Handbook of Thin Films [1 ed.] 0125129084, 9780125129084

Table of contents :
HANDBOOK OF THIN FILM MATERIALS: Five Volume Set
Preface
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Handbook of Thin Film Materials 9
VOLUME 1: DEPOSITION AND PROCESSING OF THIN FILMS
Chapter 1. METHODS OF DEPOSITION OF HYDROGENATED AMORPHOUS SILICON FOR DEVICE APPLICATIONS
1. Introduction 2
1.1. Historical Overview 3
1.2. Material Aspects of Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon 3
2. Research and Industrial Equipment 8
2.1. General Aspects 8
2.2. Reactor Configurations 9
2.3. Scale-Up to Systems of Industrial Size 10
2.4. ASTER, a Research System 11
3. Physics and Chemistry of PECVD 14
3.1. General Introduction 14
3.2. Plasma Physics 15
3.3. Plasma Chemistry 18
4. Plasma Modeling 21
4.1. 1D Fluid Discharge Model 21
4.2. 2D Fluid Discharge Model 30
4.3. Particle-in-Cell D{scharge Models 33
5. Plasma Analysis 39
5.1. Optical Emission 39
5.2. Electrostatic Probes 40
5.3. Mass Spectrometry 42
5.4. Ellipsometry 51
6. Relation between Plasma Parameters and Material Properties 53
6.1. External Parameters 53
6.2. Internal Parameters 55
7. Deposition Models 63
7.1. Surface Adsorption 64
7.2. Solubility of Hydrogen in Silicon 65
7.3. Elimination of Hydrogen from a-Si:H 65
7.4. Dangling-Bond and Weak-Bond Density 67
8. Modifications of PECVD 67
8.1. VHF 68
8.2. Chemical Annealing 73
8.3. RF Modulation 74
9. Hot Wire Chemical Vapor Deposition 76
9.1. General Description 76
9.2. Experimental Setup 77
9.3. Material Properties and Deposition Conditions 78
9.4. Deposition Model 79
Chapter 2. ATOMIC LAYER DEPOSITION
1. Introduction 103
2. Alternative Names 104
3. Basic Features of ALD 104
3.1. ALD Cycle 104
3.2. Benefits of ALD 106
3.3. Limitations of ALD 108
4. ALD Reactors 108
4.1. Overview 108
4.2. Flow-Type ALD Reactors with Inert Gas Valving 109
4.3. Flow-Type ALDReactors with Moving Substrates 112
5. ALD Precursors 113
5.1. Requirements for ALD Precursors 9 113
5.2. Choice of Precursors 121
5.3. Overview of Precursors and Their Combinations Used in ALD 121
6. Film Materials and Applications 125
6.1. Electroluminescent Display Phosphors 126
6.2. Insulators 128
6.3. Transparent Conductors 133
6.4. Passivating and Protecting Layers 134
6.5. Transition Metal Nitride Diffusion Barriers 135
6.6. Metals 137
6.7. Solar Cell Absorbers 138
6.8. Optical Coatings 138
7. Characterization of ALD Processes 138
7.1. Film Growth Experiments 139
7.2. Reaction Mechanism Studies 144
8. Summary 152
References 153
Chapter 3. LASER APPLICATIONS IN TRANSPARENT CONDUCTING OXIDE THIN FILMS PROCESSING 161
1. Introduction 162
1.1. History of Transparent Conducting Films and Applications 162
1.2. Indium Tin Oxide Thin Films 162
1.3. Deposition Techniques 162
1.4. General Remarks 162
2. General Electrical Properties of TCO Films 163
2.1. Conduction Mechanism 163
2.2. Defect Models 164
3. Excimer Lasers 164
3.1. Principles of Excimer Lasers 165
3.2. Principles of Excimer PLD 166
3.3. Major Applications of Excimer Lasers 166
3.4. Advantages and Disadvantages of PLD 166
4. PLD Deposition Technique 167
4.1. ITO Target Ablation and Modification 167
4.2. Background Gas 168
4.3. Growth Rate and Film Thickness 170
4.4. Target to Substrate Distance 170
4.5. Optimization of Deposition Conditions (Background Gas) 171
4.6. Initial Growth of ITO Films 172
4.7. Film Deposition and Characterization 174
5. Properties of PLD Indium Oxide Films 175
5.1. Electrical Properties 175
5.2. Optical Properties 177
5.3. Structural Properties 177
6. Properties of PLD ITO Films 177
6.1. Structural and Other Properties 177
6.2. Electrical Properties of ITO Films 184
6.3. Optical Properties 188
6.4. Chemical States Analysis of ITO Films 191
7. Laser Irradiation 193
7.1. Excimer Laser Irradiation of Thin Films 193
7.2. Laser Irradiation of ITO Films 195
7.3. Film Preparation by Laser Irradiation 196
7.4. Effect of Sn-Doping on the Electrical Properties of Laser-Irradiated ITO Films 196
7.5. Effects of Oxygen Pressure on the Properties of Laser-Irradiated ITO Films 200
7.6. Effect of Substrate Temperature on the Properties of Laser-Irradiated ITO Films 205
8. Other TCO MaterialsmZinc Oxide (ZnO) Thin Films 208
9. Applications of PLD ITO Films 212
10. Conclusion 213
Acknowledgments 213
References 213
Chapter 4. COLD PLASMA PROCESSES IN SURFACE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
1. Introduction 219
1.1. Plasma the Fourth State of Matter 219
1.2. Cold Plasma 221
1.3. Plasma Chemistry 224
2. Applications 226
2.1. Carbon Thin Films 226
2.2. Plasma Polymerization 236
2.3. Surface Treatments 240
2.4. Surface Termination by H2 Plasma Treatment 253
3. Outlook 257
Acknowledgments 257
References 257
Chapter 5. ELECTROCHEMICAL FORMATION OF THIN FILMS OF BINARY III-V COMPOUNDS 261
1. Introduction 262
2. Group III-V Compounds 263
3. Electrodeposition 266
4. Codeposition: Basic Considerations 266
4.1. Thermodynamic Aspects 266
4.2. Kinetic Aspects 270
5. Codeposition from Aqueous Solutions 271
5.1. Pourbaix's Equilibrium Diagrams 271
5.2. Parasitic Reactions 273
5.3. Classification of Cathodic Codeposition Processes 274
6. Codeposition from Molten Salts 275
7. Sequential Electrodeposition 276
8. Electrodeposition of Group III-V Compounds 277
8.1. Aluminum Compounds 278
8.2. Gallium Phosphide 279
8.3. Indium Phosphide 280
8.4. Gallium Arsenide 283
8.5. Indium Arsenide 293
8.6. Gallium Antimonide 297
8.7. Indium Antimonide 299
8.8. Indium-Bismuth Compounds 303
9. Diffusion Process and Formation of Group III-V Compounds 304
9.1. The Indium-Bismuth System 304
9.2. The Indium-Antimony System 308
10. Influence of the Substrate Structure and Morphology on the Diffusion Process 310
10.1. The Indium-Antimony System 310
10.2. The Gallium-Antimony System 312
10.3. Amorphous Antimony Crystallization 313
11. Conclusions 313
Acknowledgments 315
References 315
Chapter 6. FUNDAMENTALS FOR THE FORMATION AND STRUCTURE CONTROL OF THIN FILMS: NUCLEATION, GROWTH, SOLID-STATE TRANSFORMATIONS 319
1. Introduction 319
1.1. Structures and Properties 319
1.2. Structures and Formation Process 320
1.3. Nucleation, Growth, and Solid-State Transformations 320
1.4. Scope of This Chapter 320
2. Theory of Nucleation and Growth 321
2.1. Thermodynamics of Nucleation and Growth 321
2.2. Kinetics of Nucleation and Growth 323
2.3. Observables in Nucleation and Growth 333
3. Measurement of Nucleation and Growth 338
3.1. Dimensions 338
3.2. Ratios 342
3.3. Rates 345
3.4. Characteristic Time 347
3.5. Energy Barriers 347
4. Control of Nucleation and Growth 352
4.1. Grain Size 352
4.2. Size Distribution of Grains 361
4.3. Grain Locations 362
Acknowledgments 369
References 370
Chapter 7. ION IMPLANT DOPING AND ISOLATION OF GaN AND RELATED MATERIALS 375
1. Introduction 375
2. Range Statistics 375
3. Donor Implants (Si, O, S, Se, and Te) 376
4. Acceptor Implants 380
5. Damage Removal 381
6. High Temperature Annealing 385
6.1. Surface Protection 385
6.2. Susceptors 387
6.3. A1N Encapsulant 388
6.4. NH3 Annealing 392
7. Diffusivity of Implanted Species 393
8. p-n Junction Formation 396
9. Isolation 397
10. Devices 405
Acknowledgment 406
References 406
Chapter 8. PLASMA ETCHING OF GaN AND RELATED MATERIALS 409
1. Introduction 409
2. Plasma Reactors 410
2.1. Reactive Ion Etching 410
2.2. High-Density Plasmas 410
2.3. Chemically Assisted Ion Beam Etching 412
2.4. Reactive Ion Beam Etching 412
2.5. Low-Energy Electron-Enhanced Etching 412
3. Plasma Chemistries 413
3.1. C12-Based 413
3.2. 12- and Br2-Based 418
3.3. CH4/H2/Ar 422
4. Etch Profile And Etched Surface Morphology 424
5. Plasma-Induced Damage 425
5.1. n-GaN 426
5.2. p-GaN 430
5.3. Schottky Diodes 434
5.4. p-n Junctions 438
6. Device Processing 441
6.1. Microdisk Lasers 441
6.2. Ridge Waveguide Lasers 441
6.3. Heterojunction Bipolar Transistors 443
6.4. Field Effect Transistors 446
6.5. UV Detectors 448
Acknowledgments 450
References 450
Chapter 9. RESIDUAL STRESSES IN PHYSICALLY VAPOR-DEPOSITED THIN FILMS 455
1. Introduction 455
2. Microstructure and Morphology of PVD Thin Films 457
2.1. Nucleation and Growth Modes of PVD Thin Films 457
2.2. Effect of Energetic Particle Condensation and/or Bombardment on Nucleation and Early
Stages of the Growth of Films 458
2.3. Structure-Zone Models 459
2.4. Major Physical Parameters Affecting the Microstructure of PVD Films 462
3. Magnitude of Residual Stresses in PVD Thin Films 470
3.1. Determination of Residual Stresses from the Radius of Curvature of Substrates 470
3.2. Determination of Residual Stresses Using X-Ray Diffraction Techniques 474
3.3. Magnitude of Residual Stresses in Multilayer Structures 477
3.4. Mechanical Stability of PVD Thin Films 478
4. Origin of Residual Stresses in PVD Thin Films 482
4.1. Thermal Stresses 482
4.2. Intrinsic Stresses 484
4.3. Extrinsic Stresses 490
5. Effect of Major Process Parameters on the Intrinsic Stress 492
5.1. Pressure Effect 493
5.2. Substrate Bias Voltage Effect 494
5.3. Substrate Temperature Effect 495
6. Data on Residual Stresses in PVD Thin Films 497
6.1. Residual Stresses in Silicon Dioxide Films Prepared by Thermal Evaporation 497
6.2. Residual Stresses in Silicon Dioxide Films Produced by Ion-Assisted Deposition 505
6.3. Residual Stresses in Silicon Oxynitride Films Produced by Dual Ion Beam Sputtering 507
6.4. Amorphous Carbon Films Deposited by Conventional Magnetron Sputtering on Grounded
Substrates 510
6.5. Amorphous Carbon Films Deposited by Conventional and Unbalanced Magnetron
Sputtering on Biased Substrates 515
7. Summary and Conclusion 519
References 520
Chapter 10. LANGMUIR-BLODGETT FILMS OF BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES 523
1. Introduction 523
2. Principles of the Langmuir-Blodgett Technique 524
2.1. Monolayers at the Air-Water Interface 524
2.2. Monolayer Transfer onto Solid Substrates 526
3. Techniques for Studying Monolayers and LB Films 528
3.1. Monolayers at the Air-Water Interface 528
3.2. LB Films on Solid Supports 529
4. Protein Films 533
4.1. Protein Monolayers at the Air-Water Interface 533
4.2. Monolayer Transfer 538
4.3. Protein Layers on Solid Substrates 538
4.4. Thermal Stability of Proteins in LB Films 543
5. Conclusions 544
Acknowledgment 545
References 545
Chapter 11. STRUCTURE FORMATION DURING ELECTROCRYSTALLIZATION OF METAL FILMS 559
1. Introduction 559
2. Classification of the Structural Defects in Electrodeposits 560
3. Mechanism of Formation of Structural Defects during Noncoherent Nucleation 563
4. Classical Theory of Noncoherent Nucleation 566
5. Atomistic Analysis of Noncoherent Nucleation 570
6. Factors Influencing the Structure of Electrodeposits (Theoretical and Experimental Results) 574
6.1. Influence of the Crystallization Overvoltage on the Structure of Electrodeposits 574
6.2. Influence of the Foreign Particle Adsorption on the Structure of Electrodeposits 576
6.3. Influence of the Nature of Metals on the Formation of the Polycrystalline Structure of the
Deposit during Electrocrystallization 580
7. Mechanism of Multitwinning 582
8. Conclusions 584
Acknowledgment 585
References 585
Chapter 12. EPITAXIAL THIN FILMS OF INTERMETALLIC COMPOUNDS 587
1. Introduction 587
2. MBE Growth of Intermetallic Compounds 588
2.1. Intermetallic Compounds: Definition of Terms 588
2.2. Equipment 588
2.3. General Considerations in Compound Growth 593
2.4. Phase Stabilization and Orientation Selection 594
2.5. Epitaxial Strain 601
2.6. Morphological Aspects 604
3. Selected Applications in Basic and Applied Research 608
3.1. Superconductivity in UPd 2AI 3 608
3.2. Magnetoelastic Coupling Effects in RFe2 611
3.3. Magnetization Reversal of Ultrathin Co-Pt Heterostructures 615
3.4. Intermetallic Compounds for Magnetooptics 618
3.5. Exchange Anisotropy with Metallic Antiferromagnets 618
3.6. Antiferromagnetic Order Parameter Nucleation on a Thin Film Surface 619
3.7. Order-Disorder Phenomena 620
4. Outlook 623
Acknowledgments 623
References 624
Chapter 13. PULSED LASER DEPOSITION OF THIN FILMS: EXPECTATIONS AND REALITY 627
1. Introduction 627
2. Composition of Pulsed Laser-Deposited Films 629
2.1. Dependence of the Composition of PLD Films on Laser and Deposition Processing Parameters 630
2.2. Dependence of the Composition of PLD Films on the Evaporating Material 631
2.3. Experimental Details of Pilyankevich et al 634
2.4. Formation of PLD Film Composition 643
2.5. Conclusions 650
3. Structure of PLD Films 651
3.1. Factors Influencing the PLD Film Structure 651
3.2. Role of Molecules and Larger Clusters 651
3.3. Gas-Phase Clustering 652
3.4. Crystallization Temperature as an Index of Film Structure 'Perfection' 653
3.5. Influence of Laser Parameters and Substrate Temperature on Epitaxial Growth of PLD Films 655
3.6. Ways to Control the PLD Film Structure 658
3.7. Conclusions 659
4. Polymorphism in PLD Films 659
4.1. Polymorphism of PLD Carbon Films 659
4.2. Polymorphism of Boron Nitride Films 660
4.3. Polymorphism of Silicon Carbide Films 661
4.4. Conclusions 661
5. Macrodefects in PLD Films 661
5.1. Mechanisms of Splashing 661
5.2. Elimination of Particulates 662
5.3. Determination of Vapor Portion in Products of Laser-Ablated Metals 662
5.4. Conclusions 666
6. Influence of Target Properties on Some Features of PLD Compound Films 666
6.1. Role of Target Thermal Conductivity in Compound Film Property Formation 667
6.2. Powder Targets: Mechanisms of Particulate Generation 668
6.3. Conclusions 670
7. General Conclusions 670
Acknowledgments 671
References 671
Chapter 14. SINGLE-CRYSTAL fl'-ALUMINA FILMS 675
1. Introduction 675
2. Review of the Literature on Large-Area Thin Films of flf'/fl-A1203 677
3. Na-fl1 -A1203 Single-Crystal Film Growth 677
3.1. Sapphire Substrate 678
3.2. Vaporization Source 679
3.3. Alkali Vapor-Sapphire Substrate Reactions 679
3.4. /3I -A1203 Film Growth Kinetics 681
4. Single-Crystal Film Characterization 681
4.1. X-Ray Diffraction 682
4.2. Microscopy 682
4.3. Structural Transformation from a- to fl' -A1203 684
5. Na-fl1 -A1203-Coated, a-A120 3 Single-Crystal Platelets 687
6. The Growth of K-/3 -A1203 Single-Crystal Films 688
7. Ion Exchange Preparation of Other flt1-Al203 Isomorphs in Single-Crystal Film Form 689
7.1. Ion Exchange 689
7.2. The Optical Refractivity of/3 -A1203 Isomorphs 691
8. Luminescence Investigation of Cu+-Doped, Single-Crystal/3 -A1203 Films 691
8.1. Luminescence 691
8.2. Luminescence Patterning of Single-Crystal/31 -A1203 Films 692
9. Summary 694
10. Appendix 694
10.1. /3 - and fl-A1203 Isomorphs 694
10.2. Optical Refractivity of/3 ' - and fl-A1203 695
10.3. Luminescence of Activated/3 ' (13)-A1203 697
Acknowledgment 697
References 697
VOLUME 2: CHARACTERIZATION AND SPECTROSCOPY OF THIN FILMS
Chapter 1. CLASSIFICATION OF CLUSTER MORPHOLOGIES
1. Structures Developing during Film Growth 1
1.1. Early Growth Morphology 1
1.2. Coherent Clustering Morphologies 18
1.3. Coalescence and Percolation 33
2. Structures Developing after Completed Deposition 40
2.1. Lifshitz-Slyozov-Wagner Model for Clustering on Surfaces 40
2.2. Early Stage Phase Separation Morphologies 43
2.3. Late Stage Ripening Morphologies 45
2.4. Transition between Ripening and Coalescence 54
References 55
Chapter 2. BAND STRUCTURE AND ORIENTATION OF MOLECULAR ADSORBATES ON SURFACES BY ANGLE-RESOLVED ELECTRON SPECTROSCOPIES 61
1. Introduction 62
2. Crystallinity and the Reciprocal Lattice 62
3. Experimental Measurements of Electronic Band Structure 62
3.1. Photoemission 62
3.2. Inverse Photoemission 63
4. Symmetry and Selection Rules 64
5. Band Dispersion 67
6. Carbon Monoxide Monolayers 69
7. Molecular Nitrogen 71
8. Nitrosyl Bonding 74
9. Molecular Oxygen 75
10. Di-Halogen Adsorption 77
11. Ammonia 78
12. Water 79
13. NO2, SO2, CO2 79
14. Formate 80
15. Methanol (Methoxy), Methanethiol (Thiolate), and Related Species 80
16. Ethylene and Acetylene 82
17. Cyanogen and CN 84
18. Benzene, Pyridine, and Small Aromatics 84
19. Carboranes 87
20. Metallocenes 89
21. Phthalocyanines and Porphyrins 90
22. Large Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Organic Species 92
23. Organic Polymers and 'One' Dimensional Conductors 97
23.1. Polystyrene 98
23.2. Poly(2-vinylnaphthalene) 98
23.3. Poly(tetrafluoroethylene) 99
23.4. Polyvinylidene Fluoride-Trifluoroethylene Copolymers 99
23.5. Polyimides 100
23.6. Polythiophenes 100
23.7. Organometallic Polymers 101
23.8. Tetrathiafuvalene-Tetracyanoquinodimethane 101
24. Band Structure of Buckyball Films on Metals and Semiconductors 103
25. Conclusion 105
Acknowledgments 106
References 106
Chapter 3. SUPERHARD COATINGS IN C- B - N SYSTEMS: GROWTH AND CHARACTERIZATION 115
1. Introduction 115
2. Diamond 116
2.1. Introduction 116
2.2. Deposition of Diamond Films 119
2.3. Characterization of Diamond Films 129
2.4. Diamond Deposition on Cutting Tool Materials 140
2.5. Conclusions 147
3. Cubic Boron Nitride 147
3.1. Introduction 147
3.2. Phases of Boron Nitride 148
3.3. Cubic Boron Nitride Synthesis 149
3.4. Growth Mechanism 152
3.5. Characterization Techniques 153
3.6. Mechanical Properties 156
3.7. Some Issues on the Formation of cBN Films 157
3.8. Conclusions 159
4. Carbon Nitride Thin Films 159
4.1. Introduction 159
4.2. Phases of Carbon Nitride 160
4.3. Carbon Nitride Synthesis 162
4.4. Characterization of Carbon Nitride Films 167
4.5. Mechanical and Tribological Properties 172
4.6. Some Interesting Results on Carbon Nitride 173
4.7. Conclusions 180
Acknowledgments 181
References 181
Chapter 4. ATR SPECTROSCOPY OF THIN FILMS 191
1. Introduction 191
2. Fundamental Theory 192
2.1. Plane Electromagnetic Wave in an Absorbing Medium 192
2.2. Reflection and Refraction 195
2.3. Total Reflection and Attenuated Total Reflection 197
3. Orientation Measurements 205
3.1. Uniaxial Alignment 205
4. Special Experimental Techniques 211
4.1. Single-Beam-Sample-Reference Technique 211
4.2. Modulated Excitation Spectroscopy 212
5. Applications 216
5.1. Model Biomembranes 216
5.2. Heterogeneous Catalysis by Metals 219
5.3. Temperature Modulated Excitation of a Hydrated Poly-L-Lysine Film 224
5.4. Aqueous Solutions 225
6. Conclusions 226
Appendix: Weak-Absorption Approximation 227
References 227
Chapter 5. ION-BEAM CHARACTERIZATION IN SUPERLATTICES 231
1. Introduction 231
2. Rutherford Backscattering Spectrometry (RBS) 232
2.1. Introduction 232
2.2. Instrumentation 233
2.3. Basic Concepts and Basic Calculations in RBS Analysis 234
2.4. Non-Rutherford Elastic Scattering 240
3. Ion-Beam Channeling Technique 241
3.1. Ion-Beam Channeling Effect in Single Crystals 241
3.2. Basic Concepts in Ion-Beam Channeling Effect 242
3.3. Experimental Procedure for Aligning the Axis of the Crystal to the Incident Beam 248
3.4. Analysis of Defects in Single Crystals 249
3.5. Examples of the Applications of RBS-Channeling Technique in Materials Analysis 254
4. Application of Ion-Beam Techniques to Superlattice (I) 257
4.1. Interdiffusion in Superlattice Studied by RBS-Channeling 257
4.2. Study the Structural Change in Fe/Cr GMR Superlattice 260
4.3. Characterization of Superlattice Containing Sb g-Layers by Medium Energy RBS 262
4.4. Characterization of Shallow Superlattices by TOF-MEIS Technique 264
4.5. Characterization of Ion Effects in Superlattices 265
5. Application of Ion-Beam Techniques to Superlattice (II) 266
5.1. Kink Angle AqJ and Strain in Superlattice 266
5.2. Axial Dechanneling Analysis of Strain 267
5.3. Strain Measurement by Channeling Angular Scan Analysis 268
5.4. Strain Measurement by Planar Dechanneling Analysis 269
5.5. Steering Effect 272
References 274
Chapter 6. IN SITU AND REAL-TIME SPECTROSCOPIC ELLIPSOMETRY STUDIES: CARBON BASED AND METALLIC TiNx THIN FILMS GROWTH 277
1. Introduction 277
2. Theoretical Background of Ellipsometry for Study of the Properties of Materials 279
2.1. Ellipsometry in Bulk Materials and Macroscopic Dielectric Function 279
2.2. Ellipsometry in Thin Film Systems 282
3. Macroscopic Dielectric Function, Effective-Medium Theory, and Microscopic Surface Roughness 283
4. Ellipsometric Techniques and Extension of Ellipsometry from the IR to the Deep UV Range 285
4.1. Rotating Analyzer Spectroscopic Ellipsometry 285
4.2. Phase-Modulated Spectroscopic Ellipsometry 286
4.3. Ellipsometry in the IR and Deep UV Energy Regions 287
5. Ellipsometric Studies of Carbon-Based Thin Films 290
5.1. The Dielectric Function of a-C:H Films in the Energy Region 1.5 to 10 eV 291
5.2. Graphitization of a-C:H Films during Annealing 292
5.3. Dielectric Function of Amorphous Carbon Materials with Various Bonding 293
5.4. Real-Time Ellipsometry to Optimize the Growth of Sputtered a-C Films 294
5.5. In Situ Spectroscopic Ellipsometry to Study the Optical Properties and Bonding of a-C Films 298
5.6. Multiwavelength Real-Time Ellipsometry to Study the Kinetics of the Growth of Carbon-Based Films Deposited with Sputtering Techniques 303
5.7. Study of Carbon Nitride Films with FTIR Spectroscopic Ellipsometry 307
6. Optical Characterization and Real-Time Monitoring of the Growth of Metallic TiNx Films 312
6.1. The Dielectric Function of TiNx Films 312
6.2. Optical Response of TiNx Films and Correlation with Stoichiometry 313
6.3. Study of the Stoichiometry of TiNx Films by Spectroscopic Ellipsometry 316
6.4. Electronic and Microstructural Features of TiNx Films 317
6.5. Multiavelength Real-Time Ellipsometry of TiNx Films Prepared by Unbalanced Magnetron Sputtering 322
6.6. Oxidation Study of TiNx Films 324
7. Summary and Conclusions 326
Acknowledgments 328
References 328
Chapter 7. IN SITU FARADAY-MODULATED FAST-NULLING SINGLE-WAVELENGTH ELLIPSOMETRY OF THE GROWTH OF SEMICONDUCTOR, DIELECTRIC, AND METAL THIN FILMS 331
1. Introduction to Ellipsometry 332
1.1. Ellipsometry and Fresnel Coefficients 332
1.2. Reflection of Light by a Single Film 333
1.3. Method of Summation 333
1.4. Method of Resultant Waves 333
1.5. Principles of Ellipsometry and Null Ellipsometry 334
1.6. Operation of the EXACTA 2000 Faraday-Modulated Single-Wavelength Ellipsometer 334
1.7. What a Single-Wavelength Nulling Ellipsometer Can Measure 335
1.8. Advantages-Disadvantages of Using a Spectral Ellipsometer for In Situ Measurements 336
1.9. Practical Considerations for In Situ Ellipsometry 337
1.10. Simulations of P-A Trajectories 338
2. Experimental Techniques 341
2.1. Introduction 341
2.2. The Pulsed Laser Evaporation and Epitaxy System 341
2.3. The Magnetron Sputtering System 342
2.4. Fitting Procedure for Ellipsometric P-A Trajectories 343
2.5. Validity of the Use of a Pseudosubstrate Approximation 344
3. ExperimentalResults 346
3.1. Experimental Results for PLEE System 346
3.2. Experimental Results for MS System 355
4. Conclusions 365
Appendix A: Method of Summation 366
Appendix B: Method of Resultant Waves 367
B 1. Single Layer on a Substrate 367
B2. Reflection Coefficients of Multilayer Structures 368
Appendix C: Relation between Ellipsometric Parameters A and and the Null Ellipsometer
Variables P and A 370
References 372
Chapter 8. PHOTOCURRENT SPECTROSCOPY OF THIN PASSIVE FILMS 371
1. Introduction 373
2. Metal-Electrolyte and Semiconductor-Electrolyte Interfaces 376
2.1. The Structure of M/E1 and SC/E1 Interfaces at Equilibrium 376
2.2. Determination of the Space-Charge Width in Crystalline SCs and the Mott-Schottky Equation 377
2.3. Photocurrent-vs-Potential Curves for Crystalline SC/E1 Junctions: The G irtner-Butler Model 379
3. The Passive-Film-Electrolyte Interface 381
3.1. Electronic Properties of Disordered Passive Films 382
3.2. Optical Absorption and Photoelectrochemical Response of the Metal-Passive-Film-
Electrolyte Junction 386
3.3. Photocurrent-Potential Curves in Passive-Film-Electrolyte Junctions 394
4. Quantitative Use of PCS for the Characterization of Passive Films on Metals and Alloys 399
4.1. Semiempirical Correlation between the Optical Bandgap of Crystalline Oxides and
Their Composition 401
4.2. Generalized Correlations for Mixed Oxides and Passive Films on Binary Alloys 404
4.3. Correlations for Hydroxides and Oxyhydroxides 406
Acknowledgments 411
References 411
Chapter 9. ELECTRON ENERGY LOSS SPECTROSCOPY FOR SURFACE STUDY 415
1. Introduction 415
2. General Scattering Theory 416
2.1. Potential Scattering Theory 416
2.2. Formal Scattering Theory 419
2.3. Site T Matrix Expansion 422
3. Many-Body Electron Scattering Theory 425
3.1. Basic Theory of Electron Scattering 425
3.2. Elastic Scattering 426
3.3. Inelastic Scattering 427
3.4. Inclusion of the Direct Exchange Effects 429
3.5. Processes that Do Not Conserve the Number of Scattering Electrons 430
3.6. Fukutome-Low Scattering Theory 430
4. Optical Potentials 432
4.1. Relation to the Francis-Watson Optical Potential 432
4.2. Comparison with the G W Approximation of the Optical Potential 433
4.3. Quasi-boson Representation for the Optical Potential 434
4.4. Atomic Optical Potential in Solids 434
5. Theory of Deep Core Excitation EELS 441
5.1. Basic Formulas of Deep Core Excitation EELS 441
5.2. Suppression of Loss Structures 443
5.3. Multiple Scattering Expansion of a Secondary Excited Electron 444
5.4. Multiple Scattering Expansion of a Probe Electron 447
6. Thermal Effects on EELFS 456
6.1. Perturbation Approach to the EELFS and EXAFS Debye-Waller Factors 457
6.2. Path-Integral Approaches to EELFS and EXAFS Debye-Waller Factors 465
6.3. Spherical Wave Effects on EELFS and XAFS Debye-Waller Factors 471
7. Concluding Remarks 475
Acknowledgments 475
References 475
Chapter 10. THEORY OF LOW-ENERGY ELECTRON DIFFRACTION AND PHOTOELECTRON SPECTROSCOPY FROM ULTRA-THIN FILMS 479
1. Introduction 479
2. Thin Films and Quantized Electronic States 480
2.1. Films, Substrates, and Lattices 480
2.2. Quantum-Well States 481
3. Low-Energy Electron Diffraction 487
3.1. Introduction and History 487
3.2. Theories 489
3.3. Application: Quantum-Well Resonances in Ferromagnetic Co Films 501
4. Photoelectron Spectroscopy 505
4.1. Introduction and History 505
4.2. Theory 507
4.3. Applications 516
Acknowledgments 524
References 524
Chapter 11. IN SITU SYNCHROTRON STRUCTURAL STUDIES OF THE GROWTH OF OXIDES AND METALS 527
1. Introduction 527
2. Experimental Techniques 529
2.1. Introduction: Particularities of Metal/Oxide Studies 529
2.2. Refraction from Surfaces 530
2.3. Grazing Incidence X-Ray Diffraction 531
2.4. Grazing Incidence Small-Angle X-Ray Scattering 537
3. Preparation and Structure of Clean Surfaces 538
3.1. Specific Considerations 538
3.2. MgO(001) 539
3.3. c -A1203(0001)-(1 • 1) and Its Reconstructions 541
3.4. NiO(111) 545
3.5. CoO(lll) 549
4. Model Metal/Oxide Systems 553
4.1. Ag/MgO(001) 553
4.2. Pd/MgO(001) 564
4.3. Ni/MgO(001) 568
4.4. Comparison between the Different Metal/MgO(001) Interfaces 571
5. Exchange-Coupled Systems 572
5.1. Specific Considerations: Magnetism Versus Metal/Oxide 572
5.2. Co/NiO(111) 574
5.3. Ni80Fe20/NiO(111) 580
6. Growth of Nickel Oxide 585
6.1. NiO(111)/c -A12 03 (0001) 585
6.2. NiO(111)/Au(111) 589
7. Conclusions 592
Acknowledgments 592
References 593
Chapter 12. OPERATOR FORMALISM IN POLARIZATION-NONLINEAR OPTICS AND SPECTROSCOPY OF POLARIZATION-INHOMOGENEOUS MEDIA 597
1. Fundamentals of the Theory of Ineraction of Vector Light Fields with Nonlinear Media 598
2. Tensor-Operator Approach to the Description of Photoanisotropic Media 599
3. Fedorov's Light Beam Tensor Formalism for Description of Vector Field Polarization 602
4. Propagation of Polarized Radiation in an Anisotropic Medium: Evolution of Probe Wave Intensity 605
5. Saturation Spectroscopy 606
6. Nonlinear Polarization Spectroscopy 606
6.1. Wave Operator Formalism 608
6.2. Reflection from Media with Light-Induced Anisotropy 609
6.3. Reflection Configuration for a Nonlinear Polarization Spectroscopy Detection Scheme 611
6.4. Noncollinear Geometry in Polarization-Sensitive Spectroscopy 612
7. Spectroscopy of Optical Mixing 612
7.1. Linearly and Circularly Polarized Pump and Probe Waves 612
7.2. Elliptically Polarized Interacting Waves 615
8. Principle of Nonlinear Spectroscopic Ellipsometry 616
8.1. Polarization Changes of the Probe Wave during Propagation in a Medium with Light-Induced Anisotropy 616
9. Numerical Evaluation of an Effective Nonlinear Susceptibility in the Framework of NSE 619
10. The Concept of Normal Waves in Photoanisotropic Media 619
10.1. Real K 620
10.2. Small K or Nearly Linear Polarization 621
10.3. Non-Collinear EllipticaUy Polarized Pump Wave 621
11. Method of Combination Waves in NSE 624
11.1. Codirected Pump and Probe Waves 624
11.2. Noncollinear Geometry of Interacting Waves 625
11.3. Informativeness of a Variant NSE Based on the Measurement of the Ratio of Eigenvalues of the Tensor of Parametric Coupling 627
12. Nonlinear Optical Ellipsometer 628
13. Nonlinear Light-Induced Anisotropy of an Isotropic Medium with Partially Polarized Light 629
13.1. Saturation Spectroscopy 630
13.2. Nonlinear Polarization Spectroscopy 630
13.3. Spectroscopy of Optical Mixing 631
13.4. Linear Pumping 632
13.5. Circular Pumping , 632
14. Methods for Measuring Nonlinear Susceptibility 633
Acknowledgments 634
References 634
Chapter 13. SECONDARY ION MASS SPECTROMETRY AND ITS APPLICATION TO THIN FILM CHARACTERIZATION 637
1. Introduction 638
2. Fundamentals of the SIMS Technique 639
2.1. Basic Characteristics 639
2.2. Bombardment, Recoil, and the Sputtering Processes 640
2.3. Energy and Angular Distribution of Sputtered Ions and Ion Yields 641
2.4. Topographic and Compositional Damage During Bombardment 641
3. Fractionation Effects 643
3.1. Energy-Related Mass Fractionation 643
3.2. Preferential Sputtering at the Initial Stages of Sputtering 643
3.3. Matrix Effects 644
3.4. Other Fractionation Effects 644
4. Instrumentation 644
4.1. Basics of a SIMS Instrument 644
4.2. Theoretical Background 645
4.3. Primary Ion Beams and Ion Guns 645
4.4. The Sample System and Secondary Ion Optics 646
4.5. Mass Analyzer 646
4.6. Detection System 647
4.7. Electron Gun and Charge Compensation 647
4.8. Control System and Other Units 648
4.9. Modes of Operation 648
5. Factors Characterizing a SIMS Instrument 648
5.1. Instrumental Transmission and Detection Efficiency 648
5.2. Mass Resolving Power, Mass Resolution, and Peak Interference 649
5.3. Abundance Sensitivity 649
6. Quantification 650
6.1. Theoretical Background 650
6.2. Computational Models for Quantification 651
6.3. Practical Methods of Quantification 652
6.4. Other Tools and Methods of Quantification 654
7. Depth Profiling 655
7.1. General 655
7.2. Some Fundamental Relationships 656
7.3. Quantitative Depth Profiling 657
7.4. Depth Calibration Methods 659
7.5. High Depth Resolution 660
8. Ion Imaging with SIMS 664
9. Applications to Thin Film Characterization 664
9.1. Introduction 664
9.2. Characterization and Optimization of Materials and Processes by SIMS 665
9.3. Superconducting Materials 668
9.4. Applications in Electronics, Optoelectronics, and Light Sensors 671
9.5. Other Technological Materials 674
References 680
Chapter 14. A SOLID-STATE APPROACH TO LANGMUIR MONOLAYERS, THEIR PHASES, PHASE TRANSITIONS, AND DESIGN 685
1. Introduction 686
1.1. General Characterization of Phases 686
1.2. Representative Phase Diagrams 687
1.3. Order Parameters 689
2. Molecular Model Building 691
2.1. Rotational Potential 692
2.2. Translational-Rotational Coupling 694
2.3. Translational Potential 695
3. Thermodynamics 695
3.1. Effective Orientational Potential 695
3.2. Orientational Instabilities 696
3.3. Thermoelastic and Structural Instabilities 699
4. Ferroelasticity of Langmuir Monolayers 700
4.1. Strain-State Calculations For Stearic Acid: An Illustration of Translational-Rotational Coupling 700
4.2. Elastic Dipoles as a Measure of Orientational Fluctuations 705
4.3. Elastic Domains in Mesophases 708
4.4. Elastic Dipole Density Correlation 709
4.5. Ferroelasticity in a Quasi-Two-Dimensional System 710
5. Free Energy and Order Parameters 711
5.1. Generalized Free Energy Expansion 711
5.2. Natural Order Parameters: Dipolar and Quadrupolar 713
5.3. Observations on the Microscopic Development of Order Parameters 715
6. Application of the General Theory 715
6.1. Generalized Free Energy Expansion 715
6.2. The Orientational Entropy 716
6.3. The Swiveling Transition (L 2 L ) 717
6.4. An Internal Stress Effect 718
6.5. Calculations 718
7. Extensions of the Solid-State Theory of Langmuir Film Phases 720
7.1. Implications for Elastic Properties 720
7.2. Implications for Diffuse X-Ray Scattering 721
8. Computer Simulations 722
8.1. Calculation of Packing of Model Amphiphiles and Selected Fatty Acids 722
8.2. Control of Planar Packing by the Design of an Amphiphile's Cross Section 723
8.3. Cross Section Potentials 724
8.4. Extension of the Cross Section Potential to Simulation of the S LS Transition 725
8.5. Bead Potentials 726
9. Closing Remarks on the Solid-State Model for Langmuir Films 728
10. Appendix 730
10.1. Symmetry Aspects of the 2-D Hexagonal Close-Packed Lattice 730
10.2. The Local Stress Correlation Function 731
Acknowledgments 731
References 731
Chapter 15. SOLID STATE NMR OF BIOMOLECULES 735
1. Introduction 735
2. Fundamentals of Solid State NMR Spectroscopy 735
2.1. Description of Spin Dynamics Using the Density Operator Formalism [ 1, 2] 735
2.2. Internal Interaction 736
3. Solid State NMR Techniques 739
3.1. Cross-Polarization and Magic Angle Spinning 739
3.2. Quadrupole Echo Measurements 740
3.3. Interatomic Distance Measurements 741
3.4. Oriented Biomembranes 747
4. Application of Solid State NMR to Biomolecules 749
4.1. Three-Dimensional Structure of Peptides and Proteins 749
4.2. Dynamics of Peptides and Proteins 751
4.3. Membrane-Bound Peptide 751
4.4. Membrane Protein 755
4.5. Fibril Structure of Amyloid and Related Biomolecules 757
5. Concluding Remarks 759
References 759
VOLUME 3: FERROELECTRIC AND DIELECTRIC THIN FILMS
Chapter 1. THE ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF HIGH-DIELECTRIC-CONSTANT AND FERROELECTRIC THINFILMS FOR VERY LARGE SCALE INTEGRATION CIRCUITS 1
1. Introduction 2
1.1. Scaling of Very Large Scale Integration Circuits 2
1.2. Applications of High-Dielectric-Constant Films 5
1.3. Applications of Ferroelectric Films 5
2. High-Dielectric-Constant Films: Tantalum Oxide (Ta2Os) 7
2.1. Dynamic Random-Access Memory Applications 8
2.2. Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor Gate Dielectric Applications 8
2.3. Physical Properties of Ta205 Thin Films 10
2.4. Fabrication Processes of Ta 205 Thin Films 14
2.5. Leakage Current Mechanisms of Ta205 Thin Films 18
2.6. Dielectric Charges of Ta205 Thin Films 23
2.7. Dielectric Reliability ofTa205 ThinFilms 31
3. High-Dielectric-Constant Films: Silicon Nitride (Si3N4) 34
3.1. Fabrication Processes of Si3N 4 Thin Films 34
3.2. Leakage Current Mechanisms of Si3N4 Thin Films 35
3.3. C-V Characteristics of Si3N 4 Thin Films 37
3.4. Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor Gate Dielectric Applications of Si3N4 Thin Films 39
3.5. Dielectric Reliability 40
4. High-Dielectric-Constant Films: Titanium Oxide (TiO2) 40
4.1. Physical Properties of TiO2 Thin Films 40
4.2. Fabrication Processes of TiO2 Thin Films 44
4.3. Leakage Current Mechanisms of TiO2 Thin Films 45
4.4. C-V Characteristics of TiO2 Thin Films 47
4.5. Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor Gate Dielectric Applications of TiO2 Thin Films 48
4.6. Dielectric Reliability of TiO2 Thin Films 49
5. Other High-Dielectric-Constant Films: A1203, Y203, HfO 2, ZrO2, and Gd203 50
