routes: The Case of the Phrygian Way

245

the leading roles of heritage trails is the preservation of historic values and conservation of cultural resources and historic route ways, including migration routes, explorer trails, railways and logging paths. A second purpose of cultural routes is image enhancement and the boosting of a sense of place. This leads to the third purpose of cultural trials: economic development. In addition to strengthening a sense of place and enhancing a regional image, trails can also serve a role in promotional efforts. They are often featured in tourism marketing campaigns and can be prominently showcased on destination websites and in travel books and brochures. Much of the rationale for establishing trails is their economic potential for bringing income to the destination, providing jobs for locals and creating tax revenues. As stimulators of local economies, people are hired to manage the trails themselves and participating organizations, retailers, attractions and other service providers along the trails see important economic outcomes as well. Finally, similar to other cultural heritage attractions, trails are sometimes created to become political pawns or other instruments to exercise power and persuasion. As suggested earlier, tourism and recreational activities may also have negative impacts on the trails. The magnitude of adverse impacts on trails is influenced by factors related to recreational use (e.g., type of use, amount of use, and visitor behavior) and environmental attributes (e.g., vegetation type and density, topography, soil type, and climate) (Tomczyk et al. 2017). Concentrated traffic from hikers, backpackers, mountain bikers, and horse riders on trails with natural surfaces removes or prevents the establishment of vegetative and organic litter cover on treads, compacts substrates, and increases water runoff and the erosion of soil. Trails on flat terrain can also suffer from trail widening, braiding, and muddiness (Marion and Wimpey 2017). The condition and usability of trails is a critical concern of land managers charged with providing recreational access while preserving natural conditions and of visitors seeking high quality recreational opportunities and experiences (Keith et al. 2018, p. 46). Management actions can modify many of these factors and can, consequently, avoid or minimize negative trail impacts. Trail management continuously aims to design and maintain ecologically sustainable trails that feature conditions that users desire (Marion and Wimpey 2017). The quality of outdoor experiences is dependent, in part, on the environmental conditions of trail treads and corridors (Peterson et al. 2018). Since the management of trails and routes is complex, different levels and types of use are needed for better management of these resources (Timothy and Boyd 2014). This task requires varied management models. In this regard, management can sometimes focus on supply and demand techniques. Supply perspectives include controlling visitor flows and modifying sites (Timothy and Boyd 2014). On the other hand, demand perspectives include marketing enhancements, educational campaigns, human resources and service development and behavioral guidelines and regulations. Since the impacts of visitors are highly prominent in the literature, demand perspectives are crucial for the well-being of the routes and trails. Some protected area management frameworks that have been used in various parts of the world include limits of acceptable change (LAC), visitor impact management (VIM), visitor experience and resource protection (VERP), the

246

K. A¸san and M. Yolal

visitor activity management process (VAMP), the recreation opportunity spectrum (ROS), and the tourism optimization model (TOMM) (Eagles et al. 2002). On the other hand, more recent developments with respect to notions of governance have also led to a reconsideration of the planning–market dualism. Instead, the necessity of steering hybrid public–private relationships as well as the growth of nongovernment, nonprofit, ‘third-sector’ organizations means that a significant reinterpretation of the relationship between planning and the market is required. Since tourism is a significant area of public–private relationships with respect to urban regeneration or infrastructure projects, such as airports, destination planning is strongly influenced by debates over what the nature of government intervention should be in destinations with respect to tourism (Cooper and Hall 2007). These discussions highlight the importance of community partnerships in area management. As a matter of fact, community partnerships are key for communal land tenure (Buckley 2010). A community’s primary stakeholders are local government and community leaders, residents, local businesses, nongovernment organizations, and other community groups (Williams et al. 2012). The use of stakeholder theory with links to partnership, collaboration and cooperation has more potential management mechanisms because it allows more widespread engagement over issues and concerns of different populations as well as different levels and types of use in the context of linear recreation and tourism spaces (Timothy and Boyd 2014, p. 195). Halpenny (2004) suggests that when organized, trails can offer a region the protection and maintenance of cultural and natural resources. According to Halpenny, trails can also act as rallying points for the conservation of cultural and natural heritage activities in a region; environmental and heritage conservation groups can use trails as a focus point for fundraising and organizing and as educational tools for encouraging other community members to become more involved in conservation. Additional considerations include reducing maintenance, liability, and negative impacts and increasing accessibility and visitor enjoyment. All of these factors can be addressed through the design and periodic maintenance of the trail. Trail maintenance and negative environmental impacts can be minimized by designing trails that complement the natural environment (e.g., identifying low-lying areas and subsequently elevating or changing the direction of a trail) and using appropriate materials. Minimizing negative environmental and cultural impacts can also be accomplished through visitor education, signage, and pamphlets at the trailhead (Hapenny 2004). The above discussion suggests that cultural trails can be sustained using various management models. As such, managers can employ one or more models simultaneously to sustain their trails. In the case of the Phrygian Way, there is no institutional management system. However, management models that rely on verbal agreements and interpersonal relations are employed to maintain the original route discovered by explorers. Since it offers a distinct point of view, the Phrygian Way was chosen as the study site for this paper.

Sustaining Cultural Routes: The Case of the Phrygian Way

247

The Phrygian Way The Phrygian Way was planned to introduce trekkers and cyclists to Phrygian culture and to enable them to enjoy a safe journey through the Phrygian Valleys along trails once used by the Phrygians. The route is 506 km long and is marked in accordance with international standards (Fig. 1). The route has three starting points, and the trails meet at the Yazilikaya (Inscribed Rock), which was a focal point for the Phrygians. Hikers may start the route at the following points: (1) Gordium (Ankara), (2) Seydiler (Afyonkarahisar), and 3) Yenice (Kütahya). The Phrygian Way project was sponsored by FRIGKUM (Union for the Protection and Development of Phrygian Cultural Heritage) and developed by a small team led by Hüseyin Sarı. Accommodation is available in guest houses in some villages; there are also plenty of campsites. The Phrygians appeared in Anatolia in the 11th century BC, migrating across the straits from Thrace. They settled in the region covering the territories of the present day provinces of Afyonkarahisar, Ankara, Eskisehir and Kutahya. By the mid-8th century BC, a vibrant civilization centered around the capital, Gordium (Gordion)— present-day Yassihoyuk, Polatli County of Ankara—was flourishing. The legendary Midas was the most renowned Phrygian king. In addition to the Phrygian capital of Gordium, other important settlements were Pessinous (Ballihisar) and the city of Midas (Yazilikaya). The region was covered with volcanic ash thrown out by Turkmen Mountain (called Mount Elaphoeis in antiquity), and the consolidated tuff created rocks that could be easily carved. The Phrygians left behind many carved

Fig. 1 The Phrygian Way Source Cultural Routes Society

248

K. A¸san and M. Yolal

rock monuments in the region. The easily worked nature of the local rock also aided in the creation of ancient roads that are still visible in many parts of the region. The Phrygians were defeated by the Cimmerians, who migrated from the Caucuses in the 7th century BC, and disappeared from history. Phrygian writing has yet to be deciphered, but we know that they were the inventors of flutelike woodwind instruments (Cultural Routes Society 2018). Although most of the area is considered an archaeological site, the ‘Mountainous Phrygian Valley’ and the ancient city of ‘Gordion’ are on the UNESCO Tentative World Heritage List (whc.unesco.org/en/satetsparties/tr). Moreover, the ‘Afyonkarahisar Phrygian Valley’ was declared a national park in 2017 (Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry 2018).

Method Case analysis involves organizing data by specific cases for in-depth study (Patton 2002, p. 447). A case study approach was employed, and unstructured interviews were conducted with hiking group leaders, local entrepreneurs and local guides. Purposive sampling was used to determine the participants, and a total of seven interviews were conducted in August 2018. The interview form consisted of open-ended questions on the problems faced by the route, managerial efforts on the sustainability of the route and the community model. Further questions regarding the demographics of the participants were included. The interviews were conducted by phone and lasted approximately 18–45 min. Interviews were taped with the permission of the interviewees and then transcribed by the researchers. Furthermore, the webpage and related publications of the society were examined, and the authors personally participated in various activities on the Phrygian Way. During the analysis, a three-stage coding procedure (Neuman 2006) was utilized. A thematic analysis of the interviews was conducted. The analysis revealed three themes—namely, problems faced in the route, managerial efforts and managerial necessities of the Phrygian Way. Moreover, it was observed that a community model is used in the maintenance of Phrygian Way. The model and its success were also discussed.

Results Problems Faced by the Route As noted earlier, there was no institutional management for sustaining the Phrygian Way. However, the explorers of the route tried to solve the emerging problems personally with the company of hikers and other stakeholders. Renovations and

Sustaining Cultural Routes: The Case of the Phrygian Way

249

the placement of route signs and signboards were among the primary tasks they performed. Similarly, painted signs and marks were also their responsibility. It was noted that the businesses in the area also contributed to the placement of these signs. A business operator (P4) explained: For example, the signs and signboards in the entrance of Sabuncupınar Village were insufficient. I personally got them prepared. The signboards were very old… You see that small one… People ask whether the Phrygian Valley is just limited to this area.

Stakeholders also contributed by tracking the changes to the route. For example, one tour guide (P5) had suggested new alternatives on the basis of his observations along the route: There was a beautiful ancient road. The current route was not on this road. I immediately informed the explorers about the existence of such a road. We walked the road with one of the explorers. He liked it very much. He is going to make an alternative route plan.

Along with these works, most of the effort was allocated to the promotion of the region. A series of educational presentations and tours were organized for potential users, residents and intermediaries by the contribution of FRIGKUM. In this regard, one of the participants (P1) noted that: The Phrygian Way finished its infancy. There is much promotion in social media and in the blogs. This development surpassed us. FRIGKUM is working hard, brochures and printed materials were prepared, Phrygian houses were opened.

Efforts on the Route As noted earlier, there was no institutional management for sustaining the Phrygian Way. However, the explorers of the route tried to solve the emerging problems personally with the company of hikers and other stakeholders. Renovations and the placement of route signs and signboards were among the primary tasks they performed. Similarly, painted signs and marks were also their responsibility. It was noted that the businesses in the area also contributed to the placement of these signs. A business operator (P4) explained: For example, the signs and signboards in the entrance of Sabuncupınar Village were insufficient. I personally got them prepared. The signboards were very old… You see that small one… People ask whether the Phrygian Valley is just limited to this area.

Stakeholders also contributed by tracking the changes to the route. For example, one tour guide (P5) had suggested new alternatives on the basis of his observations along the route: There was a beautiful ancient road. The current route was not on this road. I immediately informed the explorers about the existence of such a road. We walked the road with one of the explorers. He liked it very much. He is going to make an alternative route plan.

250

K. A¸san and M. Yolal

Along with these works, most of the effort was allocated to the promotion of the region. A series of educational presentations and tours were organized for potential users, residents and intermediaries by the contribution of FRIGKUM. In this regard, one of the participants (P1) noted that: The Phrygian Way finished its infancy. There is much promotion in social media and in the blogs. This development surpassed us. FRIGKUM is working hard, brochures and printed materials were prepared, Phrygian houses were opened.

Community Model A special type of community model was employed in the sustainability of the Phrygian Way. According to the model, each hiking (walking) group/association/club in the different regions of the route was contacted, and they were asked to take responsibility for efforts to maintain their own sections of the route. Four groups from four provinces in which the route is scattered (Ankara, Eskisehir, Afyon and Kutahya) were contracted verbally. These four groups were the Ankara Summit Mountaineering Club, Association of Eskisehir Mountaineering and Nature Sports Clubs, Afyonkarahisar Nature Sports Club and Pusula Search and Rescue and Mountaineering Club. The groups’ willingness raised much hope for this model. Moreover, a community located far from the region also volunteered to these efforts (the Koza Walking Group from Bursa). These communities partially contributed to the maintenance and repair efforts in the first years. However, as time progressed, it was recognized that this model was inefficient. When the reasons why were questioned, it was found that the internal dynamics of the communities were effective in the failure. First, the managerial changes in the communities influenced the activities along the Phrygian Way. One of the participants (P2) indicated that: We renewed the signboards. Some were done in Afyon, and the rest in Kütahya. But then we are not in charge of the management in the association. I have no idea of how the new president will behave. No program was prepared.

In time, communities may lose members, or they can become divided. Furthermore, the variety of activities in the community may hinder the efforts regarding the route. In this regard, participants expressed the following: We rarely go to Phrygia. We mostly climb higher altitudes. (P7) It was a busy period, and I have no idea of how the next period will be. (P3).

In this vein, an explorer of the route and the developer of this model (P1) explained that the reason this model did not work was the selection of the wrong groups or communities. Another explanation may be the groups’ insufficient knowledge about the route and their dependence on explorers in their efforts rather than acting independently. This was also recorded as a barrier in the continuity of the model and the groups’ efforts. One of the community members (P6) noted that:

Sustaining Cultural Routes: The Case of the Phrygian Way

251

(Explorers) were very busy, normally they guide us… Further, since the route is in the rural area, far from the city, we cannot visit the route frequently. Just once or twice a year.

The findings revealed that, apart from the internal dynamics of the groups, the characteristics of the route were also influential in the failure of this model. According to users’ perspectives, the route is far from the urban area and lacks basic infrastructure and facilities such as food and beverage outlets. Therefore, the route was not a preferred one for the walking activities of these groups.

Discussion The Phrygian Way is an important cultural attraction that covers a vast region. Currently, FRIGKUM is the official sponsor of the Phrygian Way. FRIGKUM is a governmental unit that is formed by the governors of the provinces that the Phrygian Way passes through. The research reveals that FRIGKUM has played a significant role in the publicity and promotion of the region. Furthermore, FRIGKUM has supported and sponsored various cultural and sports activities. Moreover, authentic Phrygian houses were built to accommodate visitors in the region by the support of FRIGKUM. However, since most of these houses have not been transferred to independent operators, they are currently inactive. The unproductive use of these houses reveals the shortcomings of managerial issues. It is observed that the number of tourism facilities and businesses is gradually increasing. Since the design and layout of these buildings are not compatible with the Phrygian concept, they apparently contradict the surroundings. However, study findings show that littering is the most prominent problem of the region, which demonstrates a lack of proper management and governance. Regarding the maintenance of the route, the most important issue was found to be the road signs and renewal of the signboards. Although GPS and guidebooks can direct visitors, it was observed that participants emphasize the importance of signage. Unfortunately, there are no groups willing to take on this responsibility, and this was found to be an important concern for the sustainability of the region. Observations and interviews show that hiking groups play an important role in the development and protection of the route. In this regard, a volunteer–based approach was employed but could not be sustained for a prolonged period of time. This can basically be explained by the changes in these communities’ attitudes and behaviors stemming from internal dynamics. In fact, communities are complex and emotional units (Bender 1982). Therefore, understanding cultural codes and maintaining longlasting communication are crucial for the wellbeing of relations. Moreover, field observations indicated competition among these communities. Therefore, designing a model that can unite the efforts of various groups can trigger maintenance efforts. It can be argued that the previously employed community model is ineffective. It is no surprise to see the collapse of the model, which mostly relies on the personal promises of individuals. Hence, an institutional body is needed to coordinate communication

252

K. A¸san and M. Yolal

and cooperation among the communities. In this regard, community responsibilities should be arranged on the basis of job definitions, responsibilities and timeframes. Moreover, the selection of communities should be made rigorously. The findings also showed that individuals are willing to contribute to maintenance efforts on a volunteer basis along with other community members. Therefore, maintenance efforts can be strengthened by the participation of volunteers. In any case, such a model primarily relies on establishing a system that would allow for coordination among communities. The findings clearly show that the Phrygian region lacks sound area management. Unfortunately, FRIGKUM, which is composed of representatives from several provinces, is currently far from embracing the concerns of the whole region. This requires not only favoring success but also taking responsibility for the sustainability of the region. However, individual efforts dominate maintenance and sustainability efforts in the regions, as in the case of the discovery of the routes. Consequently, we conclude that there is a need for an institutional body—be it governmental or nongovernmental—to take responsibility for protective efforts in the region. In this regard, the vastness of the region can be assumed to be a barrier. This can be overcome by developing an efficient management model that includes other stakeholders, such as community leaders, residents, local businesses, nongovernment organizations, and other community groups (Williams et al. 2012, p. 199). In the composition of the model, hiking groups may play a significant role. They may be followed by local businesses, residents and local guides. The model can be established in the form of networks that are free from physical space. Networks are carefully defined as social structures that enable stakeholders to build the level of trust necessary for them to share in the development of local tourism products, while ‘networking’ is best understood as a process used by the members of a network to mobilize relationships and learn from each other (Lynch and Morrison 2006). A sustainable management approach can be facilitated by networking to sustain the route and its natural and cultural surroundings.

Conclusion The Phrygian Way is an emerging destination for nature-based activities for both recreationists and tourists. However, the sustainability of the Phrygian Way mostly relies on individual efforts. As such, it may be concluded that the efforts of FRIGKUM are insufficient in terms of the sustainability of the Phrygian Way. The findings reveal that present sustainability efforts rely mostly on volunteers. The community model also rests on volunteer efforts. Nevertheless, the community model has failed because of the internal dynamics of the communities and the lack of coordination among these groups. On the other hand, it is seen that these communities are mostly composed of the current users of the route. Therefore, the community model can be reactivated by reorganization on the basis of changing conditions.

Sustaining Cultural Routes: The Case of the Phrygian Way

253

This model can be designed in the form of a network that will also include individual volunteers. Such a network can be managed by FRIGKUM or the Provincial Directorate of Culture and Tourism. Consequently, to avoid losing already achieved developments and to further expand the impacts of efforts to sustain the route, a well-planned protection method is needed. Public support and the contributions of governmental bodies are of prime importance in achieving the desired outcomes. This study examined the efforts to sustain the Phrygian Way and utilized interviews with different stakeholders in the region. The study is limited by a small sample size. Therefore, future studies with larger populations are needed to expand our knowledge about the region. Similarly, studies on local residents have the potential to deepen our knowledge. Furthermore, future studies may also examine the managerial approaches being used in similar routes both in Turkey and around the globe. As such, comparative studies may expand our knowledge about historical and cultural routes.

References Bender, T. (1982). Community and social change in America. London: The Johns Hopkins University Pres. Buckley, R. (2006). Adventure tourism. Oxon: CABI Publishing. Buckley, R. (2010). Conservation tourism. Oxon: CABI Publishing. Burde, J. H., & Renfro, J. R. (1986). Use impacts on the Appalachian Trail. In R. C. Lucas (Ed.), Proceedings—National Wilderness Research Conference: Current research (pp. 138–143). USDA Forest: Ogden, UT. Cooper, C., & Hall, C. M. (2007). Contemporary tourism. Oxon: Routledge. Cultural Routes Society. (2018). Phrygian Way. Retrieved from: http://cultureroutesinturkey.com/ tr/frig-yolu/. Accessed28, November, 2018. D’Antonio, A., & Monz, C. (2016). The influence of visitor use levels on visitor spatial behavior in off-trail areas of dispersed recreation use. Journal of Environmental Management, 170, 79–87. Eagles, P. F., McCool, S. F., Haynes, C. D., & Phillips, A. (2002). Sustainable tourism in protected areas: Guidelines for planning and management (Vol. 8). Gland: IUCN. Farrell, T. A., & Marion, J. L. (2001). Trail impacts and trail impact management related to visitation at Torres del paine national park. Chile, Leisure/Loisir, 26(1–2), 31–59. Halpenny, E. (2004). Trails, J. Jenkins, and J. Pigram, Encyclopedia of leisure and outdoor recreation (p. 509,510). Oxon: Routledge. Keith, S. J., Larson, L. R., Shafer, C. S., Hallo, J. C., & Fernandez, M. (2018). Greenway use and preferences in diverse urban communities: Implications for trail design and management. Landscape and Urban Planning, 172, 47–59. Lynch, P., & Morrison, A. (2006). The role of networks (pp. 43–62). Micro-clusters and networks: The growth of tourism. MacLeod, N. E. (2004). Seeing places: A critique of the heritage trail as a visual interpretation of place. lSA Publication, 61–78. Marion, J. L., & Wimpey, J. (2017). Assessing the influence of sustainable trail design and maintenance on soil loss. Journal of Environmental Management, 189, 46–57. Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry. (2018) National Parks. Retrieved from: http://www.millipark lar.gov.tr/korunan-alanlar. Accessed10 August, 2018.

254

K. A¸san and M. Yolal

Ministry of Culture and Tourism. (2018) Mountainous Phrygian Valley. Retrieved from: http://www.kulturvarliklari.gov.tr/TR,44394/dunya-miras-listesinde-turkiye.html. Accessed 10 August, 2018. Monz, C. A., Pickering, C. M., & Hadwen, W. L. (2013). Recent advances in recreation ecology and the implications of different relationships between ecreation use and ecological impacts. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 11, 441–446. Moore, R. L., & Shafer, C. S. (2001). Introduction to special issue trails and greenways: Opportunities for planners, managers, and scholars. Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, 19(3), 1–16. Neuman, L. (2006). Toplumsal Ara¸stırma Yöntemleri: Nitel ve Nicel Yakla¸sımlar. (Translated by Özge, S.). Ankara: Yayın Odası. Ng, S. L., Leung, Y. F., Cheung, S. Y., & Fang, W. (2018). Land degradation effects initiated by trail running events in an urban protected area of Hong Kong. Land Degradation and Development, 29(3), 422–432. Patton, Q. M. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods. California EU: Sage Publications Inc. Peterson, B. A., Brownlee, M. T., & Marion, J. L. (2018). Mapping the relationships between trail conditions and experiential elements of long-distance hiking. Landscape and Urban Planning, 180, 60–75. Timothy, D. J., & Boyd, S. W. (2014). Tourism and trails: Cultural. Ecological and Management Issues: Channel View Publications. Tomczyk, A. M., Ewertowski, M. W., White, P. C., & Kasprzak, L. (2017). A new framework for prioritising decisions on recreational trail management. Landscape and Urban Planning, 167, 1–13. Williams, P. W., Gill, A. M., Marcoux, J., & Xu, N. (2012). Nurturing “social license to operate” through corporate-civil society relationships in tourism destinations. The Routledge Handbook of Tourism Research, (196–215). Arbingdon: Routledge.

Management of Sustainable Tourism and Cultural Heritage for the Ancient Hittite Road Nevin Turgut Gültekin and T. N. N. Özbek Çetin

Introduction The relationship between cultural and natural heritage and tourism is two-sided. Heritage value provides an important source and destination for the tourism sector. Tourism mediates the realization of social, cultural and economic benefits while presenting this value. This relationship is critical since tourism has a high potential to damage this value. National and international policies developed under the leadership of United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) have attempted to overcome this problem. The results of the International Workshop on Advancing Sustainable Tourism in 2009-China, which was accepted at the 34th meeting of the World Heritage Committee (WHC) in 2010-Brasilia, suggested that heritage and tourism management should be applied together to reconcile tourism with world heritage (WHC 2010). Since sustainability is crucial for the future of humanity, the common basis of heritage management and tourism management involves the sustainability of the natural and cultural values of world heritage. Tourism, as an alternative to the de-industrialization forced by globalization, provides an advantage in urban competition; therefore, cultural tourism is supported worldwide. In thematic studies, UNESCO has discussed and introduced cultural heritage since the 1970s and increased the recognition of cultural value in 2010, which provided momentum to cultural tourism. The definition of cultural routes (CR) and concrete and non-tangible cultural values that are registered as WH constitute the necessary infrastructure and dynamics for cultural tourism.

N. T. Gültekin (B) Architecture Faculty, Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey e-mail: [email protected] T. N. N. Özbek Çetin Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences, Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 ˙I. O. Co¸skun et al. (eds.), Heritage Tourism Beyond Borders and Civilizations, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5370-7_18

255

256

N. T. Gültekin and T. N. N. Özbek Çetin

In the 2000s, the activities of determining and registering historical roads and routes in Anatolia as cultural roots have been conducted in Turkey. In this process, the ancient Hittite Road, which is based in the capital city of Hattusha of the Hittite Empire and was included in the World Heritage List (WHL) in 1986, has not yet achieved CR status. However, the fact that this road is not yet an attractive destination for popular consumer tourism is an advantage for sustainable cultural tourism heritage and tourism management. The purpose of this study is to determine the principles that will guide the Hittite Road management process in line with CR registration criteria and sustainable tourism principles. Thus, the outstanding universal values of the ancient Hittite Road that is required for this destination to be included in the WHL and to be opened to cultural tourism will be defined with a “value-driven field definition approach”.

Sustainable Tourism and Heritage Management To manage the ancient Hittite road in an attempt to open it to tourism and preserve its heritage value, first, the concepts and contents that were renewed in the 2000s are examined below.

Cooperation Between Sustainable Cultural Tourism and Cultural Heritage Conservation Sustainable conservation includes comprehensive and attended, rational and integrated protection along with a strategic spatial planning approach to realize the transfer of cultural and natural values without destruction and consumption together with the development targets. This approach aims for the sustainability of tangible and intangible cultural heritage values (Gültekin 2010). This expectation was first highlighted in the Report of the World Summit on Sustainable Development of the United Nations (UN) dated 2012 in Johannesburg, South Africa, with reference to the interconnected environmental, social and economic support for sustainable development (UN 2002). In 2007, the WHC initiated the World Heritage and Sustainable Tourism Programme and initiative to develop joint policies, strategies and tools with innovative approaches and collaborative efforts to promote sustainable development. The creation of thematic routes has been proposed to promote sustainable tourism development that is focused on heritage values (WHC 2007). The WHC’s May 2012 decision on the protection and presentation of WH with the World Heritage Tourism Programme presents a new paradigm that focuses on the usage and difficulties of potential opportunities in the name of tourism (UNESCO 2012). The special objectives of the UN Conference on Sustainable Development (dated 2012) in Rio de

Management of Sustainable Tourism and Cultural Heritage …

257

Janeiro, Brazil, for the global vision of sustainable development and the Declaration of Transforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development of the UN (dated 2015) were the sustainability of the cultural and natural heritage of the world (UN 2015). The policy adopted to integrate a sustainable development perspective into the World Heritage Convention in the 20th General Assembly in November 2015 aimed to increase the contribution of WH potential to sustainable development (WHC 2015). The WHC has identified sustainable tourism as the most effective implementation tool of this common policy. Sustainable tourism is tourism activity that considers the current and future economic, social and environmental influences of tourism as well as the needs of host communities and visitors as a whole. Cultural tourism consists of tours to increase visitors’ familiarity with natural and historical cultural assets and different cultures to allow them to gain knowledge and experience and to increase cultural levels and participation in cultural events (Do˘ganer 2013: 2–6; Pekin 2011: 22–30). The use of cultural destinations in the tourism sector by innovative industries to increase competitiveness makes the sustainability and management of cultural values important. The Charter for Sustainable Tourism, created in 1995 at the World Conference on Sustainable Tourism in Spain, was developed for different types of tourism. Currently, cultural tourism in heritage areas is planned according to the International Cultural Tourism Charter: Managing Tourism at Places of Heritage Significance, adopted by the International Council on Monuments and Site (ICOMOS) 12th General Assembly in 1999 in Mexico. The aim of this charter is to respect and develop the heritage and cultural values of host communities and to promote the management of the tourism industry together with conservation (ICOMOS 1999).

Heritage Management and Value-Driven Field Definition Since the 1980s, the strengthening of local government and the increase in the effectiveness of cultural heritage in sustainable development have provided a sustainable, integrated and rational approach to the conservation of natural and cultural value (Thomas and Middleton, 2003: 18–22). With this vision, heritage management was presented for the first time in the Guidelines for the Management of World Heritage Sites published by the International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration (ICCROM), prepared in 1993 and revised in 1998 (Feilden and Jokilehto 1993: 2–6). Following this guidance, the International Charter for the Conservation of Places of Cultural Significance (Burra Charter) of The Australia ICOMOS 1999, has provided a pioneering and encouraging approach. Cultural heritage management (CHM) is a comprehensive system related to the conservation, usage and activities of cultural resources. The aim of this system is to ensure the sustainability of heritage value in ways that will increase social, economic and environmental benefits. In the management process, the protection-use balance, development, cooperation and control should be provided with the participation of all

258

N. T. Gültekin and T. N. N. Özbek Çetin

stakeholders (Gültekin 2010). The components of this system are complex, multidimensional and intertwined according to the country’s conservation policies and heritage values. The first stage of the process is to describe all the components and attributes of the heritage site with a “value-driven field definition” as described in the Burra Charter. The other stages involve developing conservation policies in line with heritage values and managing the process with a management plan that is created with these policies. Since the first stage affects the other stages, it is the determinant of heritage management policies and strategies (UNESCO 2017). The physical field limit, which is the primary parameter in the field definition, must also include the buffer zone or domain. This limit is narrowed or broadened according to different and complex factors, such as the level of control of the physical field and the knowledge, accumulation and cognitive properties of tangible and nontangible cultural heritage values (UNESCO-WHC 2013; Gültekin and Uysal 2018). The implementation tool of the CHM is the Strategic Heritage Management Plan. This plan should be structured with vision, targets and applicable methods determined by stakeholders for protection and restoration, visitor tourism, education awareness, and recognition awareness and promotion. It should also include action plans that can be re-evaluated according to changes in the scene or periodic audits. CHM is implemented in accordance with the management systems of countries in the framework determined by UNESCO in 2002. This system, adopted in conservation legislation in 2004 as “area management”, is being applied in Turkey. However, the concepts that are components of heritage management, such as area management, management area, interaction sites and buffer zones, must be redefined with internationally renewed content.

Cultural Routes as Cultural Heritage In the 1960s, the concept of CR began to be discussed by Continuous Europe, a group of experts from the Council of Europe (COE), to promote European cultural awareness through cultural visits. Based on the Cultural Routes of the Council of Europe Programme in 1984, the “Pilgrim’s Route to Santiago de Composa tela” in Spain was announced as the first CR of WH in 1993. Routes as Part of Our Cultural Heritage, which was published at the end of the WHC meeting in Madrid in 1994, was the first international document about CH. The main characteristics of these routes for the WHL nomination include spatial, cultural, time and purpose characteristics (UNESCO 1994). In the 1990s, with the implementation of the European Institute of Cultural Routes (EICR), the International Scientific Committee on Cultural Routes (CIIC), the ICOMOS-International Cultural Tourism Committee (ICTC) and the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 2030, acceleration occurred in cultural tourism. These organizations develop and support local, national and international policy recommendations for the sustainability of CR. At the same time, UNESCO initiated regional projects, such as the slaves’ route and the silk route. Information

Management of Sustainable Tourism and Cultural Heritage …

259

and experiences related to CR management and awareness (e.g., 2012-Cultural Tourism for Community Development: 40 Years of the World Heritage Convention, Vigan-Philippines, 2014—Creative Cities as World Heritage Tourist Destinations, Florence-Italy, 2016—Who benefits? Who cares? From the Fairy Chimneys to Fairy Tales and Consuming Passions, and Cappadocia-Turkey) were shared in congresses, conferences, seminars, workshops and meetings and global networks held in the 2000s. Since 1975, when the World Heritage Convention entered into force, the concept of cultural heritage has been expanded and diversified to include the cultural significance of natural features. This diversity is classified into three categories (Typological Framework based on categories, Chronological-Regional Framework and Thematic Framework) that ICOMOS identified for the typological analysis of WH at the WHC’s 27th meeting held in 2003. CH was included in the category of pilgrim age routes, trading routes, roads, canals, railways, and the like. After this development, the awareness of this heritage increased with the adoption of CH among the specific cultural heritage types that were assessed by the 2005 Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention and WH candidates (UNESCO 2005). In 2008, under the leadership of ICOMOS-ICTC, the first reference source on the ICOMOS-Charter on Cultural Routes was published. According to this regulation, the innovative heritage type of CH reveals the heritage of human mobility and change, which has been developed in ways that have their own unique functions and dynamics. These are routes that survive in countries, regions, or continents where multidimensional ideas, knowledge and values are constantly and reciprocally exchanged. A route with these characteristics is a system that does not conflict with cultural assets (e.g., monuments, cities, industrial heritage) and that increases the importance of all these assets. Thus, the entire route is an indication of the interaction between countries, regions or cultures and an expression of a set of values that provides greater meaning than the sum of its parts. CR is dynamic, complex, versatile and multi-purpose (e.g., sports, entertainment, discovery) dynamic schemes that promote the cultural values of destinations, not only the roads to guide visitors. Historical and symbolic features, functions, and forms and the social, economic and cultural values of CH differ according to their geographical location. These differences have been grouped due to their regional scopes, purposes, historical value, structural shape (linear, circular, radial) and natural environment (ICOMOS 2008). CR in WHL are transport destinations (rail; Semmering Railway in Austria, channel; Du Canal du Midi in France), historical routes (pilgrimage route; the Camino de Santiago-Spain), cultural and natural routes (Olive Tree Routes-Turkey), and linear monument structures (Chinese Great Wall). According to current developments in CR, The Colmar Declaration, which was published in 2012 under the leadership of UNESCO and COE, can be used in a way that will increase the potential for training and participation with creative and innovative tools. In the same year, the “Crossroads of Europe” initiative was created to promote the different CR of Europe to stakeholders and to increase awareness and co-operation. Additionally, with the COE’s Cultural Itinerary, many CR (such as Megalithic Culture’s European Route and the Huguenot and Waldensian Route-2013,

260

N. T. Gültekin and T. N. N. Özbek Çetin

Roman Emperors and Danube Wine Route-2015, and Grande Region’s Villages2016) are being certified, and meetings of the European Silk Road Project were conducted in 2018.

The Heritage Management on Hittite Ancient Road as Cultural Route The focus of the route known as the Hittite Road, which dates to the Hittite Empire in the curve of the Kızılırmak River, in the tourism sector has been the Hattusha, the capital of the Hittites between the 17th and 13th centuries BC. This route also includes traces and remains of areas settled from the end of the Early Bronze Age (3000 BC). In the limited frame of this article, the cultural heritage value of this route will be introduced.

Immovable Cultural Heritage of the Hittite Route Within and Around Hattusha and Kızılırmak Arch The arrival date and direction of the Hittites, who were not native people of Anatolia, on their way to Anatolia, are not known. The empire (1650-1180 BC) founded by Hittites who existed in Anatolia as Assyrian Trade Colonies (1950–1750 BC) is recalled in cities within the Arch of Kızılırmak until the period of the Late Hittite States (1200–750/700 BC). In the Big Empire Period (1350–1180 BC), there are intervals of 20–35 km between the dwelling units on the sides of plateau. The intervals between the walled centres located on natural road routes are one-day distances (Ökse 2000; Sevinç 2008). Though this geography has not changed much, as studies and excavations suitable to the methods of modern archaeology and prehistory have not been conducted, most of them still unrecognized. Many dwelling units were destroyed because of wars, famine, new migrations, and epidemics. The fact that the names of the places were changed by the tribes ruled there and the challenges of researching in mountainous and forested areas make it difficult to identify these dwelling units. According to written documents, although there are more than 2000 place names in Anatolia from the 2nd millennium BC, the locations of most of these are unknown. Today, there are approximately 116 Hittite settlements in this large region, extending from north of the modern Polatlı, Kırıkkale, Yerköy, and Sarkı¸ ¸ sla line and spreading over the Black Sea’s coasts (Zalpa Country at the place where Kızılırmak pours into the sea), including the ancient capital city Hattusha. This number may be two or three times larger than this rough estimate because many settlements that were not important in terms of religion, administration and economics and did not participate in the war or rebel are not mentioned in Hittite inscriptions. Furthermore, many Hittite settlements have been destroyed or have not yet been discovered.

Management of Sustainable Tourism and Cultural Heritage …

261

The Ancient Capital City Hattusha as the Focus of the Ancient Hittite Road Hattusha is located in the Northern Central Anatolian Mountain Region in Çorum city, in the province of Bo˘gazkale at the southern tip of the Budaközü Plain, 300 m above the plain. The city and monumental structures (temples, royal residences, fortifications), remains of the city gates and rock art examples have survived to the present day. Hattusha was included in the WHL in 1985, and the Hattusha cuneiform tablet archive was included in the Memory of the World List in 2001. According to national conservation legislation, Hattusha is a 1st degree archaeological site and is located in the Alacahöyük Historical National Park Area. The area surrounding this area to the east and north-east and including Yazılıkaya is a 2nd degree archaeological site. The area that surrounds this area from the southwest to the southeast and covers Kayalı Bo˘gaz is registered as a 3rd degree archaeological site. To the north of the city lies the Rock Sanctuary of Yazılıkaya, south of ˙Ibikçam Forest. It has more than 8 km long monumental enclosure walls and five city gates. The city is composed of different regions (described below) dated to different periods. Big Castle (Büyükkale) was the first acropolis and Hatti settlement and belonged to the inhabitants before the Hittites, dated to 2000–1700 BC. It is located on the north hillside of the city and is the area where the ramparts descending from the hillside to the valley were built during the period of the Old Hittite (1650–1600 BC) and Middle Hittite (1600–1400 BC) Empire. During the Great Imperial Period (1350– 1180 BC), a large building complex was built linking the large palace, reception hall, courtyards and 11 underground silos with colonnaded galleries. With the demolition of the Empire (1180 BC), the city and this area were abandoned. The lower city was the building area in the Assyrian Trade Colonies Period to the south of the Karakayası creek (19th–18th centuries BC). This region consists of different archaeological units. • The Great Temple: 14th–13th centuries BC, this is the largest structure of the city (floor area: 14,500 m2 ), with cult chambers and 200 warehouses on the artificial hill as high as 8 metres. Lion Stone Boat and Green Stone at the entrance to the temple, a large warehouse, cult chambers, workshops and the fountain structure are located to the south of the road. There is a wastewater network under the road between the warehouses and the south gate. • Slope House: The slope extending from the Great Temple to the palace in Büyükkale (16th century BC) is an official structure consisting of large halls and warehouses. • Kesikkaya: The remaining building and stone pit on the road extending from the south of the Great Temple to the Upper City. • There is a rampart (8th century BC) extending from the back of Kesikkaya to the Palace in the valley and 8 posterns. • The grain depot consists of 32 rooms in total, sixteen of which are linked and 118 × 20–40 metre-sized, belonging to the Old Hittite Period. This depot, which

262

N. T. Gültekin and T. N. N. Özbek Çetin

had the capacity to meet the annual needs of 20,000 to 30,000 people, shows the power of the state. It is the largest archaeo-botanical discovery of the Near East. • The inner wall constitutes the northwest border of the Great Temple and the settlement 200 m of the east of the posterned outside wall. The wall that is dated to the Great Imperial period has been reconstructed. • The neighbourhood was formed from congested, yard-type houses divided by channelled streets. The upper city consists of five archaeological units on a sloping area that is more than 1 km2 to the south of the Kızlarkayası creek. • The temple neighbourhood is the area where 24 temples were protected by walls in the south during the Great Imperial period. • On the outer wall, the King, the Lion, the Lower West and the Upper West Gates, the gate room and the towers on both sides, and the inside and outside doorway between them and the Hittite Doors are the plan type. • The ground door (Yer kapı) is a different type that requires entrance through a postern on the artificial hill. The Sphinx Gate is the most famous monumental structure. • Yenicekale and Sarıkale were created by processing natural rocks during the Great Empire period. The Southern Fortress (7th–6th centuries BC) is the Phrygian Fortress. • On the walls of Ni¸santepe, a rock mass was discovered with a Luwian hieroglyphic structure on its walls. • To provide water to the city, the East pools consist of two pools, and the Southern pools consist of five pools. • Two rooms were built that have royal reliefs and inscriptions on their walls and that are a symbolic entrance to the underworld. • The North, South and Western Buildings and Palace Archives that belonged to the royalty are official buildings. There were 3300 bullas and 30 cuneiform written tablets in two basements of the archive building. The Yazılıkaya Open Air Temple, hidden between the rocks, is the largest and most impressive sanctuary of the city. More than 90 gods, goddesses, animals and imaginary creatures appear on the rock surface in the temple, creating the cortege of the empire’s god of the storm and the goddess of the sun. This temple was the “festival house” in New Year ceremonies and “the house of the god of the storm” in spring ceremonies. In these ceremonies, the god sculptures of all the temples were moved to this temple with special rituals.

The Intangible Cultural Heritage of the Hittite Road Cultural routes should have an immovable culture heritage belonging to the routes used in the past. They had different functions and intangible cultural value. Such

Management of Sustainable Tourism and Cultural Heritage …

263

cultural heritage values are sustained within the arch of Kızılırmak. Although its meaning to the Hittite world is not known for sure, it is known that the granite (green) was used in rain prayer rituals in Hattusha and in the backyard of the Çorum-SorgunA¸sa˘gı Karakaya Village Mosque and thus conveyed to the present. The theatrical plays related in a scripture in Ma¸sathöyük and its vicinity are still presented. The bread (loaf, filo pastry bread, and hardtack) consumed and presented to the gods in the Hittite world is still produced and consumed in the same way today. Similarly, the name and the cooking and eating methods of the food called “araba¸s” today dates back to Hittites. The natural beauty of this geography is also among the items that enrich the Hittite Road. Consequently, it is understood from these values that the Hittite Road carries the characteristics of CR.

Management of Tourism and Heritage on the Culture Route The fact that the Hittite cities, which date back to the Big Empire period in the arch of Kızılırmak, are on the caravan and army road allowed by the natural structure shows that this route was truly used. Archaeological data belonging to Hittite cities and sacred places within this geography are tangible data of cultural heritage. In addition, examples (such as Çorum-Kargı District’s Hacıhamza Town) applying the dwelling style and house planning typology of the Hittite Period to today (traditional and vernacular architecture) are available (Ufuk and Eyüpgiller 2008; Neve 1996). On this road, the examples of monumental sculptures and scriptures starting with Hittites in Anatolia are extant immovable cultural heritage value. The intangible cultural heritage values maintained in the settlements on the Hittite road also support the CR status of this road. The first stage of the registration-recognition and sustainable management of the Hittite Road as a CR is to provide a value-driven field definition. In this definition, all compounds belonging to the route area and the attributes of cultural heritage should be defined with interdisciplinary (e.g., history, art history, archaeology, sociocultural anthropology, epistemology, ethnology, architecture) studies of humans and locations. Although the border of a physical location is the first parameter, the value of the intangible cultural heritage must be evaluated in the context of the spirit of the place (e.g., social, economic, traditional vital connections). The route border, designated as such, should include the buffer zone to ensure its sustainability with the interaction area of the route from the past to the present. This border is part of the area border that should be sustained, including both the borders of the heritage management area and the cultural tourism area. The information in Chap. 3 is presented only to highlight the importance of the route and for promotional purposes; it is not the route border and is inadequate for its management. The next stage of management is to develop protection policies in accordance with heritage values. Sustainable cultural tourism is planned through modern protection approaches to the sustainability of CR. However, as the sustainability of cultural

264

N. T. Gültekin and T. N. N. Özbek Çetin

values and the effective participation of the local community in the process are prioritized, protection policies are changeable with regard to these priorities according to the attributes of CR. Therefore, only the basic principles of protection policies can be mentioned briefly in this study: • Mutually interdependent tourism/travel and development/natural and cultural protection should support each other and be integrated, • Attention to the principle of equality between generations, • To improve the living standards of the local community and to know, support and develop its identity, culture, and interests, • To ensure the social and cultural integration of the societies, • To provide a high-quality experience to visitors. The process should be managed according to the short-medium-long-term management plan of process management with a management plan that is established based on these policies. The flexibility and alternatives of the plan should be estimated beforehand according to audits or possible changes. Effective participation and the participation of shareholders in the favours to be gained by the local community at every stage of the process should be ensured.

Conclusion As an attraction-appeal destination of cultural tourism in a geographical area in which it exists as a type of a new and innovative cultural heritage (i.e., a kind of cultural background-consumption and experience), CR allows different cultures to be understood by increasing the economic effects and drawing large amounts of people. CR contributes cultural and economic wealth to the geography in which it occurs via tourism according to its attributes and contact with the value-driven field definition. Although Turkey is a party to several agreements on the sustainability of natural and cultural heritage, because its CR cannot be registered according to the national protection legislation, the recognition of these values cannot be ensured. Therefore, this article aims to highlight the CR characteristics of the Hittite Road, to determine the heritage value of this road according to the current conservation approaches and to immediately establish heritage management. There is an urgent need to prepare a management plan for this route that considers the historical process, especially including the ancient city of Hattusha, the capital city of the Hittite Empire and the first known capital city of the world, which connected ancient settlements within the Arch of Kızılırmak in the Hittite Empire and settlements containing examples of traditional architecture. • The first stage of heritage management is the determination of the management area, namely, the Hittite route. This is the first stage of the management plan. At this stage, it is necessary to define, according to “the approach of valuedriven field definition”, the social characteristics that take cultural identity and

Management of Sustainable Tourism and Cultural Heritage …

• • •

•

• •

265

cultural diversity into account and local knowledge that includes traditional values and historical-cultural characteristics, tangible and/or immovable and intangible cultural heritage values, and environmental-physical characteristics and economic potential. According to these identification data, the boundaries of the Hittite route, its buffer zones and interaction areas, and tangible and intangible cultural values and cultural layers should be determined. The vision, targets, strategies and principles of spatial, social, and cultural economic planning should also be established for the determined management area. In the next stage, policies for the sustainability of this route, such as the protectionuse balance, carrying capacity, accessibility, and cultural tourism potential, should be developed for the management plan. These policies, especially the conditions and principles of cultural tourism and conservation, should be determined through good cooperation with and the participation of the local community. Through this management plan, applicable methods for conservation restoration, visitor tourism, education awareness, and recognition awareness promotion can be developed. Tourism can be diversified through tourism management to allow for long-term cultural tourism that is supported by various activities through heritage management. On the Hittite Road, there is the potential and opportunity to diversify and support tourism. The natural structure of this route is suitable for various outdoor sports (e.g., tracking, paragliding, grass skiing). Gastronomic tourism can be improved with traditional dishes. With the support of the central government and active participation of the local government, the management process, namely, tourism in this CR, can be controlled and supported by the management process. A feedback mechanism should be used in this and any other developmental progress.

Based on this content and the combined application of heritage and tourism management, it is hoped that the Hittite Road will be included in the WHL as CR, that it can be opened to cultural tourism, and that its recognition will become widespread.

References Do˘ganer, S. (2013). Türkiye Kültür Turizmi (Culture and Tourism of Turkey). ˙Istanbul: Do˘gu Kitabevi. Feilden, B. M., & Jokilehto, J. (1993). Management Guidelines for World Cultural Heritage Sites (1st ed.). Rome: ICCROM. Gültekin, N. (2010). Kültürel Miras Alanlarının Yönetimi (The Management of Cultural Heritage Sites) (pp. 258–269). Yasal ve Yönetsel Boyutlarıyla Planlama (Planning with Legal Managerial Dimensions), Ankara: GÜ. Mimarlık Fakültesi Sehir ¸ ve Bölge Planlama Bölümü. Gültekin, N. T., & Uysal, M. (2018). Area definition in the sustainability of cultural heritage: Ta¸skale rock carving granaries example. Humanities Science, 13(3), 36–56.

266

N. T. Gültekin and T. N. N. Özbek Çetin

ICOMOS, Burra Charter (1999). https://australia.icomos.org/wpcontent/uploads/BURRA_CHA RTER.pdf. Accessed 10 April 2018. ICOMOS (1999). International Cultural Tourism Charter. https://www.icomos.org/en/newsle tters-archives/179-articles-en-francais/ressources/charters-and-standards/162-international-cul tural-tourism-charter. Accessed 10 May 2018. ICOMOS (2008). The ICOMOS Charter On Cultural Routes. https://www.icomos.org/images/DOC UMENTS/Charters/culturalroutes_e.pdf. Accessed 10 May 2018. Neve, P. (1996). Hitit Krallı˘gı’nın Ba¸skenti Hattu¸sa’da Konut (Housing in Hattu¸sa, the Capital of the Hittite Kingdom). Tarihten Günümüze Anadolu’da Konut ve Yerle¸sme (Housing and Settlement in Anatolia: A Historical Perspective), 99–115. Ökse, A. T. (2000). Neue hethitische Siedlungen zwischen Ma¸sat Höyük und Ku¸saklı. Istanbuler Mitteilungen, 50, 85–109. Pekin, F. (2011). Çözüm: Kültür Turizmi (Solution: Cultural tourism). ˙Istanbul: ˙Ileti¸sim Yayınları. Sevinç, F. (2008). Hititlerin Anadolu’da kurdukları ekonomik ve sosyal sistem (The Economic and social system of the Hittites established in Anatolia). Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi FenEdebiyat Fakültesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi (Journal of Social Sciences of Süleyman Demirel University, Science-Literature Faculty) (17), 11–32. Thomas, L. & Middleton, J. (2003). Guidelines for Management Planning of Protected Areas. Best Practice Protected Area Guidelines (Vol. 10). http://data.iucn.org.dbtw-wpd/edocs/PAG -010. Accessed 02 May 2018. Ufuk, ˙I. E., & Eyüpgiller, K. K. (2008). Hacıhamza’da geleneksel konut mimarisi ve korunması (The Traditional housing architecture and conservation in Hacıhamza). Gazi University, Journal Of Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, 23(2), 10–96. UN (2015). Transforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. https://sustai nabledevelopment.un.org/post2015/transformingourworld. Accessed 02 May 2018. UN (2002). Report of the World Summit on Sustainable Development. http://www.un-documents. net/aconf199–20.pdf. Accessed 02 May 2018. UNESCO (2017). Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention, The World Heritage Committee. https://whc.unesco.org/en/guidelines/. Accessed 10 April 2018. UNESCO (2012). 5E: World Heritage Tourism Programme. https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2012/ whc12-36com-5E-en.pdf. Accessed 02 May 2018. UNESCO (2005). WHC. 05/2. https://whc.unesco.org/archive/opguide05-en.pdf. Accessed 02 May 2018. UNESCO (1994). World Heritage Committee: WHC-94/CONF-003/INF.13. https://whc.unesco. org/archive/1994/whc-94-conf003-inf13e.pdf. Accessed 10 May 2018. UNESCO, WHC (2013). Management Cultural World Heritage. Paris: UNESCO, ICCROM, ICOMOS, IUCN. WHC (2015). World Heritage and Sustainable. https://whc.unesco.org/en/sustainabledevelopment/. Accessed 21 March 2018. WHC (2010). WHC-Policy Guidelines Sustainable Tourism. https://whc.unesco.org/document/ 137363. Accessed 02 May 2018. WHC (2007). Sustainable Tourism. https://whc.unesco.org/en/tourism/. Accessed 10 May 2018.

Cultural Route Management Through Collaborative Efforts Burcin Kalabay Hatipoglu, Yasemin Keskin, and Seyma Yetgil

Introduction Rising income and education levels together with the ease of travel have changed the travel patterns of many visitors and have resulted in an increasing interest in visiting destinations that are rich in cultural and heritage assets. Many destinations and intermediaries in tourism have started publicizing the historical, artistic, lifestyle and heritage qualities of a region to attract cultural tourists. The United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) predicts that cultural tourism accounts for 40% of all international tourist arrivals (UNWTO 2015). Despite the economic benefits of this trend, it raises many concerns for the destinations of these trips. For Europe, it means that of 1.6 billion tourists that are expected to arrive in 2020, almost half of them will visit sites that are historically and culturally important. Consequently, these numbers highlight the need for detailed planning and the effective management of highly fragile sites and structures. A cultural route, which is also sometimes called a track, trail or way, is a relatively new concept within the cultural tourism literature. Cultural routes, which bring together historically important sites, cities or regions around a common theme, increase tourist arrivals at a destination; provide economic viability; promote cultures, customs and traditions; protect heritage and develop the local community. The development and management of cultural routes can be a means for preserving and enhancing cultural heritage as well as for promoting sustainable tourism development. B. K. Hatipoglu (B) · Y. Keskin · S. Yetgil Tourism Administration Department, Bogazici University, Istanbul, Turkey e-mail: [email protected] Y. Keskin e-mail: [email protected] S. Yetgil e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 ˙I. O. Co¸skun et al. (eds.), Heritage Tourism Beyond Borders and Civilizations, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5370-7_19

267

268

B. K. Hatipoglu et al.

Fostering partnerships among private institutions, public agencies and civil societies is the foundation of developing tourism using the sustainability framework (Bramwell and Sharman 1999; Gray 1989; Spencer 2010). In particular, when bottom-up approaches are adopted, the management of cultural routes requires numerous stakeholders to perform in a collaborative manner (Jamhawi and Hajahjah 2017). In this regard, collaboration should bring all stakeholders together to create, manage, promote and sustain cultural routes efficiently and effectively. The founder’s (convener’s) role is important for the development, legitimization and guidance of the collaboration alliance (Wood and Gray 1991). We have utilized Wood and Gray’s (1991) theoretical framework on collaboration, and we report on the extent of collaboration among stakeholders during the management stages of a cultural route in Turkey. Cultural route development is particularly challenging in the context of Turkey, as the judicial system that sets standards and management principles for the routes is missing, unlike in other countries in Europe. In the literature review section, this chapter discusses the importance of collaboration for sustainable tourism development and presents the Europe to Turkey on Foot project (the extended route is now known as Via Eurasia) as a case study for cultural route development (CRS 2019). In the results section, the extent of collaboration during the development and implementation stages of the route is examined. Next, the convener’s role in the development stage in regards to involving the stakeholders is analysed. Finally, the gaps in the governance of cultural routes are identified to make suggestions for improvement. We explore numerous topics that are vital for developers of cultural routes, destination developers and policy makers. We highlight the policy and planning issues of legal statuses, certifications and governance systems. We compare and contrast the routes in Turkey to European cultural routes with supporting primary and secondary data. Using the Europe to Turkey on Foot project as a case study, we display the collaborative efforts of the conveners, emphasizing critical issues that arose during the planning and management stages. We make suggestions for future studies in relation to the governance of cultural routes.

Literature Review Cultural Routes The International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) considers a cultural route as a means for discovering other people’s physical environment and ways of living (ICOMOS 2008). Cultural routes are recognized to promote destinations by connecting them through tourism and supporting local economies (Pattanaro and Pistocchi 2016). In addition to tourism activity, heritage preservation and management are also critical components of cultural route development (UNWTO

Cultural Route Management Through Collaborative Efforts

269

2015). By including tangible and intangible cultural heritage elements, cultural route management creates a new knowledge system (ICOMOS 2008). In raising awareness of a common cultural heritage, such routes bring communities together and encourage them to collaborate in cultural activities. A well-functioning cultural route should have funding, legal status, marketing and promotional features, collaboration among stakeholders and awareness-raising activities, as defined by UNWTO (2015). Cultural routes are classified based on their design and structure, theme, territory, historic origin, current reconfiguration and visitor infrastructure (UNWTO 2015). The Cultural Routes programme of the Council of Europe started in 1987; the first certification was given to the Camino de Santiago de Compostela (Council of Europe 2019). The Enlarged Partial Agreement (EPA) on Cultural Routes, which is established in 2010, follows the policy guidelines of the Council of Europe, specifies the programme and awards the Council of Europe Cultural Route certification. The aim of the EPA is to provide political support for national, regional and local initiatives to promote culture and tourism (Council of Europe 2019). The European Institute of Cultural Routes (EICR) assists the Council of Europe, gives technical advice to candidate networks and implements projects for awareness.

Cultural Routes in Turkey Cultural routes as a means for tourism development in Turkey have a short history, as the Lycian Way was the first to be planned and was waymarked in 1999. The Culture Routes Society (CRS) was established in July 2012. The Society aims to (1) protect existing routes, (2) promote the establishment of new routes, and (3) set best practice standards for the development of routes (CRS 2017). At present, there are more than 20 routes in Turkey that are recorded by the CRS. To be listed as a CRS route, a route must follow the Society’s standards and have the local support necessary for the growth and management of the route. During the evaluation process, the CRS’s board committee also takes into consideration the involvement of local communities in the development process. The main CSR criteria include defining theme or themes, membership in the CRS, a minimum route length of 120 km, the publishing of guidebooks and maps, GPS points, an online presence and route management. The routes that do not meet all necessary criteria are considered “Other Routes”. The CRS gives support to the route makers in way-marking, maintenance and management, signposts, and mobile applications and also advises the founders on methods for involving local people (Clow and Eryurt 2016). Clow and Eryurt (2016) recommend developing cultural routes in several stages. The first stage involves undertaking research and determining a theme and an area. The second stage includes planning and marketing activities. Route makers need to identify target groups and ways to reach out to them, to inform local people about the needs of visitor groups and to ensure income for local villagers to sustain the cultural routes. The next stage involves the establishment of the route. Identifying possible

270

B. K. Hatipoglu et al.

financial resources is a major step in route establishment. Route makers should also consider way marks, signposts, accommodation services, maps and guidebooks and electronic media in this stage. The final step is to open the route to the public, which includes inviting various groups to use the route and educating accommodation providers (Clow and Eryurt 2016).

Evliya Celebi Way and the Europe to Turkey on Foot Project The Evliya Celebi Way opened in 2011 on the quatercentenary of Evliya’s birth. The way follows the early stages of Celebi’s journey to Mecca in 1671. As the route passes through Turkey, it goes through cities of great historical importance in this region where the Ottoman Empire was born. The Civil Society Dialogue Program, which is financed by the European Union and the Turkish Republic, provided a grant to the project “Europe to Turkey on Foot” from February 2016–February 2017. The project was the result of collaboration between the CRS, the European Association of Via Francigena (EAVF) and three municipalities: Inegol Municipality (City of Bursa), Egirdir Municipality (City of Isparta) and Demre Municipality (City of Antalya). The purpose of the project was to extend the Via Francigena route into Turkey through the Balkans (Fig. 1). The specific aims of the project were to integrate the Turkish and European approaches in the management, communication and marketing of cross-border cultural routes as well as to initiate the extension of the Via Francigena to the east by combining it

Fig. 1 Europe to Turkey on Foot project map. Source Culture Routes Society (2017)

Cultural Route Management Through Collaborative Efforts

271

with 3 existing Turkish routes (the Evliya Celebi, the St. Paul and the Lycian Ways) (Via Francigena European Association 2017).

Stakeholder Collaboration in the Development of Tourism Projects A cultural route can lie in multiple regions, extend hundreds of kilometres and affect the roads and territories it passes through. In this context, collaboration becomes important, as no single organization can achieve results while acting unilaterally (Wood and Gray 1991). Therefore, it is best to share the functions of protecting and promoting the route between different authorities (Clow and Eryurt 2016). This form of governance, in which there are public-private partnerships and self-governance, is identified as a non-hierarchical network by Hall (2011) in a work in which he describes four modes of governance in tourism. In a non-hierarchical network, there is mutual dependence between members, negotiation is part of the processes and sharing tasks is not easy because it adds to the costs of planning and development. However, when private institutions, public agencies and civil society organizations collaborate, they can also come up with cost–effective solutions by pooling resources, take advantage of each other’s knowledge and gain access to valuable local knowledge (Bramwell and Sharman 1999). In tourism development, collaboration can take place when a group of stakeholders attends an interactive process; uses shared rules, norms and structures; and acts or decides on topics (Gray 1989). Aas et al. (2005) have examined heritage management and tourism development through stakeholder collaboration in the context of Laos. The authors stress the importance of establishing channels for communication with the stakeholders, making sure tourism creates income for the preservation of heritage assets as well as for the community and involving the local community in decision making and activities in order to extend the stakeholder collaboration. Jamhawi and Hajahjah (2017), in their study in Jordan, noted that systematically involving different stakeholders can significantly improve the management of cultural tourism. Consequently, conveners of partnerships have an important role in identifying and bringing all the legitimate stakeholders together (Gray 1989). There can be alternative forms of collaboration, and based on the influence and type of interaction of the convener, four modes of behaviour are identified: legitimization, facilitation, mandate and persuasion (Wood and Gray 1991).

Methodology We conducted the study in Inegol, Bursa, and we explored stakeholder collaborations during the planning and development stages of the Europe to Turkey on Foot

272

B. K. Hatipoglu et al.

project. The study in Bursa was conducted between the months of November 2016 and June 2017. In addition, follow–up phone calls with Inegol Municipality were made during 2018. In the first stage of the study, the site selection process was carried out by consulting with experts, government agencies and representatives of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). The second stage of the study included a site visit to Inegol, Bursa in the month of April 2017, follow–up calls to Egirdir, Isparta and Demre, Antalya and a visit to Antalya. In the last stage of the research, the data were transcribed, coded, and analysed, and the results were evaluated.

Data Collection and Sampling During the first stage of the research, several unstructured interviews were conducted to determine a site for the study (Table 1). During these meetings, which lasted between 30 and 90 min, the history and current state of cultural routes in Turkey, the Table 1 Consultations with the experts Respondent Code

Position

Interviewee’s institution

Type of interview

E01

Academician

Kırklareli university

Telephone

E02

Officer

Thrace development agency

Telephone

E03

Head of the department of zoning and urban development

Tekirdag municipality

Telephone

E04

Head of cultural and social Tekirdag municipality affairs

Telephone

E05

Urban planner

The Foundation for the Promotion and Protection of the Environment and Cultural Heritage (ÇEKÜL)

Face-to-Face

E06

Academician

Bilgi university

Face-to-Face

E07

Project and marketing coordinator

Cultural routes association Telephone

E08

Founder of the cultural routes association

Cultural routes association Telephone

E09

Board member of the cultural routes association and the founder of evliya Celebi route

Cultural routes association Face-to-Face

E10

Monitoring officer

Ministry of the European Union

Telephone

Cultural Route Management Through Collaborative Efforts

273

cultural route development in Europe, the barriers and support for further development and the topics that should be further investigated were discussed. The in-depth interview with the founder of the Evliya Celebi Way informed us about the joint project and the suitability of studying the Inegol section of the project in terms of stakeholder collaborations. Following this decision, contact was made with the EU Ministry’s office in Ankara, which is the funding institution of the project. After completing the secondary and primary data collection processes (e.g., Inegol Municipality 2017), contact was made with Inegol Municipality, which was followed by a site visit to the town. In the second part of the data collection, interviews were conducted with stakeholders who are involved in the Europe to Turkey on Foot Project (Table 2). We gave importance to reaching stakeholders who would provide rich and meaningful information on the phenomenon. We employed purposive sampling and identified Table 2 Interviews with stakeholders of the Europe to Turkey on Foot project Respondent code

Position

Interviewee’s institution

Type of interview

S01

Manager

Inegol city museum

Face-to-Face

S02

Manager

Culture and social affairs Face-to-Face in Inegol municipality

S03

Manager

Nature sports and tourism Face-to-Face centre in Inegol municipality

S04

Employee

Nature sports and tourism Face-to-Face centre in Inegol municipality

S05

Employee

Nature sports and tourism Face-to-Face centre in Inegol municipality

S06

Supervisor

Outdoor sports and mountaineering club in Inegol municipality

Face-to-Face

S07

Manager

IDOSK in Inegol (NGO)

Face-to-Face

S08

Board member

Do˘gader in Inegol (NGO) Face-to-Face

S09

President

Cyclists club and photography club in Inegol (NGO)

S10

Agent

Slayt tourism

Face-to-Face

S11

Manager

Demre municipality

Telephone

S12

Representative of local community

Demre municipality

Telephone

S13

Agent of the press and public relations

Egirdir municipality

Telephone

S14

Representative of local community

Egirdir municipality

Telephone

Face-to-Face

274

B. K. Hatipoglu et al.

stakeholder groups relevant to the study. The number of interview questions varied based on the responding group’s expertise. The questions were aimed at revealing the extent of the stakeholders’ involvement in the development of the project and the development of the route (the interview outline is presented in Appendix A).

Framework of the Study The framework by Wood and Gray (1991) has been previously used in Turkey to explore the collaboration processes in a food–based event in Foça, Izmir (Hatipoglu et al. 2016). The extent of collaboration is explored in three dimensions: level of involvement, stage of involvement and shared resources. The variables of the framework, which include stakeholders, autonomy, interactive process, shared rules, norms and structures, actions and decisions, domain orientation and outcomes, were instrumental in operationalizing the research question, designing the semi-structured interviews and analysing the data.

Data Analysis We taped and photographed the interviews and took detailed notes during the site visit. Two researchers transcribed the interviews verbatim, while the third researcher corrected the transcriptions. We utilized the qualitative software Nvivo to manage and analyse the data. Coding was conducted by two of the researchers and controlled by the third researcher. The emerging themes were grouped around three distinct stages of project management: (1) development, (2) implementation and (3) governance of the project.

Limitations of the Study There are certain limitations to the study. First, cultural routes are a new form of tourism development within the industry, and the cultural route literature has only very recently begun developing within the themes of tourism development, culture tourism and heritage management. A Google Scholar search of the theme “cultural routes” yielded 4,090 articles (January 2019), half of which were published in the last five years. Second, the Lycian Way is the most studied route in Turkey, which limits the secondary sources on other routes. Third, the researchers conducted the research during a time period in which the Europe to Turkey on Foot Project was just being completed and the long–term impact has not yet been fully recorded.

Cultural Route Management Through Collaborative Efforts

275

Results Stakeholder Collaboration In the analysis of the results, seven variables of the framework are utilized. The stakeholders of the problem domain concern the two founding NGOs, the CRS and EAVF. The other key stakeholders are the Ministry of the European Union, the Ministry of Culture and Tourism and the Egirdir, Demre and Inegol Municipalities. The main autonomy regarding the project belongs to the CRS. The municipalities use their autonomy in designing activities in their towns under the leadership of the CRS. Stakeholders undertook certain roles in the implementation stage; however, the interactive process was limited in its use. The CRS was the main intermediary providing interaction between stakeholders—for example, during the interim and final meetings that all stakeholders and many local people attended and during site visits to Italy. During the meetings with other parties, the founders aimed for common goals (shared rules, norms and actions): promote the regions, increase the use of cultural routes, and boost cultural tourism. The findings of the research confirm that the promotion of cultural tourism was a common goal among the key stakeholders. The CRS also aimed to implement the home-stay model in villages to promote the sharing of cultural values and local traditions. The stakeholders were divided into two groups according to their contributions in the implementation stage. The CRS and EAVF belong to the decision group, as they were the founders and decision makers of the project. The municipalities and the EU Ministry in Turkey were responsible for the actions, such as attending the site visits and meetings, visiting villages to inform locals, repairing the routes and facilities, correcting GPS points, preparing written and visual media ads, and publishing maps. In the context of domain orientation, each municipality internalized the project by taking certain actions, such as opening a tourism office and creating a tourism platform in Inegol, organizing an interim meeting in Egirdir, organizing the final meeting in Demre and planning the home-stay model in the Kapaklı district of Demre. The outcomes can be grouped into two categories: direct and specific outcomes. Direct outcomes included Italy site visits with the participation of the stakeholders, the publication of the booklets and the creation of signage along the routes. Specific outcomes can be observed for each municipality. The foundation of a Nature Sports and Tourism Centre and the opening of tourism office in Inegol, the conveyance of information through documentaries, the correction of GPS points and the maintenance of facilities in Egirdir, the restoration of schools into camp centres, the planning of a home-stay in the Kapaklı district and trainings towards the model, the participation of locals to create a brand, the creation of written and visual media ads, the publication of maps, and the organization of the final meeting are the specific outcomes of the project.

276

B. K. Hatipoglu et al.

Role of the Convener Wood and Gray (1991), in their collaboration model, define the role of a convener and state that the convener has a crucial role in ensuring the inclusion of key stakeholders in the processes. The informal authority of the convener can originate from the position and influence in an informal network (Wood and Gray 1991, p. 152). In this particular project, the convener used the “persuasion” type of stakeholder involvement. As a convener, the CRS had a lack of formal authority but had the intent to form collaboration based on its own credibility, influence, and knowledge of the issues and networks and to use its own charisma to persuade the other key stakeholders to participate in the project. Thus, this research finds that in the absence of central government agencies’ involvement through enacting legislation and defining standards for cultural routes, the stakeholders organized themselves under the leadership of the CRS and formed a “non-hierarchical network” to develop the cultural routes, thus becoming involved in the development and governance of tourism.

Gaps in the Governance of Cultural Routes Governance of heritage sites and protected areas has become increasingly important, which has been recognized in multiple international agreements. Governance in tourism aims to “effectively direct the tourism sectors at the different levels of government through forms of coordination, collaboration and/or cooperation that are efficient, transparent and subject to accountability.” (Fuentes 2013, p. 14). As such, the government willingly uses its powers and resources to direct the processes and achieve the common goals of tourism stakeholders. In their policy brief to the Institute on Governance in Canada, Graham et al. (2003) recommend using five criteria to address the governance of protected areas. The criteria, which are based on the United Nations Development Program’s (UNDP) Good Governance Principles, are legitimacy and voice, direction, performance, accountability and fairness. The criteria define how well power is exercised in practice. Legitimacy and voice suggests that all stakeholders should have a voice in decision making. The voice can be direct or through legitimate intermediate institutions. During the planning and implementation of the Europe to Turkey on Foot project, decision making belonged to the two founders. Decision making was centralized, and local residents, NGOs and civil society groups in were not part of the decision-making process. Participant S08 stated the following: I wasn’t aware of the project; they did not invite me to the project meeting. We have a large group of volunteers in this town. If they had informed me, I would have made suggestions for the improvement of the route.

Direction suggests that leaders and the public should possess a broad and longterm perspective on good governance. In Turkey, a supportive judicial context for cultural routes is absent, and routes are not included in the strategic tourism vision.

Cultural Route Management Through Collaborative Efforts

277

Thus, there is no regulation that matches the Council of Europe’s criterion of direction. Participant E08 made this point strongly: We have been in contact with the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, and we have numerous times discussed the issues of legislation. Cultural routes must take their place in the tourism strategy plans of the Ministry.

In terms of performance, institutions must be responsive, serving the needs of all stakeholders while being efficient and effective. In the absence of standards, it becomes unrealistic to measure performance and to make comparisons with other routes. For instance, in Europe, the development costs for each kilometre are known approximately, which means that appropriate funding requirements can be planned. The lack of such a systematic approach results in developers making very rough approximations, which becomes a barrier for further improvements to the routes. The project was monitored by the EU Ministry in Turkey, and the accomplishments of the project were communicated through the municipality and CRS websites, news media and brochures. The duration of the project was short (1 year); however, the dialogue can continue after the completion of the project via alternative media use by the founders and partners (the accountability criterion). Fairness should be maintained by ensuring that all groups (e.g., women, youth, and indigenous peoples) are included in the development and implementation and that they benefit equally from the tourism development. The founders of the project recognize the importance of inclusiveness and have reminded the municipalities to include locals in the processes. Stakeholder participation is progressing somewhat slowly at the local level. Participant 02 reports the locals’ willingness to participate as follows: We have spoken with the Mukhtars (local officers) about the home-stay model. But they have reported that villagers do not want to open their houses for home-stay. Some of them have been very helpful in showing us the possible ways through their villages.

The above quote highlights the need for a systematic approach to involving locals in cultural route development so that the outcomes of the project are better understood and fairly distributed among the communities. As an initial step, Inegol Municipality has established a tourism platform. Participant S03 explains the founding and the aim of the platform as follows: We have identified key tourism stakeholders; we have invited them to take part in this platform. We aim to create a tourism vision for Inegol and promote our cultural, historical and natural assets.

As described in this research, there are three phases of cultural route management: development, implementation and governance. The first stage is the idea-generation, project application and development stage. The second stage is the project implementation stage, in which the route is developed and promoted. We find that in the first two stages, decision making was central, though it had minimum stakeholder involvement. Hence, the principals of good governance were not applied systematically in the development and implementation stages of the collaboration. Thus, the

278

B. K. Hatipoglu et al.

Provincial Directorate of Culture and Tourism NGOs

Farmers

Visitors

Artisans Local Communities

District Governorship

CRS & Central Government

Tourism Businesses

Media

Educational Instutions

Experts

Academicians

Mukhtars Representatives of Local Residents

Fig. 2 Stakeholder involvement during the governance stage of cultural route development. Source Authors

short-term project design of the programme limited the time required for relationship and trust building as well as the stakeholder involvement. As a suggestion of this chapter, an ideal governance model was added as the final stage of governance (Fig. 2). The governance stage of the framework places the most important stakeholders at the core and recommends that local government (e.g., the municipality) become the connecting body between the central institutions and the local stakeholders. The central government is at the core, and it is expected that the central government will enact relevant legislation, develop standards, make cultural routes part of its tourism strategy plans and allocate state resources. As such, the roles of governmental agencies and other stakeholders should be better defined for the management and control of the routes. Control and collaboration are both needed for effective governance. Participant E09 reports some of the problems, such as: Sometimes, the route passes through a farmer’s land. He agrees for others to walk through his farm. But when we visit the same place after some time, we find a new road being built through the same farm. And sometimes private establishments change the markers we place to direct tourists to their own establishments.

In the governance stage, municipalities must collaborate with others because their shared opinions play a clear role in the efficient development of cultural routes that transcend their geographical borders. In the third layer of the model, stakeholders

Cultural Route Management Through Collaborative Efforts

279

are expected to collaborate with municipalities. This research identifies the relevant stakeholders of cultural routes as follows: the Provincial Directorate of Culture and Tourism, NGOs, civil society groups, representatives of the local residents, local communities, mukhtars, district governorships, artisans, experts, farmers, campers, educational institutions, tourism businesses, the media and visitors (Fig. 1). Through the involvement of these stakeholders, the collaboration may become effective in the governance stage.

Discussion The cultural route, which is a relatively new phenomenon in the cultural and heritage tourism discipline, has historical value and presents its visitors with cultural and nature-based walking opportunities (Council of Europe 2019). This research aimed to identify how the different stakeholders involved have collaborated on the development and management of the Europe to Turkey on Foot Project in the case of Inegol. According to the Cultural Route of the Council of Europe Certification (2019), there are five main criteria to be met to obtain certification. These are defining a theme, identifying heritage elements, obtaining legal status, defining common action for cultural cooperation and building common visibility. In terms of evaluating the Europe to Turkey on Foot Project on these criteria, the CRS and EAVF have come together to achieve the goals of the promotion of the countries and the regions, the contribution to tourism, the spreading the cultural heritage values across the boundaries of countries and the creation of awareness through cultural routes. In the case of Inegol (Bursa), the founders were responsible for the involvement and direction of local authorities, which they have successfully accomplished. However, at the local level, the municipalities have not adopted a participatory approach to the development and implementation processes, and many local residents have remained unaware of the project. Furthermore, the lack of a supportive judicial context has led to problems at each stage of the route development, including not having a proper budgeting system and the insufficiency of the control mechanisms. The founders spend their most valuable energy on making up for the lack of governmental regulations on the routes, though they should be working with the stakeholders at the local level. The collaboration model of Wood and Gray (1991) was taken into consideration to demonstrate the partnership roles in the implementation phase of the project. The EAVF and CRS have taken roles in both the decision making and action stages, while the other key stakeholders have mostly been involved in the action stage. The contribution of the key stakeholders to the project has been limited by the actions of the founders. Shipley and Kovacs (2008) state that decentralization and collaborative management in decision making is required for the legitimacy and voice principle of good governance. The stakeholders’ autonomy was also questioned during the project. Karata¸s (2015) states that local authorities are important for the implementation of such projects and that several local authorities should come together to

280

B. K. Hatipoglu et al.

conduct the process. It was gathered that the municipalities were directed by the CRS in the design of the activities; however, these municipalities designed their activities independently from one other. In this context, the municipalities’ collaborative contributions to the project remained limited to their visit to Italy and to the joint project meetings, and they do not currently display any interest in a joint effort to design new activities and make decisions in order to further develop the route. Another important point of collaboration for the project is at the local level with the involvement of local residents and local NGOs. Karata¸s (2015) argues that the internalization process becomes more efficient with the involvement of the local people. The results demonstrate that the locals did not participate in the Inegol section of the project and that the contributions of the locals and local authorities were limited. Although the Egirdir and Demre Municipalities were not the focus of this chapter, their approaches and involvement were also investigated. As Demre is more experienced in tourism, the municipality encourages locals to be involved in the process through the home-stay model that is expected to be built in Kapaklı district. Egirdir has already adopted a home-stay model. Shipley and Kovacs (2008) state that citizen involvement and the existence of civil society groups are expected to meet the good governance criterion. Several actors, including local authorities and industry organizations, should be involved in cultural route development so that sustainable route management can be conducted through regional promotion (Karata¸s 2015). Our research has shown that local NGOs did not take part in the processes and they were not informed about the project. In this context, municipalities such as local authorities were not successful in involving these actors. The Europe to Turkey on Foot Project was developed using the sustainability approach; however, the approach was not fully utilized when implementing the project at the local level. Despite its shortcomings, this project created awareness in the Inegol Municipality. The opening of a tourism office, the creation of a tourism platform, and the initiation of a plan for tourism development in Inegol were important outcomes regarding the creation of awareness for future projects.

Conclusion This research identified that in the absence of state involvement in cultural route development; the stakeholders have developed a non-hierarchical network and have become involved in the development, management and governance of culture-based tourism. The involvement of the actors in each stage, including governance, is important for continuity, ownership and internalization (Fig. 2). In this type of selfregulation by stakeholders, deficits are inevitable (Hall 2011); however, improvements are also possible. In the context of Turkey, regulations, standards and strategies for cultural route development that are formed with the national context in mind will surely enable the network to set up control mechanisms and gain access to material resources and other support mechanisms. This can be accomplished by examining what has been done in other countries and by taking input from relevant NGOs

Cultural Route Management Through Collaborative Efforts

281

(e.g., CRS) and experts in the field into consideration. This research argued that both control and collaboration are important for the governance of cultural route development. Thus, local governmental institutions should be encouraged to take part in each stage of a project, and their autonomy should be maintained. Naturally, in some destinations, some actors will be more eager to contribute than others, as demonstrated in this research. To conclude, as it is a new concept in Turkey, we suggest that a cultural route be defined and recognized in tourism policies and strategies and that the involvement of NGOs and local residents of all groups in a project will be of importance in achieving success and spreading common values throughout society.

Appendix A

Variable

Question

Stakeholders

*Was collaboration significant in developing the project? *Which stakeholders got involved in the project?

Autonomy

*Did the stakeholders take part in the decision making process or in implementation process?

Interactive process

*What were the stages of the project? *How did the convener make contact with you as a stakeholder? *How did you communicate with other stakeholders? *What were the issues that you encountered during the collaboration process?

Shared rules, norms and structures

*What were the common goals of the project? *What were the shared values of the project?

Actions and decisions

*What were your duties as a stakeholder in the project?

Outcomes

*What are the short-term impacts of the project in Inegol?

Funding

* How did you determine the budget for the project? * Did you use other resources besides the ones provided by the project authority?

Control mechanism

*How did you control the efficiency of the route?

References Aas, C., Ladkin, A., & Fletcher, J. (2005). Stakeholder collaboration and heritage management. Annals of Tourism Research, 32(1), 28–48. Bramwell, B., & Sharman, A. (1999). Collaboration in local tourism policymaking. Annals of Tourism Research, 26(2), 392–415. Clow, K., & Eryurt, H. (2016). Cultural Routes Guide. Antalya: Cultural Routes Society.

282

B. K. Hatipoglu et al.

Council of Europe. (2019). Cultural Routes of the Council of Europe. https://www.coe.int/en/web/ cultural-routes/about. Accessed 15 Jan 2019. Cultural Routes Society (CRS). (2017). Evliya Çelebi Way. Retrieved 2017, from Cultural Routes Society. http://cultureroutesinturkey.com/evliya-celebi-way/. Cultural Routes Society (CRS). (2019). Welcome to the Via Eurasia. http://cultureroutesinturkey. com/via-eurasia/. Accessed 15 Jan 2019. Culture Routes Society. (2017). Europe to Turkey On Foot Project Map. Personal Communication. Fuentes, C. D. (2013). Governance for the Tourism Sector and its Measurement. STSA Issue Papers Series. Spain: UNWTO. Graham, J., Amos, B., & Plumptre, T. (2003). Principles for Good Governance in the 21st Century. Ontorio, Canada: Institute on Governance. Gray, B. (1989). Collaborating: Finding Common Ground for Multiparty Problems. San Francisco, USA: Jossey-Bass. Hall, C. M. (2011). A typology of governance and its implications for tourism policy analysis. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 19(4–5), 437–457. Hatipoglu, B., Aktan, V., Duzel, D., Kocabas, E., & Sen, B. (2016). Developing food tourism through collaborative efforts within the heritage tourism destination of Foça, Izmir. Heritage Tourism Destinations: Preservation, Communication and Development. ICOMOS. (2008). The ICOMOS Charter on Culture Routes. Quebec: International Council on Heritage Sites and Monuments. ˙Inegöl Belediyesi. (2017). Inegöl ˙ Tarihçesi (History of Inegol). Retrieved from ˙Inegöl Belediyesi: http://www.inegol.bel.tr/inegol/inegoltarihi. Jamhawi, M. M., & Hajahjah, Z. A. (2017). A bottom-up approach for cultural tourism management in the old city of As-Salt, Jordan. Journal of Cultural Heritage Management and Sustainable Development, 7(1), 91–106. Karata¸s, E. (2015). Kültür Rotaları Planlama Rehberi(Cultural Routes Planning Guide). Istanbul: ÇEKÜL. Pattanaro, G., & Pistocchi, F. (2016). Linking destinations through sustainable cultural routes. Symphonya, 1, 83–97. Shipley, R., & Kovacs, J. F. (2008). Good governance principles for the cultural heritage sector: Lessons from international experience. Corporate Governance: The international journal of business in society, 8(2), 214–228. Spencer, D. M. (2010). Facilitating public participation in tourism planning on American Indian reservations: A case study involving the Nominal Group Technique. Tourism Management, 31(5), 684–690. United Nations World Tourism Organization. (2015). Affiliate Members Global Reports. Cultural Routes and Itineraries. Madrid: UNWTO. UNWTO. (2015). Cultural Routes and Itineraries. Affiliate Members Global Reports. Madrid: UNWTO. Via Francigena European Association. (2017). European Projects. Retrieved from Via Francigena European Association: http://www.viefrancigene.org/en/AEVF/Progetti/. Wood, D. J., & Gray, B. (1991). Toward a comprehensive theory of collaboration. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 27(2), 139–162.