Handbook of Research on Innovative Technology Integration in Higher Education 9781466681705, 9781466681712, 1466681705

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Handbook of Research on Innovative Technology Integration in Higher Education Fredrick Muyia Nafukho Texas A&M University, USA Beverly J. Irby Texas A&M University, USA

A volume in the Advances in Higher Education and Professional Development (AHEPD) Book Series

Managing Director: Managing Editor: Director of Intellectual Property & Contracts: Acquisitions Editor: Production Editor: Development Editor: Typesetter: Cover Design:

Lindsay Johnston Austin DeMarco Jan Travers Kayla Wolfe Christina Henning Brandon Carbaugh Cody Page Jason Mull

Published in the United States of America by Information Science Reference (an imprint of IGI Global) 701 E. Chocolate Avenue Hershey PA, USA 17033 Tel: 717-533-8845 Fax: 717-533-8661 E-mail: [email protected] Web site: http://www.igi-global.com Copyright © 2015 by IGI Global. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without written permission from the publisher. Product or company names used in this set are for identification purposes only. Inclusion of the names of the products or companies does not indicate a claim of ownership by IGI Global of the trademark or registered trademark. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data CIP Data Handbook of research on innovative technology integration in higher education / Fredrick Muyia Nafukho and Beverly J. Irby, editors. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4666-8170-5 (hardcover) -- ISBN 978-1-4666-8171-2 (ebook) 1. Education, Higher--Effect of technological innovations on. 2. Educational technology. 3. MOOCs (Web-based instruction) 4. Distance education. I. Nafukho, Fredrick Muyia, editor of compilation. II. Irby, Beverly J., editor of compilation. LB2395.7.H24 2015 378.1’7344678--dc23 2015000401 This book is published in the IGI Global book series Advances in Higher Education and Professional Development (AHEPD) (ISSN: 2327-6983; eISSN: 2327-6991)

British Cataloguing in Publication Data A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library. All work contributed to this book is new, previously-unpublished material. The views expressed in this book are those of the authors, but not necessarily of the publisher. For electronic access to this publication, please contact: [email protected].

Advances in Higher Education and Professional Development (AHEPD) Book Series Jared Keengwe University of North Dakota, USA

ISSN: 2327-6983 EISSN: 2327-6991 Mission

As world economies continue to shift and change in response to global financial situations, job markets have begun to demand a more highly-skilled workforce. In many industries a college degree is the minimum requirement and further educational development is expected to advance. With these current trends in mind, the Advances in Higher Education & Professional Development (AHEPD) Book Series provides an outlet for researchers and academics to publish their research in these areas and to distribute these works to practitioners and other researchers. AHEPD encompasses all research dealing with higher education pedagogy, development, and curriculum design, as well as all areas of professional development, regardless of focus.

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Adult Education Assessment in Higher Education Career Training Coaching and Mentoring Continuing Professional Development Governance in Higher Education Higher Education Policy Pedagogy of Teaching Higher Education Vocational Education

IGI Global is currently accepting manuscripts for publication within this series. To submit a proposal for a volume in this series, please contact our Acquisition Editors at [email protected] or visit: http://www.igi-global.com/publish/.

The Advances in Higher Education and Professional Development (AHEPD) Book Series (ISSN 2327-6983) is published by IGI Global, 701 E. Chocolate Avenue, Hershey, PA 17033-1240, USA, www.igi-global.com. This series is composed of titles available for purchase individually; each title is edited to be contextually exclusive from any other title within the series. For pricing and ordering information please visit http://www.igi-global.com/book-series/advances-higher-education-professional-development/73681. Postmaster: Send all address changes to above address. Copyright © 2015 IGI Global. All rights, including translation in other languages reserved by the publisher. No part of this series may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means – graphics, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, or information and retrieval systems – without written permission from the publisher, except for non commercial, educational use, including classroom teaching purposes. The views expressed in this series are those of the authors, but not necessarily of IGI Global.

Titles in this Series

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New Voices in Higher Education Research and Scholarship Filipa M. Ribeiro (University of Porto, Portugal) Yurgos Politis (University College Dublin, Ireland) and Bojana Culum (University of Rijeka, Croatia) Information Science Reference • copyright 2015 • 316pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781466672444) • US $185.00 (our price) Innovative Teaching Strategies and New Learning Paradigms in Computer Programming Ricardo Queirós (Polytechnic Institute of Porto, Portugal) Information Science Reference • copyright 2015 • 313pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781466673045) • US $195.00 (our price) Professional Development Schools and Transformative Partnerships Drew Polly (UNC Charlotte, USA) Tina Heafner (UNC Charlotte, USA) Marvin Chapman (UNC Charlotte, USA) and Melba Spooner (UNC Charlotte, USA) Information Science Reference • copyright 2015 • 363pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781466663671) • US $195.00 (our price) Models for Improving and Optimizing Online and Blended Learning in Higher Education Jared Keengwe (University of North Dakota, USA) and Joachim Jack Agamba (Idaho State University, USA) Information Science Reference • copyright 2015 • 320pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781466662803) • US $175.00 (our price) Advancing Higher Education with Mobile Learning Technologies Cases, Trends, and Inquiry-Based Methods Jared Keengwe (University of North Dakota, USA) and Marian B. Maxfield (Ashland University, USA) Information Science Reference • copyright 2015 • 364pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781466662841) • US $195.00 (our price) Handbook of Research on Higher Education in the MENA Region Policy and Practice Neeta Baporikar (Ministry of Higher Education, Oman) Information Science Reference • copyright 2014 • 527pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781466661981) • US $315.00 (our price) Advancing Knowledge in Higher Education Universities in Turbulent Times Tanya Fitzgerald (La Trobe University, Australia) Information Science Reference • copyright 2014 • 337pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781466662025) • US $195.00 (our price) Cases on Teacher Identity, Diversity, and Cognition in Higher Education Paul Breen (Greenwich School of Management, UK) Information Science Reference • copyright 2014 • 437pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781466659902) • US $195.00 (our price)

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Editorial Advisory Board Maurice N. Amutabi, Kisii University, Kenya Khalil Dirani, Texas A&M University, USA Wilfrida Itolondo, Kenyatta University, Kenya Kit Kacirek, University of Arkansas, USA Anne Misia Kadenyi, Maasai Mara University, Kenya Melecki Khayesi, WHO, Switzerland Kenneth Kimani Kungu, Tennessee State University, USA Yvonna S. Lincoln, Texas A&M University, USA Gerald Ouma-Wangange, University of Pretoria, South Africa



List of Contributors

Abdelrahman, Nahed / Texas A&M University, USA........................................................................ 178 Alagaraja, Meera / University of Louisville, USA.............................................................................. 356 Baker, Credence / Tarleton State University, USA............................................................................... 74 Becker, Melissa Roberts / Tarleton State University, USA.................................................................. 74 Bergman, Mathew J. / University of Louisville, USA........................................................................ 356 Chakraborty, Misha / Texas A&M University, USA.......................................................................... 135 Delello, Julie A. / The University of Texas at Tyler, USA........................................................................ 1 Gazi, Yakut / Texas A&M University, USA........................................................................................ 282 Hairston, Nancy / Youth Bridge, USA................................................................................................ 154 Ice, Phil / American Public University System, USA........................................................................... 398 Irby, Beverly J. / Texas A&M University, USA............................................................................ 178,343 Johnson, Detra / Texas A&M University, USA................................................................................... 228 Kim, Junhee / Texas A&M University, USA....................................................................................... 303 Lara-Alecio, Rafael / Texas A&M University, USA........................................................................... 343 Layne, Melissa / American Public University System, USA............................................................... 398 LeCounte, John F. / Texas A&M University, USA............................................................................. 228 Lewis, Judith / Texas A&M University, USA...................................................................................... 282 McCaleb, Karen / Texas A&M University – Corpus Christi, USA...................................................... 74 McKinney, Anne / University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA.............................................. 115 McWhorter, Rochell R. / The University of Texas at Tyler, USA........................................................... 1 Moats, Jason / Texas A&M Engineering Extension Service, USA..................................................... 262 Moore-Reynen, Jill / University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA.......................................... 115 Mungai, John Njoroge / Syracuse University, USA............................................................................. 29 Muyia, Helen M. / Texas A&M University, USA........................................................................... 93,303 Nafukho, Fredrick Muyia / Texas A&M University, USA............................................................ 93,154 Odebero, Stephen / Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology, Kenya......................... 248 Omulayi, Geoffrey Nafukho / Kenya School of Government, Kenya................................................ 322 Rose, Kevin J. / University of Louisville, USA.................................................................................... 356 Scagnoli, Norma I. / University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA........................................... 115 Sutton-Jones, Kara L. / Texas A&M University, USA....................................................................... 343 Thindwa, Harriet / Texas A&M University, USA................................................................................. 54 Tong, Fuhui / Texas A&M University, USA........................................................................................ 343 Valentin, Celestino / Texas A&M University, USA...................................................................... 303,376 Valentin, Marie A. / Texas A&M University, USA...................................................................... 204,303 Wawire, Peter Barasa / Kenya School of Government, Kenya.......................................................... 322



Table of Contents

Preface................................................................................................................................................xviii Acknowledgment............................................................................................................................... xxvi Chapter 1 Green Computing through Virtual Learning Environments.................................................................... 1 Rochell R. McWhorter, The University of Texas at Tyler, USA Julie A. Delello, The University of Texas at Tyler, USA Chapter 2 Quality Preparation of Mathematics and Science Teachers to Integrate ICT: Lessons from Learner-Centered Teacher Professional Development Approach.......................................................... 29 John Njoroge Mungai, Syracuse University, USA Chapter 3 The Role of Technology in Improving Quality of Teaching in Higher Education: An International Perspective............................................................................................................................................. 54 Harriet Thindwa, Texas A&M University, USA Chapter 4 Paradigm Shift toward Student Engagement in Technology Mediated Courses................................... 74 Melissa Roberts Becker, Tarleton State University, USA Karen McCaleb, Texas A&M University – Corpus Christi, USA Credence Baker, Tarleton State University, USA Chapter 5 Keeping It Social: Transforming Workplace Learning and Development through Social Media......... 93 Helen M. Muyia, Texas A&M University, USA Fredrick Muyia Nafukho, Texas A&M University, USA Chapter 6 Video Lectures in eLearning................................................................................................................ 115 Norma I. Scagnoli, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA Anne McKinney, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA Jill Moore-Reynen, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA 



Chapter 7 Learners’ Perception of Engagement in Online Learning................................................................... 135 Misha Chakraborty, Texas A&M University, USA Chapter 8 A Study of Trainee Attitude and Satisfaction between E-Learning Training versus Traditional Training................................................................................................................................................ 154 Nancy Hairston, Youth Bridge, USA Fredrick Muyia Nafukho, Texas A&M University, USA Chapter 9 The Perception of Faculty Members on Hybrid Learning: A Naturalistic Case Study....................... 178 Nahed Abdelrahman, Texas A&M University, USA Beverly J. Irby, Texas A&M University, USA Chapter 10 Return on Investment: Contrary to Popular Belief, MOOCs are not Free........................................... 204 Marie A. Valentin, Texas A&M University, USA Chapter 11 The MOOCs: Characteristics, Benefits, and Challenges to Both Industry and Higher Education...... 228 John F. LeCounte, Texas A&M University, USA Detra Johnson, Texas A&M University, USA Chapter 12 The Place of MOOCs in Africa’s Higher Education........................................................................... 248 Stephen Odebero, Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology, Kenya Chapter 13 Influences on the Acceptance of Innovative Technologies Used in Learning Opportunities: A Theoretical Perspective........................................................................................................................ 262 Jason Moats, Texas A&M Engineering Extension Service, USA Chapter 14 Frameworks and Issues for a Shared Service Approach to Technology in Higher Education............. 282 Judith Lewis, Texas A&M University, USA Yakut Gazi, Texas A&M University, USA Chapter 15 Toward An Effective Virtual Learning Environment: From a Social Presence Perspective................ 303 Marie A. Valentin, Texas A&M University, USA Helen M. Muyia, Texas A&M University, USA Junhee Kim, Texas A&M University, USA Celestino Valentin, Texas A&M University, USA



Chapter 16 Integrated Multi-Agent-Based eLearning System as a Strategy to Promote Access to Higher Education in Africa.............................................................................................................................. 322 Geoffrey Nafukho Omulayi, Kenya School of Government, Kenya Peter Barasa Wawire, Kenya School of Government, Kenya Chapter 17 Informal Individual Learning via Virtual Professional Development: A Proposal for Massive Open Online Professional Informal Individual Learning (MOOPIL)................................................. 343 Beverly J. Irby, Texas A&M University, USA Kara L. Sutton-Jones, Texas A&M University, USA Rafael Lara-Alecio, Texas A&M University, USA Fuhui Tong, Texas A&M University, USA Chapter 18 Asynchronicity, Access, and Attainment: Best Practices of an Adult Degree Completion Program.. 356 Mathew J. Bergman, University of Louisville, USA Kevin J. Rose, University of Louisville, USA Meera Alagaraja, University of Louisville, USA Chapter 19 MOOCs Global Digital Divide: Reality or Myth?............................................................................... 376 Celestino Valentin, Texas A&M University, USA Chapter 20 Re-Imagining and Re-Structuring Scholarship, Teaching, and Learning in Digital Environments.... 398 Melissa Layne, American Public University System, USA Phil Ice, American Public University System, USA Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 419 About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 463 Index.................................................................................................................................................... 476

Detailed Table of Contents

Preface................................................................................................................................................xviii Acknowledgment............................................................................................................................... xxvi Chapter 1 Green Computing through Virtual Learning Environments.................................................................... 1 Rochell R. McWhorter, The University of Texas at Tyler, USA Julie A. Delello, The University of Texas at Tyler, USA As technology has quickly evolved into more sophisticated forms, it is opening the options for educators and business professionals to expand learning opportunities into virtual learning spaces. This chapter discusses a number of technology trends and practices that can promote green computing as a way for organizations and individuals to be efficient in time, currency, and resources. Three technology trends that are disrupting the status quo are Cloud computing, 3D printing, and the analytics associated with Big Data. In addition, trends that appear to be taking hold include digital badges, the Internet of things, and how we are handling recycling and e-waste of our devices. A discussion around issues of energy required for data servers to power the technology is also presented. Chapter 2 Quality Preparation of Mathematics and Science Teachers to Integrate ICT: Lessons from Learner-Centered Teacher Professional Development Approach.......................................................... 29 John Njoroge Mungai, Syracuse University, USA This chapter clearly illustrates that emphasis on preparation of teachers to integrate ICT is gaining momentum in the education sector. Arguably, underpinning this emphasis is the convergence of assertions that ICT integration has the potential to enhance the quality of teaching and learning. Nonetheless, considering that the debate about effective teaching has overtime existed between two tensions, namely learner-centered and teacher-centered approaches, the additional concern now is how best to prepare teachers to integrate ICT. It is shown in this chapter that the best teaching approach is context specific since it facilitates the teachers’ capacity to enhance student learning through quality teaching. The chapter reviews Teacher Professional Development programs in Sub-Saharan Africa and discusses what constitutes learner-centered education, ICT integration, and provides findings of a case study on preparation of science teachers using ICT.





Chapter 3 The Role of Technology in Improving Quality of Teaching in Higher Education: An International Perspective............................................................................................................................................. 54 Harriet Thindwa, Texas A&M University, USA Students are the future of any country. They are the leaders and entrepreneurs of tomorrow. If teaching quality is undermined, so is the country’s overall education system, and therefore, so is a country’s future. In this chapter, the role of technology in improving quality of teaching in higher education, which has been declining over the years internationally including in the US, is reviewed. Databases EBSCOhost and Academic Search Complete were employed in this review. Empirical studies have revealed that e-learning technologies such as Moodle improve teaching quality. Given the advancement in technology, institutions of higher learning the world over are challenged to embrace technology as a strategy to engage students and enhance learning. Chapter 4 Paradigm Shift toward Student Engagement in Technology Mediated Courses................................... 74 Melissa Roberts Becker, Tarleton State University, USA Karen McCaleb, Texas A&M University – Corpus Christi, USA Credence Baker, Tarleton State University, USA University recruitment websites continue to show students happily using technology in the higher education environment. Exactly how technology is used in the teaching and learning process continues to challenge and frustrate university instructors and students. A frequent depiction of college classrooms consists of an instructor lecturing from the front of the classroom and reprimanding students for talking to each other. In this paradigm, the professor is the “sage on the stage” and is the single transmitter of knowledge. Is this teaching and learning approach the most effective way to educate students? With recent discoveries about how students learn most optimally, and how technology can augment the process, a paradigm shift is required towards appropriate and intentional implementation of technology tools for engaging students to use higher-order thinking skills. This chapter explores the use and application of free digital tools that both improve and in turn enhance the learning process. Chapter 5 Keeping It Social: Transforming Workplace Learning and Development through Social Media......... 93 Helen M. Muyia, Texas A&M University, USA Fredrick Muyia Nafukho, Texas A&M University, USA The rapid change and competition in the business world is fundamentally challenging the workplace. Consequently, organizations have begun to adopt a continuous learning philosophy which has resulted in a rise in both formal and informal learning. As social media penetrates our everyday lives, organizations and human resource development professionals are looking at how to leverage social media tools to enhance workplace learning and development. Using such tools also fits in with current initiatives to move learning to a more employee-centered learning. This chapter explores a number of social media tools that can be used to enhance workplace learning and development. First, social media definitions in the workplace context are provided and discussed. This is followed by a discussion on challenges associated with the use of social media for workplace learning and development. A framework of social media effectiveness, grounded in the learning and training processes, is propsed in the chapter.



Chapter 6 Video Lectures in eLearning................................................................................................................ 115 Norma I. Scagnoli, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA Anne McKinney, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA Jill Moore-Reynen, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA Video presentations, also referred to as mini-lectures, micro-lectures, or simply video lectures, are becoming more prominent among the strategies used in hybrid or fully online teaching. Either interested in imitating a Khan Academy style of presenting content or responding to other pedagogical or administrative needs, there are more instructors now considering the creation of short video lectures for their courses than before. This chapter examines the use of video lectures in online and hybrid courses, describes the design and application of them in graduate and undergraduate courses, and analyzes primary and secondary data results to expose strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and challenges experienced in the development and implementation of this technique. The use of short video lectures is a regular practice in MOOCs and has the potential of becoming a successful practice, especially with the expansion of new approaches such as the flipped classroom. Chapter 7 Learners’ Perception of Engagement in Online Learning................................................................... 135 Misha Chakraborty, Texas A&M University, USA The widespread popularity of online classes is evident in both professional and academic settings. Learners’ engagement and satisfaction with the online courses, especially from the learners’ perspective, are considered core to the promotion of quality learning. The voices of the present day’s “virtual generation” need to be heard. The opportunities they see and the challenges they face can be utilized in creating engaging online learning environments. This chapter discusses online class engagement strategies that work. Multiple sources including semi-structured interviews with eight participants at a Research 1 University in Southwest United States, online course documents, email exchanges, and discussion transcripts were used to collect and analyze data. The findings indicate online class engagement factors and issues that need to be considered in effective design and successful delivery of online courses. The findings can be used to help faculties and learners achieve optimum benefits from online classes. Chapter 8 A Study of Trainee Attitude and Satisfaction between E-Learning Training versus Traditional Training................................................................................................................................................ 154 Nancy Hairston, Youth Bridge, USA Fredrick Muyia Nafukho, Texas A&M University, USA The purpose of this chapter is to analyze the relationship between change in attitude toward computers and overall course satisfaction of participants. Of the 262 randomly selected participants, 64% completed the study. Data were collected using questionnaires and course satisfaction rating survey. Results of the study indicated that there was a statistically significant difference in overall course satisfaction between the e-learning group (the treatment group) and the traditional group (control group). The traditional group was more satisfied with their course than the treatment group on the general program construct and the overall course satisfaction index. Results of the t-tests indicated that overall the e-learning group liked computers more than the traditional group prior to treatment and remained with this attitude after treatment. The control group had a statistically significant change in attitude toward computers after the treatment to reflect a less favorable attitude toward computers after the treatment.



Chapter 9 The Perception of Faculty Members on Hybrid Learning: A Naturalistic Case Study....................... 178 Nahed Abdelrahman, Texas A&M University, USA Beverly J. Irby, Texas A&M University, USA In this chapter, the authors examine the perceptions of faculty using online and hybrid platforms in teaching. Hybrid/blended is a method in which faculty members use both online and face-to-face simultaneously. The study examined how faculty participants defined hybrid learning. In addition, researchers examined what the participants’ thought of hybrid and online learning as vehicles for higher education advancement as well as strategies to attract more students to higher education. The main objective of this study is developing an analytical overview of one of the learning approaches such as hybrid and its effect on the learning process in the higher education. Ten faculty members were interviewed in order to achieve this objective. The results revealed that faculty members have multiple definitions of hybrid as it is not only teaching using face-to-face and online platforms but rather it is a way both teachers and students can meet their teaching and learning needs. Chapter 10 Return on Investment: Contrary to Popular Belief, MOOCs are not Free........................................... 204 Marie A. Valentin, Texas A&M University, USA The primary purpose of this chapter is to examine the financial implications of the providers of MOOCs and to examine how and where financial gains are being felt. This chapter also examines the issues of sustainability of MOOCs. The research methods employed include a thorough review of literature published in refereed journals on MOOCs. The findings of the review of literature have revealed the profitability potential for platform providers, publishers, colleges, and universities, as well as test taking centers. Findings also reveal implications as to actual costs for student participants and benefits that may be assumed from participating in learning through MOOCs. Chapter 11 The MOOCs: Characteristics, Benefits, and Challenges to Both Industry and Higher Education...... 228 John F. LeCounte, Texas A&M University, USA Detra Johnson, Texas A&M University, USA In this chapter, the authors present the rapid rise of Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) derived from a yearning to create and make widely available materials and conditions for participatory learning and creative space dedicated to the open education. Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) were developed to provide open, meaning unrestricted, online courses without higher education cost constraints to students. This new technological platform was embraced, developed, and offered by some of the country’s leading universities and institutions including Harvard, University of Pennsylvania, Stanford, and Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Students may collaborate through strategic social media platforms such as LinkedIn, Facebook, and Twitter. Further, according to LeCounte et al. (2014), the social media partnerships have been found to offer competitive advantages in terms of low cost and tremendous visibility to both corporations and institutions of higher learning.



Chapter 12 The Place of MOOCs in Africa’s Higher Education........................................................................... 248 Stephen Odebero, Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology, Kenya In this chapter, the contentious issues of access to digital technology between the various social groups, the rich and the poor, the youth and the older generations, including rural urban livelihoods in Africa is tackled. The chapter examines the place of MOOCs in Africa’s higher education and addresses the important question of digital divide in the design and delivery of MOOCs with a special focus on Africa. Using the multi-access learning theory, it is observed that the merits of investment in MOOCs included increased GDP in Africa, increased women participation in HE, creation of cultural independence in the continent, and recruitment and marketization of African institutions of higher learning. However, for Africa to enjoy these benefits, it has to surmount such challenges as high costs of design and development of MOOCs apart from developing online learning systems contingent on her own needs, practical realities, and aspirations. Chapter 13 Influences on the Acceptance of Innovative Technologies Used in Learning Opportunities: A Theoretical Perspective........................................................................................................................ 262 Jason Moats, Texas A&M Engineering Extension Service, USA In this chapter, the author presents a theoretical framework to better understand how individuals adapt to innovative technology used to support learning opportunities. This chapter begins with an overview of literature concerning technology acceptance, specifically centered on the seminal work of Venkatesh, Morris, Davis, and Davis (2003). This is followed by a discussion of three theoretical perspectives change that include Lewin’s (1997, 1952) change model, Schein’s (1996) adaptation of Lewin’s model as it related to learning, and Roger’s (2003) diffusion of innovation. Next, the chapter includes a discussion on the concept of digital personalities as framed by Prensky (2001b) and Palfrey and Gasser (2008) and how this concept may impact technology acceptance. The chapter concludes with a discussion of how these theoretical perspectives inform our understanding of technology acceptance. Chapter 14 Frameworks and Issues for a Shared Service Approach to Technology in Higher Education............. 282 Judith Lewis, Texas A&M University, USA Yakut Gazi, Texas A&M University, USA In this chapter, the authors present the multiple frameworks and issues attendant to the shared service approach of leveraging information technology in higher education. The shared services model has been implemented in the business sector for many years, and government and higher education have more recently looked to that model in response to leaner budgets and more intense scrutiny of expenditures. The authors review current research on shared service design and discuss the shared service paradigm utilizing the frameworks of organizational structure and knowledge capital, change management, disruptive innovation theory, competitive advantage, leadership, and governance in a shared service context. Factors for successful shared service implementations are discussed and future directions are proposed.



Chapter 15 Toward An Effective Virtual Learning Environment: From a Social Presence Perspective................ 303 Marie A. Valentin, Texas A&M University, USA Helen M. Muyia, Texas A&M University, USA Junhee Kim, Texas A&M University, USA Celestino Valentin, Texas A&M University, USA In this chapter, the authors present an Effective Virtual Learning Model and answer the research questions, What is the perception of social presence on virtual learning? What role does social presence play in student engagement in virtual learning? and, What are the social presence factors influencing the effective learning environment? The method used to answer the pending research questions was the integrative literature review utilizing a six-step format. Authors conducted a literature review search utilizing the descriptors of virtual learning and social presence. From there articles were identified, selected, and synthesized according to the research questions. This research was informed by the Community of Inquiry Framework as the theoretical foundation from which the results were concluded. Based on results of emerging themes, the authors present the Effective Virtual Learning Model as a foundational basis for theory, research, and more importantly, practice. Chapter 16 Integrated Multi-Agent-Based eLearning System as a Strategy to Promote Access to Higher Education in Africa.............................................................................................................................. 322 Geoffrey Nafukho Omulayi, Kenya School of Government, Kenya Peter Barasa Wawire, Kenya School of Government, Kenya In this chapter, the authors present the integrated multi-agent-based eLearning system as a strategy to promote access to higher education in Africa. The integrated multi-agent eLearning system breaks through the traditional barriers of time, location, and the cost of delivering educational content. The power of the Internet in an educational context has always been that it simplifies access to content and contact with the experts. An agent-oriented methodology is used in this chapter to demonstrate how multi-agents can help to design an eLearning system. This integrated multi-agent-based eLearning system brings in merits of portability, convenience, collaboration, instant response, and multi-literacies, and provides solutions in cases where expertise is distributed all over Africa. Given the rising population in Africa and scarcity of qualified professors in higher education, the best strategy is to implement the designed eLearning system to help support the learning processes in higher education institutions. Chapter 17 Informal Individual Learning via Virtual Professional Development: A Proposal for Massive Open Online Professional Informal Individual Learning (MOOPIL)................................................. 343 Beverly J. Irby, Texas A&M University, USA Kara L. Sutton-Jones, Texas A&M University, USA Rafael Lara-Alecio, Texas A&M University, USA Fuhui Tong, Texas A&M University, USA This chapter incudes a discussion of general professional development and online professional development and professional learning. In particular, the authors present information on virtual professional learning from a U.S. federally-funded Investing in Innovation (i3) grant, English Language and Literacy Acquisition – Validation (ELLA-V). The grant term used is ELLA-Virsity. The overarching concept for ELLA-Virsity is proposed, and that is massive open online informal individual learning (MOOPIL).



Chapter 18 Asynchronicity, Access, and Attainment: Best Practices of an Adult Degree Completion Program.. 356 Mathew J. Bergman, University of Louisville, USA Kevin J. Rose, University of Louisville, USA Meera Alagaraja, University of Louisville, USA In this chapter, the authors share specific ways in which the Organizational Leadership and Learning Program provides excellence in access, cost effectiveness, learning effectiveness, and faculty and student satisfaction. The program is designed to meet the needs of adult learners with some college but no degree and incorporates the use of asynchronous content delivery and faculty-student interaction. The exposure to course content via an online platform, interaction with students and faculty online, and the development of a learning community at a distance equips students not only with content knowledge, but also with technical prowess that is necessary in a technology-based workplace. Despite the relative ease of access and clear benefits of higher education, challenges still exist with educating an adult population. Therefore, it is essential that more adult friendly practices become integrated into the fabric of traditional four-year colleges and universities. Chapter 19 MOOCs Global Digital Divide: Reality or Myth?............................................................................... 376 Celestino Valentin, Texas A&M University, USA The purpose of this chapter is to help address the question of global digital divide and provide the readers with scholarly information to help them reach their own conclusions, and to answer the question, “Is there really a MOOC global digital divide or is it just a myth?” The methods used included a critical review of the literature and a non-traditional open approach to research, which included utilization of websites, blogs, MOOCs website articles, peer-reviewed scholarly journals, books, and platform website information. Findings include total number of MOOCs users, platform providers, and the countries involved with learning using MOOCs. Chapter 20 Re-Imagining and Re-Structuring Scholarship, Teaching, and Learning in Digital Environments.... 398 Melissa Layne, American Public University System, USA Phil Ice, American Public University System, USA This chapter explores how digital scholarship, teaching, and learning is dramatically changing the educational landscape. New pedagogies are being reimagined and restructured in ways never before conceptualized. Despite the need to transform current models of scholarship, scholars and publishers have been sluggish to do so. The review of literature sheds light upon this hesitation, revealing two themes: 1) the lack of incentives for moving scholarship beyond the traditional criteria for promotion and tenure and 2) lack of technical skills to create digital works. The remainder of the chapter explores these themes further by highlighting topics including the democratization of digital publication, paradigmatic shifts, and digital spaces. Contemporary and future pathways are proposed in accessibility, following magazine publishers’ lead for digitizing scholarship and including analytics in publication. The conclusion reiterates that although new communication methods will yield new methods of society’s organization, the essence of scholarship will remain constant, academics will continue to converse, address problems with evidence, and disseminate findings.



Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 419 About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 463 Index.................................................................................................................................................... 476

xviii

Preface

The Handbook of Research on Innovative Technology Integration in Higher Education aims at providing research on the impact of information and communication technology on education and training from a scholar-practitioner perspective. All aspects of how technology is profoundly transforming education, training, and learning, including social media, e-learning, Massive Open Online Learning (MOOCS), Massive Open Online Professional informal Learning Communities (MOOPLs), Targeted Open Online Learning (TOOCs), theories, research, and practice undergirding the use of technology to engage learners and promote learning are examined. The handbook provides educators, educational leaders, corporate leaders, trainers, students, schools, parents, government agencies, for profit and non-profit organizations, universities, policymakers, regional, national and international organizations with cutting edge research on how Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is impacting education and training world over. It is a truism that the integrated world characterized by globalization and the use of the Internet by countries world over is being driven by Ideas, Knowledge, and Technology (IKT). A country’s or an institution’s capacity to take advantage of the knowledge economy depends on how quickly it can adjust its capacity to generate and share knowledge (World Bank, 2002). Developments in technology have an extraordinary potential for transforming education to meet the growing need for customized, self-paced, and on-demand learning. “These include the convergence of computing, communication, and document management technologies and the pervasiveness of computer networks – the Internet in particular” (Hamalainen, Whinston, & Vishik, 1996, p. 284). As illustrated in this handbook, advances in technology have led to a paradigm shift in the instructional processes. The use of online instruction, and now MOOCs, especially, has made educational opportunities accessible to learners who in the past lacked opportunities due to factors such as work, geographical distance, time, family responsibilities, and lack of money (Chun & Hinton, 2001; Nafukho, Thompson, & Brooks, 2004). Computer-related course instruction has made a significant impact on the provision of instruction and student learning (Piotrowski & Vidanovich, 2000). Existing evidence shows that the use of information technology in the instruction process is spreading faster than any other form of curricula change (Gilbert, 1997). To fully comprehend the impact of ICT on education and technology research at international level is needed, hence the importance of this book. The handbook includes pertinent research from an international perspective on the impact of Information and Communication Technology on Education and Training. The contributors of the book chapters include individuals actively involved in teaching, researching and using of technology for research, formal, and informal learning. The chapters are based on empirical data, including review of relevant literature. The contributors of the handbook recognize that the use of technology in formal, informal, non-formal, and workplace learning is more than just a passing cloud and therefore requires attention from the research community.

 

Preface

This handbook is divided into 20 thematic chapters. In the first chapter, Rochell R. McWhorter and Julie A. Delello examine the important issue of green computing. They observe that as technology has quickly evolved into more sophisticated forms, it is opening the options for educators and business professionals to expand learning opportunities into virtual learning spaces. In addition, the authors discuss a number of technology trends and practices that can promote green computing, as a way for organizations and individuals to be efficient in time, currency, and resources. The authors identify three technology trends that are disrupting the status quo including: cloud computing, 3D printing and the analytics associated with Big Data. Trends that appear to be taking hold include digital badges, the Internet of things, and how we are handling recycling and e-waste of our electronic devices. A discussion around issues of energy required for data servers to power the technology is also presented in this beginning chapter. In the second chapter entitled, “Quality Preparation of Mathematics and Science Teachers to Integrate ICT: Lessons from Learner-Centered Teacher Professional Development Approach,” John Njoroge Mungai points out the emphasis of preparation of teachers to integrate ICT is gaining momentum in the education sector. He argues that underpinning this emphasis is the convergence of assertions that ICT integration has the potential to enhance the quality of teaching and learning. Nonetheless, considering that debate about effective teaching has overtime existed between two tensions, namely learner-centered and teacher-centered approaches, the additional concern now is how best to prepare teachers to integrate ICT. Mungai notes further that the best approach is context specific and facilitates teachers’ capacity to enhance student learning through quality teaching. By reviewing Teacher Professional Development concerns in Sub-Saharan Africa, what constitutes learner-centered education about ICT integration, and depicting a case study research at ACADEMIA University in East African region about preparation of teacher educators to integrate ICT, this author advances a case about how to prepare mathematics and science teachers to integrate ICT. The third chapter in this handbook is focused on the role of technology in improving quality of teaching in higher education from an international perspective. In this chapter, Harriet Thindwa starts from the premise that students are the future of any country. They are the leaders and entrepreneurs of tomorrow. According to Thindwa, if teaching quality is undermined, so is the country’s overall education system and therefore, so is a country’s future. Improving quality of higher education teaching implies that students graduating from these institutions will be prepared and able to compete in the job market at a national as well as global level. Quality teaching means students passing exams set by their teachers; it means receiving quality instructional material that they can use as reference in their future jobs, and it means finding quality jobs following graduation. These are also aspects that parents, who take up most of the burden of paying tuition and fees, hope for out of the academic institutions. Given the advancement in technology, institutions of higher learning world over are challenged to embrace technology as a strategy to engage students and enhance learning. In the fourth chapter, Melissa Becker, Karen McCaleb, and Credence Baker share the use and application of free digital tools that both improve and in turn enhance the learning process in the university arena. The basic rules of student engagement are addressed and application of instructional technology applied in a best practice environment. Online and hybrid learning venues of learning are explored in the chapter with specific examples of technology application across university content areas. They observe that university recruitment websites continue to show students happily using technology in the higher education environment. They also point out that exactly how technology is used in the teaching and learning process continues to challenge and frustrate university instructors and students. A frequent depiction of college classrooms consists of an instructor lecturing from the front of the classroom and xix

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reprimanding students for talking to each other. In this paradigm, the professor is the sage on the stage and is the single transmitter of knowledge. They question whether this teaching and learning approach is the most effective way to educate students especially in in this technology dominated world. With recent discoveries about how students learn most optimally, and how technology can augment the process, a paradigm shift is required towards appropriate and intentional implementation of technology tools for engaging students to use higher-order thinking skills. Helen Muyia and Fredrick Nafukho in Chapter 5, titled, “Keeping it Social: Transforming Workplace Learning and Development through Social Media,” note that the world is not changing, or will change, but has changed, and this change and competition in the business world today is fundamentally challenging everything about the workplace. Consequently, organizations have begun to adopt a continuous learning philosophy which has resulted in a rise in both formal and informal learning. They point out that as social media penetrates our everyday lives, organizations, educators and by extension human resource development professionals are looking at how to leverage social media tools to enhance workplace learning and development. Using such tools also fits in with current initiatives to move learning to a more employee-centered learning. The authors define social media and explores a number of social media tools that can be used to enhance workplace learning and development. Also identified in the chapter are a number of challenges associated with the use of social media for workplace learning and development. Muyia and Nafukho propose a social media-based workplace learning development framework aimed at promoting effective learning through of social media. Norma Scagnoli, Anne McKinney, and Jill Moore-Reynen examine the important issue of Video Lectures in eLearning. It is noted in the chapter that video presentations, also referred to as mini-lectures, micro-lectures, or simply video lectures, are becoming more prominent among the strategies used in hybrid or fully online teaching. It is pointed out in this chapter that either interested in imitating a Khan Academy style of presenting content, or responding to other pedagogical or administrative needs, there are more instructors now considering the creation of short video lectures for their courses than before. The authors describe the design and application of mini-lectures in graduate and undergraduate courses, and expands on strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and challenges experienced in the development and implementation of this technique. The use of short video-lectures is a regular practice in MOOCs and has the potential of becoming a successful practice especially with the expansion of new approaches such as the flipped classroom. In the seventh chapter, entitled “Learners’ Perception of Engagement in Online Learning,” Misha Chakraborty observes that while there is widespread popularity of online classes in both professional and academic settings, disengagement of learners is identified as a prevalent issue in online environment. Learners’ engagement and satisfaction with the online courses especially from the learners’ perspective are considered core to the promotion of quality learning. It is noted in the chapter that the voices of the present day’s “virtual generation” need to be heard. The opportunities they see, and the challenges they face can be utilized in creating engaging online learning environments. The authors explore aspects of online class engagement strategies through the findings of a study that considers learners’ perspectives in an online class. Multiple sources including semi-structured interviews with eight participants at a Research 1 University in Southwest, United States. Online course documents, email exchanges and discussion transcripts were used to collect and analyze data. The findings indicated online class engagement factors and issues that need to be considered in effective design and successful delivery of online courses. The findings can be used to help faculties and learners achieve optimum benefits from online classes.

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In the eighth chapter by Nancy Hairston and Fredrick Nafukho, entitled “A Study of Trainee Attitude and Satisfaction between E-Learning Training versus Traditional Training,” the authors examine the relationship between change in attitude toward computers and overall course satisfaction of participants’ from six mid-western industries in the United States. Of the 262 randomly selected participants, 168 (64%) completed the study. Data collection instruments included: the Barsch Learning Style Inventory, Attitudes toward Computers questionnaire, and end-of-course satisfaction rating survey. Results of the paired samples t-test indicated that there was a statistically significant difference in overall course satisfaction between the e-learning group (the treatment group) and the traditional group (control group). The traditional group was more satisfied with their course than the treatment group on the general program construct and the overall course satisfaction index. Results of the t-tests indicated that overall, the e-learning group liked computers more than the traditional group prior to treatment, and remained with this attitude after treatment. The control group had a statistically significant change in attitude toward computers after the treatment to reflect a less favorable attitude toward computers after the treatment. No statistically significant difference in change of attitude was found between both groups. Results of the regression model were not statistically significant for the dependent variable, change in attitude toward computers. The variable auditory learning was statistically significant at the .05 level. The results of the regression model for participants’ overall course satisfaction were statistically significant at .05 level. In the ninth chapter, Nahed Abdelrahman and Beverly J. Irby examine the “Perception of Faculty Members on Hybrid Learning: A Naturalistic Case Study” from the College of Education and Human Development at Texas A&M University. In this chapter, hybrid/blended learning is a method with which faculty members use both online and face-to-face teaching techniques simultaneously. The authors examined how faculty participants defined hybrid learning. In addition the participants’ thought of hybrid and online learning as vehicles for higher education advancement as well as strategies to attract more students to higher education. The main objective of this study was to develop an analytical overview of one of the learning approaches such as hybrid teaching and its effect on learning processes in the higher education. Ten professors were interviewed in order to achieve this objective. Through in depth interviews, the researchers sought perceptions of faculty regarding the definition of hybrid teaching, the difference between learning approaches with which higher education has been influenced, the opportunities and challenges with which the faculty practice while teaching using the hybrid method. The results of the study revealed that faculty members had multiple definitions of hybrid teaching as it was not only teaching using face-to-face and online platforms but rather it is a way both teachers and students could meet their needs in teaching and learning. In the tenth chapter, “Return on Investment: Contrary to Popular Belief, MOOCs are not Free,” Marie Valentin presents information on the financial implications of the providers of MOOCs. Valentin also examines the issues of sustainability of Massive Open Online Courses. The research methods employed include a thorough review of literature published in refereed journals on MOOCs. The findings of the review of literature revealed the profitability potential for platform providers, publishers, colleges and universities, as well as test taking centers. Findings also revealed implications as to actual costs for student participants and benefits that may be assumed from participating in learning through MOOCs. In the eleventh chapter, John LeCounte and Detra Johnson discuss the characteristics, benefits, and challenges of offering MOOCs. In this chapter, the rapid rise of Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) derive from a yearning to create and make widely available materials and conditions for participatory learning, and creative space dedicated to the open education. MOOCs. As noted in the chapter, MOOCs were initially developed to provide open, meaning unrestricted online courses without higher education xxi

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cost constraints to students. This new-technological platform was embraced, developed, and offered by some of the country’s leading universities and institutions including Harvard, University of Pennsylvania, Stanford, and Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). LeCounte and Johnson observe that collaboration through strategic social media platforms such as LinkedIn, Facebook, and Twitter is utilized in MOOCs. In addition, the social media partnerships have been found to offer competitive advantages in terms of low cost and tremendous visibility to both corporations and institutions of higher learning offering MOOCs. Steven Odebero, in the twelfth chapter, entitled “The Place of MOOCs in Africa’s Higher Education,” critically examines whether MOOCs would bridge the contentious issues of access to digital technology between the various social groups, the rich and the poor, the youth and the older generations including rural and urban livelihoods in Africa. The author sought to answer a central research question: What is the place of MOOCs in Africa’s higher education? A four-tier typology of MOOCs is advanced in the chapter. Underdeveloped MOOCs are presented in Low-Low Quadrant (LL), Unequal Technology MOOCs (HH), Elitist MOOCs (LH) and Accessible MOOCs (HL). The author discusses in detail the fourth typology of MOOCs with high level of development of MOOCs but with lower digital divide, which would make it accessible for thousands of students in Africa to access MOOCs. Africa was found to be lagging behind in the development of MOOCs in the world with no single MOOCs provider in the continent. The merits of investment in MOOCS included increased Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in Africa, increased women participation in education, creation of cultural independence in the continent and recruitment and marketization of African institutions of higher learning. It is noted that for Africa to enjoy these benefits, it has to surmount such challenges as high costs of design and development of MOOCS. The chapter concludes that Africa must develop her own online learning systems contingent on her own needs, practical realities and aspirations. The thirteenth chapter, written by Jason Moats, is entitled “Influences on the Acceptance of Innovative Technologies Used in Learning Opportunities: A Theoretical Perspective.” Moats presents a theoretical framework to better understand how individuals adapt to innovative technology used to support learning opportunities. The author discusses issues pertaining to technology acceptance, theoretical perspectives of change, and adaptation of technology for learning. The concept of digital personalities and how this concept may impact technology acceptance is revisited in the chapter. In the fourteenth chapter, entitled “Frameworks and Issues for a Shared Service Approach to Technology in Higher Education,” Judith Lewis and Yakut Gazi present the multiple frameworks and issues attendant to the shared service approach of leveraging information technology in higher education. They note in the chapter that the shared services model has been implemented in the business sector for many years, and government and higher education have more recently looked to that model in response to leaner budgets and more intense scrutiny of expenditures. Current research on shared service design is presented discussed. The shared service paradigm utilizing the frameworks of organizational structure and knowledge capital, change management, disruptive innovation theory, competitive advantage, leadership, and governance in a shared service context are discussed in the chapter. In the fifteenth chapter, entitled “Toward An Effective Virtual Learning Environment: From a Social Presence Perspective,” Marie A. Valentin, Helen Muyia, Junhee Kim, and Celestino Valentin present an effective virtual learning model and seek to answer the research questions, What is the perception of social presence on virtual learning? What role does social presence play in student engagement in virtual learning? and, What are the social presence factors influencing the effective learning environment? The authors utilized integrative literature review technique to answer the research questions and found the xxii

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following emerging themes which are important to the field of online teaching: social presence and its effect on student engagement, components and indicators of social presence, establishing social presence, current state of student engagement in virtual learning environments, effective virtual learning environment components and influencing social presence in an effective virtual learning environment. Based on these emerging themes, the authors present an Effective Virtual Learning Model as a foundational basis for theory, research and more importantly, for practice. In the sixteenth chapter, entitled “Integrated Multi-Agent-Based eLearning System as a Strategy to Promote Access to Higher Education in Africa,” Geoffrey N. Omulayi and Peter Barasa Wawire present the integrated multi-agent based eLearning system as strategy to promote access to higher education in Africa. The authors note that integrated multi-agent-based eLearning system breaks through the traditional barriers of time, location, and the cost of delivering educational content. In addition, they observe that the power of the Internet in an educational context has always been that it simplifies access to content and also contact with the experts for further clarification on that content. The authors use an agent-oriented methodology to demonstrate how multi-agents can be used to design an eLearning system. This integrated multi-agent based eLearning system brings in merits of portability, convenience, collaborative, instant response and multi-literacy’s and provides solutions in cases where expertise is distributed all over Africa. The authors recommend that with the rising population of Africa and scarcity of qualified professors in higher education, the best strategy is to implement the eLearning system to help support the learning processes in higher education institutions based in Africa. In the seventeenth chapter, Beverly Irby, Kara Sutton, Rafael Lara-Alecio, and Fuhui Tong present information on professional development that is virtual. They share a review of research that has been conducted on general virtual professional development for teachers. They propose a new concept which they have been working with in a macro federal grant which is for individual professional learning. The concept is specifically for teachers of English language learners, but can be broadened to individual professional learning for all teachers or teacher education students. The broad concept is termed by the developers of the grant, Massive Open Online Professional Individual Learning (MOOPIL). Mathew J. Berman, Kevin J. Rose, and Meera Alagaraja examine issues pertaining to asynchronicity, access, and attainment and the best practices of an adult degree completion program for the eighteenth chapter. The authors share the specific ways in which the Organizational Leadership and Learning Program provides excellence in access, cost effectiveness, learning effectiveness, and faculty and student satisfaction. The program is designed to meet the needs of adult learners with some college, but no degree and incorporates the use of asynchronous content delivery and faculty-student interaction. The main features of the program such as the exposure to course content via an online platform, interaction with students and faculty online, and the development of a learning community at a distance and how it equips students not only with content knowledge, but also with technical prowess that is necessary in a technology-based workplace are discussed. It is argued in the chapter that despite the relative ease of access and clear benefits of higher education, challenges still exist with educating an adult population. The authors correctly note that it is essential that more adult friendly practices (prior learning assessment, convenient course options, and evening and online student support) become integrated into the fabric of traditional four-year colleges and universities. If programs are able to manage the demands of students that identify as worker, spouse or partner, parent, caregiver, and community member with timely and informed feedback and guidance, higher levels of student persistence is sure to follow.

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Celestino Valentin examines the issue of Massive Open Online Courses and the global digital divide for the nineteenth chapter. The purpose of this chapter is to help address the question of global digital divide and provide the readers with scholarly information to help them reach their own conclusions, and answer to the question, Is there really a MOOC global digital divide gap or is it just a myth? The method used included a critical review of the literature and a non-traditional open approach to research which included utilization of websites, blogs, MOOCs website articles, peer reviewed scholarly journals, books and platform website information. Findings include total number of MOOC users, platform providers, and countries involved. In Chapter 20, Melissa Layne and Phil Ice explore how digital scholarship, teaching, and learning is dramatically changing the educational landscape. They correctly observe that new pedagogies and philosophies in the area of digital publishing vis-à-vis technological advancements are being examined through a different lens – one in which obliges scholars to reimagine and restructure scholarship in ways never before conceptualized. Layne and Ice point out that despite the expeditious need to transform current traditional models of scholarship, scholars and publishers alike have been surprisingly sluggish to do so, hence the need for innovations in integrating technology into higher education. The authors suggest contemporary and future pathways for change in the areas of accessibility, the need for academe to follow magazine publishers’ lead for reimagining the digitization of scholarly work, and to include analytics in publication. In their conclusions, they reiterate that although new methods of communication will yield new methods of how our society is organized, the essence of scholarship with what remains constant is that academics will continue to converse, address a problem with supporting evidence, and disseminate findings to others. Digital scholarship must support all of these tasks if it is to merge or even replace traditional scholarship and adhere to the mission of education alongside present-day opportunities. Frederick Muyia Nafukho Texas A&M University, USA Beverly J. Irby Texas A&M University, USA

REFERENCES Chun, H., & Hinton, B. (2001). Factors affecting student completion in distance learning mediated HRD baccalaureate program. In AliagaO. A. (Ed.), Proceedings of the Academy of Human Resource Development (pp. 85–992). Baton Rouge, LA: AHRD. Gilbert, S. W. (1997). Re-focus on learning and teaching: Educational uses of information technology for everyone. The Technology Source. Retreived from http://ts.mivu.org Hamalainen, M., Whinston, A. B., & Vishik, S. (1996). Electronic markets for learning: Education brokerage on the Internet. Communications of the ACN, 39(6), 51–58. doi:10.1145/228503.228513 Nafukho, F. M., & Muyia, H. M. (2013). The World Bank’s Africa virtual university project: A revisit. European Journal of Training and Development, 37(7), 646–661. doi:10.1108/EJTD-02-2013-0020

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Nafukho, F. M., & Park, O. D. (2004). Essential tips for planning and development of online courses. In D. Christopher & S. Jaderstrom (Eds.), E-world: Virtual learning, collaborative environments, and future technologies (pp. 209–222). Reston, VA: National Business Education Association. Nafukho, F. M., Thompson, D. E., & Brooks, K. (2004). Factors predicting success in a distance learning nontraditional undergraduate degree program. International Journal of Vocational Education and Training, 12(2), 82–95. Piotrowski, C., & Vodanovich, S. J. (2000). Are the reported barriers to Internet-based instruction warranted? A synthesis to of recent research. Education, 121, 48–53. World Bank. (2002). Constructing knowledge societies: New challenges for tertiary education. Washington, DC: World Bank.

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Acknowledgment

The editors of this book are indebted to numerous distinguished individuals and organizations who worked together collaboratively to make the writing and final production of this book a reality. We acknowledge the strong contributions of the authors, who bring forth current and critical issues related to integrating technology innovations into higher education. We also acknowledge the professional scholars who provided blind peer-review reports. We are indebted to them for their insightful feedback that helped strengthen the book chapters. Frederick Muyia Nafukho Texas A&M University, USA Beverly J. Irby Texas A&M University, USA

 

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Chapter 1

Green Computing through Virtual Learning Environments Rochell R. McWhorter The University of Texas at Tyler, USA Julie A. Delello The University of Texas at Tyler, USA

ABSTRACT As technology has quickly evolved into more sophisticated forms, it is opening the options for educators and business professionals to expand learning opportunities into virtual learning spaces. This chapter discusses a number of technology trends and practices that can promote green computing as a way for organizations and individuals to be efficient in time, currency, and resources. Three technology trends that are disrupting the status quo are Cloud computing, 3D printing, and the analytics associated with Big Data. In addition, trends that appear to be taking hold include digital badges, the Internet of things, and how we are handling recycling and e-waste of our devices. A discussion around issues of energy required for data servers to power the technology is also presented.

INTRODUCTION Virtual learning is evident in many initiatives in both higher education and also in the modern workplace. For instance, virtual teams are often used as a teaching tool in online college courses to enhance students’ engagement with course material, self-awareness, teamwork, self-discovery, or empathy (Grinnell, Sauers, Appunn & Mack, 2012; Loh & Smyth, 2010; Palloff & Pratt, 2013; Ubell, 2011). Likewise, organizations are also utilizing

virtual teams for learning and for the completion of work tasks (Nafukho, Graham, & Muyia, 2010). Virtual teams have become even more critical in organizations due to rising fuel costs and costly commercial office spaces (Bullock & Klein, 2011). Virtual learning has increased in direct proportion to the growing sophistication of information and communication technology (ICT) and is permeating and blurring our personal and professional lives (McWhorter, 2010; Thomas, 2014).