5.1. Aluminum Oxide (A1203) 50
5.2. Yttrium Oxide (Y203) 52
5.3. Zirconium Oxide (ZrO2) 53
5.4. Hafnium Oxide (HfO2) 56
5.5. Gadolinium Oxide (Gd203) 57
6 Ferroelectric Films: Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT) 57
6.1. Physical Properties of PZT Thin Films 58
6.2. Electrical Characteristics of PZT Thin Films 59
6.3. Very Large Scale integration Applications of PZT Thin Films 67
6.4. Reliability Issues of PZT Thin Films 67
7. Paraelectric Films: Barium Strontium Titanate (BST) 71
7.1. Physical Properties of BST Thin Films 71
7.2. Dielectric Properties of BST Thin Films 71
7.3. Electrical Characteristics of BST Thin Films 71
7.4. Very Large Scale Integration Circuit Applications of BST Thin Films 76
7.5. Reliability Issues of BST Thin Films 77
8. Ferroelectric Films: Strontium Bismuth Tantalate (SBT) 78
8.1. Physical Properties of SBT Thin Films 78
8.2. Electrical Characteristics of SBT Thin Films 79
8.3. Very Large Scale Integration Circuit Applications of SBT Thin Films 80
8.4. Reliability Issues of SBT Thin Films 80
9. Other Ferroelectric and Paraelectric Films 82
9.1. Barium Titanate (BaTiO3) 83
9.2. Strontium Titanate(SrTiO3) 83
9.3. Lead Titanate (PbTiO3) 85
9.4. Lead Lanthanum Titanate [(Pb, La)TiO3] 85
9.5. Lead Lanthanum Zirconate Titanate (PLZT) 86
10. Metal-Ferroelectric-Insulator-SemiconductorS tructures 87
10.1. Memory Applications 87
10.2. Metal-Ferroelectric-Insulator-SemiconductorC apacitors 87
10.3. Metal-Ferroelectric-SemiconductorF ield Effect Transistors 89
10.4. Metal-Ferroelectric-Insulator-SemiconductorF ield Effect Transistors 90
11. Conclusion 91
Acknowledgments 91
References 91
Chapter 2. HIGH-PERMITTIVITY (Ba, Sr)TiO3 THIN FILMS 99
1. Introduction 100
1.1. General Background 100
1.2. High-Permittivity Films for ULSI DRAM Capacitor Applications 100
2. Thin Film Deposition 105
2.1. Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) 105
2.2. Atmospheric Pressure Chemical Vapor Deposition Reactors (APCVDs) 106
2.3. Low-Pressure Chemical Vapor Deposition (LPCVD) 106
2.4. Metal-Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition (MOCVD) 106
2.5. Rapid Thermal Low-Pressure Metal-Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition (RT-LPMOCVD) 106
2.6. Plasma-Enhanced Metal-Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition (PE-MOCVD) 106
2.7. Photon-Induced Chemical Vapor Deposition (PHCVD) 107
2.8. Electron Cyclotron Resonance Plasma Chemical Vapor Deposition (ECR-CVD) 107
2.9. Liquid Source Chemical Vapor Deposition 107
2.10. Sputtering 108
2.11. Pulsed Laser Ablation 109
2.12. Sol-Gel Method 109
2.13. Rapid Thermal Annealing 111
3. Physical and Electrical Properties of BST Thin Films 111
3.1. Factors that Influence BST Thin Film Properties 111
4. Conduction Mechanisms 123
5. Dielectric Relaxation and Defect Analysis of BST Thin Films 129
6. Reliability 136
7. Key Technologies for Gigabit DRAMs 140
7.1. Cell Structure and Cell Technology 140
7.2. Lithography 141
7.3. Device Technology 141
7.4. Metallization 142
7.5. Integration Issues 142
8. Optical Properties 143
8.1. Refractive Index and Dispersion Parameters 144
8.2. Packing Density of Film 149
8.3. Optical Band Gap 149
8.4. Homogeneity of the Film 151
9. Other Possible Applications 151
9.1. Hydrogen Gas Sensors 151
9.2. Pyroelectric Sensors 153
9.3. A Dielectric Layer in a Thin Film Electroluminescent (TFEL) Device 154
9.4. Microwave Phase Shifters and Voltage Tunable Devices 157
10. Summary 159
References 160
Chapter 3. ULTRATHIN GATE DIELECTRIC FILMS FOR Si-BASED MICROELECTRONIC DEVICES 169
1. Introduction 169
2. Requirements of Ultrathin Gate Dielectric Films 172
3. Ultrathin Gate Dielectric Film Processing 172
3.1. Silicon Wafer Cleaning 172
3.2. Thermal Growth of Gate Dielectrics 173
3.3. Hyperthermal Processing of Gate Dielectrics 174
3.4. Physical orChemical Deposition of Gate Dielectrics 176
4. Characterization of Ultrathin Gate Dielectric Films 176
4.1. Electrical Characterization 176
4.2. Physicochemical Characterization 180
5. Hydrogen and Ultrathin Gate Dielectric Films 189
6. Silicon Oxide Gate Dielectric Films 192
6.1. Electrical Characteristics 192
6.2. Physicochemical Characteristics and the Silicon Oxidation Process 198
6.3. Remarks and Limitations Concerning Ultrathin Silicon Oxide Films as Gate Dielectrics 204
7. Silicon Oxynitride Gate Dielectric Films 205
7.1. Preparation Methods 206
7.2. Electrical Characteristics 207
7.3. Physicochemical Characteristics and Mechanistic Aspects 209
7.4. Hyperthermal and Deposition Methods 214
7.5. Remarks and Limitations Concerning Ultrathin Silicon Oxynitride Films as Gate Dielectrics 215
8. Alternative (High-k) Gate Dielectric Films 216
8.1. Electrical Characteristics 218
8.2. Physicochemical Characteristics 220
8.3. Remarks and Perspectives Concerning Alternative (High-k) Materials as Gate Dielectrics 224
9. Final Remarks 224
Acknowledgments 225
References 225
Chapter 4. PIEZOELECTRIC THIN FILMS: PROCESSING AND PROPERTIES 231
1. Introduction 231
2. Piezoelectricity in Thin Films: Size Effects 234
2.1. Variation of Lattice Parameters and Asymmetry 234
2.2. Change of Ferroelectric Properties 236
2.3. Influence on Dielectric Constant and Its Temperature Dependence 236
3. Growth Techniques 238
3.1. Sputtering 238
3.2. Pulsed Laser Deposition 241
3.3. Sol-Gel Method 251
3.4. Chemical Vapor Deposition 254
4. Characterization Methods 256
4.1. X-Ray Analysis 256
4.2. Electron and Atomic Force Microscopy 258
4.3. Compositional Analysis 260
4.4. Piezoelectric, Dielectric, and Elastic Characterization 262
5. Properties of Piezoelectric Thin Films 266
5.1 Ferroelectric Thin Films 267
5.2. Nonferroelectric Piezoelectrics 291
6. Conclusions 304
Acknowledgments 304
References 304
Chapter 5. FABRICATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF FERROELECTRIC OXIDE THIN FILMS 309
1. Introduction 309
2. Overview of Basic Physical Properties of Ferroelectric Oxides 310
2.1. Structure of Ferroelectric Oxides 311
2.2. Physical Properties of Ferroelectric Oxides 316
3. Deposition of Ferroelectric Oxide Thin Films 317
3.1. Physical Vapor Deposition 318
3.2. Chemical Vapor Deposition 326
3.3. Chemical Solution Deposition 333
3.4. Epitaxy 339
4. Characterization of Ferroelectric Thin Films 344
4.1. Structural Characterization 344
4.2. Electrical Characterization 351
4.3. Optical Characterization 358
5. Summary and Concluding Remarks 359
References 360
Chapter 6. FERROELECTRIC THIN FILMS OF MODIFIED LEAD TITANATE 369
1. Introduction 369
2. Chemical Solution Deposition of Modified Lead Titanate Thin Films 371
2.1. Processing Considerations 371
2.2. Diol-Based Sol-Gel Method for the Fabrication of Modified Lead Titanate Thin Films 372
2.3. Remarks About Preparation of Ca-Modified Lead Titanate Thin Films 385
3. Ferroelectric Characterization Techniques 386
3.1. Measurement Techniques 386
3.2. Conditioning Effects 388
3.3. Improvements of Properties 390
3.4. Piezoelectric Measurements 394
4. Conclusions and Trends 394
Acknowledgments 395
References 395
Chapter 7. POINT DEFECTS IN THIN INSULATING FILMS OF LITHIUM FLUORIDE FOR OPTICAL MICROSYSTEMS 399
1. Preface 400
2. Lithium Fluoride: Material Properties 400
3. Color Centers in Lithium Fluoride Crystals 400
4. Laser Active Color Centers in Lithium Fluoride Crystals 401
4.1. Optical Gain Coefficients 402
5. Lithium Fluoride Films 403
6. Color Center Formation by Low-Penetrating Particles 403
7. Coloration of LiF by Low-Energy Electron Beams 403
8. Kinetics of Low-Energy Electron-Induced Color Center Formation 404
9. Refractive Index Modification Induced by Color Centers in LiF 406
10. What about 'Thin Films'? 407
11. Growth of Lithium Fluoride Films 407
11.1. LiF Films Grown on Amorphous Substrates 407
11.2. LiF Films Grown on Crystalline Substrates 410
11.3. A Special Substrate: NaF Films for Passive Optical Waveguides 411
12. Optical Absorption of Colored LiF Films 412
13. Photoluminescence of Colored LiF Films 413
14. Influence of LiF Film Structure on Color Center Formation 415
15. Nonlinear Optical Properties of Colored LiF Films 416
16. Design of Active Waveguides in LiF 418
17. Electron-Beam Lithography for Pattern Realization 418
18. CCs in Alkali Halide Films for Passive Optical Functions 420
18.1. Optical Mass Memories 420
18.2. Selective Optical Filters 420
19. CCs in Alkali Halide Films for Active Optical Functions 420
19.1. Broadband-Emitting Novel Materials 420
19.2. Active Optical Channel Waveguides 421
19.3. Silicon-Compatible Photo-Emitting Structures 422
19.4. Optical Microcavities Based on Electron-Irradiated LiF Films 422
19.5. Miniaturized Optical Amplifiers and Lasers 424
20. Optical Microscopy on LiF-Based Microstrnctures 426
21. Photoluminescence for Optical Microsystem Developments 428
22. Conclusions : 429
Acknowledgments 429
References 430
Chapter 8. POLARIZATIONSWITCHING OF FERROELECTRIC CRYSTALS 433
1. Introduction 433
1.1. Second Harmonic Generation in a Periodical Domain Reversal Structure 435
1.2. Ultrasonic Resonance in a Periodical Domain Reversal Structure 436
2. Processing of Single Domain Crystals 437
2.1. Czochralski Growth Method 437
2.2. Domain Characterization 440
2.3. Kinetics of Polarization Switching in the Low-Field Regime 442
2.4. Optical Characterization of Domain Switching 442
2.5. Electrical Characterization of Domain Switching in Low Coercive-Field Materials 446
3. Periodical Polarization Switching on Ferroelectrics with High Coercive Field 449
3.1. Heat-Induced Surface Domain Inversion 449
3.2. Diffusion-Induced Surface Domain Inversion 453
3.3. High-Energy Beam Poling Process 456
3.4. Bulk Periodical Domain Reversal: In Situ Growth Methods 457
3.5. Bulk Periodical Domain Reversal: Ex Situ Poling Methods 461
4. Conclusion 473
References 475
Chapter 9. HIGH-TEMPERATURE SUPERCONDUCTOR AND FERROELECTRIC THIN FILMS FOR MICROWAVE APPLICATIONS 481
1. Introduction 481
2. High-Temperature Superconducting Materials 482
2.1. Properties of High-Temperature Superconductors 482
2.2. High-Temperature Superconducting Thin Films 485
2.3. Characterization of High-Temperature Superconducting Thin Films 488
2.4. High-Temperature Superconductor Circuits 493
3. Introduction to Ferroelectric Materials 500
3.1. Structural Compatibility of Ferroelectrics with High-Temperature Superconducting Materials 501
3.2. Electrical and Microwave Properties of Ferroelectric Materials 501
3.3. High-Temperature Superconductor Ferroelectric Tunable Components 502
3.4. Tunable Ferroelectric Circuit Prototypes 507
4. Summary and Concluding Remarks 513
References 514
Chapter 10. TWINNING IN FERROELECTRIC THIN FILMS: THEORY AND STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 517
1. Introduction 517
2. Theory 521
2.1. Crystallography of Polydomain Formation 521
2.2. Thermodynamics of Polydomain Formation 522
2.3. Domain Stability Map 524
2.4. Effect of External Fields on the Domain Stability Map 525
2.5. Cellular Polytwin Architecture 527
2.6. Relaxation by Misfit Dislocations 528
3. Experimental Methods 529
3.1. Deposition Techniques 529
3.2. Crystallograplaic Characterization via XRD: Determination of Domain Fractions, Tilts, and Internal Stresses 530
3.3. Direct Imaging of Polydomain Structures 532
4. Correlation Between Experiment and Theory 532
4.1. Effect of Electrode Layers on the Polydomain Structure 533
4.2. Temperature Dependence of the Polydomain Structures 535
4.3. Thickness Dependence of Polydomain Structures 536
4.4. Three-Domain Architecture 537
4.5. Domain Stability Maps for BaTiO3 on (001) MgO, Si, and SrTiO3 539
5. Summary and Concluding Remarks 540
Acknowledgments 541
Appendix 541
References 542
Chapter 11. FERROELECTRIC POLYMER LANGMUIR-BLODGETT FILMS 545
1. Introduction 546
1.1. Ferroelectricity 546
1.2. Ferroelectric Polymers: Vinylidene Fluoride Copolymers 551
2. Langmuir-Blodgett Film Fabrication 555
2.1. LangmuirBlodgett Films 556
2.2. Langmuir-Blodgett Fabrication of Copolymer Films 557
2.3. Sample Preparation 559
3. Film Structure and Morphology 560
3.1. Monolayer Structure 560
3.2. Crystal Structure 561
3.3. Morphology 564
4. Ferroelectric Properties 565
4.1. The Ferroelectric Coercive Field 566
4.2. Dielectric Properties 570
4.3. Double Hysteresis and the Critical Point 575
4.4. Pyroelectric and Piezoelectric Properties 576
4.5. Two-Dimensional Ferroelectricity 579
4.6. Surface Phase Transition 581
4.7. Switching Dynamics 582
4.8. Other Results from Polar Langmuir-Blodgett Films 584
5. Applications of Ferroelectric Langmuir-Blodgett Films 586
5.1. Nonvolatile Memory 586
5.2. Wide-Band Imaging 587
5.3. Piezoelectric Transducers 587
5.4. Capacitors and Energy Storage 587
5.5. Fabrication Issues 588
6. Conclusions 588
Acknowledgments 588
References
Chapter 12. OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF DIELECTRIC AND SEMICONDUCTOR THIN FILMS 593
1. Theory 593
1.1. Historical Note 593
1.2. The General Problem 594
1.3. Light-Matter Interaction 596
1.4. Basic Formulae for Transmitted and Reflected Waves 599
1.5. Nonnormal Incidence and Linear-System Computations 606
1.6. The Effect of a Thick Substrate 607
1.7. Computational Filter Design 609
1.8. Optimization Algorithm for Thin Films 610
2. Applications of Thin Films 610
2.1. Antireflection Coatings 610
2.2. A Reverse Engineering Problem: The Retrieval of the Optical Constants and the
Thickness of Thin Films from Transmission Data 614
3. Conclusions 620
Acknowledgment 621
References 622
VOLUME 4: SEMICONDUCTOR AND SUPERCONDUCTOR THIN FILMS
Chapter 1. ELECTROCHEMICAL PASSIVATION OF Si AND SiGe SURFACES 1
1. Introduction 2
2. In Situ Characterization of Surface Bond Configurations and Electronic Surface States 3
2.1. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy-Attenuated Total Reflection 3
2.2. Pulsed Surface Photovoltage 6
2.3. Pulsed Photoluminescence 9
3. Electrochemically Hydrogenated Si Surfaces 12
3.1. Electrochemical Hydrogenation in Diluted HF Solutions 13
3.2. Hydrogenated Si Surfaces in Alkaline Solutions 16
3.3. Electronic States at Hydrogenated Si Surfaces 17
3.4. Role of the Etch Rate for Surface State Formation 19
3.5. Local Reconstruction and Origin of Surface States 21
4. Hydrogenated Porous Silicon 22
4.1. pH Dependence of the Formation of Ultrathin Porous Si 23
4.2. Competition between Hydrogenation and Electropolishing 26
4.3. Electronic States at Internal Surfaces of Porous Si and Local Reconsffuction 29
5. Thin Anodic Oxides on Si 31
5.1. Initial States of Anodic Oxidation 31
5.2. Passivation by Electron Injection at Cathodic Potentials 34
5.3. Passivation by Process Optimization at Anodic Potentials 36
5.4. Formation of Oxides in Alkaline Solution 40
6. Thick Anodic Oxides on Si 41
6.1. Low Thermal Budget Processing 41
6.2. Preparation of the Oxide Layer 42
6.3. Electronic Characterization 43
6.4. Passivation of Steps and Trenches 44
7. Enhanced Passivation of SiGe by Anodic Oxidation 46
7.1. Defect Concentration at the Oxide/c-SiGe Interface 46
7.2. Morphology of Oxidized epi-SiGe Samples 48
7.3. Oxide Composition 48
7.4. Photoluminescence Spectra of Oxidized SiGe Layers 50
7.5. Conclusions and Outlook 51
Acknowledgments 52
References 52
Chapter 2. EPITAXIAL GROWTH AND STRUCTURE OF III-V NITRIDE THIN FILMS 57
1. Introduction 57
2. Growth Methods 59
2.1. Growth of GaN and A1N Bulk Crystals 60
2.2. Hydride Vapor Phase Epitaxy 60
2.3. Metal Organic Vapor Deposition 62
2.4. Molecular Beam Epitaxy 64
3. Epitaxial Growth 67
3.1. Homoepitaxial Growth 67
3.2. Heteroepitaxial Growth 68
4. Doping of III-Nitrides 87
4.1. Unintentionally Doped Films 87
4.2. Films with n-Type Doping 88
4.3. Films with p-Type Doping 89
4.4. Doping of InGaN and A1GaN Films 90
5. Structure and Microstructure of Epitaxial GaN 90
5.1. Residual Stresses 91
5.2. Polarity 92
5.3. Polytype Defects 95
5.4. Dislocations 96
6. Ternary Alloys 100
6.1. InGaN Alloys 100
6.2. A1GaN Alloys 108
References 111
Chapter 3. OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF HIGHLY EXCITED (AI, In) GaN EPILAYERS AND HETEROSTRUCTURES 117
1. Introduction 118
1.1. Historical Perspective and Economic Projections 118
1.2. Challenges in Nitride Thin Film Research and Development 120
1.3. Chapter Organization 121
2. General Optical Properties of the Group III-Nitrides 121
2.1. Physical Properties and Band Structure 121
2.2. Photoluminescence 122
2.3. Strain Considerations 123
2.4. Absorption 123
2.5. Reflection andPhotoreflectance 124
3. Pump-Probe Spectroscopy of Highly Excited Group III-Nitrides 125
3.1. Introduction to Pump-Probe Spectroscopy 125
3.2. Single-Beam Power-Dependent Absorption Spectroscopy of GaN Thin Films 126
3.3. Nondegenerate Optical Pump-Probe Absorption Spectroscopy of GaN Thin Films at Zero Time Delay 126
3.4. Nanosecond Experiments at Nonzero Time Delay 129
3.5. Femtosecond Experiments 131
3.6. Pump-Probe Reflection Spectroscopy of GaN Thin Films 134
3.7. Pump-Probe Absorption Spectroscopy of InGaN Thin Films 135
3.8. Summary 136
4. Gain Mechanisms in Nitride Lasing Structures 137
4.1. Overview of Gain Mechanisms 137
4.2. Origin of Stimulated Emission in GaN Epilayers 138
4.3. Mechanism of Efficient Ultraviolet Lasing in GaN/A1GaN Separate Confinement Heterostructures 141
4.4. Gain Mechanism in A1GaN Thin Films 145
5. Optical Properties of InGan-Based Heterostructures 147
5.1. Physical Properties of InGaN Thin Films and Heterostructures 147
5.2. Fundamental Optical Properties of InGaN-Based Structures 149
5.3. Influence of In Composition in InGaN Layers 153
5.4. Influence of Silicon Doping in GaN Barriers 154
5.5. Optical Transitions at Various Temperatures and Excitation Conditions 157
5.6. Excitation Condition Dependence of Optical Transition 159
5.7. Excitation Length Dependence of Stimulated Emission 163
5.8. Summary of Optical Properties of InGaN 165
6. Optical Properties of Nitride Thin Films at High Temperatures 166
6.1. High-Temperature Stimulated Emission and Damage Mechanisms in GaN Epilayers 166
6.2. Stimulated Emission in InGaN/GaN Multiple Quantum Wells at Elevated Temperatures 169
7. Microstructure Lasing 172
7.1. Origin of Surface-Emitted Stimulated Emission in GaN Epilayers 172
7.2. Effects of Microcracks on the Lasing Characteristics of Nitride Thin Films 174
7.3. Ring-Cavity Lasing in Laterally Overgrown GaN Pyramids 175
8. Imaging Techniques for Wide-Bandgap Semiconductors 178
8.1. Transverse Lasing Modes in GaN-Based Lasing Structures 178
8.2. Novel Technique for Evaluating Optical Confinement in GaN-Based Lasing Structures 179
9. Summary 182
Acknowledgments 183
References 183
Chapter 4. ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION PROPERTIES OF THIN FILMS OF CADMIUM COMPOUNDS 187
1. Introduction 187
2. Structure 189
2.1. Cadmium Sulfide 190
2.2. Cadmium Telluride 193
2.3. Cadmium Selenide 195
2.4. Cadmium Arsenide 198
3. Electrical Properties 202
3.1. Band Structure 202
3.2. Lateral Resistivity 208
3.3. High Field Dc Conductivity 220
3.4. Ac Conductivity 235
4. Summary and Conclusions 242
Acknowledgments 243
References 244
Chapter 5. CARBON-CONTAINING HETEROEPITAXIAL SILICON AND SILICON/GERMANIUM THIN FILMS ON Si(001) 247
1. Introduction 247
2. Growth ofEpitaxial Sil_yCy and Sil_x_yGexCy 248
2.1. Basic Considerations 248
2.2. The Concept of Surface Solubility 249
2.3. Substitutional versus Interstitial C Incorporation 250
2.4. Segregation of Carbon-Containing Complexes 253
2.5. Substitutional Carbon Incorporation during Si l_x_y Gex Cy: Dependence on Germanium and Carbon 254
3. Mechanical and Structural Properties 256
3.1. Strain Manipulation 256
3.2. Microscopic Structure of Sil_x_yGexCy Alloys 257
3.3. Strain-Compensated Ternary Alloys 260
3.4. Strain Relaxation in Tensile Strained Sil_yfy Layers on Si(001) 261
3.5. Strain Relaxation of Temary Alloys 265
3.6. Relaxed Sil_xGex/Sil_x_yGexCy Buffer Structures with Low Threading Dislocation Density 266
4. Electrical Properties of C-Containing Alloys on Si(001) 268
4.1. Band Gap Changes and Band Offsets 268
4.2. Charge Transport 273
5. Highly Concentrated Pseudomorphic Sil_yCy Layers 277
5.1. Model Considerations 277
5.2. Experimental Verification 278
5.3. Formation of a Carbon-Rich Surface on Silicon 278
6. Device Application of SiGe:C 280
6.1. Control of Dopant Diffusion by the Addition of Low Carbon Concentrations 280
6.2. Effect of Carbon on Boron Diffusion 281
6.3. SiGe:C Heterojunction Bipolar Transistor 282
6.4. SiGe:C HBT Results 285
7. Summary and Outlook 288
Acknowledgments 288
References 288
Chapter 6. LOW-FREQUENCY NOISE SPECTROSCOPY FOR CHARACTERIZATION OF POLYCRYSTALLINE SEMICONDUCTOR THIN FILMS AND POLYSILICON THIN FILM TRANSISTORS 291
1. Introduction 291
1.1. Definitions and Noise Sources 291
1.2. 1/f Noise in Semiconductors 292
1.3. 1/f Noise in MOSFETs 293
1.4. The Present Work 294
2. Noise of Polycrystalline Semiconductor Thin Films 294
2.1. Introduction 294
2.2. Noise Model 294
2.3. Application in/3-FeSi2 Films 296
3. Noise of the Drain Current in Polysilicon TFTs 298
3.1. Introduction 298
3.2. Empirical Relationship Between Noise and Grain Boundary Barrier Height 298
3.3. Grain Boundary Barrier Height Inhomogeneities 300
3.4. Noise Spectroscopy for Grain Boundary and Interface Trap Characterization 302
3.5. Verification of the Noise Model 304
3.6. Application in Excimer Laser-Annealed Polysilicon TFTs 307
3.7. Correlation Between Noise and Static Device Parameters 308
3.8. Noise of Very Thin Excimer Laser-Annealed Polysilicon TFTs 311
4. Noise of the Leakage Current in Polysilicon TFTs 313
4.1. Introduction 313
4.2. Conduction Measurements 313
4.3. Noise Measurements 316
5. Avalanche-Induced Excess Noise in Polysilicon TFTs 318
6. Hot-Carrier Phenomena in Polysilicon TFTs 320
7. Concluding Remarks 323
References 324
Chapter 7. GERMANIUM THIN FILMS ON SILICON FOR DETECTION OF NEAR-INFRARED LIGHT 327
1. Introduction 327
1.1. The Scenario 327
1.2. Near-Infrared Detectors 329
2. SiGe Technology 330
2.1. Heteroepitaxy of SiGe 330
2.2. SiGe for Near-Infrared Detection 332
2.3. Relaxed SiGe Films: A Brief Overview 333
2.4. Relaxed SiGe Films: Recent Approaches 338
3. SiGe on Si NIR Photodetectors: Historical Overview 346
3.1. Early Devices 346
3.2. The Work at Bell Labs 347
3.3. European Efforts 349
3.4. The Introduction of SiGeC 351
3.5. Optimized Waveguide Photodetectors 351
3.6. Toward Operation at 1.55 #m 352
3.7. An Integrated Detector-Modulator 354
3.8. Polycrystalline Ge Detectors 355
3.9. Conclusions 356
4. Functional Devices 356
4.1. Voltage Tunable Detectors 356
4.2. Array of NIR Photodetectors 358
4.3. A NIR Wavemeter Integrated on Si 359
4.4. Conclusions 361
A Appendix: Numerical Simulation of Relaxed Ge/Si Heterojunctions 361
A.1. Ge/Si Heterojunctions 361
A.2. Electric Equivalent of Relaxed Ge/Si Heterointerfaces 362
A.3. Band Diagrams, Current-Voltage, and Wavelength Responses 363
References 365
Chapter 8. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF AMORPHOUS GALLIUM ARSENIDE 369
1. Introduction 369
2. Deposition and Growth Parameters 370
2.1. Dc and Rf Sputtering 370
2.2. Flash Evaporation 373
2.3. Other Methods of Deposition 374
3. Composition, Structural, and Morphological Properties 375
3.1 Theoretical Results 375
3.2. Experimental Results 375
4. Density of States 379
4.1 Models, Calculations, and Theoretical Results 379
4.2. Experimental Results 383
5. Optical Properties 385
5.1 Theoretical Results 385
5.2. Experimental Results 385
6. Phonon Spectra 388
6.1 Theoretical Results 388
6.2. Experimental Results 389
7. Electrical Transport Properties 391
7.1 Dc and Rf Sputtering 391
7.2. Flash Evaporation 395
7.3. Other Methods of Deposition 397
8. Applications, Devices 398
9. List of Symbols 399
References 400
Chapter 9. AMORPHOUS CARBON THIN FILMS 403
1. Introduction 404
1.1. Carbon and Its Allotropes 405
1.2. Historical Perspective 408
1.3. Future Applications 408
2. Deposition and Growth 409
2.1. Deposition Techniques 409
2.2. Growth Models 416
3. Microstructure 420
3.1. Experimental Determination of Microstructure 420
3.2. Computer Modelling of Growth and Structure 424
4. Optical Properties 432
4.1. Introduction 432
4.2. Infrared Absorption Studies 435
4.3. Photoluminescence Spectroscopy 441
4.4. Raman Spectroscopy 446
4.5. Conclusions 455
5. Defect Studies of Amorphous Carbon 455
5.1. Introduction 455
5.2. Lineshape Analysis and Relaxation Effects 456
5.3. g Values 457
5.4. Spin Densities 458
5.5. Linewidths, Lineshapes, and Relaxation Effects 460
5.6. Effects of Nitrogenation 463
5.7. Effects of Annealing 464
5.8. Correlation Energies and Photoyield Measurements 465
5.9. Defects and Nonradiative Recombination 467
5.10. Summary 467
6. Electrical Properties of Amorphous Carbon 467
6.1. Conduction and Amorphous Semiconductors 467
6.2. Electronic Band Structure of Amorphous Materials 468
6.3. Comparison with Amorphous Silicon 468
6.4. Generalized Conduction in Amorphous Materials: Low Field Conduction 469
6.5. High Field Conduction 470
6.6. Electronic Structure and Properties of Amorphous Carbon 471
6.7. Electronic Properties: GAC Films 472
6.8. Electronic Properties: DAC Films 473
6.9. Electronic Properties: TAC Films 475
6.10. Electronic Modification of Amorphous Carbon 478
6.11. Summary 481
7. Concepts of Localization and Delocalization in a-C 482
7.1. Ion Implantation of a-C 483
8. Electron Field Emission 484
8.1. Introduction 484
8.2. Theory of Field Emission 484
8.3. Planar Emitter Structures Based on Carbon 486
8.4. Modelling of the Electron Emission Process 492
8.5. Field Emission as a Function of Surface Modifications 496
9. Amorphous Carbon-Based Devices 498
9.1. Electronic Devices 498
9.2. Novel Devices: Nonvolatile Memories, Antifuses, and MIMs 499
9.3. Solar Cells 500
9.4. Summary 500
10. Conclusion 501
References 501
Chapter 10. HIGH-Tc SUPERCONDUCTOR THIN FILMS 507
1. Introduction 507
2. Fabrication of High-Tc Superconductor Thin Films 509
2.1. Methods of Fabrication 509
2.2. Substrate and Buffers 518
3. High-Temperature Superconductor Thin Films 522
3.1. YBa2Cu307_ (Y-123) and Related Materials Thin Films 522
3.2. Bi2Sr2Can_lCunOy System Thin Films 538
3.3. La2CuO 4 System Thin Films 543
3.4. TIBaCaCuO Thin Films 547
3.5. Hg-Based Cuprate Thin Films 552
3.6. Infinite CuO2 Layer Thin Films 554
3.7. Bal_xKxBiO3 (BKBO) System Thin Films 560
3.8. Thin Films Related to C60 563
3.9. Ultrathin Films and Multilayers 564
3.10. Large-Area Thin Films 570
4. Transport Properties in High-Tc Superconductor Thin Films 576
4.1. Introduction 576
4.2. Transport Properties 577
4.3. Optical Properties 590
4.4. Conclusion 594
5. Device Applications 594
5.1. Josephson Junctions and Superconducting Quantum Interference Devices 594
5.2. Microwave Devices 598
6. Heterostructures 605
6.1. High-Tc Superconductor/Ferroelectric Heterostructures 605
6.2. High-Tc Superconductor/CMR Material Heterostructures 610
7. Conclusion 613
Acknowledgments 614
References 614
Chapter 11. ELECTRONIC AND OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF STRAINED SEMICONDUCTOR FILMS OF GROUPS IV AND III-V MATERIALS 625
1. Introduction 625
1.1. Strain Tensor 627
2. Deformation Potentials 627
2.1. F Point States 627
2.2. Indirect Conduction-Band Minima 628
2.3. Optical Gaps E1 and E1 + A 1 629
3. The Tight-Binding Model 629
4. Strained Si 630
4.1. Biaxial Strain 630
4.2. Uniaxial Strain 632
5. Strained Ge 632
5.1. Biaxial Strain 633
5.2. Uniaxial Strain 634
6. Strained Sil_xGex Alloys 635
6.1. Optical Properties 636
7. Strained Sil_yCy Alloys 637
7.1. Optical Properties 638
8. Si/Ge Superlattices 638
8.1. Interface Intermixing 640
9. Strained GaAs and InP 641
9.1. GaAs 641
9.2. InP 642
10. InAs/A1Sb Superlattices 642
10.1. Electronic Properties 644
10.2. Optical Properties 645
11. Summary 645
References 646
Chapter 12. GROWTH, STRUCTURE, AND PROPERTIES OF PLASMA-DEPOSITED AMORPHOUS HYDROGENATED CARBON-NITROGEN FILMS 649
1. Introduction 649
2. Amorphous Hydrogenated Carbon Films 650
2.1. a-C:H Film Structure 650
2.2. a-C:H Film Deposition 651
3. Nitrogen Incorporation Into a-C:H Films 654
3.1. Determination of Chemical Composition 654
3.2. Nitrogen Incorporation and Growth Kinetics 655
3.3. Plasma and Surface Processes Affecting Film Growth 658
3.4. Modeling of a-C(N):H Film Growth 661
4. Characterization of a-C(N):H Film Structure 663
4.1. Raman Spectroscopy 663
4.2. Infrared Spectroscopy 665
4.3. Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy 666
4.4. X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy 666
4.5. 13C Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy 669
4.6. Overall Discussion 669
5. Mechanical Properties 670
5.1. Hardness and Stress 670
5.2. Friction and Wear 672
6. Optical and Electrical Properties 672
6.1. Optical Properties and Electron Spin Resonance 673
6.2. Electrical Properties 674
References 675
Chapter 13. CONDUCTIVE METAL OXIDE THIN FILMS 677
1. Transparent Conducting Oxides 677
1.1. Different TCO Materials 677
1.2. Figure of Merit for TCOs 678
1.3. Deposition Techniques 679
1.4. Epitaxial Growth of ITO Films 681
1.5. Etching ITO Films 682
2. Ruthenium Oxide 682
2.1. Deposition Techniques 682
2.2. Epitaxial Growth of RuO 2 Films 683
2.3. Etching RuO 2 Films 685
2.4. Applications of RuO2 Thin Films 686
3. Iridium Oxide 686
3.1. Deposition Techniques 686
3.2. Applications of IrO 2 Films 688
4. Strontium Ruthenate 688
4.1. Deposition Techniques 688
4.2. Applications of SrRuO3 Films 689
4.3. Other Conductive Ruthenates 691
5. Strontium-Doped Lanthanum Cobaltite 692
5.1. Deposition Techniques 692
5.2. Oriented La0.sSr0.5CoO 3 Films on SiO2/Si 693
5.3. Applications ofLa0.5Sr0.5CoO 3 Films 695
6. Concluding Remarks 695
References 696
VOLUME 5: NANOMATERIALS AND MAGNETIC THIN FILMS
Chapter 1. NANOIMPRINT TECHNIQUES 1
1. Introduction 2
1.1. Current Lithography Situation 2
1.2. Emerging Imprint-Based Lithography Concepts: Basic Ideas and Expected Advantages 3
1.3. Overview of Imprint-Based Techniques and Nomenclature 5
1.4. This Chapter 5
2. Hot-Embossing Lithography 5
2.1. History of Classical Hot Embossing 5
2.2. Principle of Hot-Embossing Lithography 7
2.3. Fundamental Achievements 8
2.4. Imprint Systems Used for Hot Embossing 9
2.5. Processing Details 12
2.6. Viscoelastic Properties of Polymers 17
2.7. Fundamental Process Challenges 23
2.8. Hot Embossing in a Multilevel, Multilayer, or Multistep Lithography Sequence 27
2.9. Room Temperature Embossing of Polymers 29
2.10. Self-Assembly and Wafer-Scale Embossing 30
2.11. Combining Hot Embossing with Other Lithography Concepts 31
3. Mold-Assisted Lithography 32
3.1. Principle of Mold-Assisted Lithography 32
3.2. Material Issues 33
3.3. Achieved Patterns 34
3.4. Step-and-Flash Imprint Lithography 34
3.5. Optical Lithography and Mold-Assisted Lithography 35
4. Microcontact Printing 36
4.1. Principle of Microcontact Printing 36
4.2. Material Issues 37
4.3. Achieved Patterns 37
4.4. Curved Substrates and Stamps and Large Area Printing 37
4.5. Related Soft-Contact Techniques 38
4.6. Optical Lithography with PDMS Stamps and Patterned Polymers 39
5. Masters, Stamps, and Molds 40
5.1. Master Fabrication 40
5.2. Replicated Stamps 41
5.3. Stamp Wear 43
6. Sticking Challenge 45
6.1. Physics of Adhesion 46
6.2. Antisticking Layers 49
6.3. Wear and Lifetime 52
7. Applications 53
7.1. Data Storage 54
7.2. Electronic Devices 54
7.3. Photodetectors and Light Emitters 54
7.4. Gratings and Integrated Optics 55
7.5. Biosensors 56
8. Perspectives 57
Acknowledgments 57
References 57
Chapter 2. THE ENERGY GAP OF CLUSTERS, NANOPARTICLES, AND QUANTUM DOTS 61
1. Introduction 62
2. Experimental Techniques 63
2.1. Optical Spectroscopy 63
2.2. Scanning Tunneling Spectroscopy 64
3. Theory 66
3.1. Methods and Results for Metal Clusters 66
3.2. Methods and Results for Semiconductor Clusters 67
4. Metals 68
4.1. Alkali Metal Clusters 68
4.2. Noble and Transition Metal Clusters 68
4.3. Divalent Metal Clusters 71
5. Semiconductors 72
5.1. Binary Semiconductor Nanocrystals 72
5.2. Silicon and Germanium Clusters 73
6. Unpassivated Silicon Particles 76
6.1. Particle Preparation 76
6.2. Gap Measurement of Si Particles by STS 77
6.3. Coulomb Blockade of Si Particles 79
7. Passivated Silicon Particles 80
7.1. Pristine versus Passivated Silicon Clusters 80
7.2. Energy Gap Studies of H-Passivated Si Particles 81
8. Nanowires of Silicon 81
8.1. Nanowires with Various Geometries 81
8.2. Fullerene-Structured Si Nanowires 82
9. Carbon Particles 83
9.1. Electronic Structure of Carbon Particles 83
9.2. Bandgap Studies of Carbon Particles 85
10. Thin Films of Particles 86
10.1. Formation and Properties 86
10.2. Bandgap Studies of Si Particle Films 87
11. Applications 87
11.1. Photonic Devices 87
11.2. Cluster-Assembled Materials 88
11.3. Nanolithography 89
References 90
Chapter 3. ELECTRONIC STATES IN GaAs-AIAs SHORT-PERIOD SUPERLATTICES: ENERGY LEVELS AND SYMMETRY 99
1. Introduction 99
2. Symmetry of Short-Period Superlattices 100
3. Photoluminescence and Photoluminescence Excitation Spectra of Short-Period Superlattices 103
4. Time Decay and Temperature Dependence of Photoluminescence and Photoluminescence Excitation Spectra 107
5. Photoluminescence Spectrum under Hydrostatic Pressure 111
6. Short-Period Superlattices in Externally Applied Fields 116
7. Ultra-Short-Period Superlattices 121
8. Other Experimental Methods and Other Oriented Short-Period Superlattices 127
9. Theoretical Research 130
10. Application of Short-Period Superlattices 133
11. Summary 138
Acknowledgment 138
References 138
Chapter 4. SPIN WAVES IN THIN FILMS, SUPERLATTICES AND MULTILAYERS 141
1. General Introduction 141
2. Spin Waves in Thin Films 143
2.1. Introduction 143
2.2. Macroscopic Phenomenological Theories 144
2.3. Quantum Microscopic Theories 147
3. Spin Waves in Superlattices and Multilayers 150
3.1. Introduction 150
3.2. Macroscopic Phenomenological Theories 151
3.3. Quantum Microscopic Theories 153
4. Discussion 161
5. Concluding Remarks 164
Acknowledgments 165
References 165
Chapter 5. QUANTUM WELL INTERFERENCE IN DOUBLE QUANTUM WELLS 169
1. Introduction 170
2. Single Quantum Wells 171
2.1. Introduction 171
2.2. Infinitely Deep Wells 171
2.3. Finitely Deep Eells 171
2.4. Effect of Vacuum 173
3. Mechanisms for Exchange Coupling 174
3.1. Introduction 174
3.2. Total Energy Calculations 174
3.3. RKKY Model ' 174
3.4. Free Electron Model 175
3.5. Hole Confinement Model 175
3.6. The Anderson Model 175
3.7. Quantum Well Model 176
4. Symmetric Double Quantum Wells: Bound States 177
4.1. Introduction 177
4.2. Model and Analytical Results 177
5. Symmetric Double Quantum Wells: Resonant Scattering States 178
5.1. Introduction 178
5.2. Model and Analytical Results 178
5.3. Numerical Results 179
6. Asymmetric Double Quantum Well Cu/Co/Ni/Co(100) 186
6.1. Introduction 186
6.2. Model and Analytical Results 186
6.3. Numerical Results 187
6.4. The Quantization Condition 190
6.5. The Special Feature of the Probabilities 192
7. Asymmetric Double Quantum Wells Cu/Ni/Cu/Co(100) and Cu/Co/Cu/Co(100) 193
7.1. Introduction 193
7.2. Model and Analytical Results 193
7.3. Numerical Results 194
8. Discussion 197
8.1. Advantages and Limitations of the Model 197
8.2. Quantum Well Effects and Exchange Coupling 198
8.3. Related Topics 199
9. Concluding Remarks 200
Acknowledgments 200
Appendix A 200
Appendix B 200
Appendix C 200
Appendix D 201
Appendix E 201
Appendix F 201
Appendix G 202
Appendix H 202
References 203
