Handbook of Research on Disruptive Innovation and Digital Transformation in Asia [1 ed.] 1799864774, 9781799864776

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Handbook of Research on Disruptive Innovation and Digital Transformation in Asia Patricia Ordóñez de Pablos The University of Oviedo, Spain Xi Zhang Tianjin University, China Mohammad Nabil Almunawar School of Business and Economics, University of Brunei Darussalam, Brunei

A volume in the Advances in Business Strategy and Competitive Advantage (ABSCA) Book Series

Published in the United States of America by IGI Global Business Science Reference (an imprint of IGI Global) 701 E. Chocolate Avenue Hershey PA, USA 17033 Tel: 717-533-8845 Fax: 717-533-8661 E-mail: [email protected] Web site: http://www.igi-global.com Copyright © 2021 by IGI Global. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without written permission from the publisher. Product or company names used in this set are for identification purposes only. Inclusion of the names of the products or companies does not indicate a claim of ownership by IGI Global of the trademark or registered trademark. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Ordóñez de Pablos, Patricia, 1975- editor. | Zhang, Xi (Researcher in business management), 1982- editor. | Almunawar, Mohammad Nabil, 1960- editor. Title: Handbook of research on disruptive innovation and digital transformation in Asia / Patricia Ordonez de Pablos, Xi Zhang, and Mohammad Nabil Almunawar, editor. Description: Hershey, PA : Business Science Reference, [2021] | Includes bibliographical references and index. | Summary: “The edited book will offer conceptual frameworks, empirical studies and case studies that will help to understand business opportunities in Central Asia, South East Asia and East Asia, with a special focus on ASEAN region”-Provided by publisher. Identifiers: LCCN 2020035663 (print) | LCCN 2020035664 (ebook) | ISBN 9781799864776 (hardcover) | ISBN 9781799864783 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Technological innovations--Economic aspects--Asia. | Disruptive technologies--Asia. Classification: LCC HC415.T4 H346 2021 (print) | LCC HC415.T4 (ebook) | DDC 338/.064095--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020035663 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020035664 This book is published in the IGI Global book series Advances in Business Strategy and Competitive Advantage (ABSCA) (ISSN: 2327-3429; eISSN: 2327-3437)

British Cataloguing in Publication Data A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library. All work contributed to this book is new, previously-unpublished material. The views expressed in this book are those of the authors, but not necessarily of the publisher. For electronic access to this publication, please contact: [email protected].

Advances in Business Strategy and Competitive Advantage (ABSCA) Book Series Patricia Ordóñez de Pablos Universidad de Oviedo, Spain

ISSN:2327-3429 EISSN:2327-3437 Mission

Business entities are constantly seeking new ways through which to gain advantage over their competitors and strengthen their position within the business environment. With competition at an all-time high due to technological advancements allowing for competition on a global scale, firms continue to seek new ways through which to improve and strengthen their business processes, procedures, and profitability. The Advances in Business Strategy and Competitive Advantage (ABSCA) Book Series is a timely series responding to the high demand for state-of-the-art research on how business strategies are created, implemented and re-designed to meet the demands of globalized competitive markets. With a focus on local and global challenges, business opportunities and the needs of society, the ABSCA encourages scientific discourse on doing business and managing information technologies for the creation of sustainable competitive advantage.

Coverage • International Business Strategy • Foreign Investment Decision Process • Co-operative Strategies • Tacit Knowledge • Business Models • Globalization • Strategic Management • Cost Leadership Strategy • Balanced Scorecard • Entrepreneurship & Innovation

IGI Global is currently accepting manuscripts for publication within this series. To submit a proposal for a volume in this series, please contact our Acquisition Editors at [email protected] or visit: http://www.igi-global.com/publish/.

The Advances in Business Strategy and Competitive Advantage (ABSCA) Book Series (ISSN 2327-3429) is published by IGI Global, 701 E. Chocolate Avenue, Hershey, PA 17033-1240, USA, www.igi-global.com. This series is composed of titles available for purchase individually; each title is edited to be contextually exclusive from any other title within the series. For pricing and ordering information please visit http://www.igi-global.com/book-series/advances-business-strategy-competitive-advantage/73672. Postmaster: Send all address changes to above address. Copyright © 2021 IGI Global. All rights, including translation in other languages reserved by the publisher. No part of this series may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means – graphics, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, or information and retrieval systems – without written permission from the publisher, except for non commercial, educational use, including classroom teaching purposes. The views expressed in this series are those of the authors, but not necessarily of IGI Global.

Titles in this Series

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Competitive Drivers for Improving Future Business Performance Carlos Martins (Lusíada University of Porto, Portugal) and Paula Rodrigues (Lusíada University of Porto, Portugal) Business Science Reference • © 2021 • 267pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799818434) • US $225.00 Entrepreneurial Innovation for Securing Long-Term Growth in a Short-Term Economy Jorge Gamez-Gutierrez (Universidad de la Costa, Colombia) and Jose Manuel Saiz-Alvarez (Universidad Católica de Santiago de Guayaquil, Ecuador & Universidad Autónoma de Manizales, Colombia & CEIEF-Universidad de Santiago de Chile, Chile) Business Science Reference • © 2021 • 256pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799835684) • US $215.00 Global Perspectives on Military Entrepreneurship and Innovation Sanya Ojo (Nigerian Defence Academy, Nigeria) Business Science Reference • © 2021 • 357pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799866558) • US $195.00 Handbook of Research on Sustaining SMEs and Entrepreneurial Innovation in the Post-COVID-19 Era Neeta Baporikar (Namibia University of Science and Technology, Namibia & University of Pune, India) Business Science Reference • © 2021 • 676pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799866329) • US $325.00 Revolutionizing Institutional Theory Through Stakeholder Capitalism Neslihan Aydogan-Duda (UC Berkeley Extension, USA) Business Science Reference • © 2021 • 300pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799844921) • US $235.00 Creating Social Value Through Social Entrepreneurship Mine Afacan Fındıklı (Beykent University, Turkey) and Duygu Acar Erdur (Beykent University, Turkey) Business Science Reference • © 2021 • 369pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799847274) • US $195.00 Handbook of Research on International Business and Models for Global Purpose-Driven Companies Rafael Ignacio Perez-Uribe (EAN University, Colombia) Carlos Largacha-Martinez (Fundación Universitaria del Área Andina, Colombia) and David Ocampo-Guzman (EAN University, Colombia) Business Science Reference • © 2021 • 589pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799849094) • US $345.00 Cases on Internationalization Challenges for SMEs António Carrizo Moreira (University of Aveiro, Portugal) Business Science Reference • © 2021 • 333pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799843870) • US $185.00

701 East Chocolate Avenue, Hershey, PA 17033, USA Tel: 717-533-8845 x100 • Fax: 717-533-8661 E-Mail: [email protected] • www.igi-global.com

Editorial Advisory Board Alif Azizi Abdullah, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Zainal Abidin, IAIN Madura – State Islamic Institute of Madura, Indonesia Revon Awalia Wahyu Agata, University of Muhammadiyah Malang, Indonesia Abdullah A. Alabdulatif, Computer Department, College of Science and Arts in Al-Rass, Qassim University, Saudi Arabia Mohammad Nabil Almunawar, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Yudo Anggoro, School of Business and Management, Institut Teknologi Bandung, Indonesia Rizaldy Anggriawan, Financial and Economic Law, Asia University, Indonesia Mohammad Anshari, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Yandra Arkeman, Department of Agroindustrial Technology, IPB University, Indonesia Vibha Bhandari, Business Administration, College of Applied Sciences Nizwa, University of Technology and Applied Sciences, Oman Som Sekhar Bhattacharyya, National Institute of Industrial Engineering, India Sevenpri Candra, Bina Nusantara University (BINUS), Indonesia Rohit Choudhary, National Institute of Industrial Engineering, India Omkar Dastane, FTMS Global Malaysia, Malaysia Manlio Del Giudice, Department of Research, Link Campus University, Italy Lita Citra Dewi, Universitas Negeri Semarang, Indonesia Amri Dunan, Ministry of Communication and Information Technology, Indonesia Ika Yunia Fauzia, College of Economics (STIE) Perbanas Surabaya, Indonesia José Emilio Labra Gayo, The University of Oviedo, Spain Simin Ghavifekr, Faculty of Education, University of Malaya, Malaysia Chai Lee Goi, Curtin University, Malaysia Yordan Gunawan, Universitas Muhammadiyah Yogyakarta, Indonesia Liesbetini Haditjaroko, Department of Agroindustrial Technology, IPB University, Indonesia Hafizah Hamidi, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Azmil Hashim, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Malaysia Manzoor Ahmed Hashmani, Computer and Information Sciences, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Malaysia Miftachul Huda, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris Malaysia, Malaysia Mohd Hairy Ibrahim, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Malaysia 



Fransisca Rahcmawati Indira, Universitas Negeri Semarang, Indonesia Andes Ismayana, Department of Agroindustrial Technology, IPB University, Indonesia Aisha Zahid Junejo, Computer and Information Sciences, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Malaysia Syamimi Haji Mohd Ariff Lim, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Domitilla Magni, Department of Business Studies, RomaTre, Italy Restu Mahesa, School of Business and Management, Institut Teknologi Bandung, Indonesia Ilyas Masudin, University of Muhammadiyah Malang, Indonesia Ahmad Kilani Mohamed, Social Sciences and Humanities, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia Bambang Mudjiyanto, Ministry of Communication and Information Technology, Indonesia Khairunnisa Musari, Universitas Islam Negeri KH Achmad Siddiq (UIN KHAS), Jember, Indonesia Muhammad Dharma Tuah Putra Nasution, Faculty of Social Sciences, Universitas Pembangunan Panca Budi, Indonesia Desi Novianti, Universitas Indraprasta PGRI, Indonesia Cut Kesuma Pahlufi, Universitas Udayana, Indonesia Bình Nghiêm-Phú, University of Hyogo, Japan Mohd Aderi Che Noh, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Malaysia Armando Papa, Faculty of Economics and Management, Universitas Mercatorum, Italy Rossana Piccolo, Department of Economics, University of Campania-Luigi Vanvitelli, Italy Rizky Purnama Putri Hadi Prawita, University of Muhammadiyah Malang, Indonesia Piyush Punewar, National Institute of Industrial Engineering, India Ahmad Rafiki, Faculty of Economics and Business, Universitas Medan Area, Indonesia Fentya Dyah Rahmawati, Universitas Negeri Semarang, Indonesia Dian Palupi Restuputri, University of Muhammadiyah Malang, Indonesia Arieff Salleh Rosman, Center of Research for Fiqh Science and Technology, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia Yossie Rossanty, Faculty of Social Sciences, Universitas Pembangunan Panca Budi, Indonesia Muhamad Rusliyadi, Polytechnic of Agricultural Development Yogyakarta Magelang, Indonesia Nika Tampi Safitri, University of Muhammadiyah Malang, Indonesia Amjad Omar Safori, Zarqa University, Jordan Nur Farhana Nabillah Saifulbahri, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Wijang Sakitri, Universitas Negeri Semarang, Indonesia Veronica Scuotto, Department of Management, University of Turin, Italy Ahmad Budi Setiawan, Ministry of Communication and Information Technology, Indonesia Tulus Tambunan, Center for Industry, SME, and Business Competition Studies, Indonesia Peggie J. P. Tan, Anglia Ruskin University, Malaysia Tusyanah Tusyanah, Universitas Negeri Semarang, Indonesia Khotibul Umam, IAIN Madura – State Islamic Institute of Madura, Indonesia Erika DeJong Watanabe, National Institute Technology – Fukushima College, Japan Kristoforus Hyronimus Andreaw Wirakusuma, Bina Nusantara University, Indonesia Abubakar Mukhtar Yakasai, Univeristi Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Gatot Yudoko, School of Business and Management, Institut Teknologi Bandung, Indonesia Zaroni Zaroni, Faculty of Business, Multimedia Nusantara University, Indonesia & PT Pos Logistik Indonesia, Indonesia

List of Contributors

Abdullah, Alif Azizi / Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei........................................................... 104 Abidin, Zainal / State Islamic Institute of Madura, Indonesia.......................................................... 511 Agata, Revon Awalia Wahyu / University of Muhammadiyah Malang, Indonesia........................... 234 Alabdulatif, Abdullah A. / College of Science and Arts, Qassim University, Saudi Arabia............. 462 Almunawar, Mohammad Nabil / Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei........................ 104, 319, 364 Anggoro, Yudo / School of Business and Management, Institut Teknologi Bandung, Indonesia...... 388 Anggriawan, Rizaldy / Asia University, Taiwan................................................................................... 1 Anshari, Mohammad / Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei....................................................... 319 Anshari, Muhammad / Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei....................................................... 104 Ariff, Syamimi / University Brunei Darussalam, Brunei.................................................................. 439 Arkeman, Yandra / IPB University, Indonesia................................................................................. 364 Bhandari, Vibha / College of Applied Sciences, University of Technology and Applied Sciences, Nizwa, Oman................................................................................................................................... 71 Bhattacharyya, Som Sekhar / National Institute of Industrial Engineering, India.......................... 301 Candra, Sevenpri / Management Department, BINUS Business School, Bina Nusantara University, Jakarta, Indonesia...................................................................................................... 165 Che Noh, Mohd Aderi / Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Malaysia............................................. 542 Choudhary, Rohit / National Institute of Industrial Engineering, India.......................................... 301 Dastane, Omkar / FTMS College, Malaysia..................................................................................... 187 Del Giudice, Manlio / Department of Research, Link Campus University, Rome, Italy..................... 50 Dewi, Lita Citra / Universitas Negeri Semarang, Indonesia................................................................ 17 Dunan, Amri / Ministry of Communication and Information Technology, Indonesia...................... 214 Ghavifekr, Simin / Faculty of Education, University of Malaya, Malaysia...................................... 270 Goi, Chai Lee / Curtin University, Malaysia...................................................................................... 523 Gunawan, Yordan / Universitas Muhammadiyah Yogyakarta, Indonesia............................................ 1 Haditjaroko, Liesbetini / Bogor Agricultural University, Indonesia................................................ 364 Hamidi, Hafizah / University Brunei Darussalam, Brunei............................................................... 439 Hashim, Azmil / Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Malaysia........................................................ 542 Hashmani, Manzoor Ahmed / Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Malaysia.................................... 462 Huda, Miftachul / Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Malaysia..................................................... 542 Ibrahim, Mohd Hairy / Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Malaysia............................................. 542 Indira, Fransisca Rahcmawati / Universitas Negeri Semarang, Indonesia........................................ 17 Ismayana, Andes / Bogor Agricultural University, Indonesia........................................................... 364 Junejo, Aisha Zahid / Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Malaysia.................................................. 462 Libin, Wang / College of Humanities and Development, China Agricultural University, China...... 255 



Lim, Syamimi Haji Mohd Ariff / School of Business and Economics, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei...................................................................................................................... 125 Magni, Domitilla / Department of Business Studies, RomaTre University, Rome, Italy..................... 50 Mahesa, Restu / School of Business and Management, Institut Teknologi Bandung, Indonesia...... 388 Masudin, Ilyas / University of Muhammadiyah Malang, Indonesia................................................. 234 Mohamed, Ahmad Kilani / Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia.............................................. 542 Mudjiyanto, Bambang / Ministry of Communication and Information Technology, Indonesia...... 214 Musari, Khairunnisa / KH Ahmad Shiddiq State Islamic University (UIN), Indonesia & State Institute for Islamic Studies (IAIN) of Jember, Indonesia......................................................... 37, 83 Nasution, Muhammad Dharma Tuah Putra / Universitas Pembangunan Panca Budi, Indonesia. 342, 418 Nghiêm-Phú, Bình / University of Hyogo, Japan.............................................................................. 491 Novianti, Desi - / Universitas Indraprasta PGRI, Indonesia.............................................................. 364 Pahlufi, Cut Kesuma / Universitas Udayana, Indonesia................................................................... 342 Papa, Armando / Faculty of Communication Science, Universitas Mercatorum, Teramo, Italy........ 50 Pei, Tan Jing / Anglia Ruskin University, Malaysia........................................................................... 187 Piccolo, Rossana / Department of Economics, University of Campania-Luigi Vanvitelli, Capua, Italy.................................................................................................................................................. 50 Prawita, Rizky Purnama Putri Hadi / University of Muhammadiyah Malang, Indonesia.............. 234 Punewar, Piyush / National Institute of Industrial Engineering, India............................................. 301 Rafiki, Ahmad / Universitas Medan Area, Indonesia............................................................... 342, 418 Rahmawati, Fentya Dyah / Universitas Negeri Semarang, Indonesia................................................ 17 Restuputri, Dian Palupi / University of Muhammadiyah Malang, Indonesia................................... 234 Rofiq, Abdullah / Islamic College of Attanwir, Indonesia................................................................ 542 Rosman, Arieff Salleh / Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia.................................................... 542 Rossanty, Yossie / Universitas Pembangunan Panca Budi, Indonesia.............................................. 418 Rusliyadi, Muhamad / Polytechnic of Agricultural Development Yogyakarta Magelang, Indonesia....................................................................................................................................... 255 Safitri, Nika Tampi / University of Muhammadiyah Malang, Indonesia........................................... 234 Safori, Amjad Omar / Zarqa University, Jordan............................................................................... 542 Saifulbahri, Nur Farhana Nabillah / Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei.................................. 125 Sakitri, Wijang / Universitas Negeri Semarang, Indonesia................................................................ 17 Scuotto, Veronica / Department of Management, University of Turin, Turin, Italy............................ 50 Setiawan, Ahmad Budi / Ministry of Communication and Infromation Technology, Indonesia....... 214 Tambunan, Tulus / Center for Industry, SME, and Business Competition Studies, Indonesia......... 144 Tusyanah, Tusyanah / Universitas Negeri Semarang, Indonesia........................................................ 17 Umam, Khotibul / State Islamic Institute of Madura, Indonesia...................................................... 511 Watanabe, Erika DeJong / Fukushima College, National Institute Technology, Japan................... 491 Wirakusuma, Kristoforus Hyronimus Andreaw / Management Department, BINUS Business School, Bina Nusantara University, Jakarta, Indonesia............................................................... 165 Yakasai, Abubakar Mukhtar / Univeristi Brunei Darussalam, Brunei........................................... 319 Yudoko, Gatot / School of Business and Management, Institut Teknologi Bandung, Indonesia....... 388 Yunia Fauzia, Ika / STIE Perbanas Surabaya, Indonesia................................................................... 37 Zaroni, Zaroni / Multimedia Nusantara University, Indonesia & PT Pos Logistik Indonesia, Jakarta, Indonesia........................................................................................................................... 83

Table of Contents

Preface................................................................................................................................................. xxv Chapter 1 E-Court: The Future of Commercial Dispute and the Quality of Judicial Processes in Indonesia.......... 1 Yordan Gunawan, Universitas Muhammadiyah Yogyakarta, Indonesia Rizaldy Anggriawan, Asia University, Taiwan Chapter 2 What Makes SMEs Entrepreneurs in Central Java Adopt E-Commerce? A Factor Analysis on TAM, TPB, and TOE Frameworks........................................................................................................ 17 Tusyanah Tusyanah, Universitas Negeri Semarang, Indonesia Wijang Sakitri, Universitas Negeri Semarang, Indonesia Fentya Dyah Rahmawati, Universitas Negeri Semarang, Indonesia Lita Citra Dewi, Universitas Negeri Semarang, Indonesia Fransisca Rahcmawati Indira, Universitas Negeri Semarang, Indonesia Chapter 3 Waqf Crowdfunding for Financing the MSMEs: Evidence From ASEAN-3........................................ 37 Ika Yunia Fauzia, STIE Perbanas Surabaya, Indonesia Khairunnisa Musari, KH Ahmad Shiddiq State Islamic University (UIN), Indonesia & State Institute for Islamic Studies (IAIN) of Jember, Indonesia Chapter 4 Immersive Technologies and Smart Cities in ASEAN: Discovering the Future Innovation Challenges.............................................................................................................................................. 50 Domitilla Magni, Department of Business Studies, RomaTre University, Rome, Italy Rossana Piccolo, Department of Economics, University of Campania-Luigi Vanvitelli, Capua, Italy Veronica Scuotto, Department of Management, University of Turin, Turin, Italy Armando Papa, Faculty of Communication Science, Universitas Mercatorum, Teramo, Italy Manlio Del Giudice, Department of Research, Link Campus University, Rome, Italy





Chapter 5 Banking and Financial Services Industry in the Wake of Industrial Revolution 4.0: Challenges Ahead..................................................................................................................................................... 71 Vibha Bhandari, College of Applied Sciences, University of Technology and Applied Sciences, Nizwa, Oman Chapter 6 Reverse Logistics in the Age of Digital Transformation for Circular Economy and Halal Logistics Through the Leadership of Asia............................................................................................................ 83 Khairunnisa Musari, KH Ahmad Shiddiq State Islamic University (UIN), Indonesia & State Institute for Islamic Studies (IAIN) of Jember, Indonesia Zaroni Zaroni, Multimedia Nusantara University, Indonesia & PT Pos Logistik Indonesia, Jakarta, Indonesia Chapter 7 Impacts of Coronavirus (COVID-19) on Digital Marketplace in Brunei Darussalam........................ 104 Alif Azizi Abdullah, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Mohammad Nabil Almunawar, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Muhammad Anshari, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Chapter 8 Approaches to Tackle Smart Cities Challenges in Brunei................................................................... 125 Nur Farhana Nabillah Saifulbahri, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Syamimi Haji Mohd Ariff Lim, School of Business and Economics, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Chapter 9 Development of Financial Technology With Reference to Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Lending in Indonesia.144 Tulus Tambunan, Center for Industry, SME, and Business Competition Studies, Indonesia Chapter 10 What Are the Driving Factors of Purchase Intention of Mutual Funds Through Digital Wallet Platform in Indonesia?......................................................................................................................... 165 Sevenpri Candra, Management Department, BINUS Business School, Bina Nusantara University, Jakarta, Indonesia Kristoforus Hyronimus Andreaw Wirakusuma, Management Department, BINUS Business School, Bina Nusantara University, Jakarta, Indonesia Chapter 11 Digital Technology in Retail: Impact on Shopper Satisfaction............................................................ 187 Tan Jing Pei, Anglia Ruskin University, Malaysia Omkar Dastane, FTMS College, Malaysia



Chapter 12 Transformation and Development of Agriculture Sector in Industrial Revolution 4.0 Era in Indonesia.............................................................................................................................................. 214 Ahmad Budi Setiawan, Ministry of Communication and Infromation Technology, Indonesia Amri Dunan, Ministry of Communication and Information Technology, Indonesia Bambang Mudjiyanto, Ministry of Communication and Information Technology, Indonesia Chapter 13 Indonesian Higher Education Student Perception on Procurement Manager Skills and Competencies....................................................................................................................................... 234 Ilyas Masudin, University of Muhammadiyah Malang, Indonesia Nika Tampi Safitri, University of Muhammadiyah Malang, Indonesia Revon Awalia Wahyu Agata, University of Muhammadiyah Malang, Indonesia Rizky Purnama Putri Hadi Prawita, University of Muhammadiyah Malang, Indonesia Dian Palupi Restuputri, University of Muhammadiyah Malang, Indonesia Chapter 14 An Overview of Agriculture Development Programs for Poverty Reduction in Rural Areas: Evidence From Indonesia and China................................................................................................... 255 Muhamad Rusliyadi, Polytechnic of Agricultural Development Yogyakarta Magelang, Indonesia Wang Libin, College of Humanities and Development, China Agricultural University, China Chapter 15 Issues and Challenges in Managing the Process of Technological Change in Universities: A Malaysian Scenario.............................................................................................................................. 270 Simin Ghavifekr, Faculty of Education, University of Malaya, Malaysia Chapter 16 Study of Indian Customer Mobile Banking Adoption......................................................................... 301 Som Sekhar Bhattacharyya, National Institute of Industrial Engineering, India Rohit Choudhary, National Institute of Industrial Engineering, India Piyush Punewar, National Institute of Industrial Engineering, India Chapter 17 Integrated Model of Actual Online Shopping Use Behaviour: A Proposed Framework..................... 319 Abubakar Mukhtar Yakasai, Univeristi Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Mohammad Nabil Almunawar, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Mohammad Anshari, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei



Chapter 18 Development of Family Business Innovation: A Case in Indonesia.................................................... 342 Muhammad Dharma Tuah Putra Nasution, Universitas Pembangunan Panca Budi, Indonesia Ahmad Rafiki, Universitas Medan Area, Indonesia Cut Kesuma Pahlufi, Universitas Udayana, Indonesia Chapter 19 The Effect of Blockchain Technology in the Initial Stages of Auditor Investigation in the Halal Supply Chain........................................................................................................................................ 364 Desi - Novianti, Universitas Indraprasta PGRI, Indonesia Yandra Arkeman, IPB University, Indonesia Mohammad Nabil Almunawar, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Liesbetini Haditjaroko, Bogor Agricultural University, Indonesia Andes Ismayana, Bogor Agricultural University, Indonesia Chapter 20 Platform Ecosystems for Smart Cities in Indonesia: Theory Building and Testing............................ 388 Restu Mahesa, School of Business and Management, Institut Teknologi Bandung, Indonesia Gatot Yudoko, School of Business and Management, Institut Teknologi Bandung, Indonesia Yudo Anggoro, School of Business and Management, Institut Teknologi Bandung, Indonesia Chapter 21 The Islamic View on Service-Dominant Logic, Service Logic, and Customer-Dominant Logic....... 418 Ahmad Rafiki, Universitas Medan Area, Indonesia Muhammad Dharma Tuah Putra Nasution, Universitas Pembangunan Panca Budi, Indonesia Yossie Rossanty, Universitas Pembangunan Panca Budi, Indonesia Chapter 22 Factors Influencing the Adoption and Use of E-Commerce Amongst Small Enterprises in Brunei... 439 Hafizah Hamidi, University Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Syamimi Ariff, University Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Chapter 23 Blockchain-Based Transparent and Traceable Halal Food Supply Chain Management Systems....... 462 Aisha Zahid Junejo, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Malaysia Manzoor Ahmed Hashmani, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Malaysia Abdullah A. Alabdulatif, College of Science and Arts, Qassim University, Saudi Arabia Chapter 24 A Differentiation of Restaurant Types Based on Customers’ Perceived Attributes: A Study in Tokyo................................................................................................................................................... 491 Bình Nghiêm-Phú, University of Hyogo, Japan Erika DeJong Watanabe, Fukushima College, National Institute Technology, Japan



Chapter 25 The Urgency of Digital Financial Services in Islamic Boarding Schools to Improve Financial Literacy................................................................................................................................................ 511 Zainal Abidin, State Islamic Institute of Madura, Indonesia Khotibul Umam, State Islamic Institute of Madura, Indonesia Chapter 26 Transforming to a Sustainable City Through Technological Change.................................................. 523 Chai Lee Goi, Curtin University, Malaysia Chapter 27 Towards Divine Values’ Strategic Application: Critical Insights Into Management of Change......... 542 Miftachul Huda, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Malaysia Amjad Omar Safori, Zarqa University, Jordan Abdullah Rofiq, Islamic College of Attanwir, Indonesia Azmil Hashim, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Malaysia Mohd Aderi Che Noh, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Malaysia Mohd Hairy Ibrahim, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Malaysia Ahmad Kilani Mohamed, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia Arieff Salleh Rosman, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 567 About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 648 Index.................................................................................................................................................... 657

Detailed Table of Contents

Preface................................................................................................................................................. xxv Chapter 1 E-Court: The Future of Commercial Dispute and the Quality of Judicial Processes in Indonesia.......... 1 Yordan Gunawan, Universitas Muhammadiyah Yogyakarta, Indonesia Rizaldy Anggriawan, Asia University, Taiwan Facing the advanced Industry 4.0, where everything is closely tied to technology and is characterized by digitalization, the Supreme Court of Indonesia has introduced the implementation of e-justice by developing an electronic justice system (e-court) in 2018. The study aims to highlight the current practice of e-court in Indonesia. It also examines the existing implementation and legal provisions regulating the electronic-based court proceedings. The research method used is normative legal research. It analyzes the positive law, principles, doctrines of law, legal discovery in particular cases, legal systematics, legal comparison, and legal history. The study revealed that e-court has provided easier access to the public in order to make the court more accessible, effective, and efficient. Nevertheless, several improvements in particular sectors such as access to justice, case delays, human resource readiness, public internet facility, evidence management, and hearing session procedures need to be highlighted and updated by the court. Chapter 2 What Makes SMEs Entrepreneurs in Central Java Adopt E-Commerce? A Factor Analysis on TAM, TPB, and TOE Frameworks........................................................................................................ 17 Tusyanah Tusyanah, Universitas Negeri Semarang, Indonesia Wijang Sakitri, Universitas Negeri Semarang, Indonesia Fentya Dyah Rahmawati, Universitas Negeri Semarang, Indonesia Lita Citra Dewi, Universitas Negeri Semarang, Indonesia Fransisca Rahcmawati Indira, Universitas Negeri Semarang, Indonesia The adoption of e-commerce by SMEs is inevitable given the changing disruptive era where marketplaces innovation opens opportunities for SMEs to become partners if they want to promote their products through marketplaces. This study uses an integrated framework of TAM, TPB, and TOE on food processing MSMEs in Semarang. There are 10 variables that affect the adoption of e-commerce; the largest to smallest influencing variables are competitive pressure, current situation, social influence, perceived trust, perceived ease for use, perceived usefulness, individual difference factors, trading partner readiness, perceived service quality, and consumer readiness. Competitive pressure is the variable with the biggest effect (26.1%) on the adoption of e-commerce. Furthermore, based on three major factors, technology, organization, and environment, the influencing factors are environment and organization;  



they give an effect of 56.2% on the adoption of e-commerce. Thus, the adoption of mobile-applications (GOJEK, Shopee, Grab, Tokopedia, Bukalapak) is needed to increase sales. Chapter 3 Waqf Crowdfunding for Financing the MSMEs: Evidence From ASEAN-3........................................ 37 Ika Yunia Fauzia, STIE Perbanas Surabaya, Indonesia Khairunnisa Musari, KH Ahmad Shiddiq State Islamic University (UIN), Indonesia & State Institute for Islamic Studies (IAIN) of Jember, Indonesia Waqf financing through crowdfunding becomes an attractive instrument in Islamic social finance today. Crowdfunding offers a solution to the capital problem in developing waqf assets by using the concept of raising funds through social media and internet users. This chapter will describe how waqf crowdfunding also can be a tool for financing the micro small medium enterprises (MSMEs). In the digital era, the impact of waqf on people in need could be greater with crowdfunding, where waqif is not limited by geographical barriers. Waqf crowdfunding becomes a marketplace platform to increase financial inclusion through collaboration between Islamic social finance and technology. There are some platforms of waqf crowdfunding in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) that will be described in this chapter (i.e., Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore). Chapter 4 Immersive Technologies and Smart Cities in ASEAN: Discovering the Future Innovation Challenges.............................................................................................................................................. 50 Domitilla Magni, Department of Business Studies, RomaTre University, Rome, Italy Rossana Piccolo, Department of Economics, University of Campania-Luigi Vanvitelli, Capua, Italy Veronica Scuotto, Department of Management, University of Turin, Turin, Italy Armando Papa, Faculty of Communication Science, Universitas Mercatorum, Teramo, Italy Manlio Del Giudice, Department of Research, Link Campus University, Rome, Italy Immersive technologies can have a huge impact on the social structure of a country, opening new opportunities and new scenarios. Through the exploitation and synergy of peculiar disruptive technologies, we are witnessing a capillary development of smart cities and collaborative platforms to facilitate the citizens’ lives. The Association of South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN) has the highest growth rate for the intelligent exploitation of technologies. This chapter aims to outline the real impact of technology in the social and business environment by redesigning the continuous disruptive technologies and the different changes of perspective in the relationship between the individual and social sphere. The originality of the chapter lies in analyzing the potential of the smart city to implement a sustainable and collaborative urban development plan capable of spreading technological entrepreneurship and digital innovation. Chapter 5 Banking and Financial Services Industry in the Wake of Industrial Revolution 4.0: Challenges Ahead..................................................................................................................................................... 71 Vibha Bhandari, College of Applied Sciences, University of Technology and Applied Sciences, Nizwa, Oman The banking and financial services industry today stands at the crossroads between the traditional methods of business and the evolving modern methods of banking and providing financial services. Technological



advancement in the field of finance has led to a whole new form of doing business which is a radical departure from the conventional methods of doing business. The players in the field of banking and finance are facing challenges and competition from entities which never existed in the traditional sphere. The banking and financial industry is not only facing stiff competition from these new age players; it is also facing challenges to find fresh talent who can tide off this industry. This chapter in its existing form shall present an overview of the banking and financial industry of today in the wake of Industrial Revolution 4.0 and identify some associated challenges. Chapter 6 Reverse Logistics in the Age of Digital Transformation for Circular Economy and Halal Logistics Through the Leadership of Asia............................................................................................................ 83 Khairunnisa Musari, KH Ahmad Shiddiq State Islamic University (UIN), Indonesia & State Institute for Islamic Studies (IAIN) of Jember, Indonesia Zaroni Zaroni, Multimedia Nusantara University, Indonesia & PT Pos Logistik Indonesia, Jakarta, Indonesia Asia is changing rapidly. Realizing the nature of change, Asia can influence the value of change to the world. At the same time, digital technology is transforming the economic and business world. In the logistics industry, not only digitalization, but the circular economy is also disrupting. However, there is great potential for the logistics business to develop efficiency opportunities through reverse logistics. Asia has a chance to spread the value of reverse logistics as one form of a circular economy. Asia has opportunities also to bring the value of reverse logistics into halal industry. This chapter will show empirical studies from several leading companies based in Asia that implementing reverse logistics and halal logistics. All of them reinforces the opportunity of Asia’s leadership to influence the reverse logistics values to the world. Through blockchain, Asia may lead the reverse logistics in the age of digital transformation for circular economy and halal logistics. Chapter 7 Impacts of Coronavirus (COVID-19) on Digital Marketplace in Brunei Darussalam........................ 104 Alif Azizi Abdullah, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Mohammad Nabil Almunawar, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Muhammad Anshari, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei The main purpose of this research is to identify the impact of coronavirus (COVID-19) on the digital marketplace of Brunei. The realization of the potential of digital marketplace have enable it to develop and grow in application among start-ups and businesses in Brunei. COVID-19 has negatively impacted the micro, small, and medium enterprises of Brunei due to social distancing measures and crowd restrictions. Furthermore, the suspension of dine in services across the nation paved the way for food delivery service platforms to thrive during the pandemic. The platforms provide security, safety, and convenience to ensure reliability for consumers during the pandemic. Transitioning towards digital mediums was necessary to provide an intermediary for MSMEs and consumers to stay connected under difficult circumstances. A case study approach was used to get information from digital marketplaces that were thriving during the pandemic. The results indicate the impact towards digital marketplace during the pandemic are positive.



Chapter 8 Approaches to Tackle Smart Cities Challenges in Brunei................................................................... 125 Nur Farhana Nabillah Saifulbahri, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Syamimi Haji Mohd Ariff Lim, School of Business and Economics, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei There has been an increase in attention for the smart city concept in many developed and developing countries due to urban challenges. Hence, there is a need for a country to implement smart city concepts to improve overall aspects of cities and its citizens’ quality of life. However, developing smart cities is enormously complex and could face numerous challenges. The purpose of this study is to observe the current smart cities development in Brunei, the challenges faced, as well as approaches to tackle them. Furthermore, to analyse the qualitative findings, this study has used thematic analysis. From the analysis, the challenges in the development of smart cities initiatives were categorized into four categories: governance, social, economic, and technology. Some of the challenges include lack of citizen’s engagement and also awareness and knowledge of smart city concepts, etc. Appropriate approaches were also developed with reference to the literature, and the suggested approach from the findings includes imposing policies and improving education structure according to current needs. Chapter 9 Development of Financial Technology With Reference to Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Lending in Indonesia.144 Tulus Tambunan, Center for Industry, SME, and Business Competition Studies, Indonesia This study aims to explore the growth of financial technology (fintech) and its impact on the ability of small businesses to access funding in Indonesia with reference to peer-to-peer (P2P) lending. It adopted a case study methodology using a semistructured interview and a series of focus group discussions (FGDs) with 10 owners of small businesses and 30 owners or managers of peer-to-peer (P2P) lending companies. Two important findings were (1) the sampled small businesses benefited from P2P lending and (2) banks are the most important investor in P2P lending companies. However, this study has its limitations. First, the sample was too small to generalize to a broader population. Second, there is no national data on credit to small businesses from P2P lending to support the findings of the case. To the authors’ knowledge, this is the first study on this topic, specifically in Indonesia. It takes stock of the empirical evidence in the literature through the lens of small business owners. Chapter 10 What Are the Driving Factors of Purchase Intention of Mutual Funds Through Digital Wallet Platform in Indonesia?......................................................................................................................... 165 Sevenpri Candra, Management Department, BINUS Business School, Bina Nusantara University, Jakarta, Indonesia Kristoforus Hyronimus Andreaw Wirakusuma, Management Department, BINUS Business School, Bina Nusantara University, Jakarta, Indonesia The stability of economic growth can’t be separated from the role of domestic and foreign parties. Therefore, it requires participation from various parties to meet the sources of funding or investment financing in realizing equitable economic development. One source of funds that can boost development in Indonesia is through investment. Through technology, investment can be more easily to be offer to consumer and that kind of technology is digital wallet. This research was to analyze the drive factors of consumer purchase intention of mutual fund through digital wallet platform in Indonesia. Questionnaires



and sampling with up to 406 respondents was analyzed by using multiple linear regression analysis. This study shows that perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, consumer innovativeness, ethical awareness, performance expectancy, privacy concern are driving factors. Furthermore, there are several points that should be enhanced to make all of driving factors more impact to influence consumer purchase intention. Chapter 11 Digital Technology in Retail: Impact on Shopper Satisfaction............................................................ 187 Tan Jing Pei, Anglia Ruskin University, Malaysia Omkar Dastane, FTMS College, Malaysia Industrial Revolution 4.0 has initiated digital transformation in Asia and resulted in Retail 4.0 forcing shopping malls to upgrade themselves digitally to remain competitive. The purpose of this research is to investigate the impact of upgrading shopping malls with digital retail technology (digital up-gradation) on shoppers’ satisfaction mediated by operational performance. This study adopted explanatory, quantitative research by collecting empirical data from 212 shoppers at a famous shopping mall in the city of Kuala Lumpur using convenience sampling. The normality and reliability assessment was carried out followed by confirmatory factory analysis, validity assessment, and structural equation modelling. Findings reveal that digital up-gradation has a direct impact on shopper satisfaction, and operational performance has full mediation effect between them. The chapter then discusses implications, limitations, and future research avenues in this context. Chapter 12 Transformation and Development of Agriculture Sector in Industrial Revolution 4.0 Era in Indonesia.............................................................................................................................................. 214 Ahmad Budi Setiawan, Ministry of Communication and Infromation Technology, Indonesia Amri Dunan, Ministry of Communication and Information Technology, Indonesia Bambang Mudjiyanto, Ministry of Communication and Information Technology, Indonesia Indonesia is now entering the era of the digital economy. In the agricultural sector, the concept of Agricultural 4.0 was introduced as a form of digitization. The scope of agriculture in this chapter refers to the value chain of agricultural sector in utilizing information and communication technology for interaction between all stakeholders in the agricultural sector, where every activity is recorded so that they can make predictions, dosing, and tracing, with an automatic control system, and done remotely. Applying this technology will optimize results, both in quality and quantity as well as the efficiency of existing resources. The research on the transformation of the agricultural sector in the era of industrial Revolution 4.0 aims to study the digitalization strategy of the agricultural sector in the era of Technology 4.0. This research was carried out using a qualitative approach by conducting literature studies, in-depth interviews, and focus group discussions. This chapter recommends the development of micro farming financing to increase the scale of digital agriculture’s economy.



Chapter 13 Indonesian Higher Education Student Perception on Procurement Manager Skills and Competencies....................................................................................................................................... 234 Ilyas Masudin, University of Muhammadiyah Malang, Indonesia Nika Tampi Safitri, University of Muhammadiyah Malang, Indonesia Revon Awalia Wahyu Agata, University of Muhammadiyah Malang, Indonesia Rizky Purnama Putri Hadi Prawita, University of Muhammadiyah Malang, Indonesia Dian Palupi Restuputri, University of Muhammadiyah Malang, Indonesia This chapter discusses the differences in the perceptions of industrial engineering students at Indonesian higher degree institution about the skills and competencies required for procurement managers. This study uses descriptive statistical analytical with the number of 100 respondents. There are 3 dimensions of skills and competencies investigated in this study such as the dimension of resources managerial skills and competencies, self-competencies and skills, and the company’s internal and external managerial skills and competencies. The expected result of this chapter is to indicate tha the most important skill that required based on the student’s perception for procurement managers.The dimensions such as leadership, analytical skill, internal and external managerial skills, and decision-making skill are tested to figure out the most prioritized skills of being procurement managers. Chapter 14 An Overview of Agriculture Development Programs for Poverty Reduction in Rural Areas: Evidence From Indonesia and China................................................................................................... 255 Muhamad Rusliyadi, Polytechnic of Agricultural Development Yogyakarta Magelang, Indonesia Wang Libin, College of Humanities and Development, China Agricultural University, China The purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview description of important differences in agricultural development China and Indonesia in poverty reduction efforts in rural areas and some strategy. This chapter hopes to provide an objective picture of the development from agricultural sector level of evidence both Indonesia and China. China and Indonesia are agriculture-based countries with a program of integrated rural development as a whole to be a target of poverty reduction programs. Several farm programs related to poverty alleviation have been launched and had a good impact or significance, especially in China that is able to reduce extreme poverty from 30% in 1978 to less than 3% in 2008. Certainly many lessons can be obtained from this success, especially the concept and strategy development in rural China to be a reference of other states in its development model, especially for poverty alleviation programs. Chapter 15 Issues and Challenges in Managing the Process of Technological Change in Universities: A Malaysian Scenario.............................................................................................................................. 270 Simin Ghavifekr, Faculty of Education, University of Malaya, Malaysia This study aims to explore strategic management perspectives in universities to deal with inherent issues and challenges regarding technological change and innovation. This qualitative study utilized an inductive approach using open-ended interviews with deans, deputy deans, and heads of department from a single case university in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Moreover, observation protocol and review of relevant documents from the case university were collated to triangulate findings. From the in-depth thematic analysis, it was found that effective strategic management was a critical task for the authorities



to identify inherent issues and challenges during the process of technological change covering the following aspects: cultural, technical competency, educational proficiency, instructional, and financial. Thus, analyzing obstacles enables the authorities to determine possible solutions to address issues and challenges affecting the process of change. Chapter 16 Study of Indian Customer Mobile Banking Adoption......................................................................... 301 Som Sekhar Bhattacharyya, National Institute of Industrial Engineering, India Rohit Choudhary, National Institute of Industrial Engineering, India Piyush Punewar, National Institute of Industrial Engineering, India The banking landscape in India has been changing rapidly due to advent of emerging technologies. Consumers have adopted technology in their everyday banking transactions. These changes have been evident because of the advent of electronic channels like mobile banking (MB), internet banking, payments banking, fintech applications, and such others. Given the burgeoning Indian population, the brick and mortar model of banking hasn’t been able to keep up with the increased and enhanced customer needs. This has led to bankers harping on adoption of mobile banking. The authors in this study applied a sequential mixed method quant-qual to better comprehend customer perceptions towards adoption of mobile banking services. The research was carried out in two phases: quantitative survey followed by qualitative interviews. The findings from the study helped gauge the user perception towards MB. These were concerns regarding security, internet availability, simplified user interface experience of MB, customer convenience for core banking services, and transactions with minimum number of clicks. Chapter 17 Integrated Model of Actual Online Shopping Use Behaviour: A Proposed Framework..................... 319 Abubakar Mukhtar Yakasai, Univeristi Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Mohammad Nabil Almunawar, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Mohammad Anshari, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei This chapter discusses and proposes an integrated model of actual online shopping use behaviour, with a moderating role of personal traits (openness to experience and agreeableness). Building on the TAM model, the proposed framework harnesses its factors from supported theories, namely social cognitive theory, source credibility theory, risk theory, and OCEAN model. A literature review approach is employed in which the author uses previous relevant studies to establish the relationship among the variables. Apart from direct relationships, the chapter conceptualises mediating role of Intention on the relationship between a set of predictors (internet self-efficacy, perceived channel credibility, financial and security risk) and actual online shopping usage behaviour. At the same time, the chapter explores the moderating role of openness to experience and agreeableness on the relationship between the TAM’s belief constructs and intention. Finally, the chapter concludes with highlights on the framework’s contributions, limitations, and plan for future empirical investigation.



