Handbook of Smart Cities [1 ed.] 3030696979, 9783030696979

Table of contents :
Preface
Contents
About the Editor
Contributors
Part I: Basic Concepts and Frameworks
1 Smart Cities: Fundamental Concepts
Introduction
Human Interaction
Fundamental Beginnings of the City
Qualitative and Quantitative Changes in Human Interactions Within the City
Data
Big Data
Information And Technology
Technology, Integrated Technology, and Responsive Technology
Architecture of a Technology Platform
Institutions
The Triple Helix
Institutional Logics Connecting Actors, Activities, and Roles
Climate and Energy
Introduction: The Green, Resilient Cosmo-Polity
The ``Old´´ Grid
The Smart Grid, Distributed Energy Resources, and the City
Conclusion
Summary
Glossary
References
2 Smart Cities Can Be More Humane and Sustainable Too
Introduction
More Humane and Sustainable Smart Cities
Live-Work-Play in the Same Area!
Sidewalks
Bike Lanes
Light-Engine Vehicles
Public Transport
Listen to Citizens´ Wishes, Interests, and Needs!
Deindustrialize your Mind!
9 a.m. to 5 p.m.
Schools
Tech Parks
Work and Employment
The Car
Cross Reference and Major Challenges
Demographics
Diversity and Priorities
Special Needs
Socialization
Conclusion
References
Further Reading
3 Smart Energy Frameworks for Smart Cities: The Need for Polycentrism
Introduction
Climate Change and Urban Energy Infrastructure
The Nature of the Challenge
Smart Grid and the Future of Smart Cities
Emerging Models for Urban Energy Transformation
Distributed Energy Resources
Energy Storage
Microgrids
Demand Response and Energy Management Systems
Smart Measuring Systems
Harvesting
Green Technologies
From Robustness to Resilience
A Polycentric Approach to Smart City Energy Governance
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
4 Urban Computing: The Technological Framework for Smart Cities
Introduction
The Sense-Analyze-Actuate Paradigm
Definition
Example
Optimizing the Use of Resources
Case Study: Optimizing Urban Energy
Sensing
Data Categories
Urban Sensing Modes
Networking
Internet of Things
Urban Platforms
Data Services
Integrated Urban Platforms
Analyzing: Intelligence
Prediction of Urban Resource Supply and Demand
Decision-Making
Control Theory
Exact Optimization Algorithms
Heuristic Algorithms and Artificial Intelligence
Ethical Implications
Actuating
Data Visualization
Human Interfaces
Consumer Interfaces
City Dashboards
Robotics/Autonomous Actuation
Conclusion
References
5 Smart Cities Data: Framework, Applications, and Challenges
Introduction
Smart Data Framework
Sensor Network Databases and Data Management
City Analytics
Deep Learning
Smart Visualization
GIS-Based Visualization
Quality and Veracity
General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR)
Smart Data Applications
Smart Government and Governance
Social Networks
Mobility and Transportation
Smart Environment
Smart Streetlights
Smart Homes and Smart Building
Smart Surveillance in Smart Cities
Privacy Challenges in Smart Cities
Security and Privacy Challenges
Privacy Threats
Privacy-Enhancing Technologies
Data Privacy in Data Sensing
Privacy and Availability
Conclusion
References
6 Smart Institutions: Concept, Index, and Framework Conditions
Introduction
Methodology
Literature Review
Selected Literature on Smart Cities
Smart Institutions in the Literature
A Working Definition of a Smart Institution
A Case Study on University Hospitals
General Considerations
A Review of the Case Study
An Index for Smart Institutions
Framework for Smart Institutions
Framework Conditions for UML and SSMU
Public Policy Supporting Innovations in Healthcare in Germany
Public Policy Supporting Innovations in Healthcare in Russia
Framework Conditions for UML in 2009 and 2017
Outstanding Academic Performance of UML
Openness of Academic Institutions for Collaborations
Willingness to Cooperate Across Disciplines
Support from Service Providers: The Leipzig Trade Fair
Other Framework Conditions of Relevance for a Smart Institution
Smart Institutions in Various Sectors of the Economy
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Part II: Current Exemplary Smart Cities
7 Smart City Edmonton
Introduction
Definition: A Smart City is a Healthy City
Guiding Principles
Smart City Framework
Smart City Maturity Matrix
Smart City Ecosystem
Smart City Achievements
Edmonton´s Smart City Projects
Data and Technology
Data Accessibility and Sharing
Open Data
Shareable Solutions
Future-Proofing Technologies
Inclusive and Accessible Solutions
Data and Technology Partnerships
Standards for Data and Technology Solutions
Privacy, Security, and Ethics
Data Governance
Edmonton´s Open City Initiative
Security, Privacy, and Ethics Considerations
Resident and Community Engagement
Engagement Tools
Engagement Activities
Inclusive Engagement
Conclusion
8 From Invention City to Innovation City: The Case of Racine Wisconsin
Introduction
Racine, Wisconsin, Small Town USA
Advantages and Disadvantages of Smaller Urban Contexts
The Importance of Strategic Planning
Stakeholder Involvement
The Importance of a Middleman in Public Private Partnerships
Establishing City Priorities
Community Wide Connectivity
Energy and Sustainability
Smart Mobility and TF Century Transportation
Priority of Inclusivity
Conclusion
References
9 Urban Innovation Ecosystem and Humane and Sustainable Smart City: A Balanced Approach in Curitiba
Introduction
The Drivers for Smart Curitiba
Humane and Sustainable Smart City
Sustainable Development
Urban Innovation Ecosystem
Quadruple Helix as a Model to Bring Integration
Translating the Drivers into Policies and Strategies
Policy-Mix
Curitiba 2035 Strategic Plan
Translating the Strategies into Services and Projects
Smart Cities Institute
Curitiba Technopark and Vale do Pinhão
Startup Movement
ICITIES and Smart City Expo
Urban Projects
Conclusions
References
10 Holistic, Multifaceted, and Citizen-Centric Smart Taipei Strategies
The Strategy of the Taipei Smart City
Build a Smart City Ecosystem
Establishment of Smart City Management Office
Establish a Smart City Operation and Promotion Mechanism
Top-Down: Private Sector Operating Mechanism