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-8170-5.ch001

Copyright © 2015, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

 Green Computing through Virtual Learning Environments

BACKGROUND As virtual learning has come of age, green computing has been posited as a way for organizations and individuals to be efficient in time, currency and resources. Childs (2008) defined green computing as the “study and practice of using computing resources efficiently” (p. 1) that includes the lifecycle of technology: the design, manufacture, use, and disposal of computer hardware and software (Lo & Qian, 2010). In this chapter, the authors will focus on how existing technologies can be utilized efficiently in higher education and within industry to shrink travel time and cost, improve efficiency, and lessen environmental impact. The following sections of this chapter will highlight various examples of green computing initiatives in higher education and the workplace that are making a real difference in lowering costs and increasing efficiency. Discussions include the use of cloud computing, mobile devices, digital badge technologies, real-time group meetings (RTGMs), and virtual and blended professional conferences. Each will be examined both for their potential for green computing as defined previously.

Cloud Computing Across both education and industry, one emergent application changing the computer industry is the use of cloud technology. In a recent issue of Forbes, Satell (2014) remarked: The cloud is now disrupting every industry it touches. The world’s most advanced technologies are not only available to large enterprises who can afford to maintain an expensive IT staff, but can be accessed by anybody with an internet connection. That’s a real game changer (para. 19). Cloud computing is defined by the National Institute of Standards and Technology as “a model

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for enabling ubiquitous, convenient, on-demand network access to a shared pool of configurable computing resources (e.g., networks, servers, storage, applications, and services) that can be rapidly provisioned and released with minimal management effort or service provider interaction” (Brown, 2011, para. 3). Essentially, cloud computing is the storage and access of data (i.e. documents, presentations, photos) over the Internet (see Figure 1). There are numerous examples of cloud applications available on the Web, each offering different storage volumes at variable costs. See Table 1 for a comparison of five of the most popular and inexpensive cloud applications.

Cloud-Based Universities Across universities, cloud computing is being introduced to faculty, students, and staff as a means to supplement or even replace traditional resources. In 2012, over 6.7 million students were enrolled in at least one online course (Allen & Seaman, 2013). In fact, the Babson Survey Group reported that online enrollments have increased more rapidly than overall higher education enrollments (Allen & Seaman, 2010). Part of the reason for this progression is the growing diversity of the U.S. population and greater demand for courses that provide greater flexibility, affordability, and the added convenience to students. Also, with fluctuations in the economy and an uncertain job market, a considerable number of students are pursuing online degrees for reasons of employment (Clinefelter & Aslanian, 2014). The low cost, flexibility in use, and global accessibility makes cloud technology a suitable contender to level the playing field in education. For example, in December 2013, as part of a social experiment, Sugata Mitra created the first School in the Cloud lab allowing children, “no matter how rich or poor” the opportunity to “engage and connect with information and mentoring online”

 Green Computing through Virtual Learning Environments

Figure 1. ”Cloud applications” by Benajmin P. Griner and Philip J. Butler

Licensed under Creative Commons Zero, Public Domain Dedication via Wikimedia Commons at http://commons.wikimedia. org/wiki/File:Cloud_applications.jpg#mediaviewer/File:Cloud_applications.jpg

(Mitra, 2014, para. 1). Also, the Cloud is being utilized as a means to provide online curriculum and educational resources across the world at no cost. For instance, through the Google Cloud Platform, the Kahn Academy has the ability to host over 2000 online videos, support 3.8 million unique visits each month, and answer 1.5 million practice questions each school day (Google, 2011). Across the world, students and faculty utilize the cloud to upload and share videos and images, which would normally be too large to send through a learning management system (LMS) or over email. In addition, digital games are being harnessed for game-based learning into teaching and learning over the Cloud. One example includes the World of Warcraft (WoW), a massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG) that is being used in middle and high schools to promote learning (Shane, 2012). One advocate for the use of WoW in school settings is Peggy Sheehy who has been

adapting the game for use with middle school humanities students (See: http://goo.gl/b3rxFW). According to Gerber (2012), the future of gaming may soon be embedded into massively open online courses (MOOCs) where over 100,000 students are now enrolled in an online community of learning. In addition, cloud platforms are also enabling faculty members and students the ability to share research with other researchers globally. According to Farnam Jahanian, Assistant Director of the National Science Foundation (NSF) Directorate for Computer and Information Science and Engineering, “Cloud computing represents a new generation of technology in this new era of science, one of data-driven exploration… It creates precedent-setting opportunities for discovery” (NSF, 2011, para. 5). One such example is an innovative Global Factory program, which continues to bring together students from different universities and time zones to rethink sustainable innovations such as automobile factories and

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 Green Computing through Virtual Learning Environments

Table 1. Comparison of various cloud computing platforms Name

URL

Benefits/Disadvantages

Amazon Cloud Drive

www.amazon.com

5GB of free Web storage space. Using a Kindle fire, phone, or tablet, users may upload photos, personal videos, and documents. Also, the Amazon Cloud provides the user with the ability to play a wide-range of music. However, one benefit that is missing is that Amazon built the cloud primarily as a storage device and it lacks the added benefit of sharing or collaborating on documents.

Apple iCloud

https://www.apple.com/icloud/

5GB of storage; works with the iPhone, iPad, iPod touch, Mac, or personal computer (PC). A more sophisticated cloud than the Amazon cloud, the iCloud can not only store documents but also allow the user to access the same file across multiple devices and applications. For example, up to six family members can share photos or purchases from iTunes, iBooks, and applications from the App Store.

Google Drive

www.drive.google.com

Allows the user up to 15GB of storage to create new documents, spreadsheets, and presentations. In addition, the documents can be shared and collaborated in real time with others. All changes are saved automatically in Drive and documents are stored instantly as PDFs. One unique feature of Drive is that files can also be made available for viewing offline

Microsoft Dropbox

www.dropbox.com

Has become a prevalent storage application across the world. According to Microsoft, as of November 2013, there were 300 million individual users and 4 million businesses using Dropbox. In addition, the service is available in 19 languages across 200 countries (Hong, 2014). Dropbox allows users to share files with anyone through a URL link. Dropbox gives users 2GB free (up to 16GB with referrals).

Microsoft OneDrive

https://onedrive.live.com

Delivers users 7GB of storage on any device (e.g. Windows, Mac, iOS, Windows phone, Android, Xbox). OneDrive also allows for the joint creation, collaboration, and editing across documents and folders. For businesses, Office Online or Office client apps enable real-time collaboration and secure file sharing. Up to 25 GB in storage is minimal at $2.50 per user per month.

digital farming. According to Pierre Chevrier, Director of Ecole Nationale d’Ingénieurs de Metz, “Social, cloud-based collaboration was a key reason the Global Factory program over-achieved its goal…In a dispersed environment, like ones real life engineers experience every day, social networking technologies are mandatory for successful innovation” (Green Technology World, 2014, para. 5).

A Greener Education with Cloud Technology According to Newton (2010), cloud computing is the most energy-efficient method we have to address the ever-accelerating demand for computation and data storage. The proliferation of cloud computing promises cost savings in technology

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infrastructure and faster software upgrades (Liu, Tong, Mao, Bohn, Messina, Badger, & Leaf, 2011). Amazon (2014) proposed that cloud technology will reduce overall information technology (IT) costs in that both infrastructure and labor costs are reduced. Schools are seeking opportunities to reduce their “carbon footprint” as they seek greener technologies (iLink, 2007). Ng (2010) reported that clouds could help universities reduce costs by 74%. For instance, The University of Nebraska’s Chief Information Officer Walter Weir found that moving email to the cloud resulted in a faster and less expensive system (Goulart, 2012). There are additional environmental benefits to utilizing cloud technologies. Utilizing the cloud is a factor in greener computing, as it has been found to reduce energy, lower carbon emissions, and

 Green Computing through Virtual Learning Environments

decrease IT. Working in collaboration, researchers at Microsoft, Accenture, and WSP Environment & Energy estimated that for U.S. companies, cloud technologies can reduce carbon emissions from 30 to 90% (Accenture, 2010). A virtual education through cloud platforms reduces costs to both students and the environment including the added expense of travel (e.g. wear on vehicles, fuel), room and board fees, and the costs of food. According Western Governor’s University (WGU, 2014), dorm and food costs add at least $10,000 to $15,000 of expenditures per academic year. Also, based upon a 2008 survey, researchers at the University of Florida found that virtual courses saved public schools money in teaching, administrative, and technical expenses. The average traditional public K-12 school costs an average $9,100 per pupil where an online, virtual course averages just at $4,300 (University of Florida, 2009). Also, many older adults with children do not have the added costs of childcare to factor in (WGU, 2014). For those living in rural communities who have to often drive long distances to attend school, the reduced driving will also reduce carbon dioxide emissions. The National Wildlife Federation (NWF, 2009) reported that researchers from The Stockholm Environmental Institute and the United Kingdom’s Open University Design Innovation Group (DIG) found that distance-learning courses resulted in an 89 percent reduction in travel-related emissions compared to traditional face-to-face courses. Furthermore, the production and provision of the distance learning courses consumed nearly 90% less energy than the conventional campus-based university courses. Similarly, in a study by Campbell and Campbell (2011), distance education courses helped reduced CO2 emissions by 5-10 tons per semester.

Big Data for Education In the Age of Information, ubiquitous connectivity and the rise of cloud technology is producing vast

amounts of big data (see Figure 2). Big data is defined as “datasets whose size is beyond the ability of typical database software tools to capture, store, manage, and analyze” (Manyika, Chui, Brown, Bughin, Dobbs, Roxburgh, & Byers, 2011, p. 1). According to Ferreira (2013), education yields a tremendous volume of data, perhaps more than other industry. As education moves online, new methods for data mining are occurring in order to better understand the ways students learn. From tutoring systems to simulations and games, “opportunities to collect and analyze student data, to discover patterns and trends in those data, and to make new discoveries and test hypotheses about how students learn” are now obtainable (USDE, 2012, p. 9).

Big Data in K-12 Classrooms The U.S. Department of Education (2010) acknowledged that in order to help students succeed and improve education, student data would need to be collected, analyzed, and used to improve student outcomes. The USDOE also noted that data would play a more integral role in decision making at all levels including classroom teachers. Currently, almost all school districts have electronic student information systems which provide real-time access to student data. According to the Texas Education Agency (TEA, 2013), Texas has implemented the Texas Education Data Standards (TEDS) system to provide real-time access to student data such as attendance, demographics, test scores, grades and schedules. TEDS is composed of three primary big data storage agents: 1. The Public Education Information Management System (PEIMS) which incorporates student demographic and academic performance, personnel, financial, and organizational information. 2. The Texas Records Exchange (TREx) system that facilitates electronic transfers of student

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Figure 2. Big data. Copyright © 2014 Canva.com. Used with permission

records and transcripts to other districts or institutions of higher education. 3. The Student GPS Dashboard which identifies problems in attendance, class work, and test performance. Additionally, West (2012) reported that the use of data mining techniques allows schools to identify students who are at risk of dropping out of school. Manyika et. al (2011) suggested that by making data available on educational outcomes at primary and secondary schools, parents are able to make better decisions about where to live or in which schools to place their children. TEA (2013) noted that this system will not only save schools time and money but also provide educators with the data needed to prepare students for the future.

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Big Data in Higher Education Classrooms According to Zimpher (2014), the big data movement can build universities that are more intelligent in the way they refine their management and operations to facilitate ingenuity and innovation in higher education. By looking at patterns of information, called predictive analysis, universities can work on many of their internal processes such as improving their graduation rates by identifying those students that are at the largest risk for failure. As an example, according to Nelson (2014), The University of Texas at Austin (UT) enters every incoming student’s information such as demographics, financial need, family income, high school courses, first generation college student status, and their test scores into Dashboard (a very large dataset aggregated from UT student data from the past decade). In doing so, the university is able to identify those in the

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bottom quartile of their class and invite them into a unique program that gives the identified students the extra help and support to graduate. According to the UT website, the University Leadership Network performs “extensive holistic reviews of students who would benefit most from a small network of peers, have unmet financial need and a desire to have involvement in the community” (UT, 2014, para. 20). In the New York Times and Chronicle of Higher Education article, Big Data on Campus, Parry (2012) reported that students are leaving behind a trail of digital breadcrumbs (stored digital data) such as the websites they visit, how often they visit their university’s online learning management system (LMS) and for how long. The power of analyzing these clicks of data is that they show the students’ patterns of behavior such as turning in papers late online; missing tests, etc. which are now being harnessed on academic campuses to provide students with course suggestions based upon their academic records and social connections. Also, as the sheer amount of data proliferates across the world, the need for data analytic specialists is predicted to grow. To prepare students for the exponential increase in big data, universities are now providing specialized coursework. For example, The University of Washington (2014) offers a Big Data track specialization within their computer science and engineering PhD programs.

Big Data for Industry When harnessed, Big Data has been found to be highly effective in business and industry. For example, Forbes Insights (2013) noted that in a recent survey of business marketers, organizations that utilized Big Data to make business marketing decisions exceeded their goals 60% of the time. They did so by utilizing unique tools that ultimately engage audiences by first identifying consumer behavior in new ways and with better accuracy. Indeed, “big data shines with its numerous ways of looking at consumers—when and where they

are likely to access an impression and by what means. And that leads to efficiency that bolsters financial performance” (p. 6). Savvy business leaders have always utilized data, but now at a time when data is voluminous, those leaders who are able to analyze it into a usable form can make the most accurate business predictions and decisions (IHS, 2014). Marwick (2014) brought to light the issue of deep data mining of customer and user information. For example, Netflix, Comcast, and Amazon have capitalized on cloud technology to allow users to watch on demand television movies across a plethora of mobile devices. For companies like these, there is an added incentive of “big data” such as profiling services (e.g. demographics, viewing behavior) that would have been difficult, at best, to capture in the past (Moulding, 2014). Retailers can use personal location data to track shoppers, link data to product purchases, customer demographics, and buying patterns over time (Manyika et. al, 2011). Database marketing is “the industry of collecting, aggregating, and brokering personal data” (Marwick, 2014, para. 3) and records our actions including mobile profiles, browser cookies, and public records to get a picture of our buying habits to target our preferences.

The Internet of Things Our electronic devices are getting much smarter (Frog, 2014). Cisco reported in 2011 that there were more than 12 billion electronic devices connected to the Internet and predicted that there would be more than 50 billion by the year 2050 and referred to this phenomenon as the “Internet of Things” (IoT, Cisco, 2011, p. 2). IoT was later defined by Hess (2014) as “a system where the Internet is connected to the physical world via ubiquitous sensors” (para. 1). Microsoft (2014) remarked that the IoT is seen in “devices, sensors, cloud infrastructure, and data and business intelligence tools” (para.2). One industry example of IoT is the Henry Mayo Newhall Hospital in

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Valencia, California that created a secure single sign on for medical personnel to subsequently access medical records all day with one tap of their badge. See their video at: http://www.youtube. com/watch?v=buhhKdRnE6E#t=15 that shows how anytime, anywhere access in the hospital leaving more time for working with patients.

The Internet of Everything Recognizing IoT has numerous advantages (McWhorter, 2014b). Beyond the convenience of the interconnectedness of digital devices is the fact that IoT is about reducing waste and improving efficiency such as time and energy consumption (Morgan 2014). More specifically, IoT can create enormous benefits for systems and processes such as transportation networks, waste management, product shipments, vehicle auto-diagnosis, and detection of: traffic congestion, forest fires, air pollution levels, radiation levels, and noise levels. Most recently, IoT is evolving to have an even larger impact as it includes not only sensors and devices, but now it “brings together people (humans), process (manages the way people, data and things work together), data (rich information) and things (inanimate objects and devices) to make networked connections more relevant and valuable than ever before” (Cisco, 2013a, para. 4) and the new term is the Internet of Everything (IoE) to describe this integration (See Figure 3).

Big Data and the Smart Grid Big data also impacts energy and sustainability. Big data is an enabler for utilities to better manage outage problems and find improved ways to renew energy (McMahon, 2013). As more technologies are created, more energy is utilized across the world. In the United States, most of this energy is delivered through an electric grid combining 5,000 power plants and 200,000 miles of transmission lines (Nova, 2011). According to Nova, the current grid is a century old marvel that is ill equipped to power all the new devices. Electric companies are in the process of moving to smart meters which will managed by an intelligent power grid or smart grid which will monitor energy use in real time. Smart Grid technologies are based on information from consumer habits. In the long run, the smart grid will save energy, reduce costs, and increase reliability from electrical suppliers to the consumer. Jamieson (2013) noted that “data can be mined to perform diagnostics, make intelligent recommendations and detect anomalies and inefficiencies to reduce or optimize energy consumption” (para. 4). For example, IBM and Oncor are using big data technology to monitor at least 3.2 million smart electrical meters (Bertolucci, 2012). The idea of a Smart Grid, according to Coughlin (2014), is that through technology, energy can be efficiently produced and delivered over a collection of networks. Smart grids also support renewable energy sources like solar and wind. Also, through smart chargers, the grid may be able to power batteries on electric vehicles during off-peak hours

Figure 3. The internet of everything. ©2013, S. Long, stephanieportfolio.wordpress.com Used with permission.

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that would transfer energy back to the energy grid (Cobb, 2011; IBM, 2012). IBM (2012) suggested that the utilities using big data in conjunction with smart grids may not only increase profitability, but also reduce the carbon footprint, improve customer satisfaction, and increase safety. Transforming the current energy system into a “smart system” is a challenge but universities across the country are working to make this a reality. For example, Texas A&M University (2014) has developed a Smart Grid Center, as shown in Figure 4, in “an effort that is pulling together teams of faculty and student researchers, as well as industry professionals, to deliver innovative energy solutions to meet the needs of future generations” (para. 1).

Real-Time Group Meetings in Online Educational Courses Online courses provide convenience for both adult learners and instructors for anytime, anywhere access to learning opportunities. However, the convenience of online courses often comes with a price—the proliferation of content delivered in higher education courses through online platforms is staggering and often leaves faculty overwhelmed as they seek to move courses online (Delello, McWhorter, Marmion, Camp, & Everling, 2014). Students, too, often have difficulties in courses that are purely “independent learning opportunities” (Arbaugh, Dearmond, & Rau, 2013, p. 643) where instructors post course content online and then grade the learning output. This asynchronous mode of learning often lacks to engage students in online learning (Lederman, 2013; Petty & Ferinde, 2013; Xu & Jaggars, 2011) frequently leading to a higher rate of attrition (Reigle, 2010). To combat the lack of student engagement in online courses, instructors have been designing-in synchronous activities for online students (Palloff & Pratt, 2013). One such activity held is real-time group meetings (RTGMs) whereby small groups of online students (3-5 students) hold regularly

scheduled online meetups used for discussion around course topics and working on a class project (McWhorter, Roberts & Mancuso, 2011). These RTGMs can be held through various platforms such as video conferencing (i.e. Skype.com; Zoom.us; GoToMeeting.com), social media (i.e. Facebook chat, Twitter Group Chats) or virtual worlds (i.e. SecondLife.com).

Greening Business Meetings through Video Conferencing Evolution of the Internet for collaboration has seen users connecting to technology, through technology, and then most recently within technology (Fazarro & McWhorter, 2011; Kapp & O’Driscoll, 2010; McWhorter, 2010, 2011, 2014). Although in geographically dispersed locations, business colleagues can collaborate through video conferencing technology that allows high definition (HD) video and even HD audio that help to establish social presence. Fazarro and McWhorter (2011) demonstrated how video conferencing used in lieu of face-to-face business meetings produced both a savings in terms of monetary cost as well as protecting the environment due to lack of travel time and fossil fuels. Video conferencing platforms such as WebEx.com can support up to 100 per meeting with “try it for free” 30 day trials for businesspeople to try before they buy. However, there are a number of disadvantages to video conferencing that need to be addressed. These include overcoming technical difficulties, removing distractors from the environment, establishing rapport through social presence (Oztock & Brett, 2011) and interaction, and have a clear agenda for the virtual meeting time.

Greening Professional Conferences Professional conferences are necessary for professional development, disseminating new ideas, and networking with other professionals. However, they are quite expensive in terms of travel costs,

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Figure 4. Copyright 2013 Texas A&M smart grid center. Used with permission.

travel time, and the carbon footprint for travel, energy for on-site spaces, and disposable of food containers. Virtual professional conferences have been defined as “any part of a ‘live’ conference that is made available via the Web for attendees around the world to view live or on-demand” (ASTD, 2010). According to Merriam, Caffarella, and Baumgartner (2007), technology has greatly increased the flexibility of learning for adults including interactive teleconferences from a home or workplace computer. As technology affords the adult learner with many new and media-rich learning experiences through self-directed learning (SDL), online professional conferences have emerged (McWhorter, Mancuso, Chlup & Demps, 2009; McWhorter, Mancuso & Roberts, 2013). The next section highlights the features of traditional professional conferences and then presents online professional conferences enabled through sophisticated software as an emerging practice

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and discusses these spaces for their potential for building and sustaining adult learners.

Traditional Professional Conferences Many organizations such as the Academy of Human Resource Development (AHRD) hold an annual professional conference. Such conferences are typically scheduled over multiple days having numerous tracks of interest for attendees (Budd, 2011). Advantages of attending face-toface (F2F) conferences include the full immersion experience (on-site venue with depth and breadth of learning opportunities without the distractions of the workplace), professional networking (seeing old friends and making new ones), presenting scholarly work (sharing research or listening to others’ share theirs; See Bell, 2011; Shepherd, 2010) and vendor resources (usually an exhibit hall for a large conference or several tables with products for smaller venues; See Woodie, 2009). The primary advantages for an organization to

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host a professional conference is the opportunity to retain and gain members, and for knowledge sharing (De Vries & Pieters, 2007). Disadvantages of traditional professional conferences include the cost of resources for the attendee (i.e. time away from the workplace plus travel and registration costs), and added costs for the hosting organization (i.e. multiple resources for planning the conference; see Kovaleski, 2010). Traditional professional conferences are also certainly not ‘green’ as many participants travel long distances to attend the various conferences venues; also, these sites consist of “a physical space [that] is a finite and expensive asset, [that] must be cleared and made available for subsequent events” (Welch, Ray, Melendez, Fare & Leach, 2010, p. 151). It has been estimated that companies spend approximately $32 billion on traditional professional conferences annually; of that amount, 58% goes toward the costs for hotels, food, and beverages. As the economy has slowed and fuel costs risen, some conference planners are looking for ways to reduce travel expenses, even as they find ways to encourage participation among an increasingly global workforce (King, 2008). One innovative way suggested as an alternative to traditional professional conferences is that of online professional conferences and will be explored next.

Emergence of Online Professional Conferences Professional organizations such as the American Library Association (ALA; who holds an entirely online midwinter conference), the Association of College & Research Libraries (ACRL; who has online conferences in addition to a F2F conference), the Public Library Association (PLA; who holds an online conference component to their annual conference plus totally online Spring Symposiums), the American Association of School Librarians (AASL; who held a virtual conference as a parallel experience to their annual conference)

as well as the Handheld Librarian conference (a fully online semi-annual conference) focusing on mobile devices, are all examples of early adopters, and organizations which embraced the virtual conference (See Bell, 2011; McWhorter, Roberts, &Mancuso, 2013). It is the evolution of the sophisticated technology itself that allowed for such digital collaboration to be possible (See Figure 5 that shows the features of online group chat, scheduled group chats, online message board, networking, and messages). When considering a co-located (face-to-face) conference or an online conference, it can be useful to examine the positives and negatives of each type, depending on the circumstances. Table 2 is useful to compare these two types of professional conferences.

Digital Badges in Education In the 21st century, students want to be engaged, motivated, and connected. To enhance their learning experience, innovative educators are turning to digital badges and certificates (HASTAC, 2013). According to The Alliance for Excellent Education (2013), badges are digital credentials that represent an individual’s skills, interests, and achievements. Badges can also be displayed across Websites, cloud servers, social media applications and to potential employers. Education Secretary, Arne Duncan stated, “As we recognize multiple ways for students to learn, we need multiple ways to assess and document their performance. Badges can help speed the shift from credentials that simply measure seat time, to ones that more accurately measure competency” (USDE, 2011, para. 13-16). Colleges, universities, massively open online courses (MOOCs), and K-12 campuses are experimenting with digital badges to encourage engagement with coursework and improve student retention. In fact, former U.S. President Clinton established the Clinton Global Initiative America (CGI America) to massively expand access to

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Figure 5. Virtual learning environment for professional conferences. Copyright ©2014 ON24, Inc. Used with permission.

Table 2. Comparison of co-located professional conference to online professional conference Aspect

Co-Located Conference

Online Conference

Cost to Attend

Conference Registration and Travel Expenses

Free or reduced conference registration; no travel fees required, but must have connectivity to access

Convenience

Typical time required for travel and conference attendance

Can connect to virtual conference via desktop, laptop, or mobile device (contingent on chosen platform)

Global Participation

To participate in an international conference, attendees must spend greater travel costs and time expenditures

Although time zones are an issue, technology allows global synchronous participation online

Networking

Connecting with colleagues and networking typically easier in colocated environment

Synchronous collaboration is available through integrated technologies such as virtual chatting, social media connections

Risks to Conference Organizers

Weather or other disaster could cause travel problems, delays or even the cancellation of the conference

Technology problems could result in the cancellation of the conference, but easier to reschedule then co-located venue

Technology Integration

WiFi often unavailable to attendees in conference meeting rooms

Participation relatively easy with a reliable internet connection and sophisticated vendor technology platform

Depth of Immersion

Easier to remove distractions and focus on the conference experience

More likely to be distracted by other tasks and daily routines

Post-Conference Experience

Archiving conference in written format such as conference proceedings, newsletter and website reporting

Online conference can be fully archived through multimedia for on-demand access at attendee convenience

Source: Adapted from Fazarro and McWhorter, 2011

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a new method of academic and technical skills assessment known as Open Badges (MacArthur Foundation, 2013). The MacArthur Foundation reported that over 14,000 independent organizations are using digital badge systems to document informal learning experiences. In K-12 schools, Waters (2013) noted that educators are currently using badges for in two ways: as motivational tools like gold stars and as evidence of proficiency much like merit badges. However, unlike traditional merit badges, digital badges link the user information to validated information based upon standards (Foster, 2013). See Figure 6 for examples of digital badges that can be added to digital ePortfolios and social media. One example of use of digital badges in higher education is at the University of California at Davis that is documenting the experiential learning occurring outside of the classroom where badges are capturing learning such as fieldwork and internships. Students earn digital badges that are designed and created by faculty who have described the learning outcomes that each badge represents and they noted that badges are “graphical representations of an accomplishment…giving new ways beyond college credentials to prove what they know and can do” (Fain, 2014, para. 6, 10). The future of greener technologies may mean using digital badges as a way to transform instruction and “disrupt the diploma” (Hoffman, 2013). By removing traditional paper based certificates and diplomas in favor of badges, students may be better able to show off their credentials over a life-time of learning and provide schools with cost saving options. By 2016, The MacArthur Founda-

tion (2013) suggested that 10 million workers and students would create learning pathways with the help of an open badge system. However, it is too early to say what the cost savings will be or whether digital acclimations will lead to greener footprints. Currently, research on using digital badges is limited but time, costs, and global benefits will certainly be topics of future inquiry.

Digital Badges for Lifelong Learning The use of digital badges is as a nascent way to capture and communicate the skills and knowledge of adult learners. According to the American Institutes for Research (2013), digital badges can be particularly useful for the certification of skills of adult learners enrolled in the basic education programs “who have few, if any, formal credentials (such as diplomas), but who are obtaining functional skills that would be valued in a workplace setting if a mechanism for certifying those skills and that knowledge was available” (p. 3). And, a digital badge is a way to represent a skill that is earned (Mozilla, 2014). At Yale University, digital badges are used to depict credentialing for adults enrolled in its online community that trains K-12 teachers in emotional literacy (BadgeOs, 2013). The badges “recognize individual learning and community involvement…that empowers and encourages [adult] learners to master new skills and knowledge as they earn badges they take with them for life, demonstrating to the world what they know” (para. 5). Even Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs)

Figure 6. Digital badges within LMS blackboard

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have gotten onboard with utilizing badges. Even though there is no grade in the class students can learn at their own pace and can earn open badges that “will be permanently stored in your Mozilla backpack” (Indiana University, 2014, para. 3) once they successfully finish the course. As technology has changed the landscape of visits to nonprofits such as libraries and museums, digital badges can also be useful for engaging patrons during such visits. For instance, the Dallas Museum of Art (DMA) found that many exhibits only received a cursory view rather than the deeplearning that had been designed for patrons (Stein & Wyman, 2013) including badges that are both “explicit and discovered—visitors are incentivized to undertake particular activities in the museum through a series of obviously earnable badges… earned around a fairly broad range of activities ranging from simple gallery visitation to identifying favorite artworks to creative activities” (para. 43). See Figure 7 used for DMA Friends to engage them in museum visits and activities. The new All-American badge requires more participation at the museum than the original DMA Friend badge including asking visitors to brush up on their geography by visiting the DMA Ancient American, American, and Contemporary galleries to receive the new badge.

To be successful with adult learners, digital badges must communicate the skills, knowledge, or experiences that they purport to convey. They must also be visible for others to recognize. Developers note that earned badges can be displayed on social media such as Facebook, LinkedIn, Twitter, and WordPress and digital badges can be issued to those attending learning events (Credly.com; Eventbrite.com). Finally, instructors, curators and event organizers can give credit, share and display earned digital badges individually or a group as simple by using the application “app” on their mobile device (credly.com/news/ios-app).

Three-Dimensional Printing Three-Dimensional Printing (3D) printing is a technology which makes it possible to build real objects from virtual 3D objects. “A 3D printer builds a tangible model or prototype from the electronic file, one layer at a time, using an inkjetlike process to spray a bonding agent onto a very thin layer of fixable powder, or an extrusion-like process using plastics and other flexible materials” (Johnson, Adams Becker, Cummins, Estrada, Freeman, & Ludgate, 2013, p. 28). 3D objects can be printed from a variety of materials including

Figure 7. Digital badges for engaging visitors to explore art exhibits. Copyright © Dallas Museum of Art. Used with permission.

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plastics, metals, glass, concrete, and even chocolate (3D Printer, 2014). The NMC Horizon Report 2013 Higher Education Edition reported that in the next 4-5 years, 3D printing will reach widespread adoption (Johnson, et. al, 2013). The implementation of this emerging technology will create new possibilities to prepare students for the twenty-first century. For instance, students at Chico High School in California are using 3D printing to create prototypes for local businesses. In another example, students from Cypress Woods High School in Texas joined with NASA to develop and build a remotely operated vehicle (ROV) that maneuvers around the International Space Station (ISS) while carrying a camera (Stratasys, 2014). Also, MakerBot (2014a) has incorporated 3D printable curriculum available for schools including jump ropes, dinosaurs, frog dissections, and the great pyramids. MakerBot’s motto is to “put a MakerBot Desktop 3D Printer in every school in America” (para. 1). The MakerBot initiative has enabled teachers in more than 1,000 public schools obtain 3D Printers and in turn reached approximately 300,000 students (MakerBot, 2014b). Universities are also embracing 3D printing. For example, scientists at Harvard University (2012) are developing 3D action figures from computer animation files. Also, students from Purdue University are working with Adobe’s Advantage Technology Labs to create software applications that allow 3D printers to create more structurally sound products (Venere, 2012). Researchers at Michigan Technological University conducted a study to find out how much a family might save by printing common objects at home with 3D printers, such as simple replacement parts or toys, instead of buying them in stores or online (Kelly, 2013). The savings according to the findings ranged from several hundred dollars to thousands of dollars depending upon the types of products that were generated. Not only did 3D printers save money, the potential according to Kelly (2013) is that 3D printing could cut down

on packaging and pollution from transportation which, in turn, helps save the environment. Not only will 3D printing reduce waste, it will also offer a high end of customization to both education and industry.

3D Printing for Industry The process of creating a physical object from a 3D model has been called the “Third Industrial Revolution” (The Economist, 2012, para. 1). Traditionally, supply chains move goods from where they are manufactured to where they are sold, and oftentimes these are great distances. Thus, mass produced goods require a long lead time, with high transport costs and need for large warehouse networks. In contrast, a 3D printing (additive manufacturing) supply chain provides a much lower carbon footprint because items can be printed locally and distributed in a close proximity and allows for customized production rather than a good that is mass produced thus requiring only a short lead time and results in low transport costs. In this new disruptive model, the customer demand “pulls” on the printing of the customized product for the consumer (3D Printing; joneslanglasalle.edu, 2013) See Figure 8 for a depiction of this disruption of the traditional supply chain due to 3D printing alternatives for manufacturing in more local environments.

The Move to Mobile Devices Wagner (2005) remarked, “From toddlers to seniors, people are increasingly connected and are digitally communicating with each other in ways that would have been impossible only a few years ago” (p. 42). A recent study by Common Sense Media (2011) reported that 52% of all children now have access to newer mobile devices at home including smartphones (41%), video iPods (21%), or tablet devices such the iPad (8%). Experian (2013) reported that Millennials spend 14% more time connected to mobile devices per week than

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Figure 8. Cincinnati Zoo & Botanic Gardens cell phone recycle bin. Used with permission.

a unique opportunity to create learning experiences, which create personal meaning and engage the learner. Students who have been using digital technology will embrace and use these mobile tools in various unexpected ways, if given the opportunity (Prensky, 2005).

Mobile and Digital for Greener Savings

their generational peers and ninety-six percent of undergraduate students had cell phones with 63% reporting using them to access the Web (Pew Research Center, 2010). With the proliferation of mobile devices, the notion of anytime, anywhere learning has become part of our culture. In fact, according to Mark Prensky (2012), in an era of such rapid technological growth, the digital natives are disconnecting the cords to their personal computers in favor of mobile tools such as cell phones, iPods, iPads, and other tablet devices. Also, college students, according to Friedrich, Peterson, and Koster (2011), are more technologically linked and socially connected than ever before. This digital revolution is the beginning of the next generation of wireless technology presenting

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For schools moving to 1:1 computing, there may be a significant cost savings as students have access to course work and digital applications through cloud technologies. And, as textbook prices continue to increase; more schools are turning towards the use of eBooks. According to Green Press Initiative (2007), book and newspaper industries across the United States harvest 125 million trees each year and release 40 million metric tons of CO2 annually, equivalent to 7.3 million cars. Martin (2011) reported that worldwide, the growing paper consumption has resulted in an average reduction of four billion trees. Printing also accounts for as much as 10% of all U.S. greenhouse gas emissions (Green Press Initiative, 2007). Because there are no printing fees associated with e-books and storage is located on the mobile device or in the cloud, transportation and printing costs are reduced. For example, in an initial pilot study, Indiana University moved print books to e-texts through a university initiative (Wheeler & Osborne, 2012). Preliminary numbers revealed an average student saving of $25 per book, collectively saving the University $100,000. According to Wheeler and Osborne (2012), other universities are replicating the pilot study including The University of California, Berkeley; Cornell University; The University of Minnesota; The University of Virginia; and The University of Wisconsin. According to AT&T (2014), results from a recent study found that U.S. Small Businesses are also saving in excess of $65 billion each year by switching to tablets, smartphones, and mobile apps for their day-to-day normal business activi-

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ties. It was reported that these businesses equate the increase in mobile devised “to an improvement in operational efficiencies, time savings and an increase in employee productivity” (para. 9). By allowing employees to access information away from the office, a savings in fuel costs and the carbon footprint of the small businesses is reduced. And, for small businesses that cannot afford to provide mobile devices to all of their employees, allowing them to bring their own device (BYOD) is an alternative that reduces small business budgets for smartphones, while allowing employees to use a device they have chosen on their own; further, a recent study reported that 88% of employees with BYOD at work also use their mobile phones for work reasons while on their personal time such beyond the work day or vacation time. To help alleviate security concerns of BYOD, it is recommended that cloud services that offer integration with mobile apps to manage “all users, across multiple locations, while securing company data—enabling BYOD without the downside” (Gigaom, 2014, para. 7) be considered. In a new advertisement (http://youtu.be/ EdeVaT-zZt4), Apple (2014) recently announced its commitment to environmental responsibly plan to use greener materials in its computers while conserving resources. In fact, Apple’s mobile products such as the iPad, MacBook Pro, and iMac are becoming thinner and using less material with each product redesign. For example, the latest Mac Pro uses 74 percent less aluminum and steel than in previous designs (Apple, 2014). Also, by using mobile technologies, such as an iPad, less electricity is used. According to the Electric Power Research Institute, an iPad or Smartphone uses less electricity than a standard 60W compact, fluorescent light bulb (TapScape, 2013). The annual estimated electricity cost for an iPad has been estimated to cost $1.36 and the same amount of use for an iPhone 4 averages around .38 (Fahey, 2012; TapScape, 2013).

Recycling E-Waste and Green Purchasing By 2016, there will be more mobile devices than people on earth (Cisco, 2013b). According to Cisco, there will be more than 10 billion mobile Internet-connected devices in 2016, more than estimated world population of 7.3 billion. Gartner (2014) proposes that in 2015, over 2,364 million new devices (tablets, ultra mobiles and mobile phones) will be shipped worldwide. Yet, according to Tom Foremski (2007), Americans throw 426,000 mobile phones away each day. In a recent United Nations (UN, 2010) report, the production of e-waste over the next decade could rise as much as 500%. E-Waste is considered to be any electronic device (e.g. computers, televisions, phones) that has reached the end of their suitable for use. Additionally, the increased use of electronic devices on college and university campuses is raising concerns about the proper use and disposal of e-waste (Smith, 2009). One reason for the surge in wastes is that companies continue to roll out newer devices with more sophisticated technology and innovative applications. One solution is through better waste management strategies such as product stewardship, pollution prevention, and green consumerism. For example, the EPA (2014) has established a number of initiatives to promote renewable energy strategies across universities. One such initiative is the College and University Green Power Challenge, in which, universities are challenged to create more green energy than other competing higher education institutions. A green campus is defined as “a higher education community that is improving energy efficiency, conserving resources and enhancing environmental quality by educating for sustainability and creating healthy living and learning environments” (The Center for Green Schools, 2014, para. 1). Educational institutions have always had challenges in acquiring enough funding to purchase the technology needed. And, as mobile devices

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become more ubiquitous across all age spans, most students will have devices readily available for use in the classroom. However, schools that cannot afford a new device for students may turn towards a growing trend of purchasing refurbished desktops or mobile devices as a means to connect students to a VLE. Also, both education and industry are findings new ways to reduce e-waste by collecting and recycling. For example, The University of Cincinnati (2014) has partnered with the Cincinnati Zoo & Botanic Gardens to provide cell phone collection boxes across campus (see Figure 8). Proceeds from the cell phone recycling program Project Saving Species are used by the Zoo to support field conservation efforts. The Zoo’s motto: “Recycle a cell phone. Save a gorilla. It’s that simple!” (Cincinnati Zoo & Botanic Gardens, 2014, para. 1). Also, corporations such as Apple (2014) have committed to minimizing the impact of products such as the iPhone, IPad, or computer on the environment. For example, the Apple Recycling Program allows users to recycle old or worn-out products free of charge. Also, Apple will trade computers or devices with monetary value for an Apple Gift Card. In 2008, Apple recycled 30.5 million pounds of electronic waste.

How Higher Education is Creating Greener Global Technology As universities continually seek ways to conserve energy, they are also challenged to help with global sustainability efforts. Even with reports of technology expanding across the world, one billion people world-wide continue to live without electricity (Walsh, 2013). At Harvard University, four undergraduate students set out to change these statistics by creating the Soccket, a soccer ball (see Figure 9), that when played with for 30 minutes, would generate enough electricity to provide three hours of electric power (greenTech, 2012). In addition, the newly founded company Uncharted Play (2014) has developed social cur-

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riculum to enable students around the world to use the resources around them to invent solutions to their problems. In another example, hoping to change millions of lives globally, two design students the Art Center College of Design created the first-ever eco-friendly, pedal-powered washing machine and dryer (greenTech, 2012). Also, Song and Oh (2014) designed the solar-powered battery charger. It uses the sun’s rays to power multiple devices without the need for electricity. The solar-powered electrical socket can be connected to almost any glass window; it is expected to be on the market in 2015.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS Fazarro and McWhorter (2011) presented green computing as a way to increase both organization viability and environmental sustainability. Viability is the concept of an organization remaining solvent in difficult economic times while environmental sustainability has been defined as “making decisions and taking action that are in the interests of protecting the natural world, with particular emphasis on preserving the capability of the environment to support human life” (Smallbizconnect, 2014, para. 3). Both viability and environmental sustainability are important topics at the present time, because organizations Figure 9. The Soccket ball. Source: Uncharted play. Used with permission.

 Green Computing through Virtual Learning Environments

are working to reduce costs while expanding their impact. Those that have been able to leverage technology to reduce their overall costs of doing business are reaping the benefits of successful online courses and meetings, big data analytics, and other green computing initiatives that reduce their negative impact on the environment and boost their chances of remaining viable. However, utilizing computer technology as green technology is not without its critics. For instance, the environmental group Greenpeace (2012) activists scaled an Amazon office building in Seattle to hang a banner reading “How clean is your cloud?” (Sverdilk, 2012, para. 1) to bring attention to the carbon footprint of large data centers such as Amazon and Facebook. Facebook responded that there is no such thing as a “coalpowered data center…there is no such thing as a hydroelectric-powered data center. Every data center plugs into the grid offered by their utility or power provider” (Miller, 2010, para. 4).

CONCLUSION It is true that it is a battle to reduce carbon footprints as data centers are expanding is ongoing. In rebuttal, though, we would add that it is our opinion that the positive outcomes of datacenters outweigh the negatives of the need for generating more energy to run the servers in the datacenters. For instance, some of the positives of green computing practices include reduced travel to: work, to join with a workgroup in a central location, and to present or attend a professional meeting or conference. It is not difficult to understand, for instance, that travelling by air from the United States to Europe to attend a professional conference creates a large carbon footprint as jet fuel is a fossil fuel. That footprint compared to the cost of running one computer for a 3-day conference is

not even close. According to the World Wide Fund for Nature (2007), a 2-hour video conference created one-fifth the kilos of CO2 emissions of the air travel even taking into account the rebound effect of associated activities. Therefore, we conclude that green computing is a viable concept and more research is needed to determine the actual savings over time in monetary and environmental impact that these initiatives are having in our educational institutions, our organizations, and on our world.

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Apple. (2014). Environmental responsibility. Retrieved from http://www.apple.com/environment/ ASTD.org. (2010). Virtual conferences. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3x6hm8lpeY AT&T.com. (2014). Survey finds mobile technologies saving U.S. small businesses more than $65 billion each year. Retrieved from http:// about.att.com/story/survey_finds_mobile_technologies_saving_us_small_businesses_more_ than_65_billion_a_year.html BadgesOS. (2013). BadgeOS brings ruler K-12 teacher training online. Retrieved from http:// badgeos.org/badgeos-yale-university/ Bertolucci, J. (2012). Big data meets Texas smart energy grid. Information Week. Retrieved from http://www.informationweek.com/big-data/ big-data-analytics/big-data-meets-texas-smartenergy-grid/d/d-id/1107316 Brown, E. (2011). Final version of NIST cloud computing definition published. Retrieved from http://www.nist.gov/itl/csd/cloud-102511.cfm Bullock, C., & Klein, J. T. (2013). Virtual work environments in the post-recession era. Retrieved from http://www.brandman.edu/files/attachments/ virtual_teams_brandman_forrester_white_paper. pdf Campbell, J. E., & Cambell, D. E. (2011). Distance learning is good for the environment: Savings in greenhouse gas emissions. Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, 14(5). Center for Green Schools. (2014). Green campus. Retrieved from http://www.centerforgreenschools. org/green-campus.aspx Childs, S. (2008). Editorial: Green computing. Health Information on the Internet, 62(1), 1–2.

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EPA. (2014). 2013-2014 college and university green power challenge. Retrieved from http:// www.epa.gov/greenpower/initiatives/cu_challenge.htm Fahey, J. (2012). It costs just $1.36 to charge an iPad for a year. Retrieved from http://finance.yahoo. com/news/costs-just-1-36-charge-212452746. html Fain, P. (2014). Badging from within. Inside Higher Education. Retrieved from http://www. insidehighered.com/news/2014/01/03/uc-davissgroundbreaking-digital-badge-system-new-sustainable-agriculture-program#sthash.7BPrBtbC. dpbs Fazarro, D. E., & McWhorter, R. R. (2011). Leveraging green computing for increased viability and sustainability. Journal of Technology Studies, 37(2). Retrieved from http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ ejournals/JOTS/v37/v37n2/fazarro.html Ferreira, J. (2013). Big data in education: The 5 types that matter. Retrieved from http://www. knewton.com/blog/ceo-jose-ferreira/big-data-ineducation/ Finkelstein, J., Knight, E., & Manning, S. (2013). The potential and value of using digital badges for adult learners. American Institutes for Research. Retrieved from http://lincs.ed.gov/publications/ pdf/AIR_Digital_Badge_Report_508.pdf Forbes Insights. (2013). The big potential of big data. Retrieved from http://images.forbes.com/ forbesinsights/StudyPDFs/RocketFuel_BigData_REPORT.pdf Foremski, T. (2007). 426,000 cell phones trashed every day. Silicon Valley Watcher. Retrieved from http://www.siliconvalleywatcher.com/mt/ archives/2007/04/426000_cell_pho.php

Foster, J. C. (2013). The promise of digital badges. Techniques: Connecting Education & Careers, 88(8), 30. Gartner (2014). Gartner says worldwide traditional PC, tablet, ultramobile and mobile phone shipments are on pace to grow 6.9 percent in 2014. Press Release. Retrieved from http://www. gartner.com/newsroom/id/2692318 Gerber, H. (2012). Can education be gamified? Examining gamification, education, and the future. American Public University System. Retrieved from https://shsu.academia.edu/HannahGerber/ White-Papers Google. (2011). The Khan Academy scales and simplifies with Google app engine: Case study. Retrieved from https://cloud.google.com/customers/khan-academy/ Goulart, K. (2012). A CIO blueprint for cloud migration. Computer Weekly, 17 Green Press Initiative. (2007). Frequently asked questions. Retrieved from http://www.greenpressinitiative.org/about/faq.htm Green Technology World. (2014). University students in seven time zones design car factory using Dassault Systèmes’ 3DEXPERIENCE platform and cloud technology. Retrieved from http://green. tmcnet.com/news/2014/05/27/7848594.htm Greentech. (2012). Pedal-powered washing machine and dryer – Innovative, eco friendly and practical. Ecotech. Retrieved from http:// gotecotech.com/pedal-powered-washing-machine-and-dryer/#sthash.uvXfdE5U.dpuf http:// gotecotech.com/pedal-powered-washing-machine-and-dryer/ Grinnell, L., Sauers, A., Appunn, F., & Mack, L. (2012). Virtual teams in higher education: The light and dark side. Journal of College Teaching & Learning, 9(1), 65–77.

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Harvard University. (2012). Adding a 3D print button to animation software. Retrieved from http:// www.seas.harvard.edu/news/2012/07/adding-3dprint-button-animation-software HASTAC. (2013). Digital badges for lifelong learning. Retrieved from http://www.hastac.org/ collections/digital-badges Hoffman, R. (2013). Disrupting the diploma. Retrieved from http://www.linkedin.com/ influencers/20130916065028-1213-disruptingthe-diploma IBM. (2012). Managing big data for smart grids and smart meters. IBM software white paper. Retrieved from http://public.dhe.ibm.com/common/ ssi/ecm/en/imw14628usen/IMW14628USEN. PDF IHS, Inc. (2014). Big (data) insights. IHS Quarterly. Retrieved from http://www.ihs.com/tl/ quarterly/features/big-insights.aspx iLink. (2009). Taking the virtual classroom into the mainstream and beyond: How web-based learning enables training and education professionals to perform at new levels. iLink Whitepaper, 1-8.

Kellen, V., Recketenwald, A., & Burr, S. (2014). Applying big data in higher education: A case study. Cutter Consortium. Retrieved from http://www.sap.com/bin/sapcom/en_us/ downloadasset.2014-01-jan-29-18.applying-bigdata-in-higher-education-a-case-study-pdf.html Kelly, H. (2014). Study: At-home 3-D printing could save consumers thousands. CNN. Retrieved from http://whatsnext.blogs.cnn.com/2013/07/31/ study-at-home-3-d-printing-could-save-consumers-thousands/ Liu, F., Tong, J., Mao, J., Bohn, R., Messina, J., Badger, L., & Leaf, D. (2011). NIST cloud computing reference architecture: Recommendations of the National Institute of Standards and Technology. National Institute of Standards and Technology Special Publication 500-292. Gaithersburg, MD: U.S. Department of Commerce. ISTE Live. (2014). Register for the virtual conference. Retrieved from https://www.isteconference. org/2014/attend/iste_live.php

Indiana University. (2014). Big data applications and analytics. Retrieved from https://bigdatacourse.appspot.com/preview

Lo, C. D., & Qian, K. (2010). Green computing methodology for next generation computing scientists. In Proceedings of 34th Annual IEEE Computer Software and Applications Conference (pp. 250-251). IEEE. doi:10.1109/COMPSAC.2010.31

Jamieson, M. (2013). The impact of “Big Data” on energy and sustainability. Retrieved from http://blog.schneider-electric.com/smartgrid/2013/03/18/the-impact-of-big-data-onenergy-and-sustainability/

Loh, J., & Smyth, R. (2010). Understanding students’ online learning experiences in virtual teams. MERLOT Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 6(2). Retrieved from http://jolt.merlot. org/vol6no2/loh_0610.htm

Johnson, L., Adams Becker, S., Cummins, M., Estrada, V., Freeman, A., & Ludgate, H. (2013). NMC horizon report: 2013 higher education edition. Austin, TX: The New Media Consortium.

MacArthur Foundation. (2013). Better futures for 2 million Americans through open badges. Retrieved from http://www.macfound.org/press/ press-releases/better-futures-2-million-americans-through-open-badges/#sthash.6Aq5HsLz. dpu

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MakerBot. (2014a). MakerBot academy. Retrieved from http://www.thingiverse.com/curriculum/ designs

McWhorter, R. R., Mancuso, D. T., & Roberts, P. B. (2013). Exploring professional online conferences for the adult learner. Academic Press.

MakerBot. (2014b). Media alert: MakerBot, the golden state warriors and America makes team up tobring 3D printing to Oakland High School. Retrieved from http://makerbotblog.s3.amazonaws. com/wpcontent/uploads/2014/03/Alert_MakerBotAcademy_Warriors_Mar2014.pdf

McWhorter, R. R., Roberts, P. B., & Mancuso, D. S. (2013). Exploring professional online conferences for the adult learner. American Association for Adult and Continuing Education (AAACE).