Chapter 18 Development of Family Business Innovation: A Case in Indonesia.................................................... 342 Muhammad Dharma Tuah Putra Nasution, Universitas Pembangunan Panca Budi, Indonesia Ahmad Rafiki, Universitas Medan Area, Indonesia Cut Kesuma Pahlufi, Universitas Udayana, Indonesia This current literature looks closely into the aspects of family firm and innovation to enhance the general understanding on Indonesia’s family business innovation. More specifically, the attention will rest on the challenges and opportunities of the family business. Indonesia promises a huge potential of economics’ prospects, one of which comes from its wealth of natural resources. There is also a series of dynamic social and cultural characteristics in Indonesia that uniquely support its bustling economic development. The family-owned businesses’ innovation processes highlighted in this chapter shall explore and resolve issues connected to innovation’s implementation. Chapter 19 The Effect of Blockchain Technology in the Initial Stages of Auditor Investigation in the Halal Supply Chain........................................................................................................................................ 364 Desi - Novianti, Universitas Indraprasta PGRI, Indonesia Yandra Arkeman, IPB University, Indonesia Mohammad Nabil Almunawar, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Liesbetini Haditjaroko, Bogor Agricultural University, Indonesia Andes Ismayana, Bogor Agricultural University, Indonesia Each country in Asia will apply a halal assurance system (HAS) to get a halal certificate and logo. The problem with HAS in Asia is that every country has its own halal standard rules. This problem raises a trade dispute because imported products cannot enter another state market due to different halal standards. So, we need the same halal standards for every country in Asia, one of which requires transparency in each country’s HAS. However, the HAS documentation process currently has several shortcomings, such as document fraud and transparency during internal and external audits. This chapter aims to discuss blockchain technology’s development in solving internal audit problems to improve its performance, and blockchain technology can improve efficiency, transparency, and traceability of original documents, thereby enhancing the overall halal certification process. And it is hoped that this research will be taken into consideration for those who will make the same halal standards for every country in Asia. Chapter 20 Platform Ecosystems for Smart Cities in Indonesia: Theory Building and Testing............................ 388 Restu Mahesa, School of Business and Management, Institut Teknologi Bandung, Indonesia Gatot Yudoko, School of Business and Management, Institut Teknologi Bandung, Indonesia Yudo Anggoro, School of Business and Management, Institut Teknologi Bandung, Indonesia This chapter aims to discover major constructs and proposing the model of platform ecosystems for Indonesia smart cities and applies the mixed methods research paradigm. The theory building uses inductive qualitative phase and literature review from global smart cities to suggest the hypothesized model. The pilot test has revealed a new construct “cultural systems” which is unique for the Indonesian context with high significance result. The final survey was followed by 1,021 respondents in six of Indonesia major cities, namely Medan, Jakarta, Semarang, Surabaya, Makassar, and Samarinda. The



model testing in quantitative phase has investigated 12 hypotheses derived from the structural model. The investigation result reveals that 10 hypotheses are supported, and two hypotheses are rejected. Two constructs “political leadership” and “smart urban services” are confirmed to act as multiple mediating variables. The theoretical framework and propositions are claimed as the novelty of this research and extending the knowledge of urban sustainability. Chapter 21 The Islamic View on Service-Dominant Logic, Service Logic, and Customer-Dominant Logic....... 418 Ahmad Rafiki, Universitas Medan Area, Indonesia Muhammad Dharma Tuah Putra Nasution, Universitas Pembangunan Panca Budi, Indonesia Yossie Rossanty, Universitas Pembangunan Panca Budi, Indonesia The purpose of this chapter is firstly to explore the differences of the three concepts of service-dominant logic, service logic, and customer dominant logic, and secondly is to see the Islamic view on these three concepts. The authors adopt the content analysis method by reviewing the literature from various sources, and the topic will then be elaborated and discussed thoroughly. A few concepts in Islam such as values in services, excellent services, Islamic work ethics are embedded into the logic. This establishes the fact that the focal point of Islam is to supply excellent services to everyone specifically the customers as well as ensuring that every service is equipped with an added value. Chapter 22 Factors Influencing the Adoption and Use of E-Commerce Amongst Small Enterprises in Brunei... 439 Hafizah Hamidi, University Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Syamimi Ariff, University Brunei Darussalam, Brunei The use of information communication technology (ICT) in the industry is undoubtedly growing fast all over the world. Nevertheless, many of the small enterprises, particularly in the food and beverages (F&B) industry in Brunei, are still not adapting as rapidly as anticipated. Thus, this study aims to identify and explore the key factors influencing Brunei’s small enterprises to adopt e-commerce in their business based on Venkatesh and Davis technology acceptance model (TAM) framework. In attaining this purpose, indepth interviews have been conducted with six local small enterprises. It can be concluded that there are four main factors contributing to the influence to the adoption and use of e-commerce amongst Bruneian’s small enterprises, which are perceived usefulness, perceived ease-of-use, costs, and social influence. Chapter 23 Blockchain-Based Transparent and Traceable Halal Food Supply Chain Management Systems....... 462 Aisha Zahid Junejo, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Malaysia Manzoor Ahmed Hashmani, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Malaysia Abdullah A. Alabdulatif, College of Science and Arts, Qassim University, Saudi Arabia Halal food is gaining attention among Muslims and non-Muslims alike due to its nature of ensuring food is free from any impurities or contamination and hygienically prepared. The growing demand for Halal food has resulted in several food-producing companies to certify their products as Halal. However, with existing supply chains, there is no authenticity of these products being Halal. To ensure Halal food authenticity, the technology of blockchain is proposed as a viable solution. In this chapter, the applicability and usability of blockchain technology in food supply chain management systems is studied



and highlighted. The study depicts that how trackability and traceability of the blockchain networks can effectively aid in maintaining the Halal integrity of food products by presenting various use cases. Technological shift for food supply chains over blockchains will result in more transparent, secure, and resilient supply chains. This will bring variety of health and economic benefits to food producing business and consumers. Chapter 24 A Differentiation of Restaurant Types Based on Customers’ Perceived Attributes: A Study in Tokyo................................................................................................................................................... 491 Bình Nghiêm-Phú, University of Hyogo, Japan Erika DeJong Watanabe, Fukushima College, National Institute Technology, Japan The understanding of the differences between/among types of restaurants is important with the effective management of the involved businesses. Nonetheless, a meaningful definition and differentiation of each and every type of restaurant is largely missing. Therefore, this study aims to differentiate and define the existing categories of restaurants in a tourism and travel setting. In order to obtain this objective, this study opts to collect and analyze customer reviews to reveal the external attributes that they prioritize. From there, comparisons are made to see whether different types of restaurants are attributed to different characteristics or not. After that, definition of each type of restaurant is proposed. Using reviews about restaurants in Tokyo posted on tripadvisor.com, this study confirmed that the categorization of restaurants according to price and value is a valid and reliable practice. Definitions of restaurant types were then conceptualized. Practical and theoretical implications of this study were also discussed. Chapter 25 The Urgency of Digital Financial Services in Islamic Boarding Schools to Improve Financial Literacy................................................................................................................................................ 511 Zainal Abidin, State Islamic Institute of Madura, Indonesia Khotibul Umam, State Islamic Institute of Madura, Indonesia The new normal COVID-19 pandemic has changed the pattern of people’s behavior in money transaction towards a safer contactless payment. Currently, digital financial service can be an alternative option to break down and finalize the rate of transmission of the corona virus, where transfer of funds or payment of financial transactions can be done online with digital applications without physical involvement. The use of digital finance in Indonesia has been growing significantly. Several Islamic boarding schools have implemented a non-cash payment system in various types of transactions. This chapter comprehensively discussed the urgency of non-cash transaction facilities in Islamic boarding schools to improve financial literacy in the new normal period. The results showed that digital financial service were very safe to use, because it could reduce physical interference/physical distancing as a form of implementing health protocols in financial transaction activities and increase financial literacy of students and high rate of responsibility for managing their personal finances. Chapter 26 Transforming to a Sustainable City Through Technological Change.................................................. 523 Chai Lee Goi, Curtin University, Malaysia This chapter analyses the transformation of a sustainable city through the process of technological change. With urban areas having a growing majority population, it is very important to focus on how technology



can help in creating a more sustainable future. Technology and innovation are central to the implementation of the sustainable development of a city. The technological revolution through technological change has an impact on building a sustainable city, which involves social, economic, and environmental aspects. Technological change involves the overall process of invention, innovation, and diffusion of technology. Chapter 27 Towards Divine Values’ Strategic Application: Critical Insights Into Management of Change......... 542 Miftachul Huda, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Malaysia Amjad Omar Safori, Zarqa University, Jordan Abdullah Rofiq, Islamic College of Attanwir, Indonesia Azmil Hashim, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Malaysia Mohd Aderi Che Noh, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Malaysia Mohd Hairy Ibrahim, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Malaysia Ahmad Kilani Mohamed, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia Arieff Salleh Rosman, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia The technological progression is widely being transformed into many sectors, such as education, business, and social interaction and communication. Such expansion has its unique basis since it provides the service enhancement through real-time-based interrelation towards the certain object in the smart platform. However, the problematic challenges have been emerged for instance cyber-bullying, moral challenges in online, cyber-crime, which all required the particular attention on the spiritual enhancement as the foundation in the personality development. This chapter attempts to propose the theoretical framework in responding the challenging issues in online basis. The critical assessment is conducted through books, conferences, and articles related to the divine-strategic principles to give insights into the management of change. The outcome reveals that the particular element of mashlahah (appropriate goodness) played a significant role in underlying the critical elements on driving pathway of management of change. Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 567 About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 648 Index.................................................................................................................................................... 657

xxv

Preface

INTRODUCTION The Handbook of Research on Disruptive Innovation and Digital Transformation in Asia offers conceptual frameworks, empirical studies and case studies that will help to understand business opportunities in Central Asia, South East Asia and East Asia, with a special focus on ASEAN region as well as generate lively and constructive debate on challenges and trends in the region among academics, industry players, policy makers and other relevant stakeholders. It addresses key topics to understand business opportunities in Asia, covering a variety of challenges and nations in the Asian region: from technological disruption and innovation, TICs and smart cities to connectivity and economic corridors in Asia, Islamic finance and tourism. Due to its innovative topics (technological disruptors, smart cities, connectivity, etc) and approaches, geographical focus (Asia) and methodologies (focus on empirical studies, case studies and also comparative studies), the book will be a reference for students (undergraduate and postgraduate), academics, experts on IT, CEOs, policy makers and other relevant stakeholders. The handbook offers readers a unique value, bringing new perspectives to understanding emerging businesses and challenges in Asia. It presents a valuable collection of chapters with empirical studies from leading researchers on these topics.

CONTENTS OF THE BOOK The handbook presents a collection of 27 chapters that explore strategic issues in business, management and innovation in Asia. Chapter 1, titled “E-Court: The Future of Commercial Dispute and the Quality of Judicial Processes in Indonesia” (authors: Yordan Gunawan and Rizaldy Anggriawan), states that facing the advanced industry 4.0, where everything is closely tied to technology and is characterized by digitalization, the Supreme Court of Indonesia has introduced the implementation of e-Justice by developing an electronic justice system (e-Court) since 2018. The study aims to highlight the current practice of e-Court in Indonesia. Besides, it also examines the existing implementation and legal provisions regulating the electronic-based court proceedings. The research method used is normative legal research. It analyzes the positive law, principles, doctrines of law, legal discovery in particular cases, legal systematics, legal comparison, and legal history. The study revealed that E-Court has provided easier access to the public in order to make the court more accessible, effective, and efficient. Nevertheless, several improvements in particular sec

Preface

tors such as access to justice, case delays, human resource readiness, public internet facility, evidence management, and hearing session procedures need to be highlighted and updated by the court. Chapter 2, titled “What Makes SME Entrepreneurs in Central Java Adopt E-Commerce? A Factor Analysis on TAM, TPB, and TOE Frameworks” (authors: Tusyanah Tusyanah, Wijang Sakitri, Fentya Dyah Rahmawati, Lita Citra Dewi and Fransisca Rahcmawati Indira), proposes that the adoption of e-Commerce by SMEs is inevitable given the changing disruptive era where marketplaces innovation opens opportunities for SMEs to become partners if they want to promote their products through marketplaces. This study uses an integrated framework of TAM, TPB, and TOE on Food Processed MSMEs in Semarang. There are 10 (ten) variables that affect the adoption of e-commerce; the largest to smallest influencing variables are competitive pressure, current situation, social influence, perceived trust, perceived ease for use, perceived usefulness, individual difference factors, trading partner readiness, perceived service quality, and consumer readiness. Competitive pressure is the variable with the biggest effect (26.1%) on the adoption of e-commerce. Furthermore, based on three major factors; Technology, Organization, and Environment, the influencing factors are Environment and Organization; they give an effect of 56.2% on the adoption of e-commerce. Thus; the adoption of mobile-applications (GOJEK, Shopee, Grab, Tokopedia, Bukalapak) is needed to increase sales. Chapter 3, titled “Waqf Crowdfunding for Financing the MSMEs: Evidence From ASEAN-3” (authors: Ika Yunia Fauzia and Khairunnisa Musari), states that waqf financing through crowdfunding becomes an attractive instrument in Islamic social finance today. Crowdfunding offers a solution to the capital problem in developing waqf assets by using the concept of raising funds through social media and internet users. This chapter will describe how waqf crowdfunding also can be a tool for financing the micro small medium enterprises (MSMEs). In the digital era, the impact of waqf on people in need could be greater with crowdfunding, where waqif is not limited by geographical barriers. Waqf crowdfunding becomes a marketplace platform to increase financial inclusion through collaboration between Islamic social finance and technology. There are some platforms of waqf crowdfunding in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)-3 that will be described in this chapter, ie Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore. Chapter 4, titled “Immersive Technologies and Smart Cities in ASEAN: Discovering the Next Future Innovation Challenges” (authors: Domitilla Magni, Rossana Piccolo, Veronica Scuotto, Armando Papa and Manlio Del Giudice), affirms that immersive technologies can have a huge impact on the social structure of a country, opening new opportunities and new scenarios. Through the exploitation and synergy of peculiar disruptive technologies, we are witnessing a capillary development of smart cities and collaborative platforms to facilitate the citizens’ lives. The Association of South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN) has the highest growth rate for the intelligent exploitation of technologies. This chapter aims to outline the real impact of technology in the social and business environment by redesigning the continuous disruptive technologies and the different changes of perspective in the relationship between the individual and social sphere. The originality of the chapter lies in analyzing the potential of the smart city to implement a sustainable and collaborative urban development plan capable of spreading technological entrepreneurship and digital innovation. Chapter 5, titled “Banking and Financial Services Industry in the Wake of Industrial Revolution 4.0: Challenges Ahead” (author: Vibha Bhandari), states that the banking and financial services industry today stands at the cross roads between the traditional methods of business and the evolving modern methods of banking and providing financial services. Technological advancements in the field of finance has led to a whole new form of doing business which is a radical departure from the conventional methods of doing business. The players in the field of banking and finance are facing challenges and competition xxvi

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from entities which never existed in the traditional sphere. The banking and financial industry is not only facing stiff competition from these new age players, it is also facing challenges to find fresh talent who can tide off this industry. This chapter in its existing form shall present an overview of the banking and financial industry of today in the wake of Industrial Revolution 4.0 and identify some associated challenges. Chapter 6, titled “Reverse Logistics in the Age of Digital Transformation for Circular Economy and Halal Logistics through the Leadership of Asia” (authors: Khairunnisa Musari and Zaroni Zaroni), discusses that Asia is changing rapidly. Realizing the nature of change, Asia can influence the value of change to the world. At the same time, digital technology is transforming the economic and business world. In the logistics industry, not only digitalization, but the circular economy is also disrupting. However, there is great potential for the logistics business to develop efficiency opportunities through reverse logistics. Asia has a chance to spread the value of reverse logistics as one form of a circular economy. Asia has opportunities also to bring the value of reverse logistics into halal industry. This chapter will show empirical studies from several leading companies based in Asia that implementing reverse logistics and halal logistics. All of them reinforces the opportunity of Asia’s leadership to influence the reverse logistics values to the world. Thru blockchain, Asia may lead the reverse logistics in the age of digital transformation for circular economy and halal logistics. Chapter 7, titled “Impacts of Coronavirus (COVID-19) on Digital Marketplace in Brunei Darussalam” (authors: Alif Azizi Abdullah, Mohammad Nabil Almunawar and Muhammad Anshari), aims to identify the impact of coronavirus (COVID-19) on the digital marketplace of Brunei. The realization of the potential of digital marketplace have enable it to develop and grow in application among start-ups and businesses in Brunei.COVID-19 has negatively impacted the micro, small and medium enterprises of Brunei due to social distancing measures and crowd restrictions. Furthermore, the suspension of dine in services across the nation paved the way for food delivery service platforms to thrive during the pandemic. The platforms provide security, safety and convenience to ensure reliability for consumers during the pandemic. Transitioning towards digital mediums was necessary to provide an intermediary for MSMEs and consumers to stay connected under difficult circumstances. A case study approach was used to get information from digital marketplaces that were thriving during the pandemic. The results indicate the impact towards digital marketplace during the pandemic are positive. Chapter 8, titled “Approaches to Tackle Smart Cities Challenges in Brunei” (authors: Nur Farhana Nabillah Saifulbahri and Syamimi Haji Mohd Ariff Lim), affirms that there have been increase in attention for the smart city concept in many developed and developing countries due to urban challenges face. Hence, there is a need for a country to implement smart city concepts to improve overall aspects of cities and its citizens quality of life. However, developing smart cities are enormously complex, and could face numerous challenges. The purpose of this study is to observe the current smart cities development in Brunei, the challenges faced as well as approaches to tackle them. Furthermore, to analyse the qualitative findings, this study has used thematic analysis. From the analysis, the challenges in the development of smart cities initiatives were categorized into four categories: Governance, Social, Economic and Technology. Some of the challenges include lack of citizen’s engagement and also awareness and knowledge of smart city concepts etc. Appropriate approaches were also developed with reference to the literature and suggested approach from the findings these include, impose policies, improve education structure according to current needs.

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Chapter 9, titled “Development of Financial Technology With Reference to Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Lending in Indonesia” (author: Tulus Tambunan), aims to study the growth of financial technology (fintech) and its impact on the ability of small businesses to access funding in Indonesia with reference to Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Lending. It adopted a case study methodology using a semistructured interview and a series of focus group discussions (FGDs) with 10 owners of small businesses and 30 owners or managers of peer-to-peer (P2P) lending companies. Two important findings: (i) the sampled small businesses benefited from P2P lending, and (ii) banks are the most important investor in P2P lending companies. However, this study has its limitations. First, the sample was too small to generalize to a broader population. Second, there is no national data on credit to small businesses from P2P lending to support the findings of the case. To the authors’ knowledge, this is the first study on this topic, specifically in Indonesia. It takes stock of the empirical evidence in the literature through the lens of small business owners. Chapter 10, titled “What Are Drive Factors of Purchase Intention of Mutual Fund Through Digital Wallet Platform in Indonesia?” (authors: Sevenpri Candra and Kristoforus Hyronimus Andreaw Wirakusuma), affirms that the stability of economic growth can’t be separated from the role of domestic and foreign parties. Therefore, it requires participation from various parties to meet the sources of funding or investment financing in realizing equitable economic development. One source of funds that can boost development in Indonesia is through investment. Through technology, investment can be more easily to be offer to consumer and that kind of technology is Digital Wallet. This research was to analyze the drive factors of consumer purchase intention of mutual fund through digital wallet platform in Indonesia. By using questionnaires and sampling with up to 406 respondents was analyzed by using multiple linear regression analysis. This study shows that perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, consumer innovativeness, ethical awareness, performance expectancy, privacy concern is driving factors. Furthermore, there’re several points that should be enhanced to make all of driving factors more impact to influence consumer purchase intention. Chapter 11, titled “Digital Technology in Retail: Impact on Shoppers’ Satisfaction” (authors: Peggie JP Tan and Omkar Dastane), discusses that industrial Revolution 4.0 has initiated digital transformation in Asia and resulted in Retail 4.0 enforcing shopping malls to upgrade themselves digitally to remain competitive. The purpose of this research is to investigate the impact of upgrading shopping malls with digital retail technology (digital up-gradation) on shoppers’ satisfaction mediated by operational performance. This study adopted explanatory, quantitative research by collecting empirical data from 212 shoppers at a famous shopping mall in the city of Kuala Lumpur using convenience sampling. The normality and reliability assessment was carried out followed by Confirmatory Factory Analysis, Validity Assessment and Structural Equation Modelling. Findings reveal that digital up-gradation has a direct impact on shopper’s satisfaction and operational performance has full mediation effect between them. The chapter then discusses implications, limitations, and future research avenues in this context. Chapter 12, titled “Transformation and Development of Agriculture Sector in Industrial Revolution 4.0 Era in Indonesia” (authors: Ahmad Budi Setiawan, Amri Dunan and Bambang Mudjiyanto), observes that Indonesia is now entering the era of the digital economy. In the agricultural sector, the concept of agricultural 4.0 was introduced as a form of digitization. The scope of agriculture in this paper refers to the value chain of agricultural sector in utilizing information and communication technology for interaction between all stakeholders in the agricultural sector, where every activity is recorded so that they can make predictions, dosing and tracing, with an automatic control system and done remotely. Applying this technology will optimize results, both in quality and quantity as well as the efficiency of existing

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resources. The research on the transformation of the agricultural sector in the era of industrial revolution 4.0 aims to study the digitalization strategy of the agricultural sector in the era of technology 4.0. This research was carried out using a qualitative approach by conducting literature studies, in-depth interviews and focus group discussions. This paper recommends the development of micro farming financing to increase the scale of digital agriculture’s economy. Chapter 13, titled “Indonesian Higher Education Student’s Perception on Procurement Manager Skills and Competencies” (authors: Ilyas Masudin, Nika Tampi Safitri, Revon Awalia Wahyu Agata, Rizky Purnama Putri Hadi Prawita and Dian Palupi Restuputri), studies the differences in the perceptions of Industrial Engineering students at Indonesian higher degree institution about the skills and competencies required for procurement managers. This study uses descriptive statistical analytical with the number of 100 respondents. There are 3 dimensions of skills and competencies investigated in this study such as the dimension of resources managerial skills and competencies, self-competencies and skills, and the company’s internal and external managerial skills and competencies. The expected results of this article is to indicate that the most important skill that required based on the student’s perception for procurement managers. The dimensions such as leadership, analytical skill, internal and external managerial skills, and c decision-making skill are tested to figure out the most prioritized skills of being procurement managers. Chapter 14, titled “An Overview of Agriculture Development Programs for Poverty Reduction in Rural Areas: Evidence From Indonesia and China” (author: Muhamad Rusliyadi), offers an overview description of important differences in agricultural development China and Indonesia in poverty reduction efforts in rural areas and some strategy. Obviously with the view of some of the existing literature by presenting data and facts or opinions with the collaboration of several institutions associated with the topic. This paper hopes to provide an objective picture of the development from agricultural sector level of evidence both Indonesia and China. China and Indonesia is agriculture based country with a program of integrated rural development as a whole to be a target of poverty reduction programs. Several farm programs related to poverty alleviation has been launched and have a good impact or significance, especially in China that is able to reduce extreme poverty from 30% in 1978 to less than 3% in 2008. certainly many lessons can be obtained from this success, especially the concept and strategy development in rural China to be a reference of other States in its development model, especially for poverty alleviation programs. Chapter 15, titled “Issues and Challenges in Managing the Process of Technological Change in Universities: A Malaysian Scenario” (author: Simin Ghavifekr), investigates the strategic management perspectives in universities to deal with inherent issues and challenges regarding technological change and innovation. This qualitative study utilized an inductive approach using open-ended interviews with deans, deputy deans, and heads of department from a single case university in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Moreover, observation protocol and review of relevant documents from the case university were collated to triangulate findings. From the in-depth thematic analysis, it was found that effective strategic management was a critical task for the authorities to identify inherent issues and challenges during the process of technological change covering the following aspects: cultural, technical competency, educational proficiency, instructional, and financial. Thus, analyzing obstacles enables the authorities to determine possible solutions to address issues and challenges affecting the process of change. Chapter 16, titled “Study of Indian Customers Mobile Banking Adoption” (authors: Som Sekhar Bhattacharyya, Rohit Choudhary and Piyush Punewar), notes that banking landscape in India has been changing rapidly due to advent of emerging technologies. Consumers adopted technology in their every-

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day banking transactions. These changes have been evident because of the advent of electronic channels like Mobile Banking (MB), internet banking, payments banking, fintech applications and such others. Given the burgeoning Indian population, the brick & mortar model of banking hasn’t been able to keep up with the increased and enhanced customer needs. This has led to bankers harping large on adoption of mobile banking. The authors in this study applied a sequential mixed method quant-Qual to better comprehend customer perceptions towards adoption of mobile banking services. The research was carried out in two phases; quantitative survey followed by qualitative interviews. The findings from the study helped gauge the user perception towards MB. These were concerns regarding security, internet availability, simplified user interface experience of MB, customer convenience for core banking services and transactions with minimum number of clicks. Chapter 17, titled “Integrated Model of Actual Online Shopping Use Behaviour: A Proposed Framework” (authors: Abubakar Mukhtar Yakasai, Mohammad Nabil Almunawar and Mohammad Anshari), proposes an integrated model of actual online shopping use behaviour, with a moderating role of personal traits (Openness to experience and Agreeableness). Building on the TAM model, the proposed framework harnesses its factors from supported theories, namely; social cognitive theory, source credibility theory, risk theory, and OCEAN model. A literature review approach is employed, in which the author uses previous relevant studies to establish the relationship among the variables. Apart from direct relationships, the chapter conceptualises mediating role of Intention on the relationship between a set of predictors (internet self-efficacy, perceived channel credibility, financial and security risk) and actual online shopping usage behaviour. At the same time, the chapter explores the moderating role of Openness to Experience and Agreeableness on the relationship between the TAM’s belief constructs and Intention. Finally, the chapter concludes with highlights on the framework’s contributions, limitations, and plan for future empirical investigation. Chapter 18, titled “Development of Family Business Innovation: A Case in Indonesia” (authors: Muhammad Dharma Tuah Putra Nasution, Ahmad Rafiki and Cut Kesuma Pahlufi), states that Indonesia promises a huge potential of economics’ prospects, one of which comes from its wealth of natural resources. There is also a series of dynamic social and cultural characteristics in Indonesia that uniquely support its bustling economic development. The family-owned businesses’ innovation processes highlighted in this chapter shall explore and resolve issues connected to innovation’s implementation. Chapter 19, titled “The Effect of Blockchain Technology in the Initial Stages of Auditor Investigation in the Halal Supply Chain” (authors: Desi Novianti, Yandra Arkeman, Mohammad Nabil Almunawar, Liesbetini Haditjaroko and Andes Ismayana), discusses that each country in Asia will apply a Halal Assurance System (HAS) to get a halal certificate and logo. The problem with HAS in Asia is that every country has its own Halal Standard rules. This problem raises a trade dispute because imported products cannot enter another State market due to different halal standards. So, need the same halal standards for every country in Asia, one of which requires transparency in each country’s HAS. However, the HAS documentation process currently has several shortcomings, such as document fraud and transparency during internal and external audits. This paper aims to discuss Blockchain technology’s development in solving internal audit problems to improve its performance, and Blockchain technology can improve efficiency, transparency, and traceability of original documents, thereby enhancing the overall halal certification process. And it is hoped that this research will be taken into consideration for those who will make the same halal standards for every country in Asia.

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Chapter 20, titled “Platform Ecosystems for Smart Cities in Indonesia: Theory Building and Testing” (authors: Restu Mahesa, Gatot Yudoko and Yudo Anggoro), explores to discover major constructs and proposing the model of platform ecosystems for Indonesia smart cities and applies the mixed methods research paradigm. The theory building uses inductive qualitative phase and literature review from global smart cities to suggest the hypothesized model. The pilot test has revealed a new construct “Cultural Systems” which unique for Indonesia context with high significance result. The final survey was followed by 1021 respondents in six of Indonesia major cities, namely Medan, Jakarta, Semarang, Surabaya, Makassar, and Samarinda. The model testing in quantitative phase has investigated twelve hypotheses derived from the structural model. The investigation result reveals that ten hypotheses are supported and two hypotheses are rejected. Two constructs “Political Leadership and Smart Urban Services” are confirmed to act as multiple mediating variables. The theoretical framework and propositions are claimed as the novelty of this research and extending the knowledge of urban sustainability. Chapter 21, titled “The Islamic View on Service-Dominant Logic, Service Logic, and CustomerDominant Logic” (authors: Ahmad Rafiki, Muhammad Dharma Tuah Putra Nasution and Yossie Rossanty), investigates the differences of the three concepts of service-dominant logic, service logic and customer dominant logic, and secondly is to see the Islamic view on these three concepts. The authors adopt the content analysis method by reviewing the literature from various sources and the topic will then be elaborated and discussed thoroughly. A few concepts in Islam such as values in services, excellent services, Islamic work ethics are embedded into the three logic. This establishes the fact that the focal point of Islam is to supply excellent services to everyone specifically the customers as well as ensuring that every service is equipped with an added value. Chapter 22, titled “Factors Influencing the Adoption and Use of E-Commerce Amongst Small Enterprises in Brunei” (authors: Hafizah Hamidi and Syamimi Ariff), states that the use of Information Communication Technology (ICT) in the industry is undoubtedly growing fast all over the world. Nevertheless, many of the small enterprises particularly in the food and beverages (F&B) industry in Brunei are still not adapting as rapidly as anticipated. Thus, this study aims to identify and explore the key factors influencing Brunei’s small enterprises to adopt e-commerce in their business based on Venkatesh and Davis (1996) Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) framework. In attaining this purpose, in-depth interviews had been conducted with 6 local small enterprises. It can be concluded that there are four main factors contributing to the influence to the adoption and use of e-commerce amongst Bruneian’s small enterprises which are perceived usefulness, perceived ease-of-use, costs, and social influence. Chapter 23, titled “Blockchain-Based Transparent and Traceable Halal Food Supply Chain Management Systems” (authors: Aisha Zahid Junejo, Manzoor Ahmed Hashmani and Abdullah A Alabdulatif), observes that halal food is gaining attention among Muslims and non-Muslims alike due to its nature of ensuring food is free from any impurities or contamination and hygienically prepared. The growing demand for Halal food has resulted in several food-producing companies to certify their products as Halal. However, with existing supply chains there is no authenticity of these products being Halal. To ensure Halal food authenticity, the technology of blockchain is proposed as a viable solution. In this chapter, the applicability and usability of blockchain technology in food supply chain management systems is studied and highlighted. The study depicts that how trackability and traceability of the blockchain networks can effectively aid in maintaining the Halal integrity of food products by presenting various use cases. Technological shift for food supply chains over blockchains will result in more transparent, secure and resilient supply chains. This will bring variety of health and economic benefits to food producing business and consumers. xxxi

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Chapter 24, titled “A Differentiation of Restaurant Types Based on Customers’ Perceived Attributes: A Study in Tokyo” (authors: Bình Nghiêm-Phú and Erika DeJong Watanabe), states that the understanding of the differences between/among types of restaurants is important with the effective management of the involved businesses. Nonetheless, a meaningful definition and differentiation of each and every type of restaurant is largely missing. Therefore, this study aims to differentiate and define the existing categories of restaurants in a tourism and travel setting. In order to obtain this objective, this study opts to collect and analyze customer reviews to reveal the external attributes that they prioritize. From there, comparisons are made to see whether different types of restaurants are attributed to different characteristics or not. After that, definition of each type of restaurant is proposed. Using reviews about restaurants in Tokyo posted on tripadvisor.com, this study confirmed that the categorization of restaurants according to price and value is a valid and reliable practice. Definitions of restaurant types were then conceptualized. Practical and theoretical implications of this study were also discussed. Chapter 25, titled “The Urgency of Digital Financial Service in Islamic Boarding School to Improve Financial Literacy” (authors: Zainal Abidin and Khotibul Umam), recognises that the New Normal Covid-19 pandemic has changed the pattern of people’s behavior in money transaction towards a safer contactless payment. Currently, Digital Financial Service can be an alternative option to break down and finalize the rate of transmission of the corona virus, where transfer of funds or payment of financial transactions can be done online with digital applications without physical involvement. The use of digital finance in Indonesia has been growing significantly. Several Islamic boarding schools have implemented a non-cash payment system in various types of transactions; This paper comprehensively discussed the urgency of non-cash transaction facilities in Islamic boarding schools to improve financial literacy in the New Normal period. The results showed that Digital Financial Service were very safe to use, because it could reduce physical interference/physical distancing as a form of implementing health protocols in financial transaction activities, increase financial literacy of students and high rate of responsibility for managing their personal finances. Chapter 26, titled “Transforming to A Sustainable City Through Technological Change” (author: Chai Lee Goi), studies the transformation of a sustainable city through the process of technological change. With urban areas having a growing majority population, it is very important to focus on how technology can help in creating a more sustainable future. Technology and innovation are central to the implementation of the sustainable development of a city. The technological revolution through technological change has an impact on building a sustainable city, which involves social, economic, and environmental aspects. Technological change involves the overall process of invention, innovation, and diffusion of technology. Chapter 27, titled “Towards Divine Values’ Strategic Application: Critical Insights Into Management of Change” (authors: Miftachul Huda, Amjad Omar Safori, Azmil Hashim, Mohd Aderi Che Noh, Mohd Hairy Ibrahim, Ahmad Kilani Mohamed, and Arieff Salleh Rosman), observes that the technological progression is widely being transformed into many sectors, such as education, business, and social interaction and communication. Such expansion has its unique basis since it provides the service enhancement through real-time based interrelation towards the certain object in the smart platform. However, the problematic challenges have been emerged for instance cyber-bullying, moral challenges in online, cyber-crime, which all required the particular attention on the spiritual enhancement as the foundation in the personality development. This chapter attempts to propose the theoretical framework in responding the challenging issues in online basis. The critical assessment is conducted through books, conferences

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and articles, related to the divine-strategic principles to give insights into the management of change. The outcome reveals that the particular element of mashlahah (appropriate goodness) played a significant role in underlying the critical elements on driving pathway of management of change. Patricia Ordóñez de Pablos The University of Oviedo, Spain Xi Zhang Tianjin University, China Mohammad Nabil Almunawar School of Business and Economics University of Brunei Darussalam, Brunei

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Chapter 1

E-Court:

The Future of Commercial Dispute and the Quality of Judicial Processes in Indonesia Yordan Gunawan https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8402-4656 Universitas Muhammadiyah Yogyakarta, Indonesia Rizaldy Anggriawan Asia University, Taiwan

ABSTRACT Facing the advanced Industry 4.0, where everything is closely tied to technology and is characterized by digitalization, the Supreme Court of Indonesia has introduced the implementation of e-justice by developing an electronic justice system (e-court) in 2018. The study aims to highlight the current practice of e-court in Indonesia. It also examines the existing implementation and legal provisions regulating the electronic-based court proceedings. The research method used is normative legal research. It analyzes the positive law, principles, doctrines of law, legal discovery in particular cases, legal systematics, legal comparison, and legal history. The study revealed that e-court has provided easier access to the public in order to make the court more accessible, effective, and efficient. Nevertheless, several improvements in particular sectors such as access to justice, case delays, human resource readiness, public internet facility, evidence management, and hearing session procedures need to be highlighted and updated by the court.

INTRODUCTION Today’s technological era is improving rapidly in such a way that it almost dominates the entire aspects of human life. At present, the world is facing the advanced industry 4.0, where everything is closely tied to technology. Industry 4.0 is characterized by digitalization, which is the use of technology across all lines. There are 5 key elements in industry 4.0, including Artificial Intelligence (AI), Internet of Things (IoT), human-machine interface, robotics, and sensor technology, and three-dimensional (3D) printing DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-6477-6.ch001

Copyright © 2021, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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technology. The five technologies are signs that, in this era, the industry will enter the virtual world and the use of automation machines that are integrated with the internet is inevitable (Ślusarczyk, 2018). Facing such challenges, the Supreme Court of Indonesia has initiated the implementation of e-Justice by developing an electronic justice system (e-Court). Broadly speaking, e-Court is part of court’s efforts to provide easier access to the public and justice seekers, besides, of course making the court more open, effective, and efficient (Aidi, 2020). It is regulated by Supreme Court Regulation No 3 of 2018, which then was subsequently amended by Supreme Court Regulation No 1 of 2019 concerning the Administration of Lawsuits and Court Proceedings by Electronic Means. The Supreme Court also issued the technical guidelines for the implementation of Supreme Court Regulation No 1 of 2019 under Supreme Court Justice Decree No. 129/KMA/SK/VIII/2019 concerning the Technical Guidelines for the Administration of Lawsuits and Court Proceedings by Electronic Means. Through this Regulation, the online system has started to be used for the registration of cases (e-Filling) as well as for the payment of court fees (e-Payment), and e-Summons. In fact, the Supreme Court also has begun to develop an e-Court system for e-Litigation. Subsequently, this will include the adaptation of the online system to the procedure for examination procedure, the statements of witnesses and experts, and decisions. Practically, Indonesia may follow with what European Union (EU) has implemented so far in the use of artificial intelligence to the context of big data (Velicogna, 2017). The term e-Justice has begun to use in European Union legal ecosystem. If people type “European Union e-Justice” into a search engine, “European e-Justice Portal” will appear on the search page. The European Union describes the portal’s purpose as “improving access to justice throughout the EU”. Through this portal, people can easily access various data related to legal processes and practices in the European Union. For example, databases of lawyers and notaries who are officially registered, sample cases, and explanations of court processes. People no longer need to be afraid or confused browsing the legal databases in the European Union. Simply by opening the e-Justice online portal, various data or information about the law are readily available. The electronic case administration arrangement will continue to develop throughout the proceedings at the Indonesian trial. However, it is necessary to sort out the trial process which can be carried out using an electronic system and which will actually create a polemic if the process is conducted electronically. Moreover, the uneven quality of technological facilities and the level of technological literacy in all regions of Indonesia is also feared could be exploited as an opportunity for judicial mafia practices. There are also questions about data protection. Potential litigants, in major corporations, may find that the cost and time savings provided by e-litigation outweigh the risks presented by the transfer of confidential information to an external electronic system. Also, as things stand at the moment, the consent of both parties (plaintiff and defendant) is required prior to the use of e-litigation services (Arifin, 2020). In fact, it could hinder the practice of e-Court, as, from a psychological point of view, numerous defendants are likely to be reluctant to accept anything which might make it easier for them to be sued. The research method used is normative legal research. The research conducted by examining norms or rules which become a reference for society behavior (Christiani, 2016). Normative legal research in some extent also called dogmatic legal research (Smits, 2015). Normative legal research examines secondary data. The focus of normative law studies is analyzing the positive law, principles, doctrines of law, legal discovery in particular cases, legal systematics, legal comparison, and legal history. This research was conducted by reviewing and analyzing library materials in the form of legislation, documents, journals, reports, and books relating to the issues to be discussed, which is in this case, related to the practice of e-Court that has been in force within the Supreme Court and its lower judicial institutions. 2

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The study aims to highlight the current practice of e-Court in Indonesia. Besides, it also examines the existing implementation and legal provisions regulated the electronic-based court proceedings. The paper evaluates the pros and cons of the practice by utilizing the case and statute approach, as it is found there are several critical constrains which need to be addressed by the Supreme Court in order to improve the quality of its judicial system. In addition to that, likewise several improvement on particular sectors such as access to justice, case delays, human resource readiness, public internet facility, evidence management, and hearing session procedures need to be stressed and revamped by the court.

BACKGROUND International Framework for Court Excellence In order to establish a superior judicial system, there are at least seven aspects which need to be presented and applied to the court. Pursuant to the requirements of the International Framework for Court Excellence issued by the International Consortium for Court Excellence (2013), the seven areas include court leadership and management, court planning and policies, court resources (human, material and financial), court proceedings and processes, client needs and satisfaction, affordable and accessible court services, and public trust and confidence. In addition, there are values that must become guidelines and benchmarks in the pursuit of these seven areas, which include equality before the law, fairness, impartiality, decision-making independence, competence, integrity, transparency, accessibility, timeliness, and certainty. Richardson et al (2016) stated that the framework is a quality management system designed to help courts improve their performance which covers all aspects of court governance, both management and operations. This is done voluntarily by the judiciary based on a framework of universal core values and seven areas of court excellence. The framework stated that each court can voluntarily assess and improve the quality of the judiciary and its administration. The performance evaluation process is carried out by using a standardized self-assessment questionnaire on seven areas of excellence and providing guidance for the court to improve its performance. And hence, the standard for determining whether a court meets the requirements to be considered as a good court must meet at least the seven areas mentioned above by also referring to the court’s values.

E-Court Worldwide Practices The digitization process is well established at the level of legal practice, particularly in the judiciary. The best-established empirical proof of the digitization process in the field of justice is Virtual Civil Courts, recognized in Indonesia as an integrated unit in the e-court system. Years before the era of Technological Revolution 4.0, the United States had already conducted Virtual Civil Courts since 1998, where the trials used video conferencing media and were familiar with electronic filing and case management tools (Lederer, 1998). Thus, for the United States, the online hearings are no longer new to them. Wallace (2008) highlights several breakthroughs made by Australian courts, such as the use of Case Management, Judgment Publication and Distribution, Litigation Support, Evidence Presentation, Electronic Courtrooms, Knowledge Management, Video-Conferencing, Transcript, Electronic Filing, Electronic Search, and E-court. What should be emulated in the Australian experience is the page http://www. 3

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austlii.org. This page is Australia’s most popular free legal material and information website providing primary public legal information such as statutory regulations and court decisions, as well as secondary ones such as journals and legal studies. The Australian Supreme Court has officially published its decisions since 1903 until now on that website. Also provided are Special Leave Dispositions since 2008, transcripts of trials since 1994, and High Court Bulletins since 1996. In comparison, Australia has previously applied online dispute resolution, where litigants can resolve their disputes online. Likewise in the United States since 1999, Public Access to Electronic Records (PACER) has been initiated, there is also a Case Management and Electronic Case Files (CM / ECF) system, and various uses of information technology to support judicial tasks (Greenwood et al, 2011). Through the use of e-court, the Supreme Court of the Republic of Indonesia also now has equal service with the Supreme Court in the United States, Supreme Court England and Supreme Court Singapore, E-Syariah in Malaysia, PACER in the United States, E-Filing in Singapore and India, Electronic legal service in Canada and the eCase administration in Australia. Furthermore, the implementation of e-Court and e-Litigation particularly on the issue of civil court practices in Indonesia has been examined by Kharlie and Khalil (2020). It shows that, in fact, Indonesia is not the first country that has implemented digital court proceedings. Among the countries which applied electronic court proceedings are Australia, United States, Germany, and Singapore. It also explored that the objective of e-Court by Supreme Court is not merely in order to justify the principle of simple, fast, and low cost judiciary, but also to improve the service quality particularly on the issue of national and international commercial settlement disputes. Besides, most of first instance courts are impeded by the quality of its human resources, facilities and infrastructures which are regarded by these sectors as the major part in achieving the standard for implementing a respectable digital court proceeding.

Theoretical Framework Along with the development of digital technology, the transformation of the court to become more modern with the maximum use of digital information technology is inevitable. Reiling’s research (2009) states that there are three main issues faced by judicial institutions in the world, namely the frequency of case delay, the access to justice, and the integrity of the court apparatus. Former Chief Justice of the Supreme Court Hatta Ali (2018) said that the existence of an e-court is to expedite the administrative process and judicial services for justice seekers. As so far, to register a case, every plaintiff, whether represented or not represented by a lawyer, must come and register the case personally to the court. The fact is that now plaintiffs can electronically submit their lawsuit registration from their offices or homes. This system is intended to create the principle of fast and low-cost litigation in court. Payment of court fees is even more concise because it is connected to an e-payment system, where payments are directed to court accounts at banks through available electronic payment channels. Currently, electronic payments can be made through state-owned banks, namely Bank BTN, Bank BRI, Bank BNI 46, Bank BNI Syariah, Bank Mandiri, and Bank Mandiri Syariah. There is even an electronic summons (e-summons) system which is very concise and saves costs up to zero rupiah. This is because the system for summoning the disputing parties can be carried out directly to the electronic domicile address including eliminating the need for delegation procedures in the event that the parties reside in different areas. With the implementation of this system, the intensity of justice seekers to meet with judicial officers inevitably declines. It certainly minimizes the potential risk of bribery and corruption. 4

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Pratiwi et al (2020) explored the challenges and problems regarding the implementation of e-Court in Indonesia. For the time being, the benefits of e-Court have gradually been perceived by legal practitioners, in particular judges, lawyers, and court officials. However, there are some aspects which hinder the implementation of e-Court. One of the issues highlighted by the authors is the ability of court officials, justice seekers, and legal professionals in adapting to the new court system. As the digital court administration and proceeding connected to the use of sophisticated technology and artificial intelligence, it is therefore, the authors suggested the government and law enforcement officials to take appropriate means to improve the quality of legal professionals and justice seekers knowledge in implementing digital court proceedings.