Bottom-Up: Private Sector Operating Mechanism
Public-Private Partnership
Strengthening the Linkage of International Smart Cities
International Expositions
Exchange Visits
Cooperation Workshops
Taipei Smart City Achievements
Smart Government
Intelligent Road and Pipeline Management
Smart Streetlight
Pumping Station Automatic Monitored Control System
Feitsui Reservoir Smart Security Monitoring Control System
Taipei Free: Free Wi-Fi in Taipei Public Area
Data.Taipei Open Data Platform
Taipei Geographic Integration Platform
App.Taipei
Hello.Taipei - Taipei City Simple Petition System
Smart Social Housing
Smart Transportation
Smart Health and Care
Smart Education
Smart Campus
Innovative Education
Lifelong Education
Smart Payment
Smart Start-Up
The Future of Taipei Smart City
New Promotion Framework for Taipei Smart City with 1 Core+ 7 Key Directions
Continue to Promote Innovation Culture to Public Sector
Establish Sustainable Smart City Implementation Mechanism and Specification
Improve Public-Private Partnership
Strengthen PoC Effectiveness
Broaden Collaboration and Construction Scale
The Establishment of GO SMART
Conclusion
11 Smart City Transformation for Mid-Sized Cities: Case of Canakkale, Turkey
Introduction
A Mid-sized City: Canakkale, Turkey
A Smart City Transformation Initiative: ``Canakkale on My Mind´´ CASE
Visionary Leadership
Collaboration and the Role of the Private Sector
A Road Map to Smart City Transformation
Phase 1: Understanding
Phase 2: Vision
Phase 3: Strategy
Critical Success Factors and Challenges
Governance Models for Mid-sized Smart Cities
Successful Cases of Smart City Transformations
A Model for Turkish Mid-sized Cities: Case of Canakkale
Conclusion
References
12 Stockholm: Smart City
What Do We Consider a Smart City?
Plan for a Smart and Connected City
Developed in Cooperation
Brochure: Smart & Connected (https://international.stockholm.se/globalassets/ovriga-bilder-och-filer/smart-city/brochure-smart...
What Makes Stockholm a Super Smart City?
Extensive Fiber Network
E-Services
Examples of E-Services
Preschool Portal
Residents´ Parking Permits
Report Problems in Traffic and Outdoor Environment
Radon Reading Search
Heat Pump License Applications
Care Diary
Apply for a School
Apply for a Building Permit
Komet: Web-Based Parent Training
Online Applications to Art School
Open Data
Data per Area
Culture and Archive Data
Population Data
Traffic and Parking Data
Environmental Data
Activities and Satisfaction Surveys
Geodata
The Stockholm Open Award
Innovative Solutions and International Smart City Cooperation
Hammarby Sjöstad
Hammarby Sjöstad: A Neighborhood with Integrated Environmental Solutions
Stockholm Royal Seaport
The GrowSmarter Project, Smart Refurbishment
Conclusions
Cross-References
Reference
13 Smart City Wien: A Sustainable Future Starts Now
Introduction
Vienna Is on Its Way
Smart City Wien Framework Strategy 2014
Smart City Wien Monitoring Process
Smart City Governance Is the Key to Success
Smart City Wien Framework Strategy 2019-2050
Thematic Fields
Energy Supply
Mobility and Transport
Buildings
Digitalization
Economy and Employment
Water and Waste Management
Environment
Healthcare
Social Inclusion
Education
Science and Research
Participation
Projects
E_OS: Renewable Energy from Sewage Sludge
Neighborhood Oasis
Smarter Together
WAALTeR: Active, Healthy Ageing
Sag´s Wien App
Citizens´ Power Plants: Community-Funded Solar Energy
Auto Bus
Smart Traffic Lights
Vienna Provides Space: Digital Twin
BRISE
Werkstadt Junges Wien: Co-Creating a Child and Youth Strategy for Vienna
Conclusion and Outlook
References
14 NEOM Smart City: The City of Future (The Urban Oasis in Saudi Desert)
Introduction
Research Methodology
Literature Review
NEOM Case Study
Content Analysis (Articles and Blogs)
Content Analysis (Pictures and Videos)
NEOM Smart City
Internet of Things Technologies
Smart Economy (SE)
Smart Living (SL)
Smart Governance (SG)
Smart Environment (SE)
Smart Mobility (SM)
Smart People (SP)
Discussions
Conclusion
References
15 Tehran in the Path of Transition to a Smart City: Initiatives, Implementation, and Governance
Introduction
Background of Smart Cities
Experiences and Measures for Smartening Tehran
Smart Governance
Smart Governance Challenges in Tehran
Smart Environment
Tehran Challenges in Implementing a Smart Environment
Smart Infrastructure
Infrastructure Challenges in Tehran Smartening
Smart Life
Tehran Challenges in Implementing Smart Life
Smart Transportation
Tehran Challenges in Implementing Smart Transportation
Smart Economy
Tehran Challenges in Implementing Smart Economy
Smart City Application in Fighting the Covid-19 Pandemic in Tehran
Conclusion
Governance Challenges
Citizenship Challenges
Technological Challenges
Economic Challenges
References
16 Rebranding Umhlanga as an Intelligent City
Introduction
Conceptualizing Smart Cities
The Developmental Perspective of Post-apartheid South Africa
Tools for Post-1994 Spatial Restructuring
The Current Realities of the Post-apartheid City
Background to eThekwini Municipality
Methodology
The Planning Perspective of Umhlanga
Insight into Umhlanga
Umhlanga: Responding to the Tenets of New Urbanism
Transport Sustainability of Umhlanga
Umhlanga as a Communication Node
Umhlanga and the Non-place Urban Realm
Safety and Security
Housing and Quality of Life
PPPs: A Winning Card for Smart Cities
Concluding Remarks
References
17 Bandung Smart City: The Digital Revolution for a Sustainable Future
Introduction
Songdo, South Korea
Sejong, South Korea
Masdar, UAE
Amsterdam, The Netherlands
San Francisco, USA
Brisbane, Australia
The Concepts of Smart Cities
The Development of Smart Cities in Indonesia
The Concept of Bandung Smart City (BSC)
Features of Bandung Smart City
Bandung Command Center
LAPOR! (Layanan Aspirasi dan Pengaduan Online Rakyat/Community Online Complaint and Aspiration Service)
Single Number Emergency Call 112
Bandung Panic Button
Bandung Planning Gallery
Discussion: Challenges and Opportunities
Conclusion
References
Part III: Human Dimension
18 Social Inclusion in Smart Cities
Introduction
Social Inclusion and Smart Cities
ICT Standards as Tools for Social Inclusion in Smart Cities
Smart Mobility and Social Inclusion
Interconnected Public Spaces and Social Inclusion
Related Projects About Inclusion in Smart Cities
Inclusive Accessibility in Smart Cities
Melbourne Making Life Easy For The Disabled
Smart Cities Addressing Homelessness And Isolation
Opensidewalks
Alma Houses
5G Connectivity and Social Inclusion
One Atlanta
Yingtan: 5G-Enabled Digital Twin City
Apps and Inclusive Smart Cities
Blindsquare
Safe & The City (SatC) App
City4Age (Elderly Friendly City Services for Active and Healthy Aging)
Smart Cities and Women
Safetipin
Gender Smart Cities
Unmanned Kiosks: The Best Way to Join Citizens with Cities
Kiosks in Case of Emergencies
Kiosks Deployed as Smart Street Furniture
Interconnected Public Spaces (IP-Spaces)
Elders´ Demographic Facts and Their Connection to Smart Cities
Elders´ Oriented IP-Spaces
Elder Activities
Elder Activities in the Context of IP-Spaces
Technological Interfaces for IP-Spaces
Audiovisual Accessibility
Gestural Interfaces for IP-Spaces
Related Legislation with the Use of Technology in Interconnected Public Spaces
European Legislation
MUSA: An Inclusive Smart Bus Stop
MUSA Smart Bus Stop
MUSA Smart Bus Stop System Architecture
Sensorization of Buses
MUSA Transport Services
Interconnected Public Space Service in MUSA
MUSA Smart Stop and IP-Spaces Current Developments
Conclusions
References
19 Malaysia Smart City Framework: A Trusted Framework for Shaping Smart Malaysian Citizenship?
Introduction
Literature Review
Malaysia Smart City Framework and Citizenship
Citizenship and The Nations-of-Intent in Malaysia
Methodology
Findings and Discussions
General Frames of Malaysian Smart City Policies and Strategies
Malaysia´s Citizenship Framing in the MSCF
Overall Themes on the Relationship Between Smart City and Citizenship
Suggestions in Building Smart City and Smart Citizenship in Malaysia
Conclusion and Contributions
References
20 Making Smart Cities ``Smarter´´ Through ICT-Enabled Citizen Coproduction
Introduction
ICT-Enabled Coproduction
The Concept of Coproduction
The Adoption of ICT to Coproduce
Characteristics of ICT-Enabled Coproduction
The Process of ICT-Enabled Coproduction
Direct Interaction Between the Coproducing Actors
Motivated Coproducing Actors
Shared Resources
Joint Decision-Making Process
Potential Outcomes of ICT-Enabled Coproduction Through the Lenses of Public Values
Advantages of ICT-Enabled Coproduction
Challenges of ICT-Enabled Coproduction
ICT-Enabled Coproduction Initiatives
The Case of ``Leuven, Maak het Mee,´´ Belgium
The Case of ``SmartBike,´´ Belgium
Concluding Remarks
References
Part IV: Energy Dimension
21 Smart Cities and the Challenge of Cities´ Energy Autonomy
Introduction
The Concept of Smart City
Smart Energy-Autonomous Cities
Need for Energy Smart Cities
Urbanization
Challenges for the Transition to Smart Cities
Sociopolitical Challenges
Financial Challenges
Technological Challenges
Environmental Challenges
Smart City Planning
Transition to Energy Smart Cities
Methodologies and Tools in Buildings of Smart Cities
General Description
Energy Saving and Management Tools
Energy Management and Saving in the Building Sector
Decision Support Systems (DSS)
Existing Methodologies and Tools
Evaluation
The Greek Reality: Greek Legislation - Directive 2010/31/EU
Conclusions
References
Legislation
22 Energy Harvesting in Smart Cities
Introduction
Kinetic Energy Harvesting in Urban Environments
Kinetic Energy from Human Activities
Running Vehicles
In-Pipe Water Flow
Airflow
Structural Vibrations
Power Management for Energy Harvesting Systems
Voltage Converter
MPPT Circuit
Charge Management Circuit
Wireless Sensing and Communication
LoRa for Smart City Applications
Long-Range Connectivity
Low Power
Low Cost
Good Reliability and Robustness
High Scalability Potential
Example Applications
Building Monitoring
Urban Greenhouse Gas Monitoring
Bridge Condition Monitoring
Urban Water Meter Monitoring
Urban Environmental Monitoring
Human Surroundings Monitoring
Adoption of Energy Harvesting Powered LoRa
Conclusion
References
23 Greenhouse Gas Mitigation in Smart Cities: Political Economy and Strategic Mitigation Alliances
Introduction: The Smart City in the New Climate Regime
The Smart City, Renewables, and Greenhouse Gas Emissions
The Heterogeneity of Smart City GHG Emissions
Smart Cities, Electrical Power, and the Grid: Mitigation
Governance of the US Electrical Grid
Ohm´s Law
Governance: Capital Accumulation and the Hope Framework
The Contradiction of Renewable Technologies with Hope Framework
Electrical Utility Reconfigurations of the 1970s and 1990s
1970s: Economical Rationalization of Pricing
1990s: Regulating Market Discipline
City as Producer of Electrical Power
City as Consumer of Electric Power
Conclusion: The Smart City as Mitigator
References
Part V: Technology Dimension
24 Technology: Person Identification
Introduction
Technology for Identification in Smart Cities Cloud Services
The Identification Technologies in Systems of Internet of Things
Taxonomy of IoT Authentication Schemes
Authentication Schemes Survey
Smart Grids
RFID and NFC-Based Applications
Vehicular Networks
Smart Homes
Wireless Sensor Networks
Mobile Network and Applications
Identification Using Video Surveillance Systems of a Smart City
Centralized Architecture of Surveillance System
Decentralized Surveillance System Concept
Decentralized Surveillance Systems with Edge TPU
Algorithm of Searching Cells with Motion Detection
Face Detection
3-Tier Decentralized Surveillance Systems
Surveillance Systems Integration into ERP
Conclusions
References
25 User Interfaces in Smart Cities
Introduction
A Day in a Smart City
How to Read This Chapter
IoT, ICT, and a System of Systems
Characteristics of a Smart City
Public Utilities
Mobility
Public
Private
Health and Safety
Health
Public Safety Services
Communication and Amber Alert
Quality of Life
Playful
Social
People of a Smart City
Tech Literacy
Ability
Local Versus Global
Local
Global
Resident Versus Government
Resident
Government
Work Versus Leisure
Work
Leisure
Interface Trends for Smart Cities
Tangible User Interfaces (TUI)
Tactile Internet Systems
Urban Interaction Using TUI
Health/Global/Residents
Geospatial Tangible Urban Planning
Local/City Planning
Participative Design
Tangible Interfaces for Three-Dimensional Interaction
Ambient Interfaces
Ambient Intelligence
Context-Aware Middleware for Ambient Intelligence
Resident Employee
The Smart Bus Stop
In-Environment Interface (IEI)
Environment-Dependent Interfaces
Environment-Independent Interfaces
Ambient Actuation Through ShapeBots
Ambient Play
Ambient Surveillance
Ambient Intelligence in Healthcare
Health/Ability/Residents
Healthy Aging
Virtual Humans and Agents for an Aging Population
Environment Scale Interfaces
Parks and Recreation
Pervasive Games
LiftTiles
City as a Playground
Digitally Enhanced Communal Spaces
Mobile/Wearable
Smartphone as a Data Collection Mechanism for Security Resident
Government Concerns
Digital Democracy
Wearable Health Monitoring
Social Wearables
Co-creation Wearables
Wearable Interfaces for Ubiquitous Gaming
Extended Reality
Augmented Reality
Virtual Reality
Material Based
Sustainable Interfaces
Everyday Objects
Smart Material Interfaces
Data Representation and Physicalization
Healthcare Applications
Resident Engagement and Resident Participation
Government and Professionals
Nanotechnology for Health and Smart Cities
Conclusion
References
26 Vehicular Network Systems in Smart Cities
Introduction
Vehicular System Layered Architecture
Development Environment for Vehicular Networks
Vehicular WSN and WDSN System
VANETs
Vehicular Communication
IPv6
Wave
Routing
RPL
Network Technologies for Enabling Vehicular Communication in a Smart City
Network Classes
Short-Range Technologies
Long-Range Technologies
Security in Vehicular Networks
Vehicular Networking Applications
Challenges
Conclusions
References
27 How Technology Makes a Difference: Digital, Agile, and Design Thinking
Introduction
Where Technology Provides Lot of Opportunities
Where Technology Makes a Difference
How Technology Connects with Cities
What Are the Keys to Unlock Digital Transformation
IoT
Why There Is a Tremendous Growth in IoT
Why There Is an Acceleration of IoT (Especially in the Last Few Years)
Why IoT Has a Bright Future Ahead
IoT Means
How Does IoT Works
Differences Between ToI, M2M, and IoE
How to Manages the Environment
How to Builds an Eco-Friendly Environment
Applications of IoT in Different Industries
How Is IoT Technology Classified Into
How Should Be Enable IoT Growth
IoT Are Achievable in the Near Future
Growth of the Global IoT Market Over the Years and Expectations
Role of Government and Regulatory Authorities
Deployment and Adoption of IoT Will Be Different Across Geographical Regions
Value Chain: A New Ecosystem
Data Collection
Market Opportunities
Gartner Recommendation: Top 10 Technology Trends in Data and Analytics
Top 10 Digital Transformation Trends for Australia and New Zealand by IDC
Strategy
Why Digital Strategy Is Very Important for Companies
What Is Digital Transformation
Which Type of Strategy and When
One of the Hardest Things About Strategy
Digital Strategy Is Not Equal to IT Strategy
Is Digital Edge Different from Digital Automation
Challenges
Agile in Digital Transformation
How Design Thinking Helps Digital Transformation with Five Steps
Conclusion
References
28 Building Smart City Solutions with Focus on Health Care and GDPR
Introduction
Source of Data
Simplex and Complex Data Sources
Process of Data Collection
Data Publish Cycles and Thresholds
Data Model and Converters
Private and Public Data Solutions
Anonymization of the User Data
Anonymization Process
Data Mining Capabilities Over Anonymized Data
Geolocation Data Anonymization
Extensibility of the Architecture
Microservice Architecture
Scalability
Continuous Integration
Event Communication via Webhooks
Extend a Smart City with a Smart Health Care Solution
Med-i-hub System
Med-i-hub Sensor Layer
Med-i-hub Service Layer
Data Storage
HL7 Standard and FHIR Support in Med-i-hub System
Smart Personal Assistant
Measurement Data Classification
The Role of the Med-i-hub System in the Smart City Ecosystem
Conclusion
References
29 Smart Mobility Ontology: Current Trends and Future Directions
Introduction
Ontology Components
Ontology Classification
Ontology Developing Approaches
Direction of Taxonomy Hierarchy
Source Type of Ontology
Text Documents
Schemata
Ontology Languages
RDF Language
OWL Language
Ontology Design Procedure
Mobility Ontologies
Foundation Ontologies
Geospatial Ontology
Time Ontology
Weather Ontology
Units of Measure
Change
Household and Dwelling Ontology
Organization Ontology
Stakeholder Ontology
Trip
Transportation Physical Network Ontologies
Road Transportation Network
Railway Transportation Network
Cycling and Pedestrian Network
Transit System
Freight Transportation System
Road Service Area
Future Directions in Smart Mobility Ontology
Mobility Sensors
MaaS
Autonomous Robotics
Connected Roadways and Internet of Vehicles Technologies
Conclusion
References
Part VI: Data Dimension
30 Towards Autonomous Knowledge Creation from Big Data in Smart Cities
Introduction
Big Data in Smart Cities
Smart Cities and Big Data Challenges
The Vision of (Autonomous) Knowledge Creation
Example Scenarios
Anomaly Detection
Activity Recognition
Remaining Useful Life and Survivability
Desired Solution Properties
Wisdom of the Crowd Framework
Examples and Results
Fault Detection and Failure Prediction for a Fleet of City Buses
Transfer Learned Knowledge Across Diverse Fleets
SAFARI Framework for District Heating
Outlook and Conclusions
References
31 Interoperability Effect in Big Data
Introduction
Characterizing Data
Data in Vs
Data Structure
Characterizing Interactions
Smart Applications and Urban Computing
Integration, Interoperability, and Coupling
Application Interactions in Big Data Contexts
Interoperability Frameworks
The NIST Big Data Interoperability Framework
A Layered Interoperability Framework
Big Data Standards
Where Should Be Interoperability Headed?
Conclusion
References
32 Data Protection and Smart Cities
Introduction
From Privacy To Data Protection
Territorial Scope of The General Data Protection Regulation
General Data Protection Regulation
What Is An EU Regulation?
Structure of the Regulation
Definition of Personal Data and Processing of Personal Data
Choosing the Basis for Processing in the Context of Smart Cities
Rights of the Data Subject
Smart City Service Provider or Equipment Vendor as a Potential Controller or Processor
Data Protection Impact Assessment
Designation of the Data Protection Officer
Smart City, IoT, and Privacy
Compliance: Where Do We Start?
Conclusion
References
33 Multitier Intelligent Computing and Storage for IoT Sensor Data
Introduction
Applicability Use Cases
Healthcare and Telemedicine
Public Safety and Disaster Response
Smart Transportation
Smart Gardening
Multitier Reference Framework for IoT Data Processing in Smart Cities
Computing Continuum for IoT Data
Cloud Computing
Regional Cloud Computing
Edge/Fog Computing
Virtualization Techniques
Pre-virtualization
Hypervisor-Based Virtualization
System-Based Containerization
Application-Based Containerization
Intelligence for Smart Cities
Supervision in Machine Learning
Supervised Learning
Unsupervised Learning
Reinforcement Learning
Training in Machine Learning
Online Training
Offline Training
Generalization in Learning
Instance-Based Learning
Model-Based Learning Reinforcement Learning
Federated Learning
Deep Learning
Learning in Different Tiers
Healthcare
RoboNet
Federated Learning on Multiple Tiers
Intelligent Drones
Data Management and Storage
Data Acquisition
Unified Access Platform
Bluetooth Low Energy
Multitier Storage
Device Tier
Fog Tier
Mashups
Data Analytics on Fog-Stored Data
Cloud Tier
Topic-Based IoT Storage
IoT Data Security in Motion and at Rest
Conclusion
References
34 Deep Learning for LiDAR-Based Autonomous Vehicles in Smart Cities
Introduction
Deep Learning for Object Detection
What Is Deep Learning?
Convolutional Neural Networks
What Is Object Detection?
Training a CNN for Object Detection
Supervised Learning
Unsupervised Learning
Reinforcement Learning
Transfer Learning
Data Augmentation
Inference at the Edge
LiDAR in Autonomous Vehicles
Sensor Types in Autonomous Vehicles
Cameras
Radar
Ultrasonic
LiDAR
LiDAR Fundamentals
LiDAR´s Relevance in Industry
LiDAR and Deep Learning for Autonomous Vehicles
Autonomous Vehicles in the Smart City Ecosystem
LiDAR for Pedestrian Detection
Case Study: Creating a Deep Learning Model for LiDAR-Based Inference
LiDAR Selection
Parsing and Visualization
Sample Data and Labeling
Preprocessing
CNN Selection
Dataset Creation and Labeling
Training
System and Performance
Analysis
Conclusion
Future Research Directions
References
Part VII: Institutions Dimension
35 Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR): Governments, Institutions, Businesses, and the Public Within a Smart City Context
Introduction
Smart Cities: Promises from Business
Smart Cities: The Publics Role and Citizenship
Business and CSR Responsibility
CSR: A Single Organizational View
CSR: As Multi-Stakeholder Engagement
Meeting Community and Business Expectations
Conclusion
References
36 Social Emergence, Cornerstone of Smart City Governance as a Complex Citizen-Centric System
Introduction
The Smart City: A Collection of Smarties or a System?
How Smart Were the Cities of the Past?
Cities as Far from Equilibrium Adaptive Systems
What Makes a City Smart?
Why Do We Need Strong Citizen-Based Interactions Within the Urban System?
Rethinking the Smart City Concept from the Perspective of Citizens´ Bottom-Up Involvement: The Cases of Barcelona (Spain) and ...
The Case of Barcelona: Decidim.Barcelona
The Case of Medellín: ``City for Life´´
Social Emergence as a Proposed Lens for a Finer Grained Understanding of How Bottom-Up Dynamics Within Smart Cities Initiate a...
The Generative Emergence Model, as a Promising Way to Study Processes of Emergence in Socially Smart Communities
Conclusion
References
37 Exploiting Big Data for Smart Government: Facing the Challenges
Introduction
Big Data: Views and Usage
Existing Views on Big Data
Issues when Using Big Data
A Discerning Definition of BD
Databases
Inductive Reasoning
Models
In Summary
Challenges of Using Big Data in Practice
Data Quality Issues
Evolving Semantics
System Realities
Statistical Truths
Towards a Framework for Responsible Use of Big Data
Achieving Transparency
Dealing with Uncertainty
Illustrative Examples
Conclusion and Future Research
References
Part VIII: Smart Cities Infrastructure Ecosystem
38 Feeding a Smart City
Introduction
A Brief History of Urbanization
Agricultural Revolutions
Agriculture 1.0
Agriculture 2.0
Agriculture 3.0
Agriculture 4.0
Food and Employment
Food Regulation, Fraud, and Deception
Food and Religion
Judaism: Kosher
Christianity
Muslim: Halal
Hinduism
Sikhism
Buddhism
Quakers
Amish
Subsidies
Monoculture
Retail Practice, Shelf Life, Dates, and Food Processing
Shelf Life
Retail Practice
Processing of Food
Preserving Food
Meat
Extending the Shelf Life of Meat
Sheep/Lamb/Mutton
Cow/Beef
Pig: Pork, Ham, and Sausages
Blood and Offal (Internal Organs)
Alternatives: Bison, Camel, Deer (Venison), Goats, and Kangaroo
Poultry
More Than Food
Fish
Milk and Dairy Products
Milk Consumption Around the World
Nutritional Value of Milk
Dairy Products
Initial Milk Processing
Beyond Pasteurization
Eggs
Egg Regulation
Egg Preservation
Plant Based Foods: Varieties and Genetics
Legumes
Brassicas
Genetics
Seeds, Grains, Nuts, and Bread
Seeds as Food
Culinary Nuts
Bread
Animal Feed
Grass
Grain as Animal Feed
Food Security, Continuity, and Transparency of Supply
Endangered Crops
Vitamins, Allergies, Intolerances, and Deficiencies
Vitamins and Dietary Supplements
Plastics, Carbon, and the Future of Local Food
The New Local
Conclusion
References
39 IoT and Blockchain-Based Smart Agri-food Supply Chains
Introduction
Literature Review
The Architecture of Smart Agri-food Supply Chains
The IoT Architecture and Communications
RFID
LoRa
MQTT
The Key Components of Blockchain
Merkle Tree
Timestamp
Asymmetric Cryptography
Consensus Mechanism
Smart Contract
Key Data Flows
Product Flow
Information Flow
Finance Flow
Practical Applications
The Quality Assurance and Traceability of Agricultural Products
E-commerce of Agricultural Products
Credit Issues in Transactions of Agricultural Products
Agricultural Insurance
IBM Watson IoT and Blockchain Platform
Ant Group: A Pioneer of the Blockchain-Enabled Supply Chain in China
Challenges of Blockchain-Based Smart Agri-food Supply Chains
Legal Provisions Lag Behind Blockchain´s Evolution
The Cost of Devices and Maintenance
Security Concerns
Storage, Throughput, and Velocity
Conclusion
References
40 A Primer on Smart Contracts and Blockchains for Smart Cities
Introduction
Blockchain
Blockchain Networks
Consensus Algorithms
Consensus in Permissioned and Permissionless Networks
Hyperledger
Blockchain-as-a-Service (BaaS) Offering
Bitcoin
Ethereum
Corda
Iota
Developer Tools and Environments
Platform and Tools
Programming Languages
Popular Use Cases of Blockchain
Smart Contracts
Endorsement Phase
Validation
Calculating the Importance of a Smart Contract
Use Cases
Writing Smart Contracts
Using Basic Data Types
Smart Contract Functions
Add a New Service
Discussion
Pitfalls
Challenges
Advantages and Disadvantages of Smart Contracts
Conclusion
References
41 Technology-Led Disruptions and Innovations: The Trends Transforming Urban Mobility
Introduction
Global Transport Challenges
Rapid Urban Population Growth
Road Safety
Traffic Congestion
Ageing Infrastructure
Environmental Emissions
Transport Systems Resilience
Transport Energy Provision
Climate Change
Public Health and Pandemics
City Logistics and Urban Supply Chains
Limitations of Traditional Approaches
Emerging Trends
Technology-Led Opportunities and Innovations
Smart Cities: Context and Definitions
Early Developments in Intelligent Transport Systems
Advanced Traffic Management Systems
Advanced Traveler Information Systems
Advanced Vehicle Control Systems
Disruptive Mobility
Self-Driving Technologies
Levels of Vehicle Automation
Self-Driving Algorithms: The Key Differentiator
The Promise of Automated Vehicles: The Moral Imperative
Vehicle Electrification
Changing Consumer Attitudes
Broader Access to Charging Infrastructure
Stricter Regulatory Policies
Blockchain
Internet of Things
Mobile, Cloud and Fog Computation
The Sharing Economy and Collaborative Mobility
Autonomous on-Demand Shared Mobility Opportunities
Artificial Intelligence
Crowd Sourcing, Urban Sensing, and Smart City Logistics
Impact of Technology on Freight and Logistics Services
Benefits of Technology-Driven Transport Solutions
Conclusion
References
42 Advances on Urban Mobility Using Innovative Data-Driven Models
Introduction
Data Acquisition
Use Case: Curitiba, Brazil
Complex Networks
Application to Public Transportation Systems
Link Streams
Background on Link Streams
Methodology
Use Case: Curitiba, Brazil
Origin/Destination Matrix Estimation
Application to Public Transportation Systems
Application to Private Transportation Systems
Triple Helix Model
Use Case: Curitiba, Brazil
Conclusion and Future Research
References
43 Towards Interoperability of Data Platforms for Smart Cities
Introduction
Relevant Concepts and Research Approach
Smart City
Data Platform
Interoperability
Methodology
Smart City Examples from Practice
Smart City in Santander
Smart City in Munich
Dismantling Interoperability for Smart City Data Platforms
A Mix of Approaches Allows for Omitting Known Pitfalls
Analyzing Examples from Practice
Santander
Munich
Conclusion and Key Takeaways
References
44 Future Urban Smartness: Connectivity Zones with Disposable Identities
Introduction
Part 1: Limits of Smartness
Part 2: Zones of Connectivity
Cold Spots
Properties of Cold Spots
Proximity Unplugged
Ambient Privacy
Wilderness
Trust
Unprogrammability
Playfulness
Value Proposition
The Park
The Trust Framework
Art for SmArt
Hot Spots
The Cruise and Passenger Ships Hybrid-Spots
Part Three: Disposable Identities
Conclusion
References
45 Problem-Driven and Technology-Enabled Solutions for Safer Communities
Introduction
Philosophy: Public and Open-Source, Privacy Compliance, and Community Consultation
Deployment of a Regional, Open, and Free-to-Use LoRaWAN Network
LoRaWAN Network Topology and Deployment in the Illawarra
Design of an Interoperable IoT Architecture
AIoT and Edge Computing for Early Warning Systems
Culvert Blockage Detection
Estuaries and Lagoon Management
Environmental Monitoring: Quality Watch, Pollution Stop, and iOyster
Gross Pollutant Traps Monitor
Water Quality Monitor
Low-Cost (Physicochemical) Sensing of Water Quality
Conclusion and Future Work
Live Data Informing Simulation: FloodAware
GAMA Platform
Modeling Flooding Events
The FloodAware Model
Algorithms
Optimization of Rainfall
Flow Method
Data
Calibration
Future Work and Integrations
Conclusion
References
46 Crowdsourcing for Smart Cities That Realizes the Situation of Cities and Information Sharing
Introduction
Background
Smart Cities and Cyber-Physical Systems
Sensing and Monitoring of Situations in Town
Environmental Statuses
Human Activities
Crowdsourcing
Model of CPS with Crowdsourced Mobile Sensing
Service Platform
Mobile Applications for End Users
Applications for Civil Administration
Case Study 1: Collecting Traffic and Road Conditions with Crowdsourced Drive Recording App
Purpose
``Drive around-the-corner´´: A Drive Recorder Application
Map with Event Information
Posting Event
Settings
Sensing Functions
User Data
Onboard Location and Motion Sensors
Movies
Website
An Example
Survey
Analyzing Road Surface Conditions
Feature Extraction and Selection
Classification
Experimental Results and Discussion
Case Study 2: Collecting Traffic and Service Status of Public Transportation with Crowdsourced Mobile App
Methodology
Beacons
Onboard Beacon
Beacon at the Bus Stop
Mobile Application
User Functions
Logging Functions
Scenario 1: Grasping Bus Location and Estimating Arrival Time
Scenario 2: Grasping Waiting Passengers at the Bus Stop
Scenario 3: Notifying Getting On/Off
Discussions
Cost
Accuracy
Acquired Data
Service Quality
Evaluation Index
Data Blank
Target Route
Results
Case Study 3: Collecting the Atmosphere in Town with Social Service App
Nicott: An LBS for Explorers in Town
Service Description
User Functions
Event Information
Sharing Posted Contents
Posting Content
Map
Sensing Functions
User Data
Onboard Location and Motion Sensors
Facial Feature Points
Experiment
Subjects
Creating Training Data Set
Classifying Facial Expressions
Conclusion
References
47 Layer-Based Reference Model for Smart City Implementation
Introduction
Small Cities and Rural Communities
Lighthouse Smart Cities and Challenges of Small Cities
Layer-Based Reference Model for Smart City Implementation
Technology Layer (TL)
Service Layer (SL)
Business Layer (BL)
Smart City Shaping Selection Process
Application of the Smart City Shaping Selection Process
Shared Usage of Renewable Energy
Pollution of the Environment
Enhanced Mobility for Cars, Bikes, and Pedestrians
Intelligent Public and Shared Buildings
Conclusion
References
Part IX: Ethical Challenges
48 ``Eyes and Ears´´: Surveillance in the Indian Smart City
Introduction
Technologies and Data in the Smart City
Data Collection Tools
Data Collection and Utilization
Governance and Technocratic Firms
Emerging Smart Cities in the Global South
The Indian Case
Introduction to India´s Smart Cities Mission
Surveillance Technologies in India´s Smart Cities
The Legal Framework of Data Privacy in India
The Srikrishna Expert Committee Report
The Personal Data Protection Bill (2019)
Discussion
Absence of Guidelines, Policy, and Legislation
Data Accountability, Security, and Privacy
Big Data and Corporations: Public Data, Private Profit?
Policing, Monitoring, and Community Targeting
Conclusion
References
49 Reclaiming the Smart City: Toward a New Right to the City
Introduction
Ethical Issues of Smart Cities for Citizens
Lefebvre´s Right to the City
Contemporary Lenses to the Smart City
The Right to the Smart City
Conclusion and Reflection
References
50 Application of the General Data Protection Regulation for Social Robots in Smart Cities
Introduction
Development of the EU GDPR and Its Effects on Citizens of Smart Cities
Technological Developments and New Data Protection Challenges
Legal Issues of Social Robots in Smart Homes
Case Study Analysis: Social Robots for Smart Citizens
Conclusions
References
Web Links
Court Cases
Part X: Bottle Necks and Potential Enablers
51 Optimization Problems Under Uncertainty in Smart Cities
Introduction
Optimization in Smart Cities
Location/Allocation of Urban Services
IoT and Opportunistic IoT (oIoT)
OMAs and oIoT Development
Jointly Exploiting OMAs and oIoT
Routing Problems in Smart Cities
Comparative Analysis of OMAs with Alternative Approaches
Decision-Making Under Uncertainty
Sources of Uncertainty
Optimization Paradigms for Decision-Making Under Uncertainty
Robust Optimization (RO)
Stochastic Programming (SP)
Multistage SP Embedding Discrete Choice Problems (msSPDC)
Does Uncertainty Complicate the Problems?
Does Uncertainty Matter?
An Innovative Extreme Value Theory-Based Deterministic Approximation Approach (EVTDA)
Assumptions
The EVTDA for msSPDC Problems
The EVTDA in Practice
Applicability of the EVTDA
Parameters´ Calibration
Results Obtained from the EVTDA Applications in Smart Cities´ Problems
Conclusions
References
52 Information Technology Macro Trends Impacts on Cities: Guidelines for Urban Planners
Introduction
Innovation and Cities
Basic Technology Concepts
Information Systems
Information Systems Services
Service Requirements
Regulation
Opportunities, Recommendations, and Challenges
Recommendations
Specific Recommendations
Challenges
Examples of Approaches for Solving Challenges
Conclusion
References
53 Advanced Visualization of Neighborhood Carbon Metrics Using Virtual Reality: Improving Stakeholder Engagement
Introduction
Background
Background
ZEN Definitions, ZEN KPIs, ZEN Pilot Project, and Stakeholder Participation
Tools for Stakeholder Participation
ZEN Definition and ZEN Key Performance Indicators (KPIs)
ZEN Pilot Project
Advanced Visualization for ZEN Carbon Metrics
Concept for the ZEN Toolbox
Virtual Reality
Method
Research Method
Data Source and LCA Method
Building LCA Database-Tool (bLCAd-Tool)
User Study and Questionnaire
VR Visualization of Buildings BIM Files and GHG Emissions
Technical Details
Technology
Software Architecture and Code
Event-Driven Programming
3D Model
System Interaction
Results
Virtual Reality Application Overview
Full View
ZEN View
ZEB View
Results of User Tests and Questionnaires
Conclusions and Discussion
Further Work
Appendix 1 ZEN Assessment Criteria and Key Performance Indicators (Wiik et al. 2018a, 2019)
Appendix 2 ERD of the bLCAd-tool 3 (Løvhaug and Mathisen 2019)
Appendix 3 UML Diagram of ZENVR (Løvhaug and Mathisen 2019)
Appendix 4 Request for Participation in Research Project (Løvhaug and Mathisen 2019)
Appendix 5 Interview Guide (in Norwegian only) (Løvhaug and Mathisen 2019)
References
54 Smart City Needs a Smart Urban-Rural Interface: An Overview on Romanian Urban Transformations
Introduction
Towards a Smart Development of the Postsocialist Romanian Cities
Cities´ Dynamics During the Postsocialist Period
Spatial Reverberation of the Urban Changes on Urban-Rural Interface
Assessing of the Main Smart Results in the Current Urban Development
Defining a Smart Urban-Rural Interface in the Postsocialist Romania
Overview on the Dynamics of Postsocialist Cities and Their Urban-Rural Interfaces
Current Challenges of Cities and Urban-Rural Interfaces Accelerating Their Smart Development
Fundamental Role of Public Administration
Need of an Integrated Metropolitan Governance
Implications for Re-thinking Integrated Urban-Rural Planning
Conclusions
References
55 Journeys in the Age of Smart Cities: Some Fresh Perspectives
Introduction
Imagination Journeys
Introduction
Stories as Vehicles of the Imagination
Frameworks for the Imagination Journey
The Creative Innovation Development Process
A Smart City Application
Reflecting on the Journey
Entrepreneurial Journeys
The Age of Intelligence-Assisted Entrepreneurs
A Tale of Smart and Anti-smart Cities
Final Thoughts
Social Design Journeys with Future Customers
Cities as Complex Ecosystems
Social Design and Future Customers
Small-Scale Ecology Reactions on Large-Scale Challenges
Memory Journeys
Memory, Emotion, and Life
Current Research
Speculative Thoughts
Final Thoughts
Educational Journeys
Learning Experiences as Journeys
Example of Learning Journey Design in K-12 and Higher Education
The Future of Learning
Artificial Intelligence
Background
Smart Cities as Multidimensional Navigable Spaces
Smart City Data
Artificial Intelligence Solutions for Smart Cites
Final Thoughts
Internet of Things
Background
Challenges and Solutions
Final Thoughts
Wearables
Where We Are Now
An Illustrative Example of Current Research
Signposting the Future
Final Reflections
Smart Transport
Physical Journeys
Autonomous Systems
Vehicle Communication and Security
Challenges
Final Thoughts
Digital Twins
A Vision for the Future
Digital Twins
Future Directions and Challenges
Final Thoughts
Conclusion
References
56 Openness: A Key Factor for Smart Cities
Introduction
Openness and Smart Cities
Related Work
Defining Openness for Smart Cities
Dimensions: Transparency, Participation, Collaboration
Transparency
Participation
Collaboration
Intersections: Deep Participation, Citizen-Centric Services, Analytical Methods, and Tools
Deep Participation
Citizen-Centric Services
Analytical Methods and Tools
Implementing Openness: Some Examples
Deep Participation: Place and City Tool
Citizen-Centric Services: Open Data Portals
Analytical Methods and Tools: Participatory Air Quality Sensing
The Open City Toolkit (OCT)
Discussion
Digital Sovereignty
Balancing Interests
Harvesting Synergies
Conclusion
References
57 The Importance of Creative Practices in Designing More-Than-Human Cities
Introduction
A Brief History of City Visions
Resolving Tensions through Participatory Processes
New Methods for More-Than-Human Cities
Creativity, Creative Practice and Arts-Based Methods
Creativity in City Visions
Creative Practice in City Design
Arts-Based Methods in Practice
Empowering Youth to Express their Lived Experience
Designing Future Personas as Voice for the Voiceless
Conclusions
References
58 Influence of Smart Cities Sustainability on Citizen´s Quality of Life
Introduction
Smart Sustainable Cities and the Quality of Life in Smart Cities
Data and Method
Sample Selection
Research Methodology
Analysis of Results
Descriptive Statistics
Hypotheses Testing
Discussions and Conclusions
References
Part XI: Closing Words
59 Smart Cities: State of the Art and Future Challenges
Introduction
Part 1: Understanding the Basics and the Holistic Concept
Part 2: Understanding Its Components
Part 3 Understanding How to Evolve the Concept
Concluding Remarks
References
Index