Chapter 6. ELECTRO-OPTICAL AND TRANSPORT PROPERTIES OF QUASI-TWO-DIMENSIONAL NANOSTRUCTURED MATERIALS 207
1. Introduction 208
1.1. Definition of the Quasi-Two-Dimensional Nanostructured Materials 208
1.2. Classification of the Quasi-Two-Dimensional Nanostructured Materials 208
2. Methods of Synthesis and Fabrication of Quasi-Two-Dimensional Nanostructured Materials 209
2.1. Molecular Beam Epitaxy 209
2.2. Metal-Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition 209
2.3. Lithography 210
2.4. Other Techniques 212
3. Electronic States of the Idealized Quasi-Two-Dimensional Nanostructured Materials 213
3.1. Single Heterostructure 213
3.2. Double Heterostructure or Single Quantum Well 214
3.3. Symmetric Square Double Wells: Tunneling Coupling between Wells 218
3.4. Superlattices 219
3.5. Idealized Q2D Systems when the Schr6dinger Equation that Characterizes
the Problem is Nonseparable 222
4. Quasi-Particle States in the Quasi-Two-Dimensional Structures 223
4.1. Envelope Function Approximation 224
4.2. Envelope Function Description of Quasi-Particle States for Q2D Systems 226
4.3. Excitonic States in Q2D Semiconductors 227
4.4. Band Structure on Realistic Q2D Nanostructures 233
5. Effect of Static External Electric and Magnetic Fields on the Quasi-Particle Energy Levels in the Q2D Systems 237
5.1. Stark Effect in Quasi-Two-Dimensional Structures 237
5.2. Effect of Static External Magnetic Field on the Quasi-Particle Energy Levels in the Q2D Structures 241
6. Dynamics of the Lattice in Q2D Systems: Phonons and Electron-Phonon Interactions 245
6.1. Lattice Oscillations 245
6.2. Concept of Phonons 246
6.3. Phenomenological Models for Long Wavelength Polar Optical Modes in Q2D Systems 248
6.4. Analysis of the Phenomenological Models for Long Wavelength Polar Optical Modes in a Semiconductor Layered System 249
6.5. Polaron Properties in a Semiconductor Q2D Nanostructure 253
7. Theory of Quantum Transport in Q2D Systems 260
7.1. Introduction 260
7.2. Electrical Conductivity in the Free Directions of Quasi-Two-Dimensional Electron Gas 260
7.3. Quantum Transport in the Confinement Direction in a Quasi-Two-Dimensional System: Vertical Transport 279
7.4. Magnetoconductivity of a Quasi-Two-Dimensional Electron Gas 281
7.5. Magnetic Field Dependence of O'xy: Quantized Hall Effect 284
8. Optical Properties of Q2D Nanostructured Materials 287
8.1. Absorption (One Electron Approximation) in Q2D Systems 288
8.2. Absorption: A Simplified Description of Excitonic Effects 296
8.3. Photoluminescence 301
9. Electron Raman Scattering in Q2D Systems 308
9.1. Model and Applied Theory 309
9.2. Electron Raman Scattering in a Quantum Well 310
9.3. Resonant Raman Scattering in Quantum Wells in High Magnetic Fields: Frrhlich and Deformation Potential Interaction 313
10. Physical Effects of Impurity States and Atomic Systems Confined in Q2D Nanostructured Materials 327
10.1. Hydrogenic Impurity in Quasi-Two Dimensional Systems 328
References 331
Chapter 7. MAGNETISM OF NANOPHASE COMPOSITE FILMS 337
1. Introduction and Scope 337
2. Nanocomposite Thin Films 338
2.1. Introduction 338
2.2. Fabrication Methods of Nanocomposite Thin Films 338
2.3. Theoretical Background 339
2.4. Structure and Properties of Magnetic Nanocomposites 344
3. Cluster-Assembled Thin Films 354
3.1. Introduction 354
3.2. Cluster Formation, Size Distribution, and
Deposition Techniques 355
3.3. Cluster-Assembled Magnetic Films 361
3.4. Summary 364
4. Exchange-Coupled Nanocomposite Hard Magnetic Films 364
4.1. CoSm/FeCo Bilayers 365
4.2. Epitaxial CoSm/Fe (or Co) Multilayers 365
4.3. Rapid Thermally Processed Nanocomposite Films 366
5. Concluding Remarks 371
Acknowledgments 372
References 372
Chapter 8. THIN MAGNETIC FILMS 375
1. Magnetism Overview 375
1.1. Magnetic Quantities and Units 375
1.2. Magnetic States of Matter 379
1.3. Magnetic Materials for Applications 385
2. Magnetism of Thin Films 388
2.1. Magnetic Structure 388
2.2. Coherent Rotation of Magnetization 388
2.3. Surface Anisotropy and Interface Anisotropy 389
2.4. Exchange Anisotropy 391
2.5. Domain and Domain Wall Configuration 396
2.6. Magnetization Reversal 402
3. Magnetic Film Characterization 407
3.1. Vibrating Sample Magnetometer 407
3.2. Magneto-Optical Methods 408
3.3. Magnetic Force Microscopy 412
3.4. Transmission Electron Microscopy 413
4. Magnetic Thin Film Processing 416
4.1. Deposition of Magnetic Thin Films 416
4.2. Dry Etching of Magnetic Thin Films 421
5. Applications of Magnetic Thin Films 422
5.1. Magnetic Sensors 423
5.2. Magnetic Microactuators 430
5.3. Micro-Inductors with a Closed Ferromagnetic Core 431
5.4. Magnetic Data Storage 431
Acknowledgments 433
References 434
Chapter 9. MAGNETOTRANSPORT EFFECTS IN SEMICONDUCTORS 439
Notation 440
1. Introduction 441
2. Influence of Magnetic Field on Equilibrium Cartier Density in Semiconductors 441
2.1. Effects Caused by High-Intensity Magnetic Fields 443
2.2. Fermi Level at High Magnetic Field 445
2.3. Fermi-Level Dependence on Impurity Concentration 445
2.4. Basic Equation of Charge Cartier Motion in Electric and Magnetic Fields 446
2.5. The Conductivity Tensor 449
2.6. Scattering Mechanisms of Charge Carriers in Semiconductors 449
2.7. Hot Electron Effects 457
2.8. Cyclotron Resonance 459
3. Hall and Galvanomagnetic Effects 461
3.1. Hall Effect 461
3.2. Galvanomagnetic Effects 463
3.3. Generalized Definition of the Hall Coefficients 464
4. Magnetoresistance 464
4.1. Transverse Magnetoresistance Effect 465
4.2. Longitudinal Magnetoresistance Effect 466
4.3. Behavior of Typical Semiconductors 467
5. Quantum Effects in Large Magnetic Fields 468
5.1. Shubnikov--de Haas Oscillation 469
5.2. Freeze-Out Effects 471
5.3. Magnetophonon Effect 472
6. Magnetotransport in Low-Dimensional Systems and in Heterostructures 474
6.1. Magnetotransport in Two-Dimensional Systems at Low Fields 475
6.2. Magnetotransport in One-Dimensional Systems at Low Fields 476
6.3. Low-Dimensional Systems in High Magnetic Fields 476
6.4. Mobility and Scattering Mechanisms in Two-Dimensional Systems 477
6.5. Quantized Hall Effect 480
7 Experimental Techniques 484
7.1. Resistivity of Samples with Ohmic Contacts 484
7.2. Galvanomagnetic Effects 485
7.3. Inhomogeneity and Effective Sample Thickness 486
7.4. The Hall Scattering Factor 487
7.5. Magnetoresistance and the Measure of Carrier Density 487
7.6. The Characterization of High-Resistivity Materials 488
7.7. Nonuniform Material 488
7.8. Experimental Configurations 489
References 491
Chapter 10. THIN FILMS FOR HIGH-DENSITY MAGNETIC RECORDING 495
1. Instruments for Magnetic Measurement 495
1.1. BH and MH Loop Measurement 495
1.2. Magnetoresistance Measurement: Four-Point Probe Method 497
1.3. Schematic Frequency Permeameter 498
2. Basic Principles of Magnetic Recording 499
2.1. The Write/Read Process 499
2.2. Write Field of Recording Heads 500
2.3. Written Magnetization Transition in a Recording Medium 500
3. Thin Film Recording Media 502
3.1. Physical Limits of High-Density Recording Media 502
3.2. Considerations of Medium Design 507
3.3. Preparations of Recording Media 507
3.4. Characterization of Recording Media 511
4. Thin Films for Replay Heads 514
4.1. Anisotropic Magnetoresistance Films 514
4.2. Giant Magnetoresistance Films 517
4.3. Properties of Exchange-Biased Spin-Valve Films 526
4.4. Spin-Valve Head Engineering 531
5. Films for Write Heads 538
5.1. Basics of Soft Magnetic Films for Writers 538
5.2. Basics of Thin Film Writers 540
5.3. Magnetic Domain Configurations in Film Heads 543
5.4. Soft Magnetic Films for Writers 547
Acknowledgment 550
References 550
Chapter 11. NUCLEAR RESONANCE IN MAGNETIC THIN FILMS AND MULTILAYERS 555
1. Introduction 555
2. Principles of Nuclear Resonance Spectroscopy 556
3. Hyperfine Interactions and Nuclear Resonance Spectra in Thin Solid Films 560
4. Experimental Techniques for Thin Film Characterization 568
5. Nuclear Resonance Study of Metallic Multilayers 571
6. Nuclear Resonance Spectroscopy in Amorphous, Nanostructured, and Granular Films 578
7. Concluding Remarks 585
Acknowledgments 585
References 586
Chapter 12. MAGNETIC CHARACTERIZATION OF SUPERCONDUCTING THIN FILMS 589
1. Introduction 590
2. Local and Integral Magnetization Measurements 590
2.1. Other Local Techniques 591
2.2. Samples Used in This Study 591
2.3. Magneto-Optic Flux Visualization 592
2.4. Magnetization Measurements 592
2.5. AC Susceptibility Measurements 593
2.6. Magnetotransport 594
3. Theoretical Description of the Ideal Flux Patterns 594
3.1. Infinitely Long Strip 595
3.2. Other Sample Geometries 595
3.3. Current-Induced Flux Patterns 596
3.4. Magnetization Loop of a YBCO Thin Film 597
3.5. Flux Patterns after Field Cooling 598
3.6. Current Flow Reconstruction 599
4. Flux Patterns Around Defects and Special Magneto-Optic Experiments 602
4.1. Flux Creep Experiments 602
4.2. Visualization of Meissner Currents 602
4.3. Flux Patterns of a Superconducting Bend 603
4.4. Analysis of Flux Patterns in the Presence of Defects 604
4.5. Grain Boundary Studies 606
4.6. Large Thin Film Samples 607
4.7. Current Flow in Samples with Variation of Current Density 608
4.8. Sample for Modeling Properties of Bi-2223 Tapes 609
4.9. Thick Superconducting Films 610
4.10. Magneto-Optic Studies with High Time Resolution 611
5. Magnetization Measurements 612
5.1. Magnetization Measurements of Superconducting Thin Films 612
5.2. Flux Pinning in Thin Films 613
5.3. Virtual Additive Moments 614
5.4. Flux Creep Measurements 615
6. Conclusions 615
Acknowledgments 615
References 615
SUBJECT INDEX
SUBJECT INDEX Volume I
A
Absorption behavior, ot-Si:H, 5
Acceptor implants, 380-381
Acid solutions, electrodeposition, 290-293
Active matrix addressing of liquid crystal displays (AMLCD), TFTs, 87
Active matrix EL display, 126
Adhesive properties, plasma treatment for, 241-242
Adsorption theory, adhesion and, 242
Aggressive and complete reactions, ALD precursors, 120
AIN encapsulant, high temperature annealing, 388-392
Air-water interface
--- monolayers at, LB technique, 524-526
--- protein monolayers at, 533-538
Alkaline solutions, electrodeposition, 289-290
Alkali vapor-sapphire substrate reactions, 678-681
Alloy evaporation, Pilyankevich et al. experiments, 636--639
Alloy films, mechanism of composition formation, 646-647
Alloys, 265
--- ct-Si:H, 6
Alternately repeating deposition and hydrogen plasma treatment
--- (ADHT), 73
Aluminum
--- parasitic reactions, 273-274
--- Pourbaix's equilibrium diagram applied to, 272
Aluminum compounds, electrodeposition, 278-279
Amorphous antimony crystallization, substrate structure and morphology
--- effects on diffusion, 313
Amorphous carbon films
--- cold plasma in, 227-229
--- deposited by conventional magnetron sputtering, on grounded substrates,
--- 510-515
--- deposited on grounded substrates, residual stresses in, 513-515
--- sputter deposited, on biased substrates, residual stresses in, 517-519
Amorphous Semiconductor Thin Film Experimental Reactor (ASTER),
--- 2
11
Anion interstitial model, ITO films, 1
64
Annealing, see also Laser irradiation
--- high temperature, 385-393
Antibody films, 540-542
Antiferromagnetic order parameter nucleation, thin film surface, 619-620
Antiferromagnetism and superconducting order parameter, UPd2A13,
--- 610-611
Antimony, parasitic reactions, 273-274
Aqueous solutions, codeposition from, 271-275
Argon atoms, impinging on surface of growth films, 513
Arrhenius method, 348
Arsenic, parasitic reactions, 273-274
Athermal reactions, 67
Atomic force microscopy (AFM)
--- etched surface morphology, 424
--- studying LB films, 530
Atomic layer deposition (ALD), 103-159
alternative names, 104
--- basic features, 104-108
--- benefits of, 106-108
--- characterization of processes, 138-152
--- cycle, 104-106
--- effective metal processes, 137-138
--- film materials deposited by, 125-138
--- film properties, 141-144
--- limitations of, 108
--- optical coatings, 138
--- passivating and protecting layers, 134-135
--- precursors, 113-125
aggressive and complete reactions, 120
--- choice of, 121
--- no dissolution, 120
--- no etching reactions, 120
--- other requirements, 121
--- overview, 121-125
--- reactive byproducts, 120-121
--- stability against self-decomposition, 119
--- volatility, 113-119
--- reaction mechanism studies, 144-152
--- reactors, 108-113
--- flow-type, inert gas valving, 109-112
--- solar cell absorbers, 138
--- transition metal nitride diffusion barriers, 135-137
--- transparent conductors, 133-134
Atomic layer epitaxy (ALE), 103
Atomic structure, ct-Si:H, 3-9
Atomic vacancies, cold plasma treated graphite surface, 256-257
Atoms, kinetic energy, effects on substrates and film surfaces, 463-465
Auger electron spectroscopy (AES), for ALD, 150
B
Background gas, 168-172
Bacteriorhodopsin (BR) monolayers, 533
538
Binary III-V compounds, 261-318
--- diffusion process and formation of, 304-310
Bombardment, effects on nucleation and growth, thin films, 458-459
Boron nitride films, polymorphism in, 660-661
Boundary conditions, 23
Brewster angle microscopy, studying monolayers at the air-water
--- interface, 529
--- Calculation scheme, 25
--- Carbon atoms
--- condensed on silicon substrates, 513
--- ejected from graphite target, 512-513
--- Carbon films, PLD, polymorphism of, 659-660
--- Carbon nanotubes (CNT), 234-236
--- Carbon thin films, cold plasma in, 226--236
--- Cathodic codeposition process, classification of, 274-275
--- Cation vacancy model, ITO films, 164
--- Cavity ring down absorption spectroscopy (CRDS), 81
--- Chalcogenides, 3
--- Charge exchange, 47
--- reactions, 50
--- Chemical annealing, 73
--- Chemically assisted ion beam etching (CAIBE), 412
--- Chemical reactions, 20
--- Chemical sensors, 88
--- Chemical state analysis, ITO films, 191-193
--- Chemical vapor deposition (CVD), 2
--- ALD versus, 107
--- carbon films, 227-229
--- diamond films, 229-234
--- electrochemical formation of binary HI-V compounds, 262
--- reactors, 108
--- Chemisorbed hydrogen, cold plasma treated graphite surface, 255-256
--- Clusters
--- accumulated number concentration of, 336
343
--- configuration, 11
--- effective dimension, 339-342
--- pseudo two-dimensional, effective dimension of, 341
--- self-similar surface of
--- effective dimension, 340-341
--- fractal dimension, 339-340
--- size and shape, 338-339
--- size distribution of, 333
344
--- model-independent method, 350
--- Codeposition, 266-271
--- from aqueous solutions, 271-275
--- kinetic aspects, 270-271
--- from molten salts, 275-276
--- thermodynamic aspects, 266-270
--- Cold plasma processes, 219-260
--- applications, 226-257
--- Color sensors, 88
--- Complex lipid-protein monolayers, 535-537
--- Compound films, mechanism of composition formation, 647--648
--- Compounds with nonvolatile components, Pilyankevich et al. experiments,
--- 639-642
--- Compounds with volatile components, Pilyankevich et al. experiments,
--- 642--643
--- Conduction mechanism, TCO films, 163-164
--- Continuous random network (CRN), 3
--- Controlled plasma magnetron method, 9
--- Conventional magnetron sputtering
biased substrates
--- amorphous carbon film characteristics, 516-517
--- amorphous carbon films deposited by, 515-519
--- characteristics of deposition process, 515-516
--- grounded substrates, amorphous carbon films deposited by, 510-515
--- Coordination defect, 3
--- Critical region, 321
--- nucleation rate of nuclei in, 334-335
--- size distribution of clusters far beyond, 332-333
--- size distribution of clusters in, 328-330
--- Critical size, 321
--- Crystallization overvoltage, effects on structure of electrodeposits, 574-576
--- Cu3Au(111) films, surface order of, 620-621
D
Damage accumulation, during implantation, 381-385
Dangling bond, 3
Dangling-bond density, 67
Delamination of films, 481
Demchishin structure-zone diagram, 459-460
Deposition conditions, optimization of, 68
--- PLD system, 171-172
Deposition models, 63-67
Deposition parameters, 55
Deposition systems, control in, 363-366
Deposition techniques, TCO films, 162
Device quality a-Si:H layers, 2
Device quality characteristics, c -SiC:H, 8
Diamond, H2 plasma treatment, 253-255
Diamond films, cold plasma in, 229-230
Diffractometry, studying LB films, 530
Diffusion field in the size space, 324-325
Diffusion theory, adhesion and, 242
Diode rectifiers, 409
Discharge analysis, 72
Dissociative attachment, 18
Dissociative excitation, 18
Dissociative ionization, 18
Dissolution, film or substrate, ALD precursors, 120
Donor implants, 376-380
Doping, ion implant, 375-408
Drift tube (DT), 46
Dual ion beam sputtering, 469
--- silicon oxynitride films produced by, residual stresses, 507-510
Dynamic random access memory (DRAM), insulators for, 131-133
E
Effective dimension, determination of, 341-342
Effective discharge power, 17
Elastic energy, 480
Elastic recoil detection (ERD), 7
Electrical properties
--- laser-irradiated ITO films, 201
206
--- PLD ITO films, 175
184
Electric current, TCO material, 163
Electrochemical atomic layer epitaxy (ECALE), nanomodulated thin
--- films, 265
Electrochemical synthesis, thin films, 261-318
Electrocrystallization
--- metal films, 559-586
--- polycrystalline structure of electrodeposits during, 580-582
Electrode geometry, 9
Electrodeposition, 266
--- group III-V compounds, 277-304
--- sequential, 276-277
Electrodeposits
--- crystallization overvoltage effects on structure, 574-576
--- factors influencing structure of, 574-582
--- foreign particle adsorption effects on structure, 576-580
--- polycrystalline structure during electrocrystallization, 580-582
--- structural defects in, 560-562
Electroluminescent display phosphors, ALD, 126-128
Electron cyclotron resonance chemical vapor deposition (ECRCVD), 2
Electron cyclotron resonance (ECR), 410
Electron diffraction and microscopy, studying LB films, 529-530
Electron doping, TCO material, 163
Electron energy distribution function, 24
Electronic excitation, 18
Electronic structure, a-Si:H, 4
Electronic theory, adhesion and, 242
Electron impact collisions, 18
Electron spin resonance (ESR), 6
Electron temperature Te, in cold plasmas, 221-222
Electrostatic analyzer (ESA), 46
Electrostatic probes, 40
Elimination of particulates, in PLD films, 662
Ellipsometry, 39
51
--- studying LB films, 531-532
Embryo clusters, 321
Emitter technology, 409
Energetic particles
--- condensation, effects on nucleation and growth, thin films, 458-459
--- intrinsic stresses in films produced from, 487-490
Energy balances, 23
Energy barriers, 347-352
--- to growth, 351
Enthalpic and entropic barriers, to nucleation, 350-351
Enzyme films, 542-543
Epitaxial growth, ITO films by PLD, 183
Epitaxial strain, MBE growth, 601-604
Epitaxial temperature, in MBE growth, 594-595
Epitaxial thin films, intermetallic compounds, 587-626
Epitaxy, definition, 104
Equilibrium size distribution, clusters, 323
Erbium, a-Si:H, 90
Etching reactions, ALD precursors, 120
Etch profile, 424--425
Etch surface morphology, 424--425
Evaporating material, dependence of composition of PLD films, 631-634
Evaporative surface decomposition, 76
Exchange anisotropy, with metallic antiferromagnets, 618
19
Excimer laser
--- irradiation of thin films, 193-195
--- target effects during evaporation, 644-645
--- in TCO films, 164-166
Excimer pulsed laser deposition (PLD), in TCO films, 166
Expanding thermal plasma chemical vapor deposition (ETPCVD), 2
79
Extrinsic stresses, 490--492
--- FeCo(100) surfaces, critical phenomena, 621-622
--- Field effect transistors (FETs), 409
--- InAIN and GaN structures, plasma-induced damage, 425
--- Film-forming species (FFS), 627-673
--- Film growth experiments, ALD, 139-144
--- Film materials, deposited by ALD, 125-138
--- Film properties, ALD, 141-144
--- Film-substrate structures, interracial stresses in, 478-479
--- Final grain size, 337-338
--- Flow-type ALD reactors
--- conditions, 144-147
--- high surface area substrates, 147-149
--- with inert gas valving, 109-112
--- with moving substrates, 112-113
--- 1D Fluid discharge model, 21
--- 2D Fluid discharge model, 30
--- Fluorescence microscopy, studying monolayers at the air-water
--- interface, 528
--- Fluorinated monomer coatings, plasma polymerized, 238-240
--- Foreign particle adsorption, effects on structure of electrodeposits, 576-580
--- Formation temperature, control by, 352-353
--- Forward sputtering model (Windischrnann), 487-488
--- Fourier-transform infrared transmittance (FI'IR), 4
--- Frank-van der Merwe growth mode, PVD thin films, 457-459
--- Free-energy barrier, to nucleation, 347-349
--- Free energy of nucleus, 321-322
--- Fromherz trough, 536
--- Fundamentals, formation and structure of thin films, 319-373
G
Ga
--- parasitic reactions, 273-274
--- Pourbaix's equilibrium diagram applied to, 272
Gallium antimonide, electrodeposition, 297-299
Gallium-antimony, substrate structure and morphology effects on diffusion,
--- 312-313
Gallium arsenide, electrodeposition, 283-289
Gallium nitride (GaN), plasma etching, 409-453
Gallium phosphide, electrodeposition, 279-280
Gaseous Electronics Conference (GEC), 9
--- reference cell, 16
Gas flow, 53
Gas flow patterns, 9
Gas handling system, 8
Gas-phase clustering, PLD films, 652-653
Giant magnetoresistance effect (GMR), 618-619
Glow-discharge technique, 6
Grain boundary relaxation (GBR) model, 485-486
--- adaptation to sputter-deposited Tungsten films, 486--487
Grains
--- coarsening of, 357
361
--- locations, 362-369
--- stable, formation time, 362
Grain size, 352-361
--- size distributions, 361
Graphite, H 2
255
Gravimetry, studying LB films, 531
Grazing incidence X-ray diffraction (GIXRD), ITO films, 181
Group IliA compound, 263
Group VA compound, 263
Growth, energy barrier to, 351
Growth precursors, 19
Growth processes
--- kinetics of, 323-333
--- PVD thin films, 457-459
--- early stages, 458-459
--- mixed mode, 458-459
--- three-dimensional island, 457-458
--- two-dimensional layer-by-layer, 457-458
--- thermodynamics of, 321-323
--- thin films, 320
Growth rate, 334
--- ALD, 139
346
H
Heater design, 9
Heavy-fermion materials, 608
Heterojunction bipolar transistors (HBTs), 409
443
Heterostructure field effect transistors (HFETs), 446-448
High-density plasmas, 410-412
High-power-long-pulse laser, target effects of evaporation, 645-646
High vacuum conditions, ALD reactors, 150-152
Hot-wire chemical vapor deposition (HWCVD), 2
76
H 2 plasma treatment
--- diamond, 253-255
--- graphite, 255-257
--- surface termination by, 253-257
Hybrid particle-in-cell/Monte Carlo-fluid model, 34
Hydrogen
--- elimination from u-Si:H, 65
--- solubility in silicon, 65
Hydrogenated amorphous silicon (ct-Si:H)
--- material aspects of, 3-9
--- methods of deposition, 1-102
--- research and industrial equipment, 8-14
Hydrogen content, ot-Si:H, 4
Hydrogen density of states (HDOS), 66
Hydrogen dilution, 53
Hydrogen sensor, 89
I
Implanted species, diffusivity of, 393-396
InAs, 263
Incident energetic particles
--- effects on microstructure of PVD films, 461-462
--- momentum transfer effects, 465-467
Indium
--- parasitic reactions, 273-274
--- Pourbaix's equilibrium diagram applied to, 272
Indium antimonide, electrodeposition, 299-303
Indium-antimony
--- diffusion process and formation, 308-310
--- substrate structure and morphology effects on diffusion, 310-312
Indium arsenide, electrodeposition, 293-297
Indium-bismuth compounds
--- diffusion process and formation, 304-307
--- electrodeposition, 303-304
Indium oxide (IO), in TFEL displays, 126
Indium phosphide, electrodeposition, 280-283
Indium tin oxide (ITO)
--- chemical state analysis, 191-193
--- epitaxial growth by PLD, 183
--- film deposition and characterization, 174-175
--- growth rate and film thickness, 170
initial growth, 172-174
--- laser-irradiated
--- electrical properties, 201
206
--- electronic transport properties, 199-200
--- optical properties, 203
207
--- structural and morphological properties, 200
205
--- substrate temperature effects, 205-208
--- PLD films, applications, 212-213
--- properties of films, 175-177
--- strain effects on structure, 180-183
--- target ablation and modification, 167-168
--- TCO films, 162
Inductively coupled plasma (ICP), 410
Industrial size systems, 10
Inert gas valving, flow-type ALD reactors, 109-110
Infrared spectroscopy, studying LB films, 531
Inhomogeneous nonequilibrium process, kinetic description, 325-326
In-line configuration, 11
InP, 263
In-plane magnetic anisotropy, magnetic properties of TbFe2, 611
12
InSb, 263
In situ synthesized precursors, ALD, 123-124
Insulators
--- for microelectronics, 131-133
--- for TFEL displays, 128-131
Interfacial stresses, in film-substrate structures, 478-479
Interference methods, studying LB films, 532
Intermetallic compounds
--- epitaxial thin films of, 587-626
--- for magnetooptics, 618
--- MBE growth of
--- definition, 588
--- equipment, 588-593
--- selected applications in basic and applied research, 608-623
Intrinsic stresses
--- films produced from nonenergetic particles, 485-487
--- major process parameter effects, 492-497
--- origin in PVD films, 484--490
--- produced from energetic particles, 487-490
Intrinsic stress model (Davis), 489-490
Ion-assisted deposition, 467
Ion beam sputtering, 469
Ion-cluster beam, TCO films, 162
Ion energy distribution (IED), 37
46
Ion exchange preparation, isomorphs in single-crystal film form, *
Ion flux
--- kinetic energy, 57
--- material quality, 58
Ion implantation
--- damage removal, 381-385
--- devices, 405-406
isolation, 397-405
--- range statistics, 375-376
Ion implant doping, isolation of GaN and related materials, 375-408
Ion-induced dehydrogenation, 56
Ions
--- analysis of, 45
--- detection of, 45
--- role of, 55
Ion-sensitive field effect transistor (ISFET), 88
Ion-surface interactions, 62
IR sensor, 88
J
Junction preparation, UPd2A13, 609
K
Kelvin probe, 526
L
Langmuir-Blodgett films
--- biological molecules, 523-557
--- techniques for studying, 528-532
--- thermal stability of proteins in, 543-544
Langmuir-Blodgett (LB) technique
--- monolayer deposition, 526--528
--- principles of, 524-528
Langmuir probe, 81
--- technique, 39
Langmuir-Schaefer (LS) technique, monolayer deposition, 526-528
Large-area thin films, 677
Large reactor, comparison with experiments, 32
Laser-ablated metals, vapor portion in products of, 662-663
Laser and deposition processing parameters, 630-631
Laser-induced fluorescence (LIF), 39
Laser irradiation, 193-208
--- film preparation by, 196
--- ITO films, 195-196
Lasers
--- applications in transparent conducting oxide, 161-217
--- excimer (see Excimer lasers)
--- parameters, effects on epitaxial growth of PLD films, 655-658
Layer by layer (LBL), 73
Light-sensitive protein films, 539-540
Light sensors, 87
Linear arrays, 87
Liquid encapsulated Czochralski (LEC) sputtering, electrochemical
--- formation of binary III-V compounds, 262
Liquid-phase epitaxy (LPE), electrochemical formation of binary III-V
--- compounds, 262
Lorentz approximation, 24
Loudspeakers, ot-Si:H, 89
Low energy electron diffraction (LEED), for ALD, 150
Low-energy electron-enhanced etching, 412-413
Low energy ion scattering (LEIS), for ALD, 150
Low-melting-point semiconductor compounds and oxides, 632-634
Luminescence investigation, single-crystal film, 691-694
Luminescent thin films, made by ALD for TFEL devices, 127
M
Magnetization reversal process, ultrathin Co-PT heterostructures, 615-617
Magnetoelastic coupling, effects in RFe2, 611-615
Magnetooptics, intermetallic compounds for, 618
Magnetron RIE (MRIE), 410
Mass spectrometry, 39
42
Maxwellian electron energy distribution function (EEDF), 18
Mechanical interlocking, adhesion and, 241-242
Membrane structures, reconstruction with artificial methods, 523-557
Metal ablation
--- under defocused irradiation, 664-665
--- under focused irradiation, 664
Metal compound combination, in ALD, 124
Metal films, electrocrystallization of, structure formation during, 559-586
Metal-insulator-semiconductor (MIS), 89
Metallic antiferromagnets, exchange anisotropy with, 618-619
Metalorganic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD), electrochemical
--- formation of binary III-V compounds, 262
Metal--organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD), 84
Metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy (MOVPE), electrochemical formation of
--- binary III-V compounds, 262
Metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFET), insulators
--- for, 131-133
Metal precursors, ALD, 122-123
Metal processes, in ALD, 137-138
Metastability, a-Si:H, 6
Methods of deposition, hydrogenated amorphous silicon, 1-102
Microdiode arrays, electrochemical fabrication of, 265
Microdisk lasers, 441
Microphotodiode array (MPDA), 91
Microscopy, single-crystal film, 682
Microstructure, ot-Si:H, 4
Mobility gap, 4
Model-independent method
--- ration of growth rate to steady-state nucleation rate, 348-349
--- using size distribution of clusters, 350
Molecular beam epitaxy (MBE)
--- electrochemical formation of binary III-V compounds, 262
--- intermetallic compounds, 587-608
--- early growth stages, 595-599
--- general considerations in growth, 593-594
--- high vapor pressure materials, 599-601
morphological aspects of growth, 604--608
--- phase stabilization and orientation selection, 594-601
--- reactors, 108
Molten salts, codeposition from, 275-276
Monolayers, techniques for studying, 528-532
Monolayer transfer, onto solid substrates, 526-528
Morphological properties, PLD ITO films, 179-180
Movchan structure-zone diagram, 459-460
Multichamber system, 8
Multitwinning, mechanism, 582-584
N
Near-field optical microscopy (NSOM), 91
Neutral gas composition, 42
Neutral radicals, 44
Neutrals
--- analysis of, 42
Neutron scattering, studying LB films, 532
NH3 annealing, 392-393
Noncoherent nucleation
--- atomistic analysis of, 570--574
--- classical theory of, 566-570
--- formation of structural defects during, 563-566
Nonenergetic particles, films produced from, intrinsic stresses in, 485-487
Nucleation, see also specific type
--- antiferromagnetic order parameter, thin film surface, 619-620
--- enthalpic and entropic barriers to, 350--351
--- free-energy barrier to, 347-349
--- kinetics of, 323-333
noncoherent
--- atomistic analysis of, 570--574
--- classical theory of, 566-570
--- formation of structural defects during, 563-566
--- PVD thin films, 457--458
--- energetic particle condensation and/or bombardment effects, 458-459
--- thermodynamics of, 321-323
--- thin films, 320
Nucleation and growth
--- beyond the early stages, 333
--- characteristic time, 347
--- control of, 352-369
--- kinetic description, 326-327
--- measurement of, 338-352
--- observations in, 333-338
Nucleation barrier layer, 321
Nucleation boundary layer, 321
Nucleation equation, limit of the new kinetic description, 327-328
Nucleation free energy
--- classical model for, 322
nonclassical model for, 322-323
Nucleation rate, 334
345
Nucleus, 321
O
Optical emission, plasma, 39
Optical emission spectroscopy (OES), 39
Optical properties
--- laser-irradiated ITO films, 203
207
--- PLD ITO films, 177
188
ot-Si:H, 5
Optical refractivity, isomorphs in single-crystal film form, 691
Optical transparency, TCO material, 163
Order--disorder phenomena, 620-623
Oxygen pressure
--- effects on properties of laser-irradiation ITO films, 200-205
--- ITO films deposited at 200
185
--- ITO films deposited at room temperature, 184-185
P
Parasitic reactions, codeposition from aqueous solutions, 273-274
Particle balances, 22
Particle fluxes, 22
Particle-in-cell discharge model, principles, 33
Particle-in-cell/Monte Carlo (PIC/MC), 33
Paschen law, 17
Passivating and protecting applications, ALD, 134-135
Perpendicular magnetic anisotropy, TbFe2 with, 614-615
Phase shift method, 17
Phosphorus
parasitic reactions, 273-274
Pourbaix's equilibrium diagram applied to, 272
Photodiode arrays, 91
Photoreceptors, 87
Photosynthetic reaction center (RC), films of, 534
538
Physical vapor deposition (PVD) films, 627
--- data on residual stresses, 497-519
--- effects of various impurities, 490-491
--- incident energetic particle effects, 461-462
--- mechanical stability of, 478-481
--- fracture of films, 480--481
--- modes of failure, 479-480
--- microstructure, major physical parameters, 462-470
--- microstructure and morphology, 457-470
--- origin of residual stresses in, 482-492
--- residual stresses in, 455-522
--- substrate bias voltage effects, 494--495
--- substrate temperature effects, 495-497
--- water molecules or other polar species and, 491-492
Pilyankevich et al., experimental details, 634--643
Planar diode geometry, 8
Plane-stress elastic model, 475-476
Plasma analysis, 39-53
Plasma chemical diffusion treatments, 251-252
Plasma chemistries, 413-424
--- CH4/H2/Ar, 422-424
--- Cl2-based, 413
18
--- 12
418
Plasma chemistry, 18
Plasma deposition system, 8
Plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD), 2
--- modification of, 67-76
physics and chemistry of, 14-21
Plasma etching, GaN and related materials, 409-453
Plasma excitation, in cold plasmas, 223-224
Plasma-induced damage, 425--441
--- n-GaN, 426--429
p-GaN, 430--434
p-n junctions, 438--441
--- Schottky diodes, 434--438
Plasma modeling, 21-39
Plasma parameters, 53-63
--- external, 53
--- internal, 55
Plasma physics, 15
Plasma polymerization, 236-240
--- fluorinated monomer coatings, 238-240
Plasma potential Vp, in cold plasmas, 222-223
Plasma power, 26
53
--- variation, 29
Plasma process, 10
Plasma reactors, 410-413
Plasmas, 219-260, see also specific type
--- chemistry, 224-226
Plasma sheath, 15
Plasma-wall interaction, 20
p-n junction formation, 396-397
Polycrystalline structure, electrodeposits, during electrocrystallization, 580-582
Polymers, plasma treatment of, 244-251
Polymorphism
--- boron nitride films, 660-661
--- carbon PLD films, 659-660
--- in PLD films, 659-661
--- silicon carbide films, 661
Position sensor, 88
Pourbaix's equilibrium diagrams, aqueous solutions, 271-273
Powder targets, particulate generation mechanisms, 668-670
Precursor fluxes, ALD, 140
Precursors, ALD, 113-125, see also specific type
--- combinations, 114-119
Pressure ranges, ALD performed in, 108
Pressure variation, 27
Process Equipment for Amorphous Silicon Thin Film Applications
--- (PASTA), 11
Protein films, 533-545
Protein monolayers
--- air-water interface, 533-538
--- on solid substrates, 538-540
--- transfer, 538
Pulsed laser-deposited (PLD) films
--- composition of, 629-651
--- compound property formation, target thermal conductivity in, 667-668
--- epitaxial growth, laser parameters and substrate temperature effects,
--- 655-658
--- formation of composition, 643-650
--- influence of target properties, 666-670
--- macrodefects in, 661-666
polymorphism in, 659-661
powder targets, 668-670
--- structure of, 651-659
--- crystallization temperature and, 653-654
--- ways to control, 658-659
--- with volatile components, 648-650
--- factors effecting, 651
--- role of molecules and large clusters, 651-652
Pulsed laser deposition (PLD)
--- background gas, 168-170
--- excimer, in TCO films, 166
--- ITO films, applications, 212-213
--- TCO films, 162
--- technique, 167-175
--- thin films, 627-673
Pulse times, ALD, 139-140
Pure electrochemical deposition, 266
Purge length, ALD, 140-141
Q
Quadrupole mass spectrometer (QMS), 42
Quantum dots, 265-266
Quasi-rest potentials, in codeposition, 267-270
R
Radicals
--- analysis of, 44
Rapid thermal processing (RTP), 388