RESULT AND DISCUSSION E-Court Legal Framework: An Overview The civil procedure law currently in effect in Indonesia is a legacy from the Dutch East Indies colonialists (Rudy, 2019). History has recorded that the procedural law that applies to the European group is Reglement op de burgerlijk rechtsvordering (Rv) where the judicial forum is called Raad Van Justitie (Hamzah, 2016). Meanwhile, the civil procedural law that applies to indigenous and foreign eastern groups is the HIR (Herziene Indonesische Reglement), which is for those on the islands of Java and Madura, while RBG (Rechtsreglement Voor De Buitengewesten) applies to those who domicile outside Java and Madura (Marjo, 2020). The judicial forum for non-European groups is called Landraad (Ravensbergen, 2019). Landraad was the forerunner to the district courts that are known today. The legal basis for the validity of the HIR and RBG to date is the Transitional Rules of Articles II and IV of the Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia dated 18 August 1945 in conjunction with Articles 5 and 6 of the Emergency Law No. 1 of 1951 concerning Temporary Measures to Administer the Unified Composition of Power and Procedure of Civil Courts. This law clearly states that HIR and RBG are still valid as procedural rules before the district court for all groups of the population, which are all Indonesian citizens. The existence of norms in these statutory regulations cannot be separated from the basic legal values which form the basis for the formation of a legal regulation which is then referred to as legal principles. Where in procedural law, in particular civil procedure law, is guided by several legal principles, one of which is the principle of a judicial trilogy or known as simple, fast, and low-cost principles. Normatively, the principles of fast, simple, and low-cost are regulated in Article 2 Paragraph (4) of Law No. 48 of 2009 concerning Judicial Power. In the elucidation of Article 2 paragraph (4), it is explained that what is meant by a simple judicial process is that the examination and settlement of cases are carried out in an efficient and effective manner. The judicial process is carried out at low cost which means that the cost of the case becomes accessible to the majority of the community. As regards to the definition of fast judiciary process, it is not spelled out in the elucidation of Article 2 paragraph (4) of the Judicial Power Act, however, it can be interpreted as referring to the time taken to settle the cases which is disputed by the litigating parties in the court. Furthermore, in the elucidation of Article 2 paragraph (4), it is stated that the principles of simple, fast, and low-cost in examination and settlement of cases in court shall not override accuracy and thoroughness in seeking fact and justice. Thus, even though the court seeks

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to settle cases based on the principles of fast, simple, and low-cost, but this should not lead the judge to rush in the decision-making process and so as not to properly consider the facts found in the courtroom. With regards to the e-court practice, it was initially implemented based on the Supreme Court Regulation No. 3 of 2018 concerning Electronic Case Administration. The implementation of e-court is expected to be able to improve services in its function of accepting online case registrations, hence it will save the time and costs incurred by the public when registering cases. Moreover, Law No. 11 of 2008 as amended by Law No. 19 of 2016 concerning Amendments to Law No. 11 of 2008 concerning Electronic Information and Transactions has mandated the government to support the development of information technology through legal infrastructure and its regulation so that the use of information technology can occur safely to prevent its misuse by taking into account the religious and socio-cultural values of the Indonesian people. E-court is the foundation for the implementation of the first electronic-based justice system in Indonesia, which then in 2018 the Supreme Court appointed 17 (seventeen) District Courts as pilot projects based on the Decree of the Secretary of the Supreme Court of the Republic of Indonesia No. 305/SEK/ SK/VII/2018 concerning the Appointment of Pilot Courts for the Implementation of Trial Administration Cases by Electronic Means. The 17 (seventeen) District Courts are Sidoarjo District Court, Semarang District Court, Surakarta District Court, Tangerang District Court, Metro District Court, Central Jakarta District Court, Bandung District Court, Medan District Court, East Jakarta District Court, Bekasi District Court, Palembang District Court, West Jakarta District Court, Makassar District Court, Surabaya District Court, South Jakarta District Court, Karawang District Court, and North Jakarta District Court. On June 10, 2019, the Supreme Court also issued Circular Letter No. 4 of 2019 concerning Obligation to Register Civil Cases through E-Court which requires all the following Courts to use e-court, namely the special Class 1A District Courts, Class 1A and all District Courts in the region Banten High Court, Jakarta High Court, Bandung High Court, Semarang High Court, Yogyakarta High Court and Surabaya High Court. As of September 7, 2020, the Supreme Court site recorded that there were 382 active ecourt out of 382, whereby the Surabaya District Court was the most district court that received lawsuit registration via e- court with 3811 cases which was then followed by the Tangerang District Court for 2358 cases and the Denpasar District Court for 1857 cases. Meanwhile, in the scope of religious court, it was recorded that there were 412 active e-court out of 412, whereby the Ciamis Religious Court was the religious court that received the most lawsuit registration with 2585 cases which was then followed by the Malang Religious Court with 2470 cases. Furthermore, in the scope of administrative court, it was recorded that there were 30 active e-courts out of 30, whereby The Makassar Administrative Court was the most active administrative court with 234 cases which was then followed by the Surabaya Administrative Court with 212 cases (Supreme Court, 2020). On August 19, 2019, the Supreme Court Regulation No. 1 of 2019 concerning the Administration of Lawsuits and Court Proceedings by Electronic Means, which based on Article 38 states that the Supreme Court Regulation No. 1 of 2019 revokes and declares that Supreme Court Regulation No. 3 of 2018 is no longer valid. However Article 37 states that the implementing regulations of the Supreme Court Regulation No. 3 of 2018 are declared to remain valid as long as they do not conflict with the provisions of the Supreme Court Regulation No. 1 of 2019. This is in line with the Supreme Court Justice Decree No. 129/KMA/SK/VIII/2019 concerning the Technical Guidelines for the Administration of Lawsuits and Court Proceedings by Electronic Means, where in the third part it stipulates that when this decree comes into effect all implementing regulations of the Supreme Court Regulation No.3 of 2018 are declared to remain valid as long as they do not conflict with the decree. Furthermore, in the second part, 6

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the Decree of the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the Republic of Indonesia Number 122/KMA/ SK/VII/2018 concerning Registered Users is revoked and declared invalid. E-court is one form of implementation of the Electronic-Based Government System (“EBGS”). EBGS has been regulated in Presidential Regulation No. 95 of 2018 concerning Electronic-Based Government Systems (National Strategist Working Group for Artificial Intelligence, 2020). EBGS is a government administration that utilizes information and communication technology to provide services for users. Article 3 Presidential Regulation No 95 of 2018 specifies that the scope of the regulation is EBGS governance and management, information and communication technology audits, EBGS administrators and acceleration as well as monitoring, and evaluation. Data and information includes all types of data and information held by central agencies and local governments, and/or obtained from the community, entrepreneurs, and/or other parties. EBGS services consist of electronic-based government administration services and electronic-based public services. Electronic-based government administration services are EBGS services that support internal bureaucratic management in order to improve government performance and accountability in central and local government agencies. Electronic-based government administration services include services that support activities in the fields of planning, budgeting, finance, procurement of goods and services, staffing, archiving, management of state property, supervision, performance accountability, and other services according to the internal needs of the government bureaucracy. Meanwhile, electronic-based public services are EBGS services that support the implementation of public services in central and local government agencies. Electronic-based public services include services that support activities in the sectors of education, work and business, housing, communication and information, environment, health, social security, energy, banking, transportation, natural resources, tourism, and other strategic sectors. E-court is one form of EBGS implementation, as stipulated in the Supreme Court Regulation No.1 of 2019 concerning the Administration of Lawsuits and Court Proceedings by Electronic Means. Supreme Court Justice Syamsul Ma’arif explained that an effective e-court may save time, money, and energy for parties and lawyers who often queue for quite a long time when they have to bring the case to the court. Furthermore, e-court is part of the court’s effort to provide easy access to the public and justice seekers, in addition to making the courts more transparent, effective, and efficient (Sahbani, 2019). Article 1 Number 2 of Supreme Court Regulation No.1 of 2019 introduces the term court information system, which is the entire information system provided by the Supreme Court to provide services to justice seekers which include administration, case services, and electronic trials. Meanwhile, Article 1 Number 6 of said Regulation explained that electronic case administration is a series of processes for accepting lawsuit, complaint, answer, intervention, receipt of payment, delivery of summons, notices, conclusions, legal remedies, as well as management, submission, and filing of civil case documents, religious case, military administration, state administration by using an electronic system applicable in each court. In addition, Article 1 Number 7 and Article 4 of Supreme Court Regulation No.1 of 2019 also introduces electronic trial, which is a series of processes for examining and adjudicating cases by courts carried out with the support of information and communication technology. This trial applies to the trial process with the submission of lawsuit, complaint, objection, rebuttal, interventions and its amendments, answer, evidence, conclusion, and pronouncement of verdict. Administrative arrangements for electronic proceedings and trials under Supreme Court Regulation No.1 of 2019 apply to civil, religious, military and state administrative proceedings. Electronic case administration services can be used by registered users and other users. The Supreme Court has the right to verify registration data, verify changes to data, suspend access rights, and 7

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revoke the status of registered users and other users. The Supreme Court also reserves the right to refuse registration of registered users and other users who cannot be verified. The requirements to become a registered user for an advocate are: 1. Identity card; 2. Lawyer membership card; and 3. Minutes of an advocate’s oath by the high court. Meanwhile, the requirements for other users are: 1. Employee identity card or membership card, power of attorney or letter of assignment from the ministry/institution/business entity for parties representing the ministry/institution and business entity; 2. Identity cards or passports and other identities for individuals; and 3. The decision of the chairman of the court to proceed incidentally on the basis of family relationship. Registration of cases by registered users and other users can be done electronically through the court information system. The plaintiff submitted the lawsuit through the court information system. The lawsuit must be accompanied by documentary evidence in electronic form. Article 10 of the Supreme Court Regulation No.1 of 2019 states that the down-payment of court fee is paid electronically to the court’s bank account. The addition and/or refund of the court fee down-payment is also done electronically. Article 22 paragraph (1) of the Supreme Court Regulation No.1 of 2019 explains that electronic trials, including submission of claims, answers, and conclusions, are carried out with certain procedures. The parties are obliged to submit electronic documents no later than the day of the trial according to the stipulated schedule. After receiving and examining the electronic documents, the judge then forwards the electronic documents to the parties. In addition to that, Article 25 and Article 24 paragraph (1) stated that the evidentiary process is carried out in accordance with the applicable procedural law. However, if agreed by the parties, the evidentiary trial by examining witness and/or expert testimony can be carried out remotely through audio-visual communication media which allows all parties to participate in the trial. The decision is pronounced by the presiding judge electronically. It is noteworthy that Article 27 of the Supreme Court Regulation No.1 of 2019 confirms that electronic trials conducted through court information systems on public internet networks have legally fulfilled the principles and provisions of open trials for the public in accordance with statutory provisions.

Review on E-Court Practice: Opportunities and Challenges Based on a participatory process with representatives of judges and staff from the Supreme Court and courts from 4 (four) judicial circles under it, as well as stakeholders such as the Constitutional Court, the Judicial Commission, the Prosecutor’s Office, the Corruption Eradication Commission, experts from various universities, civil society organization and others, the Supreme Court eventually has succeeded in agreeing on a vision and mission that will be achieved in the next 25 (twenty five) years, starting from 2010 to 2035. “Creating a Supreme Judiciary” is the vision of the Supreme Court which will be the direction and goals for each program development and activity that will be carried out in the areas of technical and support functions as well as the accountability function. 8

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The 2010-2035 judicial reform blueprint has determined that one of the ideal judicial indicators is a modern court based on integrated information technology (Supreme Court, 2010). The Supreme Court has also drawn up remedial efforts to create a Supreme Indonesian Judiciary Body, one of which is oriented towards prime public services by providing just legal services to justice seekers. The judiciary is required to always improve public services and guarantee a fair trial process. Meanwhile, regarding the right to defend, the application of e-court provides broad access for the parties to submit their defense so as to provide more protection for the parties. Likewise, with the principle of accountability, the implementation of case administration electronically will leave digital traces that are stored forever so that in addition to being observed by the public, it may also prevent files from being lost or damaged. Supreme Court Circular Letter No. 4 of 2019 concerning Obligation to Register Civil Cases Through e-court requires 56 courts under the Supreme Court to implement e-court. This circular letter applies to all District Courts for Special Class 1A, Class 1A and all District Courts in the Banten High Court, Jakarta High Court, Bandung High Court, Semarang High Court, Yogyakarta High Court, and Surabaya High Court. These 56 District Courts throughout the High Court area are obliged to use e-court since the issuance of this letter, which was June 10, 2019. Meanwhile, for the religious courts, they include the Central Jakarta Religious Court, North Jakarta Religious Court, South Jakarta Religious Court, East Jakarta Religious Court, West Jakarta Religious Court, Depok Religious Court, Surabaya Religious Court, Denpasar Religious Court, Medan Religious Court. And for the state administrative court includes the Jakarta State Administrative Court, Bandung State Administrative Court, Serang Administrative Court, Denpasar State Administrative Court, Makassar State Administrative Court, and Tanjung Pinang State Administrative Court. Furthermore, there are about 24 most complained sectors recorded based on the Indonesian Ombudsman Annual Report in 2019. In fact, the judiciary is ranked seventh, which also highlighted as the agency that most frequently makes case delays, which is then followed by the police department. Also, Community complaints on court services to the Ombudsman in 2019 were recorded as many as 168 complaints. The three basic factors of public complaints are regarding case delays, procedural irregularities, and unsatisfactory services. Many court decisions have not been executed for a long time, even though these decisions have definite legal force (Ombudsman, 2019). The use of information technology also accelerates the law enforcement process in court. During 2018, 17,638 cases were successfully decided by the Supreme Court. The 2018 Supreme Court Annual Report states that during 2018 the number of cases submitted to the Supreme Court was 18,544, consisting of 17,156 cases submitted in 2018 and the remaining cases in 2017 were 1,388 cases. In terms of time for completing cases during 2018, 96.33 percent of cases were successfully decided on time. Throughout 2018 the Supreme Court decided 16,911 cases in a timely manner within 1-3 months of 17,638 cases (96.33%). Only 3.67% of cases were decided after 3 (three) months. This achievement exceeded the target of the Supreme Court itself, which set a target on-time case processing of 75%. When compared to 2017 before the use of e-court, the number of cases registered increased by 10.65%, the number of cases increased by 3.82%, the number of cases decided increased by 7.07%, while the number of cases remaining decreased by 34.73%. Meanwhile, the remaining 2018 cases are also the smallest number in the history of the Supreme Court. Referring to the remaining cases in 2012, which amounted to 10,122 cases, by 2018 the Supreme Court was able to erode the remaining 9,206 cases or 91.04%. This comparison shows that the productivity ratio for decision making of the Supreme Court in 2018 rose to 95.11% or an increase of 2.89% compared to the productivity ratio for decision making in 2017 of 92.23%. When compared with the target set at 70%, the achievement exceeded the target by 9

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25.11%. In addition, at the end of 2018, the Supreme Court has announced that the number of registered e-court facility users who have been verified as of December is 11,224 lawyers. Furthermore, e-litigation have been in effect in all district, religious and administrative courts since January 2, 2020, as the implementation of Supreme Court Regulation No. 1 of 2019 concerning the Administration of Lawsuits and Court Proceedings by Electronic Means. The practice of e-litigation complements the implementation of the e-court in accordance with Supreme Court Regulation No. 3 of 2018 concerning Electronic Case Administration on July 13, 2018. The Supreme Court recorded that from July 2018 to June 2020, there were around 33,840 lawyers registered in the e-court and e-litigation system, but the number of verified lawyers was 31,465 lawyers as official users of the e-court and elitigation systems in 30 regions of the High Court throughout Indonesia. While the number of cases as of June 2020 was recorded at 18,935 electronic cases. Supreme Court Justice Syamsul Maarif explained the benefits of electronic trials, which are cutting off physical interactions in public services; case management which is more transparent and accountable; significant savings in court time and costs by eliminating physical hearings for document exchange; and significant savings in paper usage (Poerana, 2020). It is also possible to conduct remote hearings using information technology facilities for instance for the conduct of evidentiary hearings. However, of course, this process is also inseparable from both technical and substance constraints. Justice Syamsul Maarif stated that in fact, there are still many stakeholders who do not understand the implementation of Supreme Court Regulation No. 1 of 2019. Generally speaking, the case administration process still uses the conventional system with adjustments to the electronic system. Since not all judicial processes can be digitized, only some less critical aspects are simplified through automation. Another obstacle to its implementation is that the current e-litigation procedure does not have fixed procedures and standard models in terms of infrastructure facilities and human resource readiness. The existing regulations still rely on the principle of consensus decision-making in the use of e-litigation procedures. This means that there is no explicit coercion for the parties to use this electronic trial procedure (Mardatillah, 2020). James Purba assessed the weakness in the practice of online trial system. E-litigation can only be carried out if the parties or the defendants agree to use the electronic trial (Mardatillah, 2020). For instance, if the defendant has not been registered as a user of the e-court system service or if the defendant is not represented by a registered and verified legal representative, the trial cannot be conducted electronically. The same thing happens if there is more than one defendant in a case and if one of the defendants does not agree to use the e-litigation system, it is impossible for an electronic trial to be held. Also, if the defendant terminates the power of attorney against the lawyer in the middle of the case and the defendant does not designate a lawyer due to cost constraints, this is also an obstacle to the implementation of the e-litigation process. In addition, in the case of examining documentary evidence and witnesses in court proceedings in civil and commercial cases, it will be difficult to confirm and verify evidence, unless the evidentiary agenda is carried out face to face. Furthermore, justice seekers who have financial constraints so that they can only appoint lawyers who are not registered as e-court users, will not be able to enjoy the convenience of this electronic system. The Executive Director of the Institute for Independent Judiciary Studies and Advocacy (LeIP), Liza Farihah (2020), has assessed that not even access to the internet network is becoming one of the key factors that impede e-court practice (Mardatillah, 2020). According to data from the National Development Agency in 2019 throughout Indonesia, there are around 4,474 villages that do not yet enjoy the internet network, mostly in Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara, and Papua where most of the areas are left 10

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behind, frontier, and outermost (3T). This is a critical challenge in order to be able to build an internet network that reaches out to these areas. On the other hand, the court employees’ technology knowledge and mindset have not yet been dispersed between the internal and external parties of the court to take the initiative and be willing to change their routine from conventional to the modern system. The limited human resources and technology illiteracy also hinder the e-court practice. For instance, the parties upload documents that are difficult to read and analyze, such as poor scans, unclear images, and so on. For this reason, massive outreach is needed to the advocate community, law enforcement agencies, and government agencies as users of e-court. The use of technology for justice, as stated by Reiling (2009), is believed to be able to prevent corrupt practices in the judiciary. According to Reiling (2009), openness to science and technology for law circles is inevitable as part of the need for a legal reform program. The use of information technology will support and ensure good administrative governance and judicial processes. Reiling divides the court’s use of information technology into three levels, namely information technology utilized independently, information technology based on network systems, and enterprise information technology and external communication. This is one of the answers to the issues faced by the community regarding the judicial process, namely delays, lack of access, and corruption. Thus the application of technology is not only beneficial for the community but also for improving government performance to be cleaner, more accurate, and accountable. Through an efficient judicial system it is hoped that it can increase productivity and reduce costs for disseminating important information, an effective judicial system because it reduces procedures or bureaucracy so as to reduce costs, increase public access to information in court so as to reduce corruption of time and money by judicial administrators; increasing transparency of the judicial process so that it can be evaluated publicly; increasing public trust in the justice system; and most importantly to strengthen the legitimacy of the judicial power. Reiling (2009) states that there are three main issues faced by judicial institutions in the world, namely case delays, access to justice, and judicial integrity. Thus the use of technology for justice is basically in line with the principle of information dispute resolution. Just like in court, the settlement of information disputes is subject to the principles of fast, low cost, and simple. A justice system that functions properly must provide everyone with the opportunity to raise complains to violations of their rights. The legal information created shall be intended to inform the public about their rights, also help them to resolve disputes or inform about how to file a case to the court, and create a peaceful resolution outside the court. Therefore the ability to disseminate legal information which is more efficient through Information technology, in particular the internet, is seen as an important means in order to increase access to justice. Article 2 paragraph (4) of Law No. 48 of 2009 concerning Judicial Power states that the Judiciary is carried out simply, quickly, and at low-cost. Thus the implementation of law enforcement and justice in a simple, fast, and low-cost manner must therefore be a reference point for the Indonesian judiciary in carrying out its main duties and functions. The practice of case administration in court by electronic means as stipulated in Supreme Court Regulation No.3 of 2018 and Supreme Court Regulation No. 1 of 2019 is also compatible with the General Principles of Good Judiciary. The principle of justice that is open to the public whereby the application of case administration conducted by electronic means will make the court records accessible not only by the parties who are concerned but also by the public, in general, can access and observe it. It is also hoped that the transparency implemented by the courts will slowly reduce the practice of extortion in courts that was rampant before. As it is known, the practice of extortion has an impact on obstructing access to justice for the community. This arises because there are extra costs that must be 11

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paid by justice seekers for services in court due to the administrative process that is too long and involves many parties. Previously, this kind of practice was prone to brokering practices and other procedural irregularities. The Ombudsman Report of the Republic of Indonesia, for example, mentions that in the 2014-2016 period, the District Court was the judicial institution with the most complaints, with 394 complaints due to administrative abuse. The direct impact of e-court practice can be seen from the results of a public satisfaction survey conducted by the Institute for Economic and Social Research, Education and Information (LP3ES) in collaboration with the Supreme Court Supervisory Agency toward 60 court work units which include State Administrative Court, District Courts, and Religious Courts in 20 Provinces in Indonesia. The result of the survey which conducted on January 21 to February 15 2019 shows that the overall index of public satisfaction with court institutions is 76%, which is considered in good category. The result of such public satisfaction study has increased by 6.7% points in a period of five years which started in 2014 up to 2018 (Suthira, 2019).

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION The Supreme Court of Indonesia has initiated the implementation of e-Justice through the development of an electronic justice system (e-Court). E-Court is part of the court’s efforts to provide easier access to the public and to those pursuing justice, in order to make the court more accessible, effective and efficient. It is regulated by Supreme Court Regulation No 3 of 2018, which then amended by Supreme Court Regulation No 1 of 2019 concerning the Administration of Lawsuits and Court Proceedings by Electronic Means. The implementation of e-court is also expected to be able to improve services in its function of accepting online case registrations, so that the public will save time and cost. Nevertheless, the practice of e-court is also, of course, inseparable from the technical and substance constraints. Several improvements on particular sectors such as access to justice, case delays, human resource readiness, public internet facility, evidence management, and hearing session procedures need to be highlighted and updated by the court. All stakeholders, from the executive, legislative and, in particular, judicial institutions, must work together on a continuous and systematic basis to develop regulations and policies to address these issues.

REFERENCES Aidi, Z. (2020). Implementasi E-Court dalam Mewujudkan Penyelesaian Perkara Perdata yang Efektif dan Efisien. Masalah-Masalah Hukum, 49(1), 80–89. doi:10.14710/mmh.49.1.2020.80-89 Arifin, A. I. (2020). Introduction to the Dispute Resolution Framework. In T. Damian (Ed.), the Dispute Resolution Review (pp. 219–223). Law Business Research Ltd. Christiani, T. A. (2016). Normative and Empirical Research Methods: Their Usefulness and Relevance in the Study of Law as an Object. Procedia: Social and Behavioral Sciences, 219, 201–207. doi:10.1016/j. sbspro.2016.05.006

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Decree of the Secretary of the Supreme Court of the Republic of Indonesia No. 305/SEK/SK/VII/2018 concerning the Appointment of Pilot Courts for the Implementation of Trial Administration Cases by Electronic Means. Emergency Law No. 1 of 1951 concerning Temporary Measures to Administer the Unified Composition of Power and Procedure of Civil Courts. Greenwood, J. M., & Bockweg, G. (2011). Insights to building a successful e-filing case management service: US Federal Court experience. In IJCA (Vol. 4, p. 2). Academic Press. Hamzah, M. A. (2016). Reform of Civil Procedural Law at the Appellate-Level Courts in Indonesia. Mimbar Hukum, 28(2), 348–364. doi:10.22146/jmh.16723 Indonesian Supreme Court Annual Report Working Group. (2018). Era Baru Peradilan Modern Berbasis Teknologi Informasi. Supreme Court of Indonesia. International Consortium for Court Excellence. (2013). the International Framework for Court Excellence (2nd ed.). http://www.courtexcellence.com/__data/assets/pdf_file/0013/7312/the-internationalframework-2e-2014-v3.pdf Kharlie, A. T., & Cholil, A. (2020). E-Court and E Litigation: The New Face of Civil Court Practices in Indonesia. International Journal of Advanced Science and Technology, 29(2), 2206–2213. Law No. 48 of 2009 concerning Judicial Power Law No. 19 of 2016 concerning Amendment to Law No. 11 of 2008 concerning Electronic Information and Transactions. Lederer, F. I. (1998). The Road to the Virtual Courtroom-a Consideration of Today’s—And Tomorrow’s—High-Technology Courtrooms. South Carolina Law Review, 50, 799. Mardatillah, A. (2020). Plus-Minus Sistem Persidangan E-Litigasi. https://www.hukumonline.com/ berita/baca/lt5f13251238701/plus-minus-sistem-persidangan-e-litigasi/ Marjo, & Rofikoh, N. (2020). Procedures for Completing Small Claims Lawsuit of Civil Cases in District Court in Indonesia. Academic Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, 9(3), 136–140. doi:10.36941/ ajis-2020-0048 National Development Agency. (2019). Rencana Pembangunan Jangka Menengah Nasional 2020-2024. https://www.bappenas.go.id/files/rpjmn/Narasi%20RPJMN%20IV%202020-2024_Revisi%2014%20 Agustus%202019.pdf National Strategist Working Group for Artificial Intelligence. (2020). Indonesia’s Artificial Intelligence National Strategy 2020-2045. Indonesian Agency for the Assessment and Application of Technology. Poerana, S. A. (2020). Pelaksanaan E-Court dan Manfaatnya. Hukumonline. https://www.hukumonline. com/klinik/detail/ulasan/lt5e2577a68ea0d/pelaksanaan-i-e-court-i-dan-manfaatnya/ Pratiwi, S. J., Steven, S., & Permatasari, A. D. P. (2020). The Application of e-Court as an Effort to Modernize the Justice Administration in Indonesia: Challenges & Problems. Indonesian Journal of Advocacy and Legal Services, 2(1), 39–56. doi:10.15294/ijals.v2i1.37718

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Presidential Regulation No. 95 of 2018 concerning Electronic-Based Government Systems. Ravensbergen, S. (2019). Rule of Lawyers: Liberalism and Colonial Judges in Nineteenth-Century Java. In R. Koekkoek, A. I. Richard, & A. Weststeijn (Eds.), The Dutch Empire between Ideas and Practice (pp. 1600–2000). Cambridge Imperial and Post-Colonial Studies Series. Palgrave Macmillan. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-27516-7_8 Reiling, D. (2009). Technology for Justice: How Information Technology Can Support Judicial Reform. Leiden University Press. Richardson, E., Spencer, P., & Wexler, D. B. (2016). The International Framework for Court Excellence and Therapeutic Jurisprudence: Creating Excellent Courts and Enhancing Wellbeing. Journal of Judicial Administration, 148. Rudy. (2019). The Pathway of Civil Law Development in Indonesia: Laws on Land. In Y. Kaneko (Eds.), Civil Law Reforms in Post-Colonial Asia. Kobe University Monograph Series in Social Science Research. Springer. Sahbani, A. (2019). Perkuat E-Court, MA Kembangkan E-Litigation. Hukumonline. https://www.hukumonline.com/berita/baca/lt5ce7be7c712c8/perkuat-e-court--ma-kembangkan-e-litigation/ Ślusarczyk, B. (2018). Industry 4.0 – Are We Ready? Polish Journal of Management Studies, 17(1), 232–248. doi:10.17512/pjms.2018.17.1.19 Smits, J. M. (2015). What Is Legal Doctrine? On The Aims and Methods of Legal-Dogmatic Research. Maastricht European Private Law Institute Working Paper No. 2015/06. Supreme Court Circular Letter No. 4 of 2019 concerning Obligation to Register Civil Cases through E-Court. Supreme Court Justice Decree No. 129/KMA/SK/VIII/2019 concerning the Technical Guidelines for the Administration of Lawsuits and Court Proceedings by Electronic Means. Supreme Court of the Republic of Indonesia. (2010). Cetak Biru Pembaruan Peradilan 2010-2035. https://mahkamahagung.go.id/media/198 Supreme Court Regulation No. 3 of 2018 concerning Electronic Case Administration. Supreme Court Regulation No 1 of 2019 concerning the Administration of Lawsuits and Court Proceedings by Electronic Means. Susthira, M. (2019). Indeks Kepuasan Terhadap Lembaga Peradilan 76%. Media Indonesia. https:// mediaindonesia.com/read/detail/238133-indeks-kepuasan-terhadap-lembaga-peradilan-76 Velicogna, M. (2017, December). In search of smartness: The EU e-Justice challenge. Informatics (MDPI), 4(4), 38. doi:10.3390/informatics4040038 Wallace, A. (2008). eJustice: An Australian Perspective. In A. C. Martinez, & P. F. I. Abat (Eds.), EJustice: Information and Communications Technology in the Court System (pp. 204-228). IGI Global.

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ADDITIONAL READING Carnevali, D. (2009). E-Justice and Policies for Risk Management. In E-justice: Using information communication technologies in the court system (pp. 20–37). IGI Global. doi:10.4018/978-1-59904-998-4. ch002 Dymitruk, M. (2019). Artificial Intelligence as a Tool to Improve the Administration of Justice? Acta Universitatis Sapientiae. Legal Studies, 8(2), 179–189. Exon, S. N. (2017). Ethics and Online Dispute Resolution: From Evolution to Revolution. Ohio State Journal on Dispute Resolution, 32, 609. Lupo, G., & Bailey, J. (2014). Designing and Implementing e-Justice Systems: Some Lessons Learned from EU and Canadian Examples. Laws, 3(2), 353–387. doi:10.3390/laws3020353 Putra, D. (2020). A modern judicial system in Indonesia: legal breakthrough of e-court and e-legal proceeding. Jurnal Hukum dan Peradilan, 9(2), 275-297. Rosa, J., Teixeira, C., & Pinto, J. S. (2013). Risk factors in e-Justice Information Systems. Government Information Quarterly, 30(3), 241–256. doi:10.1016/j.giq.2013.02.002 Sela, A. (2018). Can Computers Be Fair: How Automated and Human-Powered Online Dispute Resolution Affect Procedural Justice in Mediation and Arbitration. Ohio State Journal on Dispute Resolution, 33(1), 91–148. Zeleznikow, J. (2016). Can Artificial Intelligence and Online Dispute Resolution Enhance Efficiency and Effectiveness in Courts. International Journal for Court Administration, 8(2), 30–45. doi:10.18352/ ijca.223

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Artificial Intelligence: The study of how to produce machines that have some of the qualities that the human mind has, such as the ability to understand language, recognize pictures, solve problems, and learn. Big Data: Very large sets of data that are produced by people using the internet, and that can only be stored, understood, and used with the help of special tools and methods. Defendant: The person defending or denying; the party against whom relief or recovery is sought in an action or suit. Lawsuit: A disagreement between people or organizations that is brought to a court of law for a decision. Litigation: A judicial controversy. A contest in a court of justice, for the purpose of enforcing a right. Ombudsman: Appointed by governments to investigate complaints from citizens against large organizations (e.g. public bodies, corporations, the media). Typically, ombudsmen have wide-ranging investigative authority, but their punitive powers tend to be limited. Plaintiff: A person who brings an action; the party who complains or sues in a personal action and is so named on the record. Trial: The examination before a competent tribunal, according to the law of the land, of the facts or law put in issue in a cause, for the purpose of determining such issue. A trial is the judicial examination of the Issues between the parties, whether they be issues of law or of fact.

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Chapter 2

What Makes SMEs Entrepreneurs in Central Java Adopt E-Commerce? A Factor Analysis on TAM, TPB, and TOE Frameworks Tusyanah Tusyanah https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0748-0919 Universitas Negeri Semarang, Indonesia Wijang Sakitri Universitas Negeri Semarang, Indonesia Fentya Dyah Rahmawati Universitas Negeri Semarang, Indonesia Lita Citra Dewi Universitas Negeri Semarang, Indonesia Fransisca Rahcmawati Indira Universitas Negeri Semarang, Indonesia

ABSTRACT The adoption of e-commerce by SMEs is inevitable given the changing disruptive era where marketplaces innovation opens opportunities for SMEs to become partners if they want to promote their products through marketplaces. This study uses an integrated framework of TAM, TPB, and TOE on food processing MSMEs in Semarang. There are 10 variables that affect the adoption of e-commerce; the largest to smallest influencing variables are competitive pressure, current situation, social influence, perceived trust, perceived ease for use, perceived usefulness, individual difference factors, trading partner readiness, perceived service quality, and consumer readiness. Competitive pressure is the variable with the DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-6477-6.ch002

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 What Makes SMEs Entrepreneurs in Central Java Adopt E-Commerce?

biggest effect (26.1%) on the adoption of e-commerce. Furthermore, based on three major factors, technology, organization, and environment, the influencing factors are environment and organization; they give an effect of 56.2% on the adoption of e-commerce. Thus, the adoption of mobile-applications (GOJEK, Shopee, Grab, Tokopedia, Bukalapak) is needed to increase sales.

INTRODUCTION Bank Indonesia in 2019 experienced the slowest economic growth in the last five years at 5.02%, but the growth of the e-commerce industry is getting faster (Akhlas, 2020). It can be seen with the emergence of application platforms and e-Commerce applications that can be an option for entrepreneurs to develop their marketing performance. According to research results in August 2018 by the management of McKinsey & Company e-Commerce, it is estimated that it will grow to $ 65 billion (Rp910 trillion). It is good news for eCommerce users, especially entrepreneurs of Small and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) who need an effective and efficient marketing channel. It is stated by Dwi Afrilina who is the Founder and CEO of SunChilla that MSME is one of the main partners of the e-Commerce platform (Narida, 2020). MSMEs need to get the attention of various stakeholders because MSMEs are a reliable business for employment, as well as suppliers of goods and services that are resilient even in times of economic crisis. Through the e-Commerce industry, it is expected that MSMEs will be able to develop and be able to support the Indonesian economy which is predicted to become a new world economic power in the future. The adoption of e-Commerce by MSMEs is inevitable given the changing disruptive era where innovations that help create new markets, disrupt or destroy existing markets, and ultimately replace technology. As stated earlier by Bower and Christensen (1995) that entrepreneurs should adopt eCommerce for business continuity in the future. The e-Commerce industry does not only involve e-Commerce platform providers and their users (Partners and Buyers) in buying and selling goods and services via the Internet, but there are also other industries connected to it, such as; inter-service or logistics services providers, telecommunications providers, smart device manufacturers, and others. It is the reason that the e-Commerce industry needs to be encouraged and given attention to be able to drive the national economic growth rate. Furthermore, the development of e-Commerce is inseparable from the development of digital technology. There are various e-Commerce provider platforms such as; Tokopedia, Bukalapak, and Shopee have broadly opened up the involvement of MSMEs to do marketing on the respective platforms. It is expected that the synergy among stakeholders with the involvement of digital technology will be the key to Indonesia’s economic growth. Equity and economic growth in Indonesia through the development of e-Commerce is possible. It is as stated by Nuraini, one of the leaders of Tokopedia as reported by Chandra and Adega (2019) who stated that:

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 What Makes SMEs Entrepreneurs in Central Java Adopt E-Commerce?

“In the last 10 years, we have focused on encouraging digital economic equity. Tokopedia has more than 6.4 million sellers starting businesses on the platform. There are around 70% known to be new business actors, furthermore, in May 2019, Tokopedia recorded a gross merchandise value of IDR 18.5 trillion. “ Tokopedia claims that around 1% of Indonesia’s economy operates on Tokopedia. It is a significant number, especially when Tokopedia can reach 97% of districts in Indonesia, which has more than 17 thousand islands. It is not only on Tokopedia but also on other e-commerce platforms such as Bukalapak, Shopee, and others that have also recorded a lot of transactions. Wahyudi and Tri (2019) stated that Bank Indonesia recorded that in 2019, the online trade transactions per month reached IDR 13 trillion. It is not much different from McKinsey’s prediction, which states that e-commerce growth in Indonesia has increased eightfold in the 2017 to 2018 period. The total online spending was US$ 8 billion in 2017; then it increased to US$ 65 billion in 2020. Furthermore, it is also stated that online shopping is one of the factors supporting Indonesia’s economic growth in 2020. The development of the younger generation population is believed to increase online shopping transactions. Online shopping is an activity that is usually carried out by most Indonesians. Indonesia’s population of 250 million is a huge market. Sirclo (2020) reports that one of the biggest factors is the rapid growth of the middle class in Indonesia, which is 21% of the total population of as many as 57.3 million people in 2019. This can also be seen from the increase in the amount of public expenditure on goods 23% of consumers online in 2018 compared to 2017. Apart from the increasing middle class, another factor that also supports the development of e-Commerce is the increasing level of internet penetration and mobile device users, enabling more people to access various online shopping platforms, ranging from online store websites, marketplace applications, social media, and much more. Another factor that is also contributing is the increasing number of financial technology companies, allowing a variety of payment methods. According to Google data in July 2018, around 66% of Indonesians do not have bank accounts. With the emergence of various applications and payment features as well as online wallets via smartphones, it has become easier for people to make online transactions. Sirclo (2020) also stated that when viewed from its sales platform, the 5 largest marketplaces in Indonesia based on the number of monthly visitors in the second quarter of 2020 were Shopee (93.4 million), Tokopedia (86.1 million), Bukalapak (35.2 million).), Lazada (22 million), and Blibli (18.3 million). However, each of these marketplaces also has its market. Then, for marketing the food products, it is usual for the sellers or MSMEs entrepreneurs to market their products on Grab and GOJEK. Those two e-Commerce has strong competition since they provide almost similar services (Setyowati, 2019). As we know in Indonesia that Grab has GrabFood and GOJEK has GOFOOD which allows MSMEs entrepreneurs to promote their products. Thus; the e-Commerce platforms referred to in this study are Tokopedia, Shopee, Bukalapak, GOJEK, and Grab. We identified MSMEs from Semarang as partners in one or more of those five (5) marketplaces.

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 What Makes SMEs Entrepreneurs in Central Java Adopt E-Commerce?

Meanwhile, the Indonesian government wants to position Indonesia as the largest digital economy country in Southeast Asia by 2020. With the rapid growth of online businesses, the Indonesian people will get positive benefits in the economy such as welfare growth, new job growth, and others. Thus, Indonesia is no longer just a target for the international business market, but on the contrary, can become a capable e-Commerce entrepreneur reaching out to foreign markets. Marketplaces open opportunities for MSMEs to become partners when they want to promote their products through users of these marketplaces. It is certainly a symbiotic mutualism for online platform providers and related MSMEs. MSMEs are considered to be able to move Indonesia’s economic sector significantly. MSMEs are potential economic drivers as stated by Febriantoro (2018) that Small and medium-scale enterprises (SMEs) are potential economic drivers as well as important sources of flexibility, innovations, and employment creation. According to the latest data accessed on December 12, 2019, AyoSemarang.com reported that there were 17,445 registered MSMEs clustered into several categories can be seen in figure 1. Figure 1. The Clustering of MSMEs in Semarang

The number of Small Micro and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) in Semarang until mid-October 2019 reached 17,010 MSMEs. This number grew rapidly from a month earlier which only reached 16,500 MSMEs. Food Processed MSMEs are the highest cluster with a percentage of 31% or around 5,407 MSMEs AyoSemarang.com (2020) also reported that the Head of Semarang Cooperatives and MSMES Service, FX Bambang Suranggono, in his remarks appreciated GrabExpress for contributing to the development and growth of MSMEs in Semarang. According to him, it is in line with the vision of the Semarang Government to make Semarang the MSME city by 2020.

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 What Makes SMEs Entrepreneurs in Central Java Adopt E-Commerce?

Katadata.co.id (2019) stated that the number of MSMEs utilizing e-Commerce has only reached 17.1%. The Ministry of Communication and Informatics (Kominfo) noted that only 9.6 million or 17.1% of the total 56 million Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) in Indonesia are selling online or go-online. It means that out of 5,407 Food Processed MSMEs in Semarang, only 925 MSMEs have gone online. Therefore, it is necessary to analyze the factors that influence MSMEs’ willingness to adopt MSMEs as an effort to increase e-Commerce adoption in MSMEs. This study uses a research construct conducted by Awa, et.al. (2015) with three (3) driving factors; Technology, Organization, and Environment to influence the adoption of e-Commerce in Food Processed MSMEs in Semarang. The goal of this study was to analyze 15 variables, i.e. a) perceived usefulness; b) perceived ease of use; c) perceived behavior control; d) scope of business operations; e) firm’s size; f) organization mission; g) facilitating condition; h) individual difference factors; i) social influence; j) consumer readiness; k) competitive pressure; l) trading partner readiness; m) current situation; n) perceived service quality, and o) perceived trust in e-Commerce adoption among Food Processed MSME entrepreneurs in Semarang.

LIMITATION OF THE STUDY Researchers examine several variables influencing the adoption of e-Commerce in Food Processed MSMEs in Semarang. The e-Commerce platform referred to in this study is Tokopedia, Shopee, Bukalapak, GOJEK, and Grab. We identify MSMEs from Semarang who are partners in one or more of the five (5) marketplaces.

LITERATURE REVIEW The process of writing this thesis is based on the theory developed by Awa, HO, Ojiabo, OU, & Emecheta, BC (2015) with the title Integrating TAM, TPB, and TOE frameworks and expanding their characteristic constructs for e-Commerce adoption by SMEs. Awa, et.al. (2003) synthesized the elements in three (3) existing technology acceptance models, namely Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), Theory Acceptance Model (TAM), and The Technology-Organization-Environment (TOE) to obtain a harmonious view of acceptance of the technology.

Theory of Planned Behavior Theory of Planned Behavior is a further development of the Theory of Reason Action (TRA). Ajzen and Fishbein (1988) added a construct that does not exist in TRA, namely behavior control. Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) is a theory of attitude model that estimates the interest or intention of consumers to perform a behavior or action. The Theory of Planned Behavior model explains that the main factor that influences a person’s behavior is his intention or 19 tendencies to perform such actions (Cheung and To, 2019). In other words, whether or not a behavior is done is determined not only by subjective attitudes and norms but also by individual perceptions of the controls it can do. This behavior control is formed based on the individual’s beliefs about control. Theory of Reason

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 What Makes SMEs Entrepreneurs in Central Java Adopt E-Commerce?

Action (TRA) is one of the theories incorporated in UTAUT. TRA was first coined by Ajzen in 1980. This theory is structured using the basic assumption that humans behave consciously and consider all available information. In this TRA, Ajzen (1980) states that a person’s intention to perform a behavior determines whether or not the behavior will be carried out. Furthermore, Ajzen argues that the intention to do or not do certain behaviors is influenced by two basic determinants, the first is related to attitudes towards behavior and the other is related to social influences, namely subjective norms. To reveal the influence of subjective attitudes and norms on the intention to do or not to do the behavior, Ajzen complements this TRA with confidence. He stated that attitudes are formed from several individual beliefs about behavior, while subjective norms are formed from normative beliefs that come from people who affect individual life.

Technology Acceptance Model The technology acceptance model is the first and foremost traditional adoption theory in the IT field (Awa et al., 2011). The TAM model is based on the theory of reasoned action (TRA) (Ajzen and Fisbein, 1988). TRA has been used to predict behavior in many ways. TRA can also be described as a model that studies widely social psychology related to the behavior of a person who is done consciously (Yousafzai, et.al, 2010). This provides a basis for unraveling the impact of external variables on adoption decisions, with the postulate essentially rests firmly on economic, utilitarian, and attitudinal reasons. TAM proposes perceived usability (PU) and perceived ease of use (PEOU) as basic determinants of IT adoption. The individual’s intention to use the application is explained and predicted by his perception of the usefulness of the technology and its simplicity. This model provides insignificant information about user opinion about adopting a specific system by narrowing the construction to only PU and PEOU. Hence, the need to expand the factor or integrate with other IT acceptance models to increase the utility of TAM is clear and predictive.

Technology-Organization-Environment Tornatzky and Fleischer (1990) assume that the TOE is a generic set of factors to predict the likelihood of e-Commerce adoption. This theory states that adoption is influenced by technology development; organizational conditions, business, and organizational reconfiguration, and the industrial environment. The technology context explains that adoption depends on the pool of technology inside and outside the company as well as the relative advantages of the application (advantages), compatibility (both technical and organizational), complexity (learning curve), experiment ability, and observability (visibility/imagination). The organizational context captures the scope of the company’s business; top management support; Organizational culture; the complexity of managerial structures as measured in terms of centralization, formalization, and vertical differentiation; quality of human resources; and size issues and size-related problems such as internal slack resources and specialization (Jeyaraj et al., 2006) Environmental context relates to facilitation and inhibiting factors in the field of operations. Among them are competitive pressure (CP), trade partner readiness (TPR), socio-cultural issues, government encouragement, and technology support infrastructure such as access to quality ICT consulting services (Jeyaraj et al., 2006).

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 What Makes SMEs Entrepreneurs in Central Java Adopt E-Commerce?

Electronic Commerce E-Commerce is a business innovation that involves non-physical and electronic interactions, and the maintenance of business relationships through the sharing of information and knowledge. eCommerce is an Internet and worldwide application with new methods of communication, business transactions, market structures, education, and employment. E-Commerce is a system of buying and selling several products by electronic means by customers as well as from companies to companies with computers as a liaison to business transactions. (Laudon and Traver, 2016). The Internet helps MSMEs to formulate e-Commerce strategies. Saridakis et al. (2018) stated that business performance appears to improve as entrepreneurial organizations adopt information technology to facilitate greater market communication and increased exposure to online shoppers. It means that e-Commerce technologies increase SME performance since it can attract more consumers easily.

THE METHOD The type of research used is quantitative research with a hypothesis-testing study design that aims to analyze, describe, and obtain empirical evidence of the influence pattern between variables (Wahyudin, 2015: 110). The population in this study was 925 Food Processed MSMEs in Semarang that utilized e-Commerce as much as businesses. According to the Semarang Cooperatives and MSMES Office, the number of Small Micro and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) in Semarang is up to 17,445 actors. Food Processed MSMEs are Table 1. Variables, Definitions, and Indicators No. 1

2

3

4

Variables

Operational Definitions

Indicators

E-Commerce Adoption

E-Commerce is the use of the Internet and the web to transact business, enabling commercial transactions between organizations and individuals

a) Duration b) Frequency (Berry, 2017)

Technology

Technology related to the IT platform, Skills Internet / technical knowledge, and e-Commerce knowledge (business and managerial skills) to implement e-Commerce facilities effectively (Zhu et al., 2002; Zhu and Kraemer, 2002).

a) Perceived Usefulness b) Perceived Ease of Use c) Perceived Behavioral Control d) Perceived Service Quality (Davis, 1989)

Organization

The organization is closely related to e-Commerce especially the descriptive factor.

a) Scope of Business Operations b) Firm’s Size c) Organization Mission d) Facilitating Conditions e) Individual Difference Factors f) Social Influence / Subjective Norm (Pan and Jang, 2008)

Environment

The tendency for organizations to innovate is shaped by opportunity and environmental threats. There is a strong correlation between a firm’s decision to use e-Commerce and factors industry

a) Consumer readiness b) Competitive pressure c) Trading Partner readiness d) Perceived trust (Zhu et al., 2003)

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 What Makes SMEs Entrepreneurs in Central Java Adopt E-Commerce?

the highest cluster with a percentage of 31% or around 5,407 MSMEs and only 7.1 percent who have used e-Commerce or about 925 MSMEs with the Slovin formula 5%, it got 279 MSMEs as the samples. Here the definition and indicators of each variable.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION This study is divided into two models to test 18 hypotheses. Model 1 is to test 15 hypotheses; to test the effect of those 15 X variables on Y; adoption of e-Commerce. Meanwhile, Model 2 is used to analyze 3 hypotheses. In total 18 hypotheses will be tested in this study.

Model 1 (Per Variable) The following is a schematic of the Smart PLS 3.0 program model tested: Figure 2. Final Schematic Model 1

Result of Outer Model Test (Measurement Model) The Outer Model test (measurement model) uses convergent validity and reliability. To test the convergent validity, the outer loading value and the average variance extracted (AVE) value were

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 What Makes SMEs Entrepreneurs in Central Java Adopt E-Commerce?

used. An indicator in the construct is considered to meet the convergent validity which is categorized as good if the outer value is> 0.7 and the AVE value is> 0.5 (Abdillah & Hartono, 2015: 196). The research variable indicator shows the outer loading value above 0.7 so that it fulfills the convergent validity assumption that can measure the research variables. Furthermore, to assess convergent validity, it can also be seen in the average variance extracted (AVE) value for each research variable. Furthermore, the reliability test in Smart PLS uses two methods, namely Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability. Cronbach’s alpha measures the lower limit of the reliability value of a construct. While composite reliability measures the real value of the reliability of a construct. Rule of thumb of Cronbach’s alpha value and composite reliability> 0.7 (Abdillah & Hartono, 2015: 196). The results showed that the composite reliability value on the research variable was> 0.7, so it was stated that the research variable was considered reliable and had a consistent construct.

Inner Model Test (Structural Model) Model 1 The inner model test or structural model is used to determine the effect of the construct. The inner model test was analyzed using the R Square value and the t-test for significance value. 1. R Square (R2) Test Model 1 R Square describes the relationship between latent variables based on the theory evaluated by the dependent construct. R2 value indicates the goodness of fit. The higher the R2 value, the better the construct (Abdillah & Hartono, 2015: 197). R Square with a value> 0.67 is considered good and R Square with a value> 0.33 is considered moderate or sufficient. Meanwhile, R Square with a value 0.67. It means that the research model with 15 variables is good at predicting e-Commerce adoption behavior. 2. The t-test (t-statistic) Model 1

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 What Makes SMEs Entrepreneurs in Central Java Adopt E-Commerce?

The path coefficient score on the inner model aimed at the t-statistic value should be above 1.96 for the 2-tailed hypothesis and above 1.64 for the one-tailed hypothesis, valid for hypothesis testing at 5% alpha and 80 power. % (Abdillah & Hartono, 2015: 197). The structural influence between variables is considered significant if the coefficient value of the t-statistic test> t-Table or p-value adoption of e-Commerce

0.205

0.177

0.066

2,864

0.011

H1

Accepted

Perceived Ease for Use -> Adoption of e-Commerce

0.224

0.172

0.064

2,784

0.008

H2

Accepted

Perceived Behavior Control -> Adoption of e-Commerce

0.121

0.115

0.091

1,325

0.186

H3

Rejected

Perceived Service Quality -> Adoption of e-Commerce

0.191

0.190

0.069

2,748

0.006

H4

Accepted

Scope of Business Operation -> Adoption of e-commerce

0.000

-0.012

0.083

0.006

0.995

H5

Rejected

Firm Size -> Adoption of e-commerce

-0.072

-0.063

0.108

0.672

0.502

H6

Rejected

Original Sample (O)

Sample Mean (M)

Standard Deviation (STDEV)

T Statistics

P Values

Hip

Notes

Variable

Table 4. Total Effect Model 1 cont Variable Organization Mission -> Adoption of e-Commerce

0.052

0.071

0.121

0.429

0.668

H7

Rejected

Facilitating Conditions -> Adoption of e-Commerce

-0.079

-0.082

0.115

0.692

0.489

H8

Rejected

Individual Difference Factors -> Adoption of e-Commerce

0.199

0.168

0.071

2,735

0.018

H9

Accepted

Social Influence -> Adoption of e-Commerce

0.246

0.177

0.075

2,940

0.007

H10

Accepted

Consumer Readiness -> Adoption of e-Commerce

0.174

0.161

0.065

1,989

0.041

H11

Accepted

Competitive Pressure -> Adoption of e-Commerce

0.261

0.172

0.074

2,954

0.001

H12

Accepted

Trading Partner Readiness -> Adopt ion of e-Commerce

0.198

0.169

0.070

2004

0.016

H13

Accepted

Perceived Trust ->Adoption of e-Commerce

0.244

0.229

0.092

2,644

0.008

H14

Accepted

Current Situations -> Adoption of e-Commerce

0.258

0.193

0.088

2,883

0.003

H15

Accepted

Source: processed research data, 2020

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 What Makes SMEs Entrepreneurs in Central Java Adopt E-Commerce?

There are 15 variables studied; i.e. a) perceived usefulness; b) perceived ease of use; c) perceived behavior control; d) scope of business operations; e) firm’s size; f) organization mission; g) facilitating condition; h) individual difference factors; i) social influence; j) consumer readiness; k) competitive pressure; l) trading partner readiness; m) current situation; n) perceived service quality, and o) perceived trust; then there are 10 variables that have a positive and significant effect. 10 variables have a positive and significant effect on the behavior of MSME entrepreneurs to adopt e-Commerce. The details can be seen in Table 5 which shows the largest to the smallest influence of those 15 variables; Table 5. The Magnitude of Each Variable on Adoption e-Commerce The Effects of Variables

The Magnitude of the Effect

Competitive Pressure -> Adoption of E-Commerce

0.261

Current Situation -> Adoption of E-Commerce

0.258

Social Influence -> Adoption of E-Commerce

0.246

Perceived Trust -> Adoption of E-Commerce

0.244

Perceived Ease For Use -> Adoption of E-Commerce

0.224

Perceived Usefulness -> Adoption of E-Commerce

0.205

Individual Difference Factors -> Adoption of E-Commerce

0.199

Trading Partner Readiness -> Adoption of E-Commerce

0.198

Perceived Service Quality -> Adoption of E-Commerce

0.191

Consumer Readiness-> Adoption of E-Commerce

0.174

Perceived Behavior Control -> Adoption of E-Commerce

0.121

Organization Mission -> Adoption of E-Commerce

0.052

Scope Of Business Operation -> Adoption of E-Commerce

0

Firm Size -> Adoption of E-Commerce

-0.072

Facilitating Conditions -> Adoption of E-Commerce

-0.079

Meanwhile, the next variables include perceived behavior control; the scope of business operations; firm size; organization mission; facilitating condition; they give insignificant effects on the adoption of e-Commerce. It means that the higher the variable, the lower the e-Commerce adoption by MSMEs, but the effect is not real or significant. The reason is that the five (5) variables that do not affect e-Commerce adoption are the inadequate condition of MSMEs in Indonesia and only a small proportion of MSMEs have been able to utilize the Internet or e-Commerce. Based on the results of the Report from (Irawan, 2018) in the ekonomi.bisnis.com stated that the Ministry of Communication and Informatics noted that only 8% of the 60 million MSMEs in Indonesia have used online platforms to market their products. Based on the results of a survey by Finixorgle Indonesia (Republika, 2013) stated that only about 75,000 out of 55,200,000, or equivalent to 0.0013% of MSMEs in Indonesia have used the Internet to ac-

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 What Makes SMEs Entrepreneurs in Central Java Adopt E-Commerce?

company their business. It is a very unequal comparison when viewed from the total number of MSMEs in Indonesia. The low penetration of e-Commerce for MSMEs in Indonesia is a matter of concern. The role of the government and all MSME stakeholders is needed. The government as the strongest role should know the low penetration of e-Commerce to MSME business actors, provide training and development opportunities for MSMEs through e-Commerce (Febriantoro, 2018: 186). Furthermore, to analyze three (3) hypotheses with variable technology (T), Organization (O), and Environment (E), then tested using Model 2 with the results as shown in Figure 2.

Research Model 2 (Per Factor) The following is a schematic of the Smart PLS 3.0 program model tested:

Figure 3. Final Schematic of Model 2

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 What Makes SMEs Entrepreneurs in Central Java Adopt E-Commerce?

The Results of Outer Model Test (Measurement Model) 1. Convergent Validity To test the convergent validity, the outer loading value and the average variance extracted (AVE) value were used. An indicator in the construct is considered to meet the convergent validity which is categorized as good if the outer value is> 0.7 and the AVE value is> 0.5 (Abdillah & Hartono, 2015: 196). The following is the outer loading value of each indicator in the research variable: The research variable indicator shows the outer loading value above 0.7 so that it fulfills the convergent validity assumption that can measure the research variables. Furthermore, to assess convergent validity, it can also be seen in the average variance extracted (AVE) value of each research variable and the results show that the AVE value of each research factor is> 0.5 so that the research variable can be a good research construct. 2. Discriminant Validity The discriminant validity test can be seen from the cross-loading value. An indicator is declared to meet discriminant validity if the cross-loading value of the indicator in one variable is> 0.7 (Abdillah & Hartono, 2015: 196). And the research results show that the value of the cross-loading indicator for each variable is> 0.7 so that the research variable can be used as a good research construct. 3. Reliability Test The reliability test in Smart PLS uses two methods, namely Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability. Cronbach’s alpha measures the lower limit of the reliability value of a construct. While composite reliability measures the real value of the reliability of a construct. Rule of thumb of Cronbach’s alpha value and composite reliability> 0.7 (Abdillah & Hartono, 2015: 196). The table above shows that the Cronbach’s alpha value for each factor> 0.7 so that the factor The Table above shows that the composite reliability value on the research factor> 0.7 so that it is stated that the research factor is considered reliable and has a consistent construct.

Inner Model Test (Structural Model) Model 2 The inner model test or structural model is used to determine the effect of the construct. The inner model test was analyzed using the R Square value and the t-test for significance value. 1. R Square (R2) Test Model 2 R Square describes the relationship between latent variables based on the theory evaluated by the dependent construct. R2 value indicates the goodness of fit. The higher the R2 value, the better the construct (Abdillah & Hartono, 2015: 197). R Square with a value> 0.67 is considered good and R Square with a value> 0.33 is considered moderate or sufficient. Meanwhile, R Square with a value 0.33 and t-Table or p-value ECommerce Adoption

0.104

0.112

0.110

0.941

0.347

H16

Rejected

Organization (Factor 2) -> ECommerce Adoption

0.198

0.178

0.075

2,040

0.010

H17

Accepted

Environment (Factor 3) -> ECommerce Adoption

0.193

0.199

0.078

2,454

0.014

H18

Accepted

Variable

Source: processed research data, 2020

Based on three major factors; Technology, Organization, and Environment, the largest to smallest influencing factors are Organization, Environment, and Technology.

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 What Makes SMEs Entrepreneurs in Central Java Adopt E-Commerce?

Based on the total effect table, the Organization covers the Scope of Business Operations (SBOs) variable, Firm’s Size, Organization Mission. Based on the total effect table, it shows that the p-value is 0.014 IDR 15 million

13

3.20%

Age

Monthly Expense (IDR in million)

if in a regression model there is a correlation between each independent variable. Multicollinearity can be seen from the value of tolerance and the value of variance inflation factor (VIF). The two values​​ will be compared with a parameter value of 10 and if the VIF value is less than 10 then it is free from multicollinearity symptoms. The calculation results can be seen more fully in Table 2. The final stage of this statistical analysis is the multiple linear regression test consisting of the t test, the F test and the coefficient of determination. In the t test will be conducted to test the effect caused by each independent variable on the dependent variable. The inferred hypothesis is accepted if the value of t-calculate α. Based on Table 3, it can be concluded if all hypotheses are accepted. While the F test is used to determine whether there is a significant effect on the dependent variable and the independent variables simultaneously. The decision is seen from the value of F-calculate> Ftable or Sig 0.900) as suggested by Hair et al. (2009).

Convergent Validity The convergent validity for the measurement model was achieved when all AVE values exceeded 0.50, whereas the composite reliability was achieved when all CR values exceeded 0.60 as suggested by Hair 199

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Figure 2. Measurement Model

et al. (2009). As all factor loadings are above 0.5, divergent validity is achieved as well. The correlation coefficients among variables are high but as divergent validity is achieved, the measurement model can be subjected to structural equation modelling. Table 3 displays convergent validity aspects.

Structural Model As the researcher has reported the unidimensionality, validity, and reliability of constract of technology upgradation, operational operformance and shoppers satisfaction, the next step followed is construction of structural model using SEM. The normal practice is followed for assembling the constructs from left to right, starting with exogenous construct (technology upgradation), followed by mediating contruct (oprtational performance) and finally endogenous construct. The direction of hypotheses is determined by arrow heads. Because SEM has the ability to model complex relationships between multivariate data, sample size is an important (but unfortunately underemphasized) issue. Two popular assumptions are that you need more than 200 observations, or at least 50 more than 8 times the number of variables in the model. A larger sample size is always desired for SEM. Like other multivariate statistical methodologies, most of the estimation techniques used in SEM require multivariate normality. The data need to be examined for univariate and multivariate outliers. Transformations on the variables can be made.

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Table 4. Divergent Validity Items

Digital Up-gradation

T1

.864

T2

.900

T3

.898

T4

.899

T5

.898

T6

.863

T7

.887

Operational Performance

O1

Deleted

O2

.899

O3

.888

O4

.918

Shopper Satisfaction

S1

.894

S2

.877

S3

.869

S4

.858

S5

Deleted

Cronbach Alpha

0.964

0.928

0.929

Table 5. Convergent Validity Construct

Digital Up-gradation

Operational Performance

Shopper Satisfaction

Item

Factor Loading

T1

.864

T2

.900

T3

.898

T4

.899

T5

.898

T6

.863

T7

.887

O2

.899

O3

.888

O4

.918

S1

.894

S2

.877

S3

.869

S4

.858

CR (minimum 0.6)

AVE (Minimum 0.5)

0.963

0.787

0.929

0.813

0.929

0.764

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Multicollinearity among the IVs for manifest variables can be an issue. Most programs will inspect the determinant of a section of your covariance matrix, or the whole covariance matrix. A very small determinant may be indicative of extreme multicollinearity. The current study addresses all these assumptions and limitations before proceeding to SEM procedure. SEM procedure is followed for direct impact and then separately for mediating impact by including mediator.

Direct Impact (X) The direct impact of digital up-gradation of malls on shoppers’ satisfaction was assessed through the structural model omitting the construct of operational performance. The model was considered to be a good fit; it achieved an absolute fit (RMEA = 0.072, GFI = 0.932) and incremental fit (CFI = 0.983, TLI = 0.977, NFI = 0.968) Figure 3. Structural Model – Direct Impact

As shown in figure 3, the construct exhibit a direct impact. The path coefficients from digital upgradation and shopper’s satisfaction are significant. It indicates a positive direct effect of digital upgradation towards shopper’s satisfaction. It can be concluded that, the adoption of technology able to increases satisfactory level (at 85%) as compared to those shopping malls which did not deploy technology in their operation and management of the mall.

Mediating Effect (Y) To estimate the parameters, a structural model of digital up-gradation and its impact on shopper satisfaction, mediated by operational performance was developed in the context of Malaysian shopping malls as displayed in figure 4. The objective was to investigate the impact of digital up-gradation on shopper satisfaction as well as the mediating effect of operational performance between digital marketing and 202

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shopper satisfaction. Furthermore, testing for mediation effect amongst the constructs is conducted through stractual model, and the results as follows. The model was considered to be a good fit; it achieved an absolute fit (RMEA = 0.064, GFI = 0.917) and incremental fit (CFI = 0.982, TLI = 0.977, NFI = 0.962). Figure 4. Structural Model - Mediating Effect

The result of Indirect Effect is 0.72 (digital up-gradation → operational performance = 0.88 multiply by operational performance → shopper’s satisfaction = 0.82). While the Direct Effect of digital up-gradation on shopper’s satisfaction is 0.13. As such, the mediation effect occurs, and operational performance is the mediator amongst the constructs.

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS Below is the summary of the hypothesis testing results.

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Table 6. Hypothesis Testing – Direct Impact

H1

Dependent Variable

Independent Variables

Estimate β

Shopper Satisfaction

Digital Upgradation

0.846

p ***

Significance

Hypothesis Decision

Significant

Accepted

*p 1.00. Therefore, the authors concluded that the confirmatory factor analysis model has no multicollinearity issue. Confirmatory factor analysis is the testing procedure of the measurement model validity and an important preliminary step in the analysis before making any attempt to evaluate the structural model (Byrne, 2010). The confirmatory factor analysis test results showed good results; then, the authors concluded that the measurement model has good validity. Therefore, the next step was to test the measurement model and the structural model against the model fit (Arbuckle, 2017; Byrne, 2010; Kline, 2011). During the measurement model fit test, not all critical ratio satisfies the significance level of 0.05. The relationship between urban systems → smart urban services (C.R value of -4.793); the relationship between smart urban services → citizen preferences (C.R value of -0.076) did not satisfy the significance level of 0.05 (C.R < 1.96). The authors took the next step by implementing model respecification based on the MG strategy. The aims of the respecification are lowering the χ2/DF value (to achieve lower discrepancy) and achieving parameter improvements in order to meet the adequacy of estimated model fit CFI, RMSEA, and TLI. After the respecification, the χ2 decreased from 10858.616 to 8139.944, which indicates a much lower discrepancy. The χ2/DF decreased from 2.351 to 2.303, which shows the improvement of the overall model fit. The CFI value increased from 0.885 to become 0.903; the RMSEA value did not change from the value of 0.036; the TLI improved from 0.081 to become 0.900. The parameters showed a good of a measurement model fit (Arbuckle, 2017; Byrne, 2010; Salisbury et al., 2002). The structural model fit tests showed that all nine causal paths specified were all found to be statistically significant. The squared multiple correlations (R2) of a variable are the proportion of variance that accounted for by its predictors shows satisfactory results (Kline, 2011).

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Reliability and Validity in Quantitative Phase The term “validity” is concerned with whether variable measures what it is supposed to measure. The term “reliability” is the consistency of measurement (Bollen, 1989). Furthermore, the analysis emphasized the good validity and reliability based on the following criteria: • •

The factor loadings should be more than 0,50 (Igbaria et al., 1997). Construct reliability (CR) gains score value of more or equal to 0,70; as well as AVE that gains score value of more or equal to 0,50 (Fornell & Larcker, 1981).

Results of Hypotheses Testing Table 2 shows that 10 hypotheses are supported and two hypotheses are rejected, based on the results of the hypotheses tests. Figure 6 summarizes the hypotheses testing results.

Figure 6. Hypotheses testing summary of the structural model (Mahesa et al., 2020)

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Table 2. Hypotheses testing result (Mahesa et al., 2020) Hypothesis

Causal Relationship

Supported Hypotheses

Rejected Hypotheses

H1

US → PL → CP

√

H2

US → PL → PR

√

H3

US → SUS → CP

√

H4

US → SUS → PR

√

H5

CS → PL → CP

√

H6

CS → PL → PR

√

H7

CS → SUS → CP

√

H8

CS → SUS → PR

√

H9

US → PL → SUS → CP

√

H10

US → PL → SUS → PR

√

H11

CS → PL → SUS → CP

√

H12

CS → PL → SUS → PR

√

Legends: US = Urban Systems; CS = Cultural Systems; PL = Political Leadership; SUS = Smart Urban Services; CP = Citizen Preferences; PR = Policy Responsiveness

Table 3. The large estimate of causal relationships (Mahesa et al., 2020) Causal Relationship

Standardized Estimate

Significance Level

Related Hypotheses

CS → PL

0.735***

0.001

H5, H6, H11, H12

PL → CP

0.683***

0.001

H1, H5

PL → SUS

0.571***

0.001

H9, H10, H11, H12

SUS → PR

0.462***

0.001

H4, H8, H10, H12

PL → PR

0.445***

0.001

H2, H6

*** = 0.001 Sig. Level

Table 4. The small-to-medium estimate of causal relationships (Mahesa et al., 2020) Relationship

Significance Level

Standardized Estimate

Related Hypotheses

SUS → CP

0.186***

0.001

H3

US → PL

0.174**

0.01

H1, H2, H9, H10

*** = 0.001 Sig. Level; ** = 0.01 Sig. Level

Table 5. The negative estimate of causal relationship (Mahesa et al., 2020) Relationship US → SUS

Standardized Estimate -0.115*

Significance 0.05

Related Hypotheses H1, H2, H9, H10

* = 0.05 Sig. Level

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Table 6. Mediation test results of “political leadership” (Mahesa et al., 2020) Mediating Variable

Causal Relationship

t-Stat Sobel’s Test

Mediation Test

Related Hypothesis

CS → PL → CP

PL

7.395**

Supported

H5

CS → PL → PR

PL

6.245**

Supported

H6

US → PL → CP

PL

3.088**

Supported

H1

US → PL → PR

PL

2.99**

Supported

H2

Note: ** = significance level 0.01

Table 7. Mediation test results of “smart urban services” (Mahesa et al., 2020) Causal Relationship

Mediating Variable

t-Stat Sobel’s Test

Mediation Test

Related Hypothesis

CS →SUS → PR

SUS

3.25**

Supported

H8

CS→ SUS → CP

SUS

2.72**

Supported

H7

Note: ** = significance level 0.01

Analysis of Relationships Between Constructs Kline (2011) stated that a standardized estimate value 0.50 as a “large” effect. There are five “large positive effects” of causal relationships, with a very high level of significance (0.001), as Table 3 shows. Moreover, Table 4 shows two “small-to-medium positive effect” of causal relationships. Furthermore, Table 5 highlights one “small negative effect” of a causal relationship. Table 8. Mediation test of multiple mediating variables (Mahesa et al., 2020) Multiple Mediating Variables

Causal Relationship

t-Stat Sobel’s Test - 1

t-Stat Sobel’s Test - 2

Related Hypothesis

Mediation Test

US → PL → SUS → CP

PL & SUS

2.775**

3.46**

Supported

H9

US → PL → SUS → PR

PL & SUS

2.775**

4.77**

Supported

H10

CS → PL → SUS → CP

PL & SUS

4.80**

3.46**

Supported

H11

CS → PL → SUS → PR

PL & SUS

4.80**

4.77**

Supported

H12

Note: ** = significance level 0.01

Table 9. Mediation test results of “smart urban services” (Mahesa et al., 2020) Causal Relationship

Mediating Variable

t-Stat Sobel’s Test

Mediation Test

Related Hypothesis

US→ SUS → CP

SUS

-1.32

Rejected

H3

US →SUS → PR

SUS

-1.38

Rejected

H4

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“Urban systems → smart urban services” had a “small” effect of negative estimate. Nevertheless, the relationship between the two variables has a reasonably high level of significance (0.05). The failure of the hypothesis is more due to its negative value estimation. Furthermore, “political leadership” was confirmed to act as a mediating variable with a high level of statistical significance (0.01) of causal relationships based on the mediation test analysis using Sobel’s Test (Table 6). Moreover, “smart urban services” was confirmed to act as a mediating variable with a high level of statistical significance (0.01) of causal relationships based on the mediation test analysis using Sobel’s Test (Table 7). Furthermore, “political leadership and smart urban services” were confirmed to act as multiple mediating variables with a high level of statistical significance (0.01) for causal relationships based on the mediation test analysis using Sobel’s Test (Table 8). Moreover, “smart urban services” was confirmed for not acting as a mediating variable for causal relationships based on the mediation test analysis using Sobel’s test (Table 9). Both mediation tests “US→ SUS→ CP” and “US→ SUS→ PR” failed to show that the “smart urban services” variable plays a role as an influential intervening factor between exogenous latent variables and endogenous latent variables. The negative value of standardized estimate obtained between “urban systems → smart urban services” has caused smart urban services to lose its role as mediator of urban systems on the formation of citizen preferences and policy responsiveness.

Discussion Hypotheses testing revealed 10 accepted hypotheses. H1 and H9 confirm the positive effect of causal relationships from urban systems to citizen preferences. The investigation of the hypotheses supported Khatoun and Zeadally’s (2016) underlying theories, according to which citizen life is the focus of the concept of Indonesia’s smart cities. This research model also proposes that technology is a subset of the concept of smart city. There are still other important factors, namely social, cultural, political, and legal aspects. This means that technology is an enabler and accelerator aspect of sustainable urban development. H2 and H10 confirmed the positive effect of causal relationships from urban systems to policy responsiveness. The investigation of the hypotheses supported Fernandez-Anez et al. (2018) underlying theory according to which every city that implements a smart city strategy must have a master plan, including performance benchmarks. The master plan aims to ensure that every complex and abstract idea, vision, and mission is well documented in a concrete and measurable form. H5, H7, and H11 confirmed the positive effect of causal relationships from cultural systems to citizen preferences. H6, H8, and H12 confirmed the positive effect of causal relationships from cultural systems and policy responsiveness. The emphasis of the investigation of hypotheses suggests that cultural systems, which consist of connectedness, collaboration, cohesiveness, control, and conflict resolution between stakeholders, are the key to the successful implementation of smart city strategies. The cultural systems construct passed the reliability and validity test, and showed very high estimates of causal relationships with other constructs. Cultural systems are unique in the Indonesia context and were rarely mentioned in the previous literature and researchers. Therefore, the construct of cultural systems, along with its dimensions and indicators, is the novelty of this research, which extends the body of knowledge in sustainable urban development. 405

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Hypotheses testing also revealed two rejected hypotheses. The gap between the concept of sustainable development and the smart city framework that occurred in this study supposedly caused by several factors. It is suspected that the transition process from non-sanitary city to sanitary city, as described by Childers et al. (2014), did not fully take place in several cities in Indonesia in this study. Figure 7. Transition from contemporary cities to sustainable cities (Childers et al., 2014)

CONCLUSION Answers to Research Question 1 [RQ1] RQ1: What are the major constructs to build conceptual model platform ecosystems for Indonesia’s smart cities which enable all stakeholders’ interaction to collaborate toward urban sustainability? The six constructs urban systems, cultural systems, political leadership, smart urban services, citizen preferences, and policy responsiveness build the conceptual model platform ecosystems for Indonesia’s smart cities and enable all stakeholders’ interaction to collaborate toward urban sustainability. As the authors mentioned above, the constructs are also called “meta constructs,” because they were derived from what has not been mentioned previously from the literature review, but been identified and practiced in various organizations studied during the qualitative phase in sequential exploratory research design (Pagell & Wu, 2009). A new construct, cultural systems, which is unique for Indonesia’s context, is a major finding and the novelty of this research, based on the strong evidence of reliability and validity. This new construct has strong causal relationship estimates with other constructs in the structural model and supports the investigation of hypotheses satisfactorily. Table 10 presents all constructs, dimensions, and indicators which passed the reliability and validity test satisfactorily in this study. Reliability and validity passed the confirmatory factor analysis with evidence of very good model fit.

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Figure 8. Human factors as a fundamental component of smart city (Nam & Pardo, 2011)

Answers to Research Question 2 [RQ2] RQ2: What is the conceptual model of platform ecosystems for Indonesia’s smart cities the authors proposed which enables all stakeholders’ interaction to collaborate toward urban sustainability? Figure 9 shows the conceptual structural model framework, which consists of six constructs urban systems, cultural systems, political leadership, smart urban services, citizen preferences, and policy responsiveness and the causal relationships between constructs. The conceptual model framework passed the model testing using the CB-SEM satisfactorily, with strong evidence of very good model fit and the high proportion of squared multiple correlations (R2) of constructs.

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Two latent variables, namely political leadership and smart urban services, act as mediating variables, passed the mediation tests satisfactorily, and had high statistical significance; they are also claimed as major research findings.

Answers to Research Question 3 [RQ3] RQ3: Does the proposed conceptual platform ecosystems for Indonesia’s smart cities fit to enable interaction of all stakeholders to collaborate toward urban sustainability? Figure 11 shows the path analysis and correlation (standard factor loadings or standardized estimates) between exogenous and endogenous variables. Furthermore, Figure 12 shows the results of the measurement model analysis of the standardized regression weights of every construct to their dimensions and indicators. All reflective dimensions and indicators show very good standardized regression weights, and no multicollinearity issues occurred in the measurement model fit. The measurement model passed the test satisfactorily and shows all criteria have a good model fit. To summarize and review findings from the respecification model tested, nine causal paths specified in the structural model are statistically significant. Eight of the causal paths have a significant level of 0.01, and one causal path is significant at the level of 0.05. The squared multiple correlations (R2) of a variable are the proportion of variance that accounted for by its predictors. Political leadership (R2 value of 0.792), smart urban services (R2 value of 0.610), citizen preferences (R2 value of 0.697), and policy responsiveness (R2 value of 0.729) show satisfactory results (Kline, 2011).

FUTURE RESEARCH 1. The authors suggest more extensive research in Indonesia to investigate whether the lack of human capital, natural resources, and physical infrastructure dimensions leads to urban systems failure. The research is also encouraged to investigate the causal relationship between urban systems and smart urban services in other cities. 2. Some negative responses during the questionnaire survey related to the dimension of human capital [HC] questions regarding energy saving, education, and health from respondents need further investigation of future research to look deeper using the root-cause problem analysis. Nam and Pardo (2011) emphasized human factors that play a critical role in a successful smart city. 3. The future research will identify other stakeholders on platform ecosystems who come from the “knowledge layer” and “data layer,” and to explore how to enable their positive interaction for the development of Indonesia’s smart cities. 4. The authors suggest that future research also explores the state-of-the-art technology of Industry 4.0 and facilitates the latest invention, such as 5G cellular networks and Internet of things technologies, in order to support the growth of future smart cities’ demand on telemedicine, smart home and office, autonomous vehicles, and integrated cloud-computing smart cities platform.

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Table 10. List of constructs, dimensions, and indicators (Mahesa et al., 2020) Constructs

Dimensions Human capital [HC]

Urban systems [US]

Natural resources [NR]

Physical infrastructures [PI]

Connectedness [Conn]

Collaboration [Coll] Cultural systems [CS] Cohesiveness [Coh] Control [Ctrl] Conflict resolution [ConRes]

Timeless nationalism [TN]

Political leadership [PL]

Transitional [TR] Transactional [TSC]

Transformative [TRF]

Smart governance [SG] Smart branding [SB]

Smart urban services [SUS]

Smart economy [SEC] Smart living [SL] Smart society [SS] Smart environment [SEV]

Indicators HC1.

Energy-saving movement

HC2.

Access to education

HC3.

Health

HC4.

State and local budget transparency

NR1.

Flora and fauna preservation

NR2.

Clean air and pollution-free

NR3.

Water resources

NR4.

Waste management

PI3.

Telecommunication and Internet network

PI4.

Security

Con1.

Environment monitoring

Con2.

Public transportation

Con3.

News updating

Con4.

Developing MSMEs

Coll1.

Social activities

Coll2.

Knowledge and learning

Coll3.

Innovation collaboration

Coll4.

Loan

Coh1.

Culture

Coh2.

Tourism

Coh3.

Disaster information

Ctrl3.

Clear planning

Ctrl4.

Authorized development body

Res1.

Community involvement

Res2.

Open data management

Res3.

Cooperation among regions

TN1.

Five principles actuation

TN2.

Democracy appliance

TN3.

Applicable law

TN4.

Voice of the citizen

TR2.

Subordinate management

TR3.

Policy communication

TR4.

Workforce planning

TSC2.

Business potential

TSC3.

Skill training

TSC4.

Labor protection

TRF1.

Optimistic

TRF2.

Economic growth

TRF3.

Reward to the innovation

TRF4.

Regeneration of the leaders

SG1.

Digital licensing

SG2.

Digital communication

SG3.

Supporting for regulations

SB1.

Uniqueness identification

SB2.

Promotions activities

SB3.

Preservation of cultural sites

SEC1.

Economic improvement

SEC2.

Industry excellence

SEC3.

Environmental and social balance

SL1.

Public transportation

SL2.

Health and hygiene information

SL3.

Entertainment facilities and art gallery

SS1.

Security awareness

SS2.

Learning community

SS3.

Supportive community

SEV1.

Clean water resources

SEV2.

Waste treatment management

SEV3.

Pollution prevention

continued on following page

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Table 10. Continued Constructs

Dimensions Equitable basic needs [EBN]

Citizen preferences [CP]

Equitable access to urban quality [EAQ]

Equitable development of human capital [EHC] Equitable democracy [EDC] Efficient bureaucracy management [EBM]

Regional institution readiness [RIR] Policy responsiveness [PR]

Strategic performance capabilities [SPC]

Regional community organization [RCO]

Indicators EBN1.

Food availability

EBN2.

Housing availability

EBN3.

Safety and comfort

EBN4.

Peaceful worship

EQ1.

Fresh and pollution-free air

EQ2.

Clean water for consumption

EQ3.

Affordable public transportation

EQ4.

Access to information and technology

EHC1.

Affordable health service

EHC2.

Affordable and access to education

EHC3.

Wide employment opportunities

EDC1.

Citizen expressions

EDC4.

Fairness and equality before the law

EBM1.

Citizen voice to be heard

EBM2.

Government progress report

EBM3.

Community service

EBM4.

Government support

RIR1.

Long term planning for sustainability

RIR3.

Standard operating procedures (SOPs)

RIR4.

Digital facilities for public service

SPC1.

Association of experts

SPC2.

Clean and responsive government

SPC3.

Periodically working progress reporting

SPC4.

Public service innovation through technology

RCO1.

University collaboration

RCO2.

Private sector collaboration

RCO3.

Community collaboration

RCO4.

Accessibility to government policies

ACKNOWLEDGMENT This research received no specific grant from public, commercial or non-profit funding agency. The authors would also like to express appreciation for P3MI – ITB’s support.

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Figure 9. Proposed conceptual model of platform ecosystems for Indonesia’s smart cities (Mahesa et al., 2020)

Figure 10. Proposed conceptual model: Constructs, dimensions, and indicators (Mahesa et al., 2020)

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Figure 11. Path analysis and correlation between variables in structural model (Mahesa et al., 2020)

Figure 12. Standardized regression weights in the measurement model (Mahesa et al., 2020)

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REFERENCES Arbuckle, J. L. (1989). AMOS: Analysis of Moment Structures. The American Statistician. Advance online publication. doi:10.2307/2685178 Arbuckle, J. L. (2017). Amos 25.0 User’s Guide. IBM SPSS. Bollen, K. A. (1989). Structural Equations with Latent Variables. Structural Equations with Latent Variables. Wiley. Brierley, J. A. (2017). The Role of A Pragmatism Paradigm When Adopting Mixed-Methods in Behavioral Accounting Research. International Journal of Behavioural Accounting and Finance, 140–154. Byrne, B. M. (2001). Structural Equation Modeling With AMOS, EQS, and LISREL: Comparative Approaches to Testing for the Factorial Validity of a Measuring Instrument. International Journal of Testing, 1(1), 55–86. doi:10.120715327574ijt0101_4 Byrne, B. M. (2010). Structural equation modeling with AMOS: Basic concepts, applications, and programming, second edition. doi:10.4324/9780203805534 Childers, D. L., Pickett, S. T. A., Grove, J. M., Ogden, L., & Whitmer, A. (2014). Advancing urban sustainability theory and action: Challenges and opportunities. Landscape and Urban Planning, 125, 320–328. doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2014.01.022 Choudary, S. P. (2015). Platform Scale. Platform Thinking Labs. Clark, T. N. (1981). Urban Policy Analysis : The Direction of Future Research. SAGE Publications Ltd. Creswell, J. W., & Clark, V. L. P. (2011). Designing And Conducting Mixed Methods Research. Sage Publications, Inc. Dieleman, M. (2011). New town development in Indonesia : Renegotiating, shaping and replacing institutions. Academic Press. Fernandez-Anez, V., Fernández-Güell, J. M., & Giffinger, R. (2017). Smart City implementation and discourses: An integrated conceptual model. The case of Vienna. Cities (London, England), (November). Advance online publication. doi:10.1016/j.cities.2017.12.004 Firman, T. (2013). Demographic patterns of Indonesia’s urbanisation, 2000-2010: continuity and change at the macro-level. JY Pillay Comparative Asia Research Centre, National University of Singapore. Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating Structural Equation Models with Unobservable Variables and Measurement Error. JMR, Journal of Marketing Research. Advance online publication. doi:10.2307/3151312 Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2010). Multivariate Data Analysis. A Global Perspective (7th ed.). Pearson Education Ltd. Hair, J. F. Jr, Matthews, L. M., Matthews, R. L., & Sarstedt, M. (2017). PLS-SEM or CB-SEM: Updated guidelines on which method to use. International Journal of Multivariate Data Analysis, 1(2), 107–123. doi:10.1504/ijmda.2017.10008574

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Hair, J. F. J., Hult, G. T. M., Ringle, C., & Sarstedt, M. (2017). A Primer on Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM). SAGE Publications Ltd. Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6(1), 1–55. doi:10.1080/10705519909540118 Igbaria, M., Zinatelli, N., Cragg, P., & Cavaye, A. L. M. (1997). Personal computing acceptance factors in small firms: A structural equation model. MIS Quarterly: Management. Information Systems. Advance online publication. doi:10.2307/249498 Indonesia, S. (2017). Human Development Index 2017. Academic Press. Jöreskog, K. G. (1993). Testing structural equation models. SAGE. Khatoun, R., & Zeadally, S. (2016). Smart Cities: Concepts, Architectures, Research Opportunities. Communications of the ACM, 59(8), 46–57. doi:10.1145/2858789 Kline, R. B. (1998). Software Review: Software Programs for Structural Equation Modeling: Amos, EQS, and LISREL. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment. Advance online publication. doi:10.1177/073428299801600407 Kline, R. B. (2011). Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modelling (3rd ed.). The Guilford Press. Kumar, V. (2015). E-Governance for Smart Cities. Springer. Kwak, S. G., & Kim, J. H. (2017). Central limit theorem: The cornerstone of modern statistics. Korean Journal of Anesthesiology. Advance online publication. doi:10.4097/kjae.2017.70.2.144 PMID:28367284 Lenski, G., & Lenski, J. (1970). Human Societies : An Introduction To Macrosociology. McGraw-Hill, Inc. Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Establishing Trustworthiness. In Naturalistic Inquiry (pp. 289–327). Academic Press. Mahesa, R., Yudoko, G., & Anggoro, Y. (2018). Platform Ecosystems for Indonesia Smart Cities. In 2018 International Conference on Computer, Control, Informatics and its Applications (IC3INA) (pp. 34–39). 10.1109/IC3INA.2018.8629537 Milone, P. D. (1964). Contemporary Urbanization in Indonesia. Academic Press. Ministry of Communication and Information Technology - The Republic of Indonesia. (2017a). 1. Press Release No. 223/HM/KOMINFO/11/2017. Ministry of Communication and Information Technology - The Republic of Indonesia. (2017b). 2. Guidelines for Smart City Master Plan - Towards 100 Smart Cities Movement. Mora, L., Bolici, R., & Deakin, M. (2017). The First Two Decades of Smart-City Research: A Bibliometric Analysis. Journal of Urban Technology, 24(1), 3–27. doi:10.1080/10630732.2017.1285123 Nam, T., & Pardo, T. A. (2011). Conceptualizing smart city with dimensions of technology, people, and institutions. In Proceedings of the 12th Annual International Digital Government Research Conference on Digital Government Innovation in Challenging Times - dg.o ’11 (p. 282). 10.1145/2037556.2037602

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Pagell, M., & Wu, Z. (2009). Building a more complete theory of sustainable supply chain management using case studies of 10 exemplars. The Journal of Supply Chain Management, 45(2), 37–56. doi:10.1111/j.1745-493X.2009.03162.x Powell, B. J., Proctor, E. K., Glisson, C. A., Kohl, P. L., Raghavan, R., Brownson, R. C., ... Palinkas, L. A. (2013). A mixed methods multiple case study of implementation as usual in children’s social service organizations: Study protocol. Implementation Science; IS. Advance online publication. doi:10.1186/17485908-8-92 PMID:23961701 Roughneen, S. (2017). Booming Southeast Asian vehicle sales drive urban congestion. Nikkei Asian Review, 1–4. Retrieved from https://asia.nikkei.com/Business/Trends/Booming-Southeast-Asian-vehiclesales-drive-urban-congestion Ruland, J. (1996). The Dynamics of Metropolitan Management in Southeast Asia. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. Salisbury, W. D., Chin, W. W., Gopal, A., & Newsted, P. R. (2002). Research report: Better theory through measurement—developing a scale to capture consensus on appropriation. Information Systems Research. Saunders, M. N. K., Lewis, P., & Thornhill, A. (2014). Research Methods for Business Students. doi:10.100713398-014-0173-7.2 Saunders, M. N. K., Lewis, P., & Thornhill, A. A. (2015). Research Methods for Business Students. Pearson Education Limited. doi:10.100713398-014-0173-7.2 United Nations. (2019). World Urbanization Prospects: The 2018 Revision (ST/ESA/SER.A/420). United Nations. Yin, R. K. (2014). Case Study Research : Design and Methods. Sage Publications, Inc.

ADDITIONAL READING Anttiroiko, A. V., Valkama, P., & Bailey, S. J. (2014). Smart cities in the new service economy: Building platforms for smart services. AI & Society, 29(3), 323–334. doi:10.100700146-013-0464-0 Baldwin, C. Y., & Woodard, C. J. (2008). The Architecture of Platforms: A Unified View. SSRN Electronic Journal. doi:10.2139srn.1265155 Belanche, D., Casaló, L. V., & Orús, C. (2016). City attachment and use of urban services: Benefits for smart cities. Cities (London, England), 50, 75–81. doi:10.1016/j.cities.2015.08.016 Benlian, A., Hilkert, D., & Hess, T. (2015). How open is this platform? The meaning and measurement of platform openness from the complementors’ perspective. Journal of Information Technology, 30(3), 209–228. doi:10.1057/jit.2015.6 Curșeu, P. L., & Schruijer, S. G. (2017). Stakeholder diversity and the comprehensiveness of sustainability decisions: The role of collaboration and conflict. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 28, 114–120. doi:10.1016/j.cosust.2017.09.007

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Deakin, M. (2013). Introduction (to smart cities). Smart Cities: Governing, Modelling and Analysing the Transition, 1–12. doi:10.4324/9780203076224 Dion, L. (1968). The Concept of Political Leadership: An Analysis. Canadian Journal of Political Science, 1(1), 2–17. doi:10.1017/S0008423900035198 Erikson, R. S. (2013). Policy Responsiveness to Public Opinion. Political Science. Fischer, M. M. J. (2006). Culture and Cultural Analysis. Theory, Culture & Society, 23(2–3), 360–364. doi:10.1177/026327640602300265 Fujita, M., & Mori, T. (1997). Structural stability and evolution of urban systems. Regional Science and Urban Economics. Advance online publication. doi:10.10160166-0462(97)80004-x Geels, F. W. (2002). Technological transitions as evolutionary reconfiguration processes: A multi-level perspective and a case-study. Research Policy, 31(8–9), 1257–1274. doi:10.1016/S0048-7333(02)00062-8 Hiremath, R. B., Balachandra, P., Kumar, B., Bansode, S. S., & Murali, J. (2013). Indicator-based urban sustainability-A review. Energy for Sustainable Development. Advance online publication. doi:10.1016/j. esd.2013.08.004 Jacobides, M. G., Cennamo, C., & Gawer, A. (2018). Towards a theory of ecosystems. Strategic Management Journal. Advance online publication. doi:10.1002mj.2904 Marsal-Llacuna, M. L. (2016). City Indicators on Social Sustainability as Standardization Technologies for Smarter (Citizen-Centered) Governance of Cities. Social Indicators Research, 128(3), 1193–1216. doi:10.100711205-015-1075-6 Meijer, A., & Bolívar, M. P. R. (2016). Governing the smart city: A review of the literature on smart urban governance. International Review of Administrative Sciences, 82(2), 392–408. doi:10.1177/0020852314564308 Mineraud, J., Mazhelis, O., Su, X., & Tarkoma, S. (2016). A gap analysis of Internet-of-Things platforms. Computer Communications, 89–90, 5–16. doi:10.1016/j.comcom.2016.03.015 Mukhopadhyay, S., De Reuver, M., & Bouwman, H. (2016). Effectiveness of control mechanisms in mobile platform ecosystem. Telematics and Informatics, 33(3), 848–859. doi:10.1016/j.tele.2015.12.008 Odendaal, N. (2003). Information and communication technology and local governance: Understanding the difference between cities in developed and emerging economies. Computers, Environment and Urban Systems, 27(6), 585–607. doi:10.1016/S0198-9715(03)00016-4 Pérez-Mares, M. A. (2012). On the Economic Effects of Policy Responsiveness: The Role of Candidate Selection for General Elections. doi:10.5642/cguetd/34 Redman, C. L. (2014). Should sustainability and resilience be combined or remain distinct pursuits? Ecology and Society, 19(2). Advance online publication. doi:10.5751/ES-06390-190237 Saarikko, T., Westergren, U. H., & Blomquist, T. (2016). The inter-organizational dynamics of a platform ecosystem: Exploring stakeholder boundaries. Proceedings of the Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, 2016-March, 5167–5176. 10.1109/HICSS.2016.639

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Schaffers, H., Komninos, N., Pallot, M., Trousse, B., Nilsson, M., & Oliveira, A. (2011). Smart cities and the future internet: Towards cooperation frameworks for open innovation. Lecture Notes in Computer Science (Including Subseries Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence and Lecture Notes in Bioinformatics), 6656, 431–446. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-20898-0_31 Schreieck, M., Wiesche, M., & Krcmar, H. (2016). Design and Governance of Platform Ecosystems – Key Concepts and Issues for Future Research. Ecis, 1–20. Schwab, K. (2016). The Fourth Industrial Revolution. United States of America: World Economic Forum. Selin, S. W., Schuett, M. A., & Carr, D. (2000). Modeling stakeholder perceptions of collaborative initiative effectiveness. Society & Natural Resources, 13(8), 735–745. doi:10.1080/089419200750035593 Soma, K., Dijkshoorn-Dekker, M. W. C., & Polman, N. B. P. (2017). Stakeholder contributions through transitions towards urban sustainability. Sustainable Cities and Society. Advance online publication. doi:10.1016/j.scs.2017.10.003 Whebell, C. F. J. (1969). Corridors: A Theory of Urban Systems. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 59(1), 1–26. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2569520 Wirth, L. (1938). Urbanism as a Way of Life. American Journal of Sociology, 44(1), 1–24. doi:10.1177/004912417200100203 Wu, X., Hua, R., Yang, Z., & Yin, J. (2018). The influence of intention and outcome on evaluations of social interaction. Acta Psychologica, 182(616), 75–81. doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2017.11.010 PMID:29149691

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Platform: A specific class of technologies that have sponsors and complementors that interdependent. Platform Ecosystems: A massive arena of innovations and interactions among stakeholders focuses on six primary variables consisting of Urban Systems, Cultural Systems, Political Leadership, Smart Urban Services, Citizen Preferences, and Policy Responsiveness. Platform Ecosystems for Smart Cities: A conceptual framework of development where the contemporary cities transform from non-sanitary city to sanitary city by the stakeholders’ collaboration to cooperate and build the interaction through communication, involvement, and intermediation on the platform using integrated approach to achieve urban sustainability. Smart Cities: A representation of interconnected urban development as an inherent complex sociotechnical system which interacting using the advancement of information and communication technology solutions and innovation to achieve a high quality of life. Urban Sustainability: As the desired state in which the society strives to promote the integration of environment, economic development, and social equity in a sustainable urban form as a long-term approach through a strategic process.

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The Islamic View on ServiceDominant Logic, Service Logic, and Customer-Dominant Logic Ahmad Rafiki Universitas Medan Area, Indonesia Muhammad Dharma Tuah Putra Nasution Universitas Pembangunan Panca Budi, Indonesia Yossie Rossanty Universitas Pembangunan Panca Budi, Indonesia

ABSTRACT The purpose of this chapter is firstly to explore the differences of the three concepts of service-dominant logic, service logic, and customer dominant logic, and secondly is to see the Islamic view on these three concepts. The authors adopt the content analysis method by reviewing the literature from various sources, and the topic will then be elaborated and discussed thoroughly. A few concepts in Islam such as values in services, excellent services, Islamic work ethics are embedded into the logic. This establishes the fact that the focal point of Islam is to supply excellent services to everyone specifically the customers as well as ensuring that every service is equipped with an added value.

INTRODUCTION The debates of the three concepts had begun since decades ago, related to the services that brought the academicians to develop a new dominant logic as the main reason for the exchange (Grönroos and Ravald 2010; Grönroos and Voima 2013; Vargo and Lusch 2004, 2008a, 2016). In a broader perspective, these are not only related to the services but marketing and consumer behavior as well. Thus, understanding those interrelated aspects are important to see their contribution to the theory and practices. Uniquely

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-6477-6.ch021

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 The Islamic View on Service-Dominant Logic, Service Logic, and Customer-Dominant Logic

and certainly, the Islamic perspective on the logic or value creation becomes a newly exposed concept that could be compared with the existing literature or so called conventional view. Dominant logic is defined as a general view of business that applies between dominant coalitions (Prahalad and Bettis 1996). It gives a series of propositions and fundamental perspectives from specific domains designed to guide the actors’ decision making. Each dominant logic offers a set of unique propositions (Vargo and Lusch 2004; Grönroos and Ravald 2010; Heinonen and Strandvik 2015), therefore the implementation of two or more different dominant logic for the similar set of events, will produce very different results (Allison, 1971). The essence of the dominant logic is to focus on value co-creation, and to shift the unit of analysis from product to value co-creation (Vargo & Lusch, 2008b). Co-creation occurs when the actors (companies and consumers) interact in a meeting point of a service (Grönroos 2012; Grönroos & Voima 2013; Vargo & Lusch 2004, 2008a, 2010). This logic suggests that consumers and companies each allocate their resources. Vargo and Lusch (2010) underline the fact that not only that they provide input for customer value co-creation activities, but customers would do the same for the company. In the process of value co-creation from an S-L perspective, each customer and company contributes to the value creation during their interaction. The allocation of resources by actors (providers and beneficiaries) serves as a form of responsibility where these actors can create value together (FitzPatrick, et.al, 2015; Grӧnroos, 2012; Grӧnroos & Vioma, 2013; Vargo & Lusch 2008a, 2016). The discussion on this dominant logic had started since the year 2004. Many scholars have given their views and attention in the discussion particularly when the value creation subject is brought forth as the research topic. In fact, it is found that 56,000 citations from 26,800 articles were reported by Google Scholar associated with Service-Dominant logic (SDL) by Vargo dan Lusch. Moreover, there are 1,593 documents/articles indexed by Scopus since the year 1983. Then the service-logic (S-L) by Grönroos and Ravald (2010); Grönroos and Voima (2013) comprised of arguments associating and confronting the arguments of SDL which also has 543 documents indexed by Scopus. Later, the newly argued topic is the customer-dominant logic (CDL) by Heinonen and Strandvik (2015); Heinonen et al. (2013) which has 42 articles indexed by Scopus. The reference to Scopus (as the world’s prominent index) is proof that these logic are imperative and significant, hence it was published in such high index profile. The fact is that the central to each of these logic is the focus on the co-creation of value and “shifting the unit of analysis from products to value creation” (Vargo and Lusch 2008b, p.4). The emergence of marketing logic offers some fresh perspectives to develop value creation and exchange in the market, such as SD Logic (Vargo & Lusch, 2004; 2008a; 2016), SL (Grönroos & Ravald, 2010; Grönroos & Voima, 2013), and CD Logic (Heinonen & Strandvik, 2015; Heinonen, Strandvik & Voima, 2013). Research demonstrates that value co-creation in this logic is a reciprocal and mutually beneficial process, where companies must work not only for consumers but to also collaborate in creating value for improvement (Karpen, Bove & Lukas, 2012). In practice, value co-creation is also relevant, where more than 90 percent of consumers will buy products from companies that give them the opportunity to work together to create value (Bradley, 2014). The three logic do not appear to represent the Islamic approach, whereby in fact Islam emphasizes value creation as the main idea of those logic. Islam perceived value creation as crucial because it contributes or brings a positive impact to the society, specifically the customers. Thus, it is important to describe the Islamic perspective on value creation that would be as an alternative or a complementary approach. It will also reveal that a discussion of logic is expected to be wider and more comprehensive when a comparison or similarities are disclosed in the future. Before the discussion takes place on the relationship with the Islamic values, the chapter will have a go at going 419

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into the different concepts of value co-creation from each marketing logic and then, seek to understand the roles played by actors in the co-creation process.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW Value Co-creation Theory The seminal work of Prahalad and Ramaswamy (2000) on the value co-creation theory and earlier work on dominant logic served as a primer to the S-D logic framework theory. A primary difference between value co-creation theory and S-D logic theory is that researchers employ this value co-creation to achieve a short-term objective, such as a new product or service idea to increase an organization’s offerings, production, or price structure (Vargo, 2008; Vargo, Maglio, & Akaka, 2008). A prevalent theme shared between the two theories is the network environment rich with a line of stakeholders and shareholders. Researchers have explored the factors found to influence value co-creation in a vast and growing body of literature that includes an approach to leverage value through stakeholder innovation (Alves et al., 2016; Normann & Ramirez, 1993; Ramirez, 1999; Terblanche, 2014). For over 25 years, value co-creation has evolved into a dynamic framework as seen through the lens of marketing. Theories and concepts that sit well and prominently with value co-creation include alternative views of co-creation, value co-production, value chain, service marketing, and the S-D logic framework theory via a shared production and service process (Normann & Ramirez, 1993; Ramirez, 1999; Vargo & Lusch, 2016). The S-D logic framework and service ecosystem concept play their role as the unit of analysis for value co-creation, as has been observed in Axiom 5 FP 11 (Vargo & Lusch, 2017). The attention paid to a co-creation in the marketing literature shows information about the interaction between consumers and providers which is regarded as an important aspect (Mustk, Jaakkola & Halinen, 2013). This concept of co-creation originated from research on user-based product innovation (Prahalad & Ramaswamy, 2004), meanwhile when scientists began to acknowledge the increasing perceived values which occur when customers are involved in the innovation process, this concept eventually spreads to marketing and other disciplines (Hatch & Schultz, 2010). Earlier, the research begins to consider co-creation specifically towards a company perspective, where the company’s attention rests in increasing customer competence as competitive advantage (Prahalad & Ramaswamy, 2004). However, the development of the dominant logic in the marketing literature in particular has shifted the focus onto the research on co-creation. Value co-creation is a key principle in business strategy to maximize value for companies and their customers. The concept of co-creation has become appealing to scientists and academics to investigate it (Auh et al, 2007). This growing support for the concept of value creation is largely motivated by what is known as “Service-Dominant Business Logic” (Grönroos & Ravald 2010; Grönroos & Voima 2013; Vargo & Lusch, 2016). Due to the emphasis on value as a firm’s goal in the dominant logic, therefore, the concept of cocreation is the primal foundation of a service perspective on marketing (Grönroos, 2012). Every logic which is developed to date shows the fact that the co-creation value between actors and customers is mutual and always interactive (Karpen et al, 2012; Lusch & Vargo, 2014). This means, not only companies will provide input for activities of customer’s value creation, but customers also tend to do the same for the company, although at least partially in an indirect way or through money (Vargo & Lusch, 2010). 420

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Figure 1. Co-Creation Process

The value from an S-D Logic perspective is created jointly by beneficiaries (customers) and providers (companies) who are working together to get mutual benefits (Lusch & Vargo, 2014). The companies would only propose value and participate to realize it, but they cannot create value by themselves (Akaka, Vargo & Lusch, 2013). Therefore, the existence of actors to always work together in creating value seeks to shift the value creation from the “dyadic” relationship between providers and beneficiaries to an interactive process between producers and consumers, where value is made-used (value is created in use) (Akaka, Vargo & Lusch, 2013). Various scientific points of view lean on the value creation, how and when it occurs. S-D Logic implies that value is only created when the primary beneficiary emerges, which is in the form of consumer. Research concludes that this concept properly serves to guide academics or practitioners on the emerg-

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ing values for major beneficiaries, and this does not mean that the company cannot create value (Vargo et al, 2008). Thus, the value that appears to be subsequently determined by the primary beneficiary is higher than any value created in initial activities, for example, in production or in exchange (Lusch et al. 2007a). In other words, the value created by the company in production is the stored potential value (Ballantyne & Varey, 2006a). If this is so, how can value be co-created if the service providers have no value to offer to the consumers?

Nature of Co-creation of Service The co-creation of service has been strongly advocated by the proponents of a service-dominant logic in order to emphasise the difference compared with a goods-dominant logic. However, the co-creation approach has raised many questions, and therefore a critical discussion of the nature of co-creation and the validity of emphasizing co-creation would be deemed necessary. Co-creation can be interpreted in many ways. A fundamental premise of the service-dominant logic is that the customer is always a cocreator of value together with the company (Vargo and Lusch 2008). It is argued that the company cannot unilaterally create value, but can only offer value propositions and thus potentially co-create service and the resulting customer value. “In S-D logic, the roles of producers and consumers are not distinct, meaning that value is always co-created, jointly and reciprocally, in interactions among providers and beneficiaries through the integration of resources and application of competences.” (Vargo, Maglio and Akaka 2008:146). Grönroos (2008b), however, argues that value creation and co-creation of service are distinct: “it is important to keep apart service production, in which customers take part as co-creators, and value creation.” (Grönroos, 2008b:4). In other words, co-creation does not necessarily result in value emergence. In practice, customers might not be place any interest in the company’s offering; they can often perform all activities themselves, or wish to reduce the role played by the company. If the particular service plays a minor role in their lives, they might not be interested in active participation in the service or in co-operation with the service company. Table 1. The Differences of Goods, Service and Customer Dominant Logic Key Aspects

Goods-Dominant Logic

Service-Dominant Logic

Customer-Dominant Logic

Value proposition

Value-in-exchange

Value-in-use

Value-in-experience

Characteristics

Transactional, Co-production

Reliability, consistency, responsive, Co-creation

Esthetics, entertainment, education, escapism

Primary Facilitating Factor

Organizational Situational Personal

Guiding Process

Standardization Flexibility Customization

Consumer state

Transacting self Experiencing self

Service-Dominant Logic (S-D Logic) The “service-dominant logic” concept according to Vargo and Lusch (2004, 2008, 2016) is essentially a view that describes how ecosystems function and how firm has to conceptualize their business in the

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form of a shared mindset that determines the firm’s activities. Under this logic, Karpen et al. (2015) and Lamberti and Paladino (2013) suggested that this logic is captured in a firm’s strategic orientation, whereas Dibrell and Moeller (2011) referred to a firm’s service-dominant focus strategy. These authors, however, not only employ different terminology but also show different terms of operationalization. Meanwhile, Lamberti and Paladino (2013) argued that a firm’s service-dominant logic requires the deployment of key facets of the firm’s strategic market, resource, learning, service, and entrepreneurship orientations, whereas Karpen et al. (2015) argued that a firm’s service-dominant logic is reflected in its service-dominant strategic orientation made up of a set of service dominant capabilities. Then, Dibrell and Moeller (2011) focused on the firm’s service-dominant focus strategy, operationalised as the firm’s customer orientation that, arguably, serves as a proxy for the service-dominant focus. The literature has mentioned that -D Logic is summarized in eleven basic principles, based on four axioms from which all basic principles can be derived (Vargo & Lusch, 2016). Two more axioms of S-D Logic have been criticized (Vargo & Lusch, 2010, 2016). Firstly, S-D Logic argues that service is the basis for all exchanges (FP1). A process that uses one’s competence (knowledge and skills) for the benefit of others in exchange of resources from actors (knowledge or money) (Vargo & Lusch, 2010). The second major axiom of S-D Logic is that value is co-created between multiple actors (companies and consumers) during service use, always involving the beneficiaries. This means that the consumer creates a shared value with the provider and not the value embedded in the product or service. The concept of co-creation between actors in the perspective of S-D Logic shows the inseparable nature of customers and service providers. In this case, through co-creation, companies cooperate with customers and not for customers as far as value creation is concerned (Karpen, Bove & Luke, 2012). The table below is the S-D Logic with the modification and addition: In short, S-D Logic proposes that value; 1) created jointly between actors or institutions (providers and beneficiaries); 2) used by users in the context of other resources (value in context); 3) value is the result of collaboration between actors during the integration of shared resources (Edvardson, Tronvoll & Gruber, 2011; Gummerus, 2013; Skålén et al, 2015; Vargo & Lusch 2004, 2008a, 2016). However, Gronroos & Ravald (2010) mentioned that several concepts of co-creation with S-D Logic are still considered too abstract and too far away to be analysed practically considering their social focus. Therefore, to overcome this limitation, an alternative dominant logic “Service-Logic” is introduced (Gronroos & Ravald, 2010). Below is the Table of different Goods-dominant and Service-dominant logic and a Figure of the Service-dominant logic Process. Table 2. Goods-Dominant versus Service-Dominant Logic Goods-dominant logic

Service-dominant logic

Health care

Health enhancement

Quality

Value

Patient-centered care

Patient stewardship

Wellness care

Health investment

Personalized/precision medicine

Health value alignment

Consumer-directed care

Consumer value selection

Patient satisfaction survey

Value assessment measure’ readiness assessment tool

Patient activation/engagement

Value elucidation and prioritization

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Figure 2. The service-dominant logic Process

Service Logic The aim of S-L is to offer a more practical and managerial perspective of the dyadic interactions that occur during the co-creation between providers and beneficiaries which are the basic principles of S-D Logic (FitzPatrick et al., 2015). It is outlined in ten basic principles that seek to make the service perspective more useful for managers. This is different from S-D Logic, which tends to be directed for describing a service perspective at the aggregate level and is socially oriented (Grönroos & Gummerus, 2014). The S-L concept argues, in the S-D Logic proposition on (FP6), customers are always value creators, indicating that customers are directly involved in some processes called co-creation. S-L conveyed that when referring to the S-D Logic (FP1) proposition, it is actually the role played by each party. S-L further advocates that those who control the co-creation process are not clearly defined in S-D Logic (Grönroos & Ravald, 2010). S-L seeks to clarify the roles of actors, namely providers and users who are involved in the cocreation process (Grönroos & Gummerus, 2014). In an S-L perspective, creating value for customers is a “multi-path” process consisting of two conceptually distinct sub-processes. It is a process of actors (providers) providing resources for customer use, and in that process the services can be converted into value (Grönroos & Ravald, 2010). As opposed to the abstract nature of S-D Logic co-creation, the S-L perspective emphasizes the rationality of each process (FitzPatrick et al, 2015). The interactions proposed by S-L allow providers to have many opportunities to move beyond simply offering “value-propositions” that customers can accept or reject as suggested by S-D Logic. The SL perspective proposes that providers can actively and directly influence the fulfillment of service provision and value-in-use, whereby the company will act as a cocreation facilitator, and not just a value offering as proposed by SD Logic (Grönroos & Gummerus, 2014).

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In the S-L perspective, customers measure the “value” during the use of the “value-in-use” product (Grönroos & Gummerus, 2014; Grönroos & Ravald, 2010; Grönroos & Vioma, 2013). The concept of “value-in-use” is part of the initial axiom proposed by S-D Logic (Vargo & Lusch, 2004). However, when S-D Logic evolved, the concept of value-in-use whad transformed into value-in-context (Vargo, 2008). S-L contended that the change from use to context in determining value is inappropriate and it raises an argument that the dynamic nature of use (in-use) describes the nature of value creation rather than a static concept of context (Grönroos & Ravald, 2010). Figure 3. The Process of Resource Integration, Value Co-Creation and Financial Aspects

Customer-dominant Logic The third dominant logic is Customer-Dominant Logic introduced and developed by Heinonen & Strandvik (2015) and Heinonen et al. (2013). C-D Logic differs from the two dominant business logic discussed previously, in that the focus entirely rests on the customer. Heinonen et.al (2010) argued that many attempts have been made by researchers to differentiate and develop marketing from goods/products to be the focus of services/interactions, but both still regard the providers as the main actor (Heinonen et al, 2010). For example, from the perspective of S-D and S-L logic, customers are involved in co-creation, but the company is still seen as the machinery that controls and steers the co-creation process. This suggests that it is the providers who are very much responsible for the co-creation process to be initiated (Heinonen & Strandvik, 2015). Meanwhile, the C-D Logic argues that the company is actually involved in customer activities, not customers involved in company activities. Basing it on this perspective, customers do not only take

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part in the service interactions with providers as suggested by both S-D and S-L logic, but in fact they also control the co-creation process (Heinonen & Strandvik, 2015). From this point of view, the locus of control lies in the realm of customers, who plays the part as users/beneficiaries and not providers (Heinonen & Strandvik, 2015). Heinonen et al. (2010, 2013) mentioned that CDL was introduced as a managerial perspective on marketing and business. It is grounded in understanding customer logic and how firms’ offerings become embedded in customers’ lives/business. The positioning of CDL as a marketing and business logic identifies marketing as the business foundation (Strandvik et al., 2014) and not, as commonly considered, a mere function that stays within a firm. CDL guides managers in comprehending the nature of markets and customers. CDL has been used in empirical studies, including in the context of consumer communities (Rihova et al., 2013), brand relationships (Strandvik and Heinonen, 2013), customer activities (Mickelsson, 2013) and banking (Arantola-Hattab, 2014; Medberg and Heinonen, 2013). However, two studies in particular constitute the main body of the conceptual development of CDL (Heinonen et al., 2010; 2013). The paper by Heinonen et al. (2010) represents the first outline of CDL characteristics (as compared to SDL and SL). By contrasting the provider-dominant view with the customer dominant view, five major challenges were identified: provider involvement and control of co-creation, the visibility of value and the character and scope of customer experience.

Figure 4. Customer-dominant logic of service Source: Expanded from Heinonen et al. (2010, p.535)

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The Role of Information and Innovation on the Three Logic A value creation is a main idea related to the SDL, SL and CDL. However, today, the value creation is unable to be disseminated effectively without the role of information technology and communication (ICT). For the companies looking toward providing excellent services, they must ensure that the value creation is accepted and responded by customers through a reliable communication, then they can improve whatever mistakes or improper things that are delivered. It goes to the customers’ logical perspective where the value creation can be created by the customer with the help of an effective ICT. Moreover, in this Revolution Industry 4.0 where innovation outputs are expected, it also has a close link with the value creation. This indicates that the value creation in SDL, SL and CDL would be more applicable if the innovation aspect is embedded. Both ICT and innovation seek to create any activities in an organization so that they can become more impactful, efficient and sustainable. This concludes that both ICT and innovation are crucial in value creation through various ways of SDL, SL or CDL.

Values in Islam Islam has highlighted the creation of value to, by, and for, the human beings regardless of what religion they embrace. One of the ways to generate values is by involving themselves in wealth acquisition or simply in doing business. In fact, all Muslims are encouraged to engage in business or entrepreneurship of wealth acquisition, whereby Allah SWT states about the issue through one of the Quranic verses as follows: O you who believe! Eat not up your property among yourselves unjustly except it be a trade amongst you, by mutual consent. And do not kill yourselves (nor kill one another). Surely, Allah is Most Merciful to you (Al-Quran 4:29). The business tends to be associated with the marketing aspect, in which the value can be created through services. Islamic has its own principles in marketing and in fact the Islamic marketing and branding have been discussed nowadays in various occasions. The marketing department has a role to play in delivering products and services which meet the costumers’ expectation. In Islamic marketing, the highest and most important concept in Islam is the Tawhid or oneness which emphasizes on the belief in God that governs or manages all the things in the world. In other words, the implementation of any activities of business or specifically marketing whether successful or not is already written by God (Allah SWT). As human being, the planning must be done but God will decide upon everything. Rice (2001) asserted that the concept of Tawhid is the most crucial ingredient in commerce. Furthermore, according to Abusulayman (1998), the concept of Tawhid is both vertical and horizontal. The vertical relationship pictures the connection between human and its creator, whereas the horizontal relationship portrays the inter-human relationship with the basis leaning on the law and decree of Allah (Abusulayman, 1998). This is a basic understanding in creating value which has also been shown by the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) as a successful businessman who delivered values to all mankind. That value is remembered and adopted by human being until today. It is beyond the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) of United Nations that emphasize on sustainable values. This is a real example for Muslims that can be applied either in businesses or daily activities.

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Generally, the Islamic marketing has four characteristics namely spiritualistic, ethical, realistic, and humanistic (Sula and Kartajaya, 2006). Each of these characteristics is related to the five pillars of Islam, and thus every Muslim must implement it. These characteristics generate values that do not deny the existing concepts but instead complement and enrich it, thus showing a comprehensive concept of value creation in Islam (Rafiki & Wahab, 2014). With that, business owners will understand business ethics that will guide them to comply with rules that are allowed or prohibited in business (Muhammad et al., 2012). Islamic values can describe harmony in business. Success, achievement, and blessing are achieved as business goals that apply Islamic values (Ismaeel & Blaim, 2012). Islam is a teaching that emphasizes the importance of noble character, both to God and to His creatures. Islam shows the importance of the ability to extend a hand to the charity of virtue and refrain from disgraceful things. Islam is the source of the virtues and prosperity of the people. Moreover, a customer is one of the actors that must be served in Islam, while the services that are to be delivered to the customers must be according to the Islamic principles and any values can be delivered through the participation of others. With this, the logic that is developed by Western scholars has been highlighted in Islamic teachings and even more, Islam encourages other characteristics in creating or delivering values.

Maqasid Syariah Anu Hamid al- Gahzali (d.1111) stated that the main objective of the shari’ah is to promote the people’s well-being, which lies in safeguarding their 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Faith (din), Lives (nafs), Intellect (‘aql) Posterity/Future generation (nasl) and Wealth (mal).

Moreover, Al-Shatibi (d. 1388) stressed on the epistemological (‘aqidah) dimension, while Ibn ‘Ahur (1973) introduced a broader dimension and Allal al-Fasi (d. 1974) examined closely the shariah within the concept of compassion and guidance, that seeks to establish justice, remove prejudice and alleviate hardship. Maqāṣid al-sharia or the higher goal of sharia is important in Islam, but there are still many people who are confused and do not understand the concept even though it is not a new idea. Maqāṣid al-sharīah is a new origin from Allah SWT which emphasizes on moral issues, worship, muamalah and others. In general, the establishment of maqāṣid al-syar’ah is very suitable for all nations to adhere to, and it is capable of becoming a new human life. There are many scholars who come forward to define maqāṣid al-sharia. One of them is Imam alShatibi who, in the article Kulsanofer Syed Thajudeen (2012), defines maqāṣid al-sharia as having the main goal of sharia which is to free humans from the grip of their own desires, so that they can become servants of Allah SWT by choice, just as they are His servants and as they are not presented as having a selection. Al-Shatibi, following al-Ghazzali’s taxonomy in the articles of Asyraf Wajdi Dusuki and Nurdianawati Irwani Abdullah (2007), defined maqāṣid al-sharīсah into three categories: Darūriyyāt (important), Hājiyyāt (complementary) and Tahsiniyyāt (decoration).

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Darūriyyāt is a basic need that is obligatory to be fulfilled by the individual. This is pivotal, as long as humans cannot live without it and its loss poses a threat to human survival. According to Imam Abu Hamed al-Ghazali and Imam Abu Is’haq Al-Shatiby in the article of Abdul Rahman Yousri Ahmad (2011), Hājiyyāt is considered as complementary to Darūriyyāt and is intended to support and promote them. This can also be seen as a semi-essential benefit, where the aim is to prevent adversity. Hājiyyāt is not important to man himself in the sense that the loss does not threaten the survival of the normal order and that one can live without it when necessary. Tahsiniyyāt is the third category of maqāṣid alsharia which is a benefit beyond Hājiyyāt. Tahsiniyyāt is desirable in the sense that it offers convenience, achieves the improvement or purification of human life, and enables perfection in the order and behavior of people at all levels. As suggested in Islam, this maqasid shariah must be included in the services or by the service providers in their activities.

Islamic Value in Services Activities Islamic values are dedicated for the three logic as an integrated concept, which relates to customer, the company as well as the service. The Islamic values could be adapted by the three parties. These values are called the salient features that should become the culture in any organization or activities.

Islamic Work Ethics and Serving Customers Figure 5. Proposed Framework of Values in logic

Ethics is one of the most commonly discussed topics in the recent years including the Islamic work ethics (IWE). The discussion on the IWE emerged with the emphasis of having a better relationship among the human beings. In the Islamic teaching, all human beings have to build relationship with their God

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Table 3. Islamic values in the service activities are described briefly in the table below Islamic Values

Description & Reference

Keeping trust on Allah

Every employee or individual at any level must depend on all matters with regard to Allah SWT. Allah SWT governs everything in this world including in the service activities. Everyone must try to avoid from any harm and do the best, and then place the trust (best choice) in Allah SWT. Muslims must believe that everything is by the will and permission of Allah SWT.

Honesty and truthfulness

Muslims must be honest and truthful, internally and externally, privately and publicly, whether observed by others or vice versa, whether he is acting or speaking (Ather, 2007) as stated in Qur’an: (At-Taubah 9: 119); (al-Maidah 5:8); (An-Nahl 16: 105).

Accountability

Both service providers and customers must have accountability. The service providers must think that they have accountability to serve the quality service, complying with the regulations and requirements. A customer also has the accountability to choose the best services that would not harm anyone or the environment. This accountability is linked not only to the hereafter but also to the present life. In Islam, every human responsible for his good or bad deeds will be rewarded or punished.

Sincerity

Absolute sincerity in Islam is to ensure that all of our deeds of worship and other matters are solely for Allah (SWT) and to gain His pleasure. Hence, absolute sincerity is a condition for the acceptance of our deeds that are performed in accordance with the Hadith.

Knowledge

The service provider and the customers must have knowledge in understanding the services offered. The content of the services should be analyzed, tested and commissioned in certain aspects to deliver quality outcomes, which this must be done with knowledge. At the same time, the customers in sharing the values or experiences must be with knowledge, otherwise the impact to others would not be achieved. In Islam, an excellence in knowledge increases humility and develops a sense of understanding and exploring knowledge in new fields.

Good behavior

Good behavior is considered a good trait that is very meaningful to all Muslims. Good behavior can turn enemies into friends. Kind people are liked and adored. Good behavior costs nothing but carries everything. Despite having many qualities, a person (as a service provider or customer) may not be liked by others if he is not well behaved. Good behavior brings motivation and values to others through good personal relationships.

Justices

When creating value through the services or customers, Islam emphasizes on the justice. A company must fairly treat the customers or create such services that are good for customers. Delivering good or quality services, referred as justice, means that everyone wants to be served equally (the company or the customer) regardless of having differences on race, color, national origin, or religion.

Cooperation

Islam encourages every employee to cooperate with each other. This is a very special feature of Islamic organizational culture where mutual cooperation would be practised for the betterment of individuals themselves as well as the organization.

Mutual Trust and Respect

Islam encourages Muslims to trust each other, never to be suspicious, and not to judge others on the basis of gossip unless there is certain evidence (Sharfuddin, 1987). Islam should have mutual respect among the Muslims. Cultivating the mutual respecting culture, it would be easier to develop the cohesiveness and unity among organizational members. This relates to creating values in the services or the customers that must embed the mutual trust and respect.

Sacrifice

In creating values, the managers should have priorities. It means that there are objectives that must be forgotten at certain time or moment or can refer to a sacrifice. In serving the customers, the managers attempt to offer some important menu or features and not all of them, it means that some of them are reserved. This is considered a culture. Moreover, the sacrifice can also be related to hide personal agenda,which means that the priority is placed for the group or organization matters. Thus, a value is created and it is an experience that can be shared with everyone.

Physical soundness

The physical fitness of both service provider and customers is very essential. It is true that without physical fitness of service provider, excellent services would not be able to be delivered and they themselves will not be able to perform their responsibilities in the right way.

Consultation

The service provider should consult the expert or those who have experiences before making any decision. Before taking action, a Muslim is advised to consult with knowledgeable people or those who can give advice. The decisions made after consultation will provide a comprehensive solution because it has quality that consists of various opinions, including from those who have the expertise in their fields.

Neat and cleanliness

The homes of Muslims should be comfortable, neat and clean. Being physically clean and well groomed, Muslims can satisfy Allah (SWT). The service providers must ensure that the premise or the shop and its surroundings are clean. This would attract the customers to come to a clean and neat place, thus the value is created.

Brotherly treatment of employees or clients/customers

Islam offers a unique and noble cultural concept of labor management relations. The fundamental principle of Islam is that all human beings are brothers and sisters to each other.

Dressing Islamically

Dressing in an Islamic manner, they can reduce a severe work place problem like sexual harassment and thereby ensuring a good working environment.

Prohibiting backbiting and slandering

In Islam both backbiting and slandering are prohibited, because they sow enmity, evils and discord among people. Both could cause hostilities between organizational members and can decrease good deeds and increase evil ones, and it can lead to dishonor and embarrassment. Backbiting and slandering are acts that can bring forth shame and disgrace.

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(hablum mina Allah) and among themselves (hablum minannas). The IWE is reflected on the akhlaqul karimah which is enforced by the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) whereby Muslims are obliged to adopt including in their daily business activities, not merely implementing the religious rituals. Creating values through the services, the IWE must be given ample consideration. Not only that the services should be served in quality but how the company serves the services must also follow the manners that had been highlighted in Islam. An Islamic organization wishes to be granted the pleasure of Allah rather than the appreciation of human beings by applying the core values of ethics (Ahmad, 2006). The IWE is defined as the set of moral principles rooted based on Al-Qur’an and Sunnah which are closely related to terms of al-khuluq that concern on Islamic values, belief and practices (Arslan, 2001). It inspires the employees in having confidence in the workplace and reinforces social business responsibilities (Ali, 2005) through hardwork, commitment, dedication, work creativity and cooperation (Yousef, 2001). The IWE indicates life fulfillment and holds business motives in the highest tribute (Ahmad, 1976) which also serve as the criteria for evaluating their performance in positive or negative terms (Al-Saadan, 2005). Those who believe in Islam and practice it tend to be more committed to their organizations (Yousef, 2001). The elements of the IWE are applied in any business applications and behaviors that every Muslim should observe and engage in as the servants of God (Beekun & Badawi, 2005). The implementation of morality in an organization is very important. Moral character is a very important quality of Muslims without which no one claims that he is the perfect Muslim. Moreover, in spite of having a lot of knowledge, a person cannot be accepted by others unless and until his character is good. Anas (R) reported that the Messenger of Allah said: “indeed I have been sent to complete the perfecting of good character” (Sunan An-Nasai). Amar Ibn Al-Ans (R) says, “The messenger of Allah neither spoke indecently nor he listens to any indecent talking”. He used to say that “the best among you are those whose character is good” (Shhihal-Bukhari). The wise says, “When money is lost nothing is lost, when health is lost something is lost, but when character is lost everything is lost”. It is part of the Mercy of Allah that thou dost deal gently with them Wert thou severe or harsh-hearted, they would have broken away from about thee: so pass over (Their faults), and ask for (Allah’s) forgiveness for them; and consult them in affairs (of moment). Then, when thou hast Taken a decision put thy trust in Allah. For Allah loves those who put their trust (in Him). (Ali Imran 3: 159) Every time they wish to get away therefrom, from anguish, they will be forced back therein, and (it will be said), “Taste ye the Penalty of Burning! (Al Hajj 22: 62)

The Excellent Services in Islamic View The Prophet (PBUH) is the role model in human life by giving examples specifically on how to treat others including the customers. He is a successful businessman that always perceives positive responses from his customers. He introduces the daily transactions and relationships which are included in the mu’amalat activities. Muslims must treat customers as users of a service so they are considered as guests as well. Muslims must respect the guest regardless of religion and race, and this has been highlighted in hadith and Qur’an verses.

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The Prophet (PBUH) has linked a person’s faith with the command to honor guests and said “Whoever claims to believe in Allah and the Last Day, let him glorify his guest.” (Narrated by Bukhari and Muslim). When dealing with customers, the company must be patient including receiving complaints and facing disappointments from the customers. It can be seen on how the Prophet (PBUH) treated the people who hated Him during those days, He only reacted calmly and remained patient and continued talking to them well and gently. Sometimes, he also offered advice or even gave his followers reminders to make things right. There came Our messengers to Abraham with glad tidings. They said, “Peace!” He answered, “Peace!” and hastened to entertain them with a roasted calf. (Hud 11:69) And his people came rushing towards him, and they had been long in the habit of practising abominations. He said: “O my people! Here are my daughters: they are purer for you (if ye marry)! Now fear Allah, and cover me not with shame about my guests! Is there not among you a single right-minded man?. (Hud 11:78) The inhabitants of the city came in (mad) joy (at news of the young men); Lut said: These are my guests: disgrace me not; But fear Allah, and shame me not. (Al-Hijr 15: 67-69) Honoring guests or customers can be shown in the form of welcoming their arrival with sincerity and happiness, showing a pleasant face and talking about good things with them. In addition, honoring guests can also be realized by placing them in a good place, serving and preparing food and drinks and their necessities. Imam Ghazali stated that, “Whenever someone comes to see you, then provide what he needs and prepare yourself to entertain him. However, if you come on a visit to meet someone, don’t bother the master”. This is an example based on the Islamic teachings that are suggested to be implemented in the co-creation purpose. This indicates that the companies or employees have no right to punish the customers because they are protected by the law. However, the employees could send a report to their management about the behavior of the customer that has gone out of line so that the management can follow up on the customer. If employees judge the cases by themselves against their customers, this would bring problems and complications.

CONCLUSION Islam is a way of life, in which one could advance a logic that Islam must have written the code of conducts in doing business, among any other things. Commerce is something viewed as essential in Islam, for as long as the process is parallel with Islamic teaching on doing business. It should be noted that Islam views commerce as one crucial factor in human life and with that the values could be created. It is expected that the chapter explores into the difference of the three logic as well as the special view on Islamic principles. This will enrich the literature and could be used as a reference for future studies. The Prophet (PBUH) said “The leader of a people is their servant.” (Narrated by Ibn Asakir, Abu Nu’aim) Each of these three marketing basic logic states the differences and focuses on the described basic principles. Firstly, each of the three logic shows that value is not only produced and shipped by the 432

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provider to the customer for consumption as determined by “Goods-Dominant Logic.” Secondly, each of the three dominant logic shows the role of co-creation (interactions between actors) of each actor in contributing resources when it comes to receiving or giving value. Thirdly, each of the dominant logic states that the final value of a service is valued and determined by its beneficiaries. Meanwhile, the implementation of value creation through the approaches of three logic and another Islamic approach is any type of companies, services and customers. This means that every company is able to create or optimally increase its values through services or the customers that could be created by themselves. In this study, although the authors have placed the theoretical nuances of the dominant logic, S-D Logic, S-L, and C-D Logic, several limitations of the study should be investigated. This chapter is still a simple study, without including a robust methodology. Also, it may be inclined to make subjective interpretations in understanding the meaning of a concept, and this would be the initial stage to understand more deeply about the dominant logic of marketing in relation to the Islamic principles and teachings.

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Karpen, I. O., Bove, L. L., & Lukas, B. A. (2012). Linking service-dominant logic and strategic business practice: A conceptual model of a service-dominant orientation. Journal of Service Research, 15(1), 21–38. doi:10.1177/1094670511425697 Khalil, M., & Abu‐Saad, I. (2009). Islamic work ethic among Arab college students in Israel. Cross Cultural Management, 16(4), 333–346. doi:10.1108/13527600911000320 Kumar, N., & Rose, R. C. (2010). Examining the link between Islamic work ethic and innovation capability. Journal of Management Development, 29(1), 79–93. doi:10.1108/02621711011009081 Lamberti, L., & Paladino, A. (2013). Moving forward with service dominant logic: Exploring the strategic orientations of a service-centred view of the firm. International Journal of Business Science and Applied Management, 8(1), 1–15. Lusch, R. F., & Vargo, S. L. (2014). Service-dominant logic: Premises, perspectives, possibilities. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.4324/9781315699035 Lusch, R. F., Vargo, S. L., & O’brien, M. (2007). Competing through service: Insights from servicedominant logic. Journal of Retailing, 83(1), 5–18. doi:10.1016/j.jretai.2006.10.002 Medberg, G., & Heinonen, K. (2014). Invisible value formation: A netnography in retail banking. International Journal of Bank Marketing, 32(6), 590–607. doi:10.1108/IJBM-03-2014-0041 Mitroff, I. I., & Alpaslan, M. C. (2003). Preparing for evil. Harvard Business School Pub. Normann, R., & Ramirez, R. (1993). From value chain to value constellation: Designing interactive strategy. Harvard Business Review, 71(4), 65. PMID:10127040 Prahalad, C. K., & Bettis, R. A. (1996). Dominant logic. Managing the Multibusiness Company, 398-420. Prahalad, C. K., & Ramaswamy, V. (2000). Co-opting customer competence. Harvard Business Review, 78(1), 79–90. Prahalad, C. K., & Ramaswamy, V. (2004). Co‐creation experiences: The next practice in value creation. Journal of Interactive Marketing, 18(3), 5–14. doi:10.1002/dir.20015 Rafiki, A., & Wahab, K. A. (2014). Islamic values and principles in the organization: A review of literature. Asian Social Science, 10(9), 1. doi:10.5539/ass.v10n9p1 Rahman, I., Kode, A., & Biswas, S. K. (2006). Assay for quantitative determination of glutathione and glutathione disulfide levels using enzymatic recycling method. Nature Protocols, 1(6), 3159–3165. doi:10.1038/nprot.2006.378 PMID:17406579 Ramirez, R. (1999). Value co‐production: Intellectual origins and implications for practice and research. Strategic Management Journal, 20(1), 49–65. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0266(199901)20:13.0.CO;2-2 Rego, A., Cunha, M. P. E., & Souto, S. (2007). Workplace spirituality, commitment, and self-reported individual performance: An empirical study. Management Research, 5(3), 163. doi:10.2753/JMR15365433050303

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Rice, G. (1999). Islamic ethics and the implications for business. Journal of Business Ethics, 18(4), 345–358. doi:10.1023/A:1005711414306 Skålén, P., Gummerus, J., Von Koskull, C., & Magnusson, P. R. (2015). Exploring value propositions and service innovation: A service-dominant logic study. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 43(2), 137–158. doi:10.100711747-013-0365-2 Somers, A. B. (2005). Shaping the balanced scorecard for use in UK social enterprises. Social Enterprise Journal, 1(1), 43–56. doi:10.1108/17508610580000706 Strandvik, T., Holmlund, M., & Grönroos, C. (2014). The mental footprint of marketing in the boardroom. Journal of Service Management, 25(2), 241–252. doi:10.1108/JOSM-01-2014-0033 Sula, M. S., & Kartajaya, H. (2006). Syariah Marketing. Mizan Pustaka. Svensson, G., & Grönroos, C. (2008). Service logic revisited: Who creates value? And who co‐creates? European Business Review, 20(4), 298–314. doi:10.1108/09555340810886585 Terblanche, N. S. (2014). Some theoretical perspectives of co-creation and co-production of value by customers. Professional Accountant, 14(2), 1–8. doi:10.4102/ac.v14i2.237 Thajudeen, K. S. (2012). Maqasid Al-Shariah is one of the very important Shariah aspects in Islamic Finance. INCEIF The Global University in Islamic finance, KL. Vargo, S. L., & Lusch, R. F. (2004). Evolving to a new dominant logic for marketing. Journal of Marketing, 68(1), 1–17. doi:10.1509/jmkg.68.1.1.24036 Vargo, S. L., & Lusch, R. F. (2008a). Service-dominant logic: Continuing the evolution. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 36(1), 1–10. doi:10.100711747-007-0069-6 Vargo, S. L., & Lusch, R. F. (2008b). From goods to service (s): Divergences and convergences of logics. Industrial Marketing Management, 37(3), 254–259. doi:10.1016/j.indmarman.2007.07.004 Vargo, S. L., & Lusch, R. F. (2010). From repeat patronage to value co-creation in service ecosystems: A transcending conceptualization of relationship. Journal of Business Market Management, 4(4), 169–179. doi:10.100712087-010-0046-0 Vargo, S. L., & Lusch, R. F. (2016). Institutions and axioms: An extension and update of service-dominant logic. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 44(1), 5–23. doi:10.100711747-015-0456-3 Vargo, S. L., & Lusch, R. F. (2017). Service-dominant logic 2025. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 34(1), 46–67. doi:10.1016/j.ijresmar.2016.11.001 Vargo, S. L., Maglio, P. P., & Akaka, M. A. (2008). On value and value co-creation: A service systems and service logic perspective. European Management Journal, 26(3), 145–152. doi:10.1016/j.emj.2008.04.003 Wahab, K. A., & Rafiki, A. (2014). Measuring small firm entrepreneur’s performance based on Al-Falah. World Applied Sciences Journal, 29(12), 1532–1539. Woodruff, R. B. (1997). Customer value: The next source for competitive advantage. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 25(2), 139–153. doi:10.1007/BF02894350

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Yousef, D. A. (2001). Islamic work ethic–A moderator between organizational commitment and job satisfaction in a cross‐cultural context. Personnel Review, 30(2), 152–169. doi:10.1108/00483480110380325 Zeithaml, V. A. (1988). Consumer perceptions of price, quality, and value: A means-end model and synthesis of evidence. Journal of Marketing, 52(3), 2–22. doi:10.1177/002224298805200302

ADDITIONAL READING Ashfaque, M., Shah, S. M. A., Sultan, F., Khalil, H., Hussain, A., & Khan, M. (2020). Ethical value propositions of Islamic banking products: A phenomenological inquiry of relationship managers perspective. International Review of Management and Marketing, 10(2), 8–14. doi:10.32479/irmm.9217 Font, X., English, R., Gkritzali, A., & Tian, W. S. (2021). Value co-creation in sustainable tourism: A service-dominant logic approach. Tourism Management, 82, 104200. doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2020.104200 Halstead, J. M. (2007). Islamic values: A distinctive framework for moral education? Journal of Moral Education, 36(3), 283–296. doi:10.1080/03057240701643056 Iglesias, O., Landgraf, P., Ind, N., Markovic, S., & Koporcic, N. (2020). Corporate brand identity cocreation in business-to-business contexts. Industrial Marketing Management, 85, 32–43. doi:10.1016/j. indmarman.2019.09.008 Islam, M. M. (2020). Segmenting, targeting and positioning in Islamic marketing. Journal of Islamic Marketing, ahead-of-print(ahead-of-print). Advance online publication. doi:10.1108/JIMA-10-2018-0181 Kadirov, D. (2020). Islamic Marketing: Theories, Practices, and Perspectives. Conscientia Capital Press. Kotler, P., Pfoertsch, W., & Sponholz, U. (2021). The New Paradigm: H2H Marketing. In H2H Marketing (pp. 29–90). Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-59531-9_2 Lindhult, E., & Axelsson, K. (2021). The logic and integration of coproductive research approaches. International Journal of Managing Projects in Business. Advance online publication. doi:10.1108/ IJMPB-07-2020-0215 Morelli, N., de Götzen, A., & Simeone, L. (2021). An Approach to Service Design. In Service Design Capabilities (pp. 9–26). Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-56282-3_2 Sales-Vivó, V., Gil-Saura, I., & Gallarza, M. G. (2021). Value Co-Creation and Satisfaction in B2B Context: A Triadic Study in the Furniture Industry. Sustainability, 13(1), 152. doi:10.3390u13010152 Zhang, H., Leung, X. Y., & Bai, B. (2021). A Conceptual Framework of Destination Sustainability in Sharing Economy. In Information and Communication Technologies in Tourism 2021 (pp. 426–432). Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-65785-7_41

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Co-Creation: A product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role from beginning to end. Customer Dominant Logic: A managerial perspective on marketing and business which grounded in understanding customer logic and how firms’ offerings become embedded in customers’ lives/business. Islamic Values: It consists of three main kinds of values; akhlāq, which refers to the duties and responsibilities set out in the shari’ah and in Islamic teaching generally; adab, which refers to the manners associated with good breeding; and the qualities of character possessed by a good Muslim. Islamic Work Ethic: A set of moral principles rooted based on Al-Qur’an and Sunnah which are closely related to terms of al-khuluq that concern on Islamic values, belief and practices. Maqāṣid al-Sharīʿa: Is an Islamic legal doctrine. Together with another related classical doctrine, maṣlaḥa, it has come to play an increasingly prominent role in modern times. Service-Dominant Logic: A perspective that introduces a new way for synthesizing and articulating an alternative view of exchange and value creation in markets.

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Chapter 22

Factors Influencing the Adoption and Use of E-Commerce Amongst Small Enterprises in Brunei Hafizah Hamidi University Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Syamimi Ariff University Brunei Darussalam, Brunei

ABSTRACT The use of information communication technology (ICT) in the industry is undoubtedly growing fast all over the world. Nevertheless, many of the small enterprises, particularly in the food and beverages (F&B) industry in Brunei, are still not adapting as rapidly as anticipated. Thus, this study aims to identify and explore the key factors influencing Brunei’s small enterprises to adopt e-commerce in their business based on Venkatesh and Davis technology acceptance model (TAM) framework. In attaining this purpose, in-depth interviews have been conducted with six local small enterprises. It can be concluded that there are four main factors contributing to the influence to the adoption and use of e-commerce amongst Bruneian’s small enterprises, which are perceived usefulness, perceived ease-of-use, costs, and social influence.

INTRODUCTION In terms of volume and number of customers, e-commerce has expanded drastically worldwide due to the pervasiveness of the platform and the convenience it offers to users. Despite the small size of the country, Brunei Darussalam, according to We Are Social (2018) has the highest Internet and social media penetration among other countries in Southeast Asia. With internet penetration at 86%, Brunei has been continuously building up solid legal foundation for e-commerce activities (We Are Social, 2018). DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-6477-6.ch022

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 Factors Influencing the Adoption and Use of E-Commerce Amongst Small Enterprises in Brunei

However, there is still a slow adoption of e-commerce in this country and given the tremendous growth potential, it is still considered infancy in Brunei. Recent study on the roles of ICT in the Bruneian context had been released by AITI which can be found in the Brunei Darussalam ICT Business Report 2019. Following the report being published, only 24% of Bruneian businesses possessed their own websites, with only 11% of these businesses have access to online payment. Some companies in Brunei have been implementing e-commerce over the past few years and are already benefiting from it. However, as established from existing studies, some MSMEs may not have incorporated much technical innovations due to: • • • •

Internal reluctance to change and lack of top-level management support, Lack of IT expertise and difficulty in adjusting to modern IT systems, Economic considerations such as cost pressure from vendors, consumers, or rivals, Common e-commerce problems like security and privacy.

Micro and Small Medium Enterprises (MSME) as a whole play a very important role in the economies of many countries, and are central components of the economy of a developing world. MSME managers need to be creative and autonomous, with the goal of adapting to the developing world economy. They need to be open to new technologies to thrive, including applying advances of the Internet and e-commerce, both of which have become important resources for business management to achieve the outcomes they desire. (Briggs, Buchholz & Sharma, 2020) With the Internet’s ability to alter economic activity, businesses can make use of this to replace conventional means of communication and process business documentation and information online to operate business operations while also to engage in business transactions virtually. However, due to above-mentioned e-commerce challenges, developing countries like Brunei have not been able to reap the full benefits of e-commerce investment. For instance, as said by Biz Brunei in their articles called “AiTi collaborates with Brunei’s online businesses to launch Cyber Shopfest” (Othman, 2018) they mentioned that people are still skeptical about making payment online. Moreover, with the backdrop of Covid-19 pandemic, MSMEs in Brunei are banned to have dinnings at eateries to curtail the spread of the disease, of which then forces these MSMEs to move into digital mediums and platforms in conducting their business with hope to attract more consumers during the pandemic. However, some of these MSMEs still have not yet adopted many technological innovations. There is also evidence that MSMEs sector is characterized by slow uptake of e-commerce which hinders the development and efficiency of business operations such as from a study by Kurnia (2016) which states that e-commerce innovations are not being invested well which cause the slow growth of businesses. With all that being said, questions were raised in relation to the topic of this research: • •

What are the motivating factors influencing small business owners to adopt e-commerce in their operation? What are the challenges or issues that are hindering small businesses from adopting e-commerce in their business?

Finally, Venkatesh and Davis (1996) Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) is used to guide this study to explore businesses use of e-commerce. TAM is a very popular tool used to better understand the use of IT from the users’ perspective. TAM is also commonly used to analyze reasons users are using various technological advances (Davis, Bagozzi, & Warshaw, 1989). This study is therefore, conducted based

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on TAM framework by exploring the factors affecting the adoption of e-commerce by small businesses focusing on the Food and Beverage (F&B) industry. The research was also guided by the objectives below: • •

To investigate the factors influencing small business owners to use e-commerce. To find out the factors that hinder them from using e-commerce in their business.

Understanding the trend and how e-commerce is being adopted by businesses in the context of Brunei in which is believed to be lacking in terms of local research can be significant for future studies, as well as to provide local food and beverages industry knowledge of entering new market through innovative channels and mediums such as the e-commerce platform. By conducting this research, it is hope that it can be an added value and provide useful information of which can contribute to the overall growth of Brunei’s Food and Beverages industry in the region.

LITERATURE REVIEW An in-depth study on five major topics which are MSME, e-commerce, use of e-commerce in small businesses, TAM framework and other determinants of e-commerce adoption were also conducted in this study which are considered useful in explaining the reason for the use of e-commerce in businesses. The first part to the major topic defines MSMEs and their roles in the context of Brunei. The second topic describes e-commerce and focused on existing literature on the factors determining the adoption of e-commerce by the owners in their business operations. The use of e-commerce in small businesses is also described in this literature which is the third major topic. Followed by Venkatesh and Davis (1996) TAM framework to understand the theory behind a person use of technological innovations. Finally, exploring the other factors which can affect the decision of the user to implement e-commerce in his or her business.

Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) The terms small and medium enterprises (SMEs) and micro, small and medium enterprises (MSMEs) have been used interchangeably worldwide, and there seem to be no fixed definition for this. The geographical placement of MSMEs, as well as country-specific legislation, affects the various interpretations of MSMEs (Leopoulos, 2006). The number of employees in an organisation is commonly used to define and categorize the different groups of MSMEs of which comprises micro, small and medium enterprises. MSMEs plays a very important role in the worldwide economy which includes driving innovation and economic growth. The world’s businesses comprise of more than 90% MSMEs and in the developing countries, 80% of the jobs offered are by MSMEs (Sobir, n.d) Since MSMEs account for a large portion of the labour force, they are responsible for a country’s economic growth and due to the low capital formation and its potential to recruit more population, MSMEs are now considered to become more significant (Hassan & Ogundipe, 2017). According to Brunei’s Department of Economic Planning and Development (2009), MSMEs also contributes to the diversification of economic activities due to its flexibility and adaptability in the quick changing demand and supply in the market, which contributes to the country’s imports and exports. The growth of MSMEs in Brunei is significant for Wawasan Brunei 2035. This national vision aims to make Brunei a competitive and prosperous country with a GDP per

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capita in the world’s top ten (Polsaram, Kulsiri, Techasermsukkul, Htwe & Kwanchainond, 2011). As stated in the Brunei’s Department of Economic Planning and Development (BDEPD) website “https:// asean.org/msme-key-bruneis-future-economy/”, about 5,342 enterprises were found to operate in the country in 2015 and 96.5% of this number comprises of MSMEs. Of these percentages, a majority of 42.9% are made up of small enterprises (BDEPD, 2016). Although MSMEs are significant to the economy, there has not been many researches done on the sector. The definition of MSMEs has not yet been officiate in the context of Brunei. Nevertheless, BDEPD drew up the generally recognized definition of business size, which is by the number of workers hired by the enterprise to disaggregate micro, small, and medium-sized firms for Brunei enterprises (Table 1). Table 1. BDEPD’s classification of firm size in Brunei Size classification

Number of employees

Micro

1-4

Small

6-19

Medium

20-99

Source: OECD/Economic Research Institute for ASEAN and East Asia (2018),

e-Commerce For many enterprises, electronic commerce (e-commerce) has changed the way the business operates and will keep doing so in the future (Al-Qirim, 2009). Many researchers are of the opinion that these changes will have a positive effect on company processes and bring major advantages with them. The benefits that are commonly associated include improved operating performance, building connection to a broader variety of markets, expanded potential for cooperation with suppliers, strengthened customer service, administrative transparency and flexibility, and inter alia collaborations (Vaithianathan, 2010). There is no consensus on the e-commerce definition, but it has been defined by Turban et al. (2008) as “the process of purchasing, selling, transmitting or sharing products, services and/or information via computer networks including the Internet”. Huy and Filiatrault (2006) described e-commerce as the use of ICT in any economic or business enabling the user to buy and sell their products and services and thereby facilitating the transaction of business transactions within and from corporations, individuals, governments, or other organizations. On the other hand, e-commerce has two key purposes according to McIvor and Humphreys (2004), which is, first, to improve the internal operations of an organization using ICTs such as logistics, procurement, and human resource management; information and data management; and also in communication purposes. Secondly, e-commerce refers to the use of ICTs to promote the transfer of goods between companies and customers, such as in marketing, purchasing, payment, distribution and supplier finding. Previously, researchers see e-commerce using Internet applications such as the intranet, extranet, website, and email (Drew, 2003). But now other researchers see e-commerce as a mix of market processes and Internet technology, such as customer and supplier experiences. Nevertheless, there is an agreement in the concept among researchers that website, email, intranet, extranet, Local Area Network (LAN) and wireless area network and voice over Internet Protocol (VOIP) are the core components of e-commerce.

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Use of e-Commerce in Brunei During this era of globalization in which economies have moved from a matter-based economy to a knowledge-based economy, the ICT revolution has influenced companies in different ways. The use of effective ICT therefore plays an important role, as it allows MSMEs to minimize costs by enhancing their internal processes and improving goods because of the ability to interact with customers and suppliers faster. MSMEs’ use of ICT offers quicker access to information within an enterprise. This helps to assist market processes efficiently and thoughtfully (Casolaro & Gobbi, 2007); and eventually helps MSMEs face intense pressure from multinational corporations. Likewise, Pokharel, (2005), Taylor (2004) and Schware (2003) reveal that the adoption of ICT by MSMEs improves business productivity, improves the efficiency of business operations and makes it easy for MSMEs to link with external parties. The adoption of ICT by MSMEs also increases operational performance, decreases expenses, lowers operating costs and provides global market access for MSMEs. His Majesty the Sultan and Yang Di-Pertuan of Brunei Darussalam consented to champion the growth of MSMEs into stable and sustainable drivers of economic growth with the establishment of Darussalam Enterprise, also known as DARe in Brunei. DARe has set up an online news channel with the increasing power of digital and social media to encourage entrepreneurship by chronicling the journey of local MSMEs and socializing the new business opportunities and reforms through articles and videos. (BizBrunei, 2019) According to a review by UNCTAD (2013), it is known that Brunei have the largest penetration of Internet and social media in South-East Asia, and Brunei has been gradually developing a strong legal framework for its e-commerce activities. Brunei enacted the Electronic Transactions Act in the early 20th century with the intent of ensuring reliability and confidentiality in making electronic transactions and encouraging e-commerce by using digital signatures. (UNCTAD, 2013). In 2011, Brunei introduced the Consumer Protection Order or Fair Trading Act to support fair transactions. In the effort to boost the use of e-commerce by MSMEs in Brunei, it has also engaged in organizing capacity-building activities such as the Start-up Bootcamp programme which lasts for 100 days for small and medium enterprises in which they can learn to grow their business whilst being mentored by DARe through their intensive capacity building activities and initiatives. DARe also cooperated with China’s leading e-commerce firm DHgate.com and Universiti Brunei Darussalam (UBD) to initiate an Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation Cross-Border E-Commerce Education e-commerce bootcamp under the APEC Business Advisory Board in 2017 (OECD 2018). In the same year, the Cottage and Youth Initiative Programme launched an e-commerce platform called Cube Junction through the National Chamber of Commerce and Industry Brunei Darussalam (NCCIBD). The use of Cube Junction initiative helps MSMEs to market their goods by associating them with providers of international logistics services. NCCIBD is also responsible and in control of the MSMEs’ e-commerce and social network platform of which it has a fast and safe payment gateway and supports logistics (OECD, 2018) Local MSMEs have also approved online payments by credit card through Baiduri Bank’s Brunei Darussalam Online Payment Solution since 2016 (Rosli, 2018). In 2017, Baiduri Bank unveiled another breakthrough on e-payment, called the MerchantSuite service that enables small enterprises and individual sellers to issue invoices and collect payments online without creating a website (Imhof, 2017). Many small businesses in Brunei Darussalam also use prominent social media sites like Facebook and Instagram to market their products, contributing to the country’s high usage of social media. Recently, with the current Covid-19 outbreak, Brunei has launched its first e-commerce directory called the eKe443

 Factors Influencing the Adoption and Use of E-Commerce Amongst Small Enterprises in Brunei

daiBrunei of which helps to provide end-to-end solutions for local MSMEs to continue connecting with their customers while also helping the public to find trusted providers (Wong, 2020). This platform is readily integrated with online payment capabilities and delivery services providing a safe and convenient way for local MSMEs to conduct their business operations. For countries where MSMEs are just beginning to implement basic ICT such as mobile phones, it might help reduce the time and cost of face-to-face contact with others. In countries where modern ICT has previously been adopted, this has major advantages as digital technology such as e-mail and internet teleconferencing can help communication between suppliers and clients (Kotelnikov, 2007). Also, with the use of ICT, it is possible to track the location of their goods at any point in time (Porter, 2005). Thus, ICT promotes and affects innovation and productivity of businesses. MSMEs survive the competitive environment based on innovation, product launch or growth and according to Abdullah, Wahab and Shamsuddin (2013) its survival can no longer be dictated solely by internal research and development but also by other factors, such as suppliers and customers. Therefore, ICT is required to complement internal Research and Development (R&D) in its major functions. Thus, it is evident that ICT plays an irreplaceable role in businesses which aid profits maximization in MSMEs. Ultimately, various researchers have investigated the factors affecting the adoption of e-commerce by MSMEs. While several studies have been undertaken concerning the adoption of e-commerce around the world, most of these studies are concentrated in fairly well-developed economies such as the U.S. (Pearson & Grandon, 2005), the U.K. (Thomas & Simmons, 2010) and New Zealand (Al-Qirim, 2006). A couple of studies were also carried out in developing countries such as Malaysia (Alam, Ali & Jani, 2011) and Indonesia (Rahayu & Day, 2015). Although Brunei shows efforts in embracing e-commerce, not many studies and publications have focused on its developments. A research on factors influencing e-commerce adoptions in the context of Brunei’s SMEs was done by Looi (2004) to hows the inhibitor and motivators of e-commerce adoption among local businesses. Significant inhibitors in this literature are such as lack of perceived relative advantage, lack of knowledge, and perceived lack of trust while environment characteristics such as competitive pressure and, government support are significant motivators of e-commerce in Brunei Darussalam. Looi (2005) further examined these five variables on its effect on the adoption of e-commerce among SMEs in Brunei and found significant relationship that existed between these variables which then concluded that competitive pressure are the most significant factor influencing the adoption of e-commerce in Brunei followed by IT knowledge, relative advantage, security and lastly government support. Seyal and Rahim (2010) investigated 84 SMEs in Brunei to understand and describe the relationship that existed between business manager’s perceptions of e-commerce strategic value and the variables that affect the adoption of e-commerce using TAM and Perceived Strategic Value models. Findings from this literature suggest that two out of three perceived strategic value factors are significant, whereas four out of five adoption factors are significant determinants of e-commerce adoption.

TAM Model This study is based on Venkatesh and Davis (1996) Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) Framework. According to Yi, Fiedler, and Park (2006), the TAM framework is among the first and most common theory to test IT acceptance. TAM’s key significance is the study of the individual’s internal values while implementing new technologies. In the context of the first version of the TAM framework, Davis (1993) suggests that there are two major factors which determine the adoption of a technology. Both

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considerations are Perceived Usefulness (PU) and Perceived Ease of Use (PEOU). Perceived usefulness is the degree to which the individual assumes that using a particular innovation will boost the efficiency of his or her work. Whereby, perceived ease of use is the degree to which an individual assumes it would be effortless to use a particular innovation. The considerations to be examined in this study are hence, the perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use.

Figure 1. Final Version of Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) Framework Source: (Venkatesh and Davis 1996, p. 453).

Venkatesh and Davis (1996) had developed the final version of the Technology Acceptance Model. According to this definition, it is the behavioural intention to use that defines the practical use of a new technology. Both perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use have a strong effect on the expected application of behaviour. Finally, the external variables influence both the perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use.

Perceived Usefulness Perceived usefulness refers to “the degree to which a person believes that using a particular system would enhance his or her job performance” (Davis, 1989, p. 320). According to Heijden et al. (2003), perceived usefulness is positively correlated with the desire to implement an advancement in technology, as it encourages customers to have favourable behavioural intentions and eventually affects the actual use of the technology. Similar findings have been found in many other studies (Kim et al., 2007; Kripanont, 2007; McFarland & Hamilton, 2006). Al-Maghrabi et al., (2011) say that the user often equates the expected usefulness to the actual usefulness and this has a direct impact on the user’s intention to use technological innovation. If the expected usefulness equals or exceed the actual usefulness, it shows that the user is satisfied and have a positive intention to use the innovation. In other words, the user has a positive perception towards the usefulness and this therefore, means that there is a positive impact on the attitude towards the adoption of e-commerce. A research done by Cheung and Lee (2001) concludes that consumers find e-commerce “useful” only when they can buy products with ease and without any social limitation.

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Perceived ease-of-use While there is strong correlation between perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness, Davis et al., (1989) argued that they are two separate dimensions. Perceived ease-of-use means, “The degree to which a person believes that using a particular system would be free of effort” (Davis, 1989, p. 320). This is also positively linked to the adoption of new technology intentions, as it represents the amount of effort a person needs to make in order to understand and use a technological advancement (Ko et al., 2009), and the complexity of using technology can for undeniably pose a challenge to the adoption of new technology (Heijden et al., 2003). Monsuwe et al. (2004) found that the consumer’s decision to purchase online had both a direct and an indirect impact from the ease of use. They claimed that the ease of consumers experience when shopping online had an impact on usefulness which in effect had a positive correlation with the intention of the customer to shop online. It suggests an indirect link between intention to implement and ease of use. Therefore, the faster and more effortless a new technology is, the more likely it would be that customers expect to use the technology. Blagoeva et al., (2017) stated in their study that the more the user think it is simpler to use new technology, the stronger his or her intention to use it. In addition to this, the stronger the intention to use it, the greater behaviour for the actual usage. Elkhani et al., (2014) also contended that the perceived ease of use equates to the perceived usefulness of the technological innovation.

External factors According to Venkatesh and Davis’ TAM framework, external factors may affect people’s perceptions of the usefulness and ease of using ICT. Such factors may include organizational factors, social factors or features of computer systems such as hardware and software, or other factors which may affect the perception of consumers on the usefulness and ease of using information technology. For the current study, the external variables presented in the TAM were not used because the original TAM studies included external variables in the sense of organization productivity, such as task characteristics, organizational structure, training, user participation in design, etc. (Davis et al., 1989; Venkatesh & Davis, 1996).

Other Determinants The other factors discussed below are related to the external variables found in the existing literature for the context of this study:

Social Influence As defined by Ajzen (1991), social influence is the pressure to execute a certain behaviour. It is the relationship and interactions which have a role for the spread of information and ideas to influence an individual or group of individuals (Kempe, Kleinberg & Tardos, 2003). For several existing literature works related to e-commerce, network-based and viral marketing has proven to be more effective than traditional marketing, in terms of cost and performance. It is further explained by Kempe et al., (2003) that social influence in the context of viral marketing started from a few influential users which caused others to do the same and eventually lead some to voluntarily share their experiences with others. Kim & Srivastava (2007) mentioned that social influence through high-quality reviews by users has a direct

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influence on e-commerce adoption. Moreover, according to Venkatesh & Bala (2008), social influence not only affects intention but it is also strongly associated with perceived usefulness. This has been proven in a study conducted by Dalvi et al. (2018), in which they revealed that social influence plays a major role in influencing CEOs to adopt e-commerce in the travel agencies.

Cost of implementation Folorunso et al., (2006) defined the cost of implementation as the total amount that will cost the organization in implementing the innovation. Economic, human, and technical capital, such as computers, telephone lines, and cables, play a very important role in the implementation of new technologies in an organization (Rashid & Al-Qirim, 2001). The cost of setting up e-commerce cut across the budget of procuring hardware, software tools installation, telecommunication charges, preliminary planning, training, continuous maintenance, and servicing costs (OECD, 2018). Thus, the cost of internet and infrastructure has a negative effect on e-commerce development in developing countries which hence raising a competitive environment which is unnecessary due to prohibitive internet and infrastructure access. A study by Pearson & Grandson (2005) also indicates that the cost of implementation significantly inhibits the adoption and implementation of e-commerce in Chile. In the case of MSMEs in particular, this is often a major obstacle to the integration of new technologies and electronic commerce in SMEs, even if the manager perceives the adoption of new technologies and electronic commerce as important, if the enterprises do not have enough resources to adopt them, this may impede their intention to implement the innovation (Thong & Yap, 1995). Severe organizational constraints on financial, technological, and human resources often cause businesses in developing countries to lag behind their counterparts in developed countries in using electronic commerce (Huy & Filiatrault, 2006).

METHODOLOGY Research Design This study is done in a qualitative manner. Face-to-face interviews were conducted with the respondents to get a more elaborated and detailed data. The questions asked during the interview were purposely designed in a semi-structured format, this is because due to the nature of this research being exploratory, thus it is wise to get a broader view from the respondents apart from depending solely on the stated questions.

Data Collection Method Data collection was firstly done by identifying a list of respondents from the food and beverage industry. The lists were further filtered by choosing only the adopter of e-commerce. The lists of potential participants were then contacted either through email, Whatsapp chat or via their social media such as Instagram. The appointment for the face-to-face interview was then set after getting their approval and consent. Before the interview, participants were informed regarding the interview procedure such as the use of recorder to record the whole conversation and they were asked to sign a consent letter as approval. The interview with the participants was done on a one-on-one basis and it took about 30 to 45 minutes.

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Sample of Research According to a survey research project on Small and Medium Enterprises Development Policies of 4 ASEAN Countries: Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, the total registered business establishment in all sectors in Brunei Darussalam was 9,302 in 2008 (Polsaram et. al, 2011). Within this figure, there were 9,150 active SMEs or 98.37% of the total establishments with only 9% of this is within the F&B industry. The target population of this research is comprised of 6 small businesses owners in Brunei who had incorporated e-commerce in their operations. These entrepreneurs were selected using a purposeful sampling technique which involved the respondents being either the owners, managers or employees who played a role in the adoption and implementation of e-commerce in their company. These enterprises are also considered through the nature of their business of which are within the food and beverage industry. Their nature of business operations are further discussed under the Findings and Discussion section. Names of companies participated in this research are not disclosed based on requests and to be remained anonymous throughout this report.

Data Analysis Method The data was collected through in-depth interviews and all data were voice recorded and transcribed for the purpose of validation. The collected data is analyzed using thematic analysis. Trends in their answers were coded as themes. Once the analysis is completed and identified into themes, the findings are then compared against existing literature. Lastly, after careful analysis and interpretation, a conclusion from the data is formed.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION After an in-depth interview is done, it showed several e-commerce platforms being used by the owners in their day-to-day business operations. The use of e-commerce in small businesses and other factors that may influence a person’s decision to implement e-commerce in his or her business are also revealed. The major findings indicated several themes which emerged from the analysis of the data. A model describing the acceptance of e-commerce by users is presented by contrasting the emerging trends with the determinants of technology acceptance provided by the paradigm of Venkatesh and Davis (1996) TAM. In the interviews, business owners were questions regarding their experiences using e-commerce platforms. The owners listed activities which include advertisement, receiving orders, receiving payment, and engaging with customers. Most of the participants also indicated that e-commerce is already a part of their daily operations. Additionally, the participants had also mentioned their reasons for starting their business using an online platform: Company A: I think it is more approachable and it’s easier for the customer to get the information. It is convenient. At that time, we didn’t have enough budget to open up a kiosk, so we just used that platform to collect the profit and expand our business. I also believe that everyone will say shopping online is convenient. Company B: People are more online-oriented nowadays and they always have their phone on their hands so it is one of our ways to market our product and to expose our brand so that people know we exist. If we do not use it and we only use banners, I don’t think it is enough to expose ourselves.

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Company C: We aim to focus on digitalizing the Food and Beverages (F&B) Industry in Brunei and to create a better experience for everyone. Company D: It is the cheapest. It is free. Everything is through social media. Everything has to be digital now. It is the first way that we can think of to get across and to advertise as well and it’s free. So it’s the easiest and cheapest. But other than that we also try to engage in word of mouth. But to do that, we have to start with social media first. Company E: Apart from selling in expos, we used social media to let people aware of the existence of our products and of course to boost sales. Company F: From what I observe from local businesses nowadays, the majority of them use social media as a way to advertise their products. Since most people nowadays spend their free time on social media. It is a good opportunity for me to target different segments of demographics through Instagram. At first, I was hesitant about starting up a business in the food and beverage industry but it turned out better than I imagined it would be. E-commerce really helps in shaping the brand awareness of my business that I started getting invited to join events such as Mental Health Day in the university and its Sport’s Day Fiesta. After asking participants what are their reasons for starting an e-commerce platform for their business, another question asked to them was regarding what online platforms they are using in their business. All participants mentioned downloading several apps like Instagram, Facebook, Whatsapp, and Google MyBusiness. One of the participants also stated that he is using an app which he had created. All of them are currently using Instagram to promote their businesses. Many trends emerged from the interviews as the interviews focused on factors that affect e-commerce adoption in these businesses. For this research, which was done through analyzing the emerged themes, a conceptual Technology Acceptance Model has been constructed. Figure 2. Conceptual TAM framework

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The emerging trend can be either a motivating force or an impediment to the adoption of e-commerce among small businesses in Brunei. At times, the aspect can be both motivating and hindering depending on the situation. It is crucial for owners who wish to implement e-commerce in their company to recognise and understand certain factors that that may affect their business overall activity.

Perceived Usefulness Through their answers, all participants stated they chose to use readily available online platforms when they felt the platform was useful. Established literature supports this theory by presenting evidence that perceived usefulness is primarily influential on the intentions of an individual to implement a new technology that eventually determines the behavioural desire of the user to use the technology (Davis, 1989; Heijden et al., 2003). Take the conversation between the researcher and the participants: i.

Researcher: Does using e-commerce in your job enable you to accomplish tasks more quickly?

Company B: Yes, in terms of time. Instead of following the traditional way of advertisement such as giving flyers to people around, it’s easier to do it online as you just sit down and click it on your phone so it’s faster and easier, but most definitely it gives more time to do other things. Company C: Yes, because it is more convenient and quicker. If we have a customer request or orders, they can just do it through Instagram, so we just check it every day and then that’s how we know there’s an order coming and we always check our Instagram daily so it helps us to get the order more efficiently I would say. ii. Researcher: Does using e-commerce improve job performance? Company A: So far yes, especially if we do marketing, like if we want to introduce a new product or what we have today here. It is easy, you just have to post it and then suddenly people start coming and buying it. iii. Researcher: Does using e-commerce increase productivity/ sales? Company B: Yes, when we were in PPK, I did not really make full use of Facebook and Instgram, instead I focused on selling and less interacting with customers. But now that we have moved here, we try to change from just selling and we start to incorporate the use of social media, then we realize our sales have improved double the usual rate. So from there, we can see it is important to use these platforms. iv. Research: Does using e-commerce enhance the effectiveness of the job? Company B: As for traditional marketing, it’s a one-time purchase but it can deteriorate as time passes by and you need to pay a big amount of money to fix it or maybe make a new one. But for online, such as Facebook ads it is free. So it’s more effective to use online marketing than the traditional one. Company D: Yes definitely. Because let us say we have a new dish, so we advertise through Instagram and then we’ve seen the result and yeah it is effective, people come because of the new dish posted

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online. Sometimes people when they come here, they straight away say “can I have this” (showing the picture from Instagram) instead of looking at the menu provided. v. Research: Does using e-commerce make it easier to do the job? Company D: Yes, I supposed as compared to traditional marketing, it is more costly because if you were to use flyers you have to pay for the printing, etc. Moreover, it is way easier to update the people around. But the problem is that older people don’t really like using social media such as IG, so how are we supposed to reach them? That is one of the problems, the generation gap. Often, if we have the elderly that come to our shop it is usually their kids who make them come. There are elderly who use this Instagram but it is usually only a few compared to the youngsters. vi. Research: Overall, do you find e-commerce useful in the job? Company A: Yes, especially for small businesses like us. We started off with a small budget, so we do not really use extensive ways of marketing such as paying professional people to market our product, that’s very expensive. But it is good for small companies, because at the same time we are learning and still selling the product. These findings seemed consistent with the existing literature. Technological innovations like ecommerce platforms such as Instagram and Facebook are more likely to be adopted by organizations when they feel the new technology is useful and convenient (Ko et al., 2009). Many of these respondents use e-commerce in their daily business activities such as to advertise and update their menu lists and it is very helpful especially for small businesses. In terms of advertising, e-commerce has enabled them to use fewer resources. Not just that, it is more effective than traditional means of marketing leading them to have a favourable intention towards the adoption of e-commerce. This proves the study by AlMagrabi et al. (2011) that when the online experience of the consumer meets their expectations, they would have a positive perception of its usefulness and this would ultimately have a positive impact on the attitude towards e-commerce.

Perceived Ease-of-use Perceived ease-of-use, another cognitive factor determining consumers’ intentions to adopt new technology, shows a critical reason as to why the participants considered implementing the e-commerce platforms. Some sub-questions regarding the perceived ease-of-use were asked to the participants. i.

Research: Learning to operate e-commerce is easy?

Company A: “It is quite easy to understand how to operate these platforms because I think everyone uses Instagram, so everyone should know how it works. But in using the business account, it was kind of hard at first but eventually we get along with it.” Company B: “It is also easy to handle these social media. Advertising is easy and I can definitely manage these media from anywhere. Even though at first it was quite difficult to understand how it function, like example for Instagram, it takes a while for someone else to teach me how to use it, especially with the business account.”

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Company F: “Using e-commerce is relatively easy and convenient to use. Through e-commerce advertising, it is easy to interact with people and to update the latest information. It does require some basic knowledge at first but when you’re used to it, it gets easy.” Company E: It requires some basic knowledge at first but when you are used to it, it gets easy. ii. Research: Interaction with e-commerce would be clear and understandable? Company A: Not really, we need to have complete guidelines for the customers. Because sometimes people will ask about the procedure to buy, again and again, so it is better to have an illustration on how to buy and the menu, etc. It depends, at first we weren’t quite sure but sometimes, after knowing what the FAQ is, then we draft the steps on how to buy, etc. Company C: Pretty clear. If we get complaints, it’s usually through IG. But sometimes we also get unclear customers’ orders so we have to ask them again and again or maybe we call them so we get their orders right. Company E: Totally. I like the idea that we are able to directly communicate with people without having the hassle to set an appointment and go to a certain location. iii. Research: Do you find e-commerce to be flexible? Company D: Yes, we check it daily. Even if we are traveling we can still check. iv. Research: Overall, do you find e-commerce easy to use? Company A: Yes, it’s a must for every business to use actually. The responses given by the participants proves the existing literature by Monsuwe et al. (2004) in which the easier and effortless a new technology is, the more likely it will be utilized. Most of the respondents find e-commerce easy to use and it does not require much effort in operating the platform. As mentioned by Blagoeva et.al (2017), when users think it is easy to use the technology, the stronger his or her intention to use it leading to a greater actual usage behaviour. In this sense, perceived ease of use is versatility that has a huge effect on perceived usefulness. This relation makes e-commerce more beneficial to the consumer and consequently strengthens the intention of using and re-using it (Sarika, Preeti, Shilpy & Sukanya, 2016). The analysis was done by Gefen and Straub (2000) also shows that PEOU significantly affects Perceived Usefulness. Thus, enhancing the positive influence towards adopting and using e-commerce in their daily operations.

Cost Another determinant stated by the participants was cost in terms of using the readily available technology, which shows a positive correlation with favourable attitudes towards new technology adoption intentions. Three participants commented they find it cheaper to use the readily available online platforms such as Instagram, Facebook, and WhatsApp. Company A: “At that time, we don’t really have enough budget to open up a kiosk so we just use that platform to collect the profit and expand our business. Cost is also low so it helped a lot.” Company D: “It is the cheapest. It’s free.”

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Company F: “It’s cheaper than traditional advertising where we have to print leaflets and waste paper that is not good for the environment.” As the respondents have stated, they are more likely to use e-commerce in their company because of the relatively low cost of starting up and running the company. Readily-available apps such as Instagram and Facebook do not require payments and there are no costs for implementation other than using their own device. This means that owners do not have much to pay which motivates them to use e-commerce in their business. In their study, Auger, Pat and Gallaugher (1997) found that low maintenance costs have been identified as the most significant factor in motivating small businesses in the adoption of ecommerce. This shows that the introduction of a web-based sales presence is a fairly low risk and high reward strategy for small businesses who have opted to go online (Auger et al., 1997). However, some respondents mentioned that cost also determines the owners’ reason for not implementing e-commerce in their businesses. Some of their comments are: Company C: “The cost of developing the software, programming skill, and business model are the main challenges for us.” Company E: “I don’t really have a major issue on using these social apps but the cost can be very expensive in terms of paid advertising. So it is advisable to put aside a budget for marketing ad purposes.” “They might not have enough funds to hire an individual to be in charge of e-commerce on its own.” Company F: “In terms of cost, it is rather pricey to learn IT knowledge such as illustrating skills. I have to use cheaper options to learn such as from YouTube as I am limited to student budget.” Pearson & Grandson (2004) existing literature supports this theory with a range of evidence that indicates the cost of implementation greatly prevents e-commerce adoption. Cynthia K. Riemenschneider & Vicki R. McKinney (2002) have studied the differences in the adoption of Web-based e-commerce by small business executives and found that cost was a threat to Web-based e-commerce adoption. However, this indicates unfavourable intention for use of behaviour. Therefore, it affects the actual use of e-commerce by users in their business.

Social Influence It appears that social influence played a major role when the participants decided to adopt e-commerce in their business. Four participants answered they downloaded the e-commerce application because they see others using the applications nowadays. Several participants also noted that e-commerce is nowadays a crucial part of the activity for any business. Several comments by the participants on the trend of e-commerce are as follows: Company A: “It’s a trend. Everyone is using it, so why not we use that platform and use what is being offered already. Because I think it is easier to spread information, and it is rather convenient.” Company B: “People are using phones everywhere. Before this, the way we market is not that effective, our mentor is the one who pushes us to use these online platforms since there is a high usage of social media nowadays and for what we know, we can see the outcome after marketing with social media. I believe this is why every business uses social media, not just to market the product but it’s a must, it’s a trend everyone should follow.” Company D: “Everything is through social media. Everything has to be digital now. It’s the first way that we can think of to get across and to advertise as well and it’s free.”

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Company F: “From what I observe from local businesses nowadays, most of them use social media as a way to advertise their products. Since most people nowadays spend their free time on social media. It’s a good opportunity for me to target different segments of demographics through Instagram.” Based on the answers given by the respondents, it indicates that they are more drawn to adopt e-commerce when they see other people are using it and in this case their customers and rivals. One respondent also stated that she decided to adopt e-commerce in her business because her mentor recommended that to her. These results support Kim et al., (2007) literature, in which she found that social impact was substantially related to successful customer e-commerce adoption intentions. Moreover, they realize that adopting and using e-commerce in their business has proven to be more cost-effective than traditional direct marketing (Kempe et al., 2003). These findings showed that social influence, along with several cognitive determinants such as perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, and financial cost, was significantly associated with the adoption of e-commerce among enterprises, particularly small businesses, and these determinants are generally believed to increase the likelihood of innovation being adopted. While the interviews provided a lot of insightful details about how participants embrace and use the e-commerce sites, the most influential pattern that can be described was the growing use of applications that make users’ daily activities more convenient. Several participants invested more time than on other e-commerce sites to advertise their company in the readily accessible application, Instagram. The second and third most used e-commerce site was Facebook and Whatsapp.

CONCLUSION Nowadays ICT has become a significant part of any sector. It has impacted many sectors but one of the most affected has been the F&B industry. Especially, with the outbreak of Covid-19 pandemic, more and more consumers are pushed to go online and the adoption of e-commerce is being accelerated and thus require prompt digital adaptation by MSMEs (Norjidi, 2020). Enterprises, especially the small ones in the F&B industry have to adopt and adapt to technological developments such as e-commerce to stay competitive in order to thrive not only during the pandemic but also in today’s fast-changing world. However, in developing countries it can be a major challenge for small businesses to use e-commerce, especially those with limited resources and from the research that has been carried out by previous researchers, it shows that small business owners in Brunei may not seem to have reaped the full benefit of the Internet. The factors affecting F&B owners when implementing e-commerce in Brunei have been identified in this report. As a result of this research, it is proposed that perceived usefulness, perceived ease-of-use, implementation cost and social influence are crucial elements of consumer adoption of e-commerce. Finally, this study confirms TAM’s robustness, illustrating consumer-friendly behaviour in terms of ecommerce technology acceptance. Suggesting an extended TAM to which external factors such as cost and social influence are incorporated, this study finds that the emerging themes found can predict their intent to adopt and use of e-commerce in their business. From the standpoint of proving the possibility of using basic or modified framework as acceptance models for technology, this research is significant. Latest e-commerce factors research has been mainly conceptualized and performed in the Western developed country. Thus, e-commerce in developing countries should not be based solely on a developed country’s experience due to the differences in culture, policy, economic growth and much more.

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LIMITATION AND RECOMMENDATION This research has many limitations. The first limitation is that there are not many F&B respondents that are willing to participate in this study. With the small percentage of F&B businesses operating in Brunei and not many are willing to be interviewed, it might contribute to biasness towards the results. Other limitation is that this finding may only be relevant to the F&B sector in Brunei. The generalization of the findings can therefore not be relevant to other sectors and developed countries. Since the generalisation of the results are limited, it is recommended that a more dispersed sample of respondents should be used for future research such as in terms of the size of the business. Moreover, future researcher should include other possible factors aside from the factors mentioned in this study that would contribute to the extension of the research model.

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Rahayu, R., & Day, J. (2015). Determinant Factors of E-commerce Adoption by SMEs in Developing Country: Evidence from Indonesia. Procedia: Social and Behavioral Sciences, 195, 142–150. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.06.423 Rashid, M. A., & Al-Qirim. (2001). E-commerce technology adoption framework by New Zealand small to medium size enterprises. Research Letters in the Information and Mathematical Sciences, Institute of Information and Mathematical Sciences, 2, 63-70. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate. net/publication/221228901_The_Adoption_of_E-commerce_in_SMEs_in_Vietnam_A_Study_of_Users_and_Prospectors Renny, G. S., & Siringoringo, H. (2013). Perceived Usefulness, Ease of Use, and Attitude Towards Online Shopping Usefulness Towards Online Airlines Ticket Purchase. Procedia: Social and Behavioral Sciences, 81, 212–216. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.06.415 Review of e-commerce legislation harmonization in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations. (2013). United Nations Publication. Retrieved from https://asean.org/storage/2019/01/UNCTAD-Review-of-eCommerce-Legislation-Harmonisation-in-ASEAN-2013.pdf Riemenschneider, C. K., & McKinney, V. R. (2002). Assessing Belief Differences in Small Business Adopters and Non-Adopters of Web-Based E-Commerce. Journal of Computer Information Systems, 42(2), 101–107. doi:10.1080/08874417.2002.11647494 Rosli, S. (2018). Stable Banking System Helps Spur Economic Growth. Borneo Bulletin. Retrieved from https://borneobulletin.com.bn/NationalDay2018/index.html#13 Sarika, K., Preeti, S., Shilpy, S., & Sukanya, S. (2016). A Study of Adoption Behavior for Online Shopping: An Extension of Tam Model. International Journal Advances in Social Science and Humanities, 4(7), 11-21. Retrieved from http://www.ijassh.com/index.php/IJASSH/article/view/242/256# Schware, R. (2003). Information and Communication Technology (ICT) agencies: Functions Structures and best operational practices. Journal of Information Systems, 3–7. Seyal, A., & Rahim, M. (2010). Understanding Electronic Commerce Adoption in Bruneian SMEs. Journal of Electronic Commerce in Organizations, 8(4), 32–50. doi:10.4018/jeco.2010100103 Seyal, A., & Rahman, M. (2003). A Preliminary Investigation of E-Commerce Adoption in Small & Medium Enterprises in Brunei. Journal of Global Information Technology Management, 6(2), 6–26. do i:10.1080/1097198x.2003.10856347 Sobir, R. (n.d.). Micro-, Small-, and Medium-Enterprises (MSMEs) and their role in realizing the Sustainable Development Goals. United Nation Department of Economics and Social Affairs. Retrieved from https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/25851MSMEs_and_SDGs_Final3120.pdf Taylor, P. (2015). The Importance of Information and Communication technologies (ICTs): An Integration of The Extant Literature on ICT Adoption in Small and Medium Enterprises (Vol. 3). International Journal of Economics, Commerce and Management.

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The Literature Review Of Technology Adoption Models And Theories For The Novelty Technology. (n.d.). Available From: Https://Www.Researchgate.Net/Publication/317412296_The_Literature_Review_Of_Technology_Adoption_Models_And_Theories_For_The_Novelty_Technology The Relative Importance of Perceived Ease of Use in IS Adoption. A Study of E-Commerce Adoption. (n.d.). Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/220580413_The_Relative_Importance_of_Perceived_Ease_of_Use_in_IS_Adoption_A_Study_of_E-Commerce_Adoption Thomas, B., & Simmons, G. (2010). E-Commerce Adoption and Small Business in the Global Marketplace. Semantic Scholar. doi:10.4018/978-1-60566-998-4 Thong, J., & Yap, C. (1995). CEO characteristics, organizational characteristics and information technology adoption in small businesses. Omega, 23(4), 429–442. doi:10.1016/0305-0483(95)00017-i UNCTAD. (2005). Improving the competitiveness of SMEs through enhancing productive capacity: proceedings of four Expert Meetings. In United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (pp. 13, 67). United Nations. Retrieved from https://unctad.org/en/Docs/iteteb20051_en.pdf Vaithianathan, S., (2010) A review of e-commerce literature on India and research agenda for the future. Electron Commer Res, 10, 83–97. DOI doi:10.100710660-010-9046-0 Walugembe, A., Mubiru, P., Sserwanga, A., & Ngoma, M. (2015). The relationship between customer awareness and trust in e-shopping acceptance. Journal of Educational Policy and Entrepreneurial Research, 2, 35–43. Wong, A. (2020). Ekadaibrunei: Brunei’s First Online E-Commerce Directory Launched | Biz Brunei. Available at: https://www.bizbrunei.com/2020/04/ekadaibrunei-bruneis-first-online-e-commercedirectory-launched/ Yang, K., Li, X., Kim, H., & Kim, Y. H. (2015). Social shopping website quality attributes increasing consumer participation, positive eWOM, and co-shopping: The reciprocating role of participation. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 24, 1–9. Yi, M. Y., Fiedler, K. D., & Park, J. S. (2006). Understanding the role of individual innovativeness in the acceptance of IT‐based innovations: Comparative analyses of models and measures. Decision Sciences, 37(3), 393–426.

ADDITIONAL READING Dahbi, S., & Benmoussa, C. (2019). What hinder SMEs from adopting e-commerce? A multiple case analysis. Procedia Computer Science, 158, 811–818. doi:10.1016/j.procs.2019.09.118 Rana, N. P., Barnard, D. J., Baabdullah, A. M., Rees, D., & Roderick, S. (2019). Exploring barriers of m-commerce adoption in SMEs in the UK: Developing a framework using ISM. International Journal of Information Management, 44, 141–153. doi:10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2018.10.009

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Sombultawee, K. (2020). Antecedents and consequences of e-commerce adoption for SMEs. Kasetsart Journal of Social Sciences, 41(2), 256–261. Susanty, A., Handoko, A., & Puspitasari, N. B. (2020). Push-pull-mooring framework for e-commerce adoption in small and medium enterprises. Journal of Enterprise Information Management, 33(2), 381–406. doi:10.1108/JEIM-08-2019-0227

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Capital Formation: The addition of capital goods such as machines, tools, factories, transport equipment, materials, electricity, etc., which are used for future production of goods. Digital Adaptation: The ability to predict, or perceive, quickly evolving business needs, and adjust through new combinations of technology, process and workforce management. E-Commerce Platform: A software application that allows online businesses to manage their website, marketing, sales and operations. Internet Penetration: The portion of the population that has access to the Internet which is measured by the percentage of internet users in any country. Technological Innovation: A new or improved product or process whose technological characteristics are significantly different from before.

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Chapter 23

Blockchain-Based Transparent and Traceable Halal Food Supply Chain Management Systems Aisha Zahid Junejo https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9815-2704 Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Malaysia Manzoor Ahmed Hashmani Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Malaysia Abdullah A. Alabdulatif https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4400-5140 College of Science and Arts, Qassim University, Saudi Arabia

ABSTRACT Halal food is gaining attention among Muslims and non-Muslims alike due to its nature of ensuring food is free from any impurities or contamination and hygienically prepared. The growing demand for Halal food has resulted in several food-producing companies to certify their products as Halal. However, with existing supply chains, there is no authenticity of these products being Halal. To ensure Halal food authenticity, the technology of blockchain is proposed as a viable solution. In this chapter, the applicability and usability of blockchain technology in food supply chain management systems is studied and highlighted. The study depicts that how trackability and traceability of the blockchain networks can effectively aid in maintaining the Halal integrity of food products by presenting various use cases. Technological shift for food supply chains over blockchains will result in more transparent, secure, and resilient supply chains. This will bring variety of health and economic benefits to food producing business and consumers.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-6477-6.ch023

Copyright © 2021, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

 Blockchain-Based Transparent and Traceable Halal Food Supply Chain Management Systems

INTRODUCTION The innovative technology of the Blockchains has brought a huge disruption around the globe and is predicted to do the same in Asian region. Blockchains are decentralized and distributed ledgers that have eliminated the need of an intermediary third party for transaction verification and record keeping promoting trustless environment. This is done by providing the autonomy to all its participants to verify the authenticity of transaction. This verification is done through complex mathematics and computations. Since the technology is distributed, hence each node in the blockchain maintains its own copy of the ledger which ensures transparency of the data across the network. Although, the technology of blockchain was introduced with and for cryptocurrencies and banking sector, it eventually spread to other application domains such as education, healthcare, logistics, computer data analytics, etc., as well. The fundamental aim of this book chapter is to highlight the importance of blockchain applicability in logistics and supply chain management sector. In this book chapter, the authors have brought into attention on the benefits and usefulness of deploying blockchain in supply chain networks of the food industry. Food industry has recently experienced huge demand of Halal food by its consumers around the world, especially in Asia. Despite of the claims and Halal certification, there is no way to validate that the food item being sold and distributed by a company is Halal and Tayeb (hygienic). This chapter explores the versatility and usability of blockchain for supply chain management systems (SCMs) to ensure and authenticate the food being Halal. Moreover, this diffusion of blockchain into existing SCMs will assist food auditors to perform auditing easily and conveniently. Hence, this chapter also presents various benefits and challenges of using blockchains for SCMs. Further, various use cases of Halal food industries are considered and blockchain based supply chain frameworks are devised and presented for each one of these. The primary objectives of this chapter are: 1. To investigate the need and demand of Halal food in food industry. 2. To investigate the current state of issues in existing food supply chains 3. To investigate the advantages of applicability of blockchain technology in food supply chains to maintain Halal integrity of the products. 4. To devise and present blockchain based supply chain framework for Halal integrity of food.

BACKGROUND For the past few years, the Asian Pacific region has been in the limelight for its fastest growing economy as compared to rest of the world. One of the top three industries contributing to the region’s economic boost is the food and beverage industry. A major driving force for this growth of food industry in this region, is the rich agricultural resources in ASEAN-5 countries. Although food industries, nowadays, are offering various new food products in compliance to consumer needs, however, it still faces some challenges that need to be overcome for better outcomes, further growth and sustenance of the industry. Some of these challenges include 1) rise of health consciousness among consumers; nowadays, people are more careful about the origin and preparation of the food items (Aday and Aday 2020) they consume as contamination in food has significantly increase. They just want to avoid any adverse effects on their health. 2) concerns about food product traceability (Lawo et al. 2021); not only are people keen on knowing the origin of the product, they also want to have liberty of tracing the food items as they 463

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move along various stages of the supply chain. This gives them more transparency of how the food is being handled and distributed, and 3) complications in inventory management systems; discrepancies and missing information may result in ineffective management of inventory items. All these issues are further elaborated and discussed in later sections of the chapter. For any business enterprise and industry to prosper, it is essential for the company to have a good Supply Chain Management (SCM) system. A supply chain is a network connecting the enterprise and its suppliers to manufacture and deliver a specific product to the consumer. Supply chains greatly impacts the success of a business as it ensures timely and quality distribution of the products to end user. The food and beverage industry, likewise, also understands the significance of and leverages advanced supply chain management and analytics solutions. This effectively improves the inventory management services and reduces the risk of food spoilage and contamination, maintaining the safety of food. A major part of Halal market is in food sector for maintaining Halal integrity of food items as depicted in Figure 1. Figure 1. Halal market by product type

Halal integrity refers to ensuring that the food followed Halal norms by Shariah from farm to fork. Muslim population in Asia has increased from 23% in 1950 to 31% in 2020 (Kettani 2010). It is further expected to increase to about 50% towards mid-century, i.e., 2050 (Pew Research Centre 2015). Another

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Figure 2. Predicted population growth by religion (2015 – 2060)

report from the same source (Pew Research Centre 2017) published in 2017 estimated that Muslim population will increase to about 70% from 2015 – 2060 (further population increase with respect to religion is illustrated in Figure 2). The rapid growth in the Muslim population and awareness regarding halal food among the non-Muslim population are the major market drivers for the halal food & beverage market. Further, Halal food is no longer merely a religious norm for Muslims. In fact, non-Muslims are also keen on using Halal food products as these products are safe, whole some, hygienic, and contamination-free with safe and healthy environment (Golnaz, Zainalabidin, and Mad 2012). In addition, consumers are also keen to know if the product has gone through the halal processes or not. In late 2000, it was realized that the halal concept is not only confined to food but also cover the process of handling, packaging, storing and delivering. In other words, if the food is not handled or stored accordingly, it would not be considered as halal. Therefore, recently, customers have not only requested for halal products but also for the halal process. Additionally, customers want to have more control over the products and those processes too and need to know what it is gone through. Due to the complicated global food supply chain system, tampering, misrepresentation, or deliberate substitution has grown significantly (Asia Pacific Food Industry 2017). Moreover, the processes of food recalls and audits, for food safety and halal integrity, require a lot monetary and human resources. As a result, the current supply chains are deemed inefficient. However, with the advancements in information technology and advent of the blockchain networks, the issues in existing supply chains can be solved to produce more transparent, efficient, and resilient food supply chains. In recent years, the Blockchain technology has successfully gained the attention and endorsement of researchers and industrialists due to its wide variety of features including immutability, decentralization, and efficient security (Khan et al. 2020). The suitability of combining the blockchain networks to supply

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chain management is mainly due to two inherent properties of the technology namely transparency and traceability. These concepts are further elaborated below: 1. Transparency Blockchain eliminates the need of an intermediary third party by providing a distributed and decentralized mechanism for transaction verification and record keeping. Each participant in the network can view and verify the transaction, promoting transparency (Siyal et al. 2019) in the network. Transparency in SCM will allow 2. Traceability Another important feature of blockchain that can be exploited by SCMs is its tracing and tracking ability (Hashmani et al. 2020). With this feature, the user will be able to analyze and trace the product right from its origin to its destination to check if the product has gone through the Halal norms or is contaminated. In this chapter, the authors first present the increasing need and demand of Halal food by both, Muslim and non-Muslim consumers. Next, the authors present the shortcomings and issues of traditional supply chain management systems that result in lack of consumer and food auditor trust in Halal integrity of food items. Further, the technology of blockchain as a solution to existing issues, is discussed. Finally, a few conceptual models of blockchain based supply chains and its advantages in various food sectors are presented as case studies to further explore the domain. A concept of typical blockchain based supply chains is illustrated in Figure 3 and explained in later sections.

Contribution of Chapter The primary purpose of this research study is to present existing issues in current food supply chains regarding demand and supply of Halal food products, and leveraging the blockchain technology as a viable solution to eliminate the issues for maintaining the Halal integrity of the products. Besides that, the secondary contribution of the paper includes illustration of various use cases which can be advantaged by adoption of blockchain technology. The significance of blockchain based supply chains for these uses cases is also highlighted. This is predicted to bring impactful improvement in current supply chains thereby increasing the revenue of relevant businesses in Asian countries along with the maintenance of Islamic standards.

Organization of Chapter The organization of rest of the chapter is depicted in Figure 4. and is as follows: Section III highlights importance and demand of Halal food across the world, especially in Asia Pacific region. Besides that, it also discusses various issues of food industries these days and the importance of supply chains for the business. The following section explains the concept, functions and significance of existing supply chain management systems in food sector and further enunciates the challenges and limitations of these chains to maintain Halal and Tayeb integrity of food products. Next, the technology of blockchain and its various features are introduced. This section highlights the current status of blockchain in supply chain 466

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Figure 3. Blockchain based supply chains (BSC)

management systems and also elaborates various benefits that the fusion of blockchain and SCMs can bring to revolutionize the existing SCMs and solve existing issues in food supply chains for maintaining Halal integrity of food. In succeeding section, various scenarios/use cases that are likely to be hugely impacted by deploying blockchain based food supply chain are presented. By the end, the book chapter converges with conclusion and future work in the last section.

DEMAND FOR HALAL FOOD The global halal market is expanding especially with the economic development of leading Muslim countries such as Indonesia, Malaysia, India, Pakistan, Nigeria, and Iran. Moreover, countries such as China, Thailand, Japan, South Korea, and the Philippines have been investing heavily in the halal industry and the market size is expected to reach USD 9.71 trillion by 2025. In addition, the growing number of halal-certified products are expected to drive the global halal market over the projected period. Worldwide Halal food market comprises of 20% of the total, however, it is expected to experience a growth of about 70% by 2050 (Elasrag 2016) . There are two major driving factors for this growth in demand for

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Figure 4. Organization of the chapter

Halal food products. The first one being the increase in Muslim population world-wide. According to Islamic Shariah, it is essential for a Muslim to consume Halal food only. Hence, with the rise in Muslim population, the demand for halal food has increased. The second factor for this increasing demand is the awareness of Halal food benefits among non-Muslims. Halal food is free from alcohol, blood, urine or any other contamination and impurities. This results in well-developed mind and body. Halal food does not only result in good health but also protects the consumer from various diseases. Consumption of Halal food strengthen the immune system of the consumer and ensures proper functioning of body organs. Having known and realized these facts, non-Muslims are now also keen on using Halal food products in their day to day lives. With such increase in demand of Halal and Tayeb food, a huge number of companies have now introduced Halal counterparts for their food items. Some of these companies are maintaining their product

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quality and Halal status but other industries are just claiming their products to be Halal to generate more revenue by using lower quality products. With fake Halal labels, and increased food contamination, there is no full-proof way to determine that if the food reaching the consumer is indeed Halal or not. Several food frauds have been witnessed in recent years where the food products have been tampered with. Moreover, scams of fake Halal certificate have also been witnessed (Tingmin 2018). In this section, a detailed discussion on such issues in food industry are discussed. Furthermore, the limitations of existing supply chains with respect to solving the issues discussed are also outlined.

Food Frauds As essential and as in-demand as the Halal food is, there is no way of guaranteeing that a food product is free from impurities and is processed by Halal and hygienic norms. Several food producing companies claim their products to be Halal but, they are not. This process of selling non-Halal food with halal label is termed as Food Fraud. It includes intentional addition, substitution, tampering and/or misinterpretation of food, ingredients, processing and packaging during food production and distribution phases of a food supply chain. Generally, there are five most prevalent types of food frauds namely, dilution, substitution, concealment, counterfeit, mislabeling. These five types of food frauds are illustrated in Figure 5 and explained below: 1. Dilution: Dilution in food products refer to adding of cheaper product (usually a liquid) into a high-quality product to increase the quantity of the product with minimum production cost. This kind of food fraud is very common as it is very difficult to guess dilution of food by merely looking at it. 2. Substitution: Another type of food fraud is substitution. This refers to changing a high-quality ingredient of the product with a lower quality counterpart and claim it to be of high quality. 3. Concealment: Concealment is usually a part of all other types of food frauds as well. When a company replaces, mislabels or dilutes an ingredient of the final product, the details of this low-quality replacement are concealed from the consumer. Thus, cheating the consumer by hiding important product details. 4. Counterfeit: This kind of food fraud has different forms and types. Counterfeiting a food product can refer to falsification, adulteration, hiding the origin of the product, using a wrong brand name and many more. Not all counterfeit products are injurious to health but they’re still not what has been advertised to the consumer. 5. Mislabeling: 469

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Mislabeling in food refers to providing a false information about production of a food item and/ or the ingredients used to manufacture it. For example, a number of food products available in market these days have Halal certified logos, however, some of the ingredients and processes involved in the manufacturing are not Halal. Companies usually mislabel their products to either gain more revenue, peer pressure of rival companies or cost reducing demands of the consumers. Figure 5. Types of Food Frauds

As a result of these food frauds, the Halal integrity of the food item cannot be maintained and consumer trust on the product cannot be gained. A summary of various cases of these food frauds obtained from (Ruslan, Kamarulzaman, and Sanny 2018) and other sources is presented in Table 1. The outbreak of novel corona virus COVID-19 is also predicted to increase the food fraud cases. According to Director of Agri-Food Analytics Lab at Dalhousie University (Salama 2020), the pandemic is likely to increase food fraud cases as COVID-19 has led to lack of auditing and surveillance during food production and distribution.

Fake Halal Logos Besides food frauds, which cannot be detected and stopped in time, another scam of fake Halal certificate has also been witnessed (Tingmin 2018). Local food production factory in Malaysia sold non-Halal food products imported from China and India with a fake Halal logo. Another Vietnamese restaurant was also reportedly fined for using fake Halal logos on food packaging (Asia Times 2019).

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Table 1. Summary of Food Frauds Year

Location

Item

Contaminant

Reference

2013

South Africa

Minced meat, burger patties, deli meats, sausages and biltongs

2013

UK

Lamb Burgers

Traces of Pork

(BBC News 2013)

2013

UK

Vaccine

Pork gelatin

(Jenkins 2018)

2013

US

Chicken sandwich

Mislabeled as Halal

(Trenwith 2013)

2013

China

Home Made Food Products

Mislabeled as Halal

(Lipes 2013)

2014

EU

Packaged chicken sausage

Mislabeled as Halal

(Bottaro et al. 2014)

(Demirhan, Ulca, and Senyuva 2012)

Detection of porcine DNA in various meat products

(Cawthorn, Steinman, and Hoffman 2013)

2014

Turkey

Gelatin products (marshmallow and gum drops)

Products contain porcine gelatin and labelling failed to indicate the use of pork gelatin

2014

Malaysia

Chocolates

Detection of Pork DNA

(Awani 2014)

(Press Association 2015)

2015

UK

Halal slaughter house

Not following halal practices in the slaughtering process

2015

Italy

Chicken Sausages

Detection of pork DNA in chicken sausages

(Di Pinto et al. 2015)

2016

Spain

Marshmallows, gummies, hard candies and complex candies

Detection of porcine DNA in commercial candy products

(Muñoz-Colmenero et al. 2016)

2018

United Kingdom

Children’s Flu Vaccine

Pork

(Jenkins 2018)

EXISTING SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT (SCM) SYSTEM AND ITS CHALLENGES Supply chain management (SCM) systems are inter-organizational systems that enable companies to efficiently handle the flow of good from suppliers to customers. A supply chain is a network of organizations and facilities that transforms raw materials into products delivered to customers. The three fundamental phases of a supply chain management system are designing, planning and execution. The three phases operate at different points of time across the chain and are responsible for different kinds of product related decisions (Ozelkan and Rajamani 2006). During the design phase, decisions regarding the structure and strategies. Planning decisions are tactical, covering weeks to months, up to a year. Execution decisions relate to the day-to-day operations, and span from hours to weeks. The SCM deci-

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sion phases are hierarchical such that the strategic decisions drive the tactical decisions, and the tactical decisions drive the operational decisions. The five main functions of a Supply Chain Management System are depicted in Figure 6 and discussed below: 1. Purchasing: It is an essential function of SCMs because any products or goods need raw materials for its production. It is the responsibility of a supply chain management system to purchase and deliver these goods on time to start timely production of goods. 2. Operations: This function includes demand and supply forecasting of the goods so that no amount of goods is wasted, nor any shortage of the goods is witnessed. 3. Logistics: Coordination among various aspects of supply chains ranging from planning, production, purchasing to warehousing and transportation is managed through logistics facility of SCMs. 4. Resource Management: This function ensures correct allocation of resources such as raw materials, time, labor etc. 5. Information Workflow: The last function corresponds to sharing, storage and distribution of various other functions of the supply chain to ensure the chain is working as per expectations. The fundamental function of using SCM for business and logistics is to ensure that the right product has reached the right customer and if that is not the case then efficient after sales services should be provided to the consumers. However, with increase in counterfeit and mishandling of the products, a more secure and transparent system of SCM in logistics and business management is needed. In order to maintain the integrity of supply chains, periodical audits are conducted. These audits check for the product quality, production quality and goods management quality. These audits have become increasingly important, however, the audit of SCMs is quite challenging. First, there’s the number of processes, from purchasing to warehousing and contract management, contained within a supply chain. Due to time and resource constraints, audits often focus on one segment, which makes it challenging to get a holistic view. Moreover, because the processes are interrelated, identifying the root cause of a problem can require continual digging. Furthermore, with the global pandemic of COVID-19(Guillot 2020), the audit process has become more difficult due to lockdowns, travel restrictions, social distancing protocols and etc. Data tampering, misrepresentation and deliberate substitution of false data has significantly grown with the increase of complicated supply chains globally, having unnecessary links open. As per the report submitted by NSF, the food fraud costs the food industry around $49 billion globally each year. Moreover, in some cases, government agencies like FDA or USDA request food recall to discover the presence of any potential allergen in the food items (Mehta 2020). Performing food recalls frequently can cost food industry a lot. The implementation of halal standards such as unhygienic practices, production & processing facilities, and expirations of halal certification obstruct the market growth. Key opportunities like the investment in the halal food value chain and the development of tracking technology can be geared up by the market to reach the projected growth. Nowadays, digital technology is prevalent in supply chains in almost all areas of it. These areas do not only include the stages of raw material producing, processing, and tracking transactions, but also consist of production and distribution planning, scheduling and management. Using information technology to assist supply chains have increased the efficiency of the chains, thereby reducing unnecessary links and expenditures. The elimination of unwanted links in supply chains result in lowering the risks during product distribution or shipping. Other wide variety of IT benefits in supply chains include:

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Figure 6. Supply Chain Management (SCM) functions

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Increased control over production since time and resources will be more manageable Increased collaboration among partners and stakeholders since IT provides seamless communication. Better inventory management Enhanced user service Ability to capture costs and apply cost cutting strategies wherever possible with the use of Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning approaches

However, existing supply chains have several limitations that should be overcame to improve the performance and efficiency of supply chains thereby increasing the business’ success rate. The limitations include lack of tracking ability (Kumar et al. 2020) of the product at each stage through the supply chain, inability to trace the products, which in turn results in lack of consumer trust in the company and its products and asset security. Food traceability at different stages i.e. from its production to reaching the consumer is essential as people these days demand healthier and higher quality products with best nutritional characteristics and which follow halal process. Food traceability can allow the early warning for quality problems and

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hazards and efficient product recall when needed, ensuring better quality of food at consumer’s end. The regular supply chain management systems for food traceability lack trust and transparency. Consumers cannot have a detailed view of each processing step in food production and the resources used in these steps. Moreover, it is observed that in regular supply chain management systems, every participant in the food supply chain maintains their own paper-based records. Maintaining manual records are vulnerable to inaccurate updating (Mehta 2020). In case of any issue, it becomes difficult to track and trace capabilities, resulting in the investigations delays. To sum up the discussion, the problem with existing food supply chains include: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Lack of tracking ability of the food products across various stages of the supply chain. Inability to trace the food products, their origin and the ingredients used. Lack of consumer trust and supply chain transparency. Inability to detect problems at early stage. Manual, time consuming, inefficient, and costly maintenance of records. Tendency of record keeping being prone to human errors

Further, nowadays, with the outbreak of COVID-19, people demand proper sanitization and cleaning of the food products reaching them. Currently, there is no mechanism in supply chains to entertain and prove that demand. Therefore, it is essential to overcome the issues in current supply chains for faster business growth, greater consumer trust in product, and healthier lifestyles of the people involved.

BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY FOR HALAL FOOD SUPPLY CHAINS Introduction to Blockchain Technology Fortunately, the disruptive and innovative technology of Blockchain, due to wide variety of its inherent features, is considered to be a viable solution to aforementioned limitations of supply chain and Halal integrity maintenance. Blockchain was introduced around 2008 (Junejo, Memon, et al. 2020) with the advent of Bitcoin. Since its introduction to the world of technology, it has been used in a number of cryptocurrencies. Besides that, researchers and industrialists are currently exploring its application and usefulness in other application domains as well. By nature, blockchain is a decentralized and distributed ledger that stores data in chronological order. The decentralization in blockchain eliminates the need of trusting intermediary party for verification and validation of the transactions and authenticity of data. Instead, with blockchain technology, the processes of verification and validation are done through mutual agreement of the participants involved in the network. After addition of each block, the copy of the distributed ledger is maintained at each node. This feature makes the system more transparent. Moreover, multiple copies of the transaction history and data makes it almost impossible for the data to be tampered with, hence making the blockchain networks immutable. Simply defined, a blockchain network is a singly linked list that consists of multiple blocks, with each block consisting of multiple transactions (Train 2017). Multiple entities can directly communicate using a blockchain without the need of a middleware thus reducing the cost and transaction time lapse. Blockchains work in a four-step process i.e. triggering transactions, verification and validation of the

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transaction, creation of a block and finally, addition of the block in the chain (Miraz and Ali 2019) as depicted in Figure 7. 1. Triggering Transaction: Say, Node 1 has to transfer some data to Node 2; after initialization of transaction represented by Node 1, the information is broadcasted to all the parties in the network. 2. Validation and verification: Blockchain module decide if the transaction is to be verified or not. Verification and validation are done on the basis of algorithm chosen by all parties of the network. 3. Creation of new block: Block is created on the basis of validation and verification. 4. Addition of block to the chain: Finally, new block is added, and information is shared over the network. Figure 7. Blockchain working mechanism

The concept of blockchain based supply chains is similar to the existing supply chains except that these proposed systems will be tamper-proof, more transparent, secure, resilient and transparent. The incorporation and integration of the benefits of the blockchain technology into supply chain management systems can open new horizons of research and innovation in SCMs (Daguerre and Pérez 2017). The integration will result in provision of greater transparency in these systems along with the ability of keeping a track of products from raw material to the end-product. The two most important features of blockchain making this integration a huge success will be the ability of the blockchains to track and trace the entire history of the product. As already discussed, a blockchain network is tamper-resistant, hence the data once stored into the blockchain will always remain there. This supports easy tracking of the data as the entire data is linked. Furthermore, besides transparency, immutability and traceability (Junejo, Hashmani, and Alabdulatif 2020), the incorporation will also result in a lesser corruptible and

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better-automated alternative to current centralized database systems. This is predicted to ensure removal of single point of failure compromising the data, hence improving data security.

Current Status of Blockchain Technology in Supply Chains Analyzing the usability and feasibility of incorporating the disruptive technology of blockchains for improving operations of supply chain management systems is extensively being researched and experimented nowadays. Understanding the need of BSCs a detailed systemic literature review is carried out in (Yingli, Hugh, and Paul 2019). The main findings depict that blockchain technology can be very useful in increasing the visibility and traceability of the product under consideration, along with strengthened data security and improved digitalization. Another study was conducted (Dutta et al. 2020) to study the impact of blockchain in SCMs. The study states that the infusion of Blockchain in supply chains will result in better resilience of supply chains. Moreover, supply chain engineering processes such as automation, real time product tracking, data privacy and security, and business process and product management will be improved. According to this study, a huge number of blockchain based supply chains are being experimented and food and agriculture sector. Moreover, a study presented in (Daguerre and Pérez 2017) depicted that when the applications areas of logistics were surveyed for the use of blockchain technology, the supply chain management systems was the second largest area where the blockchains are currently being implemented. Although, blockchains are widely being deployed in supply chain management systems, however, the use blockchain technology for enhancing security and revolutionizing supply chain services might take considerable amount of time for complete acceptance (Litke, Anagnostopoulos, and Varvarigou 2019). In (Maouchi, Ersoy, and Erkin 2018), a completely decentralized and transparent system for traceability in supply chains is proposed. The proposed system is called TRADE. The research portrays that deploying blockchains for supply chain management systems can help in providing a good amount of product traceability. One of the various research questions discussed in the study in the need of preserving privacy. For certain supply chains, roles might compete with each other and not approve the use of a transparent system, consequently, a privacy-preserving traceability system should be designed. Another traceability system based on ontologies was proposed in 2016 by Kim et al. The paper had designed a smart contract to achieve the goal (Kim and Laskowski 2018). Moreover, RFID tags along with blockchain technology is applied to supply chain management for creating a traceability system for an agri-food supply chain in China (Feng Tian 2016).

Integration Benefits of Blockchain Technology in Supply Chain Management Systems Integration of blockchain (due to its transparency and traceability features) in supply chains will provide wide variety of commercial and economic benefits to supply chains. These benefits include, but are not limited to the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 476

Reduction or elimination of fraud and errors Improvement of inventory management Minimization of costs Reduction of delays from paperwork.

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5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Identification of issues and bad actors in the chain faster. Increase in consumer and partner trust. More business expansion. Easy food auditing. Improved Product Security. All of these benefits are elaborated in the following sub-sections.

Reduction or Elimination of Fraud and Errors: As discussed earlier, blockchain ledger is distributed among all the participating nodes in the network. This distributable nature ensures that the records are maintained at multiple end nodes. As a result, if a fraudulent entity wishes to modify the record, he must do it on all the nodes of the network, which is not practically possible. Consequently, the integrity of the data is maintained. The risk of fraudulent attacks including supply of fraudulent foods and/or overpricing, and human errors is eliminated, or at least reduced.

Improvement of Inventory Management: Greater visibility and transparency of assets in the blockchain will give the supply chain managing organization, more control over its data. This greater control will result in better management of assets hence, deploying blockchain will highly improve the inventory management efficiency of supply chain networks.

Minimization of Costs: The feature of real-time tracking in blockchain has a high significance when it comes to supply chains. It helps the supply chain to substantially reduce the cost of moving the products around the chain. This feature is also highly important when companies come across situations like food recalls. Usually, food recalls require a high expenditure but with blockchain traceability and trackability, the problem in food quality can be accurately isolated, consequently, minimizing the cost required for locating the root cause of the problem.

Reduction of Delays From Paperwork: Since blockchain technology will provide automation, the labor, time, costs etc., for paperwork will significantly reduce. This will in addition, improve authenticity and integrity of the records.

Identification of Issues and Bad Actors in the Chain Faster: In blockchain based supply chain (BSC), the product will be monitored from source (raw material) to destination (consumer product). This monitoring will sure that the product has been manufactured and distributed following all the Halal norms by Islamic Shariah. Moreover, various products, especially medicines and food require specific kind of temperature and storage conditions to stay fresh and usable. The real time tracking and tracing abilities of the blockchain will enable these environmental conditions 477

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to be sensed by the sensors and recorded in the blockchain. In case of any potential danger, the product can quickly be monitored and taken care of. If any product encounters some ambiguities, it will quickly be detected and discarded or processed (depending on the kind of ambiguity). This will ensure that all the products reaching the consumer are safe and good quality.

Increase in Consumer and Partner Trust: All the data related to the product throughout the supply chain will be available for consumer to access. The consumer will be able to see all the processes that the product has gone through, all the ingredients added to it and whether proper sanitization has been done at various supply chain stages or not. This enormous amount of product transparency will increase the trust of the consumer towards the production company.

Business Expansion: Provision of all the aforementioned benefits will have a huge impact on company’s business. Such a system will attract a huge number of customers.

Easy Food Auditing: The availability and real time monitoring of the data will enable the internal and external food auditors to verify the Halal integrity of the products. This verification will be easy and hence can be frequently done.

Improved Product Security: Blockchain networks are distributed and decentralized hence do not have a single point of failure as in traditional systems. Moreover, to add any kind of data or record to the system, the record must be verified by the participants in the network. This means, that any adversary will not be able to add or remove any kind of data into the system. As a result, the security of blockchain based supply chain management systems is drastically improved.

BLOCKCHAIN BASED SUPPLY CHAIN VS. EXISTING SUPPLY CHAINS Besides all the advantages that blockchain brings to existing supply chains, the two types of SCMs also differ on deeper levels. These differences are elaborated and discussed in this section.

Storage Data storage in Blockchain Supply Chains (BSC) is different from existing SCM systems. In a BSC the data is stored at each participant of the network. This means, there is no single point of failure (Wang et al. 2020). Hence, if one server is hacked or broken, the records and data will still be safe and secure. However, in current SCMs, the data is not distributed nor as easily accessible as in BSC.

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Record Updating Any records in current SCMs can be updated, modified or deleted as per the convenience of database operators. However, this is not the case in BSCs as the data in the blockchain is immutable (Junejo, Memon, et al. 2020) and cannot be tampered with. If one may wish to update the data in a blockchain, the transaction request will be initiated and verified by all the participants. If majority of the participants mark the request as valid, the data will be updated, but this doesn’t mean that the previous data will be removed or overwritten. It will still be there on the chain for future reference. This provides added trust and security to the assets stored on the chain.

Structure Blockchain is a decentralized server which is free from intermediary third party (Zyskind, Nathan, and Pentland 2015). Therefore, Blockchain based supply chain will also be decentralized i.e. the data stored in the supply chain does not have a centralized authority or organization looking after it, rather each node in the network has a copy of it. Availability of data to all the peers in the network doesn’t only ensure better transparency of the data, but also makes traceability of the data easier (Abeyratne and Monfared 2016).

USE CASES OF BLOCKCHAIN BASED HALAL FOOD SUPPLY CHAINS In this section, the authors discuss various important food ventures with a high demand of Halal and Tayeb food products. This section also enunciates that how blockchain can be used in all these ventures to improve the supply chain and maintain Halal integrity of the products.

Halal Poultry By the year 2019, the poultry market had reached the value of around $319.2 billion and is expected to reach at about $405 billion by 2023, growing at the rate of 6.1% CAGR and at about %645.7 billion by 2030 at the growth rate of 6.8%. According to a report (Research and Markets 2020), Asia Pacific has been a region with the largest share in global poultry market with a total of about 31%. Chicken is considered as one of the most affordable, demanded and widely eaten sources of protein in the world. With the rapid growth of Muslim population and demand for Halal food even in non-Muslims, it has become essential for poultry providers to provide Halal poultry products specifically halal chicken. In order to track and trust on the authenticity of the delivered poultry product to be Halal, a blockchain based solution is depicted in Figure 8. The conceptualized model in Fig 2 will ensure and empower the consumer to track back to the product history to ensure it has gone through standard and halal certified processes. The system will basically provide three facilities i.e.: 1. Track and Trace for Customer 2. Track and Trace for Supplier 3. Transparent Supply Chain

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Figure 8. Blockchain based Halal poultry supply chain

Track-n-Trace for Customer: Food traceability is the key to food business and specifically in Halal poultry. With Blockchain’s distributed ledger and immutability the customer will be able to track back the complete history as where it came from, when it was harvested and processed, and even who and when produced it. Blockchain would help confirm that the poultry item is Halal and valid and following quality standards by linking the physical packet to barcode or ID for tracking and verification. In nutshell, the customer will be able to trace the back from the dining table or kitchen to origin.

Track-n-Trace for Supplier and Middleman: The motive of a supplier and the middleman to Track-n-Trace its product is two-fold that can be only achieved through blockchain technology. 1. The supplier may want to verify that nothing was added to its product in the whole supply chain that may violate the Halal status of the product. 2. The supplier/middleman may want to do analytics to optimize its business objectives.

Transparent Supply Chain: Blockchain can help bring transparency to the supply chain process with the identification and removal of bad actors and poor processes. With blockchain, all the supply chain data would be permanent and easy to share as well as provide proof of legitimacy for halal products at each stage.

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Business giants Wallmart and AliBaba are already working on Blockchain pilots for enhancing their supply chain transparency and tracking goods more efficiently. Another famous international supermarket chain Carrefour in China uses IoT devices to trace chicken along various steps in Supply Chain Management. along with it another similar initiative was introduced by Alpha Food Labs in New York under the name BlockBird. Although a few use cases of Blockchains in poultry traceability systems have been witnessed, but the need of detailed research regarding the pros and cons of the required integration still persists.

Halal Cacao Cacao, being the key ingredient of chocolate and chocolate products is one of the highly traded tropical crops. Asian countries, these days, are quickly developing and growing their markets for cacao and cacao products production. The countries are keen on increasing its production due to wide variety of reasons. The reasons include the fact that cacao beans can be used as intercrop for banana and coconut, two-week harvest interval and early ripening period of about 18 months. The early return of ventures and high productivity of the item likewise guarantee great pay growth possibilities. Moreover, cacao has no substitute product which makes it a high value crop. In Asia, the Philippines is the first and by far the largest producer of cacao beans. It is squarely located within the cacao belt. The narrow, 20-degree band on both sides of the equator determines the best places to grow this coveted crop. In this region, high humidity and between 40-100 inches of rainfall are guaranteed throughout the year, needed by cacao trees to thrive. The demand of chocolate, not only in Philippines or Asia, but also globally has increased with a substantial amount of increase in the demand of Halal and Tayeb chocolate. Global sales of Halal-certified chocolate confectionery will reach $1.7 billion by 2020. Since Blockchain is decentralized, it makes the system more transparent because the copy of the ledger (that cannot be tempered with) is stored at each participating node in the network. Use of Blockchain technology can ensure that the chocolate that reaches the consumer is Halal and Tayeb by tracking. The system/application discussed in this section will use cutting-edge technology of Blockchain and will provide a novel application to improve the performance and efficiency of the supply chain management systems for tracking cacao beans and ensuring their Halal and Tayeb integrity. The proposed system/ application will provide a platform to record the data throughout the cacao supply chain, from raw material to final product. This recorded data cannot be tempered with and could be easily retrieved (by using barcode or otherwise) for the of internal auditors (e.g., the company that produces cacao products) and external auditors (e.g., Halal certification agencies) to securely monitor the well-being of the product. The facilities provided by the system to Halal Cacao market will include: 1. Provision of data to track if the Halal and Tayeb SOP are followed by the company. This will be highly significant for internal auditors to maintain Halal integrity of the products. 2. Provision of data to track if the Halal and Tayeb SOP are followed by the suppliers of the cacao beans. Once again, this data will help the internal auditors of the cacao producing company. 3. Provision of data to track if Halal and Tayeb SOP are followed by the company as required by the external auditors. These auditors can be one of those Halal certification agencies to verify the hygiene of the products and provide certification to the respective companies. 4. Moreover, the system will provide the relevant data to distributors and retailers.

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The proposed system will eliminate the issues or security, transparency and manual labor as in the traditional systems. The conceptual model of the system is illustrated in Figure 9. given. Figure 9. Blockchain based Halal cacao supply chain

The proposed system will work like a regular supply chain except that it will have more transparency, tamper resistance and trustworthiness. The system will work as follows: 1. Each stage throughout the supply chain will add subsequent information into the system. 2. The batches of the cacao beans and all the processed products will have a unique barcode/QR code attached to them. 3. Once the data has been recorded into the system and the barcode/QR code has been associated with the product, any of the members of the supply chain and/or the stakeholders may scan the barcode on the product and access relevant information from the blockchain. 4. Depending on the information required, the user (e.g., external auditors) can retrieve information/ documents based on other parameters than the barcode/QR code. The stakeholder association of the proposed system is depicted in the Figure 10 below.

Halal Chili Chili is one of the most used ingredients around the globe and have a wide variety of health benefits. Vitamin A and C, present in dried chilies is said to reduce the risk of prostate cancer in humans. Moreover, the capsaicin in peppers decreases the risk of heart diseases, reduces inflammation and is thought to simulate in weight loss for obese people. Chilies are highly demanded due to variety of oriental, exotic and all kinds of food in various parts of the globe. Hence, ensuring the Halal integrity of chilies before and as it reaches the consumer is highly important. This case study specifies how blockchain can be used in supply chains for Halal chili business in Asia.

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Figure 10. Stakeholder association diagram of Blockchain based Supply Chain

The socio-economic impact of the blockchain based supply chains for chili tracking will include the following: 1. Provision of transparent and ease of tracking Halal and Tayeb integrity of chilies. 2. Strengthening chili sales in domestic and export markets, resulting in boosting economy of the country. 3. Increasing chili production within Asia. 4. Improving livelihood and job vacancies for farmers, labors, and other domestic staff involved in chili supply chain. 5. Enabling consumers to use high quality halal product. 6. Improving agriculture of Asia. The framework of BSC for Halal chilies is depicted in Figure 11.

Halal Cat Food Asia- Pacific region holds the highest Muslim population in the world which figures to about 62% of the entire Muslim population around the globe. With such a huge percentage of Muslims being in this region, the demand of Halal cat food cannot be overlooked. Although cats do not need to be strictly eating Halal food, however, they can still be advantaged by its use due to hygienic, contamination free and careful preparation of the food. Moreover, a number of Muslims in Asia are keen on having their pet cats eat Halal Cat Food. Further, cat food jars and utensils are likely to come in close contact with their owners’ food. Hence, if they are not free of impurities and contaminated products, the human food might get affected (Amir H.M.S, Razauden Z, Harisun Y, Ida

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Figure 11. Blockchain based Halal chili Supply Chain

I.M 2014). A few cat food brands in Asia are also Halal certified due to the high rising demand. So, once again, in order to keep the integrity of food being Halal and hygienic, blockchain can be used for cat food supply chain. The conceptual model of the framework is illustrated in Figure 12. Analogous to a regular cat food supply chain, the blockchain based CFSC will also consists of various stages from raw material to final end product reaching the consumer. The important details to capture at each stage for maintaining the Halal integrity of cat food include the following:

Raw Material In this stage, the details regarding the quality of the raw material will be useful for the authenticity of Halal cat food. The ingredients and processes used in production/growth of the raw material play a significant role in determining if the food produced at later stage will be Halal or not. Moreover, it is essential to keep a track record of fertilisers and feed or various plants and animals used as the raw material for cat food production. This is to ensure that they are also free from impurities and contamination.

Production Company In the second stage raw materials are taken for further processing. Once halal integrity of raw materials has been ensured, the next step is to collect such a data that gives detailed insight on the product quality at manufacturing stage. This data can include the info of production company or factory, the ingredients added to the raw material during production and, the processes that the product has to go through. Moreover, another essential information that must be looked into at this stage is whether the machineries are properly cleaned and sanitized or not and the workers are following Halal Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) or not. Further, the materials used for packaging should also be checked and noted in the blockchain for verification at further stages by internal and external auditors. Packaging of the food product plays a significant role in food protection and safety. Hence, this is an extremely important stage for product related data to be stored into the blockchain.

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Figure 12. Blockchain based Halal cat food Supply Chain

Storage and Distribution To maintain quality, safety and integrity of a food product proper temperature and environmental conditions are highly important. Blockchain at this stage can be used to monitor the temperature, cleanliness of food storing warehouses and the transportation vehicles that are responsible for food distribution. If any of these do not have required environmental conditions, the food will likely decay or rot. Instead of delivery food free of impurities and contamination, the food delivered will be poisonous and injurious to health. Anyone consuming such a food item can be affected from serious health issues.

Retail Store The stage of a shop or retail store usually marks the end of the product in a supply chain. This is where the final product is made available for the consumers. Since maintaining Halal integrity is all about safe and hygienic food reaching the consumers, hence food safety at this stage is equally necessary. The main focus, in this stage is to ensure the product is properly packed, stored in required temperatures (neither too high nor too low) and, the shelf life of the product has not ended. This can be ensured by adding product expiry details to the blockchain. If the expiry date of a product batch has exceeded, the blockchain network can easily track it and help the employees discard it. This will increase consumer trust in the product, retailer, distribution company, production company and everyone who is the part of the supply chain. As a result, the business will grow, the economy of the country will prosper, and humans and pets likely will lead a healthy life.

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EXISTING CHALLENGES OF BSC AND FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS In this chapter, authors have discussed potential benefits of blockchain networks for preserving the Halal and Tayeb integrity of food items across various supply chains. Despite of blockchain technology’s adoption in supply chain management systems and other logistics applications, the privacy issues on blockchains [77] [78] still remain a major and important feature to consider while deploying blockchains to SCM industry. The data communication and network user identity definition in blockchains rely on digital signatures that are based on cryptography protocols [75]. The transparent and immutable property of blockchains make it unsuitable for privacy of sensitive data i.e., reveal physical identities and disclose for instance consumer habits, privacy, and proof of location, etc. Therefore, designing blockchain systems that preserve user’s privacy is essential since the data stored in blockchains cannot be modified or removed. So, as a future research, the issue of privacy must be solved. Moreover, the conceptual models presented in this chapter can be implemented and tested to see if the results are as promising as expected. Furthermore, during the implementation and testing phase, the cost-risk analysis of the proposed idea should be done. This will bring into the view various risks and challenges that may be encountered on successful deployment of the presented frameworks. Hence, risk mitigation strategies may be applied to avail the optimal solution to the problems discussed in the chapter using the blockchain technology. This will highly impact the lifestyles and livelihood of the people residing in Asia, at first, and subsequently all over the globe.

CONCLUSION Muslim population is the second largest population in the world. According to religious norms, Muslims must eat Halal and Tayeb food. Besides that, due to hygiene and safety measures of Halal food, non-Muslims are also demanding Halal food items. With food frauds and fake Halal certificate scams going on worldwide, it is very significant to have a system that ensures Halal and Tayeb integrity of food and also provides details of the origin and path that a food product has been through. In this study, the problems in existing food supply chains are highlighted. These problems include lack of trace and track ability, lack of transparency, tendency of erroneous record keeping, less resilience and prone to security breaching. During the research, it is found out that blockchain’s features can be utilized to make food supply chains more resilient, secure, transparent, efficient and tamper-proof. Various conceptual models presented in the paper highlight the significance and advantages of integrating blockchain in supply chains. This integration will disrupt the way food supply chains are currently working and is expected to generate a huge revenue for the industry. Not only will it be beneficial for food producing companies but will also make it convenient and cheaper for the food auditors (internal and external) to perform food recalls. This frequent monitoring of food quality will result in high quality, Halal and Tayeb food, to be distributed all over the region. Consequently, people will lead to healthier lifestyles.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT The authors would like to extend their deepest gratitude to the Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS for provision of substantial materials and aids for completion of the book chapter. 486

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REFERENCES Abeyratne & Monfared. (2016). Blockchain Ready Manufacturing Supply Chain Using Distributed Ledger. Academic Press. Aday, S., & Aday, M. S. (2020). Impact of COVID-19 on the Food Supply Chain. Food Quality and Safety, 4(4), 167–180. doi:10.1093/fqsafe/fyaa024 Amir, H. M. S., Razauden, Z., Harisun, Y., Ida, I. M., & Mona, Z. (2014). Halal Cat Food for the World Market. International Journal on Advanced Science, Engineering and Information Technology, 4(4), 230–233. doi:10.18517/ijaseit.4.4.406 Asia Times. (2019). Vietnamese Restaurant in Malaysia Ned for Fake Halal Logo. Retrieved https:// asiatimes.com/2019/01/vietnamese-restaurant-in-malaysia-fined-for-fake-halal-logo/ Awani, A. (2014). Pig DNA Found in Cadbury Chocolates. Academic Press. BBC News. (2013). Leicester Schools Halal Lamb Burger Contained Pork. BBC News. Retrieved https:// www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-leicestershire-22466068 Bottaro, M., Marchetti, P., Mottola, A., Shehu, F., & Di Pinto, A. (2014). Detection of Mislabeling in Packaged Chicken Sausages by PCR. Albanian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 13(special), 455–460. Cawthorn, D. M., Steinman, H. A., & Hoffman, L. C. (2013). A High Incidence of Species Substitution and Mislabelling Detected in Meat Products Sold in South Africa. Food Control, 32(2), 440–449. doi:10.1016/j.foodcont.2013.01.008 Daguerre & Pérez. (2017). Systematic Literature Review of the Use of Blockchain in Supply Chain. Academic Press. Demirhan, Y., Ulca, P., & Senyuva, H. Z. (2012). Detection of Porcine DNA in Gelatine and GelatineContaining Processed Food Products-Halal/Kosher Authentication. Meat Science, 90(3), 686–689. doi:10.1016/j.meatsci.2011.10.014 PMID:22098822 Di Pinto, A., Bottaro, M., Bonerba, E., Bozzo, G., Ceci, E., Marchetti, P., Mottola, A., & Tantillo, G. (2015). Occurrence of Mislabeling in Meat Products Using DNA-Based Assay. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 52(4), 2479–2484. doi:10.100713197-014-1552-y PMID:25829637 Dutta, P., Choi, T. M., Somani, S., & Butala, R. (2020). Blockchain Technology in Supply Chain Operations: Applications, Challenges and Research Opportunities. Transportation Research Part E, Logistics and Transportation Review, 142(July), 102067. doi:10.1016/j.tre.2020.102067 PMID:33013183 Elasrag, H. (2016). Halal Industry: Key Challenges and Opportunities. Agricultural & Natural Resource Economics EJournal. Golnaz, R., Zainalabidin, M., & Mad, N. S. (2012). Non‐Muslim Consumers’ Understanding of Halal Principles in Malaysia. Journal of Islamic Marketing, 3(1), 35–46. doi:10.1108/17590831211206572 Guillot, C. (2020). Conducting Supplier Audits in the Era of COVID-19. Supplychaindive. Retrieved https://www.supplychaindive.com/news/coronavirus-supplier-audits-in-the-era-of-covid-19/581236/

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Hashmani, Junejo, Alabdulatif, & Adil. (2020). Blockchain in Education – Track Ability and Traceability. Academic Press. Jenkins, S. (2018). Pork Gelatine Use in NHS Vaccines ‘Disappointing. BBC News. Junejo, A. Z., Hashmani, M. A., & Alabdulatif, A. A. (2020). A Survey on Privacy Vulnerabilities in Permissionless Blockchains. International Journal of Advanced Computer Science and Applications, 11(9). Advance online publication. doi:10.14569/IJACSA.2020.0110915 Junejo, A. Z., Memon, M. M., Junejo, M. A., Talpur, S., & Memon, R. M. (2020). Blockchains Technology Analysis: Applications, Current Trends and Future Directions---An Overview. In S.-L. Peng, L. H. Son, G. Suseendran, & D. Balaganesh (Eds.), Intelligent Computing and Innovation on Data Science (pp. 411–419). Springer Singapore. doi:10.1007/978-981-15-3284-9_47 Kettani, H. (2010). Muslim Population in Oceania: 1950 – 2020. International Journal of Environmental Sciences and Development, 1(2), 165–170. doi:10.7763/IJESD.2010.V1.30 Khan, D., Jung, L. T., Ahmed Hashmani, M., & Waqas, A. (2020). A Critical Review of Blockchain Consensus Model. 2020 3rd International Conference on Computing, Mathematics and Engineering Technologies (iCoMET). Kim, H. M., & Laskowski, M. (2018). Toward an Ontology-Driven Blockchain Design for Supply-Chain Provenance. Intelligent Systems in Accounting, Finance & Management, 25(1), 18–27. doi:10.1002/ isaf.1424 Kumar, A., Mangla, S. K., Kumar, P., & Karamperidis, S. (2020). Challenges in Perishable Food Supply Chains for Sustainability Management: A Developing Economy Perspective. Business Strategy and the Environment, 29(5), 1809–1831. doi:10.1002/bse.2470 Lawo, D., Neifer, T., Esau, M., Vonholdt, S., & Stevens, G. (2021). From Farms to Fridges: A ConsumerOriented Design Approach to Sustainable Food Traceability. Sustainable Production and Consumption, 27, 282–297. doi:10.1016/j.spc.2020.11.007 Lipes, J. (2013). Foods Mislabeled as Halal Imports. Radio Free Asia, 1–6. Litke, A., Anagnostopoulos, D., & Varvarigou, T. (2019). Blockchains for Supply Chain Management: Architectural Elements and Challenges Towards a Global Scale Deployment. Logistics, 3(1), 5. doi:10.3390/logistics3010005 Maouchi, Ersoy, & Erkin. (2018). TRADE: A Transparent, Decentralized Traceability System for the Supply Chain. Academic Press. Mehta, J. (2020). Blockchain and Food! Academic Press. Miraz, M. H., & Ali, M. (2019). Conference Paper · August 2018. Finance Research Letters, 11(2), 1–6. Muñoz-Colmenero, M., Martínez, J. L., Roca, A., & Garcia-Vazquez, E. (2016). Detection of Different DNA Animal Species in Commercial Candy Products. Journal of Food Science, 81(3), T801–T809. doi:10.1111/1750-3841.13225 PMID:26807698

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Ozelkan, E., & Rajamani, D. (2006). An Effective Framework for Teaching Supply Chain Management. ASEE Annual Conference and Exposition, Conference Proceedings. 10.18260/1-2--1435 Pacific, A. Food Industry. (2017). Food Fraud Across The Global Supply Chain. Retrieved https://apfoodonline.com/industry/food-fraud-across-the-global-supply-chain/ Pew Research Centre. (2015). The future of world religions: Population growth projections, 2010-2050. Author. Pew Research Centre. (2017). The Changing Global Religious Landscape. Author. Press Association. (2015). Abattoir Clips Highly Regrettable. Daily Mail. Retrieved https://www.dailymail.co.uk/wires/pa/article-2937224/Halal-slaughterhouse-video-probed.html Research and Markets. (2020). Insights on the Poultry Global Market (2020 to 2030) - COVID-19 Impact and Recovery. Academic Press. Ruslan, A. A. A., Kamarulzaman, N. H., & Sanny, M. (2018). Muslim Consumers’ Awareness and Perception of Halal Food Fraud. International Food Research Journal, 25(December), S87–S96. Salama. (2020). Food Authenticity Network: Is Food Fraud Coming Soon to a Store Near. Academic Press. Siyal, Junejo, Zawish, Ahmed, Khalil, & Soursou. (2019). Applications of Blockchain Technology in Medicine and Healthcare: Challenges and Future Perspectives. Cryptography, 3(1). Tian, F. (2016). An Agri-Food Supply Chain Traceability System for China Based on RFID Blockchain Technology. 2016 13th International Conference on Service Systems and Service Management (ICSSSM). Tingmin, K. (2018). Fake Halal Food in Malaysia: Factories Accused of Packing Product Originating from China and India. Food Navigator-Asia.Com, 6–7. Train, J. (2017). An Introduction to Blockchain Technology – Hacker Noon. Hackernoon. Retrieved https://hackernoon.com/an-introduction-to-blockchain-technology-261ffb8de Trenwith, C. (2013). Fast Food Giant to Pay $700k for Halal Mislabelling. Arabian Business, 1–4. Retrieved https://www.arabianbusiness.com/fast-food-giant-pay-700k-for-halal-mislabelling-498543.html Wang, Q., Ji, T., Guo, Y., Yu, L., Chen, X., & Li, P. (2020). TrafficChain: A Blockchain-Based Secure and Privacy-Preserving Traffic Map. IEEE Access: Practical Innovations, Open Solutions, 8, 60598–60612. doi:10.1109/ACCESS.2020.2980298 Yingli, W., Hugh, H. J., & Paul, B.-D. (2019). Understanding Blockchain Technology for Future Supply Chains: A Systematic Literature Review and Research Agenda. Supply Chain Management, 24(1), 62–84. doi:10.1108/SCM-03-2018-0148 Zyskind, Nathan, & Pentland. (2015). Decentralizing Privacy: Using Blockchain to Protect Personal Data. 2015 IEEE Security and Privacy Workshops.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS ASEAN-5: This refers to five Asian countries including Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Philippines, and Singapore. Asia Pacific: The region of the world that includes East Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia and Oceania. Blockchain Technology: Blockchain is a database that is stored on multiple computers at the same time. This technology has been invented to eliminate the need of intermediary third party for transaction verification and record keeping. This ensures trustless environment with greater transparency and user autonomy. Food Fraud: When a company sells the food items with ingredients that are not acceptable by the masses and are against what has been advertised, then the company is said to be indulging in a food fraud. Food Recalls: A time to time check of food products by the producing company or distributors, that ensure faulty food products are discarded before reaching the customer and causing health issues. Halal: According to Islamic Shariah Laws, the food that is free of any contamination and impurities and is produced through hygienic processes is said to be Halal. This food is the kind of food that is acceptable to be consumed by Muslims. Tayeb: Hygienic.

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A Differentiation of Restaurant Types Based on Customers’ Perceived Attributes: A Study in Tokyo Bình Nghiêm-Phú University of Hyogo, Japan Erika DeJong Watanabe Fukushima College, National Institute Technology, Japan

ABSTRACT The understanding of the differences between/among types of restaurants is important with the effective management of the involved businesses. Nonetheless, a meaningful definition and differentiation of each and every type of restaurant is largely missing. Therefore, this study aims to differentiate and define the existing categories of restaurants in a tourism and travel setting. In order to obtain this objective, this study opts to collect and analyze customer reviews to reveal the external attributes that they prioritize. From there, comparisons are made to see whether different types of restaurants are attributed to different characteristics or not. After that, definition of each type of restaurant is proposed. Using reviews about restaurants in Tokyo posted on tripadvisor.com, this study confirmed that the categorization of restaurants according to price and value is a valid and reliable practice. Definitions of restaurant types were then conceptualized. Practical and theoretical implications of this study were also discussed.

INTRODUCTION Eating and drinking are two of the most basic needs that humans have, regardless of whether they are at home or away. In addition, since the intake of food and drink directly affects both the budget and health of the customers, much research has been done in order to understand their subjective preferences for and evaluations of not only the food and drinks they consume but also the providers of said products DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-6477-6.ch024

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 A Differentiation of Restaurant Types Based on Customers’ Perceived Attributes

(Muñoz, et al., 2018; Vu, Li, Law, & Zhang, 2019; Wills, Danesi, & Kapetanaki, 2015). On the one hand, several studies have segmented the food/drink customers to provide details into the diverse nature of this market, particularly when the customers are travelling (Correia, Moital, Oliveira, & da Costa, 2009; Grazin & Olsen, 2008; Hwang, Choi, Lee, & Park, 2012). Yüksel and Yüksel (2002), for example, identified five clusters of restaurant patrons in Turkey, including value seekers, service seekers, adventurous food seekers, atmosphere seekers, and healthy food seekers. In addition, in another study done in Hong Kong, Tan and Lo’s (2008) analysis resulted in four clusters of coffeehouse customers: service seekers, atmosphere seekers, quality coffee seekers, and marketing-oriented customers. On the other hand, previous studies have largely overlooked the differentiation of types of restaurants in the market. The understanding of the differences between/among types of restaurants, however, is very important with the effective management of the involved businesses. Nonetheless, a meaningful definition and differentiation of each and every type of restaurant are largely missing despite the fact that restaurants in the market are very diverse in types, including fine dining, full-service, fast food, healthy, and (non) ethnic, among others (Liu & Lee, 2017; McIntosh, et al., 2011; Turnwald, Jurafsky, Conner, & Crum, 2017; Voon, 2012). In other words, the existing literature is not able to provide sufficient implications for an effective management of the specific restaurant business. The need for a better theoretical framework is getting more prominent since traditional restaurants now have to compete with non-traditional and innovative models, such as ghost (virtual) and shared kitchens and restaurants (Nagumo, 2019; Pilon, 2020). Furthermore, the Covid-19 pandemic has had a heavy and long-term impact on all types of restaurants (Seetharaman, 2020). Regarding the segmentation or differentiation approach, the current methods, such as interview and questionnaire, are relatively rigid. The structured design may potentially lead to certain unavoidable biases of pre-given scales and controlled evaluation modes. Fortunately, the development of the Internet, in general, and of social media platforms, in particular, have given academics an organic yet worthwhile source of data: the content generated by Internet users. In a sense, online customer reviews were found to have a positive effect on restaurants’ online popularity (Zhang, Ye, Law, & Li, 2010). In addition, customer-posted photos were observed to have an influence on restaurant selection (Oliveira & Casais, 2019). In another sense, analysis of user-generated content and user reviews can help identify the external attributes which are important to the consumption of products and services (Nghiêm-Phú & Suter, 2018). This undertaking may also have the potential to reveal the internal values that are salient to the customers (Nghiêm-Phú, 2018). Segmentation or differentiation based on user generated content (Tussyadiah, 2016), thus, can be adopted as an alternative to the traditional approach. The purpose of the study reported in this chapter, therefore, is to expand the literature on restaurant business by differentiating and defining types of restaurants using online customer reviews. With this effort, the digitalization of customer opinions (Vial, 2019) will be utilized to provide meaningful implications for the management of traditional restaurant businesses in their competition with the non-traditional and innovative rivals in the future.

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LITERATURE REVIEW Restaurants’ Attributes There are many attributes that are important to the restaurant customers’ experiences and restaurant managers’ practices (Table 1). For example, to optimize its activities, a restaurant’s location must be carefully selected by considering many criteria, including economics (rent and transportation costs), transportation (convenience of mass transportation system, parking capacity, and pedestrian volume), competition (number of competitors and intensity of competition), commercial area (size of commercial area and extent of public facilities), and environment (convenience of garbage disposal and sewage capacity) (Tzeng, Teng, Chen, & Opricovic, 2002). While the convenience and proximity of the restaurant might have no significant effect on the customers’ feeling of arousal, such as calm and relaxed (Hyuna & Kang, 2014), the availability of a parking area was found to potentially result in an increase in customer spending (Susskind & Chan, 2000). A restaurant’s sensory attributes also play many important roles. For example, the visual elements of a restaurant’s décor (e.g., colours, flowers and paintings), together with the audio element of music and the tactile elements of lighting and temperature, have a significant effect on the customers’ positive or negative feelings about the restaurant (Hyuna & Kang, 2014). In addition, the colour and style of the wait staff’s uniform, the background music, the aroma in the restaurant, and the gratis after-dinner candies can help increase the spending and tipping behaviours of the restaurant patrons (Jacob, Guéguen, & Boulbry, 2010; Lynn, Giebelhausen, Garcia, Li, & Patumanon, 2016; Strohmetz, Rind, Fisher, & Lynn, 2002; Susskind & Chan, 2000). Moreover, the perception of an upscale restaurant’s products and services may be improved by the use of italicized and heavy menus (Magnini & Kim, 2016). While each sensory attribute is a single and simple unit, each functional attribute is composed of different elements. For example, the “food” component usually consists of food choice (menu), taste, quantity and presentation (Line, Hanks, & Kim, 2016). The “service” element is an aggregation of staff attitudinal displays, for example, reliability and professionality (Chen, Peng, & Man, 2015), while the “facility” factor represents the hardware of a restaurant, including tables, chairs, tableware and linens (Robson, Kimes, Becker, & Evans, 2011; Ryu & Han, 2011). Perceptions of these tangible attributes lead to the perceptions of the restaurants’ intangible atmosphere, for example, aesthetics, authenticity, cleanliness, creativity, crowdedness, innovativeness, and personality (Heung & Gu, 2012; Horng, Chou, Liu, & Tsai, 2013; Kim, Tang, & Bosselman, 2018; Lee, Back, & Kim, 2009; Liu & Jang, 2009; Lu, Gursoy, & Lu, 2015; Tse, Sin, & Yim, 2002). The combination of both the functional and atmospheric attributes is significant with the formation of the customers’ feelings toward the restaurant or the affective attributes (Chen, Peng, & Hung, 2015; Hyuna & Kang, 2014). These feelings may be included in one of four basic dimensions, including comfort (e.g., warm and respected), annoyance (e.g., frustrated and irritated), stimulation (e.g., surprised and curious), and sentimentality (e.g., loving and romantic) (Han & Jeong, 2013). Similar to the general and the sensory attributes, the functional, atmospheric, and affective attributes are also significant antecedents of the restaurant customers’ evaluations and behaviours. For example, Han and Hyun (2017) found that the quality of the physical environment, service and food could create positive impacts on satisfaction, and satisfaction could exert positive influences on intention to visit the restaurant. In another study, Tsaur, Luoh, and Syue (2015) discovered that (a) service quality and atmosphere were significant predictors of positive emotion, and (b) service quality, food quality and positive 493

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Table 1. Selected restaurant attributes Factor General attributes

Sensory attributes

Functional and mixed attributes

Atmospheric attributes

Affective attributes

Element Location

Reference Hyuna and Kang (2014)

Parking

Susskind and Chan (2000)

See

Liu, Choi, and Mattila (2019) Lynn, Giebelhausen, Garcia, Li, and Patumanon (2016)

Hear

Jacob, Guéguen, and Boulbry (2010, 2014)

Smell

Guéguen and Petr (2006)

Taste

Strohmetz, Rind, Fisher, and Lynn (2002) Wansink, van Ittersum, and Painter (2005)

Touch

Alonso and O’Neill (2010)

Food

Line, Hanks, and Kim (2016) Tsaur, Luoh, and Syue (2015)

Staff’s service

Line, Hanks, and Kim (2016) Tsaur, Luoh, and Syue (2015)

Other customers

Hanks and Line (2018) Tsaur, Luoh, and Syue (2015)

Facility

Hanks, Line, and Kim (2017) Robson, Kimes, Becker, and Evans (2011)

Price and monetary value

Hyuna and Kang (2014) Yan, Wang, and Chau (2015)

Authenticity, aesthetics, creativity

Heung and Gu (2012) Horng, Chou, Liu, and Tsai (2013)

Crowdedness

Tse, Sin, and Yim (2002)

Cleanliness

Liu and Jang (2009)

Brand personality

Lee, Back, and Kim (2009)

Emotion

Chen, Peng, and Man (2015) Tsaur, Luoh, and Syue (2015)

emotions were significant prognosticators of future intentions (repeat purchase, recommendation and positive word-of-mouth). Additionally, Han and Jeong (2013) observed that three of the four emotion dimensions (comfort, annoyance and stimulation) could significantly influence satisfaction. In its turn, satisfaction could affect customers’ trust and commitment, which consequently leads to customer loyalty. All the latter correlations were positively significant. Moreover, the price element can also affect customers’ decision to choose a given restaurant or type of restaurant (Peng, Bilgihan, & Kandampully, 2015). Specifically, price-conscious customers may comfortably dine at a cheap-eat restaurant, while non-price-conscious ones may be happier selecting a fine-dining establishment.

Eaters’ Characteristics Customers’ preferences for and evaluations of restaurant attributes are heavily affected by their personal and internal characteristics (Table 2). For example, older customers (over 55) were found to be more tolerable toward servers’ attentiveness and knowledge of the menu as compared to younger customers

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(below 55). However, they were less generous when evaluating the taste of the food and the assertiveness of the servers (Lee, Cho, & Ahn, 2012). From another perspective, female students’ attitudes toward campus food was significantly influenced by a number of factors, including food quality, menu and facility. Conversely, male students’ attitudes were only shaped by food quality (Kwun, 2011). Motivation and personality are the other factors that can influence restaurant customers. For example, Ponnam and Balaji (2014) observed that the correlations among dine-out/take-away (the motivation factor of convenience) and menu/taste (service attribute) were strong and positive. However, those among celebration/hang-out/date (the motivation factor of social occasion) and menu/taste were weak or negative. Jin, Lee, and Huffman (2012) added that in the former case (convenience), food quality was a significant predictor of brand image. In the latter case (social occasion), the same pattern could not be detected. Moreover, Muñoz et al. (2018) found that the two personality traits of agreeableness (e.g., sympathetic and warm; Gosling, Rentfrow, & Swann, 2003) and conscientiousness (e.g., dependable and self-disciplined; Gosling, Rentfrow, & Swann, 2003) had important impacts on the hedonic evaluation of food in the long term. Furthermore, personal benefits and personal values are the other determinants of the restaurant customers’ evaluations. According to Kim and Lee (2013), perceptions of relationship benefits (confidence, social and special treatment) significantly defined the attitude of gratitude, which, in turn, strongly affected favourable reciprocal behaviours. In an earlier study, Chen and Hu (2010) found that perception of the three relationship benefits positively influenced perceived value and loyalty. In Chen and Hu’s (2010) design, the construct of perceived value was structured by the two factors of symbolic value (e.g., delight and pleasure) and functional value (e.g., convenient and consistent). However, in Nejati and Moghaddam (2013), the two components were hedonic value (e.g., fun and joy) and utilitarian value (e.g., economical and quick). Other values include escapism, social capital, and variety seeking, among others (Jin, Line, & Goh, 2013; Jung & Yoon, 2012; Line, Runyan, Costen, Frash, & Antun, 2012). In certain cases, perceived value held the role of the significant antecedent of customer satisfaction and loyalty (Chen & Hu, 2010; Nejati & Moghaddam, 2013). However, when controlled by other forces (e.g., aesthetics and service excellence), the predictive power of perceived value may become insignificant (Line, Runyan, Costen, Frash, & Antun, 2012). In addition to the abovementioned values, health-related issues are other important elements. Specifically, health value is a positive predictor of behavioural intention (Juna, Kang, & Ma, 2014). Moreover, the perceived nutritional value of the food is a significant antecedent of both the perceived value for money and satisfaction (Kim, Park, Kim, & Ryu, 2013). Healthiness is especially important to older customers, green customers, and innovative customers (e.g., those who use mobile devices to order food) (Namkung & Jang, 2013; Okumus & Bilgihan, 2014; Sun & Morrison, 2007).

METHOD The purpose of this study is to differentiate and define different types of restaurants based on the attributes that customers care about. Japan was initially chosen as the context of this study because it is one of the most important restaurant business markets in East Asia. Tokyo was later selected as the specific setting because this city is a bold representative of Japanese food culture, which is famous around the world yet is heavily neglected within the existing literature. In addition, tripadvisor.com was adopted as the source of the review data considering the popularity of this platform, and the abundance of topics that it has. 495

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Table 2. Selected customer attributes Factor Socio-demographic

Personality Decision making styles

Personal values

Personal benefits

Motivation

Others

Element

Reference

Age

Lee, Cho, and Ahn (2012)

Sex

Kwun (2011)

Education

Lau and Hui (2010)

Dining frequency

Ha and Jang (2010) Harrington, Ottenbacher, and Kendall (2011)

Nationality

Baek, Ham, and Yang (2006)

Tourist type

Law, To, and Goh (2008)

Agreeableness

Muñoz, et al. (2018)

Conscientiousness

Muñoz, et al. (2018)

Hedonistic

Peng, Bilgihan, and Kandampully (2015)

Habitual

Peng, Bilgihan, and Kandampully (2015)

Price conscious

Peng, Bilgihan, and Kandampully (2015)

Confused by over-choice

Peng, Bilgihan, and Kandampully (2015)

Brand conscious

Peng, Bilgihan, and Kandampully (2015)

Health consciousness

Juna, Kang, and Ma (2014) Kim, Park, Kim, and Ryu (2013)

Hedonic

Hyun, Kim, and Lee (2011) Nejati and Moghaddam (2013)

Utilitarian

Hyun, Kim, and Lee (2011) Nejati and Moghaddam (2013)

Escapism

Jin, Line, and Goh (2013)

Variety seeking

Jung and Yoon (2012)

Social capital

Line, Runyan, Costen, Frash, and Antun (2012)

Symbolic

Chen and Hu (2010)

Functional

Chen and Hu (2010)

Confidence

Chen and Hu (2010) Kim and Lee (2013)

Social

Chen and Hu (2010) Kim and Lee (2013)

Special treatment

Chen and Hu (2010) Kim and Lee (2013)

Quick-meal, convenience (e.g., dine out, take-away)

Jin, Lee, and Huffman (2012) Ponnam and Balaji (2014)

Social occasion (e.g., celebration, hangout, date)

Jin, Lee, and Huffman (2012) Ponnam and Balaji (2014)

Self-image congruity

Kang, Tang, Lee, and Bosselman (2012)

Trust

Kim and Han (2008)

Two customer values directed the selection of the restaurants on tripadvisor.com: one functional or utilitarian value (price) and one health-related value. The corresponding restaurant types in the former case are cheap-eats, mid-range and fine-dining, while these of the latter are fast-food and healthy. These

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types of restaurants were selected based on the availability of data on tripadvisor.com. In addition, the categorization and naming of the restaurants are originally displayed on the review platform. The data were gathered over a one-year period (February 2018 – February 2019) to ensure the “durability” validity (Kassarjian, 1977). In the price-based category, sushi restaurants were specifically targeted since sushi is one of the most traditional Japanese food, and restaurants providing similar products are comparable. Nonetheless, in the health-based category, no specific types of restaurants were considered because the value itself served as the differentiating criterion. It should be noted that the prices in cheap-eats, mid-range and fine-dining restaurants are expected to increase gradually. The health value is related to the speed and scale of food service and consumption. Fast-food restaurants often provide quickly and uniformly produced menus, whereas healthy restaurants usually provide slowly and individually made offers. In this study, these values are loosely defined concepts since the prices at certain fine-dining restaurants may not necessarily be high (e.g., due to discounts or promotional campaigns), and the healthiness of the food may not only be determined by the slowness or quickness of cooking and eating but also by other factors (e.g., ingredients). The data involves a considerable number of restaurants (ten to twenty restaurants per type of restaurant; the number of restaurants depends on the number of reviews available) to guarantee the “diversity” validity (Kassarjian, 1977). The database, however, does not include (1) the reviews written by reviewers who had only one review, and (2) the restaurants that had only one review at the time of data collection to assure the reliability. To diverse their sources (i.e., origins of reviewers), the reviews written in English, the lingua franca of the review platform, were specifically collected. The data were then analysed in two steps. First, the data were automatically assessed by Voyal Tools (https://voyant-tools.org) (Sinclair & Rockwell, 2012) to identify the keywords (attributes) that were mentioned by the reviewers. From the initial list, eight to ten attributes whose frequencies are higher (approximately 10% or more) were specifically selected. Since it took time and effort to write the reviews, the existence of these attributes means that they are salient to the reviewers’ experiences (Cadotte & Turgeon, 1988). Second, the attributes were manually coded using an Excel sheet by both researchers of the research group. Each attribute was given a column in the Excel sheet. Its availability was represented by the value of 1, while its unavailability a value of 0. Agreement between the two researchers served as the coding reliability criterion (Kassarjian, 1977). The coded data were then analysed in IBM SPSS (cross-tabulation) in order to identify the differences in customers’ perceptions of different restaurants.

FINDINGS The numbers of reviews of each category (price-based and health-based) are 385 and 323 respectively. In the first dataset (involved 29 restaurants; nine or ten restaurants per type), there are 91 males and 47 females (247 did not identify their sex); approximately 25% of them were aged between 25 and 64 years old (281 did not disclose their age). In the second dataset (involved 40 restaurants; 20 restaurants per type), the numbers of identified males and females are 70 and 36 respectively; approximately 24% of them were aged between 25 and 64 (244 did not inform their age). The reviewers of the sushi restaurants (price-based) regarded menu, price/monetary value, service, chef, friendliness, and freshness as the most memorable attributes of this setting. However, the frequencies of certain attributes differed among the restaurant types. Specifically, price/monetary value, service, and order methods seem to be more important to customers of cheap-eats sushi restaurants. Otherwise, 497

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the appearance of the chef is more appreciated by the customers of fine-dining, while wait time is better acclaimed by diners at mid-range sushi restaurants. Finally, friendliness is mentioned more often by eaters of both of the two higher-price units. The impressions of the remaining attributes (menu, freshness, staff, and the availability of English) seem to be similar among all three types (Table 3). Table 3. Price-based restaurants All (n = 385)

Cheap-eats (n =88)

Mid-range (n = 144)

Fine-dining (n = 153)

Chi-square

p

Number

%

Number

%

Number

%

Menu

209

43

48.9

80

55.6

86

56.2

1.364

0.506

Price and/or monetary value

205

63

71.6

72

50.0

70

45.8

15.958

0.000

Service

160

51

58.0

54

37.5

55

35.9

12.700

0.002

Chef

156

9

10.2

37

25.7

110

71.9

109.131

0.000

Friendliness

122

14

15.9

49

34.0

59

38.6

13.825

0.001

Freshness

119

25

28.4

53

36.8

41

26.8

3.813

0.149

Staff

90

16

18.2

36

25.0

38

24.8

1.720

0.423

Waiting time

88

16

18.2

69

47.9

3

2.0

90.265

0.000

English

82

19

21.6

29

20.1

34

22.2

0.198

0.906

Order

72

41

46.6

19

13.2

12

7.8

59.757

0.000

In the other case, the reviewers of the fast-food and healthy restaurants (health-based) wrote about menu, service, atmosphere, and staff more often. Nevertheless, the frequencies of menu, service, and the availability of English are not significantly different between the two types. These of the remaining are otherwise. Specifically, atmosphere, staff, friendliness, and freshness seem to be better recalled by customers of the healthy restaurants than those of the fast-food ones. In addition, eaters at the fast-food restaurants were more concerned about food and drink portions although the significance level only had a marginal value (0.05 < p < 0.1) (Table 4).

DISCUSSION Restaurants, as servicescapes (Bitner, 1992), are attached with certain attributes that are important to their customers. The findings of this study suggest that menu, service, staff, the availability of foreign languages (especially in a tourism and travel context), friendliness, and freshness are such important attributes. Among them, menu and staff are two physical features, friendliness is an atmospheric feature, and the remaining (service, freshness, and language) are of the mix nature (both physical/visible and psychological/invisible) (Echtner & Ritchie, 1993).

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 A Differentiation of Restaurant Types Based on Customers’ Perceived Attributes

Table 4. Health-based restaurants All (n = 323)

Fast-food (n = 73) Number

%

Healthy (n = 250) Number

Chi-square

p

%

Menu

264

60

82.2

204

81.6

0.013

0.908

Service

122

29

39.7

93

37.2

0.153

0.695

Atmosphere

113

7

9.6

106

42.4

26.743

0.000

Staff

108

15

20.5

93

37.2

7.039

0.008

Friendliness

69

5

6.8

64

25.6

11.825

0.001

Portion

39

13

17.8

26

10.4

2.921

0.087

Freshness

31

0

0.0

31

12.4

10.013

0.002

English

30

10

13.7

20

8.0

2.178

0.140

Practical Implications Sushi is considered to be one of the most traditional Japanese food. Thus, eating sushi in Japan can be regarded as a uniquely authentic experience. However, the diversity of sushi restaurants in terms of price can provide customers, especially those from abroad, with a variety of authenticities. Sushi restaurant managers or owners should be aware of and take into account that fact when managing their businesses. Specifically, cheap-eats sushi restaurants (kaitenzushi or conveyor-belt sushi) are a kind of fast-food or self-service units. Their distinguishing characteristics are price (cheap), service (fast), and order method (electronic devices). These attributes must be managed with special care. Contrarily, fine-dining sushi restaurants are indeed slow-food or full-service establishments. Direct interaction with the chef, and consequently, the friendly atmosphere, are their defining characteristics. Managers or owners of the fine-dining sushi restaurants should make sure that these attributes are successfully delivered to their affluent customers (in terms of financial resource). Finally, mid-range sushi restaurants may find it difficult to differentiate themselves from the two other categories. However, as the findings of this study indicate, the managers or owners can focus their managerial efforts on such attributes as waiting time and friendliness. Ensuring a reasonable waiting time and maintaining a friendly interaction between hosts and guests may be the key to attracting more customers to their businesses. With the promotion of each type of sushi restaurant, the abovementioned focuses (i.e., the attributes) should be treated equally. The following quotations are selected from the reviews to illustrate these points. A female reviewer from Australia: “The service is fast, the sushi is not super fresh, but it is still good, and it is a lot of fun for the children. Food is ordered via an iPad, and it gets delivered [on] a little conveyor belt. Super-fast and lots of fun.” (reviewed on December 2018 about a cheap-eat restaurant) An unknown-sex reviewer from Australia: “We got there before 11 am to get the number and had to wait for roughly 30 minutes which was fine. Food was amazingly fresh and big portion size. It is very popular for locals as well. Service was friendly for travellers and efficient.” (reviewed on February 2019 about a mid-range restaurant) An unknown-sex reviewer from Canada: “Chef would masterfully pump out piece after piece of sushi, until we all eventually tapped out… Chef didn’t speak too much English, but had an upbeat energy

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 A Differentiation of Restaurant Types Based on Customers’ Perceived Attributes

and was happy to answer questions via one of his team members, who spoke English.” (reviewed on December 2018 about a fine-dining restaurant) In the health-based category, managers and owners of the healthy restaurants should emphasize their atmosphere, friendliness, staff, and the freshness of the food when managing their businesses and promoting their images. Interestingly, these attributes can help project and ensure the image of a finedining servicescape (friendly atmosphere and staff) where certain health-related value can be expected (freshness). On the other hand, to attract more customers, the persons who are in charge of the fast-food restaurants could choose to focus on the portion element. This tactic can help fulfil customers’ need of certain functional or utilitarian value (food quantity) that is undoubtedly expected in such an eating unit. Two quotes from the reviewers are presented to support this point. A male reviewer from the Philippines: “Food is quickly served. Food quality is good considering that this is a fast food place. Food servings are generous. Prices are very reasonable.” (reviewed on November 2018 about a fast-food restaurant) A male reviewer from Norway: “Stopped by for a lunch to hide from the crowded Asakusa and enjoy a view of the water. Very friendly staff, fresh and crispy tempura, all of it served in a modern and fresh environment. Lunch set was excellent and reasonably priced.” (reviewed on April 2018 about a healthy restaurant) In both categories, the physical and atmospheric attributes of staff and friendliness are undoubtedly very popular (in terms of frequency). Fortunately, these attributes can help to differentiate these traditional restaurants from the newer business models of ghost kitchens or ghost restaurants (Nagumo, 2019) in which the latter cannot provide a physical setting for customers to experience its atmosphere. The experiences at the traditional restaurants, thus, are still fuller and more complete. In addition, the atmosphere of a specialized restaurant is also different from that of a shared restaurant (Pilon, 2020) in which a mixed or blended (identity-less) air can be expected. In this sense, the unvarying specification of the traditional restaurants can help to provide additional comfort to the customers. Given these advantages, traditional restaurants can sufficiently compete with non-traditional and innovative restaurants, especially in the post-Covid-19 era, when social life is back to normal, and when the need for a physical setting and an authentic atmosphere is still there to be met. It should be noted that the outcomes of this study were obtained through the analysis of online customer reviews. However, in recent years, the reliability and authenticity of these reviews are often doubted since restaurant managers and owners might overtly or covertly direct the composition and post of this content (Wu, Ngai, Wu, & Wu, 2020). Therefore, to preserve an important source of information for their managerial processes, the managers and owners of traditional restaurants should reconsider the current administrative methods of customer-generated content, in general, and of customer reviews, in particular.

Theoretical and Methodological Implications Cheap-eats, mid-range, fine-dining, fast-food and healthy restaurants are popular types of eating units used by both the academics and the regular customers (Arredondo, Castaneda, Elder, Slymen, & Dozier, 2009; Duran, Roux, Latorre, & Jaime, 2013; Gregory, McTyre, & Dipietro, 2006; Peng, Bilgihan, & Kandampully, 2015). However, a clear definition and differentiation of these categories is still largely missing. Fortunately, the findings of this study helped empirically confirmed the existing categorization. In addition, a definition for each type of restaurant can be proposed based on the prominent attributes perceived by the customers. The definitions are listed in Table 5. 500

 A Differentiation of Restaurant Types Based on Customers’ Perceived Attributes

Table 5. Definitions of restaurant types Type of restaurant

Definition

Cheap-eats

A cheap-eat sushi restaurant is a dining unit where customers can find cheap or affordable sushi plates, as well as encounter exciting order methods. However, the service element is usually kept at the minimum level in such a restaurant.

Mid-range

A mid-range sushi restaurant is a dining unit where customers can find averagely priced sushi plates. They can also expect a reasonable waiting time in such a restaurant.

Fine-dining

A fine-dining sushi restaurant is a dining unit where expensive sushi plates are served. A friendly direct encounter with the sushi chef is also expectable in such a restaurant.

Fast-food

A fast-food restaurant is a dining unit where customers can find food served in good portion and in a quick manner.

Healthy

A healthy restaurant is a dining unit where customers may have to wait a long time for the food to be served. However, they can expect a positive atmosphere, good mannered staff, friendliness, and freshness in such a restaurant.

Nonetheless, the obtainment of the reliable findings requires a high-quality dataset of online customer reviews (Wu, Ngai, Wu, & Wu, 2020). Review numbers may be used as the first criterion to discover and eliminate the possibly unreliable reviews. The tone and content of the reviews may be further referred to improve the overall quality of the dataset. With these quality management tactics, the potential of customer opinion digitalization can be utilized for a better management of both traditional and innovative business operations.

CONCLUDING REMARK The restaurants in the market are very diverse in nature, and each type or category of restaurant is attached to several unique attributes. Nevertheless, restaurants in the same category often share some similar attributes, for example, menu, atmosphere, staff, and the availability of foreign languages. The management and promotion of each type of restaurant, therefore, must seriously take into account these differences or similarities in order for them to be effective. This also holds true when physically existed restaurants have to compete with virtual businesses. Virtual restaurants, however, are not necessarily an independent business. Traditional restaurants can also have a virtual presence thanks to the development of Internet-based platforms, such as customer review and social media sites. The digitalization of restaurant business on the one hand and of customer activity on the other has provided an additional source of information for the better management of traditional restaurants. A tactful management and utilization of this information source will undoubtedly assist the development and sustainability of restaurant business in the future.

LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS Although its outcomes can generate several helpful implications, this study could not avoid some limitations. First, the setting of this study is limited to certain restaurants in Tokyo, Japan. In addition, the price-based restaurants are only representatives of the sushi restaurant category. Thus, the situations of

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 A Differentiation of Restaurant Types Based on Customers’ Perceived Attributes

other restaurants or types of restaurants in other cities or countries remain unknown. Second, the loosely defined concepts of the restaurants might lead to the overlap between/among restaurant types. The differentiation, therefore, was not definite. Third, the analysis was based on the frequency of restaurant attributes recalled by reviewers in their subjective, and in certain cases, induced reviews. The outcomes, therefore, might also be biased. Fourth, due to the nature of the review data, the sociodemographic information of the reviewers is largely missing. Consequently, further analysis based on eaters’ characteristics, in addition to the values that they consider important (i.e., price and health), was impossible. Fifth, the reviews were written in English and as a result, the opinions of reviewers who are tourists from non-English-speaking markets (e.g., China) and of local Japanese customers were largely overlooked. Considering these issues, several directions for future research could be proposed. First, a larger set of data (e.g., restaurants, types of restaurants, and languages of review) could be collected in order to identify more attributes and to differentiate more types of restaurants from a more diverse perspective. Second, traditional survey methods (e.g., interview and questionnaire) may be simultaneously applied in order to collect the sociodemographic characteristics of and in-depth evaluations from the restaurant customers. Sentiment analysis (Liu 2010) may also be employed to define the level of satisfaction that customers have with the given restaurant attributes. The abovementioned directions, if done properly, will help to provide more important implications to the owners and managers of restaurants, especially the traditional ones, in a future in which technology is constantly advancing and digitalization is a nonstop trend in business.

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Nghiêm-Phú, B., & Suter, J. R. (2018). Airport image: An exploratory study of McCarran International Airport. Journal of Air Transport Management, 67, 72–84. doi:10.1016/j.jairtraman.2017.11.011 Okumus, B., & Bilgihan, A. (2014). Proposing a model to test smartphone users’ intention to use smart applications when ordering food in restaurants. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Technology, 5(1), 31–49. doi:10.1108/JHTT-01-2013-0003 Oliveira, B., & Casais, B. (2019). The importance of user-generated photos in restaurant selection. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Technology, 10(1), 2–14. doi:10.1108/JHTT-11-2017-0130 Peng, C., Bilgihan, A., & Kandampully, J. (2015). How do diners make decisions among casual dining restaurants? An exploratory study of college students. International Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Administration, 16(1), 1–15. doi:10.1080/15256480.2015.991985 Pilon, A. (2020, June 23). What is a shared kitchen and how is it important to food entrepreneurs? Retrieved October 19, 2020, from Small Business Trends: https://smallbiztrends.com/2019/03/shared-kitchen.html Ponnam, A., & Balaji, M. S. (2014). Matching visitation-motives and restaurant attributes in casual dining restaurants. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 37, 47–57. doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2013.10.004 Robson, S. K.-A., Kimes, S. E., Becker, F. D., & Evans, G. W. (2011). Consumer responses to table spacing in restaurants. Cornell Hospitality Quarterly, 52(3), 253–264. doi:10.1177/1938965511410310 Ryu, K., & Han, H. (2011). New or repeat customers: How does physical environment influence their restaurant experience? International Journal of Hospitality Management, 30(3), 599–611. doi:10.1016/j. ijhm.2010.11.004 Seetharaman, P. (2020). Business models shifts: Impact of Covid-19. International Journal of Information Management, 54, 102173. doi:10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2020.102173 PMID:32834338 Sinclair, S., & Rockwell, G. (2012). Teaching computer-assisted text analysis: Approaches to learning new methodologies. In B. D. Hirsch (Ed.), Digital mumanities pedagogy: Practices, principles and politics (pp. 241–264). Open Book. doi:10.2307/j.ctt5vjtt3.15 Strohmetz, D. B., Rind, B., Fisher, R., & Lynn, M. (2002). Sweetening the till: The use of candy to increase restaurant tipping. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 32(2), 300–309. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2002. tb00216.x Sun, Y.-H. C., & Morrison, A. M. (2007). Senior citizens and their dining-out traits: Implications for restaurants. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 26(2), 376–394. doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2006.03.003 Susskind, A. M., & Chan, E. K. (2000). How restaurant features affect check averages: A study of the Toronto restaurant market. The Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 41(6), 56–83. doi:10.1016/S0010-8804(00)80023-3 Tan, A. Y.-F., & Lo, A. S.-Y. (2008). A benefit-based approach to market segmentation: A case study of an American specialty coffeehouse chain in Hong Kong. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research (Washington, D.C.), 32(3), 342–362. doi:10.1177/1096348008317388

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Tsaur, S.-H., Luoh, H.-F., & Syue, S.-S. (2015). Positive emotions and behavioral intentions of customers in full-service restaurants: Does aesthetic labor matter? International Journal of Hospitality Management, 51, 115–126. doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2015.08.015 Tse, A. C.-B., Sin, L., & Yim, F. H.-K. (2002). How a crowded restaurant affects consumers’ attribution behavior. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 21(4), 449–454. doi:10.1016/S02784319(02)00035-X Turnwald, B. P., Jurafsky, D., Conner, A., & Crum, A. J. (2017). Reading between the menu lines: Are restaurants’ descriptions of “healthy” foods unappealing? Health Psychology, 36(11), 1034–1037. doi:10.1037/hea0000501 PMID:28541069 Tussyadiah, I. P. (2016). Strategic self-presentation in the sharing economy: Implications for host branding. In A. Inversini & R. Schegg (Eds.), Information and Communication Technologies in Tourism 2016 (pp. 695–708). Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-28231-2_50 Tzeng, G.-H., Teng, M.-H., Chen, J.-J., