Handbook of Tribal Politics in India 2020950791, 9789353884581

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Handbook of TRIBAL POLITICS IN INDIA

Edited by

Jagannath Ambagudia • Virginius Xaxa

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Handbook of

TRIBAL POLITICS IN INDIA

Handbook of

TRIBAL POLITICS IN INDIA

Edited by

Jagannath Ambagudia • Virginius Xaxa

Copyright © Jagannath Ambagudia and Virginius Xaxa, 2021 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. First published in 2021 by SAGE Publications India Pvt Ltd B1/I-1 Mohan Cooperative Industrial Area Mathura Road, New Delhi 110 044, India www.sagepub.in SAGE Publications Inc 2455 Teller Road Thousand Oaks, California 91320, USA SAGE Publications Ltd 1 Oliver’s Yard, 55 City Road London EC1Y 1SP, United Kingdom SAGE Publications Asia-Pacific Pte Ltd 18 Cross Street #10-10/11/12 China Square Central Singapore 048423 Published by Vivek Mehra for SAGE Publications India Pvt Ltd. Typeset in 10/12 pt Times by Zaza Eunice, Hosur, Tamil Nadu, India. Library of Congress Control Number: 2020950791

ISBN: 978-93-5388-458-1 (HB) SAGE Team: Rajesh Dey, Syed Husain Naqvi, Parul Prasad, Madhurima Thapa and Rajinder Kaur

Dedicated to the tribal communities of India and their persistent political struggle

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Contents

List of Figuresxi List of Tablesxiii List of Abbreviationsxix Prefacexxv Acknowledgementsxxvii About the Editors and Contributorsxxix

Introduction: Situating Tribal Politics in India Jagannath Ambagudia and Virginius Xaxa

1

SECTION I: GENEALOGY OF TRIBAL POLITICS IN INDIA   1

Tribal Politics in India: From Movement to Institutionalism Virginius Xaxa

29

SECTION II: TRIBAL POLITICS AT THE NATIONAL LEVEL   2

Scheduled Tribes, Reserved Constituencies and Political Reservation in India Jagannath Ambagudia

45

  3

Democracy’s Ghettos: Adivasi Leadership in India Valerian Rodrigues

57

  4

Indigenous Peoples and Electoral Politics in India: An Experience of Incompatibility Samar Bosu Mullick

72

  5

Gender and Tribal Politics in India Sasmita Mohanty

107

  6

Adivasis, Naxalites and Indian Democracy Ramachandra Guha

120

  7

Adivasi Issues and Election Manifestos of National Political Parties Kamal Nayan Choubey

135

viii

  8

HANDBOOK OF TRIBAL POLITICS IN INDIA

Political Representation and Policymaking: Role of Tribal MPs in Indian Parliament Rupak Kumar

148

SECTION III: TRIBAL POLITICS AT THE STATE LEVEL   9

Political Accommodation and Tribal Electoral Politics in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana Venkatesh Vaditya

167

10

Democracy with a Difference: Tribal Politics in Arunachal Pradesh Nani Bath

190

11

Tribal Politics in Assam: 1933–1947 Suryasikha Pathak

210

12

Transitional Political Environment: Bodos and Tribal Politics in Assam Himani Ramchiary

226

13

Tribes and Electoral Politics in Chhattisgarh: Alternative Sites of Assertion  Bipin Jojo and H. Beck

244

14

Tribal Politics in Gujarat N. Rajaram and Ashvin Vasava

260

15

Tribal Politics in Himachal Pradesh: Issues and Concerns Mini Pathak Dogra

283

16

Gujjars and Tribal Politics in Jammu and Kashmir Subeno Kithan

294

17

Tribal Identity and Governance in State Politics of Jharkhand Sujit Kumar

310

18

Political Intersectionality and Tribal Politics in Karnataka Pradeep Ramvath J.

324

19

Political Articulations of Adivasis in Kerala Abhilash T.

337

20

Emerging Pattern of Tribal Politics in Madhya Pradesh Sudha Pai

356

21

Tribal Politics in Maharashtra  Pandurang Bhoye

370

Contents

22

The Politics of Tribal Representation in Manipur Joseph Riamei

23

Khasi Political Reality and the Struggle for Statehood: History, Context and Political Processes Bodhi S. R.

ix

382

394

24

Tribal Politics and New Electoral Directions in Meghalaya Moses Kharbithai

411

25

Tribal Politics and Non-state Actors in Mizoram P. Lalpekhlui

426

26

The Debris of Democracy in Nagaland  Jelle J. P. Wouters

438

27

Tribes and Electoral Politics in Odisha  Jagannath Ambagudia

457

28

Politics of Tribalization and Contested Space in Sikkim Tikendra K. Chhetry and Sanghamitra Choudhury

489

29

Tribal Politics in Tripura: A Spatial Perspective R. K. Debbarma

501

30

Revisiting Tribal Discourse in Uttar Pradesh A. K. Verma

513

31

Tribal Politics in West Bengal: Quest for Identity and Recognition Nilamber Chhetri