Manyika, J., Chui, M., Brown, B., Bughin, J., Dobbs, R., Roxburgh, C., & Byers, A. H. (2011). Big data: The next frontier for innovation, competition, and productivity. McKinsey Global Institute. Retrieved from http://www.mckinsey.com/ Insights/MGI/Research/Technology_and_Innovation/Big_data_The_next_frontier_for_innovation Martin, S. (2011). Paperchase. Ecology global market. http://www.ecology.com/2011/09/10/ paper-chase/ McMahon, J. (2013). Big data from smart grid tells utilities more than they want to know. Retrieved from http://www.forbes.com/sites/jeffmcmahon/2013/09/26/big-data-from-smart-grid-tellsutilities-more-than-they-want-to-know/ McWhorter, R. R. (2010). Exploring the emergence of virtual human resource development. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 12(6), 623–631. doi:10.1177/1523422310395367 McWhorter, R. R. (2011). Scenario planning as the development of leadership capability and capacity; and virtual human resource development. Texas A&M University. Retrieved from http://repository.tamu.edu/bitstream/handle/1969.1/150954/ McWhorter.pdf?sequence=1 McWhorter, R. R. (2014). A synthesis of new perspectives on Virtual HRD. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 16(3), 391–401. doi:10.1177/1523422314532126

Miller, R. (2010). Facebook’s response to Greenpeace. DataCenterKnowledge. Retrieved from http://www.datacenterknowledge.com/ archives/2010/02/20/facebooks-response-togreenpeace/ Mitra, S. (2014). School in the cloud. Retrieved from https://www.theschoolinthecloud. org/library/resources/the-school-in-the-cloudstory#heading1 Morgan, J. (2014). A simple explanation of ‘the internet of things’. Forbes. Retrieved from http:// www.forbes.com/sites/jacobmorgan/2014/05/13/ simple-explanation-internet-things-that-anyonecan-understand/ Mozilla. (2014). How do Open Badges work?. Retrieved from http://openbadges.org/about/ Nafukho, F. M., Graham, C. M., & Muyia, H. M. A. (2010). Harnessing and optimal utilization of human capital in virtual workplace environments. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 12(6), 648–664. doi:10.1177/1523422310394791 National Wildlife Federation. (2009). Is online learning better for the planet? Wildlife Promise. Retrieved from http://blog.nwf.org/2009/05/isonline-learning-better-for-the-planet/ Nelson, L. (2014). Big data 101: Colleges are hoping predictive analytics can fix their dismal graduation rates. Vox Media. Retrieved from http:// www.vox.com/2014/7/14/5890403/collegesare-hoping-predictive-analytics-can-fix-theirgraduation-rates

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Newton, J. (2010). Is cloud computing green computing? GPSOLO Magazine, 27(8). Ng, K. (2010). Cloud helps universities cut costs by 74%. Retrieved from http://www.futuregov.asia/ articles/2010/jul/19/cloud-helps-universities-cutcosts-74-cent/ NSF. (2011). The sky is no limit: 13 research teams compute in the clouds. Retrieved from http://nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_ id=119248&org=NSF Palloff, R. M., & Pratt, K. (2013). Lessons from the virtual classroom: The realities of online teaching. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Parry, M. (2012). Big data on campus. New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes. com/2012/07/22/education/edlife/collegesawakening-to-the-opportunities-of-data-mining. html?pagewanted=2&_r=1&emc=eta1 Pew Research Center. (2010). Millennials: A portrait of generation next: Confident, connected, open to change. Retrieved from http://www. pewsocialtrends.org/files/2010/10/millennialsconfident-connected-open-to-change.pdf Prensky, M. (2005). What can you learn from a cell phone? Almost anything! Innovate, 1(5). Retrieved from http://www.innovateonline.info/ index.php?view=article&id=83 Prensky, M. (2012, July 14). Before bringing in new tools, you must first bring in new thinking. Retrieved from http://amplify.com/# 3D . Printer. (2014). 3D printer materials. Retrieved from http://www.3dprinter.net/ directory/3d-printer-materials Satell, G. (2014). Why the cloud just might be the most disruptive technology ever. Forbes. Retrieved from http://www.forbes.com/sites/ gregsatell/2014/01/05/why-the-cloud-just-mightbe-the-most-disruptive-technology-ever/

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Shane, S. (2012). World of Warcraft in the world of education. Retrieved from http://www.gamification.co/2012/11/09/world-of-warcraft-in-theworld-of-education/#comment-708947917 Smith, C. (2009). Reducing campus e-waste through product stewardship recycling programs. Retrieved from http://www.universitybusiness. com/article/reducing-campus-e-waste-throughproduct-stewardship-recycling-programs Song, K., & Oh, B. (2014). Solar powered socket. Retrieved from http://www.jebiga.com/solarenergy-powered-socket-kyuho-song-boa-oh/ Stein, R., & Wyman, B. (2013). Nurturing engagement: How technology and business model alignment can transform visitor participation in the museum. Museums and the Web. Retrieved from http://mw2013.museumsandtheweb.com/ paper/nurturing-engagement/ Stratasys. (2014). Education case studies. Retrieved from http://www.stratasys.com/resources/ case-studies/education Sverdilk, Y. (2012). Greenpeace and data centers: A tough love. Datacenter Dynamics. Retrieved from http://www.datacenterdynamics.com/focus/ archive/2012/10/greenpeace-and-data-centerstough-love TapScape. (2013). iPad: Cheaper to power than a green lightbulb. Rocket Media. Retrieved from http://www.datacenterdynamics.com/focus/ archive/2012/10/greenpeace-and-data-centerstough-love http://www.tapscape.com/power-youriphone-for-0-38-a-year-ipad-1-36/ TEA. (2014). Texas student data system (TSDS). Retrieved from http://www.tea.state.tx.us/TSDS/ About/ Texas A&M University. (2014). Smart grid center. Retrieved from http://smartgridcenter.tamu. edu/sgc/web/

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Ubell, R. (2011). Virtual teamwork: Mastering the art and practice of online learning and corporate collaboration. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. United Nations. (2010). As e-waste mountains soar, UN urges smart technologies to protect health. Retrieved from http://www.un.org/apps/news/ story.asp?NewsID=33845&Cr=waste&Cr1#. U7b3_PldW1g University of Cincinnati. (2014). Eco-cell recycling. Retrieved from http://www.uc.edu/af/pdc/ sustainability/campus_initiatives/recycling_and_ waste/eco_cell.html University of Florida. (2009). Online classes can save schools money, expand learning time for K-12 students. UF News. Retrieved from http://news. ufl.edu/2009/05/18/online-learning/ University of Texas at Austin. (2014). University leadership network. Retrieved from http://www. utexas.edu/enrollment-management/programs/ university-leadership-network University of Washington. (2014). Big data PhD track. Retrieved from https://www.cs.washington. edu/node/9485/ U.S. Department of Education. (2011). Digital badges for learning. Retrieved from http://www. ed.gov/news/speeches/digital badges-learning U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Technology. (2012). Enhancing teaching and learning through educational data mining and learning analytics: An issue brief. Washington, DC: Author. U.S. Department of Education, Office of Planning, Evaluation, and Policy Development. (2010). Use of education data at the local level from accountability to instructional improvement. Washington, DC: Author.

Vernere, E. (2012). New tool gives structural strength to 3-D printed works. Retrieved from http://www.purdue.edu/newsroom/releases/2012/ Q3/new-tool-gives-structural-strength-to-3-dprinted-works.html Wagner, E. D. (2005). Enabling mobile learning. EDUCAUSE Review, 40(3), 40–53. Walsh, B. (2013). Blackout: 1 billion live without electric light. Time. Retrieved from http://business. time.com/2013/09/05/blackout-1-billion-livewithout-electric-light/ Waters, J. K. (2013). Everything you ever wanted to know about badging in the classroom: Our definitive guide. The Journal. Retrieved from http://thejournal.com/articles/2013/05/30/ everything-you-ever-wanted-to-know-aboutbadging-in-the-classroom-our-definitive-guide. aspx#6pJefodzhAJjkGZG.99 West, D. M. (2012). Big data for education: Data mining, data analytics, and web dashboards. Governance Studies. Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution. WGU. (2014). Saving money by going to school online. Retrieved from http://www.wgu.edu/ about_WGU/resources/save_money Wheeler, B., & Osborne, N. (2012). Case study 21: Shaping the path to digital: The Indiana eTexts initiative. Washington, DC: Educause. World of Warcraft in School. (2014). MMO-School wiki. Retrieved from http://wowinschool.pbworks. com/w/page/5268731/FrontPage World Wide Fund for Nature. (2007). Virtual meetings and climate innovation in the 21st century: Can offsetting CO2 emissions from flights by investing in videoconferencing be a way to support transformative change?. Retrieved from https:// www.greenbiz.com/sites/default/files/document/ WWFBinaryitem11938.pdf

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Zimpher, N. L. (2014). Foreword. In J. E. Lee (Ed.), Building a smarter university. Albany, NY: SUNY Press.

ADDITIONAL READING

Delello, J. A., & McWhorter, R. R. (2014). New visual social media for the higher education classroom. In G. Mallia (Ed.), The social classroom: Integrating social network use in education. Hershey, PA: IGI Global. doi:10.4018/978-14666-4904-0.ch019

Adobe Systems Incorporated. (2014). Creative cloud launch event. Retrieved from http://creativecloud.adobeevents.com/ccnext/#/od-video/full

Designboom (2013). 3D printed prosthetic foot saves duck’s life. Retrieved from http://www. designboom.com/technology/3d-printed-prosthetic-foot-saves-ducks-life/

Ardichvilli, A. (2008). Learning and knowledge sharing in virtual communities of practice: Motivators, barriers, and enablers. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 10(4), 541–554. doi:10.1177/1523422308319536

Ferriman, J. (2013). Open badges: What it is and why it matters. LearnDash. Retrieved from http:// www.learndash.com/open-badges-what-it-is-andwhy-it-matters/#!

Asunda, P. (2010). Manual arts to technology education: Are we ripe for infusing aspects of a green technology into career and technical education constituent subjects? Career and Technical Education Research, 35(1), 175–187. doi:10.5328/ cter35.313 Brooks, R. (2013). World’s first 3D-printed retinal cells could help cure blindness. Retrieved from http://inhabitat.com/worlds-first-3d-printedretinal-cells-could-help-to-cure-blindness/ Chapman, D. D., & Stone, S. J. (2010). Measurement of outcomes in virtual environments. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 12(6), 665–680. doi:10.1177/1523422310394792 Crowston, K., & Østerlund, C. (2012). Minitrack introduction: The socio-materiality of information – documents and work. IEEEXplore. Retrieved from http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp. jsp?arnumber=6480031 Delello, J. A., Everling, K. M., McWhorter, R. R., Lawrence, H. (2013). Fostering presence in online discussions. Academic Exchange Quarterly, 17(2). Editor’s Choice Award

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Kozubek, M. (2011). Making connections: Videoconferencing helps companies save money and go green while breaking down cultural barriers. Inside Counsel. Retrieved from http://insidecounsel.com Liesaputran, V., & Witten, I. H. (2012). Realistic electronic books. International Journal of HumanComputer Studies, 70(9), 588–610. doi:10.1016/j. ijhcs.2012.02.003 Lord, J. (2013). Beyond web analytics: 5 types of online data should be tracking. Entrepreneur. Retrieved from http://www.entrepreneur.com/ar ticle/227578?hootPostID=da5b6e9397507958a 33ab4abfd8d473a Mancuso, D., Chlup, D., & McWhorter, R. R. (2010). A study of adult learning in a virtual world. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 12(6), 681–699. doi:10.1177/1523422310395368 McWhorter, R., Mancuso, D., & Chlup, D. T. (2009). Adult learning in a virtual environment. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Education Research Association, San Diego, CA.

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McWhorter, R. R., Delello, J. A., Raisor, C., Roberts, P. B., & Fowler, D. (2013). A cross-case analysis of the use of web-based ePortfolios in Higher Education. Journal of Information Technology Education, 3(1), 1–20.

Witkin, J. (August 25, 2011). Business studies become environmentally friendly. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://green.blogs.nytimes. com/2011/08/25/business-studies-become-environmentally-friendly/

McWhorter, R. R., & Lindhjem, K. A. (2013). Virtual learning environments: How they can benefit nanotechnology safety education. IEEE Nanotechnology Magazine, 7(2), 15–17. doi:10.1109/ MNANO.2013.2260460

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Monteiro, E., Almklov, P., & Hepsø, V. (2012). Living in a sociomaterial world. In A. Bhattacherjee & B. Fitzgerald (Eds.), Shaping the future of ICT research: Methods and approaches (pp. 91–107). Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-64235142-6_7 Nafukho, F. M. (2009). Design, implementation and assessment of e-learning curriculum for adults with diverse learning needs. In V. C. X. Wang & K. P. King (Eds.), Curriculum development for adult learners in the global community: Strategic approaches (Vol. II, pp. 146–171). Malabar, FL: Krieger. Parry, M. (2014). Recent big-data struggles are ‘birthing pains’ researchers say. The Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved from http:// chronicle.com/article/Recent-Big-Data-Struggles-Are/145625/ The Princeton Review. (2014). The Princeton review’s guide to 332 green colleges. The Center for Green Schools. Retrieved from http://www. princetonreview.com/green-guide.aspx Wagner, E., & Ice, P. (2012). Data changes everything: Delivering on the promise of learning analytics in Higher education. Educause. Retrieved from http://www.educause.edu/ero/article/data-changes-everything-delivering-promise learning-analytics-higher-education

3D Printing: The creation of a physical object from a digital model including bioprinting for the creation of organs, limbs, prosthetics, and human tissue. Big Data: Large or complex datasets that too difficult to easily analyze with traditional processes including the utilization of predictive analysis for decision making. Cloud Computing: Distributed computing where applications and files can be utilized over the Internet. Digital Badges: Graphic representation of an individual’s accomplishments, interests, or demonstrated skills. Internet of Everything: Connectedness of digital devices to people and processes for improving efficiency. Internet of Things: Connectedness of digital devices into systems where they can communicate. Online Professional Conference: Portions or complete schedule of audio or video of professional presentations, keynote address, and business meetings of a professional conference accessed in real-timethrough Web conferencing technology or archived for on-demand viewing. Real-Time Group Meeting (RTGM): Planned synchronous online meeting of a virtual team for the purpose of reflecting on new content, engage in problem solving, or completing a project or task. Sociomaterial: Having characteristics of both social (represent a shared understanding) and material (document or technical infrastructure) practices.

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 Green Computing through Virtual Learning Environments

Virtual Human Resource Development: Utilizing technologically integrative environments to increase learning capacity and optimizing individual, group, community, work process, and organizational system performance.

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Chapter 2

Quality Preparation of Mathematics and Science Teachers to Integrate ICT:

Lessons from Learner-Centered Teacher Professional Development Approach John Njoroge Mungai Syracuse University, USA

ABSTRACT This chapter clearly illustrates that emphasis on preparation of teachers to integrate ICT is gaining momentum in the education sector. Arguably, underpinning this emphasis is the convergence of assertions that ICT integration has the potential to enhance the quality of teaching and learning. Nonetheless, considering that the debate about effective teaching has overtime existed between two tensions, namely learner-centered and teacher-centered approaches, the additional concern now is how best to prepare teachers to integrate ICT. It is shown in this chapter that the best teaching approach is context specific since it facilitates the teachers’ capacity to enhance student learning through quality teaching. The chapter reviews Teacher Professional Development programs in Sub-Saharan Africa and discusses what constitutes learner-centered education, ICT integration, and provides findings of a case study on preparation of science teachers using ICT.

INTRODUCTION Information Communication Technology (ICT) continues to permeate various aspects of the society today. Apparently, this is motivating the need to enhance integration of ICT in education, which ideally implies using ICT to facilitate effective teaching and learning process (Mishra &

Koehler, 2006). There are numerous advantages associated with ICT in education. Particular to the attainment of Education for All (EFA) is the indication from studies that ICT has the potential to help broaden access to quality education that facilitates meaningful learning (UNESCO, 2007). This realization has intensified the advocacy for teachers to embrace ICT integration in education.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-8170-5.ch002

Copyright © 2015, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

 Quality Preparation of Mathematics and Science Teachers to Integrate ICT

Despite myriad advantages associated with ICT integration, their realization relies on effective ICT integration. This necessitates radical changes on the role of the teacher in the teaching and learning process. In support, Wellington (2000) urged that the teacher’s role becomes an extremely complex one requiring “flexibility and reflection, and often a change of attitude” (p. 219). One probable implication is the need to enhance preparation of teachers in ICT integration. Clearly, effective ICT integration is dependent on how well teachers are prepared to integrate ICT in their teaching. Therefore, it is important that through teacher professional development efforts, teachers encounter experiences that nurture effective ICT integration. This is important considering Levine’s (2006) observation that there are conflicting and competing beliefs globally on “issues as basic as when and where teachers should be educated, who should educate teachers, and what education is most effective in preparing teachers” (p. 12). This is a reasonable concern considering that providing quality education to citizens is a key twenty-first century exigency in socio-economic development agenda of a nation.

Teacher Professional Development in Sub-Saharan Africa Teachers are key determinants for successful integration of ICT in education. Unwin’s (2005) cautioned that “without well-trained, qualified and committed teachers it is impossible to deliver effectively functioning educational systems” (p. 126). Therefore there is a need to ensure that teacher preparation programs prepare teachers effectively in ICT integration. Assess to ongoing and appropriate teacher professional development (TPD) in ICT integration improves teachers’ confidence and competence in using ICT to meet the needs of students (Swarts, 2008). Unfortunately, TPD opportunities for teachers focusing on ICT

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integration globally are inadequate (Mandinach, 2005). This has two implications for sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). First, although teachers may want to learn how to integrate ICT in their classrooms, lack of opportunities for professional development obstructs them. Second, since lack of teacher preparation implies inferior ICT integration, then ICT integration in the teaching of science and mathematics is not achieving intended benefits. Encouragingly, initiatives towards preparation of teachers for ICT integration in sub-Saharan Africa are increasing. These include UNESCO’s Teacher Training Initiative for Sub-Saharan Africa (TTISSA), African Virtual University (AVU) Teacher Education Project, and teacher in-service programs by Centre for Mathematics, Science and Technology Education in Africa (CEMASTEA). Despite these efforts, there are concerns about the extent to which teacher professional development initiatives in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) comply with international professional standards of teacher competency development. In recognition of the need for teachers to acquire competencies that allows them to offer their students learning opportunities supported by technology, and in response to its function as a standard-setting agency, UNESCO (2008) initiated ICT Competency Standards for Teachers (ICT-CST) project. The ICT-CST project defined a broad framework with three approaches geared towards reforming teacher education, namely, Technology Literacy, Knowledge Deepening, and Knowledge Creation. These components can be useful in guiding capacity development of teachers for ICT integration in sub-Saharan Africa. Explaining this further, UNESCO (2008) has articulated respective policy goals for each approach that may be adapted to suit preparation of teachers. First, the policy goal of Technology Literacy is to prepare teachers capable of taking up new technologies to support student learning and improve learning outcomes. Second, the policy goal of Knowledge Deepening

 Quality Preparation of Mathematics and Science Teachers to Integrate ICT

is to increase the ability of teachers to add value to learning by applying the knowledge of school subjects to solve complex, high priority problems encountered in real world situations. Third, the policy goal of Knowledge Creation is to increase productivity by nurturing teachers who continually engage in and benefits from knowledge creation and innovation and life-long learning. There is scarcity of research on the extent to which teacher education programs in SSA have attained this. As part of growing concerns regarding the quality of teacher preparation while commenting on e-Schools program, Unwin (2005) lamented that “as with so many other educational-ICT initiatives in Africa, its focus remains primarily on the importance of giving pupils and teachers ICT skills, rather than on using ICT to enhance their wider learning experiences” (p. 116). Additionally, a survey report on 53 African countries revealed that although most of the countries had some investments in developing the capacity of teachers to integrate IC, most investments involved “development of basic ICT skills, sometimes as an end in itself” (Glen & Isaacs, 2007; p. 33). These criticisms denote the following. First, that TPD in ICT integration in teacher-education is still in its formative stage. Secondly, that ICT integration in education is still a new concept. Thirdly, there is scarcity of teacher educators competent in ICT integration. The fourth is general absence of conceptual clarity on the objectives of teacher professional development in ICT integration, which is a reflection of weak national ICT integration policies in education. Elaborating the later criticism, Mandinach (2005) claimed that lack of clarity is pervasive in education systems globally and that although educational institutions seem to be aware they should be joining the ICT integration movement, significant numbers are still not clear as to the purpose, how to go about it, or the gains. Inadvertently, most proprietors of teacher preparation in Africa adopt the assumption that what works in the West will work for Africa (Swarts, 2008). This assumption has resulted in many SSA

countries simply imitating teacher education curriculum in developed countries without critically looking at what works, why it works, and whether it will work in their own contexts. Consequently, many teachers return to schools ill equipped on how to contextualize ICT integration. In view of these criticisms, Jung (2005) proposed that defining whether the fundamental purpose of teacher education is to achieve transmission or to facilitate transformative practice provides a powerful tool for conceptual analysis about preparation of teachers to integrate ICT. Ideally, quality preparation should translate to preparedness of teachers to integrate ICT in their teaching. Various organizations, such as the International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE), have formulated competency standards for teachers related to preparedness of teachers to integrate ICT. ISTE (2008) has formulated five educational technology standards which stipulate that teachers competent in ICT integration should be in a position to: facilitate and inspire student learning and creativity; design and develop digital-age learning experiences and assessments; model digital-age work and learning; promote and model digital citizenship and responsibility; and engage in professional growth and leadership. In consideration to contextual needs of teachers in sub-Saharan Africa, these competency standards can form a good basis of deciding the best approach to use, or upgrading existing teacher education curriculum. As science and mathematics teachers continue being prepared for ICT integration through various teacher education initiatives in SSA and as the search for best teacher preparation approach continues (Unwin, 2005), it is important to note that teacher preparation is context specific. As such, it is logical to suppose that current teacher preparation approaches in sub-Saharan Africa have varying degrees of success in preparing teachers for ICT integration, which can provide useful lessons to the rest of the world as far as preparing teachers to integrate ICT.

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 Quality Preparation of Mathematics and Science Teachers to Integrate ICT

ICT Integration in Learner Centered Education Beyond the ICT integration competency standards fronted by UNESCO (2008) and ISTE (2008), when considering what constitutes quality preparation of teachers to integrate ICT, it is important to note that teaching has overtime existed between two tensions, namely, learner centered and teacher centered models. Teacher preparation approaches should take this in consideration and help teachers rationalize situations appropriate for each model. Although teacher-centered model, which regards the teacher as the direct provider of knowledge and students as mere recipients (Pritchard, 2006), is appropriate in certain situations, current debates advocate for the reduction of the amount of direct instruction during teaching as a way of increasing active participation of learners in construction of knowledge (Larson & Keiper, 2007). Arguably, some educationists perceive this form of learnercentered approach as the most appropriate in as far as enhancing student learning is concerned. Consequently, with the intention of promoting quality education, emerging practices in teacher education are increasingly focusing on preparing teachers for ICT integration in learner centered education. Quality education demands the kind of teaching and learning that promotes meaningful learning. For ICT integration to facilitate this, teachers require an understanding of the mutually reinforcing relationships between subject matter, pedagogy, technology and how they can be taken together to develop appropriate, context specific strategies and representations to enhance students’ learning (Koehler, Mishra, & Yahya, 2007). Mishra and Koehler (2006) refer this essential professional literacy as Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK). Generally, the TPACK framework entails a repertoire of knowledge, skills and attitudes concerning ICT integration, i.e., what ICT to use, when, how, and when not to. Such a framework necessitates refocusing

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existing teaching and learning approaches in order to establish a balance that will enhance meaningful learning. Irujo (2007) described meaningful learning as geared towards assisting learners to develop high order thinking, explain their reasoning, and use of strategies to arrive at solutions and Novak, Mintzes, and Wandersee (2000) explained that it occurs when learners seek to relate new concepts and propositions to relevant existing concepts and propositions in their cognitive structures. Thus, there is urgent need to revolutionize learner-centered approaches through effective ICT integration. One way of revolutionizing our classrooms practices is adopting learner-centered pedagogies that focus ICT integration to engage learners actively in the teaching-learning process. These pedagogical paradigms are those that prioritize the needs, skills, and interests of the learner in a given lesson. Norman and Spohrer (1996) best described such pedagogies as exercising learner centered education (LCE) where emphasis is on “the learner and real problems rather than on the structured analysis of the curriculum contentthough both are clearly necessary” (p. 26). Promoting LCE in an ICT integrated lesson entails shifting emphasis from ‘instrumental understanding’ to ‘conceptual and relational understanding’ (Skemp, 1976), i.e., teaching concepts not as isolated pieces of information but rather facilitating learners in establishing linkages among concepts and everyday life experiences. Achieving this requires teachers to confront their perceptions of the role of the teacher in the classroom and to adopt the belief that teaching is the facilitation of understanding (Steketee, 2005). This is because the teacher’s own pedagogical beliefs, biases and values-whether leaning towards teacher centered or learner centered approach, play an important part in shaping technology-mediated learning opportunities (Cox, et al., 2003). This is particularly important in contexts, where there is much emphasis on high stake summative examinations. In such contexts direct instruction that facilitates

 Quality Preparation of Mathematics and Science Teachers to Integrate ICT

instrumental understanding and cramming of concepts takes precedence over meaningful learning. Propagating an examination driven teaching and learning in teacher education is setting up a scenario that reduces the role of ICT in teaching to remain at the level of presenting ineffective teaching approaches in new ways. Rather, at the heart of teacher preparation programme for ICT integration in LCE is the addition of value to the prospective teacher’s ability to face challenges of facilitating meaningful learning. In this regard, TPD opportunities should focus the teacher in availing the following opportunities in ICT integration in LCE science and mathematics lessons. First is availing the learner an opportunity to interact with the content, for example, searching online additional information relevant to the concept under study. Secondly, promoting learner’s interaction with the ICT facilities, for example, conducting a project and making a power point presentation to others. Thirdly, enhancing learner’s interaction with significant others, especially the teachers and fellow students, in exchanging academic ideas. Social networks like tweeter, Facebook, and academic networks like Moodle can offer necessary platforms for sharing academic concepts. Explaining these opportunities further, suppose one is to teach pupils in upper primary school using an ICT integrated lesson about how external parts of a cockroach helps it to adapt in the environment. In keeping in line with learner-centered approach several things need to be done. Importantly, learners need to visualize the cockroach. This can be facilitated using a picture of a cockroach. However, a more appropriate decision would be to bring, or better still, ask learners to bring cockroach specimens. One would then require learners in manageable groups to scrutinize these specimens to identify and draw the respective external parts. One may also consider showing learners a simulation clip showing how various external part of a cockroach facilitates its environmental adaptation. As they watch the simulation clip, learners may

write down the external parts and their respective functions. After watching the clip, the teacher may harmonize what the learners have written. A follow up activity may involve learners searching, via internet, further information about cockroaches and their adaptations in different habitats and then report their findings to the class. This example of learner-centered education ICT integration scenario enhances three opportunities: learner-learner and teacher-learner interactions, learner’s interaction with the content, and learner’s interaction with ICT. As reflected in this scenario, in the interest of promoting access and quality education to learners, teachers ought to integrate ICT in a manner that facilitates the three opportunities. This will inherently ease the tension between the two paradigms, that is, learner centered and teacher centered approaches. It is incumbent upon the teacher to identify the appropriate ICT to teach a given concept. To do this effectively, Wellington (2000) emphasized that teachers “need to be able to judge when the use of ICT is effective and beneficial and when its use is ineffective and inappropriate” (p. 195).

QUALITY TEACHER PREPARATION AT ACADEMIA The subsequent section is a case study research on quality preparation of mathematics and science teachers at ACADEMIA (pseudonym of a private university) to integrate ICT.

Background Apparently, in response to criticisms concerning the scarcity of quality TPD opportunities for ICT integration and lack of documentation of best practice models for preparing teachers in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), studies focusing on preparation of teachers for ICT integration are emergent. An example is the research study focusing on in-service preparation of science

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 Quality Preparation of Mathematics and Science Teachers to Integrate ICT

and mathematics by Njoroge (2010). The study explored the practice at ACADEMIA of engaging science and mathematics teacher educators, referred to as professional development teachers (TPD), in professional development activities that included ICT integration. The case study involved assessment of the preparation of graduate teachers to become professional development teachers (PDT) within the context of three in-service courses namely, Mathematics Education, Science Education, and ICT in Education.

Research Context and Problem ACADEMIA is a private university in Tanzania, East Africa region, with a unique focus on provision of teacher professional development (TPD) to graduate teachers drawn from the three East African countries, namely, Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda). At the time of this research study, the university was offering a six month Certificate of Education Program and a two-year full-time Master of Education (MEd) program to science and mathematics graduate teachers. The various courses in the TPD programs expose participants to contemporary ways of teaching and learning, which include ICT integration. The ultimate intention is that the graduates eventually will form a critical mass to ultimately improve education standards in the region by implementing effective classroom practices in their own teaching and facilitating professional development of other teachers in ICT integration in their respective countries and schools. Assuming that the initiative are geared towards enhancing quality education in the region, and if the preparation of the professional development teachers for ICT integration is integral to the achievement of this goal, then one important concern is understanding the extent to which the course participants are offered necessary experiences that enhance their preparedness to integrate ICT, in learner-centered approaches.

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Research Problem The research at ACADEMIA was in response to UNESCO’s (2010) suggestion that it is imperative to offer informed support to in-service preparation of teachers as a way of guaranteeing quality. Ideally, informed support emanates from reviewing relevant literature and critique of existing contextual practices of preparing teachers for ICT integration. However, focusing on developing countries, infoDev (2010) reports the scarcity of quality TPD opportunities for ICT integration and lack of documentation of best practice models for preparing teachers. Seemingly, though there are TPD initiatives in the East Africa region, there is insufficient documentation of plausible practice models. Specifically, there is insufficient documentation of essential attributes an in-service course on ICT integration in the region should have in this context to draw useful lessons for dissemination to interested education stakeholders. Therefore, there is need to document contextual attributes of existing TPD initiatives to act as a frame of reference to interested stakeholders participating in teacher education.

Research Purpose In view of the research problem, this study set out to examine the practice of preparing professional development teachers for ICT integration at ACADEMIA and ultimately document contextually useful lessons, if any, in form of a model of teacher professional development program for reference to interested education stakeholders. The main research question “How are science and mathematics teacher educators prepared for ICT integration in the Science Education, Mathematics Education, and ICT in Education in-service courses conducted at ACADEMIA?” was answered through two subsidiary questions: 1) What attributes related to ICT integration are science and mathematics teacher educators exposed to in the respective in-service courses? 2)

 Quality Preparation of Mathematics and Science Teachers to Integrate ICT

What additional attributes, if any, are required to enhance the in-service courses in preparing science and mathematics teacher educators for ICT integration? A theoretical-framework to determine what constituted quality preparation of teachers to integrate ICT at ACADEMIA included issues already discussed in the preceding sections of this paper. In addition, others included attention to human factors influence towards ICT integration, types of ICT that professional development teachers were exposed to, ICT integration frameworks such as Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) (Mishra & Koehler, 2006), Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) (Davis, 1989), and 4-E model (Collis & Moonen, 2001).

METHOD Research Strategy This research documented a sample model of practice for preparing professional development teachers to integrate ICT. This task necessitated an integrated analysis of theory and existing practices at ACADEMIA. In such a situation, Yin (2003) recommended the use of a case study research strategy when the empirical inquiry sets out to investigate “a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context” (p. 13). Further, Cohen, Manion, and Morrison (2006) viewed a case study research as a purposive in-depth investigation to the characteristics of a unit in order to analyze varied phenomena that constitute the unit. At ACADEMIA, there were multiple units of analysis involved. These included the in-service courses, lecturers, and the professional development teachers. These intrinsic units exemplify the contemporary phenomenon at ACADEMIA and therefore made the case study a single case embedded (Gray, 2009). An intrinsic single case study, like ACADEMIA, when studied singly avails the opportunity to study its uniqueness in detail (Creswell, 2007) and eventually yields

insights that can have wider applications that would have remained implicit through coverage of a large number of instances (Denscombe, 2003). Therefore, considering the nature of the contemporary phenomena under investigation and the suitability of ACADEMIA as a research site in view of the explanation of case study by Yin (2003) and Cohen, Manion, and Morrison (2006), it was appropriate to adopt a single case study research strategy.

Research Site, Sample, and Sampling Procedures ACADEMIA was purposively selected for the empirical study to investigate a contemporary phenomenon, namely, preparation of professional development teachers for ICT integration. Achieving this necessitated an in-depth probing and understanding of meanings ascribed to various aspects of the selected courses. Therefore, relevant documents and ICT facilities used to prepare PDTs; lecturers’ instructional design and practices in respective courses; and the students’ works including their views of the content, and process of courses became important data avenues in this research. Research participants included lecturer in charge of the courses and respective PDT. The lecturers included Alpha, Beta, Gamma (pseudonyms) in-charge of Science Education, Mathematics Education, and ICT in Education respectively. However, Gamma declined to participate in the research in as far as interviews and answering of questionnaires were concerned. Out of the six MEd students in the Teacher Education specialization being prepared to be science and mathematics teacher educators, only five were available and agreed voluntarily to participate in the research. One PDT in the Educational Leadership and Management specialization with a science and mathematics background in teaching, and also undertaking the ICT in Education course, was purposively selected. Six PDTs available for

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 Quality Preparation of Mathematics and Science Teachers to Integrate ICT

the study included Moja, Mbili, Tatu, Nne, and Tano (pseudonyms).

Data Collection Procedure The proposition that guided data collection and analysis in this research was that the in-service courses at ACADEMIA had attributes which prepared professional development teachers for ICT integration according to professional standards. The theoretical framework in the literature review provided themes such as preparation for ICT integration and attention to human factor influences. These were used as the basis of examining the in-service courses in respect to this proposition. Additionally, the themes were used to formulate items in all the data collection instruments. However, there was flexibility during data collection, which involved probing during interviews and inclusion of open-ended questions in the questionnaires to allow additional themes to emerge. Unavoidably, data collection missed classroom observations of the actual process of preparing professional development teachers for ICT integration because the data collection period did not coincide with actual course sessions. Data collection was in two phases. Phase 1 included self-administered questionnaire for lecturers and students and document analysis. Self-administered method was preferred in order to allow respondent to answer at his or her own convenient time. While close-ended items looked for specific information, open questions were included to probe deeper and give room for respondents to express themselves more. Course documents availed to the researcher, as listed in the preceding sampling section, were analyzed using a document analysis framework (DAF) informed by the theoretical framework outlining what constitutes quality teacher preparation to integrate ICT. Students’ works on Moodle site accessed using the guest password provided by Gamma and were analyzed using the DAF. Analysis of ICT facilities in the library and ICT

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department outlets (Computer laboratory, IT store, and lecture rooms) involved use of an ICT facilities analysis framework (IFAF). The course documents and students works on Moodle site were chosen because their documentation was stable and could therefore be reviewed repeatedly without alteration (Yin, 2003). Secondly, they were a probable reflection of the existing practice of preparing professional development teachers for ICT integration. Further, they were unobtrusive and unbiased since they had not been created for the purpose of the case study (Gray 2009). After an initial data analysis of phase 1, some of the findings informed the second phase of data collection. This was a deliberate measure to guard against possible subjective reality of the respondents and the researcher as an insider researcher. Interviews lasting between 45 minutes to 1 hour were the main sources of data in phase 2. They were necessary to corroborate data from first phase and suitable for probing meanings ascribed to different attributes of the respective courses. This was useful in authenticating meanings obtained from the first phase, which is an effort towards obtaining an uncontested data (Creswell, 2007). Alpha and Beta were interviewed once on different days in their respective offices using similar interview guides. Only Moja and Mbili were available for interview on different days. Thus, they were interviewed individually once using similar interview schedules. Interview with Moja mainly focused on ICT-Education course and that with Mbili on Mathematics and Science Education courses. A digital audio recording device was used during the interviews to capture and store authentic data. Short notes were also taken during the interview to enrich the transcriptions (Rubin & Rubin, 2005). Semi-structured interviews were used because they gave the researcher flexibility to probe respondents further depending on the nature of responses given (Wilkinson & Birmingham, 2003) and gave individual interviewees the scope to follow their own thread of thinking (Evans, 2009).

 Quality Preparation of Mathematics and Science Teachers to Integrate ICT

Data Analysis Framework As discussed in the data collection section, empirical data was collected via multiple sources in two phases. Analysis of data from all the sources necessitated the use of a framework. Figure 1 is a visual overview of the data analysis framework used. The framework was an iterative modification of Wolcott’s (1994) framework cited in Biggam (2008) three step procedure of data analysis, namely, description, analysis, and interpretation. The iterative modification was necessary for this qualitative analysis for the purpose of capturing and understanding themes related to preparation of professional development teachers for ICT integration. First, findings from each source were documented in form of descriptive memos, which involved sorting data into categories that had

identifiable recurring characteristics. Secondly, these memos were read repeatedly and in the process, which was iterative, connections, variations and singularities of categories were established (cross-referencing). Thereafter, data reduction involving clustering and converging of categories into major themes (triangulation) followed and then interpretation.

Findings and Discussions The case study was undertaken to explore three in-service courses in relation to their attributes of preparing SMTE for ICT integration. This ensuing section presents a discussion of the findings which include: Facilitation of preparation for ICT integration, Re-conceptualization of teaching profession, preparation approaches.

Figure 1. Qualitative data analysis framework

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 Quality Preparation of Mathematics and Science Teachers to Integrate ICT

Facilitation of Preparation for ICT Integration Lecturers and support staff contributed in the preparation of PDT for ICT integration. Each course had a course leader at the rank of a lecturer. Among other obligations, the lecturers were responsible for the designing of the respective courses. However, as Beta articulated, lecturers required specialized preparation on ICT integration. Beta: What we are doing we are bolting ICT on the [mathematics education] course….our CPs need to learn to do their course using ICT. We shouldn’t only talk about ICT in our mathematics course….and for that you need to have well prepared personnel in terms of teacher education. I am not well prepared for that. I have never been trained for that. I have not undergone a program to prepare me to prepare others….and therefore it all depends on my own instincts, my own vision, My own understanding. Which is not bad but of course, it has some shortcomings (Interview Excerpt: 07-05-2010). This reflects one of the challenges facing some teacher preparation programs in Africa, which is lack of ICT-trained teacher educators to transform teacher preparation (SchoolNet Africa, 2004). Although Unwin (2005) echoed the need to have professionally prepared teachers in ICT integration, without well-trained, qualified and committed teacher educators it is impossible to deliver effective functioning teacher education systems. Considering that student-teachers tend to mimic the practices and beliefs of their tutor (Steketee, 2005), and noting that “where [lecturers] are in a skills-developing situation themselves, the role of ICT in teaching is likely to remain at the level of presenting old teaching in new ways” (McNair & Galanouli, 2002; p.191), it is important to have lecturers who have advanced professional literacy in preparation of PDT for ICT integration to possibly enhance effective training.

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Support staffs, which included the ICT department and library personnel, also played a role in the preparation of PDT for ICT integration. The ICT department had two personnel who offered technical support that included setting up ICT facilities, repair and maintenance of ICT facilities. Further, on request they offered orientation on basic operational skills of available ICT. Similarly, there were two library personnel who offered assistance related to online information search and basic operation skills of some of the ICT facilities. Having support staff who compliment lecturers’ efforts is crucial in the preparation of PDT for ICT integration. This is because they offer necessary technical support that might be unfamiliar to lecturers thus saving alleviating technical frustrations and wastage of time, which are barriers to ICT integration. However, presence of technical support staff is not a substitute to professional development of lecturers. In advocating for lecturers to have support staff in the preparation of teachers for ICT integration, Collis and Moonen (2001) recommended support during the preparation of the course, assistance during course execution, and support related to the library services, and technological infrastructure available for use in the teaching process.

Exposure to ICT Facilities Findings from questionnaires and inventory records indicated that a variety of ICTs were available for preparing PDT for ICT integration. These facilities were conveniently placed and accessible to PDT for use during class time and private studies. Entries in the ICT analysis framework showed that there were ICT facilities located in the computer laboratory, ICT department offices, lecture rooms, and library. Further, there was free access to internet (wireless and LAN) in the computer laboratory, library, lecturers’ offices, and students’ hostels. The librarians provided passwords for accessing online libraries and information databases. There were specific

 Quality Preparation of Mathematics and Science Teachers to Integrate ICT

ICT that were only available on request from the library and the ICT department. These included Graphing Calculators and Video camera in the ICT department, and TVs and DVDs in the library’s multimedia section. There was a specific lecture room for conducting Mathematics Education and Science Education lectures. This was equipped with four computers that had, among others, CABRI Geometry software installed. Other ICT facilities were made available in this room by support staffs on prior request. Table 1 shows a summary of specific ICT facilities reported in the questionnaires and the course handbooks evidently used. The findings suggest that PDT were exposed to an environment rich with ICT in comparison to the status of access to ICT in their respective contexts. In as much as many of the PDT came from contexts where availability of ICT facilities for teaching and learning are inadequate, it is important that they do not encounter the scarcity during teacher preparation. In respect to the 4-E model, while emphasizing on the need to expose teachers in an ICT rich environment, Collis and Moonen (2001) argued that environmental factor determines the level of an individual’s likelihood of making use of a given ICT. If PDTs are exposed to an environment rich with a variety of ICT and if they are accorded time and tasks that allow them to use these ICT, then it is likely they will acquire basic ICT operational skills and enhance the propensity to integrate the ICT in their future teaching. In support, Collis and Jung (2003) noted

that most teachers tend to integrate ICT in their teaching if they experience ICT skills as learners. Similarly, Steketee (2005) added that introduction of various ICT to graduating teachers during their preparation increases their willingness to integrate ICT later. Explaining this further, in respect to Technology Acceptance Model by Davis (1989), such a rich environment where PDT acquire not only ICT operational skills, but also knowledge and skills of integrating the ICT, facilitates nurturing of perceived ease of use and usefulness of integrating the respective ICT. Contextually Accessible ICT Facilities: There were efforts in the courses in regard to preparing teachers to integrate contextually accessible ICT in their respective subject areas. In fact Beta had made a deliberate effort to include GeoGebra in the mathematics course because of the potential of its accessibility by teachers. Beta: What we expose…in-service teachers to must be available in the schools otherwise it is not going to be useful….CABRI is a proprietor software…so if you go back to your context you may not factor that in to your budget and therefore it may not be available and you cannot use it…so starting from this cohort I intend to switch over to GeoGebra that is a free software…if we use it here with our CPs we will have increased the possibility of extending it to the classroom because they only need internet access and this days you can connect to the internet using a phone (Interview Excerpt: 07-05-2010).

Table 1. ICT facilities evidently used in the courses Course

ICT Facilities Hardware

Software

Mathematics Education

Computers, Graphing Calculators

CABRI Geometry, GeoGebra, Spread sheet, Word processor

Science Education

Computers

Multimedia simulations, Elluminate, Power Point

ICT in Education

Computers

Internet, Moodle, Multimedia simulations

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 Quality Preparation of Mathematics and Science Teachers to Integrate ICT

As more and more ICT continue to emerge and have relevant application in education it is necessary to have in place preparation programs that expose teachers to ICT operational skills (BECTA, 2004). Exposing PDT to new ICT operational skills is in line with UNESCO’s (2008) ICT-CST policy goal of Technology Literacy approach. It emphasizes preparation of PDT capable of taking up new technologies so as to support student learning and improve learning outcomes. However, much focus should be on exposure to ICT that are accessible to teachers. It would be unproductive to spend a great deal of time and resources to prepare PDT to integrate ICT that are not accessible to them. Although the need for preparation on contextually available ICT is important, it should not be at the expense of other emerging ICT. As Mishra and Koehler (2006) advised, attention should also be on the teachers’ ability to learn and adapt to new technologies since technology is continually changing rapidly and therefore a biased preparation of “teachers to use specific software packages not only makes their knowledge too specific to be applied broadly, but it also becomes quickly outdated” (p. 1032).

Re-Conceptualization of Teaching Profession Re-conceptualization of the teaching profession was attended to in the various courses in four ways, namely, Broadening Teachers’ Perception of Education; Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge; Attention to Human Factors; and Use of ICT for Professional Development.

Broadening of Teachers’ Perception of Education: A teacher’s broader perception of education is perhaps a more useful indicator of that teacher’s ability, and even desire, to integrate ICT in their teaching (Wang, 2002). Bearing this assertion in mind, there were particular constructs within the three courses that aimed to assist PDT to re-conceptualize their teaching practice. This included attempts in form of objectives, aims, and themes outlined in the respective course schedules (samples in Table 2) meant to broaden their perception of education, and how Mathematics, Science and ICT fitted in within the education spectrum. Inference here is that once Mathematics Education and Science Education courses assist PDT to understand what mathematics is and nature of science is respectively, ICT in Education would then facilitate their understanding of the place of ICT in teaching and learning of mathematics and science. This is in line with Wellington (2000) suggestion that teachers should first be clear about the “teaching objectives in science [and mathematics] and how they can be matched to, or enhanced by, the use of ICT” (p. 219). Broadening of PDTs’ perception of education is important if they are to effectively integrate ICT. The broadening aspect in the courses extended towards refocusing PDTs role in the learning process. This included emphasis on constructivism approaches in teaching where the teacher assumes a facilitative role and actively engages learners in their own learning (Larson & Keiper, 2007). This was necessitated by the need to mitigate misuse of teacher-centered approaches as revealed during interview with Beta:

Table 2. Broadening teachers perception of education ICT in Education The place of ICT in teaching and learning, ICT policies and practices in education-the East African perspective, Application of ICT integration frameworks (ICT E Course handbook)

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Mathematics Education Review of what mathematics is and what mathematics teaching and learning entails in different socio-cultural contexts (ME course handbook).

Science Education Nature of science, Role of context, culture, and globalization in science and science education (SE course handbook).