Reaction chamber, in ALD reactors, 110-112
Reaction mechanism studies, ALD, 144-152
Reactive ion bean etching (RIBE), 412
Reactive ion etching (REI), 410
Reactors, see also specific type
--- ALD, 108-113
--- configurations, 9
--- CVD, 108
--- MBE, 108
--- volume, 9
Reagents, in ALD, 124-125
Recombination, 18
Reflection high energy electron diffraction (RHEED)
--- for ALD, 150
--- MBE growth of intermetallic compounds, 591-592
Reflectometry, studying LB films, 530
Refractory materials films, mechanism of formation, 634
Residual stresses
--- amorphous carbon films sputter deposited on biased substrates, 517-519
--- amorphous carbon films sputter deposited on grounded substrates,
--- 513-515
--- data on PVD thin films, 497-519
--- determination with X-ray diffraction techniques, 474-477
--- magnitude in multilayer structures, 477-478
--- origin in PVD films, 482-492
--- in physically vapor-deposited thin films, 455-522
--- magnitude, 470-481
radius of curvature of substrates and, 470-474
--- silicon dioxide films prepared by ion-assisted deposition, 505-507
--- silicon dioxide films prepared by thermal evaporation, 497-505
--- silicon oxynitride films prepared by dual ion beam sputtering, 507-510
Reversed micelle monolayers, 537-538
RFe 2
611
RF frequency variation, 28
RF modulation, 74
Ridge waveguide lasers, 441-443
Roll-to-roU configuration, 11
Rutherford backscattering spectrometry (RBS), 7
--- MBE growth of intermetallic compounds, 592
S
Sapphire substrate, 678
Scaling laws, 16
Scaling up process, 10
Scanning tunneling microscopy (STM), studying LB films, 530
Secondary ion mass spectroscopy (SIMS), ion implantation, 376
Selenium, 3
Self-bias, in cold plasmas, 223
Self-decomposition, stability against, ALD precursors, 119
Self-limiting growth process, ALD, 106
Sensitivity analysis, 30
Sequential codeposition, 276-277
Sequential (consecutive) electrodeposition, 266
Silane-argon discharges, 48
Silane-hydrogen discharge, 18
49
Silane-hydrogen mixtures
--- with a full particle-in-cell/Monte Carlo model, simulation of RF
--- discharges, 37
--- with the hybrid model, simulation of RF, 35
Silicon carbide films, polymorphism in, 661
Silicon dioxide films
--- prepared by thermal evaporation
--- characteristics of, 497-499
--- exposed to room air, kinetics, 502-505
--- origin of, 499-502
--- residual stresses in, 497-505
--- produced by ion-assisted deposition
--- characteristics of, 505-506
--- normalized momentum effects, 506-507
--- residual stresses in, 505-507
Silicon oxynitride films, produced by dual ion beam sputtering
--- characteristics of, 508-509
--- origin of, 509-510
--- residual stresses in, 507-510
Simulation results, 25
Simultaneous cathodic electrodeposition (codeposition), 266
Single-angle technique, X-ray diffraction measurements of residual stresses,
--- 476--477
Single-crystal fl'-alumina films, 675-698
Single-crystal film
--- characterization, 681-687
--- growth, 677
688
--- isomorphs, ion exchange preparation of, 689-691
--- luminescence investigation, 691-694
Single-crystal platelets, 687-688
Single source precursors, ALD, 124
Sin2 technique, X-ray diffraction measurements of residual stresses, 477
Small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), ct-SiC:H, 8
Small reactor, comparison with experiments, 30
Sn-doping, effect on electrical properties of ITO films, 196-200
Solar cell absorbers, in ALD, 138
Solar cells, 82-92
--- applications, 5
single-junction, 83
stability, 85
Solid-phase crystallization
--- FeBSi alloy, 353
SiGe thin films, 353
Solid-state transformations, thin films, 320
Source chemicals, in ALD reactors, 109
Source power, 26
Splashing, in PLD films, 661--662
Sputter-deposited Tungsten films, adaptation of GBR model to, 486-487
Sputtering, 468
Staebler-Wronski effect (SWE), 6
States of starting materials, 354-357
Sticking model, 20
Strain, effects on structure of ITO films, 180-183
Stranski-Kastanov growth mode, PVD thin films, 458-459
Structural defects
--- metal films, 560-562
--- noncoherent nucleation, 563-566
Structural properties, PLD ITO films, 177-179
Structure-zone models, 459-462
Subcritical clusters, 321
Substrate bias voltage, effects on PVD films, 494--495
Substrates
--- high surface area, ALD reactors, 147-149
--- moving, flow-type ALD reactors with, 112-113
--- radius of curvature, residual stresses from, 470-474
solid
--- monolayer transfer onto, 526-528
--- protein monolayers on, 538-540
structure and morphology, effects on diffusion process, group III-V,
--- 310-315
--- temperature, 54
--- effect on microsctructure of PVD films, 462-463
--- effects on electrical properties of films, 187-188
--- effects on epitaxial growth of PLD films, 655-658
--- effects on intrinsic stresses, 495-497
--- effects on laser-irradiated films, 205-208
Subtractive method, 17
Sulfur, 3
Supercritical clusters, 321
Supercritical region
--- nucleation rate of nuclei in, 335
size distribution of clusters in, 331-332
Superlattices, 265
Superparticles, 37
Superstructures, 265
Surface adsorption, 64
Surface cleaning, adhesion and, 242-244
Surface free energy, 480
Surface potential, monolayers at the air-water interface, 526
Surface protection, high temperature annealing, 385-387
Surface stoichiometry, evaluation of plasma-induced damage, 425
Surface termination, H2 plasma treatment, 253-257
Surface treatments, cold plasmas in, 240-252
Susceptors, high temperature annealing, 387-388
T
Target to substrate distance, PLD technique, 170-171
Target type and chemical bonding, PLD films, 643-644
TbFe2 thin films, magnetic properties of, 611
15
Tellurium, 3
Temperature, ITO film deposits, oxygen pressure effects, 184-186
Temperature programmed desorption (TPD), for ALD, 150
Thermal conductivity, in compound film property formation, 667-668
Thermal desorption spectroscopy (TDS), for ALD, 150
Thermal evaporation, 467
Thermal reactions, 66
Thermal stresses, origin in PVD films, 482-484
Thermodynamics, ALD precursors, 121
Thermosonic wire bonding, 242-244
Thin film electroluminescent (TFEL)flat panel displays, 103
126
--- insulators for, 128-131
Thin films
--- composition, 353-354
--- fundamentals, 319-373
--- nucleation, growth, and solid-state transformations, 320
--- structures and formation process, 320
--- structures and properties, 319-320
Thin film transistors (TFT), 86
Thornton structure-zone diagram, 460
Threshold ionization mass spectrometry (TIMS), 44
81
Total pressure, 53
Transformation of starting thin films, control in, 366-369
Transformed fraction, 335
342
Transition metal nitrides, in ALD, 135-137
Transparent conducting oxide (TCO), 83
--- in ALD, 133-134
--- defect models, 164
--- general electrical properties, 163-164
--- history and applications, 162
--- laser applications in, 161-217
--- other materials, 208-212
Transport, r 4
Transport coefficients, 21
Transport gas, in ALD reactors, 109
Tunneling spectroscopy, UPd 2A13, 609-610
Two-angle technique, X-ray diffraction measurements of residual stresses, 477
Two-dimensional gas, state of monolayer, 525
Two-dimensional solid state, state of monolayer, 525
U
Ultrathin Co-PT heterostructures, magnetization reversal process, 615
17
Ultraviolet photodetectors, 448-450
Unreactive byproducts, ALD precursors, 120-121
UPd 2
608
V
Vacuum system, 8
Vaporization source, 678
Vibrational excitation, 18
20
Volatility, ALD, 113
Volmer-Weber growth mode, PVD thin films, 457-458
W
Weak bond density, 67
Wilhelmy balance, 525
X
XPS, 150
X-ray diffraction (XRD)
--- microstructure of electrodeposits, 575
--- residual stress measurements with, 474-477
--- single-crystal film, 682
X-ray reflectivity, studying monolayers at the air-water interface, 529
X-ray scattering, studying LB films, 530
X-ray sensor, 88
Y
Yttrium aluminum garnet (YAG) laser, in TCO films, 164-166
Z
Zeldovich-Frenkel equation, 323
Zinc oxide (ZnO), 208-212
Zinc-blende structure, 263
SUBJECT INDEX volume II
A
a-C:H films
--- bias and surface quality, 301-302
--- graphitization during annealing, 292-293
--- growth kinetics in real time, 303-307
--- one and two-layer models, 299
--- properties, 290
--- real time ellipsometry, 294-298
--- in site SE study, 298-303
Absorbing layer, 336
Absorption, 280
Acetylene, 82-84
Ag/MgO(001)
--- first stage formation, 553-557
--- island shape, 561-564
--- surfactant-assisted growth, 557
--- thick Ag films on MgO(001), 557-561
Alkane tetratetracontane band structure, 95-96
a-A12 0/ 3/ (0001 )
--- reconstructed surface, 542-545
--- unreconstructed surface, 541-542
--- ct-Sexithienyl band structure, 94-95
Ammonia band structure, 78-79
Amorphous semiconductors
--- density of states, 383-384
--- geminate recombination, 388-390
--- optical gap, 386-388
--- photocurrent expression for electrolyte junction, 394-396
Amyloid fibril formation, 757-758
Angle-resolved inverse photoelectron spectroscopy, 484
Angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy
applied to ultra-thin films, 480
--- for band structure measurement, 62-63
--- using VUV light, 506
Anisotropy
--- under high-resolution NMR, 735
--- photoinduced in isotropic media, 599
Anthracene band structure, 93
Aqueous solutions, 225-226
ARIPES, see Angle-resolved inverse photoemission spectroscopy
Aromatics (large) band structure, 92-97
Aromatics (small) band structure, 84-86
ARPES, see Angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy
Atomic force microscopy, see AFM
Atomic layer epitaxy (ALE), for diamond film deposition, 125-126
ATR (attenuated total reflection)
--- in absorbing rarer medium, 198-199
and aqueous solutions, 225-226
--- coordinate systems, 205-206
--- dichroic ratio, 207-208
--- in isotropic transparent media, 197-198
--- light absorption, 207-208
--- in model biomembranes, 216
9
--- order parameter with liquid crystalline ultrastructure, 208-210
--- oriented crystalline ultrastructure, 208
--- probability density, 206-207
--- research in heterogeneous catalysis, 219-224
--- in stratified media, N layers, weak absorption case, 203-204
--- in stratified media, single layer, 200
--- in stratified media, single layer, weak absorption case, 201-203
--- surface concentrations of oriented layer, 210-211
--- ultrastructure and order parameter, 208
--- vector transformations, 205-206
--- weak-absorption approximation, 227
ATR (attenuated total reflection) techniques
--- kinetic analysis of reversible first-order reaction, 215-216
--- modulated excitation (ME) spectroscopy, 212-216
--- single-beam-sample-reference, 211-212
--- temperature modulated excitation, 214
--- temperature modulated excitation of hydrated poly-l-lysine film,
--- 224-225
ATR (attenuated total reflection) theory
--- complex refractive index, 193-194
--- dielectric constant, 193-194
--- electromagnetic wave intensity, 194-195
--- Kramers-Kronig relation, 195
--- plane electromagnetic wave in absorbing medium, 192-193
--- plane waves, 193-194
Auger electron spectroscopy, 167
170
Auger process, and band structure measurement, 67
B
Bacteriorhodopsin, 755
Band dispersion, 67-69
Band structure
--- ammonia, 78-79
benzene, 84-86
buckyball films, 103-105
--- carbon monoxide monolayers, 69-71
--- carboranes, 87-89
--- cyanogen, 84
--- definition, 62
--- di-halogen absorption, 77-78
--- ethylene, 82-84
--- formate, 80
--- inverse photoemission measurement, 63-64
--- large aromatics, 92-97
--- measurement from intramolecular periodicity, 94
--- measurement techniques, 62
--- metallocenes, 89-90
--- methanol, 80-82
--- molecular nitrogen, 71-74
--- molecular oxygen, 75-77
--- nitrosyl, 74-75
--- NO2, SO2, and CO2, 79-80
--- organic polymers, 97-103
--- organometallic polymers, 101
--- photoemission measurement, 62-63
--- phthalocyanines, 90-92
--- poly(2-vinylnaphthalene), 98-99
--- polymides, 100
--- polystyrene, 98
--- poly(tetrafluoroethylene), 99
--- polythiophenes, 100
--- polyvinulidene fluoride-trifluoroethylene copolymers, 99-100
--- porphyrins, 90-92
--- and reciprocal space lattice, 62
--- small aromatics, 84-86
--- symmetry and selection rules, 64-67
--- tetrethiafulvalene-tetracyanoquinodimethane, 101-103
--- thiolate, 80-82
--- water, 79
Bandgaps, 481
BEMT, and a-C:H films, 299
BEN technique, 127-128
Benaotriazole band structure, 86
Benzene band structure, 84-86
Bethe theory, 416
Biased enhanced nucleation (BEN), 127-128
Birefringence, 338
Bis(1, 2
5
3
96
Bloch states, 485
Bloch wave method, 499-500
Boron nitride, see also Cubic boron nitride
--- phases, 148-149
Boundary conditions, 416--417
Bragg's rule, 238
Bravais lattices, 481
Brillouin zone
--- and lattice structure, 481
--- symmetry and selection rules, 68
--- symmetry within, 66
Bruggeman effective-medium theory (BEMT), 284
362
BTQBT band structure, 96
BuckybaU films, 103-105
Bulk system, definition, 480
C
Cahn-Hilliard theory, 17
Carbon-based thin films
--- graphite-like and carbon-like, 290
--- study by spectroscopic ellipsometry, 290-291
Carbon dioxide band structure, 79-80
Carbon monoxide, as probe molecule, 221-222
Carbon monoxide monolayer band structure, 69-71
changes upon absorption on transition metal surface, 72f
--- dispersion, 72f
Carbon nitride (C3N4)
crystalline and amorphous, 179
--- diffraction angles, 17 It
--- hardness property, 116
--- phases, 160-162
--- structures, 159-160
--- synthesis by high pressure pyrolysis and explosive shock, 163
--- synthesis by laser processing, 164-165
--- synthesis by nitrogen bombardment, 163-164
--- synthesis by sputtering, 165-166
Carbon nitride (C3N4) thin films
--- adhesion to steel substrates, 173
--- annealing behavior, 178
--- effect of different nitrogen concentration, 175
--- effect of substrate bias change, 173
--- mechanical properties, 172-173
--- SIMS characterization, 675
--- structural properties due to nitrogen partial pressure, 174
--- study with FTIR spectroscopic ellipsometry, 307-312
--- temperature-dependent resistivity, 175
Carbon nitride (C3N4) thin films characterization
--- by Auger electron spectroscopy, 167
170
--- by FTIR, 167
--- by Raman spectroscopy, 167
--- by Rutherford backscattering spectroscopy, 172
--- by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, 170
172
--- by XRD, 167, 168f, 169f
Carboranes band structure, 87-89
CARISMA, 651
Catastrophic dechanneling, 270-271
Cd-arachidate band structure, 96
CFUBMS (closed field unbalanced magnetron sputtering) technique, 303-306
--- and TiNx films, 322-324
Channeling, see also Ion-beam spectroscopy
--- axial, 273-274
--- planar, 273
Chemical vapor deposition, see CVD
Chlorophenols, 217-219
Circular pumping, 632-633
Clausius-Clapeyron type equation, 4
Cluster
--- definition, 1
--- three-dimensional, ripening models, 43
--- two-dimensional, ripening models, 41-43
Cluster growth, see also Coalescence cluster growth; Coherent clustering;
--- Nucleation
--- activation energies, 7t
coalescence, 33-39
coarsening process, 31
--- early stage separation morphologies, 43-45
--- elastic energy and cluster size, 20
--- finite areal fraction effects, 47-51
--- and Gibbs-Thomson effect, 40
--- Gibbs-Thomson equation, 3
--- kinetic pathways, 4
--- late stage morphologies, 45-47
--- power-law prediction for radius grOWth, 36
--- processes causing, 1-4
--- ripening models for three-dimensional clusters, 43
--- ripening models for two-dimensional clusters, 41-43
--- screening effects, 51-52
--- self-organized, 18
--- shape transitions, 27-33
--- size and spatial ordering, 53-54
--- stabilization, 5
--- stages, 4-5
--- thermodynamic conditions for, 2
--- three-dimensional transition, 20-21
--- three-dimensional transition, critical thickness for, 23
--- three-dimensional transition, mass transfer effects, 23-24
--- in three dimensions, 3
--- through spinodal decomposition, 17-18
--- transition between ripening and coalescence, 54-55
--- in two dimensions, 3
--- volume fraction effects, 47-51
Co/NiO(111)
--- growth vs. temperature, 574-577
--- magnetic properties, 579-580
--- morphology, 577-579
Coalescence cluster growth
concurrent processes, 38-39
--- dynamic, 33-35
--- in early stages, 45
--- fundamental concepts, 33
--- jamming limit, 39-40
--- percolation growth, 39-40
--- spatial distribution, 37
--- static, 35-38
--- transition from ripening, 54-55
Coexistence curve, 2f
Cohen, Fritzsche, and Ovshinsky (CFO) model, 383
Coherent clustering
coarsening process, 31
--- and cooperative nucleation, 24-25
--- energy density expression, 20
--- equilibrium model for strained systems, 22
--- equilibrium theories, 19-23
--- kinetics, 23-26
--- mass transfer effects, 23-24
--- in quantum dots, 18
--- as self-organized process, 26-27
--- shape transitions, 27-33
--- spinodal decomposition, 17-18
--- superdome formation, 29-30
Coincident structures, 481
Complex reflection ratio, 280
Composite electroplating
--- for diamond film deposition, 143-146
--- with modified Ni-diamond layer, 146-147
--- with Ni/Ni-diamond layer, 146
Compton effect, 488
Constant final-state mode, 506
Constant initial-state mode, 506
Crystalline semiconductors
--- photochemistry, 376-377
--- photocurrent vs. potential curves, 379-381
--- space charge width, 377-379
Cubic boron nitride (cBN)
--- adhesion, 158
--- buffer layer, 158
--- growth mechanisms, 152-153
--- hardness of, 116
--- ion energy in growth, 158-159
--- mechanical properties, 156-157
--- phase control during synthesis, 151
--- phase purity, 157-158
--- properties, 147-148
--- synthesis, 149-151
Cubic boron nitride (cBN) characterization
--- by electron diffraction, 154
--- by electron energy loss spectroscopy, 155-156
--- by FTIR, 153-154
--- by Raman spectroscopy, 153-154
--- by TEM, 154-155
--- by XRD, 154
CVD
--- methods used on diamond films, 122t
--- plasma assisted and cubic boron nitride synthesis, 150
--- plasma enhanced and carbon nitride synthesis, 166
--- used on diamond, 11
6
CVD diamond film, 119, see also Diamond film deposition
--- vs. competing materials, 117t
--- deposition on cutting tool materials, 140-147
CVD diamond film characterization
--- by AFM, 131
--- by cathodoluminescence, 138-139
--- by EPR, 139
--- by FTIR, 136-138
--- by photoluminescence, 138-139
--- by positron annihilation spectroscopy, 139
--- by Raman spectroscopy, 133-136
--- by SEM, 130-131
--- techniques, 130t
--- by TEM, 131-132
--- by XRD, 132
Cyanogen band structure, 84
Cyclopentadienyl band structure, 86
D
DC PACVD, process used for diamond films, 123
Dechanneling, 247-248
--- catastrophic, 270-271
--- in defect-free crystal, 249-250
--- in defected crystal, 250
diameter calculations, 252-254
--- by dislocations, 251-252
--- probability density, 250-251
--- and strain in superlattices, 267-268
--- and strain measurement by planar analysis, 269-274
Defect zinc-blende structure, of carbon nitride, 162
Density of states (DOS), for quantum well rectangles, 502
Density operator formalism, 735-376
Destructive techniques, 638
Di-halogen absorption, 77-78
Diamond, see also CVD diamond
--- chemistry and physics, 117-119
dielectric function, 290
--- properties, 116-117
--- structural properties, l18t
Diamond film deposition
--- abrasive materials for substrate pretreatment, 121t
--- by atomic layer epitaxy, 125-126
--- composite electroplating, 143-146
--- on cutting tool materials, 140-147
--- epitaxy, 127-128
--- by flame CVD, 125
--- by hot filament CVD, 123-125
--- methods, 120-129
--- nanocrystalline process, 128-129
--- nucleation mechanism, 129
--- parameters, 120
--- by plasma assisted CVD, 121-123
--- SIMS characterization, 674-675
--- on steel, 142-147
--- and substrate pretreatment, 120
--- substrates, 119-120
--- using halogens, 125
--- using laser-assisted techniques, 126-127
--- using Ni, 178
--- on VC-Co substrate, 140-142
Diamond-like thin films, 290
Dielectric constant, 193-194
Dielectric functions
--- of a-C:H films, 291-292
--- of amorphous carbon materials, 293-294
--- of carbon-based materials, 290
--- characterization by spectroscopic ellipsometry, 278
--- of crystalline silicon, 281
283
--- macroscopic, 279
283
--- sensitivity to surface contaminants, 281-282
--- and surface roughness, 284-285
--- of TiNx films, 312-313
Diffraction pattern, for band structures, 62
Diffuse X-ray scattering, 721-722
Diffusion, 673
Dipole selection rules, for band structures, 62
Direct current plasma assisted CVD, see DC PACVD
Direct exchange effects, 429-430
Dislocations, analysis by ion-beam spectroscopy, 250-251
Dispersion, 280
Double-well potential, 466-468
DRAMA (dipolar recovery at the magic angle), 742
Dynamic coalescence, 33-35
Dynamic SIMS, 638
648
Dyson equation, 509
E
EELFS
--- measurement, 416
--- spectra, 444--446
EELFS Debye-Waller factors
--- path-integral approach, 465-471
--- perturbation approach to Debye-Waller factors, 457-465
--- spherical wave effects, 471-475
EELS (electron energy loss spectroscopy), and cubic boron nitride
--- characterization, 155-156
Effective complex index of refraction, 361-362
Effective-medium theory (EMT), 283-285
Effective thickness, 210
Elastic properties and Langmuir monolayers phases, 720-721
Elastic scattering, 426-427
--- and LEED (low-energy electron diffraction), 489
Electromagnetic theory, and spectroscopic ellipsometry, 279-280
Electromagnetic wave intensity, 194-195
Electron beam evaporation, for cubic boron nitride synthesis, 149
Electron diffraction, and cubic boron nitride characterization, 154
Electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS)
--- about, 415
16
--- basic formulas, 441-443
EELFS spectra, 444-446
ELNES spectra, 446--447
EXELFS formulas, 452-456
--- multiple scattering expansion of probe electron, 447--456
--- multiple scattering expression, 444--447
--- path-integral approach to Debye-Waller factors, 465-471
--- perturbation approach to Debye-Waller factors, 457-465
--- spherical wave effects on Debye-Waller factors, 468-471
--- suppression of loss structures, 443-444
Electron scattering, see Scattering
Electron transfer reactions (ETRs), 375
Electrons, confined to a thin film, see Quantum well states (QWSs)
Electrons, wave-particle dualism, 488
Electroplating, see Composite electroplating
Ellipsometry, s e e a l s o Spectroscopic ellipsometry
--- nonlinear optical, 628-629
Enantiodifferentiation, 223-224
End-capped oligothiophene (ECnT) band structure, 95
Endotoxins, 217
Energy bands, 481
Energy distribution curve (EDC) mode, 506
Energy-filtered TEM, 536
Epitaxy
--- of diamond films, 127-128
--- ion-beam induced crystallization, 256-257
EPR (electron magnetic resonance), and CVD diamond characteristics, 139
Ethylene band structure, 82-84
Ethylidene band structure, 82
Ex situ measurement, 336
--- in corrosion and passivity studies, 373
--- difficulties wit thick layer, 339
EXACTA 2000
--- alignment procedure, 337
--- with magnetron sputtering system, 342-343
--- operation, 334-335
--- removal of birefringence, 338
EXAFS Debye-Waller factors
--- path-integral approach, 465-471
--- perturbation approach, 457--465
--- spherical wave effects, 471-475
Exchange-coupled systems
--- Co/NiO(111), 574-580
--- magnetism vs. metal/oxide, 573-574
--- Ni80Fe20/NiO(111), 580-585
EXELFS formulas, 452-456
Extrinsic superhard materials, 116
F
F/AF (ferromagnetic/antiferromagnetic) interface, 573-574
Fe/Cr GMR superlatfice, 260-262
Fermi's golden rule, 506
Ferroelasticity of Langmuir monolayers, 700
Ferromagnetic Co films, 501-505
Fick's law, and Ostwald ripening, 41
Field electron emission (FEE), and nanocrystalline diamond deposition, 128
Filament assisted CVD, and carbon nitride synthesis, 166
Final state effect, 486
Flame CVD, process used for diamond films, 125
Floquet's theorem, 482
Fodorov's formalism
for medium with light-induced anisotropy, 602
for vector field polarization, 602--605
Forbidden intervals, 481
Formate band structure, 80
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, see FTIR
--- combined with PMSE, 287-290
Frank-van der Merwe system, 3
18
Free energy expansion, 715-716
Fresnel coefficients, 332-333
FTIR
--- ATR attachment for, 211-212
--- and carbon nitride characterization, 167
--- and cubic boron nitride characterization, 153-154
--- and CVD diamond characteristics, 136-138
--- and single-beam-sample-reference (SBSR) technique, 192
FTIR ATR spectroscopy, see ATR (attenuated total reflection)
FTIR spectroscopic ellipsometry, 307-312
FTPME technique
for carbon nitride film study, 308
--- optical setup, 288
for TiNx thin films, 312-313
Fukutome-Low scattering theory, 430-432
Fullerenes
--- band structure, 103-105
--- and nanocrystalline diamond deposition, 128
G
GaAs
--- analysis by RBS-channeling technique, 255-256
--- nucleation studies on, 13-14
GaN thin films, study by VUV ellipsometry, 289
Gartner-Butler model, 379-381
Gas sensors, 677
Geiger-Muller tube, 64
Gell-Mann, Goldberger theory, 420-421
Geminate recombination effects, 388-390
Germanium, nucleation studies on, 12-13
Giant magnetoresistance (GMR) effect, 479
Gibbs free energy, for three-dimensional cluster growth, 3
Gibbs-Thomson effect, and Ostwald ripening, 40
Gibbs-Thomson equation, 3
--- for small islands, 45
GISAXS (grating incidence small-angle X-ray scattering)
--- Ag/MgO(001), 553-564
--- Co/NiO(111), 578-579
geometry, 537-538
GIXD (grazing incidence X-ray diffraction)
--- application to structure and growth studies, 536
--- data collection, integrated intensities, and corrections, 534-536
--- practical considerations, 533-534
--- surface diffraction, 531-532
GIXD (grazing incidence X-ray diffraction) studies
--- Ag/MgO(001), 553-564
--- ot-A1203 (0001), 541-545
--- Co/NiO(111), 574-580
--- COO(111), 549-553
--- MgO(001), 539-541
--- Ni/MgO(001), 568-571
--- Ni80Fe20/NiO(111), 580-585
--- NiO(111), 545-549
--- NiO(111)/c -A12 0/ 3/ (0001), 585-589
--- NiO(111)/Au(111), 589-592
--- Pd/MgO(001), 564-568
Goniometer, 248
Gouy layer, 376
Grain size, and nanocrystalline diamond deposition, 128
Graphite, 116
--- dielectric function, 290
--- structural properties, 118t
Grazing incidence methods, see also GISAXS (grazing incidence
--- small-angle X-ray scattering); GIXD (grazing incidence
--- X-ray diffraction)
--- on Langmuir monolayer phases, 686
--- refraction from surfaces, 530-531
Green's function
--- for empty layers, 510
--- of free-space, 509
--- and scattering theory, 417
--- single-site, 510
Growth ellipsometry
--- P-A trajectory fitting procedure, 343-344
--- pseudosubstrate approximation, 344-346
--- with pulsed laser evaporation and epitaxy (PLEE) system, 341-342
Growth modes, 1-4
GW approximation, 433
H
Halogen absorption, see Di-halogen absorption
Halogens, in diamond film deposition, 125
Hard coatings, 115-116
Hartree-Fock-Slater atomic model, 243
Helmholtz layer, 376
Heteroepitaxial growth, of diamond films, 127-128
Heteroepitaxial systems
--- equilibrium growth modes, 18-19
--- equilibrium model for strained systems, 22
Heterogeneous catalysis by metals
--- film preparation, 219
--- optical properties, 219-221
--- platinum absorption studies, 221-223
Heterogeneous materials, optical properties, 283
Hexagonal boron nitride (hBN), 148
Hexatriaconate band structure, 96
HFCVD on diamond films, 116
123
High-energy heavy-ion Rutherford backscattering technique, 232
High-resolution TEM, 536
Homoepitaxial growth, of diamond films, 127-128
Hot filament chemical vapor deposition, see HFCVD
Hydroxides
--- d-metal correlation study, 407-410
--- mixed, 410-411
--- sp-metal correlation study, 406--407
I
Immobilized membrane assemblies, 216-217
Impurities
--- and CVD diamond characteristics, 129
--- for diamond film deposition, 120
In situ measurement, 336
in corrosion and passivity studies, 373
--- using spectroscopic ellipsometry, 336-337
--- using synchrotron light, 528
Incoherent structures, 481
Inelastic scattering, 416
427
Initial state effect, 486
Intensity-modulated phtocurrent spectroscopy (IMPS), 381
Interatomic distance measurements, 741-747
Interband transitions, in crystalline silicon, 281
Internal reflection spectroscopy, 191-192
Inverse photoemission spectroscopy
--- for band structure measurement, 63-64
--- and light polarization, 66
--- selection rules, 65-66
--- similarity to photoemission, 65
Ion assisted pulsed laser deposition, for cubic boron nitride synthesis, 149
Ion-beam spectroscopy
--- axis alignment, 248-249
--- channeling critical angle, 245-246
--- channeling effect, 242-248
--- channeling minimum yield, 247
--- dechanneling, 247-248
--- and induced epitaxial crystallization, 256-257
--- and interdiffusion in superlattice, 257-260
--- and ion effects in superlattices, 265-266
--- kink angle and strain in superlattices, 266-267
--- and lattice location of impurity atoms, 254-256
--- and n-i-p-i semiconductor characterization, 262-264
--- Rutherford backscattering spectrometry, 232
--- single crystal defect analysis, 249-254
in single crystals, 241-242
--- and strain measurement by channeling angular scan analysis, 268-269
--- strain measurement by planar dechanneling analysis, 269-274
--- surface peak in channeling aligned spectrum, 247
--- transverse continuum potential, 242-244
--- transverse energy of channeled particle, 244
--- transverse spatial distributions of channeled particle, 244-245
--- using TOF-MEIS technique, 264-265
Ion bombardment, see SIMS (secondary ion mass spectrometry)
Ion transfer reactions (ITRs), 375
Island
--- definition, 1
--- formation and complex index of refraction, 362
--- growth during Ag/MgO(001) formation, 561-564
--- mechanism of motion, 34
--- size distributions for irreversible nucleation, 9
--- spatial distribution of island-island distances, 9
J
Jamming limit, 39--40
K
Kramers-Kronig relation, 195
281
L
Lambert-Beer's law, 210
Landau free-energy expansion, 715
Langmuir monolayers
--- free energy parameters, 711-712
--- internal stress effect, 718-719
--- model building procedure, 691-695
--- natural order parameters, 713-714
--- order parameter development at microscopic level, 715
--- order parameters, 689-691
--- orientational entropy, 71
6
--- swiveling transition, 717-718
--- thermodynamics, 695-700
Langmuir monolayers ferroelasticity
--- elastic dipole density correlation, 709-710
--- elastic dipoles and orientational fluctuations, 705-708
--- elastic domains in mesophases, 708-709
--- in quasi-two-dimensional system, 710-711
--- strain-state calculations for stearic acid, 700
700
Langmuir monolayers phases, 686-687
--- amphiphile cross section design and planar packing, 723
--- bead potentials, 726-728
--- computer simulations, 722
--- cross section potentials, 724-725
--- diagrams, 687-689
--- extension of solid state theory, 720-722
--- packing of model amphiphiles and fatty acids, 722
--- simulation of S to LS transition, 725-726
Laser-assisted techniques, for diamond film deposition, 126-127
Lattice mismatch, 346
Lattices
--- periodic structure categories, 481
--- symmetry of 2
730
--- two-dimensional crystal structure, 481
Laue condition, 489
--- effect of attenuation, 490
--- and GIXD, 533
Layer-KKR, 494
LEED (Low-energy electron diffraction)
--- for band structures, 62
--- history, 487-489
--- and interference, 488-489
--- kinematical theory, 489-491
--- multiple scattering theory, 494-501
--- pseudopotential description, 491-494
--- and quantum well resonances in ferromagnetic Co films, 501-505
--- schematic of setup, 488f
--- surface sensitivity, 488
--- total reflection matrix, 500-501
--- and wave-function matching, 494
Lifshitz-Slyozov-Wagner model, 40-43
Light-induced anisotropy (LIA), 605
--- nonlinear of isotropic medium with partially polarized light, 629-633
Light-induced gyrotropy (LIG), 601
Light-matter interaction, 598-599
--- photoanisotropic media, 599-602
--- polarized radiation in anisotropic medium, 605
Lindhard's continuum model, 243
Line broadening
--- with Raman spectroscopy on diamond films, 135
--- with XRD on diamond films, 132
Linear pumping, 632
Lippmann-Schwinger equation, 509
--- and single-site green function, 510
Liquid crystalline ultrastructure (LCU), 208
Loansdaleite, 118
Lorentz-Lorenz model, 361-362
M
Macroscopic dielectric function, see Dielectric function
Macroscopic surface roughness, 362
Magnetic exchange coupling, see Exchange-coupled systems
Magnetron sputtering technique, 296f, 297f
--- combined with EXACTA 2000
342
Marqusee's diffusion equation, 42
Mass conserved systems, 1-2
--- coalescence growth in, 33
--- and Ostwald ripening, 40-43
Mass reducing processes, 2
Mass separated ion beam deposition (MSIBD), and cubic boron nitride
--- synthesis, 150
Mass spectrometry, see SIMS (secondary ion mass spectrometry)
Materials equations, for isotropic absorbing material, 192-193
Maxwell-Garnett theory, 284
362
Maxwell's equations, for isotropic absorbing material, 192-193
Medium with light-induced anisotropy (MLIA)
--- probe wave polarization changes during propagation, 616--619
--- reflection from, 609-611
--- tensor-operator approach to description, 599-602
MEMS (microelectromechanical systems) technology, 128-129
Metal-electrolyte interfaces
--- optical absorption and photoelectrochemical response, 386-393
--- photocurrent vs. potential curves, 394
--- photoemission phenomena, 391-394
--- structure at equilibrium, 376-377
Metal/oxides
--- Ag/MgO(001), 553-564
--- comparison of metal/MgO(001) interfaces, 571-572
--- insulating character of substrate, 529
--- Ni/MgO(001), 568-571
--- Pd/MgO(001), 564-568
Metal thin films, see also Passive thin films
metal-electrolyte interfaces, 376-381
--- passivity, 373
Metallocenes band structure, 89-90
Metals, see Heterogeneous catalysis by metals
Methanethiol band structure, 80-82
Methanol band structure, 80-82
Method of resultant waves, 333
367
Method of summation, 333
366
MgO(001), surface preparation, 539-541
Microcrystalline ultrastructure (MCU), 208
Microscopic surface roughness, 362
Microwave plasma chemical vapor deposition, see MPCVD
Migration, 673
Miller indices, 489
MLIA, see Medium with light-induced anisotropy
Mobility gap, 383
Modulated excitation (ME) spectroscopy, 212-216
Molecular adsorbates, 67
Molecular nitrogen band structure, 71-74
Molecular structure, defined in terms of reciprocal lattice, 68
Momentum conservation, and band dispersion, 68
Morse potential, 468-471
Mott-Schottky equation, 377-379
MPCVD
--- process used for diamond films, 121-123
--- used on diamond, 116
MS (magnetron sputtering) ellipsometry system
--- effective complex index of refraction, 361-362
--- results, 355-361
Multiple scattering
--- and description of LEED process, 509
--- of electrons, 444-447
--- theory of LEED, 494-501
N
Nanindentation technique, 156-157
--- and carbon nitride thin films, 172-173
Nanoarc model, of cubic boron nitride synthesis, 153
Napthalene band structure, 93
Near edge X-ray absorption fine structure (NEXAFS) spectroscopy, 67
Ni/MgO(001), 568-571
Ni/Ni-diamond composite layer, 146
Ni80Fe20/NiO(111)
--- interface compound, 582-584
--- magnetic properties, 584-585
--- structure and growth vs. temperature, 580-582
Nickel oxide
--- growth on ot-A1203(0001), 585-589
--- growth on Au(111), 589-592
Nitrosyl bonding, 74-75
NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance) spectroscopy, see Solid state NMR
NO2 band structure, 79-80
Non-Rutherford elastic scattering, 232
240
Nonabsorbing layer, 336
Nondestructive techniques, 638-639
Nonlinear optical ellipsometry, 628-629
Nonlinear polarization spectroscopy (NPS), 630-631
--- collinearity of pump and probe beams, 612
--- reflection configuration, 611-612
--- reflection from media with LIA, 609-611
--- theory, 606-608
--- wave operator formalism, 608-609