525

Index543

List of Figures

I.1

ST Parliamentary Constituencies of India

27.1 27.2 27.3

ST Parliamentary Constituencies of Odisha ST Assembly Constituencies of Odisha Voter Turnout in Non-ST and ST Parliamentary Constituencies, 1991–2019, Odisha (in %) Voter Turnout in ST Assembly Constituencies, 1995–2019, Odisha (in %) Invalid and/or NOTA Votes in Non-ST and ST Parliamentary Constituencies, 1991–2019, Odisha (in %) Invalid and/or NOTA Votes in ST Assembly Constituencies 1995–2019, Odisha (in%) Average Candidates in Non-ST and ST Parliamentary Constituencies 1991–2019, Odisha Average Candidates in ST Assembly Constituencies, 1995–2019, Odisha Women Candidates in Non-ST and ST Parliamentary Constituencies, 1991–2019, Odisha (in %) Women Candidates in ST Assembly Constituencies, 1995–2019, Odisha (in %) SC and ST Candidates in Non-ST and ST Parliamentary Constituencies, 1991–2019, Odisha (in %) Vote Share of Political Parties in ST Parliamentary Constituencies, 1991–2019, Odisha (in %) Vote Share of Political Parties in ST Assembly Constituencies, 1995–2019, Odisha (in %) Seat Share of Political Parties in ST Parliamentary Constituencies, 1991–2019, Odisha (in %) Seat Share of Political Parties in ST Assembly Constituencies, 1995–2019, Odisha (in %)

27.4 27.5 27.6 27.7 27.8 27.9 27.10 27.11 27.12 27.13 27.14 27.15

8 459 462 464 465 467 467 469 470 471 471 473 475 477 478 479

List of Tables

I.1 I.2 I.3

I.6 I.7

State- and Union Territory-wise ST Population, 2011 (in Descending Order) 3 Number and Types of Parliamentary Constituencies in India 5 ST Population in ST-reserved Parliamentary Constituencies in India in Descending Order (2001 Census) 6 Gender-wise Tribal MPs in India, 1952–2019 9 Performance of Political Parties in ST-reserved Parliamentary Constituencies, 1980–201910 ST Lok Sabha Seats Won by Some Major Political Parties, 1980–2019 11 ST Lok Sabha Seats Won by Political Parties in 2019 Election 11

2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5

Reservation of Seats in Provincial Legislative Assembly Decadal Growth Rate of Population in India State/Union Territory-wise Seats in the Lok Sabha and Their Reservation Status Social Category-wise Seats in the Lok Sabha and Their Reservation Status State/Union Territory-wise Seats in the Assembly and Their Reservation Status

47 50 51 52 54

4.1 4.2

The Largest Tribes in India Distribution of ST Population by State and Parliamentary and Assembly-Reserved Constituencies Turnout in Tribal and Non-Tribal Rural Constituencies in Selected States Distribution by State of Lok Sabha (Parliament) Reserved Constituencies since 1977 Distribution by State of Lok Sabha (Parliament) Non-Reserved Constituencies having 15% or more ST Population since 1977

77

I.4 I.5

4.3 4.4 4.5 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8

Parties’ Nomination of Women Candidates in ST-Reserved Assembly Constituencies before and after 1996 (in %) Parties’ Nomination of Women Candidates in ST-Reserved Parliamentary Constituencies before and after 1996 (in %) Women Candidates in ST-Reserved Assembly Constituencies, 1961–2015 (in %) Women Candidates in ST-Reserved Parliamentary Constituencies, 1962–2014 (in %) Tribal Women MPs in India, 1952–2019 Party-wise Tribal Women MPs in India, 1952–2019 State-wise Tribal Women MPs in India, 1952–2019 Tribal Women MPs in 2019 Election

86 88 102 102 111 112 112 113 113 114 115 115

xiv

9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9 9.10 9.11 9.12 9.13 9.14

HANDBOOK OF TRIBAL POLITICS IN INDIA

District-wise Basic Data of STs in Erstwhile Andhra Pradesh, 2001 Census 169 ST Population and Sex Ratio in Telangana 170 Population of Major Tribal Communities in Telangana 171 Population of Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups in Telangana 172 Caste Composition of Andhra Pradesh Assembly, 2009 176 Caste-wise Winning Candidates for 2009 Lok Sabha and Assembly in Andhra Pradesh 177 Seats Won by Different Castes in Andhra Pradesh Assembly Elections, 1983–2004 (District-wise) 178 Caste-wise Representation in the Ministries of Andhra Pradesh Governments (1956–2008)179 Position of ST Members of Legislative Assembly in Andhra Pradesh (1955–2009)180 Position of ST Members of Legislative Assembly after Formation of Telangana182 Position of ST Members of Legislative Assembly in Andhra Pradesh after Bifurcation 183 Position of ST Members of Parliament in Andhra Pradesh (1951–2009) 185 Position of ST Members of Parliament in Telangana (2014–2019) 187 Position of ST Members of Parliament in Andhra Pradesh (2014–2019)  187

10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8 10.9 10.10 10.11 10.12 10.13

Percentage of Polling and Non-Voters in Arunachal Pradesh Assembly Elections (1978–2019) Percentage of Polling and Non-Voters in Lok Sabha Elections, Arunachal Pradesh (1977–2019) Details of Assembly Election of Arunachal Pradesh, 1978 Details of Assembly Election of Arunachal Pradesh, 1980 Details of Assembly Election of Arunachal Pradesh, 1984 Details of Assembly Election of Arunachal Pradesh, 1990 Details of Assembly Election of Arunachal Pradesh, 1995 Details of Arunachal Pradesh Assembly Elections, 1999 Details of Arunachal Pradesh Assembly Election, 2004 Details of the Arunachal Pradesh Assembly Election 2009 Details of the Arunachal Pradesh Assembly Election, 2014 Representation of Women in Arunachal Pradesh Assembly (1978–2019) Percentage of Chakma Voters in Arunachal Pradesh Assembly Constituencies

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6

Population of Some Major ST Communities of Assam, 2011 Census Bodo Population of Assam (1951–2011) The Bodo Political Parties of Assam at a Glance (1972–2016) Members of the BTC and Their Portfolios between 2005–2010, Assam Political Parties in BTAD Elections, Assam Assam State Assembly Election Result, 2016

228 228 232 238 240 241

13.1 13.2

Profile of Districts by Social, Economic and Political Indicators, Chhattisgarh Number of ST Candidates Contested in Assembly Elections, Chhattisgarh

249 250

10.1 10.2

197 197 197 198 198 198 199 199 200 200 200 204 206

List of Tables

14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6 17.1 17.2

Major Tribes in Gujarat (2011 Census) 261 Seats Reserved for STs and SCs in the Vidhan Sabha of Gujarat and Population Proportion of SCs and STs to State Total 262 ST Seat Sharing of the Congress and the BJP in Gujarat Assembly, 1962–2017270 Region-wise Performance of the Congress and the BJP in Gujarat Assembly Elections (1998–2017) 272 Changing Electoral Strength in Chhota Udepur Assembly Constituency (Central Gujarat) 275 Voting in General, SC and ST Constituencies in Gujarat Assembly Elections 279 Decadal Growth Rate of ST Population of Himachal Pradesh, 1971–2011 District-wise Tribal Population of Himachal Pradesh, 2011 Tribal Population in Scheduled Areas of Himachal Pradesh (2014–2015) District-wise Number of Villages with ST Population Excluding Scheduled Areas, Himachal Pradesh Vote Share of Major Political Parties in Parliamentary Elections in Scheduled Areas, Himachal Pradesh Vote Share of Major Political Parties in Assembly Elections in Scheduled Areas, Himachal Pradesh

285 285 286

Community-wise Voting Pattern in Jharkhand Assembly Election, 2014 Jharkhand Assembly Constituencies Reserved for STs, Percentage of ST Population and the Winning Political Parties in 2014 Election

316

Population Size and Annual Growth Rate, Karnataka Population Size across Social Groups, Karnataka (in %) Share of MLAs Population in Preceding Census among STs, Karnataka Distribution of ST MLAs across Major Political Parties, Karnataka, 1962–2018 (in %) 18.5 Representation of ST Female Candidates in Political Parties in Karnataka Assembly 18.6 Distribution of Tribes across Various Regions and Districts of Karnataka 18.7 Distribution of Tribes across Various Districts of Karnataka 18.8 ST MLAs from Different Political Parties during 2018, Karnataka 18.9 Political Typologies of Tribal Communities in Karnataka 18.10 ST-reserved Assembly Constituencies and GPHDI Performance, Karnataka 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4

19.1

Colonial and Post-colonial Forest Laws in India

20.1

Party Position on Reserved Seats for STs in Various Assembly Elections in MP, 1952–2003 Tribal-reserved Seats Won by the BJP and the Congress in 2013 and 2018 MP Assembly Elections

20.2 21.1 21.2

xv

Total and Tribal Population of Maharashtra (1961–2011) ST Population in ST-reserved Parliamentary Constituencies, Maharashtra

287 289 289

317 325 326 327 328 329 329 330 330 331 334 344 364 365 371 374

xvi

HANDBOOK OF TRIBAL POLITICS IN INDIA

21.3 21.4 21.5

ST Population in ST-reserved Assembly Constituencies, Maharashtra 375 Seat Sharing of Political Parties in Maharashtra Assembly (1951–2019) 376 Seat Sharing of the Congress and Other Political Parties in Lok Sabha (1951–2019)377

22.1 22.2

383

22.4

District-wise Tribal Population of Manipur, 2011 Area in Square Kilometres, Population and Number of Member in State Legislative Assembly in Tribal and Valley Districts, Manipur Performance of Some Major Political Parties in 2012 and 2017 Assembly Elections, Manipur Electoral Outcomes of the Lok Sabha Elections, 2004–2019, Manipur

23.1

Chronology of Meghalaya, 1949–1952

395

24.1

Vote and Seat Share of Political Parties in 2018 Assembly Election, Meghalaya416 Party-wise Seat Share in 2018 and 2013 Assembly Elections, Meghalaya416 Change of Party in Different Constituencies between 2013 and 2018 Elections, Meghalaya 417 Vote Share of Political Parties, Meghalaya 418 Voter Turnout Trend in Meghalaya, 1972–2018 (in %) 418

22.3

24.2 24.3 24.4 24.5 25.1 25.2 25.3 27.1 27.2 27.3 27.4 27.5 28.1 28.2 28.3 28.4 28.5 28.6

384 385 386

Mizoram Assembly Constituencies and Percentage of ST Population Comparison of Voter Turnout in Parliamentary and Assembly Elections in Mizoram Vote Share of the Congress, the MNF and the BJP in Mizoram Assembly (in %)

430

Number and Types of Parliamentary Constituencies in Odisha Number and Types of Assembly Constituencies in Odisha ST Population in Parliamentary Constituencies of Odisha in Descending Order (2001 Census) ST Population in ST-reserved Assembly Constituencies of Odisha in Descending Order (2001 Census) Vote Share of Political Parties in Non-ST and ST Parliamentary Constituencies, Odisha, 1991–2019

459 460

Ethnic and Constituency-wise Distribution of Seats in State Council, 1953, Sikkim Ethnic and Constituency-wise Distribution of Seats in State Council, 1967, Sikkim Distribution of Seats as Pahalman Subba Acquitted to Rajya Sabha Bhandari’s Proposal on Seat Distribution for the SLA Vardhan Committee’s Suggestion on Distribution of Seats in the SLA Recommendation of the CRESP, Sikkim

434 435

461 463 476 491 491 494 494 494 496

List of Tables

29.1 29.2 29.3 29.4

xvii

Tribal Population of Tripura, 1901–2001 Presence of Infiltrators in Tripura, 1950–1957 Decadal Growth of Population in Tripura, 1874–1981 Vote Share of Political Parties in ST Assembly Constituencies, Tripura, 2003–2018

502 503 503

30.1 30.2 30.3

Population of Some Tribal Cases and Sub-castes in UP (1891 Census) ST Population and Decadal Growth Rate in UP, 1901–2011 Tribes Recognized as STs in Some Districts of UP by the Parliament in 2002

514 518 519

31.1

Basic Profile of ST Population in Rural and Urban Areas of West Bengal, 2011 Census 528 Vote Share of the Elected Candidates in ST-Reserved Parliamentary Constituencies in West Bengal, 2009–2019 530 West Bengal State Assembly Election Results in Tribal Constituencies, 1991–2016531

31.2 31.3

504

List of Abbreviations

AAPTL ABSSS ABSU ADC ADSS AFSPA AGMS AGP AHTU AITC AIIC(T) AIUDF AJSU AJSUP ALCP AMAMS ANSAM APCC APHLC ASDC ATMAMS ATTF BC BJA BJD BJP BJS BLT BNP BOPF BPF BPPF(H) BPPF(R) BPPF

All Assam Plains Tribal League Akhil Bharatiya Samaj Sewa Sansthan All Bodo Student Union Autonomous District Council Adivasi Dalit Samara Samithi Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act Adivasi Gotra Maha Sabha Asom Gana Parishad Assam Hills Tribal Union All India Trinamool Congress All India Indira Congress (Tiwari) All India United Democratic Front All Jharkhand Students Union All Jharkhand Students Union Party Assam Legislative Council Proceedings Aikya Mala Araya Maha Sabha All Naga Students Association Manipur Assam Pradesh Congress Committee All Party Hill Leaders Conference Autonomous State Demand Committee Akhila Thiruvithamkoor Mala Araya Maha Sabha All Tripura Tiger Force Backward Class Bharat Jan Andolan Biju Janata Dal Bharatiya Janata Party Bharatiya Jan Sangh Bodo Liberation Tigers Bharatiya Navshakti Party Bodaland Peoples Front Bodoland’s Progressive Front Bodo People’s Progressive Front (Hagrama Faction) Bodo People’s Progressive Front (Rabiram Faction) Bodo People’s Progressive Front

xx

BSS BTAD BTC BTP BVA CA CAD CFR CHT CM CNTA CNUS CPI CPI(M) CPI(ML) CRESP DAN ECI EITU EMRS FRA GAC GDCT GER GGP GNC GOI GPHDI HAC HSPDP ICS IFR INC INC(I) INC(U) IND INPT IPFT JADS JAYS JCC JD

HANDBOOK OF TRIBAL POLITICS IN INDIA

Bodo Sahitya Sabha Bodoland Territorial Autonomous District Bodoland Territorial Council Bharatiya Tribal Party Bahujan Vikas Aaghadi Constituent Assembly Constituent Assembly Debates Community forest rights Chittagong Hill Tracts Chief Minister Chotanagpur Tenancy Act Chotanagpur Unnati Samaj Communist Party of India Communist Party of India (Marxist) Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Commission for Review of Social and Environmental Sector Policies, Plans and Programmes Democratic Alliance of Nagaland Election Commission of India Eastern Indian Tribal Union Ekalavya Model Residential School Forest Rights Act Gorkha Apex Committee Gurjar Desh Charitable Trust Gross Enrolment Ratio Gondwana Gantantra Party Garo National Council Government of India Gram Panchayat Human Development Index Hill Areas Committee Hill State People’s Democratic Party Indian Congress (Socialist) Individual Forest Rights Indian National Congress Indian National Congress (Indira) Indian National Congress (U) Independent Indigenous Nationalist Party of Twipra Indigenous Peoples Front of Tripura Jagrit Adivasi Dalit Sangathan Jai Adivasi Yuva Shakti Jharkhand Coordination Committee Janata Dal

List of Abbreviations

JD(G) JD(S) JD(U) JMM JKD JNP JP JPC JRS JSS JSS-GMP KHAM KHNAM KJHDCC KMD LSD MCC MCLA MDC MFP MGNREGA MLA MLPC Act MNF MNFF MoS MP MP MPF MU NAC NBCC NCP NDA NDFB NEDA NEFA NGO NGT NLFT NNC NOC

Janata Dal (Gujrat) Janata Dal (Secular) Janata dal (United) Jharkhand Mukti Morcha Jharkhand Party Janta Party Janata Party Joint Parliamentary Committee Janadhipathya Rashtriya Sabha Janashiksha Samiti Janashiksha Samiti-Gana Mukti Parishad Kshatriya, Harijan, Adivasi and Muslim Khun Hynniewtrep National Awakening Movement Khasi and Jaintia Hills District Congress Committee Kerala Model of Development Lok Sabha Debates Maoist Communist Centre Member of Council of Legislative Assembly Member of District Council Minor Forest Produce Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act Member of Legislative Assembly Mizoram Liquor (Prohibition and Control) Act Mizo National Front Mizo National Famine Front Memorandum of Settlement Madhya Pradesh Member of Parliament Mizoram Peoples Forum Mizo Union National Advisory Committee Nagaland Baptist Church Council Nationalist Congress Party National Democratic Alliance National Democratic Front of Boroland North-East Democratic Alliance North-East Frontier Agency Non-governmental Organizations National Green Tribunal National Liberation Front of Tripura Naga National Council No Objection Certificate

xxi

xxii

NOTA NPEP NPF NPP NPP NSCN NTFP OBCs OSATIP OTFD PCDR PDA PDF PDS PESA Act PRI PRISM PSP PSSS PTC PTCA PTG PVTG PWG RJAM RJD RSP RSS SBSP SC SDCM SDF SHS SJAM SKM SLA SLTTJAC SP SP SPTA SRC

HANDBOOK OF TRIBAL POLITICS IN INDIA

None of the Above Naga People’s Party Naga People’s Front Naga People’s Party National People’s Party National Socialist Council of Nagalim Non-timber Forest Produce Other Backward Classes Orissa Scheduled Areas Transfer of Immovable Property Other Traditional Forest Dweller People’s Coordination for Democratic Rights People’s Democratic Alliance People’s Democratic Front Public Distribution System Panchayats (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act Panchayati Raj Institution Peoples Right to Information and Development Implementing Society of Mizoram Praja Socialist Party Paryavaran Sanrakshan Sangharsh Samiti Plains Tribals Council of Assam Plain Tribal Council of Assam Primary Tribal Group Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Group People’s War Group Rabha Jatiya Aikya Manch Rashtriya Janata Dal Revolutionary Socialist Party Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh Suheldev Bahujan Samaj Party Scheduled Caste Schedule Demand Committee Manipur Sikkim Democratic Front Shivsena Sanmilita Janagosthiya Aikya Mancha Sikkim Krantikari Morcha Sikkim Legislative Assembly Sikkim Limboo Tamang Tribal Joint Action Committee Samajwadi Party Socialist Party Santhal Pargana Tenancy Act States Reorganisation Commission

List of Abbreviations

SSD ST SWA TAC TDP TICI TJAM TJMK TRS TSP TUJS UDF UDP UMFO UP UPA UPP UPPL YSRCP YMA

Sardar Sarovar Dam Scheduled Tribe Swatantra Party Tribal Advisory Council Telugu Desam Party Tribal Intellectual Collective India Tiwa Jatiya Aikya Manch Tripura Jatiyo Mukti Parishad Telangana Rashtriya Samiti Tribal Sub-Plan Tripura Upajati Juba Samiti United Democratic Front United Democratic Party United Mizo Freedom Organisation Uttar Pradesh United Progressive Alliance United People’s Party United People’s Party Liberal Yuvajana Sramik Rythu Congress Party Young Mizo Association

xxiii

Preface

Over the period of our research on tribal issues, we encountered a scanty literature on tribal politics in India as compared to other marginalized groups, such as the Dalits, women and religious groups. This is probably due to the fact that the academic arena has not given due attention to various issues of tribal communities in general and their engagement in democratic politics in particular. However, the political science departments of various universities have recently begun to symbolically include tribal communities in their educational curriculum. Despite the location of tribal communities at the margin, anthropology has been studying tribes since the inception of universities in eastern and north-eastern India. The recent trend indicates an academic upsurge and a resurgence of research interests on tribal issues in general and tribal politics in particular in Indian universities due to the entry of tribal academics and researchers into higher educational institutions. In teaching tribal politics, we felt the paucity of published materials and, hence, the need for a comprehensive volume on understanding various dynamics of tribal politics in India. We discussed such requirement at various platforms during our stint at the Tata Institute of Social Sciences (TISS), Guwahati Campus, albeit with little success. The need of a concise book on the topic under consideration resurfaced when Jagannath Ambagudia offered the thematic course, Democracy, Rights and Tribes in India to scholars pursuing MPhil in social sciences at TISS, Guwahati Campus. Challenges and anxieties experienced while teaching this course compelled us to have frequent discussions and encouraged us to work more meaningfully on tribal politics and to develop a network to collectively bring out a comprehensive volume on tribal politics in India. Diversity and accommodation are integral part of democratic processes in the contemporary world. Such practices are conspicuous in a multicultural society like India, which is seen as a complete grid of caste, ethnicity, gender and religion. Such distinctiveness can also be used to differentiate and exclude certain social categories from mainstream social life. The distinct ethnic identities of tribal communities were/are largely used to exclude them from various spheres of life. Against this backdrop, post-colonial India debated the location of tribal communities in ‘mainstream’ society and developed modalities via constitutional provisions of preferential considerations in politics, government employment and education. Turning towards politics, institutional arrangements were made by the framers of the Indian Constitution, who realized that there should be an adequate representation of tribal communities in decision-making bodies. As a consequence, there is a provision of political reservation for tribes under Articles 330 and 332 of the Indian Constitution. However, bringing tribal communities into modern democratic institutions has largely undermined their traditional political system and exposed them to the competitive power politics of modern democracy. Such integration has led to different levels of political development among tribal communities of India.

xxvi

HANDBOOK OF TRIBAL POLITICS IN INDIA

The uneven political development among tribal communities has resulted in various forms and degrees of engagement with modern democratic politics. This has helped us in problematizing the idea of tribe as a homogenous group in India. The heterogeneity of tribal communities facilitates the process of their interaction with democratic politics at their corresponding levels, thereby leading to various degrees of political articulation and influence over the political system. Political integration of tribes, through preferential consideration, has essentially provided the ground for the emergence of tiny political elites in tribal society. Within this backdrop, it can be seen that the tribal communities of north-eastern India are more politically articulative in comparison to their central Indian counterparts. Tribal communities of India have developed different forms of relationship with political parties and a larger political structure. Within this backdrop, the Handbook of Tribal Politics in India traces the location of the tribes in modern democracy. It explores the relationship between tribal communities and electoral politics at the centre and state levels by considering quantitative (election data) and qualitative data (field data). It looks at the engagement of tribes in mainstream democratic politics and focuses on patterns, conditions and challenges that lie before the participation of tribal communities in electoral politics in India. While doing so, this volume provides state-by-state analysis of tribal politics. It explores the changing relationship between tribal communities and political parties, the performance of the latter in ST-reserved constituencies and the various factors responsible for such performances. The book discusses the role of tribal political representatives in policymaking, especially issues related to tribal communities. The book helps us locate gender in tribal politics in India. It raises issues and concerns of tribal politics with greater implications over policy and research in India.

Acknowledgements

Working on an ambitious project has never soiled through an easy path. During the course of this journey, we met with numerous individuals on various academic platforms, discussed, debated, disagreed and resolved a myriad of issues that are critical to understand tribal politics in India. It may not be possible for us to acknowledge each one of them individually, but all of them left their marks in the various pages of this volume. At the outset, we would like to take this opportunity to thank all the contributors who trusted us and agreed to be part of this painstaking journey by contributing chapters. We are grateful to the International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs, the Economic & Political Weekly, the Indian Institute of Dalit Studies and the Journal of Social Inclusion Studies for giving permission to reprint chapters of Samar Bosu Mullick, Ramachandra Guha, Suryasikha Pathak and Jagannath Ambagudia. Colleagues and friends at TISS, Guwahati Campus; Tezpur University; Institute for Human Development, New Delhi, helped us in several ways during our stint in these institutions. Their regular enquiry about the status of the volume compelled us to put extra efforts to bring the work to the light of the day. We are also thankful to Sujata Buragohain, Medusmita Borthakur and P. Lalpekhlui, PhD scholars at TISS, Guwahati Campus, for their help in proofreading the initial versions of the reprinted chapters. We would also like to thank Kamal Azad, another PhD scholar at TISS, Guwahati Campus, for redrawing the maps used in this book. The acknowledgements, in fact, remain incomplete without endorsing the contributions of our family members, Sasmita Mohanty, little angel Jiyana Jigyansha Ambagudia, Chameli Xaxa and Aashish Khakha. Despite their professional commitments and family responsibilities, they eased the volume by creating space for us to devote the time that this volume required at various stages. Finally, we would like to thank Rajesh Dey, Managing Editor-Commissioning, SAGE, who constantly monitored the progress of the volume and the entire SAGE team for their interest and continuous support in bringing out this book.

About the Editors and Contributors

EDITORS Jagannath Ambagudia is Dean, School of Social Sciences and Humanities (2020–), and Associate Professor at the Centre for Peace and Conflict Studies, School of Social Sciences and Humanities (2014–), Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Guwahati Campus, Assam, India. He was also the Chairperson, Unit for Research and Development, Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Guwahati Campus, Assam, India (2016–2020). Previously, he taught at the Department of Political Science, Rajdhani College, University of Delhi (2009–2014); National Law School of India University, Bangalore, Karnataka (2008–2009); and ARSD College, University of Delhi (2006–2008). He obtained MA, M. Phil. and Ph. D. in Political Science from Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi. He is the author of Adivasis, Migrants and the State in India (Routledge, 2019). His area of interest lies on issues of Adivasi society, social exclusion and inclusion, development and deprivation, marginalisation, preferential treatment, distributive justice and community conflict. He is currently working on the role of tribal MPs in Indian Parliament within the broader relationship between scheduled tribes and democracy in India. Virginius Xaxa is currently visiting Professor at the Institute for Human Development (IHD), New Delhi. Prior to joining IHD, he was Professor of Eminence and Bharat Ratna Lokapriya Gopinath Bordoloi Chair at Tezpur University (2016–2018). He was also Professor and Deputy Director of the Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Guwahati Campus (2011–2016). He taught Sociology at the Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi (1990–2011), and NorthEastern Hill University, Shillong (1978–1990). He obtained MA in Sociology from Pune University and Ph.D. from the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Kanpur. He is the author of Economic Dualism and Structure of Class: A Study in Plantation and Peasant Settings in North Bengal (Cosmo, 1997) and State, Society and Tribes: Issues in Post-Colonial India (Pearson, 2008), co-author of Tea Plantation Labour in India (Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, 1996) and co-editor of Social Exclusion and Adverse Inclusion: Development and Deprivation of Adivasis in India (OUP, 2012), Work, Institutions and Sustainable Livelihood: Issues and Challenges of Transformation (Palgrave, 2017) and Employment and Labour Market in North-East India: Interrogating Structural Changes (Routledge, 2019). He was also the Chairman of the High Level Committee on Socio-Economic, Health and Educational Status of Tribal Communities of India, Government of India (2014).

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CONTRIBUTORS A. K. Verma is Honorary Director, Centre for the Study of Society and Politics (CSSP), Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India. He is the former Chair, Political Science, Christ Church College. He is also the Editor of Shodharthy, a social science Journal in Hindi. He specialises in the Politics of Uttar Pradesh. He was invited by Harvard University in 2008 for his theories of Social Osmosis and Reverse Social Osmosis that explained identity politics and transition to inclusive politics.   Abhilash T. is currently working as Assistant Professor in Centre for Development Studies, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala. Before joining this Centre, he was a faculty at Gokhale Institute of Politics and Economics, Pune. His area of research mainly focuses on political economy, social exclusion and tribal studies. He had undertaken research projects on vulnerable and nomadic tribal communities in southern western ghat. Ashvin Vasava is a doctoral student at the Centre for the Study of Society and Development, School of Social Sciences, Central University of Gujarat, Gandhinagar, Gujarat. His ongoing research work focuses on Forest Rights Movement amongst the Adivasis of Gujarat. He is also associated with Aadi Seva Mandal-Vadava, an organisation working for social welfare of Adivasis in Narmada district, Gujarat. Bipin Jojo is a Professor at the Centre for Social Justice and Governance, School of Social Work, Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai. He was awarded Research Fellowship from University Grant Commission for PhD, and prestigious Commonwealth Fellowship of British government at School of Oriental and African Studies, London University. He has been involved in teaching, research and training in various issues of tribal society, such as governance, land, forest, social work with tribal perspective, tribal education, etc. among others. He has written several academic articles and reports for government and non-government organisations in these areas. He has also been associated with several academic and development organisations nationally and Internationally. Bodhi S. R. is an Assistant Professor at the Centre for Social Justice and Governance, School of Social Work, Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai. He is also the National Convener of the Tribal Intellectual Collective India. His areas of interest are tribal epistemology, dialogical history and Navayana Buddhist studies. H. Beck is a Professor at the Centre for Community Organization and Development Practice, School of Social Work, Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai. He has been teaching since last 29 years. Besides teaching, he is also engaged in wide variety of academic activities like, training, research on areas like electoral process and participation of people in governance, displacement, rehabilitation and resettlements, manual scavengers, budget outcome studies in infrastructure and development sectors, etc. He was also part of the Expert committee on Tribal Health in India: Bridging the Gap and Roadmap for the Future, constituted by Ministry of Health and Family Welfare and Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Government of India, 2018. Himani Ramchiary is currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Anthropology, M.C College, Barpeta, Assam. She is also pursuing her PhD on the broader issues of struggle of Bodo communities for a separate homeland at Tata Institute of Social

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Sciences, Guwahati Campus. Her area of interest involves understanding the social, cultural and political transitions of tribal communities in the contemporary society. Jelle J. P. Wouters is a social anthropologist, who teaches in the Department of Social Sciences at Royal Thimphu College, Bhutan. He has written about political lifeworlds, democracy and elections, kinship and identity and social history in Northeast India for Hau: Journal of Ethnographic Theory, Contributions to Indian Sociology, Studies in History, Economic and Political Weekly, Journal of Cambridge Anthropology, and other journals. He is the author of In the Shadows of Naga Insurgency (OUP, 2018), Nagas as a Society Against Voting and Other Essays (Highlander Books, 2019) and the co-editor of Democracy in Nagaland: Tribes, Traditions, Tensions (Highlander Books 2018) and Nagas in the 21st Century (Highlander Books, 2017).  Joseph Riamei is teaching at the Centre for Community Organisation and Development Practice, School of Social Work, Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Guwahati Campus. He did his PhD from Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai. His interest areas include federalism, ethnicity and conflict studies in South East Asia, state, democracy and tribes, social work with a special focus on indigenous people’s epistemic and human rights. Kamal Nayan Choubey teaches Political Science at Dyal Singh College, University of Delhi, New Delhi. He has done his Ph.D on Tribal Forest Land Rights in India and published a book on Jungle ki Haqdari: Rajneeti Aur Sangharsh (CSDS-Vani Prakashan, 2015). Mini Pathak Dogra is an Assistant Professor at the Department of Political Science, Himachal Pradesh University, Shimla, Himachal Pradesh. She did her PhD on Khampa tribe of Himachal Pradesh. She has contributed several articles on different aspects of Indian politics in various peer reviewed journals. Moses Kharbithai is currently teaching in the Department of Political Science, Assam University, Silchar, Assam. His areas of interest are political theory, democratic institutions and processes, regional politics and political institutions and processes in Northeast India, Indian regional diaspora and politics of migration. N. Rajaram was a former Professor and Dean, School of Social Sciences, Central University of Gujarat, Gandhinagar, Gujarat. His area of research interest is sociology of development, especially in Gujarat. He has researched and published extensively on cooperatives, politics, gender and health, and transnational migration from Gujarat. Nani Bath, a recipient of Indian Political Science Association Young Political Scientist Award, is Professor in the Department of Political Science, Rajiv Gandhi University, Itanagar, Arunachal Pradesh. His area of interest is international relations and society and politics in India’s North East. He is the author of Electoral Politics in Arunachal Pradesh (Pilgrims Publishing, 2009), Party Politics in Arunachal Pradesh (2016) and Voices from Border: Responses to Chinese Claim over Arunachal Pradesh (Pentagon Press, 2015) edited with Gurudas Das and CJ Thomas. Nilamber Chhetri is Assistant Professor of Sociology at the School of Humanities and Social Sciences, India Institute of Technology, Mandi, Himachal Pradesh. His work explores the growth

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and proliferation of ethnic associations in Darjeeling hills and their demands for recognition as scheduled tribes. His research interests include politics of social and cultural identities, scheduling of tribes and practices of state classification in India, and issues related to ethnic minorities and the politics of recognition in South Asia. He regularly contributes research papers and book reviews to reputed national and international journals and is currently exploring the impact of infrastructural development on tribal population of Himachal Pradesh. P. Lalpekhlui is a PhD scholar in Social Sciences, Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Guwahati Campus. She completed her MPhil in Social Sciences from Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Guwahati Campus. She has worked in the area of civil society and its role in electoral politics with special reference to Mizoram. Pandurang Bhoye is an Assistant Professor at the Department of Politics and Public Administration, Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune, Maharashtra. His research interests include tribal political history, movements and politics in Western India. He has 12 research papers to his credit published in national and regional professional journals. He has also contributed a number of chapters in edited volumes. Pradeep Ramavath J. is Assistant Professor and Assistant Director with Institute of Public Policy (IPP), Centre for the Study of Social Exclusion and Inclusive Policy (CSSEIP) of National Law School of India University (NLSIU), Bengaluru. His areas of specialization include Public Policy & Social Justice. Previously he worked with Azim Premji University where he taught courses in Educational Policy and Governance. Pradeep is also the coordinator for Dr. B.R.Ambedkar Studies Centre and Centre for Study of Marginalized Communities. Presently he is involved in policy studies relating to selected most deprived SCs and STs in the state of Karnataka. R. K. Debbarma currently teaches at the Centre for Peace and Conflict Studies, School of Social Sciences and Humanities, Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Guwahati Off-Campus. He completed his PhD in Political Science from University of Hyderabad. He writes on issues of space, place and politics in Northeast India. Ramachandra Guha is a historian and biographer based in Bengaluru. He has taught at the Universities of Yale and Stanford, held the Arné Naess Chair at the University of Oslo, and served as the Philippe Roman Professor of History and International Affairs at the London School of Economics. He is the author of a number of books including a pioneering environmental history, The Unquiet Woods (University of California Press, 1989). His most recent book is a two volume biography of Mahatma Gandhi: Gandhi Before India (Knopf, 2014), and Gandhi: The Years That Changed the World (Knopf, 2018). Rupak Kumar is a doctoral researcher at the Centre for the Study of Law and Governance, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi. His research interest lies in political institutions and their political processes, government and politics. He has worked on the interface between Parliamentary Committees and the Indian Parliament. Presently, he is working on the Nature of Parliamentary Opposition in India after independence. Earlier, he has worked as a researcher at the Election Commission of India.

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Samar Bosu Mullick, also known as Sanjay, has been engaged in the Adivasi struggle for autonomy, identity and rights to economic and cultural resources since a very young age of 17. He has published books and papers on these issues and has made presentations in many renowned universities of the world. He has been connected to many indigenous peoples’ movements in the country and abroad. He was a leading person in the Jharkhand separate state movement and presently engaged in the forest rights movement in the country. He was a faculty member of the Xavier Institute for Social Service, Ranchi. Sanghamitra Choudhury is a senior faculty in the Department of Peace and Conflict Studies and Management, Sikkim University, Gangtok, Sikkim. She has completed her PhD from Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi and Post-Doctoral Studies from University of Oxford (2016). She is the recipient of Charles Wallace India Fellowship (Queen’s University) and International Law Fellowship by United Nations (Hague Academy of International Law, The Netherlands) for the year 2011. She is the author of Women and Conflict in India (Routledge, 2016) and co-author of Human Rights in the Indian Armed Forces: An Analysis of Article 33 (Vij Books, 2019). Sasmita Mohanty is an Assistant Professor of Political Science, Rajdhani College, University of Delhi, New Delhi. She is also doing PhD on various dynamics of Indian Diaspora in Africa from Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi. Her area of interest focuses on migration, diaspora, gender, state politics and human rights. Subeno Kithan works as Assistant Professor in the Department of Social Anthropology at the Centre for Sociology and Social Anthropology, School of Social Sciences and Humanities, Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Guwahati Campus. Her area of specialisation is anthropology of religion, culture and communication and pastoral nomadic communities. She has worked on the Religion of the Gujjars of Jammu and Kashmir for her doctoral research and has engaged with the community between 2009–2011. Sudha Pai retired as Professor at the Centre for Political Studies, and as the Rector of Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi. She was National Fellow, Indian Council of Social Science Research, New Delhi (2016–2017) and Senior Fellow at the Nehru Memorial Museum and Library, Teen Murti, New Delhi (2006–2009). Some of her well known books include Developmental State and the Dalit Question in Madhya Pradesh: Congress Response (Routledge, 2010); Everyday Communalism: Riots in Contemporary Uttar Pradesh (OUP, 2018) and more recently  Constitutional and Democratic Institutions in India: A Critical Analysis (edited) (Orient Blackswan, 2020). Sujit Kumar works as Assistant Professor in the Department of Political Science at St. Joseph’s College, Bengaluru. His areas of interest are land acquisition in scheduled areas of Jharkhand and adivasi politics. He has published research papers in journals like Studies in Indian Politics and Studies in Humanities and Social Sciences. He is the co-editor of India’s Scheduled Areas: Untangling Governance, Law and Politics (Routledge, 2020). Suryasikha Pathak is a faculty at the Centre for Tribal Studies, Assam University, Diphu Campus. Earlier, she taught history in Assam University, Silchar. She was awarded Fulbright

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Senior Fellow (2008–2009) and Schlesinger Research Awardee, Harvard University (2013). Her research interests include tribal identity politics, gender and missions in northeast India. She has published on these areas. Tikendra K. Chhetry is a Guest Faculty at the Department of Peace and Conflict Studies and Management, Sikkim University, Gangtok, Sikkim. He was a National Doctoral Fellow of the Indian Council of Social Science Research (2014–16) and a National Post-Doctoral Fellow of the Indian Council of Social Science Research (2019–2021). He is selected for DR. APJ Abdul Kalam National Award 2020 by International Institute for Social and Economic Reforms (Bangaluru). He has published several research articles in peer-reviewed journals. Valerian Rodrigues has taught at Mangalore University, Karnataka, India (1982–2003), and Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India (2003–2015). He was National Fellow of Indian Council of Social Science Research, New Delhi (2015–2017) and Ambedkar Chair, Ambedkar University, New Delhi (2017–2018). His recent books include The Essential Writings of B. R. Ambedkar (OUP, 2002), The Indian Parliament: A Democracy at Work (OUP, 2011, ­co-authored with B. L. Shankar), Speaking for Karnataka (Bengaluru University Press, 2018, co-authored with Rajendra Chenni, Nataraj Huliyar and S. Japhet). He has edited Conversations with Ambedkar: 10 Ambedkar Memorial Lectures (Columbia University Press, 2019). Venkatesh Vaditya teaches in the Department of Social Exclusion Studies, School of Interdisciplinary Studies, The English and Foreign Languages University, Hyderabad. He obtained MA in Political Science from University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad and M. Phil. and Ph. D. in Political Science from Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi. His areas of interest include human rights, exclusion studies, methods and methodologies in exclusion studies and epistemic justice.

Introduction: Situating Tribal Politics in India Jagannath Ambagudia and Virginius Xaxa

Diversity, recognition and redistribution are integral parts of liberal democratic processes in the contem