 Quality Preparation of Mathematics and Science Teachers to Integrate ICT

Beta: Many [teachers] think that coverage of syllabus works against teaching for conceptual [and] relational understanding….teachers look for ways of short circuiting effective teaching…and at the end…you…finish the syllabus…just superficially…you have not moved with the students…. if you were to ask…some tricky questions which require real understanding you might find out that these students will have problems in responding to this question. Researcher: How does this course help to deal with this challenge of short circuiting? Beta: We sensitize them [PDT]…show them some short comings of teaching for syllabus coverage instead of teaching for conceptual [understanding]. We try to give scenarios which portray teaching for coverage negatively and teaching for conceptual understanding positively. (Interview Excerpt, 07-05-2010). The sensitization highlighted by Beta in Mathematics Education incorporated practical tasks as outlined in this assignment: Cps will observe teachers teaching a mathematics lesson and they will identify instances when teachers use algorithmic approach to teaching mathematical concepts at hand. After this, CPs will write a paper discussing how the same mathematical concepts could be taught for conceptual and relational understanding (Mathematics Education Course Handbook p. 6). Teaching for conceptual and relational understanding of mathematics concepts intended in the task cited is a learner-centered approach to teaching and learning. The teacher engages the learner in constructing mathematical concepts from simple to complex aspects, guiding them in the process of figuring out what to do and why. Unlike in the instances where there is misuse of traditional teaching, where the focus is on the teacher to merely complete the syllabus, teaching for conceptual understanding is a constructivism

approach that assists students to develop high order thinking, explain their reasoning and use of certain strategies to arrive at solutions (Irujo, 2007). Similar tasks related to constructivism were present in the Science Education course as the task below probably indicates: This [first assignment] comprise a write up based on data collected in the school based investigation of children’s alternative frameworks in learning science. To do this you will have visited a school to collect data will have worked as a group during the data collection, the analyses and write-ups will be done individually. This [second] assignment is critical reflection essay on your own teaching practice; it will therefore be a self study/evaluation of own teaching. In doing this assignment, you will be required to argue out a plan on how to teach for conceptual change and understanding in a selected problematic area. In doing this assignment therefore, you will first select a problematic area in one of your science teaching subjects (Science Education Course Handbook). Teaching science for understanding requires a constructivism approach which Osborne and Hennessy (2003) viewed as a move towards “teaching about science rather than teaching its content” (p. 4). In relation to constructivism, this advocacy implies that teachers have to involve learners in constructing their understanding of scientific concepts. One way of involving learners is establishing their alternative frameworks (AF) towards scientific concepts. Thereafter engage them in a process of abandoning their AF, if they are wrong, or building on the AF, if they are in line with acceptable scientific knowledge, to bring about the understanding of concepts. This aspect of involving learners to establish correct AF and focusing teaching to bring about conceptual change is an attribute of constructivism evident in this assignment task. Considering the benefits of learner centered teaching and learning, the preparation of teach-

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 Quality Preparation of Mathematics and Science Teachers to Integrate ICT

ers for ICT integration should underscore a constructivist model. This model requires teachers to confront their perceptions of the role of the teacher in the classroom and to adopt the belief that teaching is the facilitation of understanding (Steketee, 2005). Mathematics and Science Education courses addressed this via the two tasks outlined as conceptual understanding and conceptual change. Emphasis for teachers to adopt constructivism approach in teaching and learning of mathematics and science might eventually prepare PDT to understand how ICT can further facilitate their new role. Otherwise, the role of ICT in teaching is likely to remain at the level of presenting old teaching styles in new ways (McNair & Galanouli, 2002). Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge: Further efforts towards assisting PDT to re-conceptualize the teaching practice took the form of addressing their mastery of content and pedagogical development. Two course handbooks indicated schedules where series of subject matter knowledge were reviewed. For Mathematics Education, these included numbers, geometry, and algebra. In Science Education, the topics included force, cell, and periodic table. Covering of these topics was done together with an exploration of possible pedagogies of teaching these concepts, which included ICT integration. For example, the following schedule outlines how PDT were taken through the concept of Geometry. Exploration of Basic Concepts in Geometry: Under this a discussion of the following subthemes will be undertaken: essential geometric elements; the point; the line segment; the ray; the straight line; the concept of intersection of lines; the plane angle, measurement of plane angles; unit of plane angles; plane figures; use of algebra in solving geometry problems; interior and exterior angles of a plane figure….Geometric shapes will be approached by studying the characteristics of plane and how 2D geometric figures can be conceptualized; studying the space and how 3D geometric figures can be conceptualized; projec-

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tions of 3D figures onto the plane; correspondences between 2D and 3D geometric figures. Cps will also explore the functions of CABRI software. Course participants will have an opportunity to reflect on the use of the interactive software CABRI to study a number of geometrical concepts including: construction of plane geometrical figures, transformation (translations, dilations, and rotations), studying intersection of lines (Mathematics Education Course Handbooks 1 p. 4 & 2 pp. 4 & 6) If this schedule was followed then it is likely that PDT learnt geometry and how to teach it for conceptual and relational understanding, i.e., starting from the basic concept of a point to the more complex concept of 3D geometry. Additionally, if they used CABRI software for teaching geometry then they probably also acquired basic knowledge and skills of integrating ICT in teaching geometry. Ideally, in as far as geometry is concerned, this schedule facilitated PDT to conceptualize the relationship between content, pedagogy and technology. The assumption here is that the PDT had also been exposed to the additional preparation that was offered in the ICT in Education course that included an understanding of “the place of ICT in teaching and learning” and “application of integration frameworks for critical analysis of ICT use in education” (ICT in Education Course Handbook, p. 2). A successful TPD is influenced by the degree to which the course focuses on improving and deepening teachers’ content knowledge. Content knowledge is important because the way ICT is used in lessons is influenced by the teachers’ knowledge about their subject and how ICT is related to it (Cox et al., 2003). Further, evidence from research literature shows that teachers’ pedagogies and pedagogical reasoning influence their uses of ICT and thereby pupils’ attainment (Cox et al.). Nonetheless, most teachers in Africa are victims of inadequate exposure to appropriate pedagogies for effective ICT integration in teaching during their initial teacher preparation

 Quality Preparation of Mathematics and Science Teachers to Integrate ICT

(Unwin, 2005). This lack of ICT focus in initial teacher education is a barrier to teachers’ use of what is available in the classroom during teaching practice (BECTA, 2004). This was evident from the interview with Moja who despite having access to ICT in his context, his teaching practice lacked ICT integration: “those ICTs as much as they are there…they are not [be] part and parcel of the way you are actually trained [to] teach…. you fail to use them because you don’t see how you can fit them” (Interview Excerpt, 06-06-2010). The implication therefore is to ensure that inservice courses play an intervention role; that of facilitating PDT to understand the relationship between content, pedagogy, and technology. Seemingly, this was the objective as is evident in the preceding task cited from Mathematics Education course. This relationship is probably best explained in a framework of ICT integration, what Mishra and Koehler (2008) referred to as technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK). Efforts towards professional literacy in the courses were characterized by opportunities for mastery of subject matter and introduction to specific contemporary pedagogies of teaching the respective subject matter that included ICT integration. Preparing PDT to acquire such professional literacy is important for effective ICT integration. Therefore attending to PDTs’ subject matter knowledge needs and upgrading their repertoire of pedagogical skills is crucial in a TPD for ICT integration to avoid redundancy of the ICT operational skills acquired. Attention to Human Factors: Human factors such as attitude, confidence, and perception are important predictors to the likelihood of teachers integrating ICT in teaching (Smarkola, 2007). There was evidence that the nature and composition of the courses addressed the human factor influences in relation to ICT integration. First evidence is in respect to questionnaire responses. For example, all the six PDT answered yes to the question “Do you intend to integrate ICT in your future practice?” Respective explanations given by

PDT regarding their responses depicted an understanding of various affordances of ICT integration and a positive attitude towards ICT integration in teaching of science and mathematics. Moja’s sentiment during the interview exemplifies this: I think ICT integration…is a very good idea…. The more you integrate the more you get…students interested in what you are teaching….teaching with ICT will be the best way to go….I have tasted teaching without it and I know where the loopholes are….if ICT is used I might be able to be more effective (Interview Excerpt, 06-06-2010). Further, Mbili expressed similar sentiments by stating “I prefer to use ICT….because it enables students to see things that cannot be brought physically in the classroom….students will be able to internalize abstract concepts” (Interview Excerpt, 06-06-2010). The intention of PDTs to integrate ICT was clear despite the possibility that some of them may not have access to ICT in the classroom when they go back to their context. This possibility of inadequate ICT infrastructures did not seem to affect their positive attitude and intention to use ICT. Similar findings have been found in other research. For example, Sime and Priestley (2005) found that “even when resources were limited and access [to ICT] was problematic…the individual teachers’ attitude was the vital factor in determining ICT use” (p. 137). Further, in their study of influences on pre-service teachers’ preparedness to use ICT, Gill and Dalgarno (2008) found that “the nature and composition of teacher preparation programs does impact significantly on pre-service teacher beliefs and attitudes and consequently their preparedness to use ICTs in classrooms”(p. 333). Although Gill and Dalgarno (2008) focused on pre-service programs, findings from this empirical research on PDT suggest that similar results may be extended to in-service programs. The nature of these courses, discussed in the preceding sections, was such that PDT are not only exposed to a variety of ICT, they are also prepared on ICT

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 Quality Preparation of Mathematics and Science Teachers to Integrate ICT

integration skills and provided with opportunities for practical application for ICT integration. According to Technology Acceptance Model (Davis, 1989), when in an ICT rich environment like the one provided by ACADEMIA, the nurturing of perceived usefulness (PU) and perceived ease of use (PEoU) is probable, which further influence the attitude, intention to integrate ICT and actual ICT integration (Gill & Dalgarno, 2008). BECTA (2004) claimed that one key area of teachers’ attitudes towards the use of technologies is their understanding of how these technologies will benefit their teaching and students’ learning. Whereas it is likely correct to conclude that the nature and composition of the courses had influenced PDT to have a positive attitude towards ICT, the confidence level did not probably match the level of positive attitude. Evidently, during interview sessions, Moja and Mbili seemed a bit careful in their responses to a question about their level of confidence. Moja stated “In terms of confidence I could say that I am yet to find out. Right now I cannot say I am that confident….I can say that I am confident in terms of knowing what I want to do…” whereas Mbili stated “Let’s say if you rate in percentage…I am at fifty percent” (interviews excerpts, 06-06- 2010). The hesitation regarding the level of confidence points out the need to improve on the nature and composition of the courses. For example, in my view availing more opportunities for hands on activities and authentic practical application of ICT integration in real classroom settings during practicum would probably boost the confidence level of PDT. Use of ICT for Professional Development: Analysis of course handbooks revealed that the courses provided opportunities for PDT to learn how to engage in professional development of themselves and other teachers. In particular, they were introduced to the use of ICT for professional development. Evidently, there were authentic tasks in Science Education and ICT in Education courses related to use of ICT for professional development. A sample task in Science Education

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course incorporating ICT integration for professional development read as follows: You are given the opportunity to select a contextually relevant issue in science education. You are required to write a paper on this issue for presentation to a selected audience comprising Science teachers and educators. This task consists of a presentation (A power point presentation) to an audience through Elluminate (virtual setting). The presentation is to be Peer-assessed by participants (Science Education Course Handbook pp. 12-13). A similar task in the ICT in Education in part stated the following: Each CP to generate two discussions…Moodle Discussion Forum. One discussion will be on an emerging issue in the integration of ICT in education in the developing world; and the second to generate debate on a learning object sourced from the internet or library (ICT in Education Course Handbook, p. 3). Further analysis of students’ work on Moodle site revealed that PDTs subsequently generated a database that had links to useful website resources. They also engaged in relevant discussions such as ICT policies and practices in East Africa, and collaborative online learning. Gamma, the ICT in Education lecturer, also engaged PDT in online discussions, gave online tasks, and offered individualized assistance online. The discussions in Moodle site and presentation on Elluminate are a reflection of a learning community that aids teacher professional development. Steketee (2005) described such forums as types of communal partnership within which learners, together with their facilitator and resources, construct new knowledge and understandings. This was important considering that PDTs are expected to facilitate the professional development of other teachers in future. Further, the tasks provided a forum for “a learning community in the classroom

 Quality Preparation of Mathematics and Science Teachers to Integrate ICT

in which students are continuously engaged in building their own and each others’ learning skills” (UNESCO, 2008, p. 8). As Jung (2005) pointed out, South Africa has advanced in TPD because it has “developed extensive online resources and encouraged active exchanges of new pedagogical ideas to upgrade teachers’ knowledge and skills at the national or international level” (p. 99). This is in line with UNESCO’s (2008) ICT-CST policy goal of Knowledge Creation approach, which infers that PDT should be prepared to continually engage in and benefit from knowledge creation, innovation and life-long professional development.

effective tool themselves. In the two courses, this approach focused on knowledge of the learning technologies that offer affordances to particular content areas. For example, in Mathematics Education PDT were introduced to integration of CABRI for teaching geometry. In Science Education, PDTs were introduced to ICT integration in teaching about HIV/AIDS as articulated by Alpha. Alpha stated “….to teach health education…about HIV/ AIDS….so you want them [PDT] to be able to go to search engines, be able to locate the information at the internet. So you give them a task” (Interview Excerpt, 28-04-2010). This approach emphasizes that teachers need to know not just the subject matter they teach but also the manner in which the subject matter can be changed by the application of technology” (Mishra & Kohler, 2006). ICT in Education was an elective course to all PDTs. The practical tasks designed were inconsideration of the diverse composition of the course participants. The following is an excerpt of a practical task that catered for both specializations. The task also signifies the ICT pedagogy approach used by this course, perhaps owing to the diversity in the entry behavior of the course participants:

Preparation Approaches for ICT Integration Analysis of findings from the questionnaires and respective course handbooks in relation to the teaching methods, tasks and duration of the course revealed that Subject Specific and ICT Pedagogy approaches, were mainly used in preparing PDT for ICT integration as Table 3 shows. The course structures and content for Mathematics and Science Education courses was specific to practicing mathematics and science subject teachers. Thus the courses adopted subject specific approach in preparing PDT for ICT integration. According to Rees (2002), this approach is based on the belief that teachers are more likely to use technology in their classroom only after personally experiencing the power of technology as an

CPs to observe a lesson in a class where ICT has been integrated in a school then use appropriate theory to suggest mechanisms of enhancing the learning experience using the available technology in the class/school. Basing on this they will

Table 3. Duration, teaching methods, and approaches Course

Course Duration

Teaching Methods

Approaches

Mathematics Education

32 Weeks

Demonstration, Lecture, Hands on, Inquiry based, Experiential learning

Subject specific

Science Education

32 Weeks

Demonstration, Hands on, Inquiry based, Lecture, Experiential learning, Practical application

Subject specific

ICT in education

16 Weeks

Lecture, Practical application, Experiential learning

ICT pedagogy

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 Quality Preparation of Mathematics and Science Teachers to Integrate ICT

prepare a lesson on the same or a similar topic. The CPs will conduct the improved lesson to the class….Alternatively, CPs may observe the integration of ICT in management of school or other educational institution and select an aspect of such integration which needs improvement. They will then propose enhancements which can be implemented in the school or institution. (ICT in Education Course Handbook, p. 4). Basically, the objective of ICT pedagogy approach is to show course participants how ICT can be integrated as teaching and learning resources across the curriculum (Steketee, 2005). Although this seemed to be an appropriate objective, there were calls for the ICT in Education to focus on specific subjects as articulated by Moja. In reference to the above assignment Moja stated “….in this particular instance [assignment] it didn’t matter whether I was a science teacher… but you see when you go to the field you have to actually be able to know how to integrate in terms of [specific] subjects” (Interview Excerpt, 06-06-2010). Further, research findings indicate that preparation approaches providing teachers with access to a range of ICT applications in the context of their subject area have been more successful than the stand alone ICT units (Steketee, 2005). Therefore, it would be appropriate to adopt systemization as a way of linking ICT-Education course with the other two courses to enhance subject specific approach. Need for Permeation of ICT and Practice Driven Approach: During the interviews, the Mathematics and Science Education course lectures were asked whether their courses adequately prepared PDT for ICT integration. Their responses revealed that there was need to upgrade the preparation approaches to make the preparation more effective. Alpha responded “yes and no…at least it [referring to Science Education course] shows you the possibilities” (Interview Excerpt, 28-04-2010) and cited that time was insufficient. Beta stated “in as far as mathematics is concerned.…I have a

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feeling….we are not doing enough to prepare our CPs…,if they are to become exemplary teachers, to go and integrate ICT….my view is that we are far from the real mark” (Interview Excerpts, 0705-2010). These responses by the lecturers and the need to uplift the level of confidence of PDT imply that the approaches in the various courses were in need of upgrading. Beta, as indicated in the excerpt below, suggested an upgrade that called for permeation of the whole preparation of teachers with ICT. Beta: I would expect the whole teaching of mathematics education here [at ACADEMIA] to be permeated with ICT…we are not using ICT to deliver the course. We are bolting it on…because of circumstances….it is not correct to just bring ICT and just bolt it on in the fifth week or sixth week. It is supposed to permeate the whole course. Throughout the semester you need to be using ICT….teachers have to be prepared and preparation has to go beyond simply being told that the ICT can be very useful in teaching….their own preparation has to incorporate ICTs (Interview Excerpts, 07-05-2010). Emphasizing the need for permeation of ICT in courses preparing teachers for ICT integration, Jung (2005) pointed out that in such upgraded courses participants are exposed to new and innovative ways of learning that promote practical understanding of what learning and teaching with ICT looks and feels like. Additionally, Desimone (2009) pointed out that, such courses offers opportunities for teachers to become actively engaged throughout the course in the meaningful analysis of teaching and learning using ICT. If preparation for ICT integration permeates various preparation experiences of PDT, then they may be better equipped and more confident to integrate ICT in their own classroom. The above arguments for permeating the courses with ICT rather than bolting ICT on the courses are in line with SITE’s (2002) three principles stating that:

 Quality Preparation of Mathematics and Science Teachers to Integrate ICT

ICT should be infused into the entire teacher education program; ICT should be introduced in context; and students should experience innovative technology-supported learning environments in their teacher education program. Notably, the approaches used in the three courses did not focus on the preparation of PDT to acquire practical skills of developing contextually relevant ICT products. The need for this kind of preparation was echoed by Beta and Moja. Beta stated “…I would like us to embark on ICTs not only as consumers but also as producers….contribute to the field of ICT….so our mathematics courses should bear in mind [that] ultimately we need…scholars [PDT] who will be contributing to ICT” (Interview Excerpts, 07-05-2010). Moja also pointed this gap when he was asked about active engagement of the ICT in Education course. Moja stated “apart from knowing how to prepare maybe an audio…media product but at the end… it should have gone to the next [practical] step” (Interview Excerpts, 06-06-2010). The suggestion here is that PDTs need to acquire professional literacy of designing, at the very least, simple contextual ICT products for instructional purpose. Preparation in this area is important considering lamentation by SchoolNet Africa (2004) that there are serious concerns in Africa regarding the shortage of locally developed, contextually relevant ICT products and course content for both teachers and learners.

Recommended Sample Model Due consideration should be given to the nature and composition of professional development programs Professional Development Teachers (PDT) undergo. This is because inherent attributes of a program significantly influences the acquisition of professional literacy necessary for effective ICT integration. Figure 2 is a visual representation of a sample model of preparing PDT for ICT integration. The model is a synthesis of findings from the empirical research and literature review.

The system approach model constitutes three major stages, namely, Input, Customized Teacher Professional Development (TPD), and Output. The argument in this model is underpinned by the Society for Integration of Technology in Education (SITE) principles of infusing TPD program with ICT and introducing ICT in context (SITE, 2002). The underlying assumptions in this sample model are that the PDT have had the experience of teaching without integrating ICT or where ICT integration was practiced it did not enhance student learning. Therefore, the focus of the inservice model is preparing PDT for meaningful ICT integration and their capacity to facilitate professional development of colleague teachers. At the input stage a contextual needs assessment of the science and mathematics teachers is carried out and the findings are used to design a customized TPD. The customized TPD program consists of four attributes, namely, Hybrid Approach, Educational Technology, Re-conceptualizing Teaching Practice and Human Factors that are interrelated and influence each other. The expected output is a competent PDT who has the capacity to integrate ICT effectively to enhance student learning, and facilitate professional development of self, and other teachers. Hybrid Approach is the core attribute which concerns the mode of delivering the customized TPD program. It highly builds on two SITE’s (2002) principles: permeating the entire course with ICT to allow PDTs to experience ICT integration as learners; and availing opportunities for practical application of professional literacy acquired in real classroom situations. It is no longer sufficient to in-service PDT with Knowledge and skills only, additionally, professional literacy should also be nurtured through practical applications. In particular, practical applications that extend the preparation beyond the ICT consumerism level to the level of production of contextually relevant ICT products. The Educational Technology includes three aspects: (a) equipping PDT with operational

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 Quality Preparation of Mathematics and Science Teachers to Integrate ICT

Figure 2. Sample model for professional development of science and mathematics teachers

skills of a variety of ICT in order to improve on their technology literacy which is essential for effective integration. This will facilitate them to perceive the ease of using ICT. However, much focus should be on contextually accessible ICT for the TPD program to have immediate benefits. (b) Orientation of PDT to a variety of ICT integration frameworks such as Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge by Mishra and Koehler (2006) for effective integration. To facilitate professional literacy, it is imperative that lecturers guide PDT to teach subject matter with technology in actual classrooms. (c) Facilitating PDTs’ understanding of the practical uses of ICT for professional development of self and others. The third aspect is closely linked to the Re-conceptualizing of Teaching Practice. Several aspects of Re-conceptualizing Teaching Practice include broadening PDT’s perception of education, introduction to learner-centered approaches to teaching, attending to the mastery of subject matter, upgrading pedagogy and pedagogical content knowledge, and review of educational policies related to ICT

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integration. Re-conceptualizing Teaching Practice and Educational Technology influence each other. Human Factors include facilitating PDT to develop positive attitude towards ICT and enhance their confidence during practical integration of ICT. In this model, Human Factor is a consequential inherent construct, i.e., it largely depends on the actualization of the other three constructs: Reconceptualizing Teaching Practice; Educational Technology; and the Hybrid Approach. These three constructs defines the nature and composition of the course which ultimately determines whether PDT will actually integrate ICT in their practice. The recommended sample model is cyclic because new ICTs that have implications in education are developed frequently. Further, the education sector is dynamic and therefore engagement in ongoing TPD is important to keep teachers up to date with current trends in education. This is probably achievable through lifelong learning. That is why continuous needs assessment of the output is necessary in order to continue engaging PDT in professional development. The model re-

 Quality Preparation of Mathematics and Science Teachers to Integrate ICT

quires a context in form of a school or institution of learning as well as support from educational stakeholders. The lecturers who are the navigators ought to have specialized professional literacy related to ICT integration in education. This will enable them to effectively facilitate professional development of PDT for ICT integration. Additionally, support staffs should be available, where possible, to offer technical assistance to lecturers and students. It is hoped that adoption and implementation of these attributes, in consideration to contextual needs, will facilitate PDT to acquire professional literacy necessary for meaningful ICT integration. Further, it is perceived that the PDT exposed to the attributes in this model will in the course of their practice of integrating ICT become appropriate role models in facilitating and inspiring other teachers and enhancing student learning of mathematics and science.

CONCLUSION The discussion in this chapter has emphasized that the extent to which ICT integration will promote quality education is dependent upon the development of high quality teachers. As such there is need for adequate teacher preparation for effective ICT integration in science and mathematics classrooms. Adequacy in teacher preparation necessitates conceptual clarity on the objectives of teacher professional development in ICT integration. Admittedly, science and mathematics teachers have to be thoroughly prepared for effective ICT integration with the emphasis that ICT integration is not panacea to bad teaching. A teacher’s decision to integrate ICT should afford the learner the opportunity to interact with the content, the ICT tool, and significant others. Learner centered approach makes this more possible than teacher centered approach. Arguably, then the most suitable approach is to focus objec-

tives of teacher preparation for ICT integration towards learner centered education in order to promote meaningful learning.

REFERENCES BECTA. (2004). A review of the research literature on barriers to the uptake of ICT by teachers. Retrieved August 13, 2008, from http://www. becta.org.uk Biggam, J. (2008). Succeeding with your Master’s dissertation: A step-by-step handbook. Berkshire, UK: McGraw-Hill Education. Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2006). Research methods in education (5th ed.). London: RoutledgeFalmer. Collis, B., & Jung, I. S. (2003). Uses of information and communication technologies in teacher education. In B. Cox (Ed.), ICT and pedagogy: A review of the research literature. London: BECTA. Collis, B., & Moonen, J. (2001). Flexible learning in a digital world: Experiences and expectations. London: Kogan Page Limited. Cox, M., Webb, M., Abbott, C., Blakeley, B., Beauchamp, T., & Rhodes, V. (2003). ICT and pedagogy: A review of the research literature. London: BECTA. Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Ltd. Davis, F. D. (1989). Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user acceptance of information technology. Management Information Systems Quarterly, 13(3), 319–339. doi:10.2307/249008 Denscombe, M. (2003). The good research guide for small-scale social research projects (2nd ed.). Berkshire, UK: Open University Press.

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Desimone, L. M. (2009). Improving impact studies of teachers’ professional development: Toward better conceptualizations and measures. Educational Researcher, 38(3), 181–199. doi:10.3102/0013189X08331140 Driscoll, M. P. (2005). Psychology of learning for instruction (3rd ed.). Boston: Pearson Education, Inc. Evans, M. (2009). Reliability and validity in qualitative research by teacher researchers. In E. Wilson (Ed.), School-based research: A guide for education students (pp. 112–124). London: Sage Publications Ltd. Gill, L., & Dalgarno, B. (2008). Influences on pre-service teachers’ preparedness to use ICTs in the classroom. In Hello! Where are you in the landscape of educational technology? Proceedings ascilite Melbourne 2008. Retrieved November 27, 2009, from http://www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/melbourne08/procs/gill.pdf Glen, F., & Isaacs, S. (2007). Survey of ICT and education in Africa: A summary report, based on 53 country surveys. Washington, DC: infoDev/ World Bank. Retrieved March 24, 2010, from http://www.infodev.org/en/Publication.353.html Gray, D. E. (2009). Doing research in the real world (2nd ed.). London: Sage Publications Ltd. infoDev. (2010). ICTs and the professional development of teachers: A handbook to guide and assess the appropriate use of ICTs to aid in the professional development of teachers to benefit education for all. The World Bank. Retrieved March 15, 2010, from http://www.infodev.org/ en/Project.4.html International Society for Technology in Education. (2008). National educational technology standards for teachers. Retrieved January 15, 2010, from: http://cnets.iste.org

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Irujo, S. (2007). Teaching math to English language learners: Can research help. The ELL Outlook, 1-5. Jung, I. S. (2005). ICT-pedagogy integration in teacher training: Application cases worldwide. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 8(2), 94–101. Koehler, M. J., Mishra, P., & Yahya, K. (2007). Tracing the development of teacher knowledge in a design seminar: Integrating content, pedagogy and technology. Computers & Education, 49(3), 740–762. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2005.11.012 Larson, E. B., & Keiper, A. T. (2007). Instructional strategies for middle and high school. London: Routledge. Levine, A. (2006). Educating school teachers. Washington, DC: Education Schools Project. Retrieved November 15, 2011, from http://www. edschools.org/pdf/Teachersadvance2.pdf Mandinach, E. B. (2005). The development of effective evaluation methods for e-learning: A concept paper and action plan. Teachers College Record, 107(8), 1814–1835. doi:10.1111/j.14679620.2005.00543.x McNair, V., & Galanouli, D. (2002). Information and communications technology in teacher education: Can a reflective portfolio enhance reflective practice? Technology, Pedagogy and Education, 11(2), 181–196. Mishra, P., & Koehler, M. J. (2006). Technological pedagogical content knowledge: A framework for teacher knowledge. Teachers College Record, 108(6), 1017–1054. doi:10.1111/j.14679620.2006.00684.x

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Njoroge, J. M. (2010). Preparing science and mathematics teacher educators for ICT integration: A comparative analysis of selected in-service courses. (Unpublished Master’s Degree Thesis). Aga Khan University-Institute for Educational Development, East Africa.

Sime, D., & Priestley, M. (2005). Student teachers’ first reflections on Information and communications technology and classroom learning: Implications for initial teacher education. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 21(2), 130–142. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2729.2005.00120.x

Norman, D. A., & Spohrer, J. C. (1996). Learner centered education. Communications of the ACM, 39(4), 24–27. doi:10.1145/227210.227215

SITE. (2002). SITE position paper: Statement of basic principles and suggested actions (‘Ames White Paper’). Retrieved June 22, 2010, from http://site.aace.org/position-paper.html

Novak, J. D., Mintzes, J. J., & Wandersee, J. H. (2000). Learning, teaching, and assessment: A human constructivist perspective. In J. J. Mintzes, J. H. Wandersee, & J. D. Novak (Eds.), Assessing science understanding: A human constructivist view (pp. 1–13). London: Academic Press. Osborne, J., & Hennessy, S. (2003). Literature review in science education and the role of ICT: Promise, problems and future directions. London: Futurelab. Pritchard, A. (2006). Ways of learning: Learning theories and learning styles in the classroom. New York, NY: Routledge. Rees, R. (2002). Second year teacher candidates reflect on information technology in Ontario secondary schools: How it is being used and the challenges it present. Journal of Information Technology for Teacher Education, 11(2), 143–161. doi:10.1080/14759390200200129 Rubin, H. J., & Rubin, I. S. (2005). Qualitative interviewing: The art of hearing data (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Ltd. SchoolNet Africa. (2004). Towards a strategy on developing African teacher capabilities in the use of information and communication technology (ICT). Retrieved March 26, 2010, from http://www. col.org/resources/publications/consultancies/

Skemp, R. R. (1976). Relational understanding and instrumental understanding. Mathematics Teacher, 77, 20–26. Smarkola, C. (2007). Technology acceptance predictors among student teachers and experienced classroom teachers. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 37(1), 65–82. doi:10.2190/ J3GM-3RK1-2907-7U03 Steketee, C. (2005). Integrating ICT as an integral teaching and learning tool into pre-service teacher training courses. Issues in Educational Research, 15(1), 101–113. Retrieved from http://www.iier. org.au/iier15/steketee.html Swarts, P. (2008). ICT as core and elective subject: Issues to consider. Accra, Ghana: GeSCI. UNESCO. (2007). ICT in education in the AsiaPacific region: Progress and plans. Bangkok: UNESCO Asia and Pacific Regional Bureau for Education. UNESCO. (2008). ICT competency standards for teachers: Competency standards modules. UNESCO. UNESCO. (2010). Education: About education for all. Retrieved March 25, 2010, from http://www. unesco.org/en/efa/the-efa-movement/efa-goals/ quality- education/

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Unwin, T. (2005). Towards a framework for the use of ICT in teacher training in Africa. The Journal of Open and Distance Learning, 20(2), 113–129. doi:10.1080/02680510500094124 Wang, Y. (2002). When technology meets beliefs: Pre-service teachers’ perception of the teachers’ role in the classroom with computers. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 35(1), 150–162. doi:10.1080/15391523.2002.10782376 Wellington, J. (2000). Teaching and learning secondary science: Contemporary issues and practical approaches. London: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. doi:10.4324/9780203059876 Wilson, E. (2009). School-based research: A guide for education students. London: Sage Publications, Inc. Yin, R. K. (2003). Case study research: Design and methods (3rd ed.). London: Sage Publications, Inc.

ADDITIONAL READING Angeli, C., & Valanides, N. (2009). Epistemological and methodological issues for the conceptualization, development, and assessment of ICT–TPCK: Advances in technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPCK). Computers & Education, 52(1), 154–168. doi:10.1016/j. compedu.2008.07.006 Archambault, L., Wetzel, K., Foulger, T. S., & Williams, M. K. (2010). Professional development 2.0: Transforming teacher education pedagogy with 21st century tools. Journal of Digital Learning in Teacher Education, 27(1), 4–11. doi:10.10 80/21532974.2010.10784651

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Brantley-Dias, L., Kinuthia, W., Shoffner, M. B., de Castro, C., & Rigole, N. J. (2007). Developing pedagogical technology integration content knowledge in pre-service teachers: A case study approach. Journal of Computing in Teacher Education, 23(4), 143–150. Cowan, P. (2013). The 4i model for scaffolding the professional development of experienced teachers in the use of virtual learning environments for classroom teaching. Contemporary Issues in Technology & Teacher Education, 13(1), 82–98. Dexter, S., & Riedel, E. (2003). Why improving preservice teacher educational technology preparation must go beyond the college’s walls. Journal of Teacher Education, 54(4), 334–346. doi:10.1177/0022487103255319 Huang, K., Lubin, I. A., & Ge, X. (2011). Situated learning in an educational technology course for pre-service teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, 27(8), 1200–1212. doi:10.1016/j. tate.2011.06.006 Hughes, J. (2004). Technology learning principles for preservice and in-service teacher education. Contemporary Issues in Technology & Teacher Education, 4(3), 345–362. Koh, J. H., & Divaharan, S. (2011). Developing pre-service teachers’ technology integration expertise through the TPACK-developing instructional model. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 44(1), 35–58. doi:10.2190/EC.44.1.c Lee, Y., & Lee, J. (2014). Enhancing pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs for technology integration through lesson planning practice. Computers & Education, 73, 121–128. doi:10.1016/j. compedu.2014.01.001

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Niess, M. L. (2005). Preparing teachers to teach science and mathematics with technology: Developing a technology pedagogical content knowledge. Teaching and Teacher Education, 21(5), 509–523. doi:10.1016/j.tate.2005.03.006 Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational Researcher, 15(2), 4–14. doi:10.3102/0013189X015002004

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS ICT Integration: Using ICT to facilitate and enhance effective teaching and learning process. ICT Pedagogy Approach: Entails showing teachers how ICT can be integrated as teaching and learning tools across the curriculum. ICT Skills Development Approach: Comprises the addition of one or more ICT subjects within the teacher preparatory course.

Learner Centered: Affording learner opportunity to participate actively in learning. Meaningful Learning: Developing high order thinking that facilitates problem solving. Practice Driven Approach: Prepare teachers to design and develop implementable ICT facilitated classroom programs and products. Professional Development Teacher: An exemplary teacher who facilitates learning. Re-Conceptualizing: Broadening perceptions about education and teaching career. Subject-Specific Approach: Focuses on knowledge of the learning technologies that offer affordances to particular content areas best explained. Teacher Professional Development: Enhancing teacher’s capacity to facilitate meaningful learning.

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Chapter 3

The Role of Technology in Improving Quality of Teaching in Higher Education: An International Perspective Harriet Thindwa Texas A&M University, USA

ABSTRACT Students are the future of any country. They are the leaders and entrepreneurs of tomorrow. If teaching quality is undermined, so is the country’s overall education system, and therefore, so is a country’s future. In this chapter, the role of technology in improving quality of teaching in higher education, which has been declining over the years internationally including in the US, is reviewed. Databases EBSCOhost and Academic Search Complete were employed in this review. Empirical studies have revealed that elearning technologies such as Moodle improve teaching quality. Given the advancement in technology, institutions of higher learning the world over are challenged to embrace technology as a strategy to engage students and enhance learning.

INTRODUCTION Education uplifts a country. A country in which a large percentage of its people are educated prospers, as the future of a country lies in the production of highly educated people (European Commission Report, 2011; Ololube, 2009). Education, especially higher education (HE), is critical to the development of a country. Sadly however, the quality of HE teaching in most countries is in decline (Matoti, 2010). Consequently, improved

quality of HE teaching continues to be a priority internationally. Reasons for the decline in quality of HE teaching in most countries, including the United States of America (US), are many and varied but often cited are: a general decrease in the quality of teachers, including their lack of enthusiasm and lack of the right levels of qualification, use of inappropriate teaching methods, inadequate or lack of teaching resources, and the effect of the environment in which teaching is conducted when substandard (Ololube, 2009;

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-8170-5.ch003

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 The Role of Technology in Improving Quality of Teaching in Higher Education

Saville, 2009; US Education Policy Briefing Sheet, 2009). In the case of developing countries, inadequate funding for purchasing resources can also be a factor (Ocholla, 2003). Although teaching quality in HE is said to be a function of several factors, however, of the reasons for the decline in quality of HE teaching mentioned above, inappropriate teaching methods are said to have contributed the most to the decline in the education systems of most countries, and especially that of the United States (Saville, 2009). Internationally, especially in the developing world, use of inappropriate teaching methods are certainly a part of the decline, though the picture is more complicated (Beaudoin, 2007; Ocholla, 2003). In these countries, lack of teaching resources compounds the situation even further. Improving teaching methods through implementation of teaching strategies that are effective is therefore key to improving the situation and subsequently reversing the decline. Currently, traditional teaching methods, such as lecturebased teaching methods, are being challenged by alternative methods that are increasingly showing to be more effective; methods that have been made possible through advances in information and communication technology (Alonso et al., 2010; Saville, 2009; Wu et al., 2013), methods that make possible student participation and are student centered. The purpose of this study was to examine how technology has improved quality of teaching in higher education, by looking at one technology in particular as an example; Moodle, an e-learning technology systems tool. Knowledge of which technology to use when and how to use it not only has the potential to improve quality of HE teaching, but also it is important to both teachers and instructional leaders for them to be able to make informed choices about an educational technology in order to bring about the required change to teaching quality to improve it. Beatty and Ulasewicz (2012) stated that “having the right tool for the job makes teaching more effective

and learning by students more successful” (p. 45). Knowledge and use of appropriate and effective teaching methods, together with the right technologies is especially important in bringing about quality to teaching in HE institutions. Postarref, Lindblom-Ylanne, and Nevgi (2007) said “teacher education is a theme that is constantly being echoed in many countries of the world the past decade, …that although traditionally the expertise in one’s own discipline has been the most respected feature of a university, in recent years however, discussions have been about the need to improve university teachers’ pedagogical thinking and skills” (p. 557). This statement is supported by Ho, Watkins and Kelly (2001) who pointed out that there was an immediate need for methods that can bring teaching excellence in HE teachers. Also in support of this statement is Mateiro (2011). In elaboration, Gibbs and Coffey (2004) stated that training of university teachers in many countries was as a matter of fact, now oriented towards developing teacher teaching skills to improve student learning and identified student focused approaches as approaches that can improve the quality of student learning outcomes. Student-centered teaching methods “where students play a more active role in their learning process, with the instructor facilitating the learning rather than just providing content” (Smith, Ferguson, & Caris, 2002, p. 355) as is usually the case in traditional face-to-face lecture setting, have been identified to be very effective in improving teaching for they allow for greater student participation. From the existing literature, it has been found that student-centered learning activities, including discussion boards and group-based learning activities have been found to promote a number of aspects that positively impact teaching quality (Crosling & Heagney, 2009); enhancement of student participation being one. In this respect, Pedro (2005) wrote “it is the change in the teaching method, and not the adoption of technology (per se) that results in a higher quality of teaching, measured by student satisfaction” (p. 403).

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However, it must be said, that for there to be quality to teaching, teachers need also to have the right qualifications. Since teaching quality impacts the quality of students that the school as an institution graduates, it does not help to have a teacher that just fills a position. Unqualified teachers can thwart student progress and outcomes. Nonetheless, teachers need to have their needs met for them to look forwards to teaching every day an expectation, which perhaps in a substantial number of cases seems to be missing. Institutions need to provide teachers with the right incentives to bring about the enthusiasm that is lacking so that they can reap the benefits of the services of these teachers. In general, the benefits to students of having excellent teachers on a continuous basis, is substantial (US Education Policy Briefing Sheet, 2009). For this reason, Postarref et al. (2007) stressed that there was need to establish an effective training for HE teachers in order to improve university teaching. Also important as a factor in the decline in quality of teaching is inadequacy of teaching resources as this negatively affects teaching quality by indirectly affecting it (Ocholla, 2003). The same is the effect of lack of funding for purchasing instructional materials for use with the adopted (educational) technology (Ocholla, 2003; Ololube et al, 2009). Last but not least, the environment in which teaching is conducted can also play a major role and can affect teaching quality. These environments are the types of locations in which presentations are made and include lecture-theaters in the case of traditional face-to-face teaching or online environment—structures where online discussions take place, such as discussion boards (Smith & Caris, 2002). These environments need to be in a state that is conducive to learning for improved teaching quality to be the end product.

Teaching Quality Teaching quality has been defined in several ways by different authors but with some similari-

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ties. Teaching quality has been defined as when students, parents, and the community at large, as clients of the service (i.e. teaching) are satisfied with what an institution delivers in relation to teaching, and that both, the subjective feelings of the students as well as the objective achievement of teaching goals are taken into account/ consideration when defining teaching quality (Wu, 2001). Other authors have defined teaching quality as “the feelings or attitudes towards learning activities (such that) when learners had pleasant feelings or active attitude, they were satisfied with teaching quality or they were dissatisfied when revealing unpleasant feelings or passive attitude” (Chen, 2007 in Hsiao 2012, p. 39). According to Ramsden (1991), although teaching quality is difficult to assess, there are ways in which it can be quantified in the absence of a better definition or description of it. The most common is use of student Course Experience Questionnaire (CEQ) (Ramsden, 1991). Though fraught with objections for its validity from other sectors, it is said to be the best one yet available (Ramsden, 1991). CEQ uses Likert-type 7-point choice of questions ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree when used in assessing teaching quality. In his study on performance indicators in HE teaching, Ramsden (1991) concluded that CEQ “offers a reliable, verifiable and useful means of determining the perceived teaching quality of academic units in systems of higher education” (p. 129). Internationally, the belief in the validity of student evaluations, including CEQ, lies in the fact that students are considered to be in the best position to be able to assess teaching quality, as they are at the receiving end of teaching and consequently are ‘clients’ of it (Hay, 2007; Hsiao, 2012; Pedro, 2005; Ramsden, 1991). In the US, student evaluations of teaching are used extensively in HE to evaluate teaching effectiveness of teachers and professors (Ramsden, 1991; Jones, 2012). In this respect, the views of students matter greatly in the assessment and therefore, definition of teaching quality.

 The Role of Technology in Improving Quality of Teaching in Higher Education

Effective teaching, which equates to teaching quality, is defined as teaching in which the teacher communicates and interacts with her/his students as regards assignments, course materials and objectives, provides feedback to students, and monitors their progress in the understanding of the course (Wu, 2009). Pedro (2005) comments that “one of the best ways of ‘incentivating’ the use of ICTs as university teaching tools…is by providing clear evidence where it can be used to improve teaching quality and teaching effectiveness to improve effectiveness and that the technology helps to increase educational benefits…that students learn more and better—in conditions of equivalent effort by both lecturers and students” (p. 400). From this discussion then, a technology would be regarded as having the potential to improve quality of teaching if it allows for improvement in interaction between students and instructor, it is learner or student-oriented, it allows for prompt feedback between students and instructor, and it is a technology that students are satisfied using.

Technology in Education Technology has had a profound effect in many areas of life, including education (Ololube, 2009). In broad sense, according to Merriam-Webster’s 2013 dictionary (2013), technology is in simple terms defined as “the application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes”. The term technology can be applied generally or to specific areas. An example of a general-area application closer to the purpose of this paper is information technology. A specific-area example would be information communication technology. Information technology (IT) is the storage, retrieval, and transmission of information through electronic systems such as computers and telecommunication systems (Merriam-Webster dictionary, 2014). In general, IT refers to computing technology. Information communication technology (ICT) on the other hand, is an extended synonym

of IT and a more specific term. It emphases the role of communication; how technology is used to handle information and enhance communication (Merriam-Webster dictionary, 2014). Information technology and its synonym ICT have revolutionized the way teaching is done in many countries and regions of the world (Bader & Kottstorfer, 2013; Brunner & Tudesco, 2003 in Delgado-Almonte et al., 2010). Studies by Ololube et al. (2009) and Pedro (2005) have actually shown that “intensive use of ICT actually improves the quality of teaching” (Ololube et al., 2009). Schroeder et al. (2010) state that the popularity of IT and therefore of ICT in education is such that “today, most teaching is supported by information and communication technology hosted by the individual institution where they form an integral part of the overall course management” (p.160). Internationally, institutions the world over are said to be “under pressure to integrate technology into teaching and learning” (Adewumi, 2011; Algattoufi, 2007; Beaudoin, 2007; Mtebe, 2011; Simelane, 2007). In Sub-saharan Africa, information and communication technology has become central to education and training in Library Information Systems Science (LIS) (Minishi Majanja & Ocholla, 2003). In most Asian countries, information and communication technology rules. In some of these countries this technology is even used a step further; “to reach underprivileged groups, either rural children or young adults who are unable to continue their learning opportunities” (Mar, 2004). Likewise, in the European Union, the European Commission encourages its member states to adopt new technologies that enhance teaching, technologies that are based on ICT (Council of Europe recommendation 1836, 2008; MartinezTorres, Marin, Garcia, Vasquez, Olivia, & Torres, 2008). In the case of Austria, Bader and Kottstorfer (2013) reported that “the level and intensity of ICT usage …reflects the interests of students (where) around 60 percent prefer ICTs as amendments to traditional teaching methods” (p. 176). In the

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Americas, especially North America, technology including educational technology, dominates modern life and is being used extensively. Brandl (2005) reported that “with the rapidly increasing popularity of the internet in recent years, the delivery of learning programs has gradually shifted from local desk-top to online-based (Webbased) applications” (p.16). Correspondingly, since use of the internet to enhance e-learning has become a dominant force today’s higher education institutions, on-line learning is now increasingly becoming an alternative to traditional classrooms (Brandl, 2005). To this effect, one platform—e-learning, has become synonymous with educational technology (Bader & Kottstorfer, 2013). E-learning or electronic learning is “an interactive learning in which the learning content is available on-line and provides automatic feedback to students’ learning activities” (Al-Ajlan & Zedan, 2008). E-learning covers all types of educational technology used in learning and teaching. E-learning is described as learning that is done electronically through electronic media especially using the internet (Oxford dictionary, 2014).

Moodle as an E-Learning Systems Tool One e-learning system that is becoming increasingly popular in HE internationally, is Moodle (Al-Ajlan & Zedan, 2008). Moodle is one of several e-learning systems tools available. The acronym Moodle stands for Modular Object Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment. It is a web-based course management system (CMS) for on-line learning as well as a learning management system (LMS) (Brandl, 2005). Moodle is designed around a social constructivist philosophy—a learner oriented philosophy, using the collaborative possibilities that the internet offers (Al-Ajlan & Zedan, 2008). According to Md Ali (2010), based on these principles, educators are able to create effective online learning groups as well as

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introduce Web technology into their otherwise traditional courses. As an e-learning technology, Moodle is said to have a number of options for group forum participation apart from it being an effective interactive tool for students and instructors (Md Ali, 2010). In this respect, Al-Ajlan & Zedan (2008) described Moodle as an e-learning system “that lets teachers provide and share documents, graded assignments, quizzes, (conduct discussion forums, and many more activities) with their students in an easy-to-learn fashion, and high quality on-line courses” (p. 58). Moodle is currently a leading LMS and CMS open-source software (OSS) used in many parts of the world, including many North American and European universities (Beatty & Ulasewicz, 2006). As an OSS, it is free for use by individuals and education institutions the world over. It is also versatile enough that it can be downloaded on any computer, anywhere in the world (Md Ali, 2010). Brandl (2005) referred to Moodle as a ‘teachers dream’ in reference to its course management strategies. Also Moodle has been highly recommended in some quarters as being the best for use in HE (Al-Ajlan & Zedan, 2008).

METHOD The purpose of this study was to examine how technology has improved quality of teaching in HE by examining one technology in particular— Moodle, as an example. Below are described the methods that I used in order to obtain the research articles that were used in this paper, including the procedure that was followed in so doing.

Research Articles To get the necessary literature for the paper, I used the EBSCOhost and Academic Search Complete databases. EBSCOhost contains journals mostly in the education field—containing education

 The Role of Technology in Improving Quality of Teaching in Higher Education

articles, whereas Academic Search Complete contains journals in fields other than education as well as those in education. These two databases encompass several journals relating to educational technology that were retrieved for review in this paper, journals including: Computers & Education, International Journal of Teaching and Learning, British Journal of Educational Technology, Informatica, Transactions on Education, Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, Computer Society, Turkish on-line Journal of Distance Education, Educational Technology and Society, and Journal of Educational Technology Systems.

The Review Process I divided my search into four search fields: college or university or higher education; educational technology or technology; quality, improve, improvement, effective or effectiveness and; teaching. From the combined fields, 6,130 articles were retrieved. By placing limiters for year of publication to fall between 2000 and 2013, and full text and peer-reviewed articles, 2,064 articles were retrieved, which were reduced to 23 articles when academic journals was added as a limiter. I confined my search to journal articles on elearning that included Moodle as an e-learning technology. Those that contained only description of a technology were not included. For an international perspective, I added regions of the world to the search field; Asia, European Union or Europe, Africa, and the Americas. In the end, sixteen articles were chosen for use in this paper on the basis of empirical research studies.

Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) From the definition(s) of teaching quality discussed earlier in this paper, quality of teaching was most equated to student satisfaction. Consequently, Davis’ (1989, 1993) technology acceptance model (TAM) as described in Escobar-Rodriguez and Monge-Lozano (2012) and in Martinez-Torres

(2008), was a fitting model to use in this paper in assessing satisfaction with an e-learning technology such as Moodle. The theoretical grounding of this model (TAM) is based on the theory of reasoned action (TRA) concept from which it was adapted (Martinez-Torres et al., 2008), that “beliefs influence attitudes, which lead to intentions, which generate behavior,…that TAM specifies the causal relationships between systems design features, perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, attitude towards using, and actual usage behavior” (Escobar-Rodriguez & Monge-Lozano, 2012, p. 1086). TAM lends its use from many empirical studies conducted using the model on user acceptance technology (Martine-Torres, 2008). However, Martinez-Torres et al. (2008) also warns that since “e-learning is relatively new and e-learners are a specific user group…, the original TAM variables: Use, Intention of use, Usefulness and Ease of use (as proposed by Davis 1989, the originator of the model), cannot fully reflect e-learner’s motives requiring a search for additional intrinsic motivational factors”… that therefore “as with any new educational tool, e-learning needs to be justified on the grounds of effectiveness and relevance in relation to the students and the professional groups involved in training and education”… that “if students do not see added value to the package, they are not likely to translate the learning objectives of these tools into useful knowledge and skills” (p.496).

FINDINGS Since, from the definition(s) of teaching quality discussed earlier, quality of teaching is most equated to student satisfaction with an educational technology, most of the research studies that I have reviewed in this paper were on student perceptions regarding Moodle as a LMS and a Virtual Learning Environment system (VLE). ‘Virtual’ because learning is done ‘virtually’ through the Web in therefore, a ‘virtual’ classroom. It is learn-

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ing that is not taught in a classroom face-to-face but through this ‘virtual’ substitute mode, such that students need not be present in a physical classroom to learn. Also reviewed, to some extent, were perceptions of instructional leaders and faculty regarding the technology. Pertinent research questions asked included what are students’ perspectives regarding Moodle as a learning management system (Abdelraheem, 2012; Calvalho et al., 2011; Escobar-Rodriguez, 2012; Sanchez & Hueros, 2010; Sumak et al., 2011; Wood, 2010). Other questions were what faculty behavior in on-line courses lead to higher perceptions of student satisfaction of overall instructor effectiveness (Jones, 2012), and does technology improve or worsen the quality of teaching (Pedro, 2005). In addition, the intent, objective or aim of some of the empirical studies reviewed in this paper that were important to the purpose of the study, that were therefore included, were: (a) to show the main features of an on-line course implemented in Moodle as well as the conclusions derived from this experience (Martin-Blas & SerranoFernandez, 2009), (b) to discover the best and most suitable choice of VLE systems that would meet the requirements of Qassim University (AlAjlan & Zedan, 2008), (c) to evaluate the extent to which the use of VLE and key Web 2.0 application can enhance the student learning experience (Saunders & Gale, 2012), (d) to present a blended learning approach and to evaluate instruction in a software engineering related course unit (Alonso et al., 2011), (e) to research the views of student users and training experts on e-learning material (Martinez-Torres et al., 2008), (f) to investigate the relationship between technology use and student outcomes by comparing the association between the quantity of technology and student outcomes with the association between the quality of technology use and student outcomes (Lei, 2010), (g) to provide a balanced evaluation of social software by systematically identifying the

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strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) of such initiatives in higher and further education contexts (Schroeder et al., 2010), and (h) to examine the effectiveness of instructional technology in higher education institutions in relation to the role and usage of ICTs, its effectiveness in faculty teaching and its impact on students’ academic achievements (Ololube et al., 2009). Key findings from these studies are presented in Table 1. The conclusions drawn by several authors on technology acceptance was that perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use are factors that directly affect students’ attitude towards using an e-learning technology such as Moodle; that perceived usefulness predicted student usage of the technology (Escobar-Rodriguez & MongeLozano, 2012; Martinez-Torres et al., 2008; Sanchez & Hueros, 2010; Sumak et al., 2011). However, although the conclusions made by these authors were similar, Martinez-Torres et al. (2008) who focused more on the appropriateness of TAM as a model in explaining the acceptance of e-learning systems, took their findings a step further in that they showed that despite perceived usefulness exhibiting the strongest direct effect on behavioral intention to use in their study, it was perceived ease of use that showed a stronger total effect on behavioral intention to use. Also interesting from these studies, was the finding that training of students in use of an educational technology, did not improve the perceived ease of use (Escobar-Rodriguez & Monge-Lozano, 2012). Studies by Martin-Blas and Serrano-Fernandez (2009) revealed that there was a relationship between higher scores and regular use of Moodle by students; that students who regularly used Moodle obtained higher scores than those that did not. Similarly, using a blended learning approach that combines on-line teaching with the traditional face-to-face teaching, Alonso et al. (2011) were able to show that underachievement in students became reduced and grades improved with this approach.

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Table 1. Empirical studies on online courses and student learning experiences Author

Research Question / Intent / Objective /Aim

Sample

Key Findings

Abdelraheem (2012)

How do students perceive the quality of interactivity in Moodle?

57 undergraduate students in a skill course at Sultan Qaboos University

Student perceptions for quality of interactions with instructor are positive. Moodle has the power to support students participation and collaboration in the learning process Students feel more comfortable when communicating with each other than with teacher.

Al-Ajlan & Zedan (2008)

To discover the best and most suitable choice of VLE systems that would meet the requirement of Qassim university

10 VLE systems products

Moodle has great potential for creating a successful e-learning experience by providing an abundance of excellent tools that can be used to enhance conventional classroom instruction. Moodle is one of the best in learner tools, support tools, and technical specifications tools. Moodle is among the best of VLE products, outperforming most and has been recommended for use in higher education.

Alonso et al. (2011)

To present a blended learning approach and a study evaluating instruction in a software engineering related course unit

693 undergraduate students enrolled in a program development course at Technical university of Madrid, in Spain

It is possible to reduce underachievement in higher education through an adequate use of e-learning technology supported by a moderate constructivist instructional model and a blended learning approach. Blended learning approach provides more individualized instruction than traditional faceto-face. A blended learning approach allows for students to work cooperatively.

Calvalho et al. (2011)

Which are the perceptions and experiences of students in their use of Blackboard and Moodle?

1500 students at Minho University, Portugal

In general, students preferred Moodle features to those of Blackboard

Escobar-Rodriguez & Monge-Lozano (2012)

To analyze use of the Moodle platform by university students, identifying factors which might influence use

162 second-year Business Administration students at a Spanish public university

Perception of Moodle as an easy to use or learn has positive influence on the intention to use it. Student perceptions of Moodle platform’s usefulness for teachers has a significant positive relationship regarding perceived usefulness as well as intention to use Moodle Training does not improve the perceived ease of use of Moodle.

Jones (2012)

What faculty behavior in on-line courses lead to higher perceptions of student satisfaction of overall instructor effectiveness?

2,826 graduate and undergraduate students enrolled at a large Southwest US university

Stimulated learning has the greatest impact followed by clear presentation of information.

Lei (2010)

To investigate the relationship between technology use and student outcomes by comparing the association between the quantity of technology and student outcomes with the association between the quality of technology use and student outcomes

Students and teachers in a north-western university with a total enrollment of 237 students

This study has revealed that technology has potential to improve teaching and learning. However, the authors caution that for this to be realized, there must be “proper use” of the technology as their study revealed that although general technology use did improve student technology proficiency, subject-specific technology use impeded technology proficiency.

Martin-Blas & Serrano-Fernandez (2009)

To show the main features of an online physics course implemented in Moodle as well as the conclusions derived from this experience

52 undergraduate students

Students who used Moodle regularly during the semester obtained higher scores than those who did not.

continued on following page

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Table 1. Continued Author

Research Question / Intent / Objective /Aim

Sample

Key Findings

Martnez-Torres et al. (2008)

To research the views of student users and training experts on e-learning material

220 student users in the European Higher Education Area

“Perceived usefulness exhibited the strongest direct effect on behavioral intention to use. Perceived ease of use, despite showing a slightly weaker direct effect than perceived usefulness on behavioral intention to use, exhibited a stronger total effect on behavioral intention to use than that of perceived usefulness.

Ololube et al. (2009)

To examine the effectiveness of instructional technology in higher education institutions in relation to the role and usage of ICTs, its effectiveness in faculty teaching and its impact on students’ academic achievements

125 respondents composed of 45 faculty and 80 undergraduate students of two universities in Nigeria

The findings of this study reveal that ICT, when applied to education, enhances effective knowledge delivery, enhances access to knowledge, produces richer learning outcomes, encourages effective critical thinking and generally improves the quality of teaching and learning. “There are significant relationships between the impact of instructional technology, usage of instructional technology and students’ academic achievement.

Pedro (2005)

Does technology improve or worsen the quality of teaching?

92 university students at Pompeu Fabra University, Spain.

“Student satisfaction improves if the adoption of ICT application triggers a change in teaching method. It is the change in teaching methodology and organization induced and made possible due to the e-learning platform; the ICT technology, that is key to improving both the quality of learning and student satisfaction—not the technology per se. It should therefore be recognized that benefits of ICT-use in HE arise from the fact that the use of technology leads lecturers to perceive the need for rethinking teaching methodologies.

Sanchez & Hueros (2010)

To investigate the factors that influence students to use the Moodle virtual teaching system

226 students at university of Huelva, Spain.

Moodle usage was directly influenced by perceived ease of use and attitude. Results revealed the importance of perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness on attitude.

Saunders & Gale (2012)

To describe the implementation of a VLE and key Web 2.0 application within an engineering management class of 270 and to evaluate the extent to which the use of this technology can enhance the student learning experience

270 engineering management students at a university in Manchester, U.K.

The survey response showed emphatically that the most effective learning tool for the majority of students remained key note lectures. Student response is overwhelmingly positive to the provision of on-line course information to supplement traditional teaching. Students are highly strategic learners focusing time and attention to tools that they saw as most useful to them. Evidence supports the view that the VLE can enhance the student learning experience in large cohort engineering management education.

Sumak et al. (2011)

To investigate the factors that affect the acceptance and use of an e-learning system, namely Moodle

800 student Moodle users

Perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use, are factors that directly affect students’ attitudes towards using Moodle. Students like to use Moodle if they have good feelings about the usefulness of Moodle in getting better grades and knowledge.

continued on following page

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Table 1. Continued Author

Research Question / Intent / Objective /Aim

Sample

Key Findings

Wood (2010)

What are teacher education students’ perspectives regarding Moodle as a LMS?

62 educational Psychology students

Most students are users of technology. 93% of respondents regarded technology as a very positive learning tool if used properly Many thought it was a great idea, but a small percentage thought Moodle was a great way to structure a course.

Schroeder et al., 2010

To provide a balanced evaluation of social software by systematically identifying the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of such initiatives in higher and further education contexts.

20 social software initiatives in UKbased higher and further education institutions.

Strengths were: contribution to the building of social relationships, improved learning, and enhancement of communication between students and educators. Weaknesses were: high workload (for both students and educators), limited quality of interaction, and uncertainty about the ownership and assessment issues. Opportunities were: the showcasing of student work, at times leading to work offers for the students. Threats were: the difficulty of ensuring support and liability of applications and the implications of illegitimate use.

Despite the fact that the majority of students are still in favor of key note lectures (Saunders & Gale, 2012) and do not wish for key note lectures to be taken out of the picture completely, independent studies by both Saunders and Gale (2012) and by Wood (2010), showed overwhelmingly, that students like the idea of having on-line courses supplementing traditional teaching. In case of what faculty behavior is considered effective in these on-line courses, the study by Jones (2012) showed that students tended to equate high levels of teaching effectiveness to teaching that stimulated learning and where there was clear presentation of formation. In this study, student satisfaction, which is also used as a measure of teaching and/or teacher effectiveness, was demonstrated to be achieved through teaching that induced student participation and teacher-student interaction. In terms of software features and capabilities of Moodle, in studies in which Moodle was compared with other VLEs, the conclusion has always been that Moodle is among the best, if not the best in today’s VLEs in effectiveness and

general performance (Al-Ajlan & Zedan, 2008; Calvalho et al., 2011; Saunders & Gale, 2012). In general it outperformed all other VLEs in these studies, and was also the preferred VLE by students in comparison with other VLEs (Calvalho et al., 2011). A number of studies reviewed in this paper also mentioned, overall, that continued use of ICT generally improved teaching and learning quality (Lei, 2010; Ololube et al., 2005; Pedro, 2005). Lei (2010) conclusion from his/her study was that it was not necessarily the quantity of technology used but rather its quality and how the technology is used that makes a difference in student outcomes with use of technology. The study revealed that technology proficiency in students improved with general technology use whereas subject-specific technology reduced it. Saunders and Gale (2012) lend credence to this fact as they point out that the student learning experience is usually enhanced by using the learning technology appropriately. On the other hand, Pedro (2005) on the basis of his/ her findings, advises that it is important to note that changes in teaching methodologies that bring

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about quality to teaching come about not just by the introduction of the technology, but because use of the technology makes the teacher reconsider and rethink his/her teaching methodologies and makes the appropriate adjustments for the better, thereby improving teaching quality. The SWOT analysis of social software by Schroeder et al. (2010) identified an increased workload for both teachers and students as one of the major weaknesses of social software use, and therefore of ICT use, while enhancement of communication between students and educators was identified as one of its main strengths. In other words, overall, these studies have shown that technology does improve teaching and learning but that for this to be the case, it must be used properly, i.e. instructors must be knowledgeable of which type of technology to use and how or when to use it.

DISCUSSION There have been a number of studies done previously which findings from studies reported in this paper, on perceptions of students regarding technology acceptance, support (Elwood, Changchit & Cutshall, 2006; Khaled Alkhateeb, 2008; Novo-Corti et al., 2013). In all these cases perceived usefulness predicted student usage of an e-learning technology, in agreement with TAM; the technology acceptance model. Martinez-Torres et al. (2008) warning about the need for justifying use of TAM to evaluate effectiveness of e-learning technologies, Moodle included, may therefore be premature from the findings discussed in this paper as these findings suggest there is justification for use of TAM in evaluating e-learning technology despite its newness in the technologies arena. Overall, these findings, past and present, suggest that Moodle improves teaching quality as it has

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a high student satisfaction level, an aspect that is equated with teaching quality. The finding that regular use of e-learning platforms such as Moodle results in improved scores has been supported by other authors. For instance, Novo Corti et al. (2013) reported that results obtained from their study conducted on similar lines showed that the Moodle platform “clearly promotes the participation of students” (p. 410), and “increases their motivation and improves their competence and likewise their performance such that grades were higher than in traditional valuation” (p. 415). Even students agreed with this surmise. Bader and Kottstorfer (2013) and Ololube et al. (2009) also supported this finding. These authors showed that ICT-aided teaching results in effective delivery of knowledge, and even in less time than it takes traditional methods, suggesting that use of this technology has potential in improving teaching quality (Ololube et al., 2009). It can also be surmised with certainly that blended-learning approaches that use e-learning platforms to support traditional class-room approaches, are more effective than the traditional face-to-face methods used alone, and that not only are they effective, but they are also preferred by students (Al-Ajlan & Zedan, 2008; Saunders & Gale, 2012). As a strategy then, blended learning through use of e-learning technology such as Moodle, has the potential to improve both teaching and learning processes. The finding that students equate teaching effectiveness to teaching that stimulates learning combined with a clear presentation of information, as being what makes for an effective instructor is not surprising. Stimulated learning means student participation and it means student-teacher interaction both of which are also factors in student satisfaction and consequently to teaching quality. Student-teacher interaction and student participation which e-learning platforms such as Moodle promote are key in stimulated teaching; learning

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becomes easier, messages are easily clarified and feedback is instantly provided to both students and instructors whenever needed. Several authors who have conducted studies to this effect support this reasoning (Tricker et al., 2001; Wu, 1999). Also in support of this view, there are studies that have shown that students who succeed in online courses do so because the course allows them to be active participants (Verneil & Berge, 1995). Similarly, Fulford and Zhang (1993) observed that students who perceive a course to be highly interactive will derive more satisfaction from the instruction than students who perceive the course to be less interactive. Again, these findings relate to and agree with findings reviewed in this paper. A number of authors have reported on the positive effects of Moodle in creating an environment for improving interaction and communication between students and teacher as well as between the participants, and participants and course content (Novo Corti et al., 2013; Delgardo-Almonte et al., 2010; Brandl, 2005), all being aspects that contribute to teaching quality and its improvement. Novo-Corti, Valera-Candamio, and Ramil-Diaz (2013) ascertained that the Moodle platform promoted participation of students, and improved teaching quality. Moodle has especially been applauded for the potential it has for “creating a successful e-learning experience by providing an abundance of excellent tools that can be used to enhance conventional classroom instruction in any VLE system” (Al-Ajlan & Zedan, 2008, p. 63). It is therefore not surprising then that some authors have already recommended Moodle as a technology of choice in HE in their region (AlAjlan & Zedan, 2008). The finding by Schroeder et al. (2010) that ICT increases the workload of instructors and students, which is supported by Smith et al. (2010) is challenged by Selwood and Pilkington (2005) as their study showed to the contrary; that ICT actually decreases or reduces the general workload of teachers. The difference in opinion though comes about from the fact that Schroder et al. (2010)

does not quite point out the fact that the increase in workload happens initially, with introduction of a new course in which the technology is used for instance, that the workload however eases off once the respective program is set up. Afterwards the format can be used repeatedly, with minor changes to it as seen fit.

CONCLUSION It is obvious, that technologies such as e-learning’s Moodle, makes it possible for teachers to have access to tools that can improve the quality of teaching in all aspects of education, including HE (Brandl, 2005). The significance of e-learning, and therefore Moodle as a tool, is that it does support traditional methods. Moodle also has the advantage that it can and is being used all over the world. Moodle is designed in such a way that teachers and instructors are afforded the creation of quality on-line instructions very easily. Moodle can also track the performance as well as progress of a student throughout the course, and teachers are in this way able to follow the progress of each student accordingly, so that assistance is easily given early to those that need it. Moodle “enables teachers to provide graded assignments, lesson quizzes (and many more) in a manner that is both easy and offers high quality learning” (AlAjlan & Zedan, 2008, p. 58). Moodle allows for high quality of teaching as well as learning and therefore contributes to improvement of teaching quality. Moodle is also ranked amongst the best in educational technology. Administrators would thus be advised to purchase this technology for use by instructors in their institutions, and instructional leaders, instructors and teachers are well advised to use it to improve their teaching effectiveness and therefore teaching quality. Empirical studies discussed in this paper have shown that e-learning technologies, and Moodle in particular, improve teaching quality as this technology allows for student participation and

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student-teacher interaction, all of which contribute to teaching quality. Moodle has been recommended for use in HE by some authors based on empirical studies reviewed in this paper. Moodle has been recommended for use in HE by some authors based on empirical studies reviewed in this paper. As Hsiao (2012) rightly stated, educational technology has great potential in improving teaching quality in HE. This has clearly been demonstrated in this paper.

CHALLENGES, SOLUTIONS, AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS However, despite the observed success of ICT and therefore, of educational technologies such as e-learning and Moodle in teaching and learning, challenges are many as is the case with any new invention. Included among them are inadequate infrastructure for ICT use, inadequate ICT resources—both human and material, lack of ICT skills by users, low level of ICT literacy and teachers and instructors who have to teach their students in a language that Pensky (2001) in Wood (2010) refers to as the Digital language that they themselves are strangers to, and therefore struggle to cope with the situation. In continuation, Postnote, a subsector of the United Kingdom’s (UK) Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology states that the “benefits of ICT are not fully realized as many countries (especially developing countries) have inadequate infrastructure and human capacity to support ICT” (p.1). The report notes that the reason ICT is still out of reach of many is because inappropriate ICT products that are of poor quality and costly are being used, a situation that is further compounded by lack of technical skills to support ICT.

Inadequate Infrastructure According to Ololube et al. (2009), and especially in the developing world, inadequate infrastructure

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hampers the progress that can be made in ICT usage. Of them all, the most critical is lack or unreliability of electricity to power ICT. This is combined with poor telecommunication systems (facilities and equipment) and ineffective network systems, the very systems that ICT relies on for its optimum operation. Nonetheless, unreliability of electricity and/or intermittent availability is perhaps the most limiting factor in the developing world. Constant disruption is the norm in most of these countries; supply without interruption is rare. This makes it difficult for most of these countries to effectively implement ICT programs (Ololube et al., 2009). Of course some of these challenges can only be solved at the national level, and as such are beyond the scope of this paper—electricity supply is one such item. However, there are alternatives that are being pursued in several countries, developed and developing, that show promise. One of these alternatives is solar energy; much favored by the populous where power disruptions are rampant and a way of life especially the developing countries (Damasen & Uhmoibhi, 2012). Solar energy is an effective power source for powering small appliances, and that includes personal computers (PCs) (Nordhausen, 2011). Damasen and Uhomoibhi (2012) wrote “Availability of power remains crucial for the developing emergent (developing countries) markets” (p. 1). Similarly, Tongia (2014) reported that what was special about least developed countries (LDCs) was that more than 2 billion people, i.e. the majority of the people, lacked electricity. According to Tongia (2014) electricity in these countries, if available, was of bad quality, intermittent and costly, and other alternatives such as diesel for instance were expensive, while wind had varying speeds and therefore not quite appropriate. The consensus is thus solar energy. Damasen and Uhomoibhi (2012) also remarked “solar electricity is of major interest for the energy sector in developing or merging economies because it offers the possibility of generating

 The Role of Technology in Improving Quality of Teaching in Higher Education

renewable electricity using sunlight—a resource that is widely and freely available in most if not all developing countries” (p. 1). The potential benefits of solar power generation for access and use in ICT are enormous, it is pointed out. After all, the demand for electricity in developing countries is most likely to increase due to the expected population increase and the expansion of industrialization. Nordhausen (2011) stated that “ when energy efficient ICT is paired with appropriate solar panels, PCs and related devices can be introduced into areas where unreliable or non-existent power supplies have previously limited access to technology” (p. 2). Nordhausen (2011) also pointed out what was already presently happening in several countries, and that is that use of solar energy, “means remote villages in developing countries are now able to access community amenities…(and have access to) benefits such as school PC laboratories” (p. 2). One example given by the author, where PC labs powered by solar energy have worked particularly well was Bangladesh, India, where a government run school was the beneficiary of the technology. Referring to the efficiency of solar power operation, Norhausen (2011) wrote, “It may surprise many people that a few solar panels can provide enough power to support ICT-enhanced educational opportunities for an entire school…solar energy solutions are simple and do not involve many components” (p.3). What an opportunity it is then, for developing countries where constant and reliable electrical power is nearly impossible to obtain. As for poor communication systems, which at least in most countries the culprit is the monopolized nature of the system providers, some countries having noted this to be the reason are already addressing it by changing laws to loosen the monopoly grip, and allow for competition as a way of improving the situation. In addition, mobile phones are now being used extensively and their numbers continue to grow in both the developed

and developing countries, which again allows for competition in mobile phone providers, increasing competition, and therefore improving network quality. Perhaps, of the developing countries south of the Sahara, South Africa is quite exemplary being in the forefront in ICT use and efficiency. Nonetheless, other Sub-Saharan countries too are quickly following suit, though with some difficulties due to inadequate infrastructure.

Inadequate ICT Resources Information and communication technology relies on both human and material resources for its implementation and operation. In most developing countries this task is left to governments: to provide the materials, especially for use by universities. Yet this need not be the case. In admonishment Ololube et al. (2009) pointed out “this overwhelming dependence on the government (to provide ICT materials in universities)… the expectation by more than half the populations (in some of these countries)…has often left higher education institutions poorly equipped” (p. 14). Most public universities as well as individuals in most developing countries rely heavily on their governments to provide ICT materials (Ololube et al., 2009). Such a situation is not a healthy one. Consequently, may be it is time to start sourcing from within; by looking at what can be done by individuals in the way of providing solutions to these problems. For instance, as a way of not re-inventing the wheel, some institutions locally and internationally could be investigated to find out how they have dealt with the challenge. For example, in some universities in the US, inadequate material resources have been vamped up by placement of an instructional fee under the mandatory student fee. While at a glance the fee might look minimal, it becomes a substantial amount, enough to be able to purchase or acquire the much needed ICT materials and fully equip a computer lab with computers for communal use

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at Department level, as is done currently in some institutions (personal observation). This certainly could be one avenue that could be tried by some of the developing countries in order to mitigate this problem. With people/individuals putting their heads together to come up with suggestions that could be tried, there would be a multitude of ways of dealing with lack of ICT resources. To help in this problem, Postnet has put forth ways that could alleviate this problem. Suggested are, for instance, the use of wireless local area networks technologies and use of Open Source Software (OSS), the free software already currently helping the developing world increase its ICT usage. There are also a number of initiatives by well-wishers that want to help the developing world become ICT savvy, especially as regards its use in schools. In the forefront are organizations such as NEPAD, CFA, WSIS, UN, DFID, and many more which are providing assistance in form of material as well as human (technical) resources.

Lack of ICT Skills The European Commission (EC) reported that “many teachers are ill-equipped to teach students information technology related subjects” (European Commission Report, 2013, p. 1). This was the conclusion reached at following a survey the Commission conducted in 27 of its European countries. Likewise, in a separate study conducted in Australia on a related issue, it was concluded “the increasing adoption of (educational) technologies has resulted in a need for a higher level of (ICT) skills across the workforce (including the education sector), which in many cases is lacking” (Palmer, 2013, p. 1). The article narrated the comment of one survey participant on how ICT has affected the business world, as an example. The participant interestingly commented “the old-fashioned manufacturing manager basically is gone…now he needs to know (apart from other things) how to manipulate a database and do all

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that sort of thing that they never heard of 10 years ago” (p.1). This is basically where the ICT skill level is at with many people at present time. The situation is probably worse in the developing world. Nonetheless ICT advocates point out that training could help, despite the fact that across the countries that the EC surveyed for instance, teacher training in ICT though not forced on them, tended to be left to each teacher to find time on their own for the training, a situation that is counterproductive as it cannot work. What was suggested to be more fruitful was for institutions to give time to teachers to take the training. This unfortunately is not the case in many countries, except perhaps for a few—such as some US institutions (personal observation). The report produced by the EC, following the survey thus generally calls for greater investment in teacher training; proposing that perhaps as incentives, rewards should be given to teachers who use ICT in their classroom. However, what should be noted also is that teachers tend to be entrenched in their old ways of teaching and therefore do become defensive to leave the old way and embrace change; i.e. to practice new teaching methods—and that perhaps would be what would limit this approach.

Low-Level of ICT Literacy The case presented by Pensky (2001) in Wood (2010), that teachers who have themselves not been brought up on the so called ‘Digital language’ that their students “speak” are forced to teach in this language is unfortunately true. This has been compounded by the move by most universities and HE institutions to adopt educational technologies inclusively in teaching and learning. Wood (2010) put it succinctly in stating that the influx of educational technologies and their escalating use in HE, has made it necessary that teachers be conversant with these technologies so that they can effectively teach students that have been brought up using these technologies. Wood (2010) specifically stated that this anomaly

 The Role of Technology in Improving Quality of Teaching in Higher Education

…has led to one of the most talked about problems with education today, that is our ‘Digital immigrant’ (those who were not borne in the digital era) instructors who, according to Pensky (2001, p.2) “speak an outdated language (that of the predigital age)”, are struggling to teach a population that speaks an entirely new language (p.299). As one of the solution to this problem, Pensky (2007) suggested that ‘‘Digital Native methodologies need to be constructed for all subjects, at all levels, using our students to guide us” (p. 299). This, it seems, is already being tried in some US institutions (personal observation). Ololube et al. (2009), who call this predicament a lack of qualified ICT-literate faculty wrote “professionals, including faculty have to be educated with sound ICT backgrounds, independent of specific computer platforms or software environments, to meet the required competencies of the ever-changing global environment” (p. 6). This is one way in which the digital language divide could be addressed and should perhaps be vigorously pursued by the respective faculties to make amends. In conclusion then, from this discussion, despite the ominous nature of the challenges there are ways in which they can be circumvent or alleviated as a way forward for future directions. The fight for solutions must therefore continue. To this effect, Ololube et al. (2009) remarked that as far as research and practice were concerned, implications pertain most directly to HE institutions, faculty, students, and researchers.

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Carvalho, A., Areal, N., & Silva, J. (2011). Students’ perceptions of Blackboard and Moodle in a Portuguese university. British Journal of Educational Technology, 42(5), 824–841. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2010.01097.x

Hay, H. R., & Van der Merwe, B. C. (2007). The role of student evaluation in improving the quality of teaching and learning practices at the central university of technology, free state: A case study. The Journal of Higher Education, 21(5), 468–487.

Crosling, G., & Heagney, M. (2009). Improving student retention in higher education: Improving teaching and learning. Australian Universities Review, 51, 9–18.

Ho, A., Watkins, D., & Kelly, M. (2001). The conceptual approach to improving teaching and learning: An evaluation of a Hong Kong staff development programme. Higher Education, 42(2), 143–169. doi:10.1023/A:1017546216800

Delgado-Almonte, M., Andreu, H. B., & PedrajaRejas, L. (2010). Information technologies in higher education: Lessons learned in industrial engineering. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 13, 140–154. Elwood, S., Changchit, C., & Cutshall, R. (2006). Investigating students’ perceptions on laptop initiatives in higher education: An extension of the technology acceptance model. CampusWide Information Systems, 23(5), 336–349. doi:10.1108/10650740610714099 Escobar-Rodriguez, T., & Monge-Lozano, P. (2012). The acceptance of Moodle technology by business administration students. Computers & Education, 58(4), 1085–1093. doi:10.1016/j. compedu.2011.11.012 Felder, R. M., & Brent, R. (1999). How to improve teaching quality. Quality Management Journal, 6, 9–21. Fulford, C. P., & Zhang, S. (1993). Perceptions of interaction: The critical predictor in distance education. American Journal of Distance Education, 7(3), 8–12. doi:10.1080/08923649309526830 Gibbs, G., & Coffey, M. (2004). The impact of training of university teachers on their teaching skills, their approach to teaching and the approach to learning of their students. Active Learning in Higher Education, 5(1), 87–100. doi:10.1177/1469787404040463

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Hsiao, L. H. (2012). A study on teaching quality of Taiwan government in training civil servants with educational technology. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 11, 38–43. Improving Teacher Quality and Distribution. (2009). Washington, DC: U S Education Policy Briefing Sheet. Improving the Quality of Teaching and Learning in Europe’s Higher Education Institutions. (2011). European Commission Report. Jones, S. J. (2012). Reading between the lines of online course evaluations: Identifiable actions that improve student perceptions of teaching effectiveness and course value. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 16, 49–58. Khaled, A., & Alkhateeb, F. B. (2008). Predicting students usage of economies using an extended technology acceptance model (TAM). Academy of Educational Leadership Journal, 12(2), 109–128. Lei, J. (2010). Quantity versus quality: A new approach to examine the relationship between technology use and student outcomes. British Journal of Educational Technology, 41(3), 455–472. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2009.00961.x Mar, N. (2004). Utilizing information and communication technologies to achieve lifelong education for all: A case of Myanmmar. Educational Research for Policy and Practice, 3(2), 141–166. doi:10.1007/s10671-004-8241-y

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Martin-Blas, T., & Serrano-Fernandez, A. (2009). The role of new technologies in the learning process: Moodle as a teaching tool in Physics. Computers & Education, 52(1), 35–44. doi:10.1016/j. compedu.2008.06.005 Martinez-Torres, M. R., Marin, S. L., Garcia, F., Vasquez, S., Olivia, M., & Torres, T. (2008). A technical acceptance of e-learning tools used in practical and laboratory teaching, according to the European higher education area. Behaviour & Information Technology, 27(6), 495–505. doi:10.1080/01449290600958965 Mateiro, T. (2011, February 1). Education of music teachers: A study of the Brazilian higher education programs. International Journal of Music Education, 29(1), 45–71. doi:10.1177/0255761410372758 Matoti, S. N. (2010). The unheard voices of educators: Perceptions of educators about the state of education in South Africa. South African Journal of Higher Education, 24(4), 568–584. Md Ali, N., & Jaafar, J. M. (2010). Transforming Moodle as a reflective tool in learning French language. International Journal of Academic Research, 2(3), 243–262. Merriam-Webster Unabridged Dictionary. (n.d.). Definition of IT/ICT. Retrieved from www. merriam-webster.com Minishi-Majanja, M. K., & Ocholla, D. N. (2003). Information and communication technologies in library and information science education in Kenya. Education for Information, 21(4), 243–262. Mtebe, J. S., Dachi, H., & Raphael, C. (2011). Integrating ICT into teaching and learning at the university of Dar es Salaam. Distance Education, 32(2), 289–294. doi:10.1080/01587919.2 011.584854

Novo-Corti, I., Valera-Candamio, L., & RamilDiaz, M. (2013). E-learning and face to face mixed methodology: Evaluating effectiveness of e-learning and perceived satisfaction for microeconomic course using Moodle. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(2), 410–415. doi:10.1016/j. chb.2012.06.006 Ocholla, D. (2003). An overview of information and communication technologies (ICT) in the LIS schools of eastern and southern Africa. Education for Information, 21(2-3), 181–194. Ololube, N. P., Eke, P., Uzorka, M. C., Ekpenyong, N. S., & Nte, N. D. (2009). Instructional technology in higher education: A case of selected universities in the Niger Delta. Asia-Pacific Forum on Science Learning and Teaching, 10(2). Oxford Dictionary. (n.d.). Definition of e-learning. Retrieved for www.oxford-dictionary.com Pedro, F. (2005). Comparing traditional and ICT-enriched university teaching methods: Evidence from two empirical studies. Higher Education in Europe, 30(3-4), 399–411. doi:10.1080/03797720600625937 Postareff, L., Lindblom-Ylanne, S., & Nevgi, A. (2007). The effect of pedagogical training on teaching in higher education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 23(5), 557–571. doi:10.1016/j. tate.2006.11.013 Ramsden, P. (1991). A performance indicator of teaching quality in higher education: The course experience questionnaire. Studies in Higher Education, 16(2), 129–150. doi:10.1080/030750791 12331382944 Recommendation 1836. (2008). Realizing the full potential of e-learning for education and training. Council of Europe. Retrieved from http:// en.wikipedia.org

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Sanchez, R. A., & Hueros, A. D. (2010). Motivational factors that influence the acceptance of Moodle using TAM. Computers in Human Behavior, 26(6), 1632–1640. doi:10.1016/j. chb.2010.06.011 Saunders, F. C., & Gale, A. (2012). Digital or didactic: Using learning technology to confront the challenge of large cohort teaching. British Journal of Educational Technology, 43(6), 847–858. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2011.01250.x Saville, B. K. (2009). Using evidence-based teaching methods to improve education. Teaching and Learning Excellence, 14, 32. Retrieved from https://tle.wisc.edu/node/1045 Schroeder, A., Minocha, S., & Schneidert, C. (2010). The strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of using social software in higher and further education teaching and learning. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 26(3), 159–174. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2729.2010.00347.x Selwood, I., & Pilkington, R. (2005). Teacher workload: Using ICT to release time to teach. Educational Review, 57(2), 163–174. doi:10.1080/0013191042000308341 Shephard, K., & Knightbridge, K. (2011). Exploring presentation styles in higher education teaching and research situations: Distance and face-to-face. Open Learning, 26, 223–236. Simelane, S., Blignaut, S., & Van Ryneveld, L. (2007). Preparing lecturers to integrate educational technology into their teaching and learning practices. South African Journal of Higher Education, 21(7), 940–953. Smith, G. G., Ferguson, D., & Caris, M. (2002). Teaching on-line versus face-to-face. Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 30(4), 337–364. doi:10.2190/FFWX-TJJE-5AFQ-GMFT

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Sumak, B., Hericko, M., Pusnik, M., & Polancic, G. (2011). Factors affecting acceptance and use of Moodle: An empirical study based on TAM. Informatica, 35, 91–100. Tricker, T., Rangecroft, M., Long, P., & Gilroy, P. (2001). Evaluating distance education courses: The student perception. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 26(2), 165–167. doi:10.1080/02602930020022002 Verneil, M., & Berge, Z. (2000). Going online: Guidelines for faculty in higher education. Educational Technology Review, 6(3), 13–18. Wood, S. L. (2010). Technology for teaching and learning: Moodle as a tool for higher education. International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 22, 399–307. Wu, C. (2001). Diversely advanced study for teachers in knowledge economy. New Horizon Bimonthly for Teachers in Taipei, 115, 4–13. Wu, S. (1999). School reform and development. Taipei: National Taiwan Normal University Publishing. Wu, Y. T., Hou, H., Hwang, F., Lee, M., Lai, C., Chiou, G., & Tsai, C. et al. (2013). A review of interventions studies on technology-assisted instruction from 2005-2010. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 16, 191–203.

ADDITIONAL READING Campnella, S., Dimauro, G., Ferrante, A., Impedovo, D., Impedovo, S., & Trullo, C. et al. (2008). Quality enhancement in e-learning activities: Improvements by mean of a newly engineered e-learning survey. Advances in Engineering Education, 5(4), 242–250.

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Damasen, I., & Uhomoibhi, J. (2012). Solar power generation for ICT and sustainable development in emerging economies. CampusWide Information Systems, 29(4), 213–225. doi:10.1108/10650741211253813 Defining Quality in Education. (2000). UNICEF working paper document. New York, NY, USA Nordhausen, B. (2011). Solar power for PC deployments: Enabling ICT beyond the grid. White Paper, Retrieved from http://www.ictworks.org O’reilly, T. (2005). What is Web 2.0? Oreilly Networks, Retrieved 7/7/2014 from http://oreilly.com Postnote (2006). ICT in developing countries. The Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology. Retrieved from http://www.parliament.uk Shih, R. C. (2013). Effect of using Facebook to assist English for business communication course instruction. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 12(1), 52–59. Tongia, C. ICT and power electricity. Retrieved from http://www.cs.berkely.edu

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Blended Learning: A learning approach which uses both traditional face-to-face classroom instruction and technologically-mediated online instruction. CFA: Commission for Africa. DFID: Department for International Development (UK).

E-Learning Technology: Educational technologies that make use of electronic media and information and communication technologies. E-Learning: Or electronic-learning; learning that is done electronically through electronic media, especially through use of internet. NEPAD: New Partnership for Africa’s Development. Quality Education: An all-inclusive term in which learners as well as environments for education are healthy, content is relevant, teaching is student-centered, and outcomes are all encompassing bringing about all that is good from the student’s educational experience. Quality Learning: Learning that is purposeful, learning in which learners are provided with the ability to effectively learn, and retain skills and knowledge gained. It is usually associated with or based on student satisfaction with the learning process. UN: United Nations. Virtual Learning: Learning in which learners are not physically present in a traditional classroom but are taught through a substitute mode such as the Web or other e-learning technologies. It is learning in which students and instructors communicate through such technologies. Web Technology: World Wide Web technologies, such as YouTube, blog, and Facebook that allow users to interact and collaborate with each other in a social media dialogue. WSIS: World Summit on the Information Society.

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Chapter 4

Paradigm Shift toward Student Engagement in Technology Mediated Courses Melissa Roberts Becker Tarleton State University, USA Karen McCaleb Texas A&M University – Corpus Christi, USA Credence Baker Tarleton State University, USA

ABSTRACT University recruitment websites continue to show students happily using technology in the higher education environment. Exactly how technology is used in the teaching and learning process continues to challenge and frustrate university instructors and students. A frequent depiction of college classrooms consists of an instructor lecturing from the front of the classroom and reprimanding students for talking to each other. In this paradigm, the professor is the “sage on the stage” and is the single transmitter of knowledge. Is this teaching and learning approach the most effective way to educate students? With recent discoveries about how students learn most optimally, and how technology can augment the process, a paradigm shift is required towards appropriate and intentional implementation of technology tools for engaging students to use higher-order thinking skills. This chapter explores the use and application of free digital tools that both improve and in turn enhance the learning process.

BACKGROUND On university websites and recruitment publications throughout the world, university students are portrayed happily using some type of digital tool. The images imply technology is used for

student engagement at the institution and the use of digital tools is encouraged. Interaction with course content and encounters with faculty, staff, and other students are critical for student success and satisfaction in higher education. The new paradigm shift involves how university instructors and

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-8170-5.ch004

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students leverage technology in the classroom to actively engage with course content. More important than the specific college attended or even who the student is, actively engaged students will learn content and persist in their college experience at a higher rate (Cruce, Gonyea, Kinzie, Kuh, & Shoup 2007). Institutions of higher education continue to explore new ways to engage students through active learning. Many studies explore the reason students do not engage and strategies to engage university students effectively (Kahu, 2013).

Defining Engagement in Higher Education Drawing from Chickering and Gamson’s (1987) Seven principles of good practice in undergraduate education, many universities incorporate student engagement into the institution’s core values. Colleges and universities seek new ways to programmatically engage students to improve academic challenge, learning with peers, experiences with faculty and overall campus environment. The National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE) is a tool designed to measure the degree to which a student perceives himself to be engaged in these areas during the college experience. The tool is often given to graduating seniors and the results applied to the university improvement plans. Accuracy of the NSSE as a measure of engagement and a concise definition of student engagement continues to capture great attention from colleges and universities (Kahu, 2013). For the purpose of this chapter, student engagement is summarized into three areas of consideration: behavioral, emotional, and cognitive (Fredericks, Blumenfeld & Paris, 2004). Behavioral engagement includes following established rules and participating in extracurricular activities. Preparing for class, asking questions, and extending focused attention to the content at hand are also components of behavioral engagement. Emotional engagement incorporates student interest in the course, positive or negative feelings toward faculty members, and a sense of

belonging to the university. Finally, cognitive engagement addresses student motivation to master the complexities of course content and the student’s ability to regulate personal learning to become intentional in the application of successful learning strategies. Kahu (2013) noted that student engagement is of one of these areas of consideration. Instead, these must be a complex interplay of all areas for positive student engagement to become a reality. Lester (2013) called specific attention to the importance of engagement in the university setting. When students are actively engaged in a high quality learning process, there is a significant positive influence on retention, persistence and knowledge acquisition. Learning is influenced by the participatory teaching strategies and quality interactions between students and faculty members (Kahu, 2014). Students must exert effort to develop interpersonal relationships with other students and give focused attention to master course content. As students positively interact with each other and instructors, emotional engagement is enhanced. As emotional engagement increases, the behavioral engagement will also progress as collaborative strategies are applied in the classroom. Cognitive engagement naturally follows as the student becomes interested in the learning process, which began in the classroom, and seeks to understand the complexities of the content with focused, deliberate effort. The likelihood of withdrawing from the institution decreases (Fredericks, Blumenfeld, & Paris, 2004). Engagement, therefore, is a key, complex ingredient for student success at the university level.

Technology Enhanced Engagement Gebre, Saroyan, and Bracewell (2014) conducted a study to investigate student engagement in technology enhanced environments and the professors’ perception of effective teaching. Through questionnaire data from 332 students and 13 professors (multidisciplinary content), the researchers found that student engagement was significantly

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related to the professor’s conception of effective teaching. In the study, technology was applied as a powerful tool to facilitate active learning and interactive teaching strategies. Students reported engagement in the classroom with the use of computers to represent their understandings, solve problems and disaggregate data. Students must be intentionally engaged in the course content when using technology, which in turn increases their engagement. The classrooms with professors who purposed to develop student’s self-regulated learning the students reported a high level of engagement. On the other hand, classrooms with professors who viewed transmission of knowledge an indicator of effective teaching had students report the lowest level of engagement. The finding suggests both the design of content acquisition and the application of technology in the teaching and learning process is a critical factor for effective use of digital tools in the classroom. Similar to the research addressing technology enhanced environments, Li, Qi, Wang and Wang (2014) produced a study to compare the engagement of students in a face-to-face course and students in an online course. The results suggest there is no significant difference in student behavioral engagement in as a result of the learning environment. However, the researchers also revealed that students engage differently in the online environment in their answers to questions and collaborative learning. Innovative and critical thinking are higher-level of a skill set. The authors suggested the online environment promotes a student’s self-confidence and their ability to take risks in learning. While the researchers denoted there is not a significant difference in behavioral engagement, the digital learning environment facilitates critical thinking and problem solving which enhances cognitive engagement. Smith and Campbell (2012) proposed a middle ground application of technology in the learning process. The researchers used a flexible learning environment with both a formal academic space and collaborative interactive learning commons for students to communicate,

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interact, network and collaborate in the learning process. According to the study, students utilized share and comments activities which supported peer learning. According to surveys, students shared freely with peers various ways to approach a report, essay, and collect data. The study suggests technology bridges the gap between the formal academic learning environment and social media. Middle ground promoted self-efficacy in the students and the learning condition required the use of social skills. Students were engaged in all three categories of engagement: behavioral, emotional and cognitive.

OVERALL APPROACH The Shift to Online/Hybrid Courses At a teacher’s conference in 1703, it was reported that students could no longer prepare bark to calculate problems. They depended instead on expensive slates. What would students do when the slate was dropped and broken? Father Stanley Bezuska, Boston College (Committed Sardine, 2012). Innovation’s impact on education is not new. Today, the challenge has been for the field of education to meet the needs of a fast-paced, everchanging society. Our society has evolved from relying primarily on face-to-face communications to using a variety of interaction modes. These different communication modalities have not only impacted everyday interactions, but also our interactions within education - especially higher education. Moore (1989) stated that interactions between learner and content, learner and instructor, and learner and learner - that result in knowledge transfer are the basis of education. With the increasing use of technology in university courses, educators need to revisit how we view, define, and assess student interaction and engagement. Technology not only has impacted what we teach, but also how we teach. Course instructors now need

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to not only focus on content but also intentionally design and implement course structures that enhance meaningful interaction opportunities. As noted, student engagement is a critical factor in student success. The challenge, therefore, becomes designing the learning environment for student behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement across a continuum of classroom settings – ranging from the brick-and-mortar classroom to a fully, online experience. This setting shift, from the classroom to web-mediated environment, has changed the rules of engagement for learning interactions. Instructors have a broader and more flexible design in which to develop their course environment as the course’s designated class time no longer dictates when and how social and learning interactions occur. In making the shift from fully face-to-face classrooms to using web-mediated environments, purposeful planning for student engagement becomes critical. Although courses typically incorporate various interaction opportunities - students engaging with the instructor, each other and the content, - the traditional face-to-face classroom primarily focuses on the interaction exchange between teacher and student. With the utilization of the internet, the approach of providing instruction has expanded to broader continuum of educational course delivery systems – including hybrid formats as well as courses delivered fully online. Hybrid courses, also known as blended or web-enhanced, are designed to incorporate both aspects of face-toface and online classes. As such, the course is designed to meet, physically together, as well as work independently or with others in an online learning management system.

The Effectiveness of Online/ Hybrid Courses Online courses have grown in popularity in a very short period of time. In Fall 2004, approximately 2.3 million college students, in the United States,

took at least one online course. This number doubled, only four years later, in Fall 2008, to approximately 4.6 million (Allen & Seaman, 2010; Allen & Seaman, 2006). As technology becomes increasingly infused into our daily lives, student preference for accessing education is impacted. In 2009, 73% of higher education institutions reported growth in demand for online courses and programs (Allen & Seaman, 2010). Although the preference for online courses is growing, many faculty members are hesitant to teach courses partially and fully online. Some reluctance may be due to concerns regarding their own technological skills, while other concerns are steeped in pedagogical beliefs and the concern that students will not receive as much benefit from online venues. However, research tends to show that not only can online learning environments be as effective as traditional face-to-face classrooms, students also report having satisfaction with online/hybrid courses and their own degree of learning (Ward, Peters, & Shelley, 2010). Online instruction can be as effective as traditional instruction (Ward et al., 2010). In fact, Maki and Maki (2007) reported that online students can and do outperform traditional students. Some research indicates that students in online learning environments are often required to do more than those in traditional courses. As cited in Dixson (2010, p.2), online students report learning more and spending more time on task (Robertson, Grant, & Jackson, 2005), being more engaged than traditional students according to the National Survey of Student Engagement averages (Robinson & Hullinger, 2008), having higher achievement and performing better (Conolly, MacArthur, Stansfiled, & McLesslan, 2007; Lim, Kim, Chen, & Ryder, 2008). Although online course delivery systems can be effective, research does indicate that retention rates are lower in fully online courses (Murray, Perez, Geist, & Hedrick, 2013; Xu & Smith Jaggers, 2011). This situation, however, may not hold true for hybrid classes. Xu and Smith Jaggers

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(2011) found that students in hybrid or blended courses were as likely to complete the course as those enrolled in face-to-face courses. In a study by Overbaugh and Nickel (2011), students enrolled in online and blended sections of an educational foundations course both indicated an overall satisfaction with their course and their perceived sense learning. Although web-mediated learning environments may be effective for some, not all students will be strong candidates for an online learning situation.

Online/Hybrid Classroom Environments: Not A One Size Fits All Learning Environment Institutions of Higher Education (IHEs) acknowledge the demand for online classes. The Going the Distance survey reported that over 65% of IHE’s indicated that online learning was critical to their long-term strategic goals (Allen & Seaman, 2011). IHEs are responding to this increased call for more online classes as well as planning for their own growth. Although there have been instances where online classes are actually more expensive than traditional face-to-face classes, typically online classes can be cost effective. IHE’s can offer more classes, with minimal expense, to more students. Since online courses are not bound by time parameters, more classes can be offered during different time frames and even during non-traditional calendar dates. Additionally, online classes require less overhead costs, such as maintenance, classroom upkeep, and utilities (Keramidas, 2012, p. 25), than traditional faceto-face classes. It also is important to note that many universities charge students and additional fee for online and hybrid courses. As online courses are not place bound, IHEs can now actively offer online classes to geographicallydistant students without requiring those students to come to campus. Universities realize that through online learning, courses and, in some cases, entire

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programs can be offered to a larger number of students. Although there is no current formula developed for determining optimum class size (Irby & Lara-Alecio, 2012), the American Federation of Teachers (2003) proposed that student enrollment in an online course should be equivalent to that of a face-to-face class. Irby and Lara-Alecio’s research synthesis exploring optimal class size in online courses determined a lack in the literature of generalizable studies in this area (2012). In addition to increasing student enrollment by targeting students who are geographically-distant, universities are now pursuing non-traditional student populations. Prospective students who may not have enrolled in a university course due to work obligations, family needs, and scheduling issues are now finding online courses attractive. In El Mansour and Mupinga’s 2007 study, students reported both their positive and negative experiences within an online course setting. Students indicated that their positive experiences included the convenience of an online course, the instructor availability, and the interactions within the online course setting. Conversely, students also cited having negative experiences with the online class - specifically technology difficulties and a sense of “feeling lost in Cyberspace” (El Mansour & Mupinga, 2007, p. 1). As noted, online courses often have a lower retention rate that hybrid or face-to-face classes. Just as face-to-face classes do not meet the needs, learning styles and preferences of all students, nor do online or hybrid classes. Some students may struggle with the self-regulatory nature of online learning. It is important that students choose a class delivery option based on their own personal learning styles rather than convenience or flexibility (El Mansour & Mupinga, 2007). The flipped-classroom is a specific type of hybrid course. The course design was used by Harvard University’s physics professor, Eric Mazur in 1991 (Crouch & Mazur, 2001). Students gained first exposure to new course content before they arrived in the classroom. Mazur also gave

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attention to common misconceptions students encounter. When students have an initial understanding of the content, class time is used for in depth learning transfer through interactive events. The process empowers the instructor to direct the active learning in the classroom, moving students to a higher level of understanding. The instructor moderates the learning as students conceptualize and apply the newly constructed understandings. To ensure students participate in the before class learning, content should be presented in a variety of venues. To engage students, instructors provide learning options. For instance, the students may read a chapter in the text, watch the professor give a mini lecture over the chapter (posted on YouTube), listen to a podcast of the content or participate in other information gathering activities (DuBrowa, 2014; Moore, Gillett, & Steele, 2014). Students also need guidelines and incentives to complete the before class learning. The learning guidelines help students focus their attention on the critical content aspects during their initial encounter. They could answer questions of a viewing/reading guide and bring a digital or hard copy as a ticket in the door requirement. Students could also complete a basic content quiz online or immediately upon arrival in class. A final guideline could require students to answer three questions as an online assignment submission or on paper as they arrive to class. Two questions deal directly with the content and the third question prompts metacognition: what did you find most challenging or interesting in the content? If students submitted the answers electronically before class, the instructor could use the answers to inform class preparation. If students missed the content question or several confused by the same concept, more class time could be given to enhance learning. The classroom becomes tailored to the learning needs of the students, thus engaging the students in the new paradigm (Lasry, Dugdale, & Charles 2014).

Mazur (2001) found the incentive to complete the before class learning was a most effective tool, even after ten years of the flipped classroom. By holding students accountable for completion, the instructor thereby validates the pre-class learning process. Usually the incentives were points or credit applied to the students’ final grade. By awarding points for completion and not only for correct answers, students were more likely to participate in the before class learning and arrived prepared to actively engage in the face-to-face portion of the course. The total credit applied to the final grade was only 5%, but students received credit each time they attended the class prepared to learn. Several studies and literature address the effectiveness of the flipped classroom. These studies demonstrate an increase in student motivation, course retention and successful attainment of learning outcomes (Crouch, 2001; Lasry, Dugdale, & Charles 2014; Moore et al., 2014; Pierce & Fox 2012; Watkins & Mazur, 2013).

EFFECTIVE ONLINE/HYBRID ENGAGEMENT STRATEGIES Effective Online/Hybrid Engagement Strategies Interaction is pivotal to creating a dynamic and powerful learning environment (Kester, Kirscher, & Corbalan, 2006). As the course delivery continuum continually expands, instructors need to rethink how students interact and engage within the course environment. Effective online course design requires both a strong methodological foundation as well as opportunities for students to interact with the instructor, each other, and the content. Although research has shown that each interaction type (instructor-student, student-student, student-content) has a positive impact on student achievement (Bernard et al., 2009), courses can

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be designed to emphasize one type of interaction with “minimal loss in educational effectiveness” (Murray et al., 2013, p. 101). With traditional courses, the instructor-student interaction mode has been of primary importance; however, online courses shift the focus of student engagement to a student-content mode. This shift is often a novel approach to instructors who are accustomed to relying on their own physical presence to deliver their course instruction. Online and web-enhanced course instructors are now tasked with designing classes that support student emotional, behavioral, and cognitive engagement without relying heavily on their physical presence. Although there is no one activity that will guarantee increased student engagement in online classes, providing multiple communication channels may be related to higher engagement and that student-student and instructor-student communication are strongly correlated with higher student engagement in the course (Dixson, 2010).

Behavioral Engagement Strategies As instructors design their courses to support student engagement strategies, one area of focus is on student behavior. To support student behavioral engagement (such as preparing for class, asking questions, and following class rules), the course needs to be well structured and easily discernable. Course expectations, navigation information, and assignment requirements should be clearly evident within the course structure. Although instructor presence is important to student engagement, Dow (2008) noted that there are also other factors that contribute to student satisfaction. Students reported being satisfied with the class when it was well-organized; the instructor provided clear directions and course expectations. One of the tools available to support student behavior is the course syllabus. Syllabi can provide class expectations, interaction and assignment information, as well as the student learning outcomes within the class.

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The instructor can actively promote learning communities within the course. Learning communities, for this discussion, are teams of people engaged in intellectual interactions for the pursuit of learning (Kilpatrick, Barrett, & Jones, 2003). A frequent depiction of today’s college classrooms consists of an instructor lecturing from the front of the classroom and reprimanding students for talking to each other. In this paradigm, the professor is the “sage on the stage”, and is the single transmitter of knowledge. A more effective environment, according to the literature, is one in which a community of learners is established, and where students are encouraged to ask questions of each other and learn together. There is a sense of belonging and collaboration as students take risks and make mistakes. They work collaboratively with a common learning goal and embrace shared responsibly as accountability benchmarks are embedded in the course. Students extend focus attention to the course content because they are encouraged to network with other students. To build the learning community, the instructor teaches students how to collaborate. For every collaborative assignment, students are assigned roles and specific responsibilities. They are expected to honor their assigned role as their grade is based on their individual contribution to the final product. They also are expected to lend support and direction to fellow team members. This process guides students to create the specific expectations for the project and establish a checklist or rating scale for evaluation (Kagan, 2009). Students will learn together, but they are assessed for their individual learning. Assessment in the form of formative feedback is another tool to promote behavioral engagement to inform students if they need to make adjustments or corrections in their learning process. If they receive feedback early and often, the learning progresses in a natural state. Many tools are available for feedback such as rubrics, checklists, rating scale, audio recordings as well and inserting comments in a word document. The feedback

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must be specific and consistent. Providing students examples of finished products is helpful to the learning process. Directing students to score sample products using the applied rubrics allows students to better comprehend the expectations for the assignments and apply the nuances of the rubric application. Peer feedback allows the instructor another platform for student learning and timely feedback (Angelo & Cross, 1998).

PRACTITIONER’S PERSPECTIVE Hybrid Course Address behavioral engagement the first day of class since the first day is usually a face-to-face meeting. The instructor provides a syllabus that is organized and structured. All requirements of the course are concisely listed and the value of each delineated. The first learning event of the class addresses the syllabus. Divide students into teams of four to six members, depending on class size. Post vital questions for class success derived from the syllabus and allow time for them to work in teams to find all the answers. Next, have team members count off (1-4 or 1-6). Ask each question one at time calling a team number to stand if they know the answer and write their name and the answer on a 3x5 card. To build the learning community, allow students to help the standing student with the answer. On the other hand, to build individual accountability, do not allow help from teammates and collect the cards for individual assessment of the first day of class. Immediate feedback is provided by following up the question with the correct answer for the class as a whole. Students now know the key points of the syllabus, begun initial building of a learning community and experienced the value of immediate feedback. Note: If the class is large (over 50 students), use a student response system like eInstruction or the free web-based application

PollEverywhere as students use personal cell phones to submit answers.

Online Course In a like manner, address behavioral engagement in the online course the first week of class. The instructor provides a syllabus that is organized and structured. All requirements of the course are concisely listed and the value of each delineated. Part of the first week’s learning addresses the syllabus. Divide students into teams of four to six members, depending on class size, in the course Discussion Area. Post vital questions for class success derived from the syllabus and require students to post their individual answers before they can see their team members’ posts (most learning management systems have this functionality). Require students to post to each team member’s initial post agreeing or correcting the answers. In this manner, the instructor established the learning community and held each student accountable for their individual learning. The instructor should post a comment for each team as a whole with suggestions for improved teamwork or congratulate the team for successful collaborative efforts, as appropriate. Immediate feedback is provided to students. Students demonstrate understanding of vital syllabus information and they began the process of building the learning community.

Emotional Engagement Strategies As previously noted, emotional engagement incorporates student interest in the course, positive or negative feelings toward the faculty, and a sense of belonging to the class and university community. One crucial aspect of designing a course to support emotional engagement is through providing a strong instructor presence. The concept of instructor and student presence is an important factor in all course delivery formats.

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The term ‘social presence’ has historically been applied to all types of learning situations from face-to-face to fully online classes. Social presence has long been accepted as a foundational component of student engagement. Although this concept has been defined in many ways, Aragon (2003) suggested that social presence is, simply, the sense of “being there”. In face to face learning environments, social presence is often naturally occurring and an extension of the instructor’s personality and teaching style. Instructors demonstrate their presence through common gestures (such as eye contact, smiling), physical proximity, addressing students by name, and using humor. Researchers have indicated that students perceive a greater sense of belonging when they feel that the instructorstudent interactions are acknowledging, supportive, and encouraging (Edwards, Edwards, Torrens, & Beck, 2011). The challenge, for educators, is to consciously design social presence that facilitates student interactions, into the overall online course structure. Dixson (2010) reported that student engagement is not about the type of activity/assignment but rather about the multiple ways of creating meaningful communication between instructor and students. In a web-mediated environment, a multitude of channels exist to support instructorstudent communications as well as student-student communications. Most learning management systems offer a variety of web tools for course support. These tools often include interactive items such as: wikis, blogs, email, discussion boards, and audio and video conferencing. Although these tools exist, instructors must use tools appropriately to support relationships and connections with and for their students. Although instructors need to be actively involved in the learning of their students, interactions should be balanced according to desired student learning outcomes. For instance, instructors should be minimally active in discus-

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sion forums as too much instructor input may decrease student participation (Dennen, Darabi, & Smith, 2007). It is common for instructors to create a course that allows venues for students to interact with one another. However, to foster student-student connections, instructors should require assignments that rely on student-student and student-content interactions (Dixson, 2010). Although many instructors make communication channels available to students, these opportunities are often optional and do not mandate student-student interactions. By requiring team work for assignments such as research activities, problem solving, case scenarios and other active learning experiences, instructors are also supporting students in building their own social presence within the online class community.

PRACTITIONER’S PERSPECTIVE Hybrid Course To address emotional engagement in the hybrid class, the instructor must establish a strong presence in the course and promote student-to-student interactions. Require students to post answers to critical content elements of the course each week in the online discussion area of the course. Provide guidelines for their responses to at least two peers. In the rubric for the assignment, describe exact expectations for the initial post and peer replies. Points must be associated with the posts in order for students to understand the value of their contributions to the knowledge acquisition process and their processional, thoughtful feedback to peers. The posting process engages the students to attain positive feelings toward peers and enhances the sense of belonging in the course. When the students meet face-to-face, conduct follow up experience for students. Conduct a post- a-thought activity in which students write an answer to a question with as many examples

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as possible (one idea per note). Call time and ask students to sort, within their team, ideas that are similar or related. They then create a collaborative team response to the questions and present to the class as a whole. Build individual accountability (Kagan 2009) when each student has a different color paper or note card for their ideas. Collect the paper and assign points for added incentive.

Online Course The online course must incorporate instructor presence, which is more easily gained in a hybrid setting. The instructor could post a comment to each discussion team (rather than individual comments) of a general nature. The instructor could cite additional examples of the vital content to extend the team learning. Posting challenging questions might encourage a higher order of thinking among the students and exhibit a strong instructor presence, hence emotional engagement. Use multiple ways of meaningful communication by hosting a weekly live broadcast using Google Hangouts to answer questions submitted during the week through Twitter. Students could interact with the broadcast using a back channel and submit comments or questions during the broadcast. The instructor could record the broadcast so students not able to attend the session can view the instructor answering questions, both posted on Twitter asynchronously and received live from the backchannel synchronously. Currently several free venues exist for the back channel by searching the term: free online meetings. Encourage student-to-student interactions by requiring students to capture a screenshot of themselves with another student in the class. Specify the interaction to capture in order to demonstrate collaboration and learning content interactions. Provide a checklist or rubric for scoring purposes. Instructors provide an exemplary example of a submission in order to make the expectations clear. The examples could contribute to instructor presence if the examples are presented with a

voice-over dialogue from the instructor explaining the reason the example is a skillful representation of the assignment.

Cognitive Engagement Strategies Cognitive engagement strategies address student motivation to master the complexities of course content. Similar to traditional learning environments, online courses need to be grounded in sound pedagogy. As learning is a dynamic process, the interaction between student and the content should begin at a basic level, relating the information to the students’ prior knowledge, and increase in complexity. The study of student cognitive engagement is not unique to web-mediated learning environments. In 1956, a hierarchy was developed to understand the way students learn and to assess student performance (Halawi, McCarthy, & Pires, 2009). This tool, commonly known as Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning, denotes six levels of cognitive learning: knowledge (recall, memorize), comprehension (understand, interpret), application (using the course material), analysis (examining, comparing, contrasting), synthesis (creating new associations), and evaluation (assessing the value of the information). While Bloom’s Taxonomy was created prior to online learning environments, the learning objectives apply to both face-to-face and web-mediated class environments. Although a variety of student-content interactions take place in any given course, activities may be classified as requiring lower-order or higher order thinking skills. In Bloom’s original taxonomy, the first three cognitive operations (knowledge, comprehension, and application) are all considered lower-order thinking skills while the remaining three (analysis, synthesis, and evaluation) are categorized as higher-order thinking skills. In the 1990s, a revised version of Bloom’s Taxonomy was developed by a team led by one of Bloom’s students, Lorin Anderson (Forehand, 2005). Among the differences, the

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new taxonomy changed the two top levels from synthesis and evaluation to evaluating and creating. The revised tool also changed all the levels’ terminology from nouns to verbs (remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating). As instructors design courses to support student learning, careful consideration needs to be given to the type of interaction and assignment. Students report that active learning activities, activities that require students to apply learned concepts, are more engaging than passive activities, such as reading assignments, viewing powerpoint slides and videos, and taking quizzes (Dixson, 2010). Active learning activities, such as participating in discussion forums, case scenarios and group assignments, as well as passive activities can be structured to elicit either lower or higher-order thinking skills. One of the most widely used active learning strategies to engage students is the discussion forum (Ertmer et al, 2011). Dixson’s study (2010) indicated that students view discussion forums favorably. Kelly (2014) stated that facilitating successful discussions supports student cognitive engagement. However, not all discussions will elicit higher levels of thinking from students. Discussion need to be carefully designed to support critical thinking. A 2011 study found that students engaged in higher level thinking when they were prompted and an interaction followed the initial question (Ertmer, Sadaf, & Ertmer, 2011). Discussion forums, which are dynamic and not based on question-answer format, can elicit student engagement through the types of questions that are posed. Students engaged with the content at a higher cognitive level when addressing divergent questions - those questions that are open-ended and invite a variety of responses - as opposed to convergent questions which seek a specific response or set of responses (Ertmer et al., 2011). Although discussion forums can be powerful tools to support student engagement, Kelly (2014) also suggested that facilitating closing or wrap-up

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activity, providing personal feedback and asking students for feedback can also increase student engagement. Using a backward by design approach, instructors can view their student learning outcomes to design course activities, that rely heavily on active learning strategies that meet those outcomes. Not only do these activities help the student to interact with the learned content, but they may also connect the student, socially, with their classmates (Dixson, 2010). Kim, Kim, Khera, and Getman (2014) suggested basic course design principles for the flipped classroom. Students gain first exposure of new content well in advance of the class meeting and have an incentive to complete the learning event. The use of formative assessment before class begins (low stakes) provides the instructor a blueprint for the face-to-face portion of the class. The before class learning must tie directly to the in class expectations. Instructors must intentionally support student learning through task-oriented experiences in the classroom. Purposeful interactions of the students should lead them to network with peers and develop a space where mistakes are acceptable and students become self-managers of their learning. Corrective feedback is an essential tool in all classrooms, but in a flipped class it is vital. Misconceptions must be addressed quickly on individual and team basis. While most university students are accustomed to the use of technology in daily lives, ready access and user friendly digital tools must be applied to the learning environment.

PRACTITIONER’S PERSPECTIVE Hybrid Course Provide interactive materials to assist students in preparing for the course, moving from the basic knowledge level to the application area and on to the synthesized arena. As the instructor begins, the student prior knowledge must be addressed.

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Students complete an online survey or an inclass pretest to assist the students to identify the portions of content they must contemplate and give focused attention. Students interact with the materials before class in an online format (readings of text, articles, websites and/or viewing professional video presentations of the content). Students present evidence of the learning prior to class in the form of a tangible product such as a completed reading guide, summary statement or visual portrayal of learning upon entering the classroom. Since students have an initial exposure to the content, the class time is spent applying the content to problem-based real-world scenarios. The dynamic interaction between student and content takes place under the professional watch care of the instructor. Cognitive student engagement occurs because the instructors apply their expertise at the point of learning, when students make mistakes so misconceptions are quickly resolved. Students can then be motivated to explore and capture the complexities of the course.

Online Course Cognitive engagement in an online environment is accomplished in several venues. Experts in the field could provide a live broadcast and students ask questions in a backchannel. To hear from an expert in the field of study will capture the students’ interest and guide them to become vested in the content. The webinar can be recorded for later viewing if a student is unable to attend. Creation of interactive widgets can engage students in the content acquisition process. Students participate in low-stakes learning events to ensure students master the essential skills required for content mastery. Drag and drop, crossword puzzles and flash card tournaments encourage interaction with the content in a gaming environment. Open ended questions or case study scenarios challenge students to apply the course content to real-world situations. Students see the value of the content as applied to their future profession.

Taking a class, or individual, pulse is one method that instructors can use to assess student progress. By embedding course checkpoints, the instructor invites student feedback on the course and allows is able to monitor and adjust the structure of the course for enhanced learning. The instructor can require a culminating activity or product and provide individual student feedback. When the instructor values the learning process of the student, valuable cognitive engagement takes place.

SHIFTING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT PARADIGM TO MOOCs AND TOOCs Brief Background A new type of online class emerged in 2008, dubbed Massive Open Online Course (MOOC). The MOOC is an Internet-based course of study made available free of charge and targeting largescale participation. Aside from the sheer number of students, the major difference in traditional online courses and MOOCs is that MOOCs are completely voluntary. The bold step away from the traditional online course format was taken by the University of Manitoba in Canada. Twenty-five students registered for the course, Connectivism and Connective Knowledge, paid tuition and received university credit. The twenty-five students were joined by 2,300 other students who were not seeking university credit and enrolled at no cost. The course was taught by Stephen Downes and George Siemens. They brought together two hallmarks of MOOCs: distributed education and the use of open educational resources (OERs). The OERs opened the door to the development of MOOCs supporting thousands of users and in turn thousands of students in this one course. In the initial course, student contributions were posted in the student’s weblog location. Current MOOCs use the newest open source software like Twitter, Google+ and Facebook to aggregate

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student contributions which provides evidence of authentic learning (Downes, 2012). Currently, there exists two basic types of MOOCs. The first adopts a connectivist approach to learning. The emphasis is on linking creativity, student engagement, peer learning and selfregulation in the student learning experience. The focus is on knowledge creation and generation of new ideas. Students are intended to regulate their learning and enhance their experience through networking with other students and learning resources. The second type MOOC presents a traditional approach to online courses using text, video, assignment submissions and exams in the course learning environment. Downes (2012) used the terminology cMOOC to identify the use of a connectivist approach to learning and xMOOC designates a course with the traditional online approach. Both MOOCs receive favorable reviews from students because the MOOCs allow them access to high quality resources otherwise unavailable at their institution or in their country as a whole (Tamburri, 2014). Daniel (2012) called attention to the paradigm shift MOOCs may cause in the university setting. As the course is offered to the public domain, a universal audience, the institutions of higher learning will be obligated to give attention to the importance of teaching. Many of the initial ivy league universities offering MOOCs gained that elite distinction not for their ability to teach (especially online courses), but rather their ability to conduct research. These same universities measure institutional standing by the number of students who apply for admission and the high numbers denied entrance. Exactly how a high number of students failing the MOOCs will impact the university’s reputation is not clear. If a MOOC is to be a part of the common university structure, however, teaching and student engagement must become a university core value. MOOCs have the power to create a paradigm shift for many universities.

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There exist common challenges in the online course environment. The list includes, but is not limited to, student isolation, lack of interaction with the instructor and unrealistic expectation that an online course is less rigorous (Cull, Reed, & Kirk, 2010). These obstacles are exacerbated in a MOOC. Simply due to the large number of participants in a MOOC, the instructor does not have the ability to tailor learning experiences to individual student need and provide timely feedback. Even in a cMOOC where students are empowered to develop and create their own learning, the majority of students need scaffolding at some point in the learning process. Scaffolding takes a myriad of forms and is truly different for each learner. Koutropoulos and Hougue (2012) reported the large number of students, within MOOCs, inhibit the instructor’s ability to engage students and can lead to high withdrawal and dropout rates. A regional university in Texas fashioned an innovative adaptation of MOOCs (Baker & Gentry, 2014). Credence Baker and six of her graduate students (team leads) leveraged existing partnerships with area public school educators and launched a Targeted Open Online Course (TOOC). While the TOOC followed all the basic principles of a cMOOC, Baker replaced the massive invitation to learners, with a targeted population request. Fiftynine Effective Schools Project (ESP) schools were extended an invitation to participate in the TOOC to receive continuing professional education credit and/or graduate credit from the university. The TOOC was offered free of charge and was hosted on Blackboard CourseSites, a free online platform for hosting online learning. The course content was created in SoftChalk as participatory lessons which included text, images, video, embedded polls, assessments and interactive widgets. The goals of the TOOC were three-fold: offer quality professional develop to teachers in the high need area of instructional technology; positively impact educators (and in turn their students) and test the new model of content delivery for the university’s future.

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To insure the rigor of the graduate course, Principles of Instructional Design & Technology, the 167 area educators were divided into groups and each assigned a team lead. The team leads interacted with their specific group throughout the five-week course. The interactions were informed by the work of Siemens and Downes (2005) as the TOOC applied the principles of the connectivist theory. For instance, a twitter course hashtag was established to allow the instructor to communicate with the class as a whole. In turn, one twitter post was required from the students each week. Students used this form of technology to connect to each other posting 668 tweets during the course, far above posted requirement. The educators were provided a Google+ Community and posted/replied to discussion prompts. The posts contained text, images, websites and videos to demonstrate authentic learning. In smaller groups of three to five educators, they created a collaborative Google Document to identify key points and resources each week. Each educator posted individual reflections each week. The team leads provided feedback to each teacher within five days of submission by way of rubrics for each product. Each week, six deliverables were submitted for assessment: class tweet, team discussion (Google + community), key point submission and comment (Google Document), reflection, weekly quiz and technology “experiment.” The instructor provided comments in each Google+ community and the team Google Document. The results of the initial TOOC seem favorable. Of the original 162 educators, 122 actively participated in the course. Of these participants, 97 completed the course earning a grade of C or better, providing a persistence rate of 80%. The TOOC offered quality professional develop to teachers who could in turn impact the learning of their students. The maiden voyage of the TOOC brought positive results to the university’s graduate program. Eighteen new graduate students enrolled the following semester in the Instructional Design and Technology program, which was

157% increase over previous enrollments in the same semester. The innovative adaptation of the MOOC as a TargetedOOC appears sustainable and worthy of consideration, particularly for regional institutions of higher learning.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS The current student engagement research in the literature has helped shape and form current course design, development, and implementation. It would behoove the field to continue exploring areas of engagement in a variety of web-mediated courses, including MOOCs and TOOCs. In addition to viewing engagement through the student lens, it is also important to continue to study how instructors view this phenomenon and are able to shift the traditional concept to one that meets the needs and learning environments of today’s students. As technology’s impact on education advances, there will continue to be a myriad of compelling research directions to pursue. Although solid research to support and enhance the various type of student engagement is needed to strengthen the existing literature base, there are also other avenues to explore. As an effective course is dependent on sound pedagogical principles, additional studies exploring student cognitive operations, drawing from structural frameworks such as Bloom’s taxonomy, across fully online course environments would enhance the growing knowledge of student engagement and online learning effectiveness. Through examining the level of critical thinking, course designers view and address engagement strategies with an increased breadth and depth of knowledge.

CONCLUSION The twenty-first century is an exciting time for the field of education. As information increases

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exponentially, impacted by the influence of technology, educators must not only keep up, but also they must establish a leadership role. As access to knowledge evolves, so too does the fundamental way we interact as a society. Individuals connect with one another through networks that form on the basis of interest, problem-solving and knowledge acquisition. The creation of knowledge informs the global society and truly changes the world. As a field, educational researchers must continually assess the veracity and effectiveness of the discipline. Although web-mediated learning environments have existed for decades, this process has become increasingly more complex. No longer is the traditional face-to-face class information being transferred to an online venue simply by using online tools to convey content, but the design of the class fabric itself has changed. Interactive tools and authentic learning dominate the landscape. Memorization of facts is no longer essential for an educated person. Instead, people must learn to curate information and transform that information into knowledge, understanding and values. As from the beginning of time, students must exert effort to network with other students and provide intentional endeavors to master course content. Emotional engagement is attained when students interact in a positive venue with other students and instructors. When emotional engagement improves, behavioral engagement will also develop as collaborative interactions are intentionally applied in the educational setting. Cognitive engagement easily follows as the student is successful in the learning process, which began in the classroom and extends outside the classroom arena. Students seek to uncover the intricacy of the content with their personal best efforts. A paradigm shift is required if twentyfirst century learners are to be fully engaged in the learning process. Student engagement is an essential component for successful institutions of higher learning.

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Halawi, L., McCarthy, R., & Pires, S. (2009). An evaluation of e-learning on the basis of Bloom’s taxonomy: An exploratory study. Journal of Education for Business, 84(6), 374–380. doi:10.3200/ JOEB.84.6.374-380 Heaslip, G., Donovan, P., & Cullen, J. (2014). Student response systems and learner engagement in large classes. Active Learning in Higher Education, 15(1), 11–24. doi:10.1177/1469787413514648 Irby, B. J., & Lara-Alecio, R. (2012). A narrative review of literature regarding class size in online instruction. In NCPEA handbook of online instruction and programs in education leadership. Retrieved from the OpenStax-CNX Web site: http://cnx.org/content/col11375/1.24/ Kagan, S. (2009). Cooperative learning. San Clemente, CA: Kagan Publishing. Kahu, E. (2013, June). Framing student engagement in higher education. Studies in Higher Education, 38(5), 758–773. doi:10.1080/03075 079.2011.598505 Kelly, R. (2014). Five pedagogical practices to improve your online course. Online Classroom. Keramidas, C. G. (2012). Are undergraduate students ready for online learning? A comparison of online and face-to-face sections of a course. Rural Special Education Quarterly, 31(4), 25–32. Kilpatrick, S., Barrett, M., & Jones, T. (2003). Defining learning communities. AARE 2003 Conference Papers. Retrieved April 21, 2006 from http://www.aare.edu.au/03pap/jon03441.pdf Kim, M., Kim, S., Khera, O., & Getman, J. (2014). The experience of three flipped classrooms in an urban university: An exploration of design principles. The Internet and Higher Education, 2237–2250. doi:10.1016/j.iheduc.2014.04.003

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Koutropoulos, A., & Hougue, R.J. (2012). How to succeed in a MOOC - Massive open online course. Learning Solutions Magazine, 1(5). Kuh, G. D., Cruce, T. M., Shoup, R., Kinzie, J., & Gonyea, R. M. (2008). Unmasking the effects of student engagement on first-year college grades and persistence. The Journal of Higher Education, 540(5). doi:10.1353/jhe.0.0019 Lasry, N., Dugdale, M., & Charles, E. (2014). Just in time to flip your classroom. The Physics Teacher, 52(1), 34–37. doi:10.1119/1.4849151 Lester, D. (2013). A review of the student engagement literature. FOCUS On Colleges, Universities, & Schools, 7(1), 1–8. Maki, R. H., & Maki, W. S. (2007). Online courses. In F. T. Durso (Ed.), Handbook of applied cognition (2nd ed.; pp. 527–552). New York: Wiley & Sons, Ltd. doi:10.1002/9780470713181.ch20 Moore, A. J., Gillett, M. R., & Steele, M. D. (2014). Fostering student engagement with the flip. Mathematics Teacher, 107(6), 420–425. doi:10.5951/mathteacher.107.6.0420 Moore, M. (1989). Three types of interaction. American Journal of Distance Education, 3(2), 1–7. doi:10.1080/08923648909526659 Murray, M., Perez, J., Geist, D., & Hedrick, A. (2013). Student interaction with content in online and hybrid courses: Leading horses to the proverbial water. Informing Science: The International Journal of an Emerging Transdiscipline, 16, 99–115. Overbaugh, R. C., & Nickel, C. E. (2011). A comparison of student satisfaction and value of academic community between blended and online sections of a university-level educational foundations course. The Internet and Higher Education, 14(3), 164–174. doi:10.1016/j.iheduc.2010.12.001

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Pierce, R., & Fox, J. (2012). Vodcasts and activelearning exercises in a “flipped classroom” model of a renal pharmacotherapy module. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 76(10), 1–5. doi:10.5688/ajpe7610196 PMID:23275661 Prestridge, S. (2014). A focus on students’ use of twitter—Their interactions with each other, content and interface. Active Learning in Higher Education, 15(2), 101–115. doi:10.1177/1469787414527394 Siemens, G. (2005, August 10). Connectivism: Learning as network creation. e-Learning Space. Retrieved from http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/networks.htm Siemens, G. (2012). MOOCs are really a platform. eLearnspace. Retrieved from: http://www. elearnspace.org/blog/2012/07/25/moocs-arereally-a-platform/ Smith, A. J., & Campbell, S. (2012). Exploring a middle ground engagement with students in a social learning environment. Electronic Journal of E-Learning, 10(3), 273–282. Tamburri, R. (2014). An interview with Canadian MOOC pioneer George Siemens. Retrieved from: http://www.universityaffairs.ca/an-interviewwith-canadian-mooc-pioneer-george-siemens. aspx Ward, M. E., Peters, G., & Shelley, K. (2010). Student and faculty perceptions of the quality of online learning experiences. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 11(3), 57–77. Watkins, J., & Mazur, E. (2013). Retaining students in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) majors. Journal of College Science Teaching, 42(5), 36–41.

ADDITIONAL READING Borrego, M., Cutler, S., Prince, M., Henderson, C., & Froyd, J. E. (2013). Fidelity of Implementation of Research-Based Instructional Strategies (RBIS) in Engineering Science Courses. The Journal of Engineering Education, 102(3), 394–425. doi:10.1002/jee.20020 Bozic, C., & Dunlap, D. (2013). The Role of Innovation Education in Student Learning, Economic Development, and University Engagement. Journal Of Technology Studies, 39(2), 102–111. Desai, M. S., Hart, J., & Richards, T. C. (2008). E-learning: Paradigm shift in education. Education, 129(2), 327–334. Elwood, S., McCaleb, K., Fernandez, M., & Keengwe, J. (2014). A theoretical framework and model towards media-rich social presence design practices. Education and Information Technologies, 19(1), 239–249. doi:10.1007/s10639-012-9212-1 Enfield, J. (2013). Looking at the Impact of the Flipped Classroom Model of Instruction on Undergraduate Multimedia Students at CSUN. Techtrends: Linking Research & Practice To Improve Learning, 57(6), 14–27. doi:10.1007/ s11528-013-0698-1 Hammonds, L., Matherson, L. H., Wilson, E. K., & Wright, V. H. (2013). Gateway Tools: Five Tools to Allow Teachers to Overcome Barriers to Technology Integration. Delta Kappa Gamma Bulletin, 80(1), 36–40. Kalashyan, I., Kaneva, D., Lee, S., Knapp, D., Roushan, G., & Bobeva, M. (2013). Paradigm Shift - Engaging Academics in Social Media - the Case of Bournemouth University. Proceedings Of The International Conference On E-Learning, 662-665.

Xu, D., & Smith Jaggers, S. (2011). Online and hybrid course enrollment and performance. CCRC Working Paper No. 21.

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Mackness, J., Waite, M., Roberts, G., & Lovegrove, E. (2013). Learning in a Small, Task--Oriented, Connectivist MOOC: Pedagogical Issues and Implications for Higher Education. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 14(4), 140–159.

Wei, C., Chen, N., & Kinshuk, K. (2012). A model for social presence in online classrooms. Educational Technology Research and Development, 60(3), 529–545. doi:10.1007/s11423-012-9234-9

Mkhize, P., & Huisman, M. (2013). Investigating Factors That Influence the Socially Orientated Instructional Technology Adoption Rate in an Open Distance Learning Institution. Proceedings Of The International Conference On E-Learning, 255-263.

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Moratelli, K., & DeJarnette, N. K. (2014). Clickers to the Rescue. The Reading Teacher, 67(8), 586–593. doi:10.1002/trtr.1261 Morris, C., & Chikwa, G. (2014). Screencasts: How effective are they and how do students engage with them? Active Learning in Higher Education, 15(1), 25–37. doi:10.1177/1469787413514654 Nortvig, A. (2013). In the Presence of Technology - Teaching in Hybrid Synchronous Classrooms. Proceedings Of The International Conference On E-Learning, 347-353. Saadatmand, M., & Kumpulainen, K. (2014). Participants’ Perceptions of Learning and Networking in Connectivist MOOCs. Journal Of Online Learning & Teaching, 10(1), 16–30. Staines, Z., & Lauchs, M. (2013). Students’ engagement with Facebook in a university undergraduate policing unit. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 29(6), 792–805. Talley, C. P., & Scherer, S. (2013). The Enhanced Flipped Classroom: Increasing Academic Performance with Student-recorded Lectures and Practice Testing in a “Flipped” STEM Course. The Journal of Negro Education, 82(3), 339–347. doi:10.7709/jnegroeducation.82.3.0339

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Flipped Classroom: Learn new content online (watching video lectures, reading text, exploring websites) before class and the instructor uses class time for hands-on learning and application of the course content in place of lecture. Hybrid Classroom: Portions of traditional face-to-face class meetings are replaced with online learning events. Instructional Strategies: The approach an instructor takes to empower students to accomplish learning objectives. MOOCs: Massive Open Online Courses is an online course offered to unlimited participation with multiple access points through the Internet, usually at no cost to the student. Paradigm Shift: Evolutionary shift in basic assumptions. Social Presence: Communication between instructor and student as well as effective student to student communication which enhances student engagement in the classroom. Student Engagement: The degree of focused attention, effort, and passion students exhibit in the learning process. TOOCs: Targeted Open Online Courses are innovative adaptation of MOOCs and replaces the massive invitation to learners, with a targeted population request.

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Chapter 5

Keeping It Social:

Transforming Workplace Learning and Development through Social Media Helen M. Muyia Texas A&M University, USA Fredrick Muyia Nafukho Texas A&M University, USA

ABSTRACT The rapid change and competition in the business world is fundamentally challenging the workplace. Consequently, organizations have begun to adopt a continuous learning philosophy which has resulted in a rise in both formal and informal learning. As social media penetrates our everyday lives, organizations and human resource development professionals are looking at how to leverage social media tools to enhance workplace learning and development. Using such tools also fits in with current initiatives to move learning to a more employee-centered learning. This chapter explores a number of social media tools that can be used to enhance workplace learning and development. First, social media definitions in the workplace context are provided and discussed. This is followed by a discussion on challenges associated with the use of social media for workplace learning and development. A framework of social media effectiveness, grounded in the learning and training processes, is propsed in the chapter.

INTRODUCTION In recent years, social media has exploded as a category of online discourse with people creating content, sharing, bookmarking, and networking at a significant rate. With statistics showing that in 2012, Facebook was hosting14.2% of the world’s population and Twitter users were sending 340

million tweets per day (Cheston, Flickinger, & Chilsom, 2013). Harnessing social media potential for workplace learning and development has been touted as a breakthrough across the learning spectrum (Baird & Fisher, 2005; Nafukho, Muyia, &Graham, 2010; Zhao, & Kemp, 2012). Training courses which were traditionally seen as the way for teaching or educating in the workplace

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-8170-5.ch005

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 Keeping It Social

are no longer sufficient for delivering ongoing learning and development goals. The focus now is on more flexible ways to achieving learning and development goals (Cifford, & Thorpe, 2007). For example, Cross (2007) argued that workers learn more in coffee rooms than in the classroom, underscoring the fact that social networks have become the new coffee rooms. In this era where technologies can support different learning needs, the workplace currently faced with many challenges can use social media tools to enhance learning and development of their employees.

Social Media Social media has been defined from different perspectives. According to Dabbagh and Reo (2011), Social media is a twenty-first century term used to define a variety of networked tools that emphasize aspects of the Internet as a channel for communication, collaboration, and creative expression. Social media applications therefore allow users to converse and interact with each other by creating editing and sharing new forms of textual, visual and audio content (Selwyn, 2012). Others see social media as the media designed to be disseminated through social interaction, created using highly accessible scalable techniques (Wagner, 2011). Social media is seen as having the ability to harness the power of the collective actions of online user communities rather than individual users (Shirky, 2003). Social media can take many different forms, including Internet forums, web logs, social blogs, micro blogging, wikis, podcasts, pictures, video, rating and social book marking (Tyagi & Tyagi, 2012). The key characteristic of all these social media practices is that of mass socialization (Shirky, 2003). They allow people to collaborate, actively create content, generate knowledge and share information online, both asynchronously and synchronously (Grosseck, 2009).

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The use of social networking has rapidly gained momentum over the past few years. For example, statistics show that 76.4% of Americans in the age group 18-24 and 57.3% in the age group 25-34 use social media (Chou, Hunt, Beckjord, Moser, & Hesse, 2009). Because of their ease of use and rapidity of deployment, they offer the opportunity for powerful information sharing and ease of collaboration. Because of their ease of use, speed and reach, social media is changing and setting trends and agendas in topics that range from politics to environment and technology. The use of Facebook, LinkedIn, MySpace, Pinterest, Wikis, Blogs, Academia.edu, Research Gate, Google Scholar, Podcasts and, Twitter, just to name but a few, have not only been embraced regionally and nationally, but globally as well (Skeels, & Grudin, 2009; Zhao, & Kemp, 2012). These social media platforms have not only grown in size, but in importance as well. Amidst these technological developments, many workplaces and learning and development professionals now find themselves expected to catch up with this world of social media applications. In addition, educators and learners have to learn to learn and work virtually (Nafukho, Muyia & Graham, 2010). In order to succeed in today’s hyper connected environment, organizations need to adapt to and integrate social media tools not only around their business strategy, but also around their learning and development functions. These social media are seen to have an emerging role to transform learning and development at the workplace. The question is how organizations and learning professionals can use social media to enhance workplace learning and development. Educators are also challenged to learn to use technology to engage learners as a strategy to promote learning (Nafukho, 2009).

 Keeping It Social

Workplace Learning and Development While there are many ways that employees learn in organizations, workplace learning focuses on two major components: formal training/learning and informal learning (Jacobs, 2009, Nafukho and Kang’ethe, 2002). Formal training may take the form of a single program, course, or event, and involve institutionalized learning proceses and activities that employees participate in to develop their competencies for current and future work requirements (Zhao, & Kemp, 2012). Informal learning is self-directed (Knowles, 1950), intentional (Tough, 1979), and explicit and tacit (Livingstone, 2000). Watkins and Marsick (1992) identified seven characteristics of informal and incidental learning in the workplace which are as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Learning from experience Organizational context Focus on action Nonroutine conditions Tacit dimension of knowledge Delimiters to learning Enhancers of learning.

These characteristics outline the role of an organization in the learning process and the fact that people learn through experience and by interacting with each other (Nafukho, Amutabi & Otunga, 2005). Glaser (1992) argued that workplace experiences comprise a significant part of employees’ lives, and consequently, the manner in which employees experience their workplace may have a considerable impact on their learning, growth and development. It has been acknowledged that learning organizations cannot exist without learning employees – both individuals learn in an organization and the organization develops as a learning organization (Graham & Nafukho, 2007; Zhao, & Kemp, 2012). Based

on this discussion, in this section of the chapter, we discuss the use of social media in enhancing workplace learning and development.

Using Social Media to Enhance Workplace Learning and Development Formal and informal learning through connection and collaboration at the workplace is certainly not new, but it has not been widely accepted as a typical way for workplace learning. The technologically and socially rich workplace environment promises breakthroughs across the learning spectrum (Baird, & Fisher, 2005; Zhao, & Kemp, 2012). For example, social media has been touted as having the potential to enhance learning because it presents a social platform where employees can share, participate, create, interact, and learn from each other and with each other formally and informally (Lucas & Moreira, 2009). Harris and Rea (2009) identified major benefits of using social networking media in the classroom as enhancing students’ understanding of the materials presented, students working across boundaries with others who have different cultural backgrounds, and opportunity to broaden their knowledge base through collaboration and competition. Although these benefits apply to the world of academia, the same benefits can be said to apply to the world of work. For learning and development professionals to successfully support learning needs of both their businesses and employees, especially among adult learners, they need to identify the type and aspects of social media tools that have the power to engage the learner and change behavior through learning. Simply put, it cannot be assumed that everyday use of social media can be best used for learning purposes, or that employees are necessary enthused and motivated by the use of social media to learn.

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In this section, we discuss some of the social media tools that have the potential to enhance workplace learning and development. As shown below the following media tools should be considered in training and development/learning in the workplace. Both educators and trainers must learn how to use these social media tools to design and successfully deliver virtual learning programs.

Blogs Blogs are websites that contain dated entries about a particular topic, with the most recent entries appearing first (Wheeler, & Boulos, 2006). Entries in a blog may contain a commentary, links to other websites, as well as images. Because blogs engage people in knowledge sharing, reflection, e-dialogue, discussions, and even debates they have the potential for aiding learning and development in the workplace. For example, blogs could be used to gather and share information which can be mined and shared by employees. Blogs as discussion forums encourage employees to post, read, and comment on the content/topic, thereby providing an enriching way of gathering and sharing information. Carroll et al. (2012) reported that blogs can be used as tools for reflection where employees can be encouraged to reflect on what they are learning and experiencing on their training modules (reflective blogs). Also, an organization could set up specific blogs by topic or issue where employees can document “how-to” information or technical knowledge that is shared by others. Tyagi and Tyagi (2012) suggested creating a leadership blog where company senior leaders can blog about their leadership experiences, styles, and philosophies and share with emerging/junior leaders in their organizations.

Wikis Wikis allow multiple users to contribute to the content, thereby encouraging learners to be active in knowledge sharing. Learners can work together

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to create new content by exploring issues, merging their thoughts and ideas into a more holistic content contribution. For example, learners can be asked to work together to create definition of training terms, or create a vision and mission statements for their organization. As a collaborative knowledge sharing tool, wikis have the advantage of the content being easily and quickly updated, making it applicable to ‘just in time’ learning (Kane, Combre, & Berge, 2010).

Twitter Twitter as an online microblogging service has a very large user base where each user has a set of subscribers known as followers. Each user can submit periodic status updates known as tweets. Tweets consist of short messages (140 characters) in reverse order. Such messages can be personal information, news, and links to content such as images, video, and articles. The message can be retweeted to the Twitter community (Asur, & Huberman, 2010). Since its launch in 2006, Twitter has attracted lots of attention as a tool that could be used to disseminate information. In 2012, Twitter ranked third as the most popular social media, after Facebook and You tube (Feliz, Ricoy, & Feliz, 2013). The elements most identified with Twitter include @ replies, retweets, and hashtags #. Leaver (2012) highlighted three main uses of Twitter as a means of socialization, exchange resources, and ask questions. For example, trainers can create Twitter hash tag # and encourage participants to tweet questions, comments, or concerns during the training session. Twitter breaks could be included in the training session to respond to participants’ tweets, thus providing prompt feedback to participants. Also, Twitter could be used to exchange job information between and among employees. Kane, Combre and Berge, (2010) suggested that an organization can collect all the tweets in a database, sort, categorize, and share with employees. The following Twitter terms are useful to enhance one’s Twitter experience:

 Keeping It Social

@ (username): Refers to a Twitter user. Message: A message (private) sent to one of your Twitter followers Tweet: To tweet is to send a message Retweet: Forwarding a message from someone else to your Twitter followers Hashtags (#): Used to identify topics.

of learning You Tube videos include TED Talks and the Khan Academy micro-video lessons that last 10 minutes or less.

LinkedIn

These media tools could be used to create a community of learners where learners are able to network and exchange information specific to the topics of interest. Most people tend to use Facebook to maintain awareness of of colleagues, to build rapport and stronger working relationships, connect with former colleagues, social networking, and to build social capital (Skeels, & Grudin, 2009). Facebook allows users to connect with others who have similar interests and background. Learners can be encouraged to post, comment on the content posted by their peers, friends and or work colleagues. The trainer can also create a news source for the group where participants can post any new information that they find related to the topic of interest and share documents. Facebook can also be used to poll/quiz trainee participants, thereby making the learning/training interactive and engaging.

Research by Kim, Lee, and Hwang (2008) showed that the main use of LinkedIn is to develop professional networks with people in and outside of the user’s company. While LinkedIn products have focused on serving recruiters, marketers, and premium subscriptions to users, its recently launched publishing platform is one of its key initiatives. The influencer program allows key selected industry figures to publish their career advice on LinkedIn (Weiner, 2014). For informal and training purposes, LinkedIn could be used to solicit ideas on training programs or promote a discussion about training concepts. Employees could form groups on LinkedIn to share best practices, or discuss specific challenges and opportunities as it pertains to their training and/or work. Weiner (2014) suggested five ways to make one’s profile better on LinkedIn as: Putting your best/high quality picture forward, letting yourself be found by providing enough personal contact information, giving a good bio/summary, being comprehensive about your work history, and including your volunteer work in your profile.

YouTube

Podcasts

One billion people around the world go to YouTube every month, where they collectively consume approximately 6 billion hours of video (Gillette, 2014). You Tube allows users to upload, view, and share video clips. Two to five videos relevant to training content can be uploaded and shared with learners to reinforce in class discussions and engage participants. Use of videos help learners see scenarios, see images, and hear from an expert thereby reinforcing classroom discussion and critical thinking on the topic. Excellent examples

Podcasting is about creating content for an audience that wants to listen anytime, anywhere. The advantages of podcasts lies in their ease of use and the availability of open source software to host and run them. Podcasts can be helpful where training content is recorded and podcasted later so that employees can watch at their own convenience. Podcasts have therefore the potential to offer superior support to auditory learners and facilitate self-paced learning. Kaplan-Leiserson (2005), identified the following learning initiatives that

Facebook, MySpace, and GoogleC

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 Keeping It Social

trainers can use with RSS: Subscribe to feeds on a variety of training topics inorder to stay current, publish syndicated content on course websites or blogs, have learners create blogs, subscribe to feeds of those blogs, and check the blogs for new content, notifying learners on new courses, and providing updates for learners on new internal and external resources on specific training topics. Podcasts therefore offer rich learning environment for both learning and training. The virtual world presents opportunities for trainers to create virtual training environments. For example, Skytap Cloud could be used for a broad range of training scenarios, including virtual training labs, new hire skills assessment, and simulated enterprise application environments. Through Second life, employees can be encouraged to interact with people from other countries which can help to promote intercultural understanding and learning. While we identified these social media tools as those that can help enhance workplace learning, it is often helpful to first look at what social media tools already exist within the organization. Also, as noted by Tyagi and Tyagi (2012), technology does not replace people; hence the expectation that simply putting technology in place will solve all the workplace learning issues does not arise. They are, but only enablers to workplace learning and development. It should be understood that simply adding social media in the learning process is no guarantee that they are used properly, or that using them leads to learning and change in behavior. Although it is not the intent of this chapter to provide a comprehensive review of literature on theories of learning for the workplace, it is important to highlight some of these theories as they influence the design of the learning environment and ultimately its effecetiveness. Table 1 summarizes some of the theories for learning in the workplace and their proposed social media use in the learning/training process.

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Challenges with Using Social Media to Promote Informal and Formal Workplace Learning Despite the immediate appeal of these social media applications, there are several issues and challenges associated with the use and application of social media for learning and development. Understanding these challenges is critical to helping learning professionals in their adoption and use of social media for learning and development. It is important to understand the diversity of today’s workforce. Social economic status, social class, race, gender, geography, age and educational background pose challenges to any discussion of potential use of social media in workplace learning environments. For example, it cannot be assumed that all employees are social media savvy. Attempting to integrate social media in say delivery of training or learning in which many employees are unfamiliar with its use would be futile. Learning and development professionals must make sure that employees have the pre-requisite knowledge and skills. If not, they must be provided with appropriate remediation. For example, training on how to use these social media tools is key to their successful use by employees. In addition, generational differences as it pertains to attitudes, values, learning styles, and work ethics must be taken into consideration before adopting and using these social media tools. Perhaps the most challenge with the use of social media lies with the risks involved in any online presence – Privacy. As noted by Barczyk and Duncan (2012), “Users of social networking sites should not expect that their posted material will remain private” (p. 105). It becomes a challenge to control not only what is created, but also what others who are associated with individuals create. For example, should work colleagues be Facebook friends? If so, how then do an individual ensure that his/her network friends do not post pictures that could do harm professionally? How does one vet the people with whom he/she is

 Keeping It Social

Table 1. Theories of learning in the workplace and their proposed social media Use Theory

Concept

What is Learned

Why they learn

How they Learn

Social Media

Transformational learning

Learning as a meaningmaking activity:      • Experience      • Critical reflection      • Development

New perspectives, being more reflective and open

Experience qualitative change

Emancipatory learning

Blogs, YouTube

Experiential learning

Learning as a continuous, holistic and adaptive process:      • Affective      • Perceptual      • Symbolic      • behavioral

Construction of knowledge

Respond to complexities of adult life

Experience Reflection Abstraction experimentation

Blogs, Wikis

Systems thinking

Organizational learning: Continous and focused driven learning

Holistic/systems thinking Initiate and manage change

Remain competitive Individual growth

Systems thinking Personal mastery Mental models Shared vision Team learning

YouTube, LinkedIn

Andragogy

Learning as a facilitative process/learner-centered      • The need to know      • Self-concept      • Experience      • Readiness to learn      • Orientation to learning      • Motivation to learn

New skills and knowledge for immediate application Problem solving skills

Effectively cope/deal with daily lives. For immediate application

Condusive climate setting Instructional techniques that are experiential in nature

Blogs, YouTube

Self-Directed learning

Learner assumes control of learning      • Diagnose learning needs      • Formulate learning goals      • Identify learning resources      • Implement learning strategies      • Evaluate learning outcomes

Problem solving

Life long learners

Learning contracts Autonomous learning

YouTubes, Blogs, Wikis

  Social Learning

Learning through observstion      • Attention      • Retention      • Motor reproduction      • Motivational processes

Skills Problem solving

Improve job performance

Behavior modeling

YouTube

  ReinforcementTheory

Learning through reinforcement      • Positive      • Negative

Acquire knowledge Change behavior Modify skills

Behavior modification

Schedules of reinforcement

YouTube

Adapted from: (Taylor, Marienau, & Fiddler, 2000; Dochy, Gijbels, Segers, & Bossche, 2011; Sharan, & Bierema, 2014).

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connecting? Where does one draw the boundary between personal and professional space? When it comes to the use of Twitter, a lot of people consider Twitter hard to understand, figure out, follow, and they do not know what to do with it. Also, wikis and blogs pose security issues as they are prone to vandalism, because of their free form nature and lack of control over their content (Boulos, Maramba, & Wheele, 2006). Barczyk and Duncan (2012) suggested that content on networking sites must be highly scrutinized, and any information available should reflect the user in a professional light. All efforts should be made to to preserve individuals’ privacy. There is also the growing concern of copyright issues related to owner’s rights and user’s rights of online materials. Anyone can very easily post copyrighted material without the permission of the copyright holders. Contrary to popular belief, not all information sourced or downloaded from the Internet is free. There are potential risks for anyone using Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) for communication, learning and work purposes. Disclosure of personal information, aggressive behavior, communicating with strangers online, cyber bullying, incivility, and victimization are just but a few safety issues that have been raised over employees ability to use social media applications carefully, appropriately and safely for learning (Selwyn, 2012). Thus, social media users should take ethical, moral, and social responsibility with respect to appropriate behavior when using the Internet and social media in general, and for learning purposes. Papworth (2009) identified 40 social media staff guidelines that included employee blogging policies, organization social networking guidelines and policies to do with employee engagement in online communities. These guidelines highlight the challenges surrounding social media usage related to the workplace. The biggest challenge associated with social media is how to leverage these social media tools in a way that is aligned with how employees re-

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ally think, work, engage, and learn. There is need for organizations to prepare their employees on how to communicate and collaborate using social media tools to generate shared solutions in an effective way.

Proposed Framework for Social Media Based Workplace Learning and Training Process The goal of training and learning is to equip employees with the knowledge, skills, and attitudes (KSA) needed to meet current and future work requirements and encourage them to continue to learn on the job (Nafukho & Kang’ethe, 2002).To make learning truly valuable, we must recognize that learning and development is not just about social media, but about how we can find ways to facilitate genuine behavioral change and accountability in the workplace. As Bolous, Maramba, and Wheeler (2006) observed, “Technology is neutral until it delivers content and will loose its effectiveness if it is not applied in a planned and systematic manner “ (p. 4). This recognition must start with an understanding of the learning and training process and the workplace environment within which this process must take place. The over-riding issue becomes: what are the key factors to consider in the design and management of an effective media-based workplace learning and training? We highlight these factors in the framework shown in Figure 1 by acknowledging the role of analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation (ADDIE) in the learning and training process. We begin with the need to assess the organization (organization analysis) before using social media for learning and training (Nafukho, Wawire, & Mungania, 2011). An organization analysis focuses on the strategies, the resources, including technology/social media resources available to support learning in the organization, and an examination of policies, structures, procedures, and other factors that may facilitate or inhibit an

 Keeping It Social

Figure 1. A social-media-based model for workplace learning and development (SMMWLD)

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employees ability to perform their jobs (Blanchard, & Thacker, 2010). Organization analysis helps to align the training/learning with the organization’s mission and strategies. Context analysis examines the performance setting where the employee will need to practice the skills/knowledge learned, and what managerial support system (s) exists to facilitate learning and transfer of learning on the job. In the employee analysis, the focus is on employees who are at the center for workplace learning and training. It is important to understand employees’ technology efficacy, their social practice, their learning styles, work activity, and their motivation to learn and how these characteristics facilitate or inhibit social media based learning and training. The goal of design is to determine what training/learning experience will meet the performance need of employees. It examines how training should be planned to maximize learning. Before designing any social media based learning and training, educators and trainers need to understand how and why adults learn so as to reflect these principles in their course and program designs designs. The design phase consists of writing training objectives/learning outcomes, selecting instructional strategy and identifying and preparing of assessment instruments (Nafukho & Kang’ethe, 2002). Rothwell et al., (2006) identified key questions that must be addressed during design: 1. What should participants do upon completion of the training? 2. How will their ability to perform be measured upon completion of the training?

3. What resources do participants need to demonstrate their knowledge skill, or attitudes? 4. What instructional materials or events should be used to meet training need? (p. 7) Training objectives/learning outcomes specifically describe what the participant should know, do, or feel upon completion of the training session/ learning activity. We suggest writing both formal and informal objectives that are learner focused. Given that most employees are familiar with the dominant model of classroom education (and may not have developed the strategies of learner control and flexibility that comes with learning using social media), we recommend developing training objectives that also foster increased computer self-efficacy. Table 2 highlights the four components as identified by Lawson (2009) of writing objectives that meet the attitude, skill, and knowledge development of employees in a social media based learning and training process. In order to meet the identified learning/training objectives (design phase), training/learning materials must be prepared to meet the learning needs of employees. This calls for formulation of an instructional strategy. An instructional strategy includes all elements of the training program, including specific content, activities, assessments needed to successfully deliver the training to participants so as to achieve the intended learning objectives. Lawson (2009) suggests selecting, designing and developing of active training materials and methods that create an active learning environment.

Table 2. Four components of writing objectives for social media Component

Description

Audience

Specifies to whom one is communicating

Behavior

Specifies what participants will be able to do as a result of the training

Condition

Specifies the circumstances under which the participants will be performing the activity

Degree

Specifies the level of proficiency necessary to perform the task successfully.

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The implementation phase of our framework calls for incorporating experiential and active training and teaching techniques to facilitate training. Whether the delivery is by an outside consultant, in-house trainers, or employees themselves through self study, we recommend cognitive presence, social presence, teacher presence, and the learning presence in all aspects of the training and learning process. Although a discussion of learning models and their underlying assumptions are beyond the scope of this section, the work of Gagne, Briggs, and Weger (1988) influence the design and ultimately the effectiveness of the delivery of instruction, whether in the traditional classroom, virtual learning environments or in any technology-mediated environment. The nine events of instruction are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Gaining attention Direction/stating objectives Recall of prerequisite information Content presentation/new material Application feedback – level 1/ guided learning Application feedback – level 2/ eliciting performance Application feedback – level 3/ feedback Evaluation Retention and transfer.

Evaluation is important to improving practices. Assessing and evaluating social media based learning and training is the next phase in our framework. Even though evaluation activities are the same irrespective of the learning environment, we suggest knowing what, when, who and how to assess the learning. The only unique thing in our framework is the idea of evaluating the social media tools to determine whether these tools are effective in enhancing the learning and training needs of employees in organizations. Ther is need to determining whether the social media tools are useful and effective for a workplace learning experience, given the unique conditions of

the organizations, job, task and the employees involved. We recommend both improvementoriented (formative) and judgement-oriented (summative) evaluations to ensure continuous assessment of the training and learning process. We suggest using the Kirkpatrick’s(2006) four levels and Phillips’(1997) Return on Investment model of evaluation as shown below: 1. Reaction: Measures employees’ reaction to the training 2. Learning: Measures whether employees skills, knowledge and attitudes have changed as a result of learning/training 3. Behavior: Measures whether employees on the job behavior changed based on what was learned in the training 4. Results: Did the change in behavior positely impact the organization? 5. Return on Investment: Compares monetary benefits of the training with the program costs.

CONCLUSION As discussed in this chapter, social media is available in many formats and many other new formats are yet to be launched. Its use in the workplace has gained momentum, and offers potential for workplace learning and development. Many businesses and organizations are already utilizing social media and drawing benefits from its use. The question of how human resource development professionals can use these technologies to enhance workplace learning and development lies in deciding what types and aspects of social media have the potential to enhance workplace learning and development. We suggested the adoption and use of blogs, wikis, Twitter, Facebook, Myspace, GoogleC, YouTube, LinkedIn, Podcasts, and Virtual Worlds for training/learning and development. As Learning and Development professionals try to integrate social media into their current prac-

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tice, there is need to continue to consider the practical challenges associated with using such social media for workplace learning and development. To make meaningful use of social media for learning, it is necessary to understand the social media Must dos and don’ts. Furthermore, learning with social media should not be simply about assembling of tools, software and other digital strategies, but an understanding of how employees think work and learn is key to effective use of social media in workplace learning. This understanding calls for an effective social media based workplace learning and training that is grounded in research on the use of innovative technologies in the learning and training processes. Overall, learning formal and informally in the workplace should include a full suite of resources/capital- Physical, human, financial, intellectual, social, and customer that go to surround and support employees for optimization of performance. It is a truism that as human beings, we have the unlimited capability to learn grown and improve and innovative and cutting edge technologies should harnessed to help advance the learning proceses.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS We have offered a foundation for future research on how best to incorporate social media tools into workplace learning. Future research should focus on the fit between learning models/theories and social media. The Social Media-based Model for for Workplace Learning and Development (SMMWLD) developed in this chapter should help technology experts in desiging virual training and development programs aimed at performance improvement among employees through learning. It would be helpful to evaluate how learning theories, content and social media tools interact to produce desired learning outcomes in the workplace. While we identified a framework for effectiveness of a social media based workplace learning and development, our framework awaits

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a systematic investigation in the context of how to establish best practices in the use of social media tools to enhance workplace learning and development.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Development: Process of growth and learning that results into change or progression- grows out of interaction of both internal and external factors. Formal Learning: Learning that is organized, and may take the form of a single program, course, or event, and involve institutionalized learning proceses and activities that employees participate in to develop their competencies for current and future work requirements. Informal Learning: Learning that is selfdirected, intentional, and is explicit and tacit.

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Learning: Process of increasing knowledge and skills, and developing attitudes. Involves change in behavior, development of the learner, and is both a mental process and context bound. Social Media: Media designed to be disseminated through social interaction, created using highly accessible scalable techniques. Training: Planned effort by organizations to facilitate employees’ learning of specific job related competencies.

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Chapter 6

Video Lectures in eLearning Norma I. Scagnoli University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA Anne McKinney University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA Jill Moore-Reynen University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA

ABSTRACT Video presentations, also referred to as mini-lectures, micro-lectures, or simply video lectures, are becoming more prominent among the strategies used in hybrid or fully online teaching. Either interested in imitating a Khan Academy style of presenting content or responding to other pedagogical or administrative needs, there are more instructors now considering the creation of short video lectures for their courses than before. This chapter examines the use of video lectures in online and hybrid courses, describes the design and application of them in graduate and undergraduate courses, and analyzes primary and secondary data results to expose strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and challenges experienced in the development and implementation of this technique. The use of short video lectures is a regular practice in MOOCs and has the potential of becoming a successful practice, especially with the expansion of new approaches such as the flipped classroom.

INTRODUCTION Online education in any of its forms (flipped, blended, and fully online) is using video extensively. It can be seen in versions of the flipped classroom where the instructor pre-records video for out of class and uses time in class for interaction and problem solving (Bergman & Sams, 2012). In blended learning courses (Arvan, Dyer, Scagnoli & Moore, 2008; Scagnoli, Moore, & Dyer, 2011), in

regular online classes, and now in massive online open courses (MOOCs) (Williams, n.d.). Khan Academy in 2006 became the example of uses of video for educational purposes when a regular guy, not a teacher, decided to teach math concepts to his cousins by using videos (Kolowich, 2011). After that case gained public recognition, the use of video to teach something exploded. Administrators are now wondering how many resources will be needed to develop videos in

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-8170-5.ch006

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teaching, and faculty are wondering not only how do I go from classroom teaching to the high definition (HD) screen, but also how much effort will it take. The use of instructor-produced videos in education in this form of video lectures will have new implications in the design, development, and implementation of hybrid and online courses. Educators and non-educators are only just now beginning to explore the advantages and implications of the use of short video lectures in education; therefore, uncovering their benefits and challenges in implementation will enhance educators’ and learning technology administrators’ knowledge about resources needed and preparation required for proper development and utilization of this innovative practice.

BACKGROUND Mini-lectures are short videos purposefully fragmented, and grounded on cognitive principles such as the strategy of ‘chunking’ content into meaningful pieces, a practice that increases the probability of recall (Miller, 1956). Mini-lectures have the potential of becoming a successful practice especially in large enrollment campus courses as well as in fully online courses, especially with the expansion of new approaches such as the flipped classroom and MOOCs. They used to be commonly associated with online instruction, but in reality mini-lectures have become part of any mode of instruction, including fully face-to-face courses that use flipped learning approach. While some authors have described them as “60-second presentations” (Shieh, 2009), there are some that are 1-3 minutes long and they are called “microlectures”, and there are some that are a longer like 4-8 minutes long and they are also known as “mini-lectures.” They are shorter than a traditional +30-minute lecture in a face-to-face meeting, therefore the names “mini” or “micro” suits the concept well. Micro or Mini-lectures are short, to the point and focused on one topic at time.

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They probably started as an attempt to include instructor’s presence in online learning (Shea & Bidjerano, 2009) by imitating the “long standing educational tradition of lecturing” (Morris, 2009). The concept of mini-lecturing captured global attention in a Chronicle of Higher Education article (Shieh, 2009) titled “These Lectures are gone in 60 seconds.” Sheih described mini-lectures as one- to three-minute videos specifically formatted to online and mobile learning courses. The author credited the design of the format to David Penrose for San Juan College, Farmington, NM, although other instructors have also advocated a similar lecture model (McGrew, 1993; Shieh, 2009). The pedagogical theory behind this short video lecturing technique has roots in cognitive memory theory, cognitive theory of multimedia learning, and effective practices for online instruction. Mini-lectures use the strategy of ‘chunking’ (Miller, 1956) content into meaningful pieces, a cognitive practice that helps memory and creating connections to stored information (Bodie, Powers & Fitch-Houser, 2006). According to Miller, the amount of information a person can keep in active memory is about seven bits. Memory is not stored in terms of individual bits of information, but in terms of chunks -- for example, a word may contain several individual letters, but can be remembered as a single chunk of information by someone who recognizes it. The human brain uses this chunking technique to process new information in short-term memory by chunking it into categories that are already familiar in the long-term memory (Miller, 1956). Cowan (2001) amended this theory to propose that the ability to retain seven details in working memory is an ideal which is easily limited in actual practice, and that four chunks is the limit for which an average person can retain new information. This cognitive theory is applied when large lectures are chunked and organized into smaller pieces of information. This technique, also supported by instructional design principles (Sweller, Van Merrienboer, & Paas, 1998) work better for students

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to better process and organize new information in online environments. Information seems to flow better from our short-term memory to our cognitive load with shorter lectures organized in topical discussions rather than hour(s)-long lectures on multiple topics delivered at once. Students, after watching a single 5-minute video on their own time, ruminate the information presented, and then continue on to a related activity or to another mini-lecture at a pace that is more conducive to committing this information to long-term memory. This approach does not suggest that students are incapable of absorbing more details at one time, but recognizes that there are practical, realistic advantages to providing shorter, fewer chunks of information. In other words, and considering instructional design theory and new generational habits, less is more. The cognitive theory of multimedia learning (Meyer & Moreno, 1998) espouses a chunking method of learning with multimedia-rich content, arguing that learning is more effective when auditory words and pictures are combined in a concise summary of information. This theory outlines five principles of multimedia design: (a) an explanation with words and pictures is better than words alone; (b) present words and pictures simultaneously rather than separately; (c) present words as auditory narration rather than visual text to avoid splitting learners’ attention to visual information processing; (d) principles 1, 2, and 3 depend on individual learners and generally work better when the learners only have a limited prior knowledge of the content or limited spatial ability, and (e) use only the most essential words and pictures to present a coherent summary of information. Minilectures, commonly made up by video or visual slides with voice, have to follow these principles closely to be able to deliver in a very short time a concise message about a topic. Mini-lectures also have the potential of being accepted by students because of their format. Familiar with Internet browsing and adapted to the use of the new medium, the so called You-

Tube Generation (Ashraf, 2009; Farnan, Paaro, Higa, Edelson & Arora, 2008) finds mini-lectures appealing and similar to a format they are used to: online video. In the past decade, advances in online technology and faster connection speed have helped pave the way for the proliferation of educational videos. Within the first month of YouTube’s launch in 2005, eight million videos were viewed by visitors a day (YouTube, n.d.). The video A Vision of Students Today (Wesch, 2007) helped illustrate the need for instructors to re-think the classroom-based educational model by sharing facts and opinions collected from 200 students at Kansas State University about the disparity between the traditional way that their courses were being taught and the ways in which they were actually living and communicating with online technologies. Two examples of open online education using YouTube as venues for sharing educational videos to learners worldwide are: Academic Earth and Khan Academy, both founded in 2008. Although they use both mini-lectures and longer videos, they use the principles outlined in this review. While Academic Earth boasts lectures from instructors at highly acclaimed institutions, the Khan Academy has probably received more attention from learners and the media. Salman Khan, founder of the Khan Academy, was listed among TIME magazine’s Most Influential People in the World (TIME, 2012). Khan started creating short video tutorials as a way to help his cousin on the other side of the country learn algebra, but the khanacademy.org website quickly ballooned into a household name for instructors and students to share and learn in a worldwide classroom. Khan Academy differs from Academic Earth’s model in at least two significant ways: (a) it allows more instructors to share their expertise, regardless of any affiliation with a prestigious university, and (b) videos are limited to 10-20-minute chunks especially purposed for viewing on the computer as opposed to being a longer video of a conventional physical lecture (Khan, 2012).

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Either interested in imitating a Khan Academy style of presenting content, or responding to other pedagogical or practical needs, there are more instructors considering mini-lectures in their teaching than a couple of years ago. Morris (2009) and Arvan (2006) questioned the efficacy of traditional lecture formatting. If we can boil a 60-minute lecture down to 60 seconds, arguably, what is the point of blathering on for an entire hour? Of course, the concept has also drawn criticism for the same reasons (Brooker, 2009). Has the Khan Academy style or development of tutorials in screencasting influenced this development? It’s possible, as mini-lecturing garnered public attention a year after the founding of Khan Academy. However, not everyone is sold on the effectiveness of Khan Academy videos. Two math professors at Grand Valley Sate University created a video parodying one of Salman Khan’s original videos, pointing out inaccuracies in the style of the cult TV show Mystery Science Theater 3000 (Chen 2012). What is really exciting about mini-lecturing can be imagined in its possibilities for the future. While it is rooted in pedagogical principles from the past five decades, technology has only made it feasible within the past five years. Video lecturing has become such a popular educational venue that even Google is getting in on the action. On September 13, 2012, Google announced a new partnership with the Khan Academy to find ten talented video educators to become their Next EDU Gurus - a team intended to support with training, promotion, and cash prizes (Lin, 2012).

Purpose Interested in better understanding the advantages and challenges posed by this new pedagogical approach, we completed this research study in which we explored the use and implementation of video lectures in graduate and undergraduate courses and completed an analysis of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threads (SWOT)

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of their application and implementation. This research study complements a previous study by the same researchers that had focused more broadly on students’ satisfaction with pedagogical practices in the blended and online classroom. The purpose of this study was to examine the research question: What are the benefits and challenges of using video lectures in blended (hybrid) and online courses for faculty and online developers? For that purpose, data was drawn from data previously collected from the same participants group, and new data collection instruments were designed to reinforce the secondary data. It is our hope that professional researchers, faculty and instructional designers will use the results of this study to plan and improve online classes preparation and development in higher education. We also believe that it is important for faculty, instructional designers and online developers that work in course development to know more about the application of video lecture techniques and the benefits and challenges that can be expected of such implementation.

METHOD Participants The site of this study was a Midwestern University. Participants included seven instructors and 850 students in eight university courses - five undergraduate classes with a total of 750 students enrolled; and three graduate classes with a total of 120 students.

Research Design This study used primary and secondary data. Secondary data came from two sources in a previous study (Scagnoli & Packard, 2011; Scagnoli, Moore-Reynen, & Dyer, 2011). by the same researchers: students’ surveys and classroom observations. The previous study had examined

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students and faculty satisfaction with online and blended learning practices. For the purpose of this study, the secondary data was reinforced with faculty interviews and students’ focus groups. This primary data helped to support the information gathered in the previous study and focused on video lectures exclusively. The rationale for using these methods was the interest of capturing information from different perspectives of the stakeholders involved in the use of video lectures in elearning. The population was the university instructors and student population; our sample was male and female students in undergraduate and graduate courses in business. To ensure the ethical protection of human subjects both secondary and primary studies were presented and approved by the Human Subjects Institutional Review Board (IRB).

Data Collection Instruments and Procedures Surveys: The secondary data analyzed in this study was collected in three rounds of surveys that used mixed methods instruments by the same researchers. Those surveys had been administered at the beginning, middle and end of the semester. The first and last surveys had focused on three elements: Students’ learning habits, attitudes towards online learning, usage and preferences of different pedagogical strategies, including video lectures in their classes. The survey administered in the middle of the semester was shorter, and tried to capture students’ comments about the current course design, also including questions about the usage of video lectures. This study focused only in the questions that pertained to attitudes, preferences and usage of video lectures. The undergraduate students’ survey consisted of two demographic questions, class standing and major. The graduate students’ survey included major and level. Questions in the primary surveys had been formed by literature and theory regarding learning habits and strategies used in the traditional

classroom, the strategies were presented in the survey in the context of blended courses which require watching video lectures before or after they come to the face-to-face class meeting. The questions and concepts addressed in the survey were literature-inspired; it was determined that they clearly connected to general issues pertaining learning habits and strategies in large enrollment courses. They also addressed student’s attitudes towards using technology for learning. The surveys had been piloted one semester before it used in the primary study. Focus Groups: To reinforce the information collected in surveys and to limit the focus of the study to the use of video lectures, four focus groups were organized, inviting the students that had participated in the previous study. Students’ focus groups consisted in 4 self-selected groups of 10 students from the classes in the study, 2 groups formed with undergraduate students, and 2 with graduate students. Students were invited to share their experiences using video lectures instead of or as a complement of shorter live lectures in the class. Invitations were sent by email and students had to complete a form to indicate their interest in participating. The first 10 respondents were selected to participate. The invitation explained that only 10 individuals would be selected. We also asked them to compare a class with video lectures and a class without video lectures, and we also talked about the learning strategies used when they watched video lectures compared to what they did when they were present in traditional classes with live lectures. One or two of the researchers were present in the focus group and a note-taker. Focus groups were audio recorded. Classroom Observations: Notes from classroom observations from the previous study were also used to identify elements that could demonstrate integration of video lectures in the overall context of the face-to-face meeting (in blended courses) and of the online classes. Data collection instruments from the previous study were used as is in this research. Previous study included notes

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from the actual face-to-face class meetings and analysis of the class design in the online settings. The face-to-face observations had consisted of visits to classes where the researcher would sit at the back of the class and record information about activities in the class that related to the use of online content, including video lectures. There was one classroom observation per course. The analysis of online settings included study of the instructional design model used in the course and the distribution and integration of video lectures with other components in the course site such as quizzes, forums and assignments. Faculty Interviews: To better understand the faculty perspective regarding the use of video lectures, faculty interviews were conducted for the sole purpose of this study. Interviews were unstructured, and we used a guide of questions that focused on the type of video lectures used and preferred, their level of comfort being on camera, their level of satisfaction creating screen captured videos and their satisfaction with students’ performance using video lectures. Instructors were invited to participate of the interviews by email and in person. The interviews were conducted in the instructors’ offices and recorded.

RESULTS Results for this study are drawn from the literature as well as from the primary and secondary sources of data. Data has provided us with elements that are key to be considered in a SWOT analysis of video lectures. Those key elements together with the source of data collection are presented in the following paragraphs. What are the benefits and challenges of using video lectures in blended (hybrid) and online courses for faculty and online developers? Classroom observations and course site analysis revealed that: (a) there are different types of videos that would fit in the category of short video lectures; and (b) video lectures are used in

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different ways depending on the discipline and on what the instructors identify as the need for them. The different types will require different training and resources. The categories we saw in the studied population were: Studio Recorded Video Lectures: Those that require help from a professional who will video tape the instructor in a setting meant for the recording. These videos show good video and audio quality. The instructor is the center of the video, and video of the instructor is interspersed with slides or other visuals that focus on the topic of the lecture. Some are created in a studio setting; others show the classroom or conference room as background. In all of them the instructor is alone, except for one where the instructor is being recorded as he teaches to a small group of students in a conference room. Instructors’ Self Recorded Video Lectures: These include recordings done by the instructor using an external webcam or the camera attached to the computer. These videos show an amateur quality, the brightness of video images and the audio of the recording are not as good as the quality achieved in a studio setting for 80% of the cases studied. These videos are recorded in the instructors’ offices. Instructors’ Screencasting: These consist of “the capture all of the action on a computer screen while [the instructor is] narrating” what he/she is capturing in a video format (Shrock, 2014). Screencasting did not include the instructor’s video image except in one case. Most samples studied only show the action on the screen with the instructor’s narration. The videos show very good quality in audio and image. The recordings are targeted to specific topic. Instructors’ Narrated Slides: A set of PowerPoint slides or other visuals are included in this category. Special software has been used to produce these narrations on top of the slides. Regarding the different ways they are used we observed that they were mostly used:

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- To introduce new concepts and to prepare students for class (See Figure 1). In several online courses video lectures are used to present new content, and these lectures are paired with other activities (quizzes, discussion, questionnaires) to help the students build knowledge around the ideas introduced in the short video lecture. For example in one of the large undergraduate Finance course, the video lectures replace one class meeting (lecture) per week (Figure 1). Video lectures were used to introduce students to new topics and prepare them for the one remaining lecture each week. Video lectures were created for key concepts and for additional information that students who needed or wanted more details could go to. So the instructor used the video on key concept as required videos to watch, and the ones that demonstrated how to work problems or examined topics more deeply were optional. Studio or third-party recorded videos were preferred for this use of video lectures. To engage students in assignments and discussion: Some very short, key videos were embedded in weekly quizzes in the course as well (Figure 2). Multiple-choice quizzes were the preferred activity to be completed before coming to the face-to-face class each week in blended courses. Follow up discussions were especially used in post class meeting activities, mainly in graduate courses (See Figure 3). To update class status, to inform students about current events, modifications or current matters in course content. Instructors used short video lectures to enter an advance agenda for the week (See Figure 4) and comment on new information such as current public events, usually from news articles, that pertain to the topic of the class. This use helps connect theory and current events and add instructors’ presence in a course. New information or modifications in a course, such as updated quiz results, detailed explanation on the steps or processes to solve a problem, or other just-in-time support has also been provided via video lectures. Instructor’s self-recorded videos

were used for this in 100% of the cases when just-in-time videos were created. To follow up on topics discussed in face-to-face class, to answer hanging questions and provide clarification, to provide feedback about student performance (See Figure 5). In several of the undergraduate online courses, the video lectures were used by the instructor as an opportunity to extend the topic discussed in class, cover materials that students did not have time to see in class, to provide a resource the students can use for review. or to reach the students on a weekly or periodic basis. They use instructor’s self recorded videos to introduce the agenda for the week, or to give feedback about the students’ performance in the course. To provide a demonstration, to work extra problems. For example in one online statistics course, in addition to creating video lectures that introduce new concepts, the instructor created numerous videos (See Figure 6) that demonstrated how to use specific software for statistics, and how to work the problems in the course. Literature reviews and the instructors’ interviews exposed that it is really important to set up the process for training early to help faculty prepare. Sheih’s step-by-step instructions (2009) on “How to create a one-minute lecture” help faculty preparation for the task, and this will also have implications on the resources needed for video lectures. Pemrose (in Sheih, 2009) suggests that to prepare video lectures instructors need to go through these steps: • • • • •

List the key concepts and they will become the core of the micro-lecture. Write a short introduction and conclusion to provide context for the key concepts. Identify activities and assignments where the key concepts will be important. Proceed with the recording. Combine the video lectures with activities in your course management system.

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Figure 1.­

Figure 2. ­

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Figure 3. ­

Students’ surveys as secondary data and focus groups disclosed students’ usage of videos, and their attitudes and interests in video lectures. The questions in the survey for graduate and undergraduate students focused on usage, and asked information on:

• •

•

The topic guides prepared for the focus group included the following groups of questions:

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The students’ assessment of video lectures and how they helped in class preparation The frequency that the student watched the video lectures in a week,

• •

If the videos were watched more then once, (Other class) activities that were done while watching the videos, Preference regarding the length of videos, Technical questions regarding access to the videos, and technical problems

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Figure 4. ­

•

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Are videos a plus or a minus? Do you feel that a class with videos from the instructor works better for you than without videos from the instructor? Why? Do you think having micro lectures helps to understand the topics? Why? (You have been part of one online class with plenty of video lectures and one without, or with very few, video lectures). Can you talk about whether you found that these two classes provided a substantively different learning experience for you? Do you have a preference for one or the other? If you had to choose between having video-lectures or not in your online class, what would you choose and why?

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Is quality in video important for you to get the message across? Do you think your learning experience would have been better if the video quality was better?

In the surveys, students in fully online and blended classes differed regarding the relevance of video lectures. Similar to findings by Hibbert (2014), fully online students considered the videos as an element of faculty presence and as a factor related to their engagement and understanding of the topics from videos. All surveyed admitted that they liked the convenience of the video lecture because of the possibility of replaying them if needed and learning at their own pace, but they also indicated they feel they are learning on their

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Figure 5. ­

Figure 6. ­

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Figure 7. ­

own if they see the instructor in a video lecture, as opposed to watching the lectures in presence, as “learning from the instructor”(Verbatim, survey response). Students in a fully online class are more positive about the video lectures, and they watch all lectures as opposed to students in blended courses that admittedly watch only the required lectures. They also admit that lectures connected to assignments have more views than extra lectures, also similar to Hibber (2014) findings .Fully online undergraduate students were more positive towards the use of video lectures than undergraduates in blended or hybrid courses. Undergraduate students in blended courses perceive that video lectures take longer than actual

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lectures in face-to-face classes, when in reality the face-to-face lectures are longer (Scagnoli & Packard, 2011). Graduate students, on the other hand, indicated that video lectures helped them to be more prepared for class and recommended the use of video lectures in all graduate courses, however they said that they also wanted the instructor to do lecturing in class, that was their expectation, and that was what they were mostly used to. Regarding our interest in learning strategies or viewing habits used while watching the videos, the survey respondents indicated that they were using similar strategies from the ones they use when they are present in a lecture in class: note taking, and completing assignments. Hibbert

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(2014) also found this a consistent theme across their interviews, the participants in that study had reported that their viewing habits of course media mirrored that of sitting in a class lecture. Also, from students’ and instructors’ responses, we learned that the use of quizzes or activities tied to the video lecture increases students’ readiness for class in blended courses.

DISCUSSION Relevancy, Strengths and Challenges Video lectures can be used to prepare, reinforce or confirm new knowledge or emphasize information gap that will motivate learning. In the various interviews and focus groups consulting faculty and students we asked them how relevant video lectures were for their teaching or learning. Faculty said that they find them relevant because “by moving lectures out of the class time, they free up time to do more in-depth work and analysis in class.”(Personal communication, November 3, 2012). Another faculty member indicated that since she implemented mini-lectures in her class, the practice has helped students achieve more advanced skills than previous classes, because they get the benefit of being coached by the instructor as they work individually or in class teams. Students said that they found mini-lectures relevant because they can learn concepts at their own time and pace, and come to class to do more fun stuff. However relevant, mini-lectures do not come challenge free, and we have uncovered some weaknesses as revealed by instructors and students. Students’ and faculty’s comments suggest that if mini-lectures are not properly planned as part of a “grand-scheme” (Personal communication, October 20, 2013); they can become “boring repetition of what the faculty already presents in class”

(personal communication, October 20, 2013), or a mere echoing of what is in the textbook. Still, mini-lectures give instructors the opportunity to rethink the design of their course in a way that it incorporates different types of resources or activities available in the online environment. We observed and reported in our results section above the differences in the types of video lectures but these are not the only differences. Other variances can be observed in their duration –if they are mini, micro or simple video lectures; and also considering the time of creation, and the focus. We observed video lectures that were developed in two moments: previous and during class time. As we mentioned early there are pre-recorded lectures, or as we call them “studio recorded” that are created before the semester starts. This kind usually concentrates on the main concepts taught in the course. The topics follow the syllabus and they show a good video and audio quality, they also demonstrate special preparation and production. This is the kind of video lectures used in MOOCs, and other online open resources. These videos are also branded with institutional watermarks, logo, and information about the instructor, such as name, title, and course or topic. These videos are created to be watched by students as a substitution of the in-class presentation or lecture formerly done live by the instructor. The other type of video lectures, usually developed during the semester, are instructor’s self recorded and they are recorded as the class progresses. These may have a shorter life span since they are very contextual to that cohort and moment. They are used to provide feedback and focuses on specific topics for the week or class module. Our SWOT analysis revealed multiple aspects that need to be considered when creating or planning the use of short video lectures in the classroom, they are detailed in the paragraphs below.

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Strengths: Focus, Availability, and Presence Short video lectures pose several advantages from the perspective of the student as well as of the instructor. These advantages involve focus of information, access, availability, interaction with content, and sense of community. Similar to a justin-time training video and without the delay or distractions of a longer lecture-capture produced video, mini-lectures are created to convey short and focused messages on a specific topic. In addition, the 24/7 availability of instructor’s insights or presentation of a topic is another advantage for students. Instructor’s explanations are available for them at the tip of their fingers when they are preparing for a test, reviewing materials or simply doing homework. Students watching a mini-lecture may use more time to interact with the content presented in this short video than the time the have when the lecture is in person. If the instructor poses a question during the video to the trigger new ideas or reinforce the concepts, there is no need or pressure to give a quick, immediate response as there would be in a live lecture, because the interaction between the student and the content of that lecture happens at the student’s own time. Then the student has time to think and process the information, check other sources and then react, respond or comment on the content of the lecture. The use of pre-recorded lectures leaves time for the instructor to use other teaching strategies in his class to reinforce or enhance learning via other activities. Regarding the mini-lectures developed during the semester, these may not have the re-usable value of the pre-recorded lectures, but these videos help to increase instructor’s visibility or social presence in the class. Researchers have found that there may be a connection between the use of instructor’s videos and student’s success (Sheridan & Kelly, 2010); and that instructors’ social presence via mini- lectures has the potential

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to positively impact students sense of community in the online environment, and their satisfaction with online learning (Shea et al, 2005; Wise et al, 2004).

Weaknesses: Lifespan, Expertise, Delayed Interaction There are good advantages to use mini-lectures, but there are also some downsides especially with regards to their creation and implementation. Different from other online materials, mini-lectures may not be 100% re-usable in upcoming semesters. Although most of them are a short version of a lecture since they are focused on a particular topic, sometimes instructors use the micro or mini-lecture to comment on current events in the class or in the world, and then content may not be useful to other cohorts. From the instructor perspective, mini-lectures require training in addressing a camera, teaching to an un-existing audience, and using the technology to create them (if this is an instructor’s self effort). Mini-lectures compared to traditional (reallife) lectures, however, happen asynchronously, that is to say, students and the instructor are not in the same place at the same time. Therefore, the interaction between the students and instructor, such as questions, clarifications, or comments, can only happen in an asynchronous mode. Students or the instructor will have to interact via a forum or other technology-mediated communication tool, losing the spontaneity of real life interaction. Survey results showed that only a small portion of students admitted to raise their hand in a live lecture in a large enrollment course, some of them said that they would like to have that opportunity of raising their hand and asking right there, but it is not certain that they would do, if they were in the real situation. In the focus groups students said that “It is hard to know where the (data) is coming from in the videos because you can’t just raise your hand and ask a question.”

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Students also acknowledged that they had a place to type questions for the instructor (Aka ‘town hall requests’ and did not like to post questions there. He said, “I like to have my questions answered when I think about them, instead of having to wait for the instructor’s response later in the forum.”

Opportunity: Connect, Engage with New Topics, Establish Presence, Empower Students. Creating videos for a course is about thinking about new ways to present topics that the instructor is an expert on, as well as new ways to connect and communicate with students. Planning and creating the micro or mini-lectures give the instructors the opportunity to rethink the design of the course, as well as to re-establish priorities and ways to present new content. In this exploration of new presentation modes, instructors may discover tools and applications that may enhance or enrich the topics presented. The uses of mini-lectures also become a chance for the instructor to learn new skills in the art of presentation, and new competencies in the area of digital literacy and management of technology tools. Because the mini-lecture allows time between content and comment, it can be used to trigger new ideas, to provoke reactions to specific topics, and therefore encourage search for information, and then motivate discussion and the upcoming face-to-face class meeting. Mini-lectures pose the opportunity of “identification with the instructor and general orientation to the course” (Carr-Chellman & Duchastel, 2000). Although more research is needed to determine that instructor’s video is a positive indicator of teaching presence, mini- lectures may be an indicator of teacher’s’ presence regarding instructor’s attributes such as personality traits and dispositions (Sheridan & Kelly, 2010). A more recent study by Hibbert (2014) confirms that video reinforces

instructor’s presence, especially when the instructor uses wit and humor. Finally, mini-lectures are another opportunity to empower student in novel class participation strategies. Students should also be encouraged to create mini-lectures as a way of “broadening communication opportunities and encouraging learners’ expression” (Guardia, Maina & Sangra, 2013).

Threats: Design with Purpose; Enhance and Don’t Repeat; Budget for Post-Production. Mini-lectures are short focused messages on a topic and that is what students expect from the mini-lecture videos. Therefore, these videos look better when they have been created with that purpose. For example, comparing video recordings that have been automatically captured from a face-to-face class (lecture capture) with video especially recorded for the online or blended course, the user perceives the difference between a video that was not meant for this purpose and a video where the instructor and the materials are directed to the viewer. It seems as a one on one connection with the user. The message in mini-lectures is meant to enhance or reinforce information that student has learned through other sources. Summarizing concepts without going in depth and repeating the textbook is not a good use of the mini lecture time, but something that is frequently seen. “The purpose is not specifically to convey information in the form of content to be learned, but instead to enhance the student’s identification with the course, motivation to learn, and sense of instructor personality at a distance. Their usage involves a totally different function than that found in a traditional university lecture, and therefore takes on a different form altogether”(Carr-Chellman & Duchastel, 2000, p.234).

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The other challenge when creating the short video lectures is to try to include too much information in a short message or to provide comments that may distract or confuse the viewer. Students have said that shorter videos or videos that focus on one topic are very useful when they are reviewing the material and working on assignments. Another challenge in post-production is the cost and time demanded to get a good final product. Editing the videos involves as much time or more than recording them, and the more work is put on post-production the better final product. One student said “The videos could easily be condensed into half their time if more effort was put into displaying the information in a clear and concise way and less time was put into jokes and down time.” To achieve what the student proposes will demand that editing staff listens and chunks materials not only for the sake of meaningful chunks of content, but also looking for conversational moments that may not be of interest to the users. This is a very tricky situation because sometimes the instructor prefers to leave those conversational moments in the video to add social or emotional presence to the class. Another student added on this topic: “The videos are very informative but way too long because of random side questions and comments meant for entertainment purposes as opposed to relevant information.” Faculty is the one that has the final say on the video produced, and keeping them involved as reviewers of the results from editing or post production processes is very relevant to a good final product for the class. Finally, there is another situation that may become a thread in the production of video lectures in the near future. That thread has to do with finances. The occurrence of good quality (movie quality) video lectures in MOOCs and open source content from top universities creates competition not just in the content of the online courses but also in the quality of the videos. Creating movie like productions is not something that universities or faculty are ready for. The need to outsource or equip themselves to create Hollywood like

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productions may force departments or colleges to distract funding from other areas to the video lecture production. Clear assessment of needs and resources, as well as ideas to show the value of the investment in video will be really important for the institutions that want to pair the quality of the video with the quality of the content that they certainly produce.

IMPLICATIONS AND CONCLUSION Short video lectures have the potential of becoming a successful pedagogical practice in higher education. They are especially used in large enrollment courses using flipped or blended learning approaches, as well as in fully online courses, and their use will grow with the expansion of new approaches such as the massive online open courses (MOOCs). Adoption of mini-lectures has implications for the institution, as well as for teaching and learning. Table 1 summarizes the implications detailed in the paragraphs following the table. Table 1. Summary of implications of use of short video lectures for the institutions, faculty and students Implications for: Administration

• Resources and expertise for creation of visual materials • Expertise and new policies regarding content delivery, distribution, and storage • Provisions for faculty and student training and development of visual content

Faculty

• Class redesign to accommodate new delivery mode • Revisit or learn about and adopt new pedagogical strategies to benefit from new resources available • Consider new metrics or rubrics to measure results in use of visuals by self and students

Students

• Time management strategies • Review old learning habits and acquire new learning strategies • Get trained to be able to produce content in new ways

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Extra resources for professional help, or assistance from Colleges’ IT departments or elearning units should make it easier to develop mini lectures. Although when no professional help is available, instructors still take the initiative and create videos on their own. Mini-lectures are easily enabled by the multiple technology applications and video software freely available today. Some training and provisions for storage will be the only things that instructors need to know before they embark in the exploration of creating mini lectures for their classes. Staff specialized in media, policies and resources for media storage, and provisions for faculty training, are some of the things that are already being demanded as the development of mini-lectures pick up. At the same time, redesign of the class structure will have to be seriously considered to avoid repetition or duplication of materials, especially in blended or flipped classes when the face-to-face time will still exist. In our experience, faculty that have taught a course for several years, when they decide to create mini-lectures, they have to carefully plan the activities that will be completed in the face-to-face time, keeping in mind what topics were already presented online in a mini-lecture, or else they tend to repeat the lecture or similar points, out of habit. The use of class time to challenge students with hands-on exercises has proven to be key in engaging students with the topics, as well as a way to motivate class attendance in blended courses (Prober & Keith, 2012). For students, the use of mini-lectures involves reinforcing some skills and acquiring others. For example, time management and note taking are two things that are frequently mentioned together with uses of mini-lectures in class. Students say that it takes time to get used to scheduling moments out of class to watch the lectures before completing the required pre-class activities. The habit of coming to class without having completed previous assignments is very common many students have said that they were worried when they realized that they were expected to respond or work on topics

that were not presented in the face-to-face class. Then they understood the importance of budgeting time to watch videos and come to class prepared. Most cases admit that they need to change habits or learn how to budget their time better. Another concept that students have mentioned in the interviews is that they need to Figure out how to proceed when they watch the video lectures at home. Some use the same strategy that they use in class: taking notes during lecture. Some students say that they have not decided if taking notes makes sense when you can go back as many times as you want from a video, some say that they are trying to Figure out what to do as they watch. Learning other strategies or changing learning habits may also affect the way students learn. If instructors consider giving students opportunities to create mini lectures as a student led activity, then training and new metrics for assessment and video storage will be new aspects to be considered when making these decisions.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS In this chapter, we focused on one of the newest trends in online pedagogies: the extensive use of videos. Video has become more affordable and massively available in the last few years, thanks to hardware sophistication and advanced software development. Future researchers will have to expand and further explore the use, development and production of video lectures from different perspectives, and identify the impact that these new trends are ultimately having in teaching and learning. To what extent is the use of a variety of digital formats and multiple sources of information contribute to better learning, understanding and performance? Or what kind of impact does the creation of pre-recorded and recyclable video lectures have on teaching and on instructors’ time? Does movie quality matters in instructional videos, or is ‘home-made’ quality good enough to students receiving the message? How do fair

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use and IP regulations apply to instructors’ prerecorded videos? What is the real cost of video lectures for educational institutions? Is it worth it? This chapter shows one side of the use of video lectures in higher education, and our focus on strengths and challenges of this practice illustrates the current trends and opens the door to new opportunities for inquiry. These and other research questions will have to be explored in the context of new technologies and their impact in teaching and learning.

REFERENCES Academic Earth: History. (2012). Retrieved, 2012, Retrieved from http://www.academicearth.org/ about/history Arvan, L. (2006, January 18). Class size and lectures. Retrieved from http://lanny-on-learn-tech. blogspot.com/2006/01/class-size-and-lectures. html Arvan, L., Dyer, M., Scagnoli, N. I., & MooreReynen, J. (2008). Capturing the seminar to replace the lecture. In Proceedings of 14th Sloan-C International Conference on Online Learning. Orlando, FL: Academic Press. Bergman, J., & Sams, A. (2012). Flip your classroom: Reach every student in every class every day. Washington DC: International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE). Bodie, G. D., Powers, W. G., & Fitch-Hauser, M. (2006). Chunking, priming and active learning: Toward an innovative and blended approach to teaching communication-related skills. Interactive Learning Environments, 14(2), 119–135. doi:10.1080/10494820600800182 Carr-Chellman, A., & Duchastel, P. (2000). The ideal online course. British Journal of Educational Technology, 31(3), 229–241. doi:10.1111/14678535.00154

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Chen, A. (2012). Parody critiques popular khan academy videos. The Chronicle of Higher Education, (October): 10. Cowan, N. (2001). The magical number 4 in short-term memory: A reconsideration of mental storage capacity. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 24(1), 87–114. doi:10.1017/S0140525X01003922 PMID:11515286 Guardia, L., Maina, M., & Sangrà, A. (2013). MOOC design principles. A pedagogical approach from the learner’s perspective. ELearning Papers, 33(May), 1–6. Hibbert, M. (2014). What makes an online instructional video compelling? EDUCAUSE Review. How is Khan Academy’s Site Different than Other Resources Available? How is the Khan Academy Model of Learning Different?. (2012). Retrieved from http://khanacademy.desk.com/customer/portal/ articles/329315-how-is-khan-academy-s-site-different-than-other-resources-available-how-is-thekhan-academy-model-of-learning-differentKolowich, S. (2011, December 7). The problem solvers. Inside Higher Ed Retrieved from https:// www.insidehighered.com/news/2011/12/07/ khan-academy-ponders-what-it-can-teach-highereducation-establishment Lin, A. (2012). Finding the next generation of talented video educators with YouTube next EDU guru. Academic Press. McGrew, L. A. (1993). A 60-second course in organic chemistry. Journal of Chemical Education, 70(7), 543–544. doi:10.1021/ed070p543 Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63(2), 81–97. doi:10.1037/h0043158 PMID:13310704

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Morris, L. V. (October 10, 2012). (2009). Little lectures? Innovative Higher Education. doi:10.1007/ s10755-009-9108-1

What is Khan Academy?. (2012). Retrieved from http://khanacademy.desk.com/customer/portal/ articles/337790-what-is-khan-academy-

Scagnoli, N. I., Moore-Reynen, J., & Dyer, M. (2011). Evaluation of the implementation of blended learning models in large enrollment courses. Washington, DC: ELI.

Wise, A., Chang, J., Duffy, T., & del Valle, R. (2004). The effects of teacher social presence on student satisfaction, engagement, and learning. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 31(3), 247–271. doi:10.2190/V0LB-1M37RNR8-Y2U1

Scagnoli, N. I., & Packard, C. (2011, February 19). Improving a blended delivery model in a large enrollment business course. In Proceedings of the Academy of Human Resource Development. Chicago, IL: Academic Press. Shea, P., & Bidjerano, T. (2009). Community of inquiry as a theoretical framework to foster “epistemic engagement” and “cognitive presence” in online education. Computers & Education, 52(3), 543–553. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2008.10.007 Shea, P., Li, C. S., Swan, K., & Pickett, A. M. (2005). Developing learning community in online asynchronous college courses: The role of teaching presence. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 9. Sheridan, K., & Kelly, M. (2010). The indicators of instructor presence that are important to students in online courses. Merlot Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 6(4) Shieh, D. (2009, October 10). These lectures are gone in 60 seconds. The Chronicle of Higher Education. Shrock, K. (2014). Screencasting and screen recording in the classroom. Kathy Shrock’s Guide to Everything. Retrieved from http://www.schrockguide.net/screencasting.html Sweller, J., van Merrienboer, J. J. G., & Paas, F. G. W. C. (1998). Cognitive architecture and instructional design. Educational Psychology Review, 10(3), 251–296. doi:10.1023/A:1022193728205 Wesch, M. (Director). (2007). A vision of students today. [Video/DVD]. YouTube.

ADDITIONAL READING Krajewski, B. (2009). Lilliputians of higher education invent microlectures. Retrieved 2012, Retrieved from http://brucekrajewski.wordpress. com/2009/03/03/lilliputians-of-higher-education/ Mayer, R. E., & Moreno, R. (1998). A cognitive theory of multimedia learning: Implications for design principles. Retrieved, 2012, Retrieved from http://www.unm.edu/~moreno/PDFS/chi.pdf Miller, G. A. (1994). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information.[ [doi:]. Psychological Review, 101(2), 343–352. doi:10.1037/0033295X.101.2.343 PMID:8022966 Scagnoli, N. (2011) Blog: Micro-lectures Retrieved, 2014 from http://micro-lectures.blogspot. com/ Sorden, S. D. (2012). The cognitive therory of multimedia learning. Retrieved, 2012, Retrieved from http://sorden.com/portfolio/sorden_draft_ multimedia2012.pdf

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Chunking: A term used in instructional design to refer to cropping or cutting content to meaningful short pieces.

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Khan’s Academy: The company and online software that produces and hosts publicly available online classes and tutorials on different subjects. Lecture capture: Refers to the technique used for video recording of complete class in session. The technique consists of using a camera in one end of the classroom that will capture everything that happens in a class, from beginning to end. Micro-Lecture: A 60 seconds video lecture that focus on key concept/s. Mini-Lecture: A short video lecture that does not exceed 8 minutes.

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Screen-Capture: The technique used to capture a computer screen in image or video, and the software that does that. Screencasting: The act of capturing action on a computer screen while the action is being narrated. The result is a video recording. Video Lecture: A video recording of a lecture, conference or presentation by a professor. YouTube: (a) Online platform publicly available to host video recordings from any source. (b) The company that owns the platform.

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Chapter 7

Learners’ Perception of Engagement in Online Learning Misha Chakraborty Texas A&M University, USA

ABSTRACT The widespread popularity of online classes is evident in both professional and academic settings. Learners’ engagement and satisfaction with the online courses, especially from the learners’ perspective, are considered core to the promotion of quality learning. The voices of the present day’s “virtual generation” need to be heard. The opportunities they see and the challenges they face can be utilized in creating engaging online learning environments. This chapter discusses online class engagement strategies that work. Multiple sources including semi-structured interviews with eight participants at a Research 1 University in Southwest United States, online course documents, email exchanges, and discussion transcripts were used to collect and analyze data. The findings indicate online class engagement factors and issues that need to be considered in effective design and successful delivery of online courses. The findings can be used to help faculties and learners achieve optimum benefits from online classes.

INTRODUCTION The profit and nonprofit work sectors necessitate incorporating new technologies to sustain competitive advantages. The workforce need to be equipped with the knowledge and skills required to deal with recent technological sophistication in an environment where changes became the norm (Marsh, Taylor & Holoviak, 2011). Universities, colleges and schools need to adopt programs and curriculum that help students prepare for the complex work environment. The factors that need to be considered are: “the need for speed, the

need to respond to vast technological changes, the trend toward globalization and increased market pressures” (Marsh, Taylor & Holoviak. 2011, p. 31). Lawrence (2013) added “critical thinking, problem-solving, collaborating with peers, and using technology” to the list (p. 53). Educational institutions need to be responsive of these factors when designing and delivering their courses. Researchers (e.g., Harris, 2008; Lamb, Walstab, Tesse, Vickers, & Rumberger, 2004; Willms, 2003) indicated disengagement of learners as one of the primary factors in achieving learner retention and learner satisfaction in virtual class environ-

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-8170-5.ch007

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ment. Harris asserted that “Desires to increase engagement have led to interest in measuring and collating data about student engagement” (p. 58). Indiana University’s effort in preparing and selling a standardized test to measure and quantify online learners’ engagement highlights the interests and ardency of engaging learners online (Viadero, 2004). Empirical evidence suggests that online class enrollment is increasing at a faster rate than higher education enrollment. The United States Department of Education (2010) revealed that in K12 public school sector, students enrolled in technology based distance learning increased by 65% between the years 2002-03 to 2004-05. In 2004 2.3 million University students took at least one online class. The number increased to 3.2 million in 2005 fall semester (Dixson, 2010). A similar trend is reflected at the state level too. Former Minnesota Governor, Chair of Minnesota State Colleges and Universities Board of Trustees plan that 25% of the State’s University System courses will be offered online by 2015 (Thiede, 2012). Hence, the inclination towards offering online classes is evident at the workplace, in the schools, in the colleges and universities, and in governmental action plans. We use the term, “online,” synonymously with eLearning, virtual learning, computer mediated learning and web based learning in this chapter. Online learning here is defined as a mode of learning in which learners are not necessarily in the same geographic location, and learning content is delivered using the Internet. Engaging learners is important in any learning environment. Achieving it in a setting where learners and instructors are physically away from each other is challenging. Engagement is defined here as a multidimensional construct that includes behavioral, emotional, and cognitive outcomes of learners (Fredricks & McColskey, 2012). Behavioral constructs deal with factors like time spent in the class, cognitive construct deal with learning outcomes and last but not the least, emotional

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construct is related to learners’ perceived sense of satisfaction in the online class. The popularity of online classes is evident in both professional and academic settings. Student engagement and satisfaction are being the primary issues in online classes. The educational and professional communities of today’s world understand the significance and value of online learning environment. “Online learning has been promoted as being more cost effective and convenient than traditional educational environments as well as providing opportunities for more learners to continue their educations” (Han, 2012, p. 69). Two main reasons are identified to explain the popularity of online class environment: Flexibility and accessibility. They can review the course content as many times as they want. The users of online classes can access the class anytime and from any part of the world. In this era of globalization, where geographic location is no bar to attend quality classes in educational and professional sectors, these attributes provide huge advantages. To discuss the readiness of the learner to provide online classes, Hawkins and Rudy (2008) confirmed that US students seeking for undergraduate degree usually own computers. Most college classrooms are equipped with wireless internet network. Apart from the classrooms, university halls, coffee shops etc. have internet connections that the students can access. Numerous universities use learning management systems like Blackboard, Webct, and Moodle. The authors also pointed out that 79 to 95% college students use my space and facebook. Debevec, Shih and Kashyap (2006) pointed out World Wide Web’s effort towards creating effective online classes. The videos, lecture slides, evaluation tools available in the site in some cases are as effective as face to face classes. It has created knowledge repository for the learners. The online environment is different from the traditional classroom setting. The virtual class environment is accessible to the students at any place and at any time. This convenient accassibility

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acts as an advantage when the students are away from the campus. “Online interactive technologies have the potential to reach students at home, in their dorms, in between classes and work, and on the weekends” (Baker et al, 2009, p. 59). Online classes equip students with technology related knowledge (Simonson et al., 2000). Nevertheless, usually online class structure does not require students to be technology savvy. In spite of all the above-mentioned positive sides, online classes in many cases have faced skepticism. Online classes need different strategies to provide effective learning experiences to the users. One of the disadvantages of online environments as pointed out in research is the reduced interaction with students and facilitator (Alagoz, 2013). Chen at al., (2010) proposed “that no communication technology can replace the physical presence and the serendipitous moments of learning such as the spontaneous” (p. 1223). Engaging learners is important in any learning environment. Achieving it in a setting, where learners and instructors are physically away from each other, can be challenging. Proserpio and Gioia (2007) referred to the present day students as virtual generation as they are comfortable with the physical distances, flexibility, different nature of interactions, and openness in terms of information creation and information sharing in online class environment. This group of students is enthusiastic to reject passive learning and involve in active learning experiences where technological sophistication is perceived as an opportunity rather than a challenge.

BACKGROUND Palincsar (1998) proposed that constructivist learning started with Piagetian and Vygotskian perspectives. This learning perspective is learner centered and supports learners’ active participation. The theory assumes that learners construct their own knowledge based on their frame of

reality (Nafukho, 2007). Society and culture play significant role in individual’s learning. Now what is constructivist theory and how it can be applied in online class environment? Jean Piaget is considered as the originator of constructivist theory, which is used to indicate the process of learning (Mezirow, 1990). This theory acknowledges learners’ capability to construct knowledge from their experiences. Constructivist learning theory proposes that our previous knowledge and experience play significant role in our process of learning. “Constructivism is a philosophical view on how we come to understand or know. It is, in our mind, most closely attuned to the pragmatic philosophy” (Savery & Duffy, 1995, p. 89). Therefore, according to this theory, the learners are active participants in learning rather than being passive receptor of knowledge. The interpretation of knowledge can vary person to person. Hence, constructivist learning theory emphasizes on personalized learning experiences. The role of constructivist learning theory in online class environment has been established to be critical in promoting quality learning (Ally, 2004; Chen, Lambert and Guidry, 2010, Nafukho, 2007). Constructivist learning theory proposes five interactive aspects that can be practiced in online environment. Present literature propose the significance of the following five interactive aspects while considering constructivist learning theory: frame of references of the learners, the learning process, learners’ self-created personality or image, levels of communication and various incidents and conditions that take place during the learning (Ally, 2004; Chen, 2010). These five phases are useful in understanding the process of constructivist learning theory. In constructivist theory holistic learning (providing broader picture of purpose and objectives of the content) is important and instructor plays the role of a facilitator and/or advisor in guiding the learners’ energy and efforts towards the right direction (Nafukho, 2007). As a result, constructivist theory promotes application of knowledge in different contexts.

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The learner centered approach of constructivist learning theory is often related to self-directed learning, where learners take charge of their learning process. Six specific ways are evident in relevant literature to help practice constructivist learning theory in virtual classes. Those strategies for practicing constructivist learning theory follow:

Learning as an Active Process As discussed in the previous section, constructivism theory views learners as actively taking part in learning. In online learning environment often the students are in charge of their learning. The flexibility of time and space enables learners to access learning content whenever they want from any geographic location. Hence, online learning requires learners’ active participation. Nevertheless, instructor’s guidance needs to be available throughout the process (Ally, 2004).

Constructing Knowledge In online learning environment, learners can get the scope of reflecting on the learning content, provided the class is designed following adult learning principles proposed by knowel (1989). Chen (2007) proposed that students’ higher order thinking skill can be well developed in online classes as they get time to reflect on their comments and assignments. Hence, it is possible that instead of just depending on the instructions, learners can use their cognitive knowledge to construct their own frame of knowledge reference. Instructors therefore, can help the students with facilitation and advising.

Help Learners Achieve Learning Goals Adult learners come with previously defined personal goal in order to apply their knowledge. Stating course objectives and expectations clearly

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can help learners understand how the class can help them achieve their personal goals (Aragon, 2003). It is possible in online environment to take care of learners styles: auditory (including lectures), visual (including videos) and kinesthetic (including various activities) (Boling, Hough, Krinsky, Saleem & Stevens 2012).

Interactive Learning Contrary to the regular beliefs, online classes are capable of providing interactive learning experiences (Chen 2007). Using proper technological tools and techniques can help create interactions in virtual classes. Four types of interactions are possible in online classes: Interaction with instructor and learner, interaction with learning content and learner, interaction with learner and learning technology, interactions among learners (Hirumi, 2002). Apart from constructivist learning theory the research found relevance of transformative learning theory in online class environment. The transformative process includes the participation of the course instructor who aids in the process of transformative learning by serving in a facilitator role. In transformative pedagogy, the instructor’s role is to view teaching as a social process, allowing students to engage in their own learning by encouraging them to challenge social norms, question positions of power, engage in critical questioning, work collaboratively, be creative, and practice democracy (Cranton, 2011). This way of teaching focuses on understanding social issues, invoking social action, and stimulating change by promoting a heightened self-awareness, through facilitative methods focused on communication, critical examination, and exchange of information (Meyers, 2008). There are various studies that address different strategies for online classes. Chen, Lambert and Guidry (2010) found out that right use of technology positively influences students’ learning engagement and learning outcomes. The authors

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also proposed that individual and institutional characteristics have significant impact on students’ likelihood of choosing online classes. The authors used data from National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE). The findings from this study pointed out that students, who were enrolled in blended classes, were more aware of the resources available to them compared to the students, who took only face to face or online classes. The authors suggested that instructors need to provide clear information about resources available to the students in online classes. Chen et al (2010) suggested that “Institutions must ensure that online students receive high quality instruction, support services, and other fringe benefits enjoyed by traditional face-to-face students.” (p. 1229). Weller (2007) found out two types of approaches determine the learning strategies in online classes: (1) connection with learners and (2) connection with resources. The first one involves communication with people and the second one emphasizes on using resources. Kop (2011) highlighted three types of interactions: learner content interactions, learner instructor interactions and interactions among learners. Roger (2002) advocated the importance of considering context in virtual learning. The context in which people learn, play significant role in any learning environment. Tran (2012) identified two competing model of learning: Objectivism and constructivism. The objectivism approach is traditional approach and is based on behavioral school of thought. In this approach learning flows one way from the instructors to the learners. On the other hand, constructivism school of thought allows learners to create their own knowledge. Tran also proposed that using constructivist learning theory in online class environment ensure learner engagement. Technology play pivotal role in creating the collaborative learning environment where learner learn from each other and create their own knowledge framework. Therefore, learners engagement can be achieved through creating “an environment that

fosters successful, collaborative teams working on meaningful project. Technology can help facilitate experiential, engaged learning in groups on a much larger and innovative scale that can reach out to the “virtual generation” (Tran, 2012, p. 5) Chen et al (2010) also found out that factors like child care, employment, and financial support can determine whether a student would choose online classes. They advocated that business school students are more tend to take computer based classes. Factors like employment, child care, and financial support can and should have a significant impact on a student’s decision of which type of courses he or she would take. Nevertheless, we find that certain types of students including racial and ethnic minorities and part-time students are more likely to take online courses. (Chen et al., 2010, p. 1229)

ISSUES, CONTROVERSIES, PROBLEMS Clayton, Blumberg and Auld (2010) identified a gap in the literature: research on why students prefer online classes versus traditional face to face classes is limited. Clayton et al. also asserted little is known about learners’ motivational beliefs and learning strategies in online class environment. Hence, the significance of this chapter. Learning experiences and learning preferences shared by research one University graduate students are beneficial in understanding and utilizing learners’ preferences to practice online class engagement strategies.

Research Questions and Method The purpose of this chapter is to explore online class engagement strategies from students’ perspectives. In order to reach the purpose, the following questions guided the chapter:

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1. What students think about the online classes? 2. What can be done to improve the student satisfaction? 3. What can be avoided to increase student satisfaction? Data Collection Method: A qualitative narrative approach used as the methodological framework. McCance, McKenna and Boore, (2001) suggested that narratives best reflect an issue that needs exploration and clarification. A ‘narrative’ is a story that tells a sequence of events that are significant for the narrator and his or her audience. A narrative as a story has a plot, a beginning, a middle and an end. It has an internal logic that makes sense to the narrator. A narrative relates events in a temporal, causal sequence. Every narrative describes a sequence of events (Denzin, 1987, p. 37). Eight graduate students were purposely selected to participate in this study. The students were elected from online classes offered via e learning (Blackboard Learning Management System) at a Research 1 university in the southwestestern United States. Students, who have previous online class experience as learners were asked interview questions at their convenient time and location. Class information from the website, discussion forums, some emails sent to the professor and online chat recordings are used for data collection. Class information and syllabus available on the website provided information about course objective, required time for readings and class activities. Asynchronous discussion forums give idea about learner characteristics, learner involvement and class dynamic. Email transcripts between professor and the students indicated areas where the students needed help and feedback required from the professor. The documents are printed and matched with the responses of the students. The semi-structured interview consisted of questions like what the students really liked about the

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course; what they did not like about the course; what could be done to improve the course; what specific strategies were used in class that worked towards making the class engaging and interesting etc. Semi-structured interview technique was used to collect data. “The interview is the method chosen most frequently when using narratives” (McCance et al., 2001). Multiple data sources were used to collect same information in order to ensure validity. Therefore, triangulation technique was applied. The more known points that are used, the more likely the unknown location will be identified. As Lewis (2009) suggested, “In using a multitude of sources to explain an event, the findings become more valid than explaining an event from a single incident or observation” (p. 11) Data Analysis Technique: To minimize researchers’ subjectivity, no related literature was read during the data collection and analysis process (Harris, 2008). The researchers focused on capturing participants’ views and perspectives in actual form without judging or scrutinizing. Once data transcription was completed, the participants were asked to go through the data to ensure member check. This was done to increase validity of the data. “The member check, whereby data, analytic categories, interpretations, and conclusions are tested with members of those stake-holding groups from whom the data were originally collected, is the most crucial technique for establishing credibility” (Lincoln & Guba, 1985, p. 314). The data analysis process was guided by three step technique suggested by Sjostrom and Dahlgren (2002). The three steps are: frequency of appearing the response, position of the response in the interview span, and pregnancy, where the participant emphasizes on specific comments. The data transcripts were unitized and were printed in index cards (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). The researchers went through the data in index cards over and over again. During the readings, the authors attempted to find out frequently appearing responses. The common comments were

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put together and the category was named after the theme that emerged from the comments. The transcribed data were printed in index cards. The cards were arranged in categories and subcategories. Being aware of researchers’ biases during collecting and analyzing data is useful to increase credibility of a research study (Lewis, 2009). The researchers acknowledged their biases, which included notions like students usually thinking that online classes do not require a lot of involvement. This bias was kept in mind when designing the interview questions.

RESULTS Among the eight participants, five live on campus and three live away from campus. The three participants occasionally come to campus. All the participants were interviewed on one-to-one basis in the department’s computer lab. The interview was performed in a time span of two weeks at different time and dates depending on the schedule of the participants. To maintain anonymity, the students are referred as A, B, C, D, E, F, G and H. The interviews were recorded with participants’ permission. The data was then transcribed. A, C and E are international students and rests are native English speakers. The following broad categories of student engagement strategies immersed from the interviews: active learning, learners’ personal goals, meaningful interactions, guided instruction, and critical reflection. The categories are presented in Table 1.

Active Learning This category includes learners’ urge to be involved in the online classes. The following subcategories were evident in the interviews: Interesting Class Activities: Five out of eight participants indicated that class activities conjugate to engaging learning experiences. Participant

C shared, “Somehow I find those online classes really interesting where I can actually participate in activities like chat sessions, discussions, even quiz, fill in the blank things are also helpful.. I just need to apply it rather than just reading about it”. One participant mentioned that involving in activities help ease out the stress and also help with learning. Garrison and Cleveland-Innes (2005) pointed out the importance of creating online activities that are directly related to students’ cognitive learning. The final goal in any class environment is to provide learning content delivered in a way that attracts learners’ attentions. Using Learning Content in Other Context: This section highlights students’ ability to relate the class content and use it in other context. Participant C indicted that class instruction needs to be useful for him so that he can use it in his workplace. He said that “If I see the value of the content, somehow I can focus well in the class”. On a similar tone, participant E shared “Once I took a class and could convince my supervisor with a presentation how I can lead the project. I mean Wow, what else you need?”

Table 1. Categories and subcategories Categories Active Learning

Subcategories Interesting class activities Using learning in different context

Guided Instruction

Clear instructions for assignment and activities Immediate feedback on class assignments and activities Meaningful Interactions

Critical reflection

Assignments that involve critical thinking Peer feedback

Learners’ Personal goals

e.g. proximity from campus; work and family commitments, learning expectations

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Learners’ Personal Goals This category is about meeting participants’ personal goals in online class environment. The following sections evolved during the interviews. A Sense of Anonymity: The semistructured interview revealed interesting information about computer based classes. Since, during online communication students cannot see each other, six out of eight participants said that they feel comfortable in exchanging their thoughts, questions and concerns. One of the students (D) said: I feel a sense of anonymity…. Seems like no one will know who I am when I am writing my views, I feel comfortable that way…. I feel like being informal, in a class setting, I cannot do it (in online class) though. Participant A said that s/he feels comfortable sharing online because, “I don’t feel scared of looking really stupid and people laughing at me.” Participants E and F said that they are comfortable sharing their thoughts in face to face classes. They said that the reactions they get for their statements act as a feedback for them. E added “I don’t like to wait for the responses after writing a post online. You have check for responses every day. In face to face class you know whether your comment makes sense or no from the reactions that you get. I like it this way.” The discussions and chat room showed a lot of participation from the students. When one student asked a question, other students responded. Distant Learners Prefer Online Classes: Four students (out of five), who live on campus, noted that they prefer face to face classes. If given an option, they want to take face to face classes. Participant H said that “I think we should take advantage of staying on campus. Why I should opt for online classes? I always feel better in a face to face class”. Participant F, who lives on campus, said that s/he prefers blended classes. This way both face to face class experience and

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online class experiences are achieved. “I like face to face class interactions, however, I feel like we need to be comfortable with the recent technology. This could be our future”. On the other hand, students, who live away from campus, preferred online classes. Participant A stated “I feel so happy that our department provides online class options. Because of these online classes, I can work on my degree.” Participant C said that “I am an international student. As a result I cannot take more than one online class. I wish I did not have this restriction. I like online classes. They are fun!” Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation: Four of the eight participants indicated that if they realize that the online class technology can help them in the future, they get motivation to take online classes. Participant C said that in the company they need to attend online training session. Taking online classes can help prepare to take online trainings.

Guided Instruction The participants preferred moderate supervision from the course instructors. When asked questions related to self-directed learning, the following sections stood out. Clear Instructions: Participant G described a personal experience, “It is confusing especially in the online learning to figure out what exactly the instructor wants us to do. And if the instructions are ambiguous, gosh, you can imagine. It’s a struggle. I was in a class in which the instructions gave very little information about the assignments. I had to email the professor for all the assignments”. Immediate Feedback: The students mentioned the importance of getting feedback on regular basis. One of the participants (participant E) said that “It sometimes takes a day or two to receive answer to the questions that we ask to the instructor. You have to wait and keep on checking whether your question is answered or not. In face to face classes you get the answer right away”.

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Two participants indicated that they feel very impatient when they wait for their questions to be answered especially, if it is related to grading. Participant D stated, “I had a simple question regarding line spacing for the assignment and I got the answer after the due date. I was really upset”. The emails sent to the professor indicate appreciation for getting immediate feedback/answer to their assignments/questions. A synopsis from the email transcript says: ‘I really appreciate your immediate response. It helps a lot!’

Reflection This category highlights the need of opportunities for critical reflection. The participants pointed out that they feel they are engaged when they get a chance to reflect on the course content. Critical Thinking: Three participants stated the importance of opportunity to think critically in online class environment. Participant G said: In those online classes, where I have the opportunity to work on assignments like critique an article, I feel like I spend a lot of time going through the class materials than the classes that only want us to take test or write a report etc. Usually in second type of classes we just try to mug up the class material and follow the instruction. To thrive in competitive environment of educational and professional spheres, one needs to be able to think critically. When students get a chance to use their judgment in the class, they feel like their voices are heard. For example, participant G added that if the class has assignments that ask students to use their opinion and has no right or wrong answers, the students are bound to think about the content rather than just repeating what is there in the lectures. Peer Reviews: Participants indicated that the opportunity to give and receive feedback to fellow students help master the learning content. Participant B stated “To be able to see each other’s

works is so very helpful especially in online classes where you don’t see your classmates regularly to discuss. I have received good feedback in this process” Another participant (H) however is skeptical regarding the quality of the feedback in peer reviews: “You often get contradictory feedback, which one to take? So confusing”.

Meaningful Interactions All the participants in this study realize the importance of interactions in the virtual classes. Seven out of eight participants shared the idea of content focused interactions. Level of Interactions: All the participants talked about the importance of interactions in the class. They all agreed that in online classes, it is hard to get the interactions that are produced in a face to face class environment. Participant G said during the interview, “How can you replace the interaction that you can have in a face to face class? The conversations during the breaks help build relationship. I often ask my questions and clear the doubts at the end of the class. Try doing that in an online class!” Participants preferred interactions in any form as long as the interactions help them with the class content. Participant A added, “Once I took an online class, where we had a lot of group works. I loved it. We used to meet over Skype. It worked out fine”. On a similar tone, participant B stated that, “In this class we need to work in pair for an assignment. I like it this way. I feel like I have someone whom I can share my concern with. I know it is just for one assignment. Participant H shared, “Interactions are good in online classes. However, in a class that I took, we had discussions included in the assignments, and you know a lot of the discussions were not even related to what we were studying. Often it went personal. I thought I was wasting time going through those discussions

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In answering a question related to online interaction, participant F shared: I have no idea why I feel shy in writing an email to a fellow student just saying hi or so. I don’t have this problem when I am in a face to face class. I can just go and start conversation with a person so easily…I think we should have a lot of group works (for online classes), this way we will have interactions but we will feel like we are communicating for a reason! Participant H cautioned, “It can be very confusing when you communicate online. Once someone misunderstood what I meant to say. It sounded rude actually when I read the sentence later. I learned the importance to communicating clearly. I always read the message to make sure that it says what I want to say!” When asked how the interactions help. One participant (E) added, “Online classes are self-paced. Sometimes I feel so lost. I wish I could know the progress of other students”. The participant added: I feel secure when I have a friend with whom I can talk to. I want to talk about how he or she is doing with the assignments. I know it sounds odd. Without this interaction I feel alone. I don’t like this feeling. That’s why I like blended classes. I get the interactions that I need. Again, I get to use the technology and have fun with it. The student was found to interact a lot with the student in same group for their paired project (from the email transcript).

DISCUSSION The first research question asked: What students thought about the online classes? As mentioned in the methods section, three of the participants lived away from campus and five of the participants lived on campus. Chen et al., (2010) found out that

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students’ personal preferences and characteristics played a role in determining their success in web based classes. In the present study we found out that proximity from the campus played big role in helping students decide whether they preferred online courses or not. Participants, who lived away from campus, praised online classes as they (the courses) enabled them (students) to continue with their studies even though they lived away from campus and wereengaged in their set priorities. On the other hand, students living on campus preferred face to face classes, if given an option. The second research question asked What could be done to improve the student satisfaction with online courses? Moore and Kearsley (2011) cautioned that physical distance can create communication gaps in web based learning. The findings in this chapter support their statement. All the participants mentioned that the level if interaction that happened in face to face classes could not be produced in online class environment. Nevertheless, the participants indicated that increased level of meaningful interaction with the instructors and the fellow students help increase student satisfaction. “The collaborative strategies and the type of the discussion questions can influence student reflection and building of shared experiences in an online learning classroom” (Vonderwell, 2003, p. 88). Interestingly, contrary to the common belief that students are not comfortable with working in groups in virtual environment, it was established in this chapter that students preferred group work in online classes. Baker, Wentz and Woods (1995) proposed that interaction in a virtual world help create a sense of community. When the participants stated that communication with peers and professors was beneficial for them, it pointed out the importance of building a sense of community. However, although previous studies indicated interactions in any form is beneficial for the students, the findings of this chapter revealed that students perceived learning takes place only from useful and focused interactions.

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LaPadula (2003) advocated that students should have knowledge about the online resources available to them and they should have information about help line for technological hitches. The findings from this chapter support the above mentioned statement. The participants indicated that they should have a navigation video that shows them the resources available to them. All the participants thought that it helped a lot if they knew where to go in case they faced any technological issues. The third research question asked: What could be avoided to increase student satisfaction in online courses? It is evident from the findings of this chapter that instant and consistent feedbacks are desired by the students in an online class environment. However, instructors need to be careful with the feedback system. Students need to be assisted in getting the answers rather them providing them with the answers. The social and pedagogical presence of the instructor is essential for improved communication and learning. Yet, online instructors need to be careful in structuring a feedback mechanism to encourage student inquiry and collaboration rather than quick, immediate answer to a question that can itself be a barrier for effective student learning (Vonderswell, 2003, p. 88). Table 2 captures the synopsis of student engagement tools and techniques along with potential disadvantages and advantages.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS This chapter has implication both at professional and educational spheres. The implications are discussed in detail in the following section. Educational Significance: The conducted study reveals important information about online class engagement strategies. It also identified areas where more research needs to be performed. The findings supported some existing notions identified in previous literatures. in this chapter,

I identified factors like increased interaction, collaboration in the form of group work, discussion posts, and web conferencing can help student engagement in online courses. It is also identified that students need to be equipped to overcome and manage the issues that they are having, rather than giving them the answer directly. Therefore, the instructors need to be aware of the feedback system they are following. Practical Significance: The findings of this chapter can be useful in both academic and professional settings. Professional Settings: Bonk (2002) pointed out that companies are using online trainings in a regular basis. The 24/7 access to training courses provide scope to attend and complete training at one’s own pace. “technology-enabled learning designed to increase workers’ knowledge and skills so that they can be more productive, find and keep high-quality jobs, advance in their careers, and have a positive impact on the success of their employees, their families and their communities” (ASTD, 2001). Bonk (2002) talked about the future trend where more training is going to be offered online. Educational Settings: There is an increasing trend of offering online classes via software like blackboard vista, moodle, mcampus. Moore et al (2011) predicted that number of online classes will increase in next few years. Often the instructors strive to provide online classes. The findings of the chapter will help create engaging and interesting classes for the students. One of the findings indicates that providing information regarding where the students need to contact in case they have any technological hitch. This can be done easily by providing a navigation video and giving contact information of the IT person in charge. Educational Human Resource Development Department at Texas A & M started providing course navigation videos including instructions on how to upload a file or how to post in the discussion forums. The satisfaction rate is increased.

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Table 2. Engagement strategies Advantages

Disadvantages

Real world oriented class activities

Engagement Strategies

Learners can see the value of the class content in real world scenario

Sometimes it is challenging for learners to find suitable opportunities without help and supervision especially at college and University levels

• Projects that give learners scope to interact with professionals • Assignments requiring interviewing professionals

Scope to practice creative thinking and innovation

Learners’ higher order learning needs are satisfied

The risk of unrealistic goals

• Asking learners to present their works in the form of a video or interactive presentations • Multiple solutions of a presented issue

Considering learners’ personal goals

Learners ae motivated to learn class content when they can see the value of their learning

In large online classes, it is challenging to track learners’ personal goals

• Stating class objectives clearly along with learning outcomes • Having learners write their personal goals in the beginning of the class

Avoiding ambiguous terms e.g. ‘good writing skill’ and using specific instructions e.g. ‘writing with no grammatical mistakes’.

Helps learners understand what is expected in the class

Too specific instructions can spur creativity

• Including specific instructions in the form of a rubric • Providing detail information in the syllabus

Specific feedback in timely manner

Helps learn from the mistakes

If Taken personally, gives rise to dissatisfaction

• Providing constructive feedback • If possible give learners scopes to discuss feedback

Including audio feedback

Gives personal touch from the instructor

Issue with technology

• Using Evernote, a free online application to record feedback • Using smart phone application to record significant areas and send students online or upload it on class site

Including assignments that help learners think critically

Learners get a sense of owning the content

Without supervision comments can be just for the sake of critiquing

• Ask learners critique an article • Ask learners critique their own work

Encourage peer reviews

Create a sense of community

Without supervision conflicts arises

• Ask learners critique peers’ works • Encourage productive discussions

Supervise content focused interactions among learners, instructors, technology and content

Learners get involved in the class

Can take too much of learners’ and instructor’s time and effort

• Encourage discussions • Encourage chat sessions

Include introductory video with LMS and class information

Learners get to know instructor

Technology issue

• Provide navigation help • Provide personal information

Provide required resources in class website

Lessen anxiety when learners know where to go in case they have issues

Learners can spend too much time on additional resources and ignore core contents

• Provide additional readings • Provide information about key persons to contact for issues related to technology, references etc.

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Implementation

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CONCLUSION The conducted study has some limitations. But each limitation opens scopes for future research areas. The limitations are discussed in detail in the following section: The chapter included students’ perspective on online classes. The strategies suggested and proposed in this chapter are based on the opinions of the students. It will be interesting to include the perspectives of the instructors/professors/trainers. Means et al (2010) suggested that it is important to include course instructor’s responses when researching about online classes. The conducted study had eight participants, who were interviewed face to face. The students were asked to share their views regarding the online classes that they were taking. Therefore, I suggest that more empirical evidences are needed to support and justify the findings of this chapter. Although some studies included online course engagement strategies, new studies will reveal new aspects of online course engagement techniques. The chapter did not consider whether culture, race, ethnicity, previous experiences have any effect on students’ success in online classes. Chen et al (2010) advocated that personal characteristics play very important role in determining whether a student will opt for face to face class or not. The chapter only highlighted proximity from the campus as personal attribute. Therefore, more studies (both qualitative and quantitative) are needed to explore the influence of the various factors that are mentioned above. Finally, it can be said that the chapter looked at class engagement strategies proposed by the students/participants in order to create collaborative online classes. In line with the previous studies, the chapter found out some strategies that can help creating an inclusive environment, where students’ opinions are valued as adult learners, appropriate guidance in timely manner is provided, and an attempt is made to form a social learning community in a safe learning environment are necessary to

involve the students in the online classes. The above mentioned aspects determine whether the students would consider a class to be engaging and interesting provided their individual characteristics (proximity from campus) are favorable towards registering for an online class. Also, it is found out that students are required to be provided with correct learning resources. Navigation videos indicating how to access contents and activities can be useful in this respect. In the last section the chapter presented future research opportunities that can be adopted in order to support the findings and explore related aspects.

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Chakraborty, M. & Nafukho, F. (In Press). Strengthening student engagement: What do students want in online courses? European Journal of Training and Development, 38(9). Chakraborty, M., & Wang, J. (In Press). The postmodern approach to career counseling for contemporary organizations. In C. Hughes (Ed.), The impact of diversity on organizational and career development. Hershey, PA: IGI Global. doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-7324-3.ch010 Chen, P. S. D., Lambert, A. D., & Guidry, K. R. (2010). Engaging online learners: The impact of web-based learning technology on college student engagement. Computers & Education, 54(4), 1222–1232. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2009.11.008 Clayton, K., Blumberg, F., & Auld, D. P. (2010). The relationship between motivation, learning strategies and choice of environment whether traditional or including an online component. British Journal of Educational Technology, 41(3), 349–364. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2009.00993.x Cole, P. G., & Chan, L. K. S. (1994). Teaching principles and practice (2nd ed.). New York: Prentice Hall. Debevec, K., Shih, M. Y., & Kashyap, V. (2006). Learning strategies and performance in a technology integrated classroom. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 38(3), 293–307. doi:1 0.1080/15391523.2006.10782461 Denzin, N. K. (1989). Interpretive interactionism. London: Sage Publications. Duderstadt, J., Atkins, D., & Houweling, D. (2002). Higher education in the digital age: Technology issues and strategies for American colleges and universities. Westport, CT: Praeger.

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Fredricks, J. A., & McColskey, W. (2012). The measurement of student engagement: A comparative analysis of various methods and student self-report instruments. In Handbook of research on student engagement (pp. 763–782). Springer US. doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-2018-7_37 Garrison, D. R., & Cleveland-Innes, M. (2005). Facilitating cognitive presence in online learning: Interaction is not enough. American Journal of Distance Education, 19(3), 133–148. doi:10.1207/ s15389286ajde1903_2 Han, H., & Johnson, S. D. (2012). Relationship between students’ emotional intelligence, social bond, and interactions in online learning. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 15(1), 78–89. Harasim, L. N., Hiltz, S. R., Teles, L., & Turoff, M. (1995). Learning networks: A field guide to teaching and learning online. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Harris, L. R. (2008). A phenomenographic investigation of teacher conceptions of student engagement in learning. Australian Educational Researcher, 35(1), 57–79. doi:10.1007/BF03216875 Kvale, S. (1996). Interviews: An introduction to qualitative research interviewing. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. LaPadula, M. (2003). A comprehensive look at online student support services for distance learners. American Journal of Distance Education, 17(2), 119–128. doi:10.1207/S15389286AJDE1702_4

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Lawrence, S. A., & Fraser Calhoun, M. M. (2013). Exploring teachers’ perceptions of literacy and use of technology in classroom practice: Analysis of self-reported practice in one school district. Exploring Teachers’ Perceptions of Literacy and Use of Technology in Classroom Practice: Analysis, 14(1), 51. Lewis, J. A. (2009). Redefining qualitative methods: Believability in the fifth moment. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 8(2), 1–14. Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Marsh, M. T., Taylor, R., & Holoviak, S. J. (2011). Enhancing classroom performance: A technology design to support the integration of collaborative learning and participative teams. College Teaching Methods & Styles Journal, 4(6), 31–40. McCance, T. V., McKenna, H. P., & Boore, J. R. (2001). Exploring caring using narrative methodology: An analysis of the approach. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 33(3), 350–356. doi:10.1046/ j.1365-2648.2001.01671.x PMID:11251722 Means, B., Toyama, Y., Murphy, R., Bakia, M., & Jones, K. (2010). Evaluation of evidence-based practices in online learning: a meta-analysis and review of online learning studies. Retrieved from http://ifap.ru/library/book440.pdf Mishler, E. G. (1986). Research interviewing: Context and narrative. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Moore, A., Masterson, J. T., Christophel, D. M., & Shea, K. A. (1996). College teacher timmediacy and student ratings of instruction. Communication Education, 45(1), 29–39. doi:10.1080/03634529609379030 Moore, M. G., & Kearsley, G. (1996). Distance education: A systems view. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Moore, M. G., & Kearsley, G. (2011). Distance education: A systems view of online learning. Wadsworth Publishing Company. Nafukho, F. M. (2007). The place of e- learning in Africa’s institutions of higher learning. Higher Education Policy, 20(1), 19–43. doi:10.1057/ palgrave.hep.8300141 Nafukho, F. M., Amutabi, N. M., & Otunga, R. N. (2005). Foundations of adult education in Africa. Cape Town, South Africa: UNESCO/ Pearson Education. Nafukho, F. M., Thompson, D., & Brooks, K. (2004). Factors predicting success in a distance learning nontraditional undergraduate degree program. International Journal of Vocational Education and Training, 12(2), 82–95. Nyikos, M., & Hashimoto, R. (1997). Constructivist theory applied to collaborative learning in teacher education: In search of ZPD. Modern Language Journal, 81(4), 506–517. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4781.1997.tb05518.x Pace, R. W. (1983). Organizational communication: Foundations for human resource development. Prentice Hall Inc. Proserpio, L., & Gioia, D. (2007). Teaching the virtual generation. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 6(1), 69–80. doi:10.5465/ AMLE.2007.24401703 Reissman, C. K. (1993). Narrative analysis. London: Sage Publications. Robinson, C. C., & Hullinger, H. (2008). New benchmarks in higher education: Student engagement in online learning. Journal of Education for Business, 84(2), 101–108. doi:10.3200/ JOEB.84.2.101-109

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Boyd, D. (2010, September/October). Streams of content, limited attention: The flow of information through social media. EDUCAUSE Review, 45(5), 26–36.

Simonson, M., Smaldino, S., Albright, M., & Zvacek, S. (2000). Teaching and learning at a distance: Foundations of distance education. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.

Carroll, F., Kop, R., & Woodward, C. (2008, November). Sowing the seeds of learner autonomy: Transforming the VLE into a third place through the use of Web 2.0 tools. In ECEL-European Conference on e-Learning (pp. 152–160). Cyprus: University of Cyprus.

Tran, Y. (2012). The smart classroom: Measuring student satisfaction with a technology-enabled classroom. Academic Press. Vonderwell, S. (2003). An examination of asynchronous communication experiences and perspectives of students in an online course: A case study. The Internet and Higher Education, 6(1), 77–90. doi:10.1016/S1096-7516(02)00164-1 Ward, M., & Newlands, D. (1998). Use of the web in undergraduate teaching. Computers & Education, 31(2), 171–184. doi:10.1016/S03601315(98)00024-4 Weller, M. (2007). Virtual learning environments: Using, choosing, and developing your VLE. Abingdon, UK: Routledge.

ADDITIONAL READING Barabasi, A. (2003). Linked: How everything is connected to everything else and what it means for business, science, and everyday life. New York: Plume Books. Bouchard, P. (2009, June). Some factors to consider when designing semi-autonomous learning environments. Electronic Journal of e-Learning, 7(2), 93–100. Bouchard, P. (2010, May). A network under siege: The new feudalism. Canadian Network for Innovation in Education Conference, Saint John, New Brunswick, Canada.

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Conole, G., de Laat, M., Dillon, T., & Darby, J. (2008). Disruptive technologies, pedagogical innovation: What’s new? Findings from an in-depth study of students’ use and perception of technology. Computers & Education, 50(2), 511–524. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2007.09.009 Downes, S. (2009). New tools for personal learning. MEFANET 2009 Conference, Brno, Czech Republic, via MVU Videoconference. Retrieved from http://www.downes.ca/presentation/234 Dron, J., & Anderson, T. (2007). Collectives, networks, and groups in social software for e-learning. World Conference on E-Learning in Corporate, Government, Healthcare, and Higher Education (ELEARN) 2007, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. Garrison, D. R., Anderson, T., & Archer, W. (2000). Critical inquiry in a text-based environment: Computer conferencing in higher education. The Internet and Higher Education, 2(2-3), 87–105. doi:10.1016/S1096-7516(00)00016-6 Hiltz, S. R., & Wellman, B. (1997). Asynchronous learning networks as a virtual classroom. Communications of the ACM, 40(9), 44–49. doi:10.1145/260750.260764 Kop, R. (2010, June). The design and development of a personal learning environment: Researching the learning experience. European Distance and E-learning Network Annual Conference 2010, Valencia, Spain. Paper H4 32.

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Kop, R. (2011). The challenges to connectivist learning on open online networks: Learning experiences during a massive open online course. The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning. Special Issue-Connectivism: Design and Delivery of Social Networked Learning, 12(3), 59–74. Kop, R., Fournier, H., & Sitlia, H. (2011 – accepted). The value of learning analytics to networked learning on a personal learning environment. First International Conference on Learning Analytics and Knowledge 2011, Banff, Alberta, Canada, February 27–March 1, 2011. Kop, R., & Hill, A. (2008). Connectivism: Learning theory of the future or vestige of the past? International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 9(3). Laemmli, U. K. (1970). Cleavage of structural proteins during the assembly of the head of bacteriophage T4. Nature, 227(5259), 680–685. doi:10.1038/227680a0 PMID:5432063 Lanier, J. (2010). You are not a gadget: A manifesto. New York: Random House. Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (2002). Legitimate peripheral participation in communities of practice. In R. Harrison et al. (Eds.), Supporting lifelong learning, Volume 1, Perspectives on learning (pp. 111–126). London: Routledge Falmer. Lombard, M., & Ditton, T. (1997, September). At the heart of it all: The concept of presence. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 3(2). Mejias, U. (2009). Peerless: The ethics of P2P network disassembly. Presented at the 4th Inclusiva-net Meeting: P2P Networks and Processes, Madrid, Spain. Muilenburg, L. Y., & Berge, Z. L. (2005). Student barriers to online learning: A factor analytic study. Distance Education, 26(1), 29–48. doi:10.1080/01587910500081269

Palloff, R. M., & Pratt, K. (1999). Building learning communities in cyberspace (Vol. 12). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Partnership for 21st Century Skills. (2009). The MILE Guide: Milestones for improving learning & education. Partnership for 21st Century Learning, Tucson, Arizona, USA. Retrieved from http://www.21stcenturyskills.org/documents/ MILE_Guide_091101.pdf Picard, R., Papert, S., Bender, W., Blumberg, B., Breazeal, C., Cavallo, D., & Strohecker, C. et al. (2004). Affective learning–a manifesto. BT Technology Journal, 22(4), 253–269. doi:10.1023/ B:BTTJ.0000047603.37042.33 Picciano, A. G. (2002). Beyond student perceptions: Issues of interaction, presence, and performance in an online course. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 6(1), 21–40. Poole, D. M. (2000). Student participation in a discussion-oriented online course: A case study. Journal of research on computing in education, 33(2), 162-177. Rogers, A. (2002). Learning and adult education. In R. Harrison et al. (Eds.), Supporting lifelong learning, Volume 1, Perspectives on learning (pp. 8–24). London: Routledge Falmer. Rusbridger, A. (2010). Why Twitter Matters For Media Organisations. Retrieved from http://bit. ly/a7MDe0 Schrum, L., & Hong, S. (2002). Dimensions and strategies for online success: Voices from experienced educators. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 6(1), 57–67. Sfard, A. (1998, March). On two metaphors for learning and the dangers of choosing just one. Educational Researcher, 27(2), 4–13. doi:10.3102/0013189X027002004

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Siemens, G., & Downes, S. (2008, 2009). Connectivism & connected knowledge. Retrieved from http://ltc.umanitoba.ca.lib-ezproxy.tamu. edu:2048/connectivism/ Sims, R. L., & Schuman, A. H. (1999). Learning in an Online Format versus an In-Class Format: An Experimental Study. T.H.E. Journal, 26(11), 54–56. Wang, Y. M. (2011). Overcoming the dilemma of teacher presence in student-centered online discussions. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 20(4), 425–438. Weller, M. (2007). Virtual learning environments: Using, choosing, and developing your VLE. Abingdon: Routledge. Welsh, E. T., Wanberg, C. R., Brown, K. G., & Simmering, M. J. (2003). E‐learning: Emerging uses, empirical results and future directions. International Journal of Training and Development, 7(4), 245–258. doi:10.1046/j.1360-3736.2003.00184.x Wicks, D. J. (2009). Emerging theories and online learning environments for adults. Theories of Educational Technology., 9(4), 300–359. Yu, A. Y., Tian, S. W., Vogel, D., & Chi-Wai Kwok, R. (2010). Can learning be virtually boosted? An investigation of online social networking impacts. Computers & Education, 55(4), 1494–1503. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2010.06.015 Zaharias, P., & Polymenakou, A. (2009). Developing a usability evaluation method for e-learning applications: Beyond functional usability. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 25(1), 75–98. doi:10.1080/10447310802546716 Zavisca, J. (2005). The Status of Cultural Omnivorism: A Case Study of Reading in Russia. Social Forces, 84(2), 1233–1255. doi:10.1353/ sof.2006.0042

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Asynchronous Learning: A web based learning where knowledge sharing is not restricted by time and space. Community of Inquiry: A group of students involved in knowledge creation and sharing. Community of Inquiry is abbreviated as ‘Col’. The concept of social learning is emphasized in Col. Constructivist Learning Theory: The concept highlights the process of learning where learners construct their own knowledge based on their perceived reality. Constructivist learning theory proposes five interactive aspects that can be practiced in online classes: frame of references of the learners, the learning process, learners’ self-created personality or image, levels of communication, and various incidents that take place during the learning process. E-Learning: The medium in which learning takes place via web, where the learners and instructors are physically away from each other. Higher Education: A stage in education after school, usually at the colleges or Universities. Online Discussion: Web based forum where learners engage in communication to share their views. Online discussions are often used in virtual classroom to provide a place for exchange of knowledge and experiences. Online Learners: The students, who receive instructions, feedback and knowledge sharing via web. Online learners are physically away from their instructors and co learners. Nevertheless, ideally online learners constitute a virtual community where they get the opportunity to learn from each other and create positive learning experience. Peer Review: Receiving and providing feedback to the co learners. In learning environment peer review help create learning community where learners learn from each other.

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Synchronous Learning: Learners and instructors can interact with each other in real time. Video conferencing, live chat sessions are example of tools for synchronous learning. Teaching Immediacy: The extent to which the instructor is available to the learners. Providing immediate feedback is one of the important factors in providing teaching immediacy.

Teaching Presence: Teaching presence is denoted through the extent to which learners experience the instructor’s influence in the class. Teaching presence is reflected in designing, facilitating, delivering and evaluating.

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A Study of Trainee Attitude and Satisfaction between E-Learning Training versus Traditional Training Nancy Hairston Youth Bridge, USA Fredrick Muyia Nafukho Texas A&M University, USA

ABSTRACT The purpose of this chapter is to analyze the relationship between change in attitude toward computers and overall course satisfaction of participants. Of the 262 randomly selected participants, 64% completed the study. Data were collected using questionnaires and course satisfaction rating survey. Results of the study indicated that there was a statistically significant difference in overall course satisfaction between the e-learning group (the treatment group) and the traditional group (control group). The traditional group was more satisfied with their course than the treatment group on the general program construct and the overall course satisfaction index. Results of the t-tests indicated that overall the e-learning group liked computers more than the traditional group prior to treatment and remained with this attitude after treatment. The control group had a statistically significant change in attitude toward computers after the treatment to reflect a less favorable attitude toward computers after the treatment.

INTRODUCTION The use of the computer for instructional purposes in education and training in the corporate world has been on the rise since the late 1980s (Ciancarelli, 1998; Nafukho & Park, 2004; Piccoli, Ahmad, & Ives, 2001). This growth is largely

due to the current information age and the rapidly changing business environment (Rendall, 2001). Additionally, with the onset of the information age, society demanded that information flow quickly, efficiently, and accurately, which is why the use of technology is very appealing. Furthermore, as technology improved, electronically delivered

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-8170-5.ch008

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learning, or e-learning, became a popular choice for non-traditional training. E-learning offers more opportunities to the corporate world for training a workforce in attaining and developing skills needed for good jobs that could lead to economic growth (Pantazis, 2002). Furthermore, the rapid growth of electronic commerce and the changes in the way information, computing, and communications are processed places a premium on new business models, customization, and innovation. To boost success in the digital economy, individuals and organizations must be willing to learn, change and adapt new technologies to remain flexible, to acquire new knowledge, and to manage knowledge linking learning, people, and organizational performance in better and stronger ways (Pantazis, 2002). Today’s workplace is changing, and new learning solutions are being defined. Work-related tasks are becoming more specialized, and workers are expected to keep up the pace in a rapidly changing work environment (Zahner, 2002). Training in the workplace is being replaced by what the business industry refers to as learning solutions, which means the approach to training is decided by considering a number of factors, such as costs, time, content, and access to resources. The concept of knowledge management emphasizes the importance of people, as well as the technology employed for creating, collecting, and disseminating information to solve business problems (Zahner, 2002). Technology is an important vehicle for faster information access. It allows people to keep up with changes in a global economy by eliminating the barriers of time and distance. With the emergence of e-learning, workers are enabled to access huge quantities of information and knowledge (Close, Humphreys, & Ruttenbur, 2000). The new learning strategy is based upon a learner-centered design aimed at using technology to engage learners (Kahu, 2013). In order to understand what makes good online learning, one must understand what makes good learning offline (The National Learning Infrastructure Initiative

[NLII], 2003). Empirical evidence shows that the teaching and learning process is a complex interaction among learners and the environment (Cranton, 1989), hence the need to understand the learner needs, expectations, perception and satisfaction with the training offered.

STATEMENT OF PROBLEM AND PURPOSE OF THE STUDY It has been noted in the past that limited empirical research examining the satisfaction of e-learning courses among adult learners or their attitudes toward computer technology (NCREL Policy Issues, 2002; Piccoli, Ahmad, & Ives, 2001). Negative attitudes toward computers and with instructional innovation in education and training may compromise satisfaction with e-learning and become a huge barrier to the successful implementation of e-learning initiatives (Irvin, 2003). The primary purpose of this study was to determine the relationship of trainee attitude toward computers and their overall course satisfaction.

Research Questions The following questions guided the study: (a). Are there differences in the end-of-course satisfaction rating between participants enrolled in the e-learning supervisory course and those enrolled in the traditional supervisory course, and if there is a difference, is the e-learning group more satisfied?, and (b). Is there a statistically significant difference in the change of attitude toward computers between participants enrolled in the e-learning supervisory course and those enrolled in the traditional supervisory course?

Theoretical Framework The theoretical foundation for this study is based upon Everett Rogers’ diffusion of innovation research. Rogers (1995) defined innovation as “an

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idea, practice, or object that is perceived as new by an individual or other unit of adoption” (p.11). Rogers (1995) described diffusion as the process by which “an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among the members of a social system” (p. 5). The process to which Rogers’ (1995) refers is a special type of communication that pertains to a new idea, and the diffusion process is inherently uncertain due to the newness of the idea. Rogers (1995) did not make any distinction between spontaneous and planned diffusion. According to Rogers’ (1995) definition of diffusion, the following four elements exist in the diffusion of innovation process: (a) Innovation-an idea, practice, or object that is viewed as new by people, in the case of this study e-learning, (b) Communication channels--the strategies by which innovations move from person to person or group to group, (c) Time--the non-spatial interval through which the diffusion events occur: (i) the innovation-decision process, (ii) the time it takes for an individual or group to adopt the innovation, and (iii) the rate of adoption in a system, and (d) Social System--a set of interrelated entities that interact in some type of problem- solving activity to accomplish a goal. The adoption process differs from the diffusion process. The diffusion process occurs within society as a group process, while the adoption process is more associated with the individual (Rogers, 1995). Thus according to Rogers, the adoption process breaks down into the following five distinct states: (a) Awareness—the individual is introduced to the innovation but lacks complete information about it, (b) Interest—the individual becomes interested in the new idea and seeks more information about it, (c) Evaluation—the individual mentally applies the innovation to his present or anticipated situation and then decides to try it or not, (d) Trial—the individual makes full use of the innovation, and (e) Adoption—the individual decides to continue the use of the innovation. Rogers (1995) stated that innovation may be rejected at any point in the adoption stages and

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defines rejection as a decision to not adopt an innovation. Rejection is not discontinuance, but rather, occurs after adoption of the innovation. Additionally, when discontinuance happens, it is due either to disenchantment because there is dissatisfaction with its performance, or to replacement, which is a decision to reject an innovation in order to adopt a better innovation. Rogers further described these diverse individuals as being grounded in a bell-shaped curve. At one extreme are those that are risk takers who will adopt early on and at the other extreme are those that may never adopt an innovation as described by the following: 1. Innovators: These people are willing to take risks and try something new (2-3% of the population). 2. Early Adopters: These people are usually respected leaders and are essential to successful adoption by the entire group (13-14% of the population). 3. Early Majority: These people are more careful and deliberate in their actions. They are willing to adopt, but not at the risk of exposure in the process (34% of the population). 4. Late Majority: These people are very skeptical of change. Oftentimes peer pressure must be applied to prompt them to action (34% of the population). 5. Laggards: These people resist change, possibly out of fear. They will only comply only through pressure or necessity (16% of the population). We find Rogers’ diffusion theory very relevant to this study, since it involves industry employees using an E-learning training an innovation in the filed of training in industry.

Trainee Satisfaction Technology has the ability to provide the learner with significantly more effective ways of learning

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to increase performance than traditional learning techniques (Block & Dobell, 1999). As Block and Dobell (1999) explained, e-learning can be student-centered in that it allows for multisensory stimulation such as video, audio, animation, and interactivity that can enhance learning. As Bixler (2001) noted different modalities provide learning benefits to the students. Additionally, e-learning allows the student to proceed from concrete experiences toward an understanding of abstract theory (Block & Dobell, 1999). Literature on adult education supported the premise that effective adult learning must include simulations. According to Cranton (1989,) “A great deal of learning, particularly in the effective and psychomotor domains, takes place in situations where the participant is actually involved in performing tasks” (p. 86). E-learning facilitates collaborative learning; learners are able to think more critically, better analyze information, communicate more effectively, work more cooperatively within groups, and make more logical arguments (Block & Dobell,1999). In a study conducted by Shih (1998), student characteristics, their attitudes toward elearning, and how often they accessed different computer functions affected their achievement. Furthermore, Shih (1998) found that motivation and learning strategies were the two most important factors in student achievement for e-learning and recommended that educators provide learners with various learning opportunities to promote student achievement. In a study conducted by Ham (2002) on students’ perceptions of webbased distance learning courses, it was found that students’ attitudes about computers were positively correlated with their attitudes about the Web, and that their attitudes about computers were also positively correlated with overall satisfaction with the web-based course. Dow (2008) established that students reported being satisfied with the class when it was well-organized; the instructor provided clear directions and course expectations. One of the tools available to support student behavior is the course syllabus. Syllabi

can provide class schedule, instructor expectations, interaction and assignment information, as well as the student learning outcomes within the class. Ham (2002) cited that student satisfaction and success is an important element for study in web-based courses and that few empirical studies exist that investigate satisfaction among e-learners in the workforce. While empirical research reveal that not only can online learning environments be as effective as traditional face-to-face classrooms, students also report having satisfaction with online/ hybrid courses and their own degree of learning (Ward, Peters, & Shelley, 2010). Thus, online instruction has been established to be as effective as traditional instruction (Ward et al., 2010).

Learner Attitude and Motivation in the Learning Process Attitudes and motivation have been shown to have an effect on students’ levels of achievement (Eppler & Harju, 1997). Shih (1998) described an attitude as a person’s tendency toward an object as being either favorable or unfavorable that develops as a result of experience and predisposes him to act in a predictable manner. According to Irvin (2003), attitudes held by people are very important and will determine the success or failure, acceptance or rejection of something new. Furthermore, researchers argued that the intent to perform certain behaviors can be predicted from past behavior and attitudes. In a study conducted by Irvin (2003), it was found that computer attitudes (anxiety, confidence, liking, and usefulness) were significant in determining the likelihood of passing an e-learning training module offered in an industry setting. Additionally, it was found that when these four attitudes were combined with individual characteristics of age, education, and computer experience, only liking was found to be statistically significant in predicting successful use of an e-learning training module. According to Miller and King (2003), motivation theories acknowledged both external (material or social re-

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wards) and internal (personal satisfaction) forces. Research has demonstrated a link between achievement, motivation, and students’ self-perceptions and attitudes (Taplin & Jegede, 2001). Previous research has provided some insights about factors that contribute to the success or failure of students, not only in a traditional environment, but also in distance education. These factors included purpose and motivation for learning, self-perceptions and attitudes, along with previous educational experiences (Taplin & Jegede, 2001). According to Lieb (1991) and Zemke (1984), motivation is central to adult learning. Lieb (1991) suggested that just as there are motivations, adult learners also experience barriers to participating in learning. These barriers can include lack of time, money, confidence, interest, opportunities to learn, and scheduling problems. Barriers are partly responsible for disconnect between what traditional higher education provides and what society wants. Additionally, access to lifelong learning will become more critical to employees seeking learning opportunities and employers who are being pressured to provide better access to learning (De Alva, 2002). Educating workers in an efficient and effective way becomes critical for knowledge management in industry and makes the corporate knowledge management market the most promising for e-learning (Wild, Griggs, & Downing, 2002). Eppler and Harju (1997) examined the works of Dweck’s (1986) model of achievement motivation to understand why some students excelled in a difficult academic challenge while others reacted with despair and defeat. According to the Dweck model, these two behavioral patterns reflected different achievement goal orientations. A more positive and optimistic response reflects an orientation toward learning goals, a characterization of the student’s desire to increase his or her competence through the process of mastering new skills (Eppler & Harju, 1997). Additionally, Eppler and Harju stated that a learning goal orientation is accompanied by persistence even when faced

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with obstacles. The student is more likely to try different problem-solving approaches and even enjoys the thought of a challenge. On the other hand, the less optimistic response of a student reflects an orientation toward performance goals rather than learning goals. According to Eppler and Harju, a performance goal orientation is focused on the outcome, not the process. The student is more interested in having a favorable judgment of his or her performance and is more likely to avoid a negative evaluation. This means that the preference in a situation is guided toward the easier tasks that will ensure success. Additionally, the student has low persistence and quite often experience performance anxiety (Eppler & Harju, 1997). Dweck’s model of achievement goal orientation is useful to understand how attitudes relate to behavior and motivation in an achievement situation (Eppler &Harju, 1997). Eppler and Harju compared nontraditional students (older students who had taken more than a year away from school before returning) with traditional students (typical 18-22-year-old students enrolled continuously since graduating from high school). Epper and Harju’s study was as an important and unique study to undertake since Dweck’s model had only been applied toward the traditional student; and, according to adult learning theory, non-traditional students at various ages of development differ in motivation (Knowles, 1985; Lieb, 1991). It was also predicted that the nontraditional students would excel in learning goals rather than in performance goals (Eppler & Harju, 1997).

METHODS Research Design: The research design of this study used a pre-test/post-test control group design and a random sampling technique in six industry settings. The treatment group was instructed using the e-learning method while the control group was taught using the traditional face-to-face teaching

 A Study of Trainee Attitude and Satisfaction between E-Learning Training versus Traditional Training

method. Both groups were taught with the same content and instructor. The researchers explained all instructions and materials in the same manner in each industry setting. The researchers met with both groups of participants at each industry site prior to training. Site and Sample Selection: Six industries (architectural, civil service, education, manufacturing, retail, and trucking) located in the mid- western United States were used in the study with a total population of 262 participants. Male and female, entry-to-mid-level supervisors, within the age range 21- 60, participated in the study. Appropriate written approvals from the industries to participate in the study were obtained. The participants were informed that this study was voluntary and confidential, and that participants in this study could withdraw at any time. A total of 262 participants enrolled in the study with 130 (50%) randomly assigned to the e-learning course and 132 (50%) randomly assigned to the traditional course. Of the 262 participants who completed the pretest surveys, only a total of 168 (64%) participants from the six industries completed the training. Table 1 shows the number of participants from each industry site.

Instrumentation The data for this study were drawn from several instruments. These instruments included: (a). The pre-training questionnaire covering the demographic information. (b). Pre-and post-test Attitudes toward Computers questionnaire [ATC], (c). Pre-and post-test scores from the training modules’ (Coaching and Communication) survey, and (d). An end-of-course satisfaction evaluation rating. The Attitudes toward Computers (ATC) is a modified version of the Teachers’ Attitudes Toward Computers Questionnaire (TAC), developed by Dr. Rhonda Christensen and Dr. Gerald Knezek (Knezek & Christensen, 1997). Permission to use the modified TAC was given by Dr. Rhonda Christensen. The TAC was developed and validated to assess teachers’ attitudes toward computers in Texas, Florida, New York, and California. The TAC was constructed as a 10-part composite instrument that included 284 items covering 32 Likert subscales, and then modified to the 3.2b version using 109 items to gather data on the following seven factors (Knezek & Christensen, 1997):

Table 1. Participants from industry sites (n=262) Industry Retail

Participant’s Selected

%

Total Completed

%

17

6

13

5

Manufacturing

93

36

54

21

Civil Service

81

31

59

23

Architectural

11

4

11

4

Education

13

5

11

4

Trucking

47

18

20

7

Total

262

168

Note. 94 (36%) Participants dropped out due to time constraints, computer problems, work schedules, or individuals left the company.

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 A Study of Trainee Attitude and Satisfaction between E-Learning Training versus Traditional Training

Validity studies of the TAC were conducted at the University of North Texas and are high (Knezek & Christensen, 1997, 1998, 2000). While this questionnaire was originally designed for use with teachers, the researchers’ assumption was that the items could be applicable to other populations in how individuals view technology. This questionnaire was well validated from several attitudinal surveys used in the past on non-teachers to help profile how learners in an industry setting view technology (Knezek & Christensen, 1997). The ATC employed in this study uses a modified version of the 3.2b series to meet the requirements of the study. Only the first two subsets, enthusiasm and anxiety, were used to gather perceptions and attitudes about computer use. A Cronbach Alpha Coefficient on the Likert subscales used in the modified version of the TAC was found to be .96 for enthusiasm and .97 for anxiety (Knezek & Christensen, 1998). The ATC used in this study contained 30 Likerttype questions applying a scale from 1-5, with a score of 1 having a value of strongly disagree and a score of 5 having a value of strongly agree. Fifteen of the questions addressed the subscale of enthusiasm and fifteen questions addressed the subscale of anxiety. Since the questions that addressed anxiety were negatively worded, the scoring had to be reversed to ensure that this alternative position did not skew scores (Knezek & Christensen, 1997). For example, if a respondent circled “1” for item # 7 in the subscale anxiety, it was reversed to a “5” with a new coded variable in the SPSS command application. The questions on the training modules’ Coaching and Communication test surveys were developed and piloted with a large financial institution during the pilot program conducted by the Midwestern educational institution. This test is measuring at the Level 2 according to Kirkpatrick’s (1996) model of evaluation. Questions for the pretest and post-test surveys were randomly drawn from the content test-bank pool of questions for

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the Coaching and Communication modules. Both content experts and academic faculty validated test questions. The pre-test Communication and Coaching survey included seven randomly drawn multiple choice questions and thirteen true/false questions selected from the content test-bank pool of questions addressing specific information from these training modules. The post-test Communication and Coaching survey included four randomly drawn multiple choice questions and eleven true/ false questions selected from the content test-bank pool of questions addressing specific information from these training modules. The authors of this chapter designed the end-of-course Communication and Coaching evaluation used in this study to measure satisfaction after similar evaluations used in other standard supervisory training programs. This evaluation is measured at Kirkpatrick’s Level 1 Evaluation-- Reactions. Evaluations at this level only measure whether the participants liked the training program and perceived it to be relevant (Kirkpatrick, 1996). This type of evaluation is often called a smile sheet and is common to use with industry-wide training programs. According to Kirkpatrick (1996), every program should at least be evaluated at this level to improve a training program because the participants’ reactions have important consequences for learning at the level two stage (measure of what was learned). Furthermore, while a positive reaction does not guarantee learning, a negative reaction almost certainly reduces its possibility. Eighteen statements representing satisfaction with the course organization, delivery, length, difficulty, format, and appropriateness were ranked using a Likerttype scale. The scale had these response options: 1= Strongly Agree. 2= Disagree. 3= Somewhat Agree. 4= Neutral. 5= Somewhat Agree. 6= Agree, and 7= Strongly Agree. For the 18 Likert questions on satisfaction, a Cronbach Alpha Coefficient of .950 was obtained.

 A Study of Trainee Attitude and Satisfaction between E-Learning Training versus Traditional Training

Reliability of Instruments

Data Analysis

The reliability of instruments refers to whether the instrument is consistent with what it is measuring. Cronbach Alpha Coefficient is widely used in empirical research to measure consistency with latent constructs, such as satisfaction or attitude, using a Likert scale. Minimum reliability of an instrument is acceptable in a range between .50 and .70; however, the desired standard is at .95 (Ary, Jacobs, & Razavieh, 2002). Table 2 presents the reliability of the instruments and the subscales used in this study.

SPSS statistical package was used to conduct data analysis in this study. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze the demographic data for age, gender, ethnicity, educational level, household income, years in present job and years with present company, number of years in the workforce, salary range, supervisory experience, experience with online learning, and learning style. Descriptive statistics included frequencies, means, and standard error. To test for significance differences among the means between the groups, t-tests were used. A simple frequency distribution was performed to determine the dominant learning style of participants by industry and by course method.

Dependent and Independent Variables There were two dependent variables for the study: end-of-course satisfaction rating, and change in attitude toward computers. Differences in the change in attitude toward computers among those taking an e-learning supervisory course and those taking the traditional supervisory course was measured by the pre- and post-test Attitudes toward Computers questionnaire. Because satisfaction is a multi-dimensional concept that is shaped by attitudes and perceptions about the instructor, the social interaction, course activities, and individual preferences for learning, satisfaction was measured by the end-of-course satisfaction evaluation.

FINDINGS Research question 1 sought to determine the differences in the end-of-course satisfaction rating between participants enrolled in an e-learning supervisory course and those enrolled in a traditional supervisory course. An end-of course evaluation survey administered during the posttest time period was used to address this question. The t-test for independent incomes was used to determine if differences existed in the 18 Likert statements divided up into three constructs used to measure

Table 2. Reliability of the instruments and subscales Instrument/Variable

Number of Cases Reported

Number of Items

Alpha Coefficient

Attitude toward Computers (ATC)-PRE-Q

136

30

.96

Attitude Toward Computers (ATC)-POST-Q

149

30

.96

Communication and Coaching Evaluation Questionnaire

144

18

.95

Anxiety subscale of ATC-PRE-Q

156

15

.94

Anxiety subscale of ATC-POST-Q

151

15

.96

Enthusiasm subscale of ATC-PRE-Q

152

15

.92

Enthusiasm subscale of ATC-POST-Q

49

15

.94

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 A Study of Trainee Attitude and Satisfaction between E-Learning Training versus Traditional Training

satisfaction with the course. The satisfaction constructs were: (a) satisfaction with the method of instruction, (b) satisfaction with the content, and (c) general satisfaction with the program. Participants were asked to rate each question that best reflected his or her agreement with the statements. The scale was strongly Disagree “1”; Disagree “2”; Somewhat Agree “3”; Neutral “4”; Somewhat Agree “5”; Agree “6”; and Strongly Agree “7”. Alpha was set at .05. Summary statistics of mean satisfaction constructs are presented in Table 3. Results of the t-test indicated statistically significant differences at the .05 level between the e-learning and the traditional group on the general satisfaction construct and the overall satisfaction. The data indicate that the Traditional group (M=5.01) was more generally satisfied with the program than the E-learning group (M=4.60) at the p