Nonlinear spectroscopic ellipsometry
--- method of combination waves, 624-628
nonlinear susceptibility, 619
--- probe wave polarization changes in MLIA, 616
Nonlinear susceptibility
--- methods for measuring, 633-634
--- with nonlinear spectroscopic ellipsometry, 619
Nonmass conserved systems, 2
NTCDA band structure, 94
Nucleation
--- of a-C:H films and CNx films, 306
--- activation energies, 7t
--- after microarea deposition, 7
--- for Ag on Si, 6-7
--- of amorphous and polycrystalline thin films, 295-296
--- analytical approach, 5
--- applications of concepts, 6-8
--- BEN technique, 127-128
--- on compound semiconductors, 13-14
--- cooperative, 24-25
--- for diamond film deposition, 127
--- of diamond films, 129
--- on insulator surfaces, 17
--- irreversible for i* -- 0/ 10-11
--- irreversible in reduced dimensional subspaces, 11
--- irreversible with mobile islands, 12
--- irreversible with monomers as critical islands, 8-10
--- kinetic rate equation approach, 5-6
--- linking to early and late stage growth, 43-44
--- on metal substrates, 15-17
--- in Pd/MgO(001) growth, 564
--- in postdeposition stage, 44--45
--- reversible with monomer detachment from stable islands, 11-12
--- on semiconductor surfaces, 12-13
--- sequential vs. simultaneous, 25-26
--- stages, 6
--- and substrate pretreatment of diamond, 120
--- of two-dimensional islands, 7
Null ellipsometry, 334
--- single-wavelength device, 335-336
O
Optical bandgap of oxides, 375t
Optical potentials
--- atomic, in solids, 434-441
--- comparison with GW approximation, 433
--- quasi-boson approximation, 434
--- relation to Francis-Watson potential, 432-433
Optically heterodyned polarization interferometry, see Spectroscopy of
optical mixing (SOM)
Optically thick substrate, 336
Organometallic polymers, 101
Oriented crystalline ultrastructure (OCU), 208
Ostwald ripening
--- and coalescence growth of clusters, 34
--- Lifshitz-Slyozov-Wagner model, 40-43
Oxides
ot-A1203 (0001), 541-545
--- COO(111), 549-553
--- MgO(001) surface preparation, 539-541
--- NiO(111), 545-549
optical bandgap, 375t
--- as substrates, 529
--- surface preparation, 538-539
Oxygen band structure of molecular, 75-77
Oxyhydroxides, mixed, 410-411
P
P-A trajectory
--- fitting for MS system, 356-357, 359t
--- fitting parameters, 362-363
--- fitting procedure, 343-344
--- measurement with spectroscopic ellipsometry, 338-341
--- MS system results, 355-361
physical implications, 363-365
PLEE experimental results, 346-354
--- for thick metallic layer, 355
--- validation by pseudosubstrate approximation, 344-346
p-Sexiphenyl band structure, 94
Pai-Enck expression, 389-390
Partial wave expansion, 418-419
Partially polarized light, coordinate-free technique for describing, 602-605
Passive thin films
--- electronic properties in disordered films, 382-386
--- geminate recombination effects, 388-390
--- insulating, 396-397
--- interference effects during growth, 390
397
--- optical absorption and photoelectrochemical response, 386-393
--- optical bandgap and composition of crystalline oxides, 401-403
--- optical gap values, 388t
photocurrent vs. potential curves, 394-399
photoemission at metal interface, 391-394
--- structural inhomogeneities, 375
Passivity, 373
Pd/MgO(O01)
--- first stage formation, 564-567
--- thick Pd films on MgO(O01), 567-568
Pentacontane band structure, 95
Peptide
--- dynamics, 751
--- membrane-bound, 751-755
--- NMR study of structure, 749-751
Percolation growth, 39-40
Perovskites, 678-679
Phase-modulated spectroscopic ellipsometry (PMSE), 285
286
Phase sensitive detection (PSD), 213
Photoanisotropic media
--- normal waves in, 619-624
--- tensor-operator approach to description, 599-602
Photochemistry of crystalline semiconductors, 376-377
Photocurrent spectroscopy (PCS)
--- correlations for hydroxides and oxyhydroxides, 406--411
--- experimental setup, 374f
--- limitations, 374-375
--- optical absorption and photoelectrochemical response, 401-403
--- study of mixed oxides, 404--406
Photocurrent spectroscopy (PCS) study of passive film-electrolyte junction
--- electronic properties in disordered films, 382-386
--- optical absorption and photoelectrochemical response, 386-393
photocurrent vs. potential curves, 394-399
Photoelectric effect, 488
505
Photoelectron spectroscopy
--- of Cu films on fcc Co, 484f
--- history, 505-506
--- for Xe films on Cu(100), 487
Photoemission
--- experimental setup, 505
--- Feynman diagram, 508f
--- and light polarization, 66
--- manifestation of quantum-size effects, 518-521
--- measurement of band structures, 62-63
--- modes, 506
--- oscillations with film thickness, 521-522
--- selection rules, 65-66
--- similarity to inverse photoemission spectroscopy, 65
--- as three step process, 505-506
Photoemission spectroscopy
--- Dyson equation, 509
--- formulation within multiple-scattering theory, 509
--- free-electron Green function, 509
--- free-space solutions, 509
--- Lippmann-Schwinger equation, 509
--- scattering-path operator and scattering solutions, 512
--- screened-KKR methods, 512-513
--- ultra-thin Cu films on fcc Co(100), 516-522
Photoemission theory
--- final state, 513
--- formalism, 507-508
--- historical sketch, 507
--- transition matrix elements and photocurrent, 513-514
--- from ultra-thin films, 514-516
Photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy, and CVD diamond characteristics,
--- 138-139
Phthalocyanines band structure, 90-92
Physical vapor deposition
--- and cubic boron nitride synthesis, 151
--- of diamond films, 120
Plane waves, 193-194
Plasma assisted CVD, for cubic boron nitride synthesis, 150
Plasma enhanced CVD, and carbon nitride synthesis, 166
Plasmon, 291-292
--- loss and EELS, 415
Platinum (Pt)
--- absorption studies, 221-223
--- diffusion in SbPb60/40, 679
--- geometry, 480
--- mechanism of enantiodifferentiation, 223-224
PLEE (pulsed laser evaporation and epitaxy) system
--- combined with EXACTA 2000
341
--- experimental results, 346--354
Polarization
--- characterization by spectroscopic ellipsometry, 278
--- and EXACTA 2000
334
--- light interaction with refracting interfaces, 602
--- and photoemission and inverse photoemission, 66
Poly(2-vinylnaphthalene), 98-99
Polymides, 100
Polystyrene band structure, 98
Poly(tetrafluoroethylene) band structure, 99
Polythiophenes, 100
Polyvinulidene fluoride-trifluoroethylene copolymers, 99-100
Porphyrins band structure, 90-92
Positron annihilation spectroscopy, and CVD diamond characteristics, 139
Probe wave density, 605
Protein
--- dynamics, 751
--- in membranes, 755-757
--- NMR study of structure, 749-751
Pseudo-dielectric function, 282
--- of a-C:H films, 293
304
--- of carbon nitride thin films, 308
Pseudomorphic growth, 536
Pseudosubstrate approximation, 344-346
PTCDA band structure, 93
Pulsed laser deposition
--- for diamond films, 126-127
--- ion assisted for cubic boron nitride synthesis, 149
PVD, see Physical vapor deposition
Pyridine
--- band structure, 84-86
--- as probe molecule, 222
Q
Quad-SIMS, 638
Quantum well resonances, in ferromagnetic Co films, 501-505
Quantum well states (QWSs)
--- Ag on Fe(001) thin film, 522-524
--- in Cu films on fcc Co(001), 517
--- description of, 481-482
--- envelope picture, 485-486
--- free-electron model, 482-485
--- giant magnetoresistance effect, 479
--- tight-binding description, 486-487
Quantum wells, 676
--- rectangular shape, 482
Quarterthiophene band structure, 95
Quasi-boson approximation, 434
QUASIE, 651
R
Radio frequency plasma assisted CVD, see RF PACVD
Raman spectroscopy
--- and carbon nitride characterization, 167
--- and cubic boron nitride characterization, 153-154
--- and CVD diamond characteristics, 133-136
Reciprocal space, 532-533
--- for epitaxial thin films, 536
REDOR (rotational echo double resonance), 741-742
--- amplitude calculation by density operator approach, 742-743
--- amplitude in three-spin system, 743
--- experimental setup, 742
--- natural abundance 13C experiment, 745-746
--- practical experimental aspects, 744-745
Reflection, see also ATR (attenuated total reflection); Total reflection
--- complex reflection ratio, 280
--- in isotropic absorbing media, 197
--- in isotropic, nonabsorbing media, 195-197
--- of light by single film, 333
Reflection coefficient of multilayer structures, 368-370
Reflection EELS, 416
Reflection high-energy electron diffraction, see RHEED
Refraction
--- and grazing incidence X-ray methods, 530-531
--- in isotropic absorbing media, 197
--- in isotropic, nonabsorbing media, 195-197
Refractive index, 193
280
332
--- effective complex models, 361-362
Resonant photoemission, and band structure measurement, 67
RF PACVD, process used for diamond films, 123
RHEED, and nucleation transition to step growth, 7
Rhombohedral boron nitride (rBN), 148
Rotating analyzer spectroscopic ellipsometry (RAE), 285-286
Rotational potential, 692-694
Rotational resonance (RR) condition, 746-747
--- and amyloid fibril formation, 757-758
Round trip criterion, 485
522
Rutherford backscattering spectrometry
--- basic concepts, 234-240
--- combined with time-of-flight (TOF) technique, 232
--- instrumentation, 233-234
related ion-beam techniques, 232
--- and superlattice characterization, 231-232
Rutherford backscattering spectrometry calculations
--- Bragg's rule, 238
--- depth resolution, 237-238
--- energy loss straggling, 238
--- energy width of thin films, 236
--- kinematic factor K, 235
--- mass resolution, 235-236
--- non-Rutherford backscattering, 240-241
--- scattering cross-section, 238-239
--- stochiometric ratio of a compound, 239-241
--- stopping cross-section, 236-237
--- stopping power, 236
--- surface energy Es, 235
--- surface spectrum height, 238-239
--- thin film thickness by energy width, 237
--- thin film thickness by peak area, 239
--- total counts (area), 239
S
Saturation spectroscopy, 606
630
Scanning electron microscopy, see SEM
Scattering
--- basic theory, 425-426
--- boundary conditions, 416-417
--- bulk vs. surface, 533
--- direct and indirect, 250
--- and direct exchange effects, 429-430
--- by a double layer, 498-499
--- elastic, 426--427
--- Fukutome-Low theory, 430-432
--- Gell-Mann, Goldberger theory, 420-421
--- inelastic, 416
427
--- in many-body theory, 508
--- multiple, and LEED theory, 494-501
--- multiple expansion of probe electron, 447-456
--- multiple of photoelectrons, 444-447
--- and nonconservation of electrons, 430
--- partial wave expansion, 418-419
--- by a single layer, 497-498
--- by single site, 495-496
--- by single site, the relativistic case, 496
site T matrix expansion, 422-425
--- from the surface barrier, 500
--- T matrix, 419-420
--- Watson' s theorem, 421-422
--- X-ray scattering and Langmuir monolayers phases, 721-722
Screened KKR methods, 512-513
Screening effects, 283
Screening length concept, 42
51
SE, see Spectroscopic ellipsometry
Segregation, 673
Self-similarity, and coalescence growth of clusters, 38-39
SEM, and CVD diamond characteristics, 130-131
Semiconductor-electrolyte interface
--- photocurrent expression, 394-396
--- photocurrent vs. potential curves, 379-381
structure at equilibrium, 376-377
Semiconductors
--- crystalline, photochemistry, 376-381
--- nucleation studies on, 12-13
SI units, 193t
SiC analysis, 254-255
Signal-to-noise ratio, for ME spectroscopy, 213
Silicon
--- amorphous, dielectric function, 284
--- crystalline, 281
283
--- nucleation studies on, 12-13
--- P-A trajectory, 339
Simply related structures, 481
SIMS (secondary ion mass spectrometry), 262
--- advantages, 638
--- fractionation effects, 643-644
--- ion imaging, 664
--- as mass reduction system, 2
--- use on polymers and organic materials, 679
--- use on Pt diffusion in SbPb60/40, 679
SIMS (secondary ion mass spectrometry) characterization
--- abundance sensitivity, 649-650
--- instrumental transmission and detection efficiency, 648-649
--- mass resolution, 649
--- mass resolving power, 649
--- peak interference, 649
SIMS (secondary ion mass spectrometry) depth profiling, 648
--- about, 655-656
--- advantages of sample rotation, 662-663
--- calibration methods, 659-660
--- deconvolution, 663-664
--- factors affecting depth resolution, 660-662
--- fundamental concepts, 656-657
--- quantitative methods, 657-659
SIMS (secondary ion mass spectrometry) instrumentation
--- basics, 644-645
--- control system, 648
--- detection system, 647
--- electron gun and charge compensation, 647-648
--- mass analyzer, 646-647
--- photo-multiplier, 648
--- primary ion beams and ion guns, 645-646
sample, 646
scintillator, 648
secondary ion optics, 646
--- theory, 645
SIMS (secondary ion mass spectrometry) quantification
--- computational models, 651
--- in high-frequency mode, 655
--- with secondary neutral mass spectrometry, 654-655
--- theory, 650
--- using calibration curves, 652
--- using encapsulation technique, 655
--- using relative sensitivity factors, 652-654
SIMS (secondary ion mass spectrometry) technique
--- basic characteristics, 639-640
--- bombardment, sputtering, and recoil processes, 640--641
--- damage during bombardment, 64
1
--- energy and angular distribution of sputtered ions, 64
1
--- modes of operation, 648
SIMS thin film characterization
--- advantages, 664-665
--- annealing effects on doped elements, 668-669
--- application in electronics, 671-674
--- conducting transparent films, 676--677
--- contamination sources, 670-671
--- control of growth, 665-666
--- of diamond-like carbon films, 674-675
--- doping by ion implantation, 669-670
--- gas sensors, 677-678
--- perovskites, 678-679
--- physical properties of materials, 668
--- post-processing of materials, 667
--- proximity effect, 671
--- quantum wells, 676-677
solar cells, 676-677
superconducting materials, 668
surface properties and adhesion, 666-667
--- of thin film transistor display materials, 675
--- YBCO heterostructure interfaces, 668-669
Single-beam-sample-reference (SBSR) technique, 192
Snell's law, 530
Solar cells, 676
Solid state NMR, see also REDOR (rotational echo double resonance)
--- and amyloid fibril formation, 757-758
--- chemical shift interaction, 736-737
--- cross polarization technique, 739-740
--- dipolar interaction under MAS, 741
--- interatomic distance measurements, 741-747
--- magic angle spinning technique, 739-740
--- magnetic dipolar interaction, 737-738
--- nuclear quadrupole interaction, 738-739
--- on oriented biomembranes, 747-749
--- quadrupole echo measurements, 740-741
--- recoupling of dipolar interaction, 741-742
--- rotational resonance (RR) condition, 746-747
spin dynamics, 735-736
--- and structure of peptides and proteins, 749-751
Spectroscopic ellipsometry, see also EXACTA 2000
--- applications, 278
--- basic concepts, 332-333
--- in bulk materials, 279-282
--- effect of windows, 337-338
--- external beam mount, 337
--- in IR and deep UV regions, 287-290
--- macroscopic dielectric function, 283-285
--- measurements from, 278
--- nonlinear, see Nonlinear spectroscopic ellipsometry
--- null ellipsometry, 334
--- phase-modulated, 286-287
--- principles of, 334
--- relationship of A and 9
370
--- rotating analyzer technique, 285-286
simulations of P-A trajectories, 338-341
--- for in situ measurements, 336
--- in thin film systems, 282-283
Spectroscopic ellipsometry of C-based films
--- dielectric function, 291-292
--- dielectric function of amorphous material, 293-294
--- graphitization during annealing, 292-293
--- growth kinetics in real time, 303-307
--- principles, 290-291
--- in real time, 294-298
--- in situ study, 298-303
Spectroscopic ellipsometry of TiNx films
--- dielectric function, 312-313
--- electronic and microstructural features, 317-322
--- optical response and stoichiometry, 313-316
--- oxidation study, 324-326
--- real time analysis, 322-324
stoichiometry, 316-317
Spectroscopy of optical mixing (SOM), 631-632
--- circularly polarized pump and probe waves, 615
--- elliptically polarized interacting waves, 615-616
--- linearly and circularly polarized pump and probe waves, 612
15
--- pump and probe waves with linear polarization, 613-614
--- pump wave with circular polarization, probe wave with linear
--- polarization, 614-615
--- pump wave with linear polarization, probe wave with circular
--- polarization, 614
Spin-orbit coupling (SOC), 497
Spin valve sensor, 573-574
Spinodal decomposition, 17-18
SPLEED (spin-polarized low-energy electron diffraction), 501
--- from Co films on W substrate, 502
--- information from, 489
spectra for normal incidence, 504
Sputtering
--- and carbon nitride synthesis, 165-166
--- CFUBMS (closed field unbalanced magnetron sputtering) technique,
--- 303-306
--- for cubic boron nitride synthesis, 150
152
--- magnetron technique, 296f, 297f
--- preferential during SIMS, 643-644
--- and real time ellipsometry of a-C:H films, 294-298
--- with SIMS technique, 640-641
Static coalescence cluster growth, 35-38
Static SIMS, 638
648
Stearic acid, strain-state calculations, 700-705
Stokes parameter formalism, 603
Strain reduction in Si/Sil_x Gex heterostructure, 257
Stranski-Krastanov (SK)growth, 18
--- description Of, 3
--- relationship to coherent clustering, 18
Stress model, of cubic boron nitride synthesis, 153
Subplantation model, of cubic boron nitride synthesis, 153
Substrates, see also Oxides
--- antiferromagnetic oxide, 573
--- for cubic boron nitride synthesis, 151
--- for diamond film deposition, 119-120
--- Ni for diamond deposition, 178
--- oxidation and P-A trajectory, 346-347
steel for diamond film deposition, 142-147
--- for ultra-thin films, 480-481
--- WC-Co for diamond film deposition, 140-142
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) band structure, 79-80
Superdomes, 29-30
Superhard coatings, see Carbon nitride; Cubic boron nitride; Diamond
Superlattice characterization
--- dechanneling and strain, 267-268
--- Fe/Cr GMR structural study, 260-262
--- interdiffusion study by ion-beam techniques, 257-260
--- ion effects, 265-266
--- kink angle and strain, 266-267
--- n-i-p-i semiconductor, 262-264
strain measurement by channeling angular scan analysis, 268-269
--- techniques, 231
--- by TOF-MEIS technique, 264-265
Surface enhanced infrared absorption (SEIRA), 221
Surface quality
--- microscopic roughness and dielectric function, 283-285
sensitivity of dielectric function, 281-282
--- types of roughness, 362
Susceptibility, 599
--- nonlinear, methods for measuring, 633-634
--- nonlinear with nonlinear spectroscopic ellipsometry, 619
Symmetry selection rule, for band structures, 62
Synchrotron-based in situ techniques, see GISAXS (grazing incidence
small-angle X-ray scattering); GIXD (grazing incidence X-ray
--- diffraction)
Synchrotron radiation (SR) spectrometry, 289
--- and a-C:H films, 290
T
T matrix, 419-420
--- site expansion, 422-425
Target-current spectroscopy (TCS), 491
Tauc-Lorentz model, 294
Teflon TM, 99
TEM
--- in conjunction with GIXD, 536
--- and cubic boron nitride characterization, 154-155
--- and CVD diamond characteristics, 131
Temperature quenches, 1-2
Tetratetracontane band structure, 95-96
Tetrethiafulvalene-tetracyanoquinodimethane, 101-103
Thermal conductivity, of diamond, 116
Thermal spike model, of cubic boron nitride synthesis, 152
Thin film analysis
--- by RBS-channeling technique, 254-257
--- by SIMS, 665-671
--- by spectroscopic ellipsometry, 282-283
thickness via spectroscopic ellipsometry, 278
Thin film characterization techniques, 231
Thin film transistor display materials, 675-676
Thiolate band structure, 80-82
Time-of-flight technique, 264-265
TiNx films
--- density, thickness and surface roughness, 320-322
--- deposition conditions and band structure, 318
--- dielectric function, 312-313
--- electronic and microstructural features, 317-322
--- multiwavelength real-time ellipsometry, 322-324
--- optical response and stoichiometry, 313-316
--- oxidation study, 324-326
--- stoichiometry, 31
6
--- void content, 319-320
TOF-MEIS technique, 264-265
ToF-SIMS (time-of-flight mass spectrometry), 638
680
Total reflection
--- in absorbing rarer medium, 198-199
--- in isotropic transparent media, 197-198
Transfer echo double resonance (TEDOR), 742
Translational potential, 695
Translational-rotational coupling, 694-695
--- illustration, 700-705
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM), as mass reduction system, 2
TRIM-type codes, 640
Turbostratic boron nitride (tBN), 148
U
Ultra-large scale integrated (ULSI) devices, 673
Ultra-thin film
--- Ag on Fe(001), 522-524
--- Cu films on fcc Co(100), 516-522
--- definition, 479
--- geometry, 480-481
--- manifestation of quantum-size effects in photoemission, 518-521
--- photoemission oscillations with film thickness, 521-522
--- photoemission theory, 514-516
--- rare-gas films on metallic substrate, 486-487
Urbach tail, 387
V
Vector field polarization, 602-605
Vector light fields, interaction with nonlinear media, 598-599
VLEED (very low-energy electron diffraction), 500
Volmer-Weber system, 3
18
VUV ellipsometry, 289
W
Water band structure, 79
Watson's theorem, 421--422
Wave functions
--- for hexagonal CO overlayer, 71f
--- for N2 and CO, 73f
Weak-absorption approximation, 227
Willemite structure, of carbon nitride, 161-162
Wurtzite boron nitride (wBN), 149
X
X-Ray diffraction, see XRD
XANES spectroscopy, and band structure measurement, 67
XRD, see also GISAXS (grazing incidence small-angle X-ray scattering);
--- GIXD (grazing incidence X-ray diffraction)
--- and carbon nitride characterization, 167, 168f, 169f
--- and cubic boron nitride characterization, 154
--- and CVD diamond characteristics, 132
--- on Langmuir monolayer phases, 686
SUBJECT INDEX Volume III
A
Abrikosov vortex lattice, 483
Absorption effects, 144
411
421
427
597
Acetylacetonate, 372-373
Acoustic coupling, 587
Acoustic superlattice (ASL) structure, 460
Activation energies, 135
Active optical functions, 417
419
Adatom mobility, 239
244
Aerosol-assisted CVD (AACVD), 332-333
AES, see Auger electron microscopy
AFM, see Atomic force microscopy
Aging effects, 68
337
370
394
AH, see Alkali halides
A1N, see Aluminum nitride
Air-conditioning control, 356
ALD, see Atomic layer deposition
Alkali halides (AH), 400
419
Alkoxides, 326-327
All-trans structure, 552
563
568
Alternative (high-k) films, 216-224
Aluminum nitride (A1N) films, 240
--- nonferroelectric piezoelectrics, 298-303
--- pulsed laser deposition, 245-247
Aluminum oxide films, 50-52
Amorphous substrates, 406
597
Amphiphiles, 557
Amplified spontaneous emission (ASE) technique, 424
Angle-resolved X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (ARXPS), 222-224
Anisotropic effects, 234
316
384
484
550
Annealing process
--- crystallinity and, 114
--- face-to-face, 338
--- hydrogen and, 82
--- in situ method, 486
--- leakage currents and, 128
--- postannealing, 114
127
--- postdeposition and, 486
--- RTA method, 111
337
--- thermal conditions, 11
44
53
--- thickness and, 11
--- volatilization and, 381
--- see also specific methods, materials
Anthraquinone dye films, 585
Antireflection coatings, 610-614
APCVDs, see Atmospheric pressure chemical vapor deposition reactors
ARXPS, see Angle-resolved X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy
ASE, see Amplified spontaneous emission
ASL, see Acoustic superlattice
Asymmetric structure, 234-236
Atmospheric pressure chemical vapor deposition reactors (APCVDs), 106
176
Atom scattering spectrometry, 184-185
Atomic force microscopy (AFM), 180
244
258
263
350
355
462
520
--- 532
539
560
Atomic layer deposition (ALD), 176
215
Atomic spectra, 597
ATR, see Attenuated total reflectance
Attenuated total reflectance (ATR), 183
Attenuation factor, 606
Auger electron spectroscopy (AES), 181
182
242
261
Augmented Lagrangian methods, 610
B
Back-switching technique, 464-465
Barium strontium titanate (BST) films, 83
330
337
437
546
584
bottom electrodes, 118-119
--- cell technology, 140-141
--- conduction mechanisms, 123-129
--- crystalline structure, 115-116
--- defect analysis of, 129-136
--- device technology, 141-142
--- dielectric constant, 117
118
--- dielectric layer, 154-157
--- dielectric relaxation, 129-136
--- dispersion parameters, 144-149
--- domain stability maps, 539-540
--- DRAMs, 104
140
--- electrical properties of, 71
111
--- electrode materials, 118
121
--- film thickness, 119
--- gas sensors, 152
--- grain size of, 117
--- high-permittivity films, 100
--- homogeneity of film, 151
--- hydrogen gas sensors, 151-153
--- integration issues, 142.143
--- lithography, 140-141
--- material processing methods, 100
--- metallization, 142
--- microstructure, 116
119
--- microwave phase shifters, 157-159
--- optical band gap, 149-151
--- optical properties, 143-151
--- packing density of film, 149
--- paraelectric films, 71-77
--- physical properties of, 111-123
--- plasma bombardment, 117
--- processing methods, 11-115
--- pyroelectric sensors, 153-154
--- refractive index, 144-149
--- reliability, 136-140
--- reliability issues of, 77-78
--- surface morphology, 118-119
--- TFEL and, 154-157
--- triple oxide, 217
--- ULSI and, 104
--- VLSI and, 76-77
--- voltage tunable devices, 157-159
--- X-ray diffraction patterns, 116
--- see also specific applications, processes
Barkhausen spikes, 472
Barrier height, 41
51
BAW resonator, 280
BCS theory, 485
Beam fanning phenomenon, 469
Beta-diketonates, 327
Bismuth-oxide layered perovskites, 331-332
Boltzmann constant, 77
190
548
Born-von Karman condition, 237
Boron penetration, 197
Bottom electrodes, 44
111
118
Box-constraint solver, 610
BOX-QUACAN code, 610
Bragg condition, 256
344
Bragg-Pippard model, 149
Bragg reflectors, 400
422
Breakdown, see Dielectric breakdown
Brillouin scattering, 237
266
295
Broadband-emitting materials, 419-420
BST, see Barium strontium titanate film
Buffer layers, 243
Bulk periodical domain reversal, 457-473
Burgers vectors, 539
Butterfly curves, 566
575
576
C
C-axis orientation, 293
394
Ca-modified films, 375
385
Capacitance, 119
131
136
Capacitor structure, 58
103
129
587
Cauchy equation, 147
CBCPW, see Conductor backed coplanar waveguide
CCC, see Corrugated capacitor cell
CCs, see Color centers
CCS, see Constant current stress
Cell technology, 140-141
Cellular polytwin architecture, 527-528
Centrosymmetric materials, . 557
Characteristic time, 77
Characterization methods
compositional analysis, 260-262
--- electron microscopy of, 258-260
--- piezoelectric characterization, 262-266
--- X-ray analysis, 256-258
Charge carrier mobility, 170
Chebyshev filter design, 510
Chelated solutions, 109
Chemical mechanical polishing (CMP), 141
Chemical solution deposition (CSD) method, 110
333
370
--- of ferroelectric oxide thin films, 333-339
--- modified lead titanate thin films, 371-385
Chemical vapor deposition (CVD), 105
173
176
--- aerosol-assisted, 332-333
--- atmospheric pressure, 106
--- atomic layer, 176
215
--- electron cyclotron resonance plasma, 107
--- ferroelectric oxide thin films, 326-333
--- growth techniques, 254-255
--- liquid sources, 107-108
--- low-pressure, 106
--- metal-organic, 106
--- mixed ligandcompounds, 108
--- photon-induced, 107
--- plasma-enhanced metal-organic, 106-107
--- PVD methods and, 319
Chynoweth method, 356
577
Cleaning methods, 172-173
CLSM, see Confocal light-scanning microscope
CMP, see Chemical mechanical polishing
Co-evaporation, 487
Coercive fields, 566-570
Coherency strain, 283
Cole-Cole diagrams, 130
Collimation method, 142
Color centers (CCs), 400
--- alkali halide films, 419-425
coloration methods, 407
--- fomation of, 402
412
--- laser active, 400-402
--- LiF films, 399
412
--- low-energy electron-induced, 403-405
--- optical gain coefficients, 400-402
--- refractive index, 405-406
Columnar grain kernels, 297
Complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS), 170
Compositional analysis, 260-262
Conductance switching, 583-584
Conduction mechanisms, 123
135
Conductor backed coplanar waveguide (CBCPW), 496
507
Confocal light-scanning microscope (CLSM), 426
Congruent compositions, 438
Constant current stress (CCS), 137-138
Constant voltage stressing (CVS) method, 137
196
Continuous phase transitions, 546
Continuum dislocations, 520
Continuum layer, 243
Conventional furnaces, 174
Coplanar waveguide (CPW), 506-507
Copolymer films, 551-559
Copper phthalocyanine films, 584
Corbino measurements, 353
Corrugated capacitor cell (CCC), 103
Coupling factors, 233
239
498
CPW, see Coplanar waveguide
Cracking, 520
Critical current density measurements, 489
Critical point, 575-576
Cross coupling, 498
Cross-linking, 337
Cross-polarized methods, 443
465
Cross-sectional transmission electron microscopy (XTEM), 199
Crystal structures, see specific materials, types, processes
CSD methods, 339, see specific types
Curie point, 324
434
441
455
Curie temperature, 70
100
500
547
567
Curie-Weiss behavior, 501
547
574
C- V characteristics
--- of aluminum oxide films, 52
--- fatigue and, 357
--- fixed oxide charge, 37
47
54
--- of hafnium oxide, 56-57
--- hysteresis curve, 25
29
--- interface trapped charge, 38
48
55
--- mobile ionic charge, 48
--- oxide trapped charge, 37
47
54
--- silicon nitride films, 37-39
--- titanium oxide films, 47-48
--- zirconium oxide thin films, 54-56
CVD, see Chemical vapor deposition
CVS, see Constant voltage stressing
Cycling, 81
Cyrogenic sensors, 490
CZ, see Czochralski method
Czochralski (CZ) method, 436
458
468
D
Dangling bonds, 189
190
597
De Broglie theory, 256
Debye equations, 130
Debye screening length, 570
Debye temperature, 564
Deep-level transient spectroscopy (DLTS), 105
108
128
133
Defect analysis, 129
597
Defect-dipole complexes, 70
82
Degenerate four-wave mixing, 416
Degradation phenomena, 370
Delamination, 520
Depassivation reaction, 190
Depolarization effects, 82
353
466
549
Deposition methods, 105
529
--- aluminum oxide, 51
--- CSD, see Chemical solution deposition
--- CVD, see Chemical vapor deposition
--- ferroelectric oxide films, 317-344
--- gate dielectric films, 176
214
--- magnetron sputtering, 58
--- main steps of, 318-323
--- PLD, see Pulsed laser deposition
--- porosity and, 336
--- PVD, see Physical vapor deposition
--- silicon oxynitride films, 214-215
--- sol-gel, see Sol gel methods
--- sputtering, see Sputtering
--- temperature and, 11
4
223
--- titanium oxide films, 44
--- zirconium oxide and, 54
Depth of focus (DOF), 141
Destructive readout (DRO), 87
Devonshire formalism, 324
Dielectric anomaly, 570
Dielectric breakdown
--- gate current versus gate voltage, 179-180
--- percolation model, 194-196
--- reliability and, 31
49
193
--- temperature acceleration, 194
--- time-dependent, 33-34
Dielectric butterfly curves, 575
Dielectric characterization, 265
Dielectric charges, 29-31, see specific materials
Dielectric constant, 570
--- BST thin films, 117
118
dissipation factor, 132
--- elastic, 265
--- ferroelectric materials, 354
--- high-dielectric-constant films, 11
13
--- piezoelectricity, 236-238
--- polarization and, 597
--- polycrystalline films, 117
--- size effects on, 237
--- tantalum oxide films, 11-13
--- temperature dependence, 236-238
--- thickness dependence, 11
--- titanium oxide films, 42-44
--- tunability of, 159
Dielectric dispersion, 136
Dielectric films
--- optical properties of, 596-597
--- reliability of, 136
--- ultrathin gate films, 169-225
Dielectric-layer model, 573-575
Dielectric properties
--- ferroelectrics, 353
369
570
--- impermeability, 317
--- Langmuir-Blodgett films, 566-570
--- microstructure and, 116-118
--- misfit strain, 284
--- nonlinear response, 571-573
--- permittivity, 316
--- SBT thin films, 80
Dielectric relaxation, 129-136
Dielectric reliability, 31
40
49
Dielectric resonators, 353
Dielectric thin films, 593-622
Dielectric tunability, 502
Differential thermal analyzing (DTA) techniques, 438
Diffraction condition, 530
Diffusion coefficient, 135
Diffusion-induced surface domain inversion, 453--456
Diketonates, 327
Diode sputtering, 239
Diol-based sol-gel method, 372-385
Dip coating, 337
Dipivaloylmethanates, 327
Direct tunneling, 23
193
Dispersion parameters, 144-149
Dissipation factor, 132
DLTS, see Deep-level transient spectroscopy .
DOF, see Depth of focus
Domain characterization, 440-442
Domain engineering, 520
Domain inhomogeneity, 465
Domain inversion, 283
455
diffusion-induced, 453-456
--- electrical process, 446-449
--- enhanced surface, 450-451
--- ex situ methods, 457-473
--- heat-induced, 449-453
--- optical process, 442-446
--- periodical, 433
457
--- second harmonic generation, 433-435
--- sidewise, 447-448
--- stability and, 524
539
--- switching, see Switching
--- ultrasonic resonance, 435-436
Domain stability map, 524
539
Domain-wall processes, 81
434
566
Doppler effects, 512
Double-alkoxide compounds, 327
Double-beam optical interferometers, 263
Double hysteresis, 575-576
Drain current, 170
DRAM, s e e Dynamic random-access memory
DRO, see Destructive readout
DTA, see Differential thermal analyzing
Dual-band antireflection filter, 609
Dual hysteresis loops, 576
Dual tuning, 159
Dynamic random-access memory (DRAM), 2
8
84
100
310
539
--- BST thin films, 140-143
--- capacitor applications, 100
129
DRAM cell applications, 129
--- gigabit, 140-143
--- memory cell capacitance, 140
--- possible defects, 130
--- transistors used in, 142
--- ULSI, 100-105
E
ECR, see Electron cyclotron resonance
ECR-CVD, see Electron cyclotron resonance plasma chemical vapor
--- deposition
EEPROM, see Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory
Effective medium approximation formula (EMA), 408
EFMs, see Electrostatic force microscopes
EGA, see Evolved gas analysis
Elastic constants, 265
303
Elastic domains, 518
Elastic recoil detection (ERD), 184
186
Electric field induced phase change, 564
Electric-optic coplanar waveguides, 100
Electrical characteristics
--- alternative gate dielectric films, 218-220
--- dielectric properties, 80
--- domain switching, 446-449
electrical conduction, 71
79
energy band diagrams, 75
80
--- ferroelectric properties, 80
--- gate dielectric films, 207
218
--- leakage current, 71-72
--- silicon oxide films, 192-198
--- silicon oxynitride films, 207-209
--- size effect, 76
--- ultrathin films, 176-180
--- see also specific properties, effects, materials
Electrical conductivity, 59
71
79
135
Electrical field poring method, 463-473
Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM), 4
7
Electro-optic (EO) effects, 100
310
443
557
Electro-optic wave guides, 100
Electromagnetic theory, 597
606
610
Electromechanical coupling factor, 131
233
274
Electron affinity, 40-41
Electron-backscattered patterns (EBSP), 350
Electron-beam assisted poring, 461-462
Electron-beam assisted PVD, 407
Electron-beam lithography, 417-419
Electron cyclotron resonance (ECR), 11
107
268
Electron cyclotron resonance plasma CVD (ECR-CVD), 107
Electron energy-loss spectroscopy (EELS), 560
563
Electron-irradiated LiF films, 421-423
Electron microscopy, 258-260
Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR), 189
Electron spectroscopies, 181-182
Electrostatic force microscopes (EFMs), 351
Electrostriction coefficient, 578
Ellipsometry, 147
182
199
Energy band diagrams, 64
75
80
Energy bandgap, 40
Energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), 376
Energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX), 261
Energy storage, 587-588
Envelope method, 614
EO, see Electro-optic effects
Epitaxial films, 339
346
EPR, see Electron paramagnetic resonance
EPROM, see Erasable programmable read-only memory
Equilibrium thermodynamic theory, 528.
Equivalent circuit analysis, 130
Erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM), 4
ERCS, see Exponentially ramped current stress
ERD, see Elastic recoil detection
ESA, see Excited state absorption
Etching techniques, 440
Euler-Lagrange equation, 550
Evaporation geometry, 407
Evolved gas analysis (EGA), 375
Excited state absorption (ESA), 425
Exponentially ramped current stress (ERCS), 137
External fields, 525-527
Extinction coefficient, 144
146
406
Extrinsic coercive field, 569
F
Face-to-face annealing, 338
Fast-switching films, 582
586
Fatigue, 68
80
351
357
Fatigue-free property, 353
Fatuzzo-Merz theory, 446
449
FB, see Forouhi-Bloomer model
F-coloring curve, 405
Fermi-level pinning, 62
134
358
Ferrodynamic random access memory (FRAM), 7
318
352
Ferroelectric films, 82
500
546
--- all-trans structure of, 563
--- anisotropic materials, 316-317
--- applications of, 5-7
--- C-V characteristics, 356-357
--- characterization techniques, 309
386
--- circuit prototypes, 507-513
--- conditioning effects, 388-390
--- Curie point, 324
--- defined, 369
--- deposition of, 317-344
--- dielectric properties, 316
353
354
369
570
--- discovery of, 546
566
--- domain-wall motion processes, 569
--- electrical characterization of, 351-358
--- electro-optical properties of, 317
fabrication of, 309-360
fatigue failure, 351-353
ferroelectric thin films, 351-353
FET type, 87
--- high coercive field, 449-473
--- high-temperature superconducting materials, 501
--- hysteresis loops, 265
386
--- intrinsic coercive field, 567
--- Langmuir-Blodgett films, 546
565
586
--- lead magnesium niobate-lead titanate, 286-291
--- lead titanate, 280
369
--- lead titanate zirconate, 57
267
--- leakage current, 358
--- lithium niobate, 285-286
--- mean-field models, 546
--- measurement techniques, 386-388
--- memory devices, 67
87
--- microstructure of, 540
--- microwave applications, 481-514
--- nonvolatile memories, 89
--- nucleation, 569
--- optical properties, 317
358
--- optimization of, 392-394
--- oxides, 310
341
--- paraelectric phase transition, 555
--- perovskites, 267
311
501
--- phenomenology of, 546-549
--- physical properties of, 310-317
--- physical vapor deposition, 318
--- piezoelectric measurements, 236
267
316
394
--- polarization and, 316
351
500
546
--- polymers, 551-555
--- properties of, 434
--- pumping action, 356
--- pyroelectric effects, 316
433
--- retention, 351-353
--- SBT thin films, 78-82
--- structure of, 311
344
--- switching effects, 386
449
--- tunable circuits, 502-513
--- twinning, 517-543
--- two-dimensional, 579-581
--- VLSI and, 1-60
--- X-ray analysis of, 344-347
--- see also specific devices, materials, properties
Field-enhanced Schottky (SE)effect, 123
Field reduction, 469
Figure of merit (FOM), 154
Filter design, 621
--- computational, 609-610
--- high-temperature superconductors, 497-500
--- tunable, 509-513
Finite-size effects, 549
570
Five-pulse method, 386
Fixed oxide charge, 47
54
Flash memory, 4
Fluctuon, 442
Folded bit line architecture, 140
FOM, see Figure of merit
Forouhi-Bloomer (FB) model, 146
Fourier analysis, 523
Fowler-Nordheim process, 10
18
23
24
45
584
FRAMs, see Ferrodynamic random access memory
Free-energy analysis, 550
566
Frequency hopping, 512
Fringing field effect, 443
464
Frozen polarization, 441
G
Gadolinium molybdate, 449
Gadolinium oxide, 57
Gallium nitride, 247
303
Gas sensors, 151
Gate dielectrics, 204-205
--- alternative materials, 216-224
--- aluminum oxide films, 52
--- chemical deposition of, 176
--- deposition methods, 214-215
--- electrical characteristics of, 207
218
--- hyperthermal methods, 174
214
--- mechanistic aspects, 209-214
--- c MOSFETs and, 8-10
--- physicochemical characteristics of, 209
220
--- preparation methods, 206-207
--- Si-based microelectronic devices, 169-225
--- silicon oxide, 192-205
--- silicon oxynitride, 205-216
--- thermal growth of, 173-174
--- thinning of, 180
--- ultrathin films, 169-225
GBLC, see Grain-boundary-limited conduction
Giant isotope effect, 189
190
Gibbs free energy, 525
547
550
Gigabit DRAMS, 140-143
GIXRD, see Grazing incidence X-ray asymmetric Bragg geometry
Global optimization algorithms, 595
Gold, 121
Gorter-Casimir two-fluid model, 485
Grain boundary barrier height model, 77
Grain boundary defect, 134
Grain-boundary-limited conduction (GBLC), 60
Grain-by-grain freezing, 351
Grain interconnections, 295
Grazing incidence X-ray asymmetric Bragg geometry (GIXRD), 381
391
Green tensor function method, 520
523
Growth techniques, 201-204
--- CSD, see Chemical solution deposition
--- CVD, see Chemical vapor deposition
--- linear-parabolic growth law, 198
--- mechanisms of, 201-204
--- piezoelectric thin films, 238-255
--- PLD, see Pulsed laser deposition
--- sol-gel, see Sol gel methods
--- sputtering, see Sputtering
--- see also specific materials, processes
H
Hafnium oxide, 56-57
Heat-induced surface domain inversion, 449-453
Heat treatments, 337-338
HEIS, see High-energy ion scattering
Heterostmcture, of substrates, 378
Hexagonal manganite structure, 315
High coercive fields, 449-473
High-dielectric-constant films
--- aluminum oxide, 50
--- applications of, 5
--- dielectric constant, 11-13
--- electron affinity, 10
--- energy bandgap, 10
--- gadolinium oxide, 57
hafnium oxide, 56-57
--- metal-insulator barrier height, 13
--- Poole-Frenkel effect, 13
--- Schottky-emission, 13
--- silicon nitride films, 34-40
--- tantalum oxide films and, 7-34
--- titanium oxide films, 40-49
--- trap type, 13-14
--- VLSI and, 1-60
--- yttrium oxide, 52-53
--- zero-bias thermally stimulated current, 13
--- zirconium oxide, 53-56
High-energy beam poling process, 456-457
High-energy ion scattering (HEIS), 184
High-k films, 216-224
High-permittivity films, 100
High-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM), 118
220
259
348
High-temperature superconductors (HTSs), 481
--- characterization of, 488-493
--- circuits, 493-500
--- critical current density measurements, 489
--- ferroelectrics, 501-507
--- filters, 497-500
--- laser ablation, 485-486
--- magnetron sputtering, 486
--- materials, 481-500
--- microwave applications, 481
489
--- phase shifters, 497-500
--- properties of, 482-485
--- thallium-based, 487
--- thin films, 485-488
--- transition temperature, 488-489
--- tunable components, 502-507
--- waveguide resonators, 494--497
High-temperature to p seeded solution growth method (HT-TSSG), 468
High work function metals, 121
Hole-buming spectroscopy, 29
420
Homogeneity, of film, 151
Hook law, 391
Hopping conduction, 46--47
Hot cartier degradation, 195
Hot electrons, 190
HRTEM, see High-resolution transmission electron microscopy
HT-TSSG, seeHigh-temperature top seeded solution growth method
Hybrid sol-gel method, 339
Hydrogen annealing, 82
Hydrogen gas sensors, 151-153
Hydrogen interface blocking model, 153
Hydrogen-related issues, 176
191
Hyperthermal methods, 174
214
Hysteresis, 25
--- butterfly capacitance, 566
--- Chynoweth method, 577
--- dielectric butterfly curves, 575
--- dual, 576
--- ferroelectric measurements, 386
--- leakage currents, 390
--- loop method, 387
--- Merz method, 582-583
--- polarization, 388
566
--- Sawyer-Tower method, 386
577
--- switching currents, 388
--- tracing of, 387
I
IBD, see Ion beam sputtering
IBSD, see Ion-beam sputter deposition
ICP, see Induced coupled plasma analysis
ICs, see Integrated circuits
Impact ionization model, 69
Impermeability tensor, 317
IMS, see In-situ multistep process
In situ annealing, 486
In-situ mulfistep (IMS) process, 143
Indium tin oxide (ITO), 154
Induced coupled plasma analysis (ICP), 376
Infrared sensors, 369
Infrared spectroscopy, 183
Infrared uncooled focal plane arrays (UFPAs), 153
Insulating films, 399-431
Integrated circuits (ICs), 170
Integration issues, 142-143
Interface trapped charge, 48
53
Interfacial effects, 13
134
439
522
Interracial potential barrier height, 13
Interference phenomena, 593
Internal field effects, 466
584
Internal stresses, 530-532
Intrinsic coercive fields, 567
Inversion domain boundaries (IDB), 294
Ion-based techniques, 260
Ion beam analysis, 185
214
239
Ion-beam sputter deposition (IBSD), 108
321
529
Ion channeling techniques, 244
Ion diffusion coefficients, 135'
Ion exchange process, 455-456
Ion implantation, 403
Ion metal plasma deposition, 142
Ion scattering spectrometry (ISS), 184-186
Ion-sensitive field effect transistor (ISFET), 7
Ionic charge, 31
Ionic conductivity, 135
Ising model, 548
Isotopic substitution, 202
ISS, see Ion scattering spectrometry
ITO, see Indium tin oxide
J
Jet vapor deposition (JVD), 39
215
Josephson junctions, 485
491
Joule effect, 173
K
Kerr coefficient, 317
Kikuchi boards, 350
Knudsen cell sources, 529
Kobayashi hydrodynamic theory, 439
KTP, see Potassium titanyl phosphate
L
Lagrangian methods, 610
Landau-Ginzburg-Devonshire approach, 119
133
519
Landau theory, 234
546
575
Langmuir-Blodgett (LB) films, 546
556
--- applications of, 586-588
--- copolymer films, 557-559
--- critical point, 575-576
--- dielectric properties, 566-570
--- double hysteresis, 575-576
--- fabrication process, 555
588
--- ferroelectric polymers, 546-591
--- ferroelectric properties, 565-584
--- film structure, 560-565
--- morphology, 560-565
--- piezoelectric properties, 576-579
--- polar, 584-586
--- pyroelectric properties, 576-579
--- Stark effect, 585
Langmuir films, 556
558
Langmuir-Schaefer method, 559
Lanthanum aluminate, 482
488
506
Lanthanum-substituted bismuth titanate, 325-326
Laser ablation, 100
105
485
Laser active color centers, 400-402
Laser-heated pedestal growth (LHPG) method, 457
Lasers, see specific materials, processes
Lattice parameters, 234
294
400
564
Layer spacing, 562
LB, see Langmuir-Blodgett films
LCR, see Low-frequency inductance capacitance-resistance
Lead acetate trihydmte, 372
Lead-based perovskite films, 393
Lead lanthanum titanate (PLT), 85-86
Lead lanthanum zirconate titanate (PLZT), 86-87
Lead magnesium niobate-lead titanate (PMN-PT), 286-291
Lead niobium titanate, 255
Lead titanate (PT) films, 85
241
280
330
369
Lead zirconate titanate (PZT) films, 57
248
267
378
550
Leakage current, 124
138
387
--- aluminum oxide and, 51-52 '
--- annealing and, 128
--- BST thin films, 71-72
--- direct-tunneling, 193
--- ferroelectric thin films, 358
--- Fowler-Nordheim tunneling, 23
36
45
--- hopping conduction, 20
46
--- hysteresis loops, 390
--- Poole-Frenkel emission, 18
36
45
--- Richardson constant, 127
--- saturation regime, 127
--- Schottky barrier model, 127
--- Schottky emission, 21
45
--- silicon nitride films, 35-37
--- space-charge-limited current, 21
47
--- tantalum oxide films, 18-23
--- titanium oxide films, 45-47
--- trap-assisted tunneling, 35
--- zirconium oxide films, 54
LEED, see Low-energy electron diffraction
LEIS, see Low-energy scattering
LGD model, 567
571
LHPG, see Laser-heated pedestal growth
Light-matter interaction, 596-598
Linear-parabolic growth law, 198-199
Linear-system computations, 606-607 .
Liquid electrode technique, 464
Liquid source chemical vapor deposition (LSCVD), 107-108
Lithium fluoride films, 400
402
--- active waveguides, 417
--- color centers in, 399
405
412
--- crystals and, 399-402
--- electron-irradiated, 421-423
--- growth of, 406
--- insulating films, 399-431
lasers based on, 424
low-energy electron beams, 402-403
--- material properties, 399
--- nonlinear optical properties of, 415
17
--- optical absorption, 411-412
--- optical microsystems, 399-431
--- photoluminescence, 411-412
--- point defects in, 399.431
--- refractive index of, 407
Lithium niobate, 250
285
314
434
437
Lithium tantalate, 314
434
437
Lithography, 141
Local oscillators, 508-509
Local oxidation structure (LOCOS), 141
LOCOS, see Local oxidation structure
London formula, 491
Long-through sputtering, 142
Lorentz oscillator, 597
Low coercive-field materials, 446--449
Low-energy electron diffraction (LEED), 402.405, 560
Low-energy scattering (LEIS), 184
Low-field regime, 442
Low-frequency capacitance-resistance (LCR)meter, 353
Low-penetrating particles, 402
Low-pressure chemical vapor deposition (LPCVD), 15
34
106
176
Low temperature superconductors (LTS), 483
LPCVD, see Low-pressure chemical vapor deposition
LSCVD, see Liquid source chemical vapor deposition
LSI, see Large-scale integration
LTS, see Low temperature superconductors
M
M layers, 600
Mach-Zehnder interferometry, 323
Magnesium dopants, 469-471
Magnesium oxide, 482
488
539
Magnetic force microscopes (MFMs), 351
Magnetic penetration, 491
Magnetron sputtering, 58
239
321
358
486
Manganite structure, 315
Martensitic transformations, 518
Mason equivalent circuit, 264
Maxwell equations, 610
MBE, see Molecular beam epitaxy
Mean-field theory, 234
546
567
Medium-energy ion scattering (MEIS), 184
186
200
Medium-scale integration (MSI), 171
MEIS, see Medium-energy ion scattering
Meissner phenomenon, 482
Memory applications, 8
87
100
MEMSs, see Micro-electromechanical systems
Merz method, 549
582
Metal-ferroelectric-insulator-semiconductor field effect transistors
--- (MFISFETs), 5
90
Metal-ferroelectric-insulator-semiconductor structures (MFISS), 4
87
Metal-ferroelectric-metal-insulator-semiconductor (MFMIS) transistor, 90
Metal-ferroelectric-semiconductor field effect transistors (MFSFET), 90
177
Metal-ferroelectric-semiconductor (MFS)transistors, 87
Metal-insulator barrier height, 13
41
53
Metal-insulator-metal (MIM)structure, 102
Metal-nitride-oxide-semiconductor (MNOS)memory, 4
Metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD), 100
106
329
517
Metal-oxide-semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET), 2
8
--- 39
48
170
193
Metalorganic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD), 176
234
Metastability, 526
542
Methoxyethanol sol-gel route, 371
Methoxyethoxides, 335
MFISFETs, see Metal-ferroelectric-insulator-semiconductor field effect
--- transistors
MFISS, see Metal-ferroelectric-insulator-semiconductor structures
MFMIS, see Metal-ferroelectric-metal-insulator-semiconductor transistors
MFMs, see Magnetic force microscopes
MFSFET, see Metal-ferroelectric-semiconductor field effect transistors
Michelson-Morley interferometer, 355
Micro-electromechanical systems (MEMs), 355
Microactuators, 310
Microelectronic devices, 169-225, see specific types, composition
Microstresses, 522
Microwave applications
--- BST films, 157-159
--- ferroelectric materials, 481-514
--- high-temperature superconducting films, 481-514
--- HTS, 493
--- phase shifters, 157-159
--- power transmission, 492
--- TBCCO, 492-493
--- tunable devices, 100
--- YBCO, 492-493
Microwave substrates, 487-488
Miller-Weinreich theory, 449
452
467
473
MIR, see Multiple internal reflectance
Misfit strain, 284
520
528
Mixed ligand compounds, 108
MMIC technology, 513
MNOS, see Metal-nitride-oxide semiconductor
Mobile ionic charge, 48
MOCVD, see Metal-organic chemical vapor deposition
MOD technique, 113
339
Modified lead titanate thin films, 369-395
Modulation coefficents, 572
Molecular beam epitaxy (MBE), 51
233
319
529
Monolayer structure, 550
560
Monomolecular films, 556
Monte Carlo simulations, 404
426
Moore's law, 171
Morphology, . film structure and, 560-565
MOSFET, see Metal-oxide-semiconductor field effect transistor
MSI, see Medium-scale integration
Multidomain structure, 434
Multilayer behavior, 423
Multiple internal reflectance (MIR), 183
N
NaF films, 410
11
Nanodomain poling, 462-463
Narrow nuclear resonance profiling (NNRP), 188
NDRO, see Nondestructive readout
Near infrared (NIR), 400
Newton rings, 593
Niobate ferroelectric crystals, 315
NIR, see Near infrared
Nitridation, 207
210
214
N&K analyzer, 146
Nobium antisite model, 452-453
Noisy behavior, 194
Non-volatile random-access memory (NV-RAM), 100
Nondestructive readout (NDRO), 87
Nonequilibrium effects, 555
Nonferroelectric piezoelectrics, 291-304
Nonlinear optical properties, 415
17
Nonnormal incidence, 606-607
Nonsilicon substrates, 379
Nonvolatile ferroelectric random-access memories (NVFERAM), 370
Nonvolatile memory, 310
353
370
517
586
Nonvolatile random access memories (NVRAM), 370
517
NRA, see Nuclear reaction analysis
Nuclear reaction analysis (NRA), 187-189
Nucleation theory, 448
566
NVFERAM, see Nonvolatile ferroelectric random-access memories
NVRAM, see Nonvolatile random access memories
O
Ohmic contact, 61
OLED, see Organic light-emitting diodes
OMR ratio, 118
--- 1T/1C, see One-transistor/one-capacitor memory
One-transistor/one-capacitor (1T/1 C) memory, 87
Onnes phenomenon, 482
ONO, see Silicon oxide/nitride composite layer
Optical absorption, 244
411
Optical amplifiers, 423-425
Optical band gap, 149-151
Optical channel waveguides, 420-421
Optical characterization, 358
442
Optical coatings, 594
610
Optical constants, 614-620
Optical constraints, 614
Optical dispersion relations, 144
Optical fatigue, 81
Optical filters, 419
Optical functions, 419-425
Optical gain coefficients, 400-402
Optical mass memories, 419 '
Optical microcavities, 421-423
Optical microscopy, 425-427
Optical microsystems, 399-431
Optical passivity, 410-411
Optical phase conjugation, 416
Optical properties, 143
415
593
Optical pumping cycle, 425
Optical response problem, 594
Optical waveguides, 410
11
417
420
494
506
Optics, see specific devices, properties, methods
Optimization algorithm, 610
Order parameter, 546
Organic light-emitting diodes (OLED), 403
Orientation, of films, 377-379
Oscillators, 508-509
Oxide breakdown, 196
Oxide electrodes, 353
370
Oxide trapped charge, 47
54
Oxygen defects, 324
Oxygen vacancies, 81
353
452
Oxynitride growth, 211-212
P
Packing density, 149
Paraelectric films, 71
82
553
Partial depletion model, 72
Passive optical functions, 410
419
Patch resonators, 499
Pattern realization, 417-419
Pause refresh property, 130
PE, see Proton-exchange
PE-MOCVD, see Plasma-enhanced metal-organic chemical vapor
--- deposition
PECVD, see Plasma-enhanced CVD
Penetration depth, 483
485
Percolation model, 196
Periodical domain reversal, 433-436
Periodically poled KTP (PPKTP), 436
Periodically poled RTA (PPRTA), 436
Periphery CMOS transistors, 142
Perovskites, 267
311
369
393
501
517
546
PF, see Poole-Frankel
Phase coexistence, 555
562
Phase shifters, 497
513
PHCVD, see Photon-induced chemical vapor deposition
PHEMT, see Pseudomorphic high electron mobility transistor
Photo-emitting structures, 421 -
Photoluminescence, 411
427
Photon energies, 597
Photon-induced chemical vapor deposition (PHCVD), 107
Photon-phonon interaction, 295
Photorefractive effect, 465
469
Photovoltaic generation, 557 J
Physical properties, 40
59
Physical vapor deposition (PVD), 176
318
407
Physicochemical characteristics, 180
209
220
Pi rule, 104
Piezoelectric films
--- asymmetry and, 234-236
--- atomic force microscopy of, 258-260
--- c-axis tilting, 293-294
--- characterization methods, 231
256
--- compositional analysis, 260-262
--- coupling factors, 239
--- dielectric constant, 236-238
--- elastic characterization, 265-266
--- ferroelectric films, 236
267
316
--- growth techniques, 238-255
--- imaging method, 445-446
--- Langmuir-Blodgett films, 576-579
--- lattice parameters, 234-236
--- measurements on, 262-265
--- MEMSs and, 355
--- nonferroelectric, 291-304
piezoelectric coefficient, 274
317
355
piezoelectric effect, 231
369
piezoelectric tensor, 232
polarization and, 231
268
274
351
369
porosity, influence of, 281
properties of, 266
293
576
PVDF and, 554-555
pyroelectric properties and, 355
576
--- size effects, 234
--- surface coverage induced, 450
--- thickness, 275
--- transducers, 587
--- X-ray analysis of, 256-258
PIII, see Plasma immersion ion implantation
Pinning effect, 390
Pippard theory, 485
Planar geometry, 170
Planck's constant, 145
483
Plasma bombardment, 117
Plasma-enahnced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD), 218
Plasma-enhanced CVD (PECVD), 176
332
Plasma-enhanced metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (PE-MOCVD), 106-107
Plasma immersion ion implantation (PIII), 175
214
Plasma sputtering deposition technique, 320
324
Platinum, 121
PLD, 245, see Pulsed laser deposition
Plug technique, 324
PLZT, see Lead lanthanum zirconate titanate
POC, see Proof-of-concept -
Pockels coefficient, 317
Point defects, 399-431
Pointwise constrained optimization, 616
Poisson ratio, 388
522
Polar crystals, 316
Polar Langmuir-Blodgett films, 584-586
Polar materials, 316
557
Polarity dependence, 195
Polarization, 433
566
--- Chynoweth method, 577
--- Curie temperature and, 500
--- defect-dipole, 70
--- depolarization, 82
551
--- dielectric constant, 597
--- fatigue, 81
--- ferroelectrics and, 316
546
--- free-energy density and, 566
--- frozen, 441
--- hysteresis and, 388
566
575
piezoelectric properties and, 231
268
274
351
369
pyroelectric effect, 369
--- spontaneous, 316
369
--- strain-induced, 459
--- switching, see Switching
--- temperature effects, 442
500
--- zero-field relative, 547
--- s e e a l s o Hysteresis
Polarized light method, 442-445
Poling, see Switching
Polycrystalline films, 117
Polydomain formation, 517-543
Polysilicon depletion effects, 197
Polytwin architecture, 527-528
Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), 551
568
Poole-Frankel (PF)effect, 13
18
45
123
130
Population inversion, 401
Porosity, 281
336
Positive temperature coefficient of resistivity (PTCR), 72
128
Postannealing, 114
127
486
Potassium titanyl phosphate (KTP), 434
455
Power transmission coefficient, 490
PPKTP, see Periodically poled KTP
PPRTA, see Periodically poled RTA
Preselect filter, 509
Proof-of-concept (POC), 481
Proton-exchange (PE), 453
463
Pseudomorphic high electron mobility transistor (PHEMT), 508
PT, see Lead titanate
Pulse-echo technique, 265
Pulsed laser deposition (PLD), 113
233
318
321
517
529
--- ablation and, 109
370
--- aluminum nitride, 245-247
--- gallium nitride, 247-248
--- growth techniques, 241-251
--- lead titanate zirconate, 248-250
--- lithium niobate, 250-251
--- zinc oxide, 242-245
Pulsed-poling technique, 465
PVD, see Physical vapor deposition
PVDF, see Polyvinylidene fluoride
Pyrochlore phase, 290
Pyroelectric materials, 316
356
--- BST films, 153-154
--- Chynoweth method, 577-578
--- ferroelectrics and, 316
433
--- infrared sensors, 310
--- Langmuir-Blodgett films, 576-579
piezoelectric properties and, 355
369
576
polarization and, 369
pyroelectric coefficient, 317
387
Pyroelectric scanning microscopy (PSM), 565
576
579
PZT, see Zirconate titanate
Q
QPM, see Quasi-phase matching
Quasi-phase matching (QPM), 435
463
Quenching effects, 429
R
RAIRS, s e e Reflection absorption infrared spectroscopy
Raman spectroscopy, 183
392
Ramped voltage stress (RVS), 137
Rapid furnace, 173
Rapid thermal annealing (RTA), 111
337
Rapid thermal CVD (RTCVD), 176
218
Rapid thermal processing (RTP), 174
Raydan algorithm, 615
Reactive layer model, 203
Read-only memory (ROM), 4
Recoil spectrometries, 184-185
Reflectance spectrum, 144
Reflected high-energy electron diffraction (RHEED), 118
Reflected waves, 599-606
Reflection absorption infrared spectroscopy (RAIRS), 183
Reflection high-energy electron diffraction (RHEED) technique, 243
350
Refractive index, 144
403
411
598
Regularization processes, 595
Relaxation mechanisms, 520
528
540
Reliability, 67
77
136
193
Remote-plasma CVD (RPCVD), 39
Repeated differential etching method, 445
Residual inhomogeneities, 491
Resistance degradation, 69
77
Resonators, 494-498
Retention, 70
82
351
Reverse engineering, 595
614
Reversed polarization, 568
570
Rf-sputtering, see Deep-level transient spectroscopy
RHEED, see Reflected high-energy electron diffraction
Richardson constant, 41
127
Rigaku system, 562
Ring resonators, 494
508
Rochelle salt, 310
546
Rocking curves, 533.
ROM, see Read-only memory
RPCVD, see Remote-plasma CVD
RTA, see Rapid thermal annealing
RTCVD, see Rapid thermal CVD
RTP, see Rapid thermal processing
Ruthenium, 121-122
Rutherford backscattering (RBS), 23
184
200
244
260
347
381
Rutherford backscattering (RBS) spectrometry, 184
347
RVS, see Ramped voltage stress
S
SAED, see Selected area diffraction
Sapphire, 482
Saturation polarization, 284
SAW, see Surface acoustic waves
Sawyer-Tower method, 265
310
386
392
577
SBT films, see Strontium bismuth tantalate films
Scaling, . 142
171
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), 118
350
461
564
Scanning force microscope (SFM), 445
Scanning probe microscopy (SPM), 180
350
Scanning tunneling microscope (STM), 51
233
350
560
Schlenk technique, 335
Schottl barrier model, 119
127
Schottky emission, 13
22
45
84
123
130
358
Schottky-tunneling conduction model, 74
SCLC, see Space-charge-limited current
Screening mechanisms, 466
SE, see Field-enhanced Schottky effect
Second harmonic generation (SHG), 310
433
557
561
Second-order phase transition, 434
Secondary ion mass spectroscopy (SIMS), 184
261
Selected area diffraction (SAED) patterns, 258-259
Selective etching method, 441
Selective optical filters, 419
Self-equalization functions, 498
Self-trapped exciton (STE), 404
Sellmeier relation, 147
SEM, see Scanning electron microscopy
Semiconductor gas sensors, 151
Semiconductor Industry Association's International Technology Roadmap
--- .for Semiconductors (SIAITRS), 196
Semiconductor manufacturing, 171, see also specific types, materials,
--- methods
Sequential evaporation, 486
SER, see Soft error rate
SFM, see Scanning force microscope
SHG, see Second harmonic generation
Si-based microelectronic devices, 169
539
SIAITRS, see Semiconductor Industry Association's International
--- Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors
Silicon-compatible photo-emission, 421
Silicon nitride films
--- C-V characteristics of, 37-39
--- dielectric reliability of, 40
--- fabrication processes of, 34-35
--- high-dielectric-constant films, 34-40
--- leakage current mechanisms of, 35-37
--- MOSFETs and, 39-40
Silicon oxide films, 192-205
--- electrical characteristics of, 192-198
--- gate dielectric films, 192-205
--- limitations concerning, 204-205
--- ultrathin, 204-205
Silicon oxynitride films, 104
205
--- deposition methods, 21
4
--- electrical characteristics of, 207-209
--- gate dielectrics, 205-216
--- hyperthermal methods, 214-215
--- limitations concerning, 215-216
--- mechanistic aspects, 209-214
--- physicochemical characteristics of, 209-214
--- preparation methods, 206-207
Silicon substrates, 378
Silicon wafer cleaning, 172-173
SIMS, see Secondary ion mass sepctroscopy
Simultaneous tuning, 159
Single-crystal texture, 410
412
Single domain crystals, 437-449
Single-oscillator model, 145-146
Size effect, 67
76
353
Smakula formula, 405
SNMS, see Sputtered neutral mass spectrometry
Soft breakdown, 194
Soft error rate (SER), 103-104
Sol-gel methods, 100
105
109
333
392
--- diol-based, 372-385
--- ferroelectrics and, 333-338
--- growth techniques, 251-254
--- lead zirconate titanate, 251-254
--- methoxyethanol route, 371
--- zinc oxide, 254
Solar cells, 612
621
Solitons, 568
Space charge effects, 451-452
Space-charge-limited current (SCLC), 47
59
Spaces program, 188
Spectroellipsometry, 244
Spectrometries, see specific types
Spectrophotometric measurements, 407
Spectroscopic ellipsometry, 147
Spherulite balls, 553
Spin coating, 110
337
SPM, see Scanning probe microscopy
Spontaneous polarization, 316
369
SPT, see Substrate plate trench cell
Sputter deposition, 100
Sputtered neutral mass spectrometry (SNMS), 184
Sputtering, 108
128
233
--- growth techniques, 238-241
--- high-temperature superconducting films, 486
--- long-through, 142
--- magnetron and, 486
--- modes of, 239
--- PVD and, 320-321
stochiometry problem, 321
SQUIDS, see Superconducting quantum interference devices
SRAM, see Static random access memories
St. Venant principle, 528
Stability maps, 524
539
Stacking faults, 294
Stark spectroscopy, 584-586
Static random access memories (SRAM), 517
STC, see Trench and stacked cells
STE, see Self-trapped exciton
Sticking coefficent, 301
Stiffening transition, 564
Stitch-like projection, 118
STM, see Scanning tunneling microscope
Stochastic theory, 188
Stochiometry problem, 321
Stoney equation, 388
Strain relaxation, 283
520
528
534
540
Strains, see Stresses
Stranski-Krastonov growth mode, 323
Stresses, 394
540
--- calculation of, 388
--- causes and effects of, 390-392
--- domain structure and, 442
--- of films, 388
--- interfacial, 523
--- measurements of, 388
--- orientation of films and, 377-378
Stressing temperature, 194
Stronium-barium niobate, 332
Strontium bismuth tantalate (SBT)films, 4
78
Strontium fluorides, 487
Strontium titanate, 83
501
Structural analysis, see specific methods, instruments
Substrate plate trench cell (SPT), 103
Suminagashi art, 556
Superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDS), 482
Superconducting transmission lines, 496
Superlattice structures, 323
354
Surface acoustic waves (SAW), 233
310
Surface analysis, 184
Surface layer mechanism, 570
Surface morphology, 118-119
Surface roughness, 173
Swanepoel method, 144
Switching, 442
--- conductance, 583-584
--- domain-wall motion, 568
--- extrinsic coercive field, 569
--- fast, 582-583
--- fatigue and, 387
--- ferroelectrics and, 351
386
449
--- high-energy beam, 456-457
--- hysteresis loops, 388
--- kinetics of, 442
--- locked, 441
--- low-field regime, 442
--- nucleation theory, 448
568
--- PZT material, 433
speed of, 170
582
T
Tantalum oxide films
--- dielectric charges of, 23-31
--- dielectric constant, 11-13
--- dielectric reliability of, 31-34
--- electron affinity, 10
--- energy bandgap, 10
--- fabrication processes of, 1
4
--- high-dielectric-constant films and, 7-34
--- leakage current mechanisms of, 18-23
--- metal-insulator barrier height, 13
--- physical properties of, 10-14
--- Poole-Frenkel effect, 13
--- Schottky-emission, 13
trap level, 13-14
--- ZBTSC, 13
Tauc relation, 149
TBCCO compounds, 482
492
TDDB, see Time-dependent dieleCtric breakdown
TEM, see Transmission electron microscopy
Temperature acceleration effect, 194
Temperature dependence
--- deposition and, 223
--- dielectric constant, 236-238
--- modulation coefficents, 572
--- polarization and, 442
500
--- polydomain structures, 535-536
Temperature-sensing systems, 356
Template layers, 379
Tetra-isopropyl-titanate (TPT), 43
Tetrafluoroethylene, 554-555
Tetragonal tungsten-bronze structure, 315
Tetragonality, 525
TFBAR, see Thin film bulk acoustic wave resonator
TFEL, see Thin film electroluminescent devices
TGA/DTA, see Thermogravimetric and differential thermal analysis
TGS, see Triglycine sulfate
Thallium-based high-temperature superconductors, 487
Thermal annealing, 222
Thermal decomposition, 375
Thermal evaporation, 319
407
Thermal growth, of dielectrics, 173-174
Thermal hysteresis, 555
562
Thermal imaging, 356
Thermal nitridation, 207
210
214
Thermal processing, 174
Thermal self-focusing, 316
Thermal treatment, 389-390
Thermionic emission, 127
Thermodynamic properties, 522
555
Thermogravimetric and differential thermal analysis (TGA/DTA), 375
Theta-two-theta geometry, 562
Thickness dependence
--- annealing condition, 11
--- bottom electrode dependence, 11
--- piezoelectric response, 275
--- of polydomain structures, 536-537
Thin film bulk acoustic wave resonator (TFBAR), 240
299
Thin film electroluminescent (TFEL) device, 154-157
Thin-film phase shifters, 513
Thomas-Fermi screening length, 551
Threading dislocations, 529
534
Three-domain architecture, 537-539
Ti in-diffusion process, 455
Tilts, 530-532
Time-dependent dielectric breakdown (TDDB), 34
69
77
137
196
Titanium oxide films
--- C-V characteristics of, 47-48
--- dielectric reliability of, 49-50
--- fabrication processes of, 44-45
--- high-dielectric-constant films, 40-49
--- leakage current mechanisms of, 45-47
--- MOSFETs and, 48-49
--- physical properties of, 40-44
Topological disorder, 597
Transducers, 264-265
Transient current, 66-67
Transition layers, 200
Transition temperature, 488-489
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM), 116
180
348
Transmittance spectrum, 144
Transmitted waves, 599-606
Trap-assisted tunneling, 35
Trap states, 13
42
53
65
Trench and stacked cells (STC), 140
Trifluoroethylene, 554-555
Triglycine sulfate (TGS), 87
437
Triode sputtering, 239
TTIP precursor, 48
Tunable components, 502-513
Tungsten-bronze-type crystals, 315
Twinning, 517-543
U
UFPAs, see Infrared uncooled focal plane arrays
ULSI, see Ultra-large-scale integrated circuits
Ultra-large-scale integrated circuits (ULSI), 100
Ultralarge-scale integration (ULSI), 100
171
--- devices, materials
Ultrasonic resonance, 435-436.
Ultrathin films, 169-225
--- gate dielectric films, 169-225
--- hydrogen and, 189-192
--- hydrogen-relate d issues, 192
--- isotopic substitution, 202
--- physicochemical characterization of, 180-189
--- Si-based microelectronic devices, 169-225
--- thickness size effects, 235
Ultrathin silicon oxide films, 204-205
Ultrathin silicon oxynitride films, 215-216
Urbach energy, 598
V
Vacancy induced space charge effects, 451-452
Vander Waals forces, 474
570
Vapor transport equilibration (VTE), 468
Very large scale integration (VLSI), 1-60, see specific devices, material
--- processes
Vibronic lasers, 401
Vincett theory, 239
Vinylidene fluoride copolymers, 551
569
586
VLSI, see Very large scale integration
Volatilization, 376
381
Voltage stress, 66
69
Voltage tunable devices, 157-159
VTE, see Vapor transport equilibration
W
Wall domain, 434
Waveguides, 411
417
420
494
506
Weak links, 485
Wemple single oscillator model, 145
146
Wide-band imaging, 587
Wurtzite structure, 291
X
X-ray analysis, 256
344
X-ray diffraction (XRD), 11
116
234
344
530
X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), 181
199
244
261
381
XRD, see X-ray diffraction
Y
Y-type deposition, 558
YBCO films, 484
492
YIG, see Yttrium iron garnet
Young modulus, 388
522
YSZ, see Yttria stabilized zirconia
Yttria stabilized zirconia (YSZ), 268
488
Yttrium iron garnet (YIG), 159
Yttrium manganites, 315
Yttrium oxide, 52-53
Z
Z-type deposition, 558-559
ZBTSC, see Zero-bias thermally stimulated current
Zero bias capacitance, 357
Zero-bias thermally stimulated current (ZBTSC), 13
Zero-field relative polarizability, 547
Zero-phonon lines (ZPL), 420
Zinc oxide, 242
254
291
472
Zirconate titanate (PZT), 4
67
269
355
369
433
Zirconium oxide films, 53
ZPL, see Zero-phonon lines
SUBJECT INDEX Volume IV
A
Ab initio molecular dynamics, a-C, 429-432
A1GaN alloys
--- growth of epitaxial A1GaN, 108-109
--- long-range atomic ordering, 109-110
A1GaN films
--- doping of, 90
--- gain mechanism in, 145-147
Alkaline solutions
--- formation of oxides in, 40-41
--- hydrogenated Si surfaces, 16-17
All-iodide precursors, YBCO thin films, 528
Aln buffers, 79-81
Aln crystals, growth of GaN and, 60
Alternating current (AC), 187
Alternating current conductivity, cadmium, 235
Ammonia, as a nitrogen source in MBE, 65
Annealing, see also specific type
Annealing, effects on a-C, 464-465
Anodic oxidation
--- enhanced passivation of SiGe by, 46-51
--- formation of hydrogenated Si surface, 17
--- initial states of, 31-33
Anodic potentials, passivation by process optimization, 36-40
Antifuses, a-C-based, 500
Argon atmosphere, spectra of hydrogenated Si surface under, 5-6
Atomic hydrogen, 652
Attenuated total reflection (ATR), 3-12
Auger electron spectroscopy (AES), use in MBE, 64
Avalanche photodiodes (APD), Si/Ge on Si, 348-349
B
Band diagrams, Ge/Si heterojunctions, 363-364
Band gap, strain-compensated alloy, 272
Band gap changes, carbon-containing silicon films, 268
Band offsets, carbon-containing silicon films, 268
Band structure, cadmium, 202
Biaxial strain
--- epitaxial film, 91
--- Ge, 633-634
--- Si, 630-632
Bipolar transistors, 57
BKBO system thin films
--- fabrication, 560-561
--- related junctions, 561-563
Boron diffusion, carbon effect, 281
BSCCO thin films, 538-543
--- fabrication and characterization, 538-541
Buckmister-Fullerenes (C60), allotropic form of carbon, 406
Buffer layers, epitaxial GaN films, 78-79
Bulk-limited conduction mechanism, 220
C
Cadmium arsenide (Cd3As2), 187
198
242
--- band structure, 204
699
--- high field DC conductivity, 234
--- lateral resistivity, 216
Cadmium chalcogenides, 187
189
238
Cadmium compounds
--- electrical conduction properties of, 187-245
--- electrical properties, 202-245
--- structure, 189-202
Cadmium selenide (CdSe), 187
195
--- band structure, 203
--- high field DC conductivity, 232
--- lateral resistivity, 213
Cadmium sulfide (CdS), 187
190
--- band structure, 202
--- high field DC conductivity, 225
--- lateral resistivity, 208
Cadmium telluride (CdTe), 187
193
--- band structure, 203
--- high field DC conductivity, 227
--- lateral resistivity, 211
Carbon
--- amorphous (a-C), 403-506
--- allotropes, 405--408
comparison with amorphous Si, 468-469
computer modeling of growth and structure, 424--432
conduction, 467-468
--- defect studies, 455-467
--- deposition and growth, 409-420
--- devices based on, 499-501
--- electrical properties of, 467-482
--- electron field emission, 484-499
--- electronic band structure of, 468
--- electronic modification of, 478-482
--- electronic structure and properties, 471-472
--- future applications, 408-409
--- growth, 416--418
--- high field conduction, 470
--- historical perspective, 408
--- hydrogenated, in situ doping of, 478-480
--- hydrogenated films, 407-408
--- hydrogenated parts (a-C:H), 403-506
--- ion implantation of, 483-484
--- localization and delocalization in, 482-484
--- low field conduction in, 469
--- microstructure, 420--432
--- nonhydrogenated films, 407
--- optical properties, 432-455
--- planar emitter structures based on, 486-492
--- stress-induced phase transition, 420
--- subplantation, 419
--- thermal spike, 418
19
--- incorporation in Si/Ge relaxed films, 336-337
--- substitutional incorporation, 254
Carbon-carrying ions, 651
Carbon-carrying radicals, 652
Carbon-containing alloys, electrical properties, 268
Carbon-containing complexes, segregation of, 253
Carbon-containing silicon films, 277
--- local strain distribution, 258-260
--- microscopic structure, 257
--- model for C incorporation into growing films, 251
--- relaxed Si buffer structures, 266
--- substitutional versus interstitial C incorporation, 250
--- ternary alloys, 265
Carbon-containing silicon layers
--- electron transport in, 273
--- hole transport in, 275
Carbon-containing thin films, device application, 280
Carbon-nitrogen films (a-C:H), plasma-deposited amorphous
--- hydrogenated, 649-698
--- film deposition, 651-654
--- film structure, 650-651
--- nitrogen in, 654-663
--- mechanical properties, 670-672
--- optical and electrical properties, 672-675
Carbynes, allotropic form of carbon, 406
Cathodic potentials, passivation by electron injection at, 33-36
Cathodoluminescence (CL), gallium nitride, 58
C-axis resistivity, HTSCs, 580
C-axis transport properties and Hall effect, YBCO thin films, 531-532
C60 film, 563-564
Charge transport, carbon-containing silicon films, 273
Chemical vapor deposition (CVD)
--- a-C, 409-411
--- fabrication of HTSC thin films, 515-516
--- YBCO thin films, 526-527
Chloride-transport vapor phase epitaxy (VPE), 60
Combustion chemical vapor deposition (CCVD), fabrication of HTSC thin
--- films, 517
Complex band structure, GaAs properties, 379
Conduction band, carbon-containing silicon films, 271
Conduction measurements, leakage current in polysilicon TFTs, 313-316
Conduction processes, 187
Conduction processes and theory, cadmium, 221
Conductive metal oxide thin films, 677-698
Conductivity, 187
Correlation energies, defects in a-C, 465-467
Critical current density, YBCO thin films, 529-530
Critical thickness, epitaxial film, 91
Crystalline silicon (c-Si), 9-12
Current versus voltage (I/V) characteristic, a-C, 474-475
Current-voltage, Ge/Si heterojunctions, 363-364
D
DAC films
--- electron field emission properties of, 489-491
--- electronic properties, 473
--- FTIR studies, 439-440
--- heterojunctions, 475
Deformation potentials, strained semiconductor films, 627-629
Delocalization, in a-C, 482-484
Deposition parameters, a-C, 473-475
Detector-modulator integration, SiGe microsystem, 354-355
Detectors, 57
--- near-infrared, Ge thin films on Si for, 327-367
Diamond, allotropic form of carbon, 405-406
Diamondlike amorphous carbon (DAC), 404
Diamond-like carbon (DLC), 650
Dihydride species, 5-6
Dip coating, fabrication of HTSC thin films, 517
Dislocations, GaN, 96-100
Doping
--- III-nitrides, 87-90
--- InGaN and A1GaN films, 90
--- n-type, GaN, 88-89
--- p-type, GaN, 89-90
--- silicon, effects on GaN barriers, 154-157
--- unintentionally doped films, 87-88
Doping dependence, HTSCs, 579-580
Dual electron cyclotron resonance (ECR), a-C, 416
E
Edge X-ray adsorption fine structure (EXAFS), GaAs properties, 375-376
Electrical contacts, cadmium conduction, 220
Electrochemical hydrogenation
--- competition with electropolishing, 26-29
--- porous Si, 22-31
--- Si surfaces, 12-22
--- alkaline solutions, 1
6
--- diluted HF solutions, 13-16
electronic states at, 17-19
Electrochemical passivation, Si and SiGe surfaces, 1-56
Electrode-limited conduction mechanism, 220
Electrolyte, spectra of hydrogenated Si surface in contact with, 5-6
Electron beam evaporation, fabrication of HTSC thin films, 512
Electron cyclotron resonance (ECR), microwave plasma-assisted, 65-66
Electron diffraction, a-C microstructure, 422-424
Electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS)
--- a-C microstructure, 420--422
--- a-C(N):H, 666
Electron field emission, a-C, 484--499
--- as a function of surface modifications, 496-499
--- modelling of the process, 492-496
Electronic devices, a-C-based, 499
Electron microscopy, GaAs properties, 378-379
Electropolishing, competition with hydrogenation, 26-29
Empirical models, a-C, 425-427
Energetics of, Si/Ge alloys, 257
Epitaxial growth
--- GaN, 67-87
--- ITO films, 681-682
--- RuO 2
683
Epitaxial orientation, GaN/sapphire interface, 70-73
Epitaxial pure Ge, growth on Si, 338-343
Etching
--- ITO films, 682
--- RuO2, 685-686
Etch rate, role for surface state formation, 19-21
Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), 233
Evaporation, deposition of a-C films, 407
Excimer laser annealing (ELA), 307-308
Excitation condition dependence, optical transitions, 159-163
Excitation length dependence, stimulated emission, 163
F
Femtosecond experiments, nonzero time delay, 131-134
Fiber to the home (FTTH), Ge films to detect near-infrared light, 328
Field effect transistors (FET), 57
Field-effect transistors (FET)
--- HTSC/FE heterostructures, 609
10
Filtered cathodic vacuum arc (FCVA)
--- a-C, 414
--- deposition of a-C films, 407
Flash evaporation, deposition of GaAs, 373
376
386
390
--- 395-397
Flux pinning and flux creep, HTSCs, 582-583
--- 1/f noise
--- in MOSFETs, 293-294
--- in semiconductors, 292-293
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)
--- attenuated total reflection, 3-12
--- Si surfaces, 2
--- studies of DAC films, 439--441
--- studies of GAC films, 441
--- studies of PAC films, 436--439
--- studies of TAC films, 44
1
Friction and wear, a-C(N):H, 670-672
Full color display, 58
G
GaAs, strained, 641-642
GAC films
--- electron field emission properties of, 492
--- electronic properties, 472-473
--- FTIR studies, 441
Gain mechanisms
--- AiGaN thin films, 145-147
--- nitride lasing structures, overview, 137-138
Gallium arsenide, amorphous
--- applications, devices, 398-399
--- composition, structural and morphological properties, 375-379
--- density of states, 379-385
--- deposition and growth parameters, 370-375
--- electrical transport properties, 391-398
--- optical properties, 385-388
--- phonon spectra, 388-391
--- physical properties, 369-401
Gallium nitride (GaN), 58
--- A1N bulk crystals and, 60
--- barriers, effects of Si doping, 154-157
--- dislocations, 96-100
--- epilayers
--- high-temperature SE and damage mechanisms in, 166-169
--- origin of surface-emitted SE in, 172-178
--- SE in, 138-141
--- epilayers and heterostructures, 117-186
--- epitaxial, structure and microstructure of, 90-100
--- epitaxial growth, 67-87
growth in zinc-blende structure, 86-87
--- heteroepitaxial growth, 68-87
--- lasing structures based on
--- evaluating optical confinement in, 179-182
--- transverse lasing modes in, 178-179
--- microstructure lasing, 172-178
--- polarity of, 92-95
--- polytype defects, 95-96
--- ring cavity lasing, laterally overgrown GaN pyramids, 175-1787
--- in Wurtzite structure, 68-86
Germanium/carbon (GeC), on Si, near-infrared detection, 352
Germanium (Ge)
--- electrochemical passivation of surfaces, 1-56
--- epitaxial pure, growth on Si, 338-343
--- films to detect near-infrared light, 327-367
--- p-i-n detector, 347-348
--- polycrystalline
--- detectors, 355-356
growth on Si, 343-346
--- strained, 632-635
Graded buffer layers, in Si/Ge relaxed films, 334-336
Grain boundary barrier height
--- inhomogeneities, 300-302
--- noise relations, 298-300
--- noise spectroscopy for, 302-304
Graphite
--- allotropic form of carbon, 406
--- disordered graphite and, Raman spectroscopy in, 447-449
Graphitelike amorphous carbon (GAC), 404
g values, a-C, 457-458
H
Hand built models, a-C, 425
Hardness and stress, a-C(N):H, 670--672
HBCCO thin films
--- fabrication, 552-554
--- surface morphology, 554
Heteroepitaxial growth, GaN, 68-87
Heteroepitaxy, Si/Ge, 330-332
Heterointerfaces, Ge/Si, relaxed, electric equivalent of, 362-363
Heterojunction bipolar transistor (HBT)
--- carbon containing silicon films, 282
285
--- modular integration in a CMOS platform, 288
Heterojunctions
--- DAC, 475
--- Ge/Si, relaxed, 361-364
--- TAC, 477
HF solutions, diluted, electrochemical hydrogenation in, 13-16
High field conduction, a-C, 470-471
High field direct current conductivity, cadmium, 220
High field direct current (DC), 187
High-Tc superconductor (HTSC), 507-624
--- chemical processing, 515-518
--- device applications, 594-604
--- fabrication of thin films, 509-521
high-temperature, 522-576
--- infrared properties, 590-593
--- optical properties, 590-594
--- substrate and buffers, 518-521
--- transport properties for, 576--594
High-Tc superconductor (HTSC), Tl-based, 547-552
High-Tc superconductor (HTSC)/ferroelectric (FE)heterostructures, see
HTSC/FE heterostructures
High temperature electronics, 58
Homoepitaxial growth, GaN, 67-68
Hopping, 223
Hot-carrier phenomena, in polysilicon TFTs, 320-323
--- 6H-SiC substrates, growth on, 81-85
HTSC/FE heterostructures, 605
14
--- application of, 608
10
--- properties of, 606-608
--- synthesis methods, 605-606
HTSC/FE heterostructures/CMR material heterostructures, 610-612
Hybride vapor phase epitaxy (HVPE)
--- GaN growth kinetics and thermochemistry, 61-62
--- GaN thin-film growth, 59-62
Hydrogen ions, 652
Hydrostatic strain, epitaxial film, 91
I
InAs/A1Sb superlattices, 642-645
--- electronic properties, 644-645
--- optical properties, 645
Indirect conduction-band minima, strained semiconductor films, 628
Indium-tin-oxide films (ITO), 679
--- epitaxial growth, 681-682
--- etching, 682
Infinite CuO2 layer films, 554-560
Information storage technologies, 58
Infrared absorption studies, a-C, 435-441
Infrared (IR) absorption, 2-6
Infrared spectroscopy, a-C(N):H film structure, 665-666
InGaN alloys
--- growth of epitaxial InGaN, 100-101
--- phase separation in, 101-104
InGaN-based heterostructures
--- fundamental optical properties, 149-153
--- optical properties of, 147-166
--- physical properties, 148-149
InGaN films, doping of, 90
InGaN layers, effects of In composition, 153-154
InP, strained, 642
In-plane resistivity, HTSCs, 577-579
Interface trap characterization, noise spectroscopy for, 302-304
Inversion domain boundaries (IDB), 94-95
Inversion domains (ID), 94-95
Ion beam sputtering
--- fabrication of HTSC thin films, 511-512
--- YBCO thin films, 525-526
Ion beam techniques, a-C, 413-424
Ion implantation, a-C, 483-484
Iridium oxide (IRO2), deposition techniques, 686-688
Irreversibility line and upper critical field, HTSCs, 583-584
J
Josephson junctions (JJs)
--- BCCO thin films, 541-543
--- S/F/M/S, 610-611
--- superconducting quantum interferences devices and, 594-598
K
Kim-Anderson theory, 581-582
Kosterlitz-Thouless transition, HTSCs, 587-588
L
La2CuO4 system thin films, 543-547
Large-area thin films, 570-576
Laser ablation
--- fabrication of BCCO thin film, 539
--- fabrication of BKBO system thin films, 560-561
--- fabrication of HTSC thin films, 514
--- HTSC/FE heterostructures, 605-606
Laser arcs, deposition of a-C films, 407
Laser molecular beam epitaxy, fabrication of HTSC thin films, 514-515
Lasers, 57
Laser techniques, a-C, 415
16
Lateral resistivity, 187
--- cadmium, 208
Leakage current, noise in polysilicon TFTs, 313-318
Lifetime studies, PAC films, 443
Light emitting diodes (LEDs), 57
Lineshape analysis, a-C, 456
460
Linewidths, a-C, 456
460
Liquid phase epitaxy (LPE)
--- fabrication of BKBO system thin films, 561
--- fabrication of HTSC thin films, 518
--- YBCO thin films, 527-528
Local area networks, 58
--- Ge films to detect near-infrared light, 328
Localization, 223
--- in a-C, 482-484
Local reconstruction
--- electronic states at intemal surfaces of porous Si, 29-31
--- origin of surface states and, 21-22
Local strain distribution, Si/Ge, 258
Long-range atomic ordering
--- A1GaN alloys, 109-110
--- InGaN alloys, 104-108
Low energy electron beam irradiation (LEEBI), GaN, 58
Low field conduction, a-C, 469-470
Low-frequency noise spectroscopy, 291-325
Low-temperature buffer, near-infrared detection, 352
Low thermal budget processing, anodic oxides, 41-42
M
Magnetron sputtering
--- fabrication of HTSC thin films, 510-511
--- YBCO thin films, 523-525
Mass selected ion beams (MSIB), deposition of a-C films, 407
Mesoscopic superconducting thin film, confinement effect in, 589-590
Metallic substrate, in HTSC thin films, 519
Metal organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD)
--- fabrication of HTSC thin films, 516-517
--- GaAs, 374-375
--- GaN thin-film growth, 59
62
--- reactor design, 63-64
Metal-organic deposition (MOD), fabrication of HTSC thin films, 515
Metal organic vapor phase epitaxy (MOVPE), 62
Metropolitan area networks, Ge films to detect near-infrared light, 328
Microcracks, GaN-based structures, 174-175
Microelectromechanical systems (MEMs), microwave electronics and
--- sensors based on, 58
Microscopic structure, Si/Ge alloys, 257
Microstructure lasing, GaN, 172-178
Microwave devices, HTSC, 598-604
Microwave property, YBCO thin films, 532-534
Microwave surface impedance, BCCO thin films, 541
MIMs, a-C-based, 500
Molecular beam epitaxy (MBE)
--- ammonia as a nitrogen source, 65
--- fabrication of BCCO thin film, 538-539
--- fabrication of HTSC thin films, 512
--- GaN, 58-59
--- GaN thin-film growth, 59
64
microwave plasma-assisted ECR sources, 65-66
--- nitrogen ion sources, 66-67
--- nitrogen plasma sources, 65
Monohydride species, 5-6
Multiple intemal reflection (MIR)-ATR crystal, 3
Multiple quantum wells (MQW), InGaN/GaN, SE at elevated temperatures, 169-172
--- NAC films, electron field emission properties of, 492
--- Nanocomposite amorphous carbon (NAC), 404
--- Nanosecond experiments, nonzero time delay, GaN thin films, 129-131
--- Nearest neighbor hopping, 223
--- Near-infrared detectors, 329-330
--- Near-infrared light
--- detection with Ge thin films on silicon, 327-367
--- SiGe for detection, 332-333
--- Near-infrared photodetectors
--- array of, 327-367
--- Ge thin films on Si for, 327-367
--- SiGe on Si, 346--356
--- Near-infrared wavemeter, integrated on Si, 359-361
--- Neutron diffraction, a-C microstructure, 422-424
--- Nitridation, GaN/sapphire interface, 73-78
--- Nitrides
--- group III
--- absorption, 123-124
--- doping of, 87-90
--- general optical properties, 121-125
--- highly excited, pump-probe spectroscopy, 125-137
--- lasing structures, gain mechanisms in, 137-147
--- photoluminescence, 122-123
--- physical properties and band structure, 121-122
--- reflection and photoreflectance, 124-125
--- strain considerations, 123
--- groups III-V
--- epitaxial growth and structure of, 57-115
--- growth methods, 59-67
--- Nitride thin films
--- challenges in research and development, 118-120
--- historical perspectives and economics, 118-120
--- lasing characteristics, microcrack effects, 174-175
--- optical properties at high temperatures, 166-172
--- Nitrogenation, effects on a-C, 463-464
--- Nitrogen ion sources, in MBE, 66-67
--- Nitrogen plasma sources, in MBE, 65
--- Noise measurements, leakage current in polysilicon TFTs, 31
6
--- Noise model
--- polycrystalline semiconductor thin films, 294-296
--- verification of, 304-307
--- Noise sources, 291-292
--- grain boundary barrier height relations, 298-300
--- Nondegenerate optical pump-probe absorption spectroscopy, zero time
--- delay, GaN thin films, 126-129
--- Nonradiative Auger recombination, 9-10
--- Nonradiative bulk recombination, 9-10
--- Nonradiative recombination
--- defects in a-C and, 467
--- processes, 9-10
--- Nonradiative surface recombination, 9-10
--- Nonvolatile memories, a-C-based, 500
--- Normal-state Hall effect, HTSCs, 580-581
--- Normal-state resistivity, HTSCs, 577-580
--- n-type silicon, dark and illumination, 6-7
--- Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, a-C(N):H, 669
O
Optical confinement, evaluation in GaN-based lasing structures, 179-182
Optical decryption, based on the VWP, 356-358
Optical gap and density of state, a-C, 433-434
Optical gaps El and E 1
1
629
Optical pump-probe experiments, group III nitride films, 125-137
Optical transitions
--- excitation condition dependence of, 159-163
--- various temperatures and excitation conditions, 157-159
Optimized graded buffer, near-infrared detection, 354
Optimized waveguide photodetectors, 351-352
Optoelectronic integrated circuits (OEIC), Ge films to detect near-infrared
--- light, 328
Oxide composition, 48-50
Oxide/c-SiGe interface, defect concentration at, 46-47
Oxide layer
--- electronic characterization, 43-44
--- preparation of, in thick anodic oxides, 42-43
Oxides, formation in alkaline solution, 40-41
Oxidized epi-SiGe samples, morphology of, 48
Oxidized SiGe layers, photoluminescence spectra of, 50-51
P
PAC films
--- electron field emission properties of, 487-488
--- FTIR studies, 436--439
--- lifetime studies, 443
--- nitrogenated, 445-446
polarization memory, 444-445
Paramagnetic Meissner effect, HTSCs, 589
Passivation
--- by electron injection at cathodic potentials, 33-36
--- enhanced, SiGe, 46-51
--- by process optimization at anodic potentials, 36-40
--- steps and trenches, 44--45
Perovskite structural substrates, in HTSC thin films, 519
pH dependence, formation of ultrathin porous Si, 23-26
Photodetectors
--- near-infrared
--- array of, 327-367
--- Ge thin films on Si for, 327-367
--- SiGe on Si, 346-356
--- optimized waveguide, 351-352
Photoluminescence fatigue, a-C-based materials, 444
Photoluminescence (PL)
--- a-C, 441-442
--- GaN crystals, 58
--- group III nitrides, 122-123
PAC films, 441-442
--- temperature dependence of intensity, 443
444
Photoluminescence spectra, oxidized SiGe layers, 50-51
Photoreflectance, group III nitrides, 124-125
Photovoltage, pulsed surface, 6-9
Photovoltage amplitude
--- for n-Si, 7-8
--- simulated
--- during electrochemical treatments, 8-9
--- under pulsed laser excitation, 8
Photovoltage transients, 7
--- during potentiostatic control, 9
Photoyield measurements, defects in a-C, 465-467
Physical vapor deposition (PVD), GaN thin-film growth, 59
p-i-n photodiode, Ge on Si, 347-348
Planar emitter structures, based on carbon, 486--492
Plasma beam source, a-C, 416
Plasma enhanced chemical transport deposition (PECTD), GaAs, 374-375
--- F Point states, strained semiconductor films, 627-628
Polarity, GaN, 92-95
Polarization memory, PAC films, 444--445
Polycrystalline/3-FeSi2 films, noise in, 296-298
Polycrystalline Ge
--- detectors, 355-356
--- growth on Si, 343-346
Polycrystalline semiconductor thin films
--- low-frequency noise spectroscopy for, 291-325
--- noise of, 294-298
Polymerlike amorphous carbon (PAC), 404
Polysilicon thin film transistors (TFTs)
--- avalanche-induced excess noise, 318-320
--- excimer laser-annealed, 307-308
--- very thin, noise of, 311-313
--- hot-cartier phenomena in, 320-323
--- leakage current in, noise of, 313-318
--- low-frequency noise spectroscopy for, 291-325
--- noise of the drain current in, 298-313
Polytype defects, GaN, 95-96
Poole-Frenkel effect, 222
470
Power electronics, 58
Pseudomorphic layers, 277
Pulsed laser deposition (PLD)
--- GaN thin-film growth, 59
--- IrO2, 686-687
--- RuO2, 683
--- SrRuO 3
689
--- strontium-doped lanthanum cobalite, 692-693
--- thin TCO films, 679-681
--- YBCO thin films, 526
Pulsed laser excitation, one-dimensional, 8
Pulsed photoluminescence, 9-12
--- measurements during electrochemical processing, 10
--- Si surfaces, 2
--- spectrum of c-Si at room temperature, 10
Pulsed surface photovoltage, 6-9
Pump-probe absorption spectroscopy, InGaN thin films, 135-136
Pump-probe reflection spectroscopy, GaN thin films, 134
Pump-probe spectroscopy, highly excited group III-nitrides, 125-137
Q
Quantum behavior, ultrathin films, 587
R
Radiative band-to-band recombination, 9-10
Radio-frequency glow-discharge method, a-C:H, 652
Radio frequency plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (RFPECVD), 652
Raman lineshapes, a-C thin films, 447
Raman spectroscopy
--- a-C(N):H film structure, 663-665
--- a-C thin films, 446--455
--- ultraviolet, sp 3
452
--- visible, a-C, 449-452
Reactor design, MOCVD, 63-64
Reference electrode (RE), 3
Reflection, group III nitrides, 124-125
Reflection high-energy electron diffraction (RHEED), 196
--- GaAs properties, 378-379
--- use in MBE, 64
Relaxation, effects on a-C, 456
460
Relaxed films, SiGe, 333-346
Residual stresses, epitaxial films, 91-92
RF plasma sources, in MBE, 66
Ring-cavity lasing, laterally overgrown GaN pyramids, 175-178
Ruthenates, conductive, 691
Ruthenium oxide (RuO2)
--- applications, 686
--- deposition techniques, 682-686
--- epitaxial growth, 683-685
--- etching, 685-686
S
Sapphire substrates, growth on, 69-81
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), GaN doped with magnesium, 58
Schottky effect, 471
Separate confinement heterostructure (SCH), GaN/AIGaN, 141-145
Shockley-Read-Hall (SRH)recombination, 9
Silicon, formation of a carbon-rich surface, 278
Silicon and silicon/germanium thin films, carbon-containing
--- heteroepitaxial, 247-290
Silicon--carbon alloys, strained, 637-638
--- optical properties, 637-638
Silicon-germanium alloys, strained, 635-637
--- optical properties, 636-637
Silicon/germanium/carbon (SiGeC), 351
Silicon/germanium (SiGe)
--- functional devices, 356-361
--- relaxed films, 333-346
--- on Si avalanche photodiode, 348-349
--- on Si near-infrared photodetectors, 346-356
--- early devices, 346
--- European efforts, 349-351
--- work at Bell Labs, 347-349
--- technology, 330-346
--- near-infrared detection, 332-333
--- undulating layers, near-infrared detection, 354
Silicon-germanium superlattices, 638-641
--- interface intermixing, 640-641
Silicon/germanium thin films
--- epitaxial, 248
--- mechanical and structural properties, 256
Silicon optical bench (SiOB) technology, 328
Silicon (Si)
--- doping, effects in GaN barriers, 154-157
--- electrochemically hydrogenated surfaces, 12-22
--- electrochemical passivation of surfaces, 1-56
--- porous, 22-31
--- electronic states at internal surfaces of, 29-31
--- ultrathin, pH dependence of formation of, 23-26
strained, 630-632
surface state formation, role of etch rate, 19-21
surface state origin, local reconstruction and, 21-22
--- thin anodic oxides on, 31-41
Silicon (111) substrates, growth on, 85
Single-beam power-dependent absorption spectroscopy, GaN thin films, 126
Single internal reflection (SIR)-ATR crystal, 3
Si(111) surface, step on right side, 5-6
Solar-blind IV detectors, 58
Solar cells, a-C-based, 500-501
Sol-gel method, fabrication of HTSC thin films, 518
Space-charge-limited conductivity (SCLC), 221
Space-charge-limited current (SCLC), 470
Space-to-space communication, 58
Spin densities, a-C, 458-460
Spin-polarized quasiparticle injection devices, 611-612
Spin superconducting valve, FM/S/FM, 611
Sputtering, see also specific type
--- a-C, 411-413
--- Dc/Rf
--- deposition of GaAs, 370
375
385
389
--- fabrication of HTSC thin films, 510
--- deposition of a-C films, 407
--- fabrication of BCCO thin film, 539-540
--- HTSC/FE heterostructures, 605
--- IrO 2
686
--- Rf, fabrication of BKBO system thin films, 561
--- RuO 2
682
SrRuO3, 688
--- thin TCO films, 679
Static device parameters, noise correlation, 308-311
Stillinger-Weber potential, a-C, 425-426
Stimulated emission (SE)
--- excited length dependence of, 163-164
--- high-temperature
--- damage mechanisms in GaN epilayers and, 166-169
--- InGa/GaN MQW, 169-172
--- origin in GaN epilayers, 138-141
surface-emitted, in GaN epilayers, 172-178
Strain-compensated alloy, band gap, 272
Strain-compensated ternary alloys, 260
Strain configuration (001)
--- indirect conduction-band minima, 628-629
--- optical gaps E 1
629
Strain configuration (111)
--- indirect conduction-band minima, 629
--- optical gaps E1 and E 1
629
Strain considerations, group III nitrides, 123
Strained layer structures, growth of, 625-648
Strained semiconductor films
--- deformation potentials, 627-629
--- groups IV and III-V materials, 625-648
--- tight-binding model, 629-630
Strain manipulation, Si/Ge, 256
Strain relaxation
--- carbon-containing silicon films, 261
--- ternary alloys, 265
Strain tensor, 627
Strontium-doped lanthanum cobalite
--- applications, 695
--- deposition techniques, 692-695
--- oriented films on SiO2/Si, 693-694
Strontium ruthenate (SrRuO3)
--- applications, 689-691
--- deposition techniques, 688-691
Substrates, processed, growth on, 337-338
Superconducting state Hall effect, HTSCs, 586-587
Superconducting transition temperature, YBCO thin films, 528-529
Superlattice detectors, short period, GeSi, 349
Surface photovoltage, Si surfaces, 2
6
Surface solubility, carbon, 249
Surfactants, use in Si/Ge relaxed films, 336
--- TAC films
--- annealing of, 476-477
--- effects of sp2/sp 3
475
--- electron field emission properties of, 491-492
--- electronic properties, 475-478
--- FTIR studies, 441
--- heterojunctions, 477
--- hydrogenated, 477-478
--- photoconductivity of, 477
--- in situ doping of, 480-481
--- Ternary alloys, 100
110
--- Tersoff potential, a-C, 426-427
--- Tetrahedral amorphous carbon (TAC), 404
--- Theoretical background, cadmium, 236
--- Thermal oxidation, IrO 2
687
--- Thermochemistry, GaN growth kinetics and, 61-62
--- Thermopower, YBCO thin films, 530-531
--- Thin anodic oxides, 4-5
--- on Si, 31-46
--- Tight-binding approaches, a-C, 427-429
--- Tight-binding model, strained semiconductor films, 629-630
--- Transmission electron microscopy (TEM), GaAs properties, 378-379
--- Transmission high-energy electron diffraction (THEED), GaAs properties, 378-379
--- Transparent conductive oxide (TCO) films, 677-682
--- deposition techniques, 679-681
--- different materials, 677-678
--- figure of merit for, 678-679
--- Transverse lasing modes, GaN-based lasing structures, 178-179
--- True color copying, 58
--- Tunable microwave devices, HTSC/FE heterostructures, 608-609
--- Tunnelling, 471
U
Ultrathin films and multilayers, 564-570
Ultraviolet lasing, mechanism in GaN/A1GaN separate confinement
--- heterostructures, 141-145
Ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy (UPS), use in MBE, 64
Underwater communications, 58
Uniaxial strain
--- Ge, 634-635
--- Si, 632
Urbach tail energy, a-C, 434-435
V
Valence band, carbon-containing silicon films, 269
Variable-range hopping, 223
Voltage tunable detectors, SiGe on Si, 356-358
Vortex dynamics and dissipation mechanisms, HTSCs, 581-587
Vortex liquid and vortex glass, HTSCs, 584-586
Vortex melting, HTSCs, 584
W
Wafer bonding (WB) technology, 328
Wavelength responses, Ge/Si heterojunctions, 363.364
Wavemeter, near-infrared, integrated on Si, 359-361
Wide area networks, Ge films to detect near-infrared light, 328
Wide-bandgap semiconductors, imaging techniques for, 178-182
Working electrode (WE), 3
Wurtzite structure, 189
--- GaN in, 68-86
--- X-ray diffraction, GaAs properties, 375-376
--- X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS)
--- a-C(N):H, 666-669
--- GaAs properties, 375-376
--- use in MBE, 64
Y
YBCO-related-material thin films, 534-538
YBCO thin films
--- preparation and characterization, 522-528
--- properties of, 528-534
--- terahertz radiation from, 593-594
Z
Zinc-blende structure, 189
--- growth of GaN in, 86-87
SUBJECT INDEX Volume V
A
Ab initio molecular dynamics calculations, 66
Ablation, 73
Absorption, 106
296
556
--- resonant, 556
AC susceptibility measurement, 593-594
Acoustic deformation potential scattering, 452-453
Adhesion, 46--49
--- chemical, 47
--- forces, 46
--- mechanisms, 47-48
--- physical, 47
--- physical background, 46
--- strength of, 47
--- surface energy, 46-47
Aerosol phase techniques, 86
AFM, see Atomic force microscope
Alignment, 28-29
Alkali metal clusters, 68
Alkylsiloxanes, 49
Alloys, 387
ALS, see Antisticking layers
Alternating gradient force magnetometer, 496-497
Aluminum clusters, 68
Amorphous metals, 386
Amp re's law, 376
Anderson, P. W., 144
Anderson model, 175-176
Anelastic behavior, 21
Angle-resolved photoemission, 69
Anion photoelectron spectroscopy, 74
Anisotropic etching, 9
17
38
40
--- dry etching, 17
--- wet etching, 9
40
Anisotropic magnetoresistance, 423
514
Anisotropic magnetoresistance films, 514-517
Anisotropy, 252
371
538
572
Annealing, 351
366
574
Anticrossing, 110
117
Antiferromagnetically coupled multilayers, 518
Antisticking layers, 44
48
--- metallic, 49
--- plasma-deposited Teflon-like, 51
--- self-assembled, 49-51
--- spin coated, 49
--- Teflon-like, 51
Aspnes, D. E., 106
Assumed atomic structure, 75
Asymmetric heating and quenching method, 15
48
Atmospheric pressure, 111
114
Atomic force microscope, 65
73
89
--- electronic field assisted, 89
--- image, 73
Atomic Heisenberg model, 153
Atomic pseudopotential, 132
Atomic spacing, 63
Atomic spin angular momentum, 544
Atomic vapor, 87
Aubrey, S., 151
Auger electron spectroscopy, 404
Augsburg, University of, 607
Aumiller, G. D., 55
Autoionization resonance energy measurements, 71
Avrami, M., 402
B
Balasubramanian, K., 68
Baldereschi, A., 130
Ballistic motion, 474
Ballistic transport, 135-136
Ballone, P., 68
Band bending, 487
Band-edge emission, 72
Band filling, 390
Bandgap, 62
72
80
85
89
106
109
212
--- dependence on nanoparticle radius, 72
--- direct, 106
109
--- in bulk semiconductor, 73
89
--- indirect, 63
--- pseudodirect, 106
109
--- response to temperature, 73
--- size dependent, 75
--- studies of carbon particles, 85-86
--- tunability, 72
Bardeen-Cooper-Schrieffer theory of superconductivity, 64
Bardeen formula, 65
Barkhausen noise, 393
Bastard, G., 227
287
Bastard boundary condition, 252
BCS, see Bardeen-Cooper-Schrieffer
Benson, H., 148
Bessel functions, 85-86
BH looper, 495-496
Binding energy, 71
Biosensors, 56
Biot-Savart law, 376
612
Bloch, F., 141
B loch equation, 561
Bloch-Floquet theorem, 219
Bloch function, 102
110
174
290
Bloch oscillation, 133
136
279
Bloch state, 103
220
299
Bloch's theorem, 141
Bloch wave function, 102
116
bulk, 103
Bogoliubov, N. N., 142
148
Bogoliubov transformation, 142
Boltzmann distribution of electrons, 113
357
560
Boltzmann equations, 261
448
450
Bond-length contraction, 70
Bound motions, 214-216
Bound states, 171
177
Born approximation, 261
283
Bragg reflector resonators, 55
Bravais lattice, 100
103
--- reciprocal, 103
Brillouin scattering, 150
Brillouin zone, 100
112
129
133
142
219
246
bulk, 101
130
133
--- one dimensional, 133
--- two-dimensional, 130
Brownian rotation, 339
Bruno, P., 174
390
Brus, L. E., 72
Bulk current flow, 600
BZ, see Brillouin zone
C
Calle, E, 127
Callen, H. B., 142
Carbon particles, 83-86
--- bandgap studies, 85-86
--- electronic structure, 83
--- nanostructures, 83
Carrier-carrier scattering, 456--457
Caruthers, E., 130
CEMS, see Conversion electron Mrssbauer spectroscopy
Chang, Y. C., 103
117
128
131
Channel stamping, 39
Chappert, C., 174
Charge carrier motion, 446-448
--- in electric fields, 446--448
--- in magnetic fields, 448
Charge densities, 117
Chemical wet etch process, 37
Chemical vapor deposition, 36
73
Chou, S. Y., 3
9
54
Clamps, 11
13
Closed-shell clusters, 67
Cluster-assembled materials, 88
Cluster-assembled thin films, 354-364
--- formation, 355-356
--- gas aggregation, 356
--- size distribution, 358-359
Cluster beams, 72
Clusters, 62-90
--- aluminum, 68
closed-shell, 67
cross linking, 88
--- germanium, 73-76
--- magic number, 70
--- metal, 66
--- nonstoichiometric, 72
--- silicon, 73
79
--- spherical, 77
--- stoichiometric, 72
--- supported, 65
--- vanadium, 68
Coercivity, 338
342
346
370
504
510
512
538
--- dynamic, 504
512
--- optimization, 510
--- writing, 505
Coevaporation, 338
Coherent rotation, 340
388
Compact cubooctahedral structure, 74
Compact icosahedral structure, 74
Composite semiconductor-glass films, 212-213
Conductance spectroscopy, 72
Conduction band, 62
101
120
124
128
131
133
--- high-excited, 131
--- low-lying states, 121
128
--- minimum, 124
--- symmetry, 122
--- valley, 120
133
Conduction energy, 102
136
Conductivity tensor, 449
Configuration interaction calculations, 68
Conformational flexibility, 19-20
Constant, V. A., 75
Continuum model, 143
Conventional axial approximation, 235
Conversion electron Mrssbauer spectroscopy, 555
570
572
Coulomb blockade, 65
79
--- gap, 65
80
--- oscillations, 79
Coulomb energy gap, 80
88
Coulomb repulsion, 210
Coulomb staircase, 79
Coulombic interactions, 297
376
Coulombic potential, 327
450
Coupled modes, 256
Coupling, 73
142
174
235
363
369
502
525
--- dipolar, 142
--- electron-phonon, 73
--- exchange, 174-177
--- intergrain exchange, 369
502
--- oscillatory, 525
--- RKKY, 177
363
525
--- superexchange, 363
Covalent metallic transformation, 79
Covalent metallic transition, 79
Creep compliance, 19
Creep experiment, 18
Critical thickness, 106
Cross-polarized configuration, 127
Crosslinked polymers, 16
21
--- highly, 21
--- weakly, 21
Crystal facet, 78
Crystal lattice, 141
Curie temperature, 379
Curing, radiation, 33
Current density, 594
600
608
--- field-dependent, 594
600
Current flow construction, 599
608
Curvature radius, 37
Curve, 21
258
360
512
CVD, see Chemical vapor deposition
Cyclotron angular frequency, 448
Cyclotron resonance, 116
285
459
D
Damon, J. R. W., 144
Damon-Eshbach theory, 145
148
Danan, G., 113
Data storage, 54
338
391
431
--- high density, 338
Decay rates, 110
121
125
Decay time, 103
135
Defect state transitions, 75
Deformation, 66
122
Deformation potential, 127
133
Demagnetizing field, 142
382
Demolding, 13
Density functional calculations, 66
Density functional theory, 78
Density of states, 21
6
222
244
442
--- magnetic field, 244
--- superlattice, 222
Devil's staircase, 151
De Wames, R. E., 148
Diamagnetism, 379
Diamond-like films, 83
Dielectric function, 106
129
270
--- static, 270-273
Differential phase contrast imaging, 415--416
Diffraction, 62
Diffusion constant, 458
Dillon, J. E, Jr., 144
Dingle temperature, 470
Dipolar modes, 144
297
Dipole-dipole interactions, 142
145
Direct-gap semiconductor, 63
67
Direct luminescence band, 122
Direct nanoimprint, 10
Direct nanoprinting, 10
29
Direct plane wave expansion method, 130
Disorder-induced direct recombination, 107
Distributed feedback resonators, 55
Divalent metal clusters, 71
DNI, see Direct nanoimprint
DNP, see Direct nanoprinting
DShler, G., 134
Domain wall, 396-402
Double heterostructure, 214-218
Drude-Lorentz theory, 447
Dry etch, 28
34
421
--- microwave ECR plasma, 422
--- reactive ion, 422
--- rf plasma, 421
Dual-plate assembly, 11
Duromer, 21
Duroplastic polymers, 42
Duroplastic stamps, 42
Dynamic coercivity, 504
512
--- measurements, 512-513
Dynamic relaxation experiment, 602
E
Eddy current damping, 539
EELS, see Electron energy loss spectroscopy
Effective mass approximation, 62
67
74
85
102
233
--- derived bandgap, 67
Effective mass calculation, 112
123
125
Effective-mass envelope function, 105
108
113
Effective mass Hamiltonian, 67
225
233
Effective mass theory, 121
170
Effective pressure, 24
Efros, A. L., 72
Eigenfunction, 102
131
221
--- symmetry properties, 221
Ekimov, A. I., 93
Elastic compliance coefficient, 122
Elastomer, 21
Elastomeric stamp, 37
41
45
--- advantages, 43
--- limitations, 43
--- preparation, 42
Elastic scattering mechanisms, 273
Electric dipole matrix element, 115
Electrochemical edging, 80
Electrochemical potential, 48
Electroluminescent devices, 89
Electromagnetic flux compression, 120
Electromagnetic radiation, 136
Electron beam evaporation, 571
Electron beam lithography, 3
9
55
211
591
Electron-electron interaction, 273
277
298
Electron energy loss spectroscopy, 84
Electron injection, 71
Electron microscopy, 62
Electron-phonon coupling, 73
Electron-phonon interaction Hamiltonian, 115
Electron-photon interaction, 288-290
Electron shell, 62
66
68
70
Electron-spin transitions, 119
Electron transfer model, 70
Electron transport, 81
Electronic density, 67
74
Electronic devices, 54
Electroplating, 421
Electroreflectance signals, 118
Electroreflectance spectroscopy, 118
Elemental excitons, 141
Ellipsoidal constant energy, 444
EMA, see Effective mass approximation
Embossed materials, 9
Embossing, 5
13
30
--- procedure, 5
--- room temperature, 30
--- time, 13
Embossing-induced damage, 27
Energy band folding, 133
Energy band structure, 63
Energy gap, 62
103
123
--- direct, 103
--- indirect, 103
--- nonzero, 79
--- pseudodirect, 103
--- size-dependent shift, 86
--- zero, 79
Energy level, conduction, 102-103
Energy separation, 110
Energy splitting, 106
110
117
119
--- Zeeman, 119-120
Envelope function, 103
110
226
235
Envelope function approximation, 224
233
Equilibrium carrier density, 441-461
ER, see Electroreflectance
Esaki, L., 133
260
281
Esaki-Tsu model, 134
Eshbach, J. R., 144
Ettinghausen effect, 463
Even potential states, 255
Exchange anisotropy, 391-396
Exchange-biased spin-valve films, 526-531
Exchange-biased spin-valve sandwiches, 519
523
534
Exchange coupling mechanisms, 174
179
182
198
Exchange-dominated modes, 143
Excited subbands, 329-331
Exciton, 105
114
119
120
141
229
300
--- continuum, 300
elemental, 141
--- Frenkel, 229
--- heavy-hole, 119
--- recombination of, 105
114
--- resonance fields, 120
--- Wannier, 229
Exciton-phonon interaction, 245-259
Excitonic states, 229-233
External deformation, 21
F
Faceting, 25
Faraday rotation, 592
301
Feenstra, R. M., 64
Fein, A. P., 64
Fermi-Dirac statistics, 441
Fermi energy, 283
Fermi level, 445
469
Fermi wavevector, 181
Ferromagnetic resonance, 143
Ferrimagnetism, 379-385
Ferromagnetism, 379-385
Fibonacci multilayer, 151
Field-dependent current density, 594
600
Field-pressure plane, 121
Field sweeps, 605
613
Fillipov, B. N., 148
Film heads, 541-543
Finite barrier model, 258
Finite ionization potential, 86
Finkman, E., 103
107
121
Flatbed press, 11
Flexibility, 84
Flux creep, 600
602
615
--- experiments, 602
--- Hux density, 377
612
Flux patterns, 594-612
--- after field cooling, 598-599
--- around defects, 602-612
--- current-induced, 596-597
Flux penetration, 604
Flux pinning, 590
606
613
14
Folding relationships, 101
Form factors, 112
FORTRAN, 276
Foucault microscopy, 414-415
Four-index matrix, 274-275
Four-point probe, 497-498
Fourier analysis, 174
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, 50
Fourier transformation, 142
Fractional band offset, 112
Free electron approximation, 174
Free electron model, 175
Free fullerenes, 85
Freeze-out effects, 471-472
Frenkel exciton, 229
Fresnel boundary conditions, 129
Fresnel microscopy, 414-415
Frrlich interaction, 127-128
FTIR, s e e Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
Fujimoto, H., 106
Full-layer patterning, 3
Fullerene cage, 83
Fullerene structured silicon nanowires, 82-83
Fullerenes, 64
83
88
free, 85
Fundamental absorption edge, 128
G
Gallium antimonide, 468
Gallium arsenide, 468
Galvanomagnetic effects, 463
485
Gap calculations, 75
Gas evaporation, 73
Gauss theorem, 249
Gaussian function, 300
Ge, W. K., 123
Gell, M. A., 112
114
130
Geometric shell closings, 70
Germanium, 465
Germanium clusters, 73-76
Giant magnetoresistance effect, 151
338
354
428
496
Giant magnetoresistance films, 517-526
Glasgow University, 56
Glass transition temperature, 21
Glassy region, 20
GMR, see Giant magnetoresistance
Gossard, A. C., 99
Graded-gap superlattice, 134
136
Grain boundary, 606
Gratings, 55
Green's function, 68
126
142
145
155
176
268
277
Ground impurity state, 329
Ground-state wave function, 136
Gyromagnetic ratio, 378
Gyromagnetic switching, 503-507
H
H-passivated silicon particles, 81
H-passivated silicon wires, 80
Hadjazi, M., 136
Haisma, J., 4
Hall, E. H., 461
Hall coefficients, 464
Hall effect, 461
474
480
--- quantum, 480-484
Hall mobility, 454
Hall probes, 591
600
Hamann, D. R., 65
Hamiltonian, 117
119
130
142
149
214
225
322
--- effective spin wave, 149
Heisenberg, 142
--- Luttinger, 322-324
--- pseudopotential, 130
--- zero-order, 130
Hard fertites, 387
Hard magnetic materials, 386-387
Harmonic oscillator function, 243
253
Hartree-Fock configuration interaction, 66
Hartree-Fock wave functions, 68
Heavy-hole exciton, 119
Heavy-hole miniband, 135
228
Heavy-hole state, 128
235
HEI-PL, see High-excitation intensity luminescence
HEL, see Hot-embossing lithography
Heterojunction interface, 476
Heterostructure system, 111
HFCI, see Hartree-Fock configuration interaction
High density magnetic recording, 495
575
--- media, 502-514
High-excitation intensity luminescence, 106
High-intensity magnetic fields, 443
High-resistivity materials, 488
High-resolution transmission electron microscopy, 63
Highest occupied molecular orbital-lowest unoccupied molecular orbital gap,
--- 66
74
78
80
83
--- size dependence, 75
Hoffmann, H., 549
Hole confinement model, 175
Holstein-Primakoff transformation, 142
Holstein, T., 142
HOMO--LUMO gap, see Highest occupied molecular orbital-lowest unoccupied
--- molecular orbital gap
Hot electron effects, 457
Hot-embossing lithography, 3
5
42
44
48
--- achievements, 8
--- alignment, 28
31
--- commercially available machines, 11
--- embossing time, 13
--- flatbed press, 11
--- flow behavior implications, 22
history, 5
--- imprint systems, 10
--- large-area approaches, 11
14
38
--- layer stacks, 28
--- mix-and-match, 31
--- molecular weight dependence, 22
--- multistep, 31-32
--- over topography 27
--- polymer transfer, 23
--- pressure maintenance, 13
--- process, 13
--- schemes, 27
--- self-assembly, 30
--- stamper, 11
--- systems, 10
--- temperature dependence, 22
--- wafer scale, 30
HRTEM, see High-resolution transmission electron microscopy
Hybrid stamps, 43
Hydrostatic pressure, 111
122
Hyperfine field, 564
Hyperfine interactions, 560
Hysteresis loop, 340
349
368
384
538
602
--- soft magnetic, 385
I
IBM, 37
54
514
Ihm, J., 108
Imprint-based lithography, 3
Imprint-based techniques, 5
Imprint depth, 26
Imprint quality, 25
Imprint sequence, 15
Imprint systems for hot embossing, 10
--- hydraulic press, 10
Imprint techniques, 40
Impurity atom, 327
Impurity binding energy, 329
Impurity concentration, 445-446
Impurity wavefunction, 328
Incoherent magnetization reversal, 341-342
Indirect bandgap, 63
Indium antimonide, 467
Indium arsenide, 468
Indium phosphide, 468
Inductive write heads, 431
499
Inelastic light scattering, 81
Infinite barrier approach, 86
Infinite barrier effective mass model, 86
Infinite wall approximation, 86
Infinitely long strip, 595
Infrared detectors, 88
Infrared-induced emission, 81
Injection energy, 135
Integrated optics, 55
Interatomic distances, 70
Interatomic force field method, 75
Interband transitions, 75
Interface anisotropy, 389-391
Interface rescaling method, 157
Interfacial coupling, 394
535
Interfacial spin-dependent scattering, 522
Intergranular exchange coupling, 369
502
Intersubband scattering, 263-264
Inverse power law, 74
Ion beam projection lithography, 3
212
Ionization energy studies, 71
Ionized impurity scattering, 450
470
IPL, see Ion beam projection lithography
Irradiation experiments, 614
Ishibashi, A., 103
Isolated patterns, 23
Isomer shift, 566
Isotropy, 252
J
Jancu, J. M., 133
Jarrold, M. F., 75
Jellium approach, 66
Jellium calculation, 68
Jellium model, 66
68
354
--- spherical, 66
Joule heating effect, 534
K
Kerr spectroscopy, 409-410
Kinetic energy, 126
Kittel, C., 150
Konstanz, University of, 608
611
Koster, G. E, 132
Koutecky, J., 68
Krauss, P. R., 54
Kronig-Penney relation, 228
Kubo, R., 282
Kubo effect, 68
L
Laks, D. B., 126
132
Landau, L., 145
Landau level ladders, 243
Landau-Lifshitz equation, 145-147
Landau-Lifshitz-Gilbert equation, 503
Landau subbands, 472
Laplace equation, 144
Larmor frequency, 560
Laser ablation, 87
615
--- of silicon, 87
--- YBCO thin films, 615
Laser-induced decomposition, 87
Laser-induced deposition, 420
Lattice, 73
87
100
141
--- Bravais, 100
--- crystal, 141
--- thermal expansion of, 73
Lattice oscillations, 245-246
Lattice vibration, 441
Layer formation, 50
LDA, see Local density approximation
Leading term approximation, 257
LEI-PL, see Normal continuous wave luminescence
Lefebvre, R, 122
Li, G.H., 113
Lifshitz, E., 145
Light emission, 72
Light emitters, 54
Lin-Chung, E J., 130
Linear response theory, 282
Linear viscoelastic behavior of polymer melts, 17
Linearized augmented plane wave method, 131
Liquid phase techniques, 86
Liquid-solution-phase growth, 73
LISA, see Lithography induced self-assembly
LISC, see Lithography induced self-construction
Lithographic molding, 38
Lithography, 2
82
88
210
591
--- applications, 53
--- data storage, 54
--- electron beam, 3
9
55
211
591
--- hot embossing, 3
5
42
44
48
--- imprint-based, 3
--- mold-assisted, 4
32
41
44
48
--- multistep, 32
--- nanoimprint, 3
5
55
89
--- neutral atom, 88
--- ion beam projection, 3
212
--- optical, 2
35
39
40
--- photon, 211
--- scanning probe, 32
--- step-and-flash imprint, 34
--- systems, 3
--- UV, 32
--- X-ray, 2
40
Lithography induced self-assembly, 30
Lithography induced self-construction, 30
Local density approximation, 66
127
131
Local density functional method, 68
Logovinsky, V., 68
Long wavelength, 248-253
Longitudinal-acoustic phonons, 63
Lorentz deflection, 415
Lorentz force, 461
Low energy electron diffraction, 143
Lu, Y. T., 100
102
125
131
Luminescence, 64
72
81
99
103
106
302
--- high-excitation intensity, 106
--- normal continuous wave, 106
--- time-resolved, 302
Luminescence spectrum, 63
126
Luttinger parameters, 119
233
Luttinger Hamiltonian, 322-324
Lyddane-Sachs-Teller relations, 251
M
Macroscopic continuum model, 258
Macroscopic phenomenological spin wave theory, 143-147
--- dipole exchange modes, 145-147
--- dipolar modes, 144-145
--- exchange modes, 145
M ider, K. A., 132
Magic number clusters, 70
Magnetic anisotropy, 359
380
Magnetic-field-induced level crossover, 120
Magnetic layer thickness, 523
Magnetic microactuators, 430
Magnetic force microscopy, 412
13
Micro-inductors, 430
Magnetic characterization, 590--615
Magnetic moment, 379
556
--- nuclear, 556
Magnetic photoluminescence, 120
Magnetic recording, 495-550
--- basic principles, 499-501
Magnetic sensors, 423
Magnetic states of matter, 379
Magnetic viscosity, 342-344
Magnetic X-ray circular dichroism, 362
Magnetism, 337
375
--- phenomenology of, 375-387
Magnetization curve, 384-385
Magnetization decay, 504
513
Magnetization loop, 597-598
Magnetization measurements, 590
612
--- of superconducting thin films, 612
13
Magnetization reversal, 402
503
Magnetocrystalline anisotropy, 380
Magnetoelastic effect, 144
Magnetoelastic energy, 544
Magneto-impedance sensors, 429
Magnetomotive force, 376
Magneto-optic imaging, 590
599
611
--- with high time resolution, 611
12
Magnetophonon effect, 472-474
Magnetophoton oscillation, 444
Magnetoresistance, 464
487
--- geometric, 487
--- longitudinal, 466
--- transverse, 465-466
Magnetorestriction, 381
540
Magnetorestrictive materials, 387
Magnetorestrictive pressure sensor, 430
Magnetostatic interactions, 338
Magnetostatic potential, 144
Magnetostatic waves, 143
Magnetotransport, 441
594
614
--- in low-dimensional systems, 474--484
Magnetron sputtering, 76
87
348
366
573
Magnons, 141-165
MAL, see Mold-assisted lithography
Maradudin, A. A., 148
Martini, I., 54
Masks, 28
40
82
--- natural, 82
--- requirement, 40
--- scattering, 40
--- selectivity improvement, 28
--- technology, 40
Masters, 40-41
--- fabrication, 40
--- polymer, 41
--- three dimensional, 40
--- two dimensional, 40
Mathcad, 601
Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution, 454
Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism, 142
248
MBE, see Molecular beam epitaxy
MC, see Momentum conserving
Mean decay rate, 108
Mechanical strain, 73
Media layer structure, 507
Meissner currents, 602-603
Meissner state, 611
Metal clusters, 66
68
--- alkali, 68
--- divalent, 71
--- reactivity, 70
--- transition, 66
Metal-insulator-metal tunneling, 64-65
Metal-organic chemical vapor deposition, 99
210
213
421
Metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor, 79
88
Metal-semiconductor-metal photodetectors, 27
54
Metal-vacuum interface, 194
Metallic antisticking layers, 49
Metallic bonding, 71
Metallicity, 68
Metastable isomeric structures, 84
Meynadier, M. H., 110
116
MH loop, 511-512
Microcontact printing, 4
36
43
55
--- advantage, 4
--- large-area approach, 38
--- patterns, 37
--- principle, 5
36
Micro-fluxgate sensor, 429-430
Micromagnetism, 341
Micromolding in capillaries, 34
38
Microscopic model, 143
Microtransfer molding, 39
Microwave plasma, 73
Mie plasmon resistance, 71
Mills, D. L., 148
MIM tunneling, see Metal-insulator-metal tunneling
MIMIC, see Micromolding in capillaries
Miniband, 134
228
--- dispersion, 134
--- heavy-hole, 135
228
--- transmission, 136
--- width, 134
Mismatch strain, 125
Miura, N., 120
Mixed conductors, 448-449
Mixing, 110
114
118
322
MOCVD, see Metal-organic chemical vapor deposition
MODFET, see Modulation doped field effect transistors
Modified dielectric continuum model, 259
Modulated reflectance, 106
Modulation doped field effect transistors, 441
Mold-assisted lithography, 4
32
41
44
48
material issues, 33
--- optical lithography and, 35
--- patterning, 33
34
--- principle of, 4
32
--- wafer scale, 34
Molecular beam epitaxy, 99
127
199
208
213
420
517
Momentum conserving phonon, 115
124
Momentum relaxation time, 454
Moore, K. J., 103
108
Montelius, L., 56
Morifuji, M., 117
MOSFET, see Metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor
Mrssbauer effect, 143
150
558
Mrssbauer measurements, 555
Mosswin fitting program, 576
Mounds, 31
MPL, see Magnetic photoluminescence
Mrt-9000, 10
MSM, see Metal-semiconductor-metal
Multilayer schemes, 27-28
--- imprint and alignment, 28
Multilayers, 141
545
--- Fibonacci, 151
N
Nagle, J., 103
Nakayama, M., 109
Nakayama, T., 108-110
Nanobiology, 88
Nanochemistry, 88
Nanocomposite hard magnetic films, 364-372
Nanocomposite thin films, 338
366
--- fabrication, 338-339
--- high-anisotropy, 347-354
--- interparticle interactions, 341-342
--- magnetization processes, 339
344
--- rapid thermally processed, 366-367
Nanocrystalline metals, 386
Nanocrystals, 213
Nanoimprint lithography, 3
5
55
Nanoimprint techniques, 2-57
Nanoimprinting, 53
Nanolithography, 89
Nanometer device fabrication, 209
Nanometer patterns, 23
Nanooxidation, 89
Nanoparticles, 62-90
--- crystalline structure, 62
--- films, 87-88
--- free, 87
--- metal, 71
--- morphology, 62
--- silicon, 87
--- supported, 71
Nanophase composite films, 337-372
Nanopowders, 71-72
Nanotubes, 82
Nanowires of silicon, 81-83
--- geometries, 81
Natural detachment, 48
Natural masking, 81
Negative differential conductivity, 133
Negative differential velocity, 134
Negative stamp patterns, 24
Nernst effect, 463-464
Neutral atom lithography, 88
Neutron scattering, 143
Niquet, Y. M., 76
Nonlinear behavior, 23
Nonlinear optical response, 87
Nonradiative recombination, 73
Nonstoichiometric clusters, 72
Nonuniform materials, 488-489
Normal continuous wave luminescence, 106
Novel patterning techniques, 6
Nuclear magnetic moment, 556
Nuclear quadropole moment, 565
Nuclear resonance, 555-585
--- spectra, 555
Nuclear resonance spectroscopy, 556-560
Nuclear shell model, 556
O
ODMR, see Optically detected magnetic resonance
Ohm's law, 453
458
Onushchenko, A. A., 72
Operator transformation method, 158
Optical absorption, 63
72
81
Optical bandgap energies, 62
Optical deformation potential scattering, 455
Optical diffraction, 57
Optical limiters, 87-88
Optical lithography, 2
35
39
40
--- limits, 2
Optical memory devices, 88
Optical nonlinearities, 88
Optical phonon scattering, 473
478
Optical processes, 63
Optical spectroscopy, 63-64
Optically detected magnetic resonance, 116
119
--- spectrum, 119
Optimized hybrid stamp, 37
Optoelectronic devices, 89
Ordered magnetic materials, 141
Oscillatory behavior, 525
532
Oscillatory coupling, 525
Oscillation periodicity, 180
192
P
Pacchioni, G., 68
Parity behavior, 131
Passivated silicon particles, 80-81
Passivation, 81
--- with hydrogen, 81
--- with oxygen, 81
Pattern, 6
8
16
23
57
--- isolated, 23
--- nanometer, 23
--- negative stamp, 24-25
periodic, 23
25
positive stamp, 24
--- size, 23
--- transfer, 57
Pattern definition, 6
Pattern-size-dependent imprint, 24
Patterned metallized semiconductor wafers, 36
PDMS stamp, 39
Percolation threshold, 344
Periodic charge density modulations, 71
Periodic patterns, 23
Permeability, 377
539
Permalloy, 386
515
541
Perpendicular magnetic anisotropy, 572
Perpendicular recording, 501
510
Perturbation potential, 269
452
Perturbation theory, 175
243
256
--- Rayleigh-Schrrdinger, 256
Phase accumulation method, 177
190
Phase diagrams, 546
Phase techniques, 86
Phenomena, 72
--- size-dependent, 72
Phonon, 63
109
115
124
246
--- distribution, 63
--- longitudinal-acoustic, 63
--- momentum conserving, 115
124
--- sideband emissions, 109
--- transverse-acoustic, 63
Phonon-assisted processes, 125
Phonon-assisted transition, 122-123
Phonon satellite, 114
121
123
Photocurable liquids, 33
Photodetachment, 72
Photodetachment spectroscopy, 68
Photodetectors, 54
88
Photoelectron spectroscopy, 72
75
--- of Si cluster anions, 75
Photoemission, 62
79
191
--- angle-resolved, 69
--- combined, 79
--- inverse, 79
Photoelectron spectroscopy, 69
75
85
--- anion, 74
Photolithographic fabrication process, 516
Photoluminescence, 62
64
72
80
100
120
134
301
--- band, 110
--- decay, 109
123
--- effect of temperature, 73
--- emission, 109
--- energy, 114
--- in germanium nanocrystals, 75
--- low-temperature spectra, 105
123
--- magnetic, 120
peak energy, 112
peak shift, 124
pressure dependence, 114
--- room-temperature visible, 74
--- spectra, 10(O106, 109
111
121
--- time-resolved, 109
134
--- transition, 104
--- under uniaxial stress, 123
--- visible, 80
82
Photoluminescence excitation, 100
123
293
--- low-temperature spectra, 105
--- spectra, 100
293
--- type I, 104
--- type II, 104
Photolithography, 55
Photon lithography, 211
Photonic devices, 87
89
Photoreflectance, 106
--- spectra, 106
Piezoelectric scattering, 454-455
PL, see Photoluminescence
Plane wave variation, 141
PLE, see Photoluminescence excitation
Plasma-deposited films, 51
Plasma polymerization, 52
Plasma polymerized layers, 53
Plastics, 42
Plateau, 20
PM3 analysis, 83
PMMA, see Poly(methyl methacrylate)
Poisson equation, 267
277
Polar optical scattering, 455-456
Polarization, 377-378
Polaron, 253-253
--- weak coupling, 254
Polymer, 16
20
23
39
42
45
47
71
--- adhesion characteristics, 45
--- crosslinked, 16
--- deformation, 17
20
--- duroplastic, 42
--- flow characteristics, 23
--- matrices, 71
pattemed, 39
--- recovery, 24-25
--- rubber-elastic behavior, 20
--- thermoplastic, 42
47
--- thermoset, 48
--- transfer, 23
--- transport, 23
--- viscoelastic properties, 17
--- wetting characteristics, 45
Polymer chains, 19
Polymer melts, 18-21
--- conformational flexibility, 19-20
--- entanglements, 19
Poly(methyl methacrylate), 4
9
17
22
28
--- high-molecular-weight, 17
--- low-molecular-weight, 17
Positive stamp patterns, 24
Potential energy hypersurface, 84
Pressure coefficients, 113
Primakoff, H., 142
Profiled stamps, 27
Process uniformity, 17
Proximity printing, 211
Pseudodirect excitonic recombination, 114
Pseudodirect transition, 103
125
Pseudopotential calculations, 62
227
pseudopotential formalism, 227
Pseudopotential method, 105
130
132
--- empirical, 130
132
Pseudopotentials, 68
105
132
--- atomic, 132
--- empirical, 105
Q
QSE, see Quantum size effect
Quantization condition, 190-192
Quantized Hall effect, 284-285
Quantum cascade light-emitting diode, 137
Quantum confined particles, 87
Quantum confinement, 73
75
81
88
--- size-dependent, 75
Quantum dot lasers, 88
Quantum dot transistor, 79
Quantum dots, 63-90
--- in nanoelectronics, 87
Quantum efficiency, 80
Quantum Hall effect, 480--484
--- fractional, 482-484
--- integer, 480--482
Quantum-mechanical motion, 216
Quantum microscopic spin wave theory, 143
147
Quantum point contacts, 27
Quantum size effect, 62
65
68
72
74
78
--- theory, 72
Quantum transport theory, 260-287
Quantum well interference, 170
Quantum well luminescence, 303-308
Quantum well model, 176-177
Quantum well states, 170
Quantum wells, 127
170
214
230
254
294
474
--- asymmetric double, 186-193
--- double, 170
--- polaron effect, 254-259
--- single, 171
214
--- symmetric double, 177
218
--- type I, 230
294
--- type II, 231
294
Quasi-particle energy levels, 237-245
Quasi-two-dimensional electron gas, 260
281
--- static conductivity, 263
Quasi-two-dimensional nanostructured materials, 208-331
--- classification, 208-209
--- definition, 208
--- electronic states, 213-223
--- idealized, 222-223
--- impurity scattering, 260
--- impurity states, 327-331
--- interband transitions, 292-296
--- intraband transitions, 290-292
--- lattice dynamics, 245-259
--- long wavelength polar optical modes, 248-253
--- optical properties, 287-308
quantum transport theory, 260-287
quasi-particle states, 223-237
--- realistic, 233-237
--- synthesis and fabrication, 209-213
--- vertical transport, 279-281
Quasi-two-dimensional semiconductors, 229
253
--- polaron properties, 253-259
R
Radiation curing, 33
Radiative transition, 63
Raghavachari, K., 68
Raman scattering, 127
248
250
308
Raman spectroscopy, 63
74
81
127
Random field model, 394
Random phase approximation, 148
155
273
Rapid thermal processing, 80
Rare earth, 174
347
Rauch, C., 135-136
Rayleigh, 144
Rayleigh scattering, 307
Rayleigh-Schrrdinger perturbation theory, 256
Rayleigh surface waves, 144
Reactive ion etching, 4
54
--- advantage, 4
Recording density, 499
Recording media, 354
507
--- preparations, 507-511
--- thermal stability, 512
Recovery, 24-25
Reflection high-energy electron diffraction, 404
Reflection-transmission phenomena, 291
Relaxtion shear modulus, 19
Replay heads, 514-538
Replica molding, 39
Replicated stamps, 41-43
Repulsion localized states, 132
Residual layer removal, 17
33
Residual layer thickness, 25
Resonant absorption, 557
Resonant scattering states, 172
178
195
Resonant tunneling, 280-281
Resonant tunneling injection, 137
Rheological behavior, 23
RIE, see Reactive ion etching
Righi-Leduc effect, 463-464
Rigid ion model, 252
Rigid replicas, 41
Rigid stamps, 41
RKKY, see Ruderman-Kittel-Kasuya-Yosida
RKKY coupling, 177
363
525
Rochat, M., 137
Rohlfing, C. M., 68
Roller hot embossing, 11
14
Rotation potential, 19
Rubber-elastic behavior, 20
Rubber-elastic region, 20
Ruderman-Kittel-Kasuya-Yosida model, 170
174
--- Sakaki, H., 81
--- SAMIM, see Solvent-assisted microcontact molding
--- Saslow, W. M., 148
--- Saturation magnetization, 346
550
--- SCALPEL, see Scattering with angular limitation projection electron beam
--- lithography
--- Scanning electron microscopy, 17
24
525
591
--- low-temperature, 591
--- with polarization analysis, 525
--- Scanning probe lithography, 32
--- Scanning transmission electron diffraction, 69
--- Scanning tunneling microscopy, 62
64
76
79
81
85
89
--- images, 85
--- voltage-dependent, 85
--- Scanning tunneling spectroscopy, 64
78
81
85
--- spectra, 65
--- theory, 65
--- theory for semiconductors, 65
--- Scattering, 3
40
57
127
136
143
186
248
250
263
307
449
--- 457
473
478
520
522
573
--- acoustic deformation potential, 452-453
--- Brillouin, 150
--- by dislocations, 457
--- by phonons, 451
--- carrier-cartier, 456-457
--- interfacial spin-dependent, 522
--- intersubband, 263-264
--- ionized impurity, 450
470
--- masks, 40
--- mechanism, 136
449
--- neutral impurity, 450
--- neutron, 143
--- optical deformation potential, 455
--- optical phonon, 473
478
--- piezoelectric, 454-455
--- polar optical, 455-456
Raman, 127
248
250
308
Rayleigh, 307
--- spin-dependent, 186
573
--- with angular limitation projection electron beam lithography, 3
57
--- Schematic frequency permeameter, 498-499
--- Schltiter, M. A., 68
--- Scholz, R., 133
--- Schrnwald, H., 467
--- Schrrdinger equation, 67
85
130
197
213
222
327
443
--- Schwabe, R., 126
--- Screening effect, 276
--- SDG, see Semiconductor-doped glasses
--- Sd-mixing model, 175
--- Second harmonic generation response, 88
--- Second-neighbor interactions, 117
--- Seed layer, 508
--- Segregating states, 132
--- Seekamp, J., 55
--- Self-assembled antisticking layers, 49-51
--- imprint application, 51
--- layer functionality, 51
--- preparation, 51
--- problem, 51
--- wear and lifetime, 52
--- Self-assembled monolayer, 50
--- Self-consistent-field algorithms, 78
--- Self-consistent-field molecular orbit theory, 83
--- Self-consistent iteration procedure, 599
--- Self-consistent pseudopotential method, 105
--- SEM, see Scanning electron microscopy
--- Semiconductor-doped glasses, 64
--- Semiconductor particles, 71
--- Semiconductors, 72
87
100
441
--- band structure, 442
--- binary nanocrystals, 72
--- equilibrium carrier density, 441-461
--- quantum effects in large magnetic fields, 468
--- magnetotransport effects, 441-491
--- particles, 73
87
--- scattering mechanisms of charge carriers, 449--457
--- zinc blende, 100
--- Sequential processing, 12
--- SET, see Single electron tunneling
--- SFIL, see Step-and-flash imprint lithography
--- Sham, L. J., 100
102
125
131
--- Shape anisotropy, 381-382
--- Shear deformation potential, 122
--- Sheet resistance, 484
--- Shell model, 66
--- Short-period superlattices, 99-138
--- electronic properties, 117
--- optical properties, 117
--- physics of, 129
--- symmetry, 100-103
--- ultra, 121-127
--- Shubnikov--de Haas effect, 283
444
469
--- Shubnikov-de Haas oscillation, 469-471
--- Sibille, A., 134
--- Signal amplitude decay, 504
--- Signal decay measurement, 514
--- Signal-to-noise ratio limit, 502-503
--- Silicon, 73
78
465
--- Silicon clusters, 73
78
--- hydrogen passivated, 74
--- oxidated, 74
--- passivated, 74
80
--- pristine, 74
80
--- surface passivated, 78
--- Silicon particles, 76
80
87
--- H-passivated, 81
--- gap measurement, 77
--- laser ablation, 87
--- pristine, 76
87
--- passivated, 80-81
--- unpassivated, 76
--- Silicon nanoparticle films, 87
--- Silicon nanowires, 81
89
--- fullerene-structured, 82-83
--- vapor grown, 82
--- Silicon technology, 7
--- Single domain particle, 340
--- Single electron charging, 65
--- Single-electron transistors, 88
--- Single electron tunneling, 65
79
89
--- Single heterostructure, 213-214
--- Single-layer schemes, 27
--- Single master curve, 21
--- Single quantum wells, 171-173
--- finitely deep wells, 171-172
--- infinitely deep wells, 171
--- Single-turn coil technique, 120-121
--- Sintered magnets, 387
--- Size-dependent phenomena, 72
--- Size-dependent quantum confinement, 75
--- Size quantum limit, 270-273
--- Skolnick, M. S., 114
--- Slater, J. C., 132
--- Slater-Koster model, 133
--- SOFMAX, 548
--- Soft elastic stamps, 41
--- Soft ferrites, 386
--- Soft magnetic materials, 386
547
--- Solar cells, 87
--- Sol-gel, 10
39
338
--- Solution-phase synthesis, 71-72
--- Solvent-assisted microcontact molding, 30
39
--- Solvent vapor, 30
--- Space energy band alignment, 99-100
--- Spectroscopic ellipsometry, 129
--- Spectroscopic splitting factor, 443
--- Spherical cluster, 77
--- Spherical jellium model, 66
--- Spin coated antisticking layers, 49
--- Spin-density approximation, 197
--- Spin-dependent scattering, 186
573
--- Spin-echo measurements, 571-572
--- Spin-flop coupling, 394-395
--- Spin map, 395
--- Spin-stand method, 513
--- Spin term, 242
--- Spin-up and spin-down electrons, 176
197
521
--- Spin valve magnetic heads, 432
--- Spin valve head engineering, 531-538
--- Spin valve types, 529-531
--- Spin waves, 141-165
--- bulk, 142
--- damping effect, 164
--- interface, 142
--- linear, 141
--- localized, 142
--- in superlattices and multilayers, 150-161
--- surface, 142
--- Spin wave eigenfrequencies, 141
--- Spin wave energy, 143
--- Spin wave frequencies, 142
--- Spin wave theories, 142-150
--- SPL, see Scanning probe lithography
--- SPL, see Surface probe methods
--- Spontaneous magnetization, 382
567
--- Spronken, G., 150
--- SPSL, see Short-period superlattices
--- Sputtered films, 51
--- Sputtering, 51
73
76
416
507
573
--- magnetron, 76
417
573
--- dc diode, 416
--- dc triode, 417
--- ion beam, 418-419
reactive, 418
rf, 417
--- vacuum, 507
--- with substrate bias, 417
18
--- SQUID magnetometer, 397
580
610
--- SQUID sensors, 590
--- Stamps, 24
35
41
--- configurations, 35
R1 Section
--- duroplastic, 42
--- elastomeric, 37
41
45
--- hybrid, 43
--- patterns, 24
replicated, 41
3
rigid, 41
--- soft elastic, 41
--- wear, 43-45
--- Stamper hot embossing, 11
--- Stark effect, 67
116
237
--- electro-optical measurements, 67
--- Stark ladder, 117-118
--- transitions, 118
--- Stark shift, 116
239
--- State mixing, 114
--- STED, see Scanning transmission electron diffraction
--- Step-and-flash imprint lithography, 34
39
41
--- Step-and-stamp procedure, 12
15
--- Stewart. J. J. P., 83
--- Sticking, 22
45
--- effects, 46
--- STM, see Scanning tunneling microscopy
--- Stokes integration law, 378
--- Stokes shift, 100
106
112
114
--- Stoichiometric clusters, 72
--- Stoneley, R., 144
--- Stoner-Wohlfarth theory, 340
509
--- Strain anisotropy, 381
--- Stress shift, 122
--- Structural isomers, 70
--- STS, see Scanning tunneling spectroscopy
--- Sturge, M. D., 107-109
--- Subband structure, 142
--- Submonolayer deposition, 76
--- Submonolayer coverage, 76
--- Suhl, H., 144
--- Superconducting quantum interference device, see SQUID
--- Superconductivity, 83
--- Superlattice subbands, 220
--- Superlattices, 87
99
141
219
--- dispersion relations, 219-222
--- graded-gap, 134
--- of crystalline metal, 87
--- optical properties, 103
--- parity, 102
--- perfect, 103
--- potential, 125
--- pseudodirect type II, 113
--- short period, 99-138
--- state, 102
126
--- symmetric, 104
--- type I, 99
104
111
114
120
128
--- type I-type II crossover, 104
115
--- type II, 99
104
108
116
119
128
--- type II-type I crossover, 104
--- ultra-short-period, 121-127
--- Superparamagnetic limit, 503-507
--- Superparamagnetic phenomenon, 505
--- Supershell effects, 71
--- Supported clusters, 65
--- Surface anisotropy, 389
--- Surface position, 64
--- Surface probe methods, 3
--- Surface reactivity, 63
--- Surface state transitions, 75
--- Susceptibility, 377-378
--- Symmetry break, 115
--- Symmetry compatibility, 126
--- Symmetry points, 100-101
T
TDP, see Topically directed photolithography
Teflon, 51
Teflon-like antisticking layers, 51
TEM, see Transmission electron microscopy
Temperature-dependent shift factor, 21
Terahertz-emission spectrum, 138
Terminal flow region, 21
Terminal region, 20
Tersoff, J., 65
Thermal activation, 398
Thermal escape, 73
Thermal expansion, 73
Thermal fluctuation, 504
Thermodynamic nonequilibrium, 265
Thermodynamics, 26
Thermoplastic polymers, 42
47
Thermosets, 16
48
Thick superconducting films, 610-611
Thickness, 344
523
Thin polymer film, 55
Thin film characterization, 568
Thin film writers, 541-543
Thin films, 64
86
141
354
375
495
590
--- cluster assembled, 354-364
--- ferromagnetic, 143
--- for high-density magnetic recording, 495-550
--- for replay heads, 51
4
--- magnetic, 375-433
--- nanocomposite, 338-354
--- of particles, 86-87
--- superconducting, 590-615
Thompson, W. A., 64
Threshold pressure, 111
Tight-binding approach, 62
72
105
126
--- calculations, 72
126
Tight-binding model, 103
116
126
133
170
--- empirical, 103
116
126
--- second-neighbor, 117
--- semiempirical, 170
Tight-binding method, 78
102
108
121
129
131
--- second-neighbor, 102
131
Tight-binding model, 108
227
Time decay, 107
124
--- nonexponential, 107
Time-dependent shear compliance, 19-20
Time-dependent tensile modulus, 19
Time-resolved fluorescence measurement, 67
Time-resolved spectroscopy, 287
Time-temperature superposition, 21
Ting, D. Z.-Y., 101
131
Tomanek, D., 68
Torque, 142
399
Topically directed photolithography, 40
Total energy calculations, 174
Transcendental equation, 86
Transfer matrix formalism, 157
Transfer matrix method, 156-158
Transition energy, 117
125
--- experimental, 125
--- fitted, 119
Transition metal clusters, 66
Transition region, 20
Transition self-demagnetization limit, 502
506
Translational symmetry, 87
141
Transmission electron microscopy, 36
81
359
413
--- grids, 36
Transverse-acoustic phonons, 63
Trenches, 31
Tridiagonal matrix method, 155
Trilevel technique, 28
Tsu, R., 133
260
281
Tunneling currents, 87
90
Tunneling magnetoresistance, 338
354
Tunneling spectroscopy, 64
76
78
--- measurements, 78
Tunneling junction experiment, 64
Tunnel junctions, 65
U
Ulrich, J., 138
Ultra-high-vacuum, 129
Ultra-high-vacuum ellipsometer, 129
Ultra-short-period superlattices, 121-127
Ultrasonification, 73
Unbound motions, 216
Uniaxial anisotropy, 397
549
Uniaxial anisotropy film, 532
Uniaxial stress, 121-124
Uniformity, 17
Unpassivated silicon particles, 76
Unsaturated bonds, 64
USPSL, see Ultra-short-period superlattices
UV lithography, 32
UV molding, 38
V
Vacuum, 14
173
177
209
377
571
Vacuum sputtering, 507
Valence band, 62
123
129
131
--- split-orbit-split, 129
Valence band energy, 133
Valence band offset, 104
111
131
Van der Pauw method, 484-485
Van der Waals, 71
Van Kesteren, H. W., 119-120
Vanadium clusters, 68
Vapor-liquid-solid growth, 82
Vapor-grown silison nanowires, 82
VDE, see Vertical detachment energies
Vertical detachment energies, 66
Vibrating sample magnetometer, 407
496
528
Virtual additive moments, 614-615
Viscoelastic behavior, 19
Viscoelastic response, 19
Vogel-Fulcher law, 21-22
Vogel temperature, 22
Vortex-antivortex annihilation, 597
Vortex penetration front, 603
W
Wafer-scale embossing, 30
Wafer-scale parallel processing, 11
14
Walker, L. R., 144
Walker modes, 144
Wang, J., 55
Wannier exciton, 229
Wannier function, 224
Wannier orbital model, 103
131
--- one-band, 131
Wannier-Stark effect, 117
Wannier-Stark quantized level model, 134
Warped-sphere constant energy surfaces, 460
Wave function envelope, 73
--- thermal expansion of, 73
Wave function symmetry, 103
Waveguide polarizer, 55
Wei, S. H., 131
Weller, H., 72
Wet etch, 37
82
--- chemical process, 37
Whitesides, G. M., 4
Wigen, R. E., 144
Williams, M. L., 21
Williamson, A. J., 73
Wilson, B. A., 109
Wolford, D. J., 111
Wolfram, T., 148
Write field, 500
Write heads, 538-550
Write/read process, 499
Written magnetization transition, 50(O501
X
Xia, J. B., 114
117
128
X-ray diffraction, 347
576
X-ray lithography, 2
40
X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, 52
XPS, see X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy
X-ray stepper, 29
Y
Yamaguchi, M., 118
YBCO thick film, 600
610
YBCO thin film, 594
597
601
609
614
Yoke inductance, 540-541
Yoke permanence, 542-543
Yu, Z., 54
Z
Zankovych, S., 54
Zeeman energy, 119
--- splitting, 119
Zero bandgap, 78
Zero energy gaps, 79
85
Zero-phonon emissions, 109
Zero-phonon line, 115
123
Zero-phonon peak, 121
Zero-phonon transition, 122
Zinc-blende semiconductors, 100
Zinc-blende state, 126
Zinc-blende structure, 234
Zunger, A., 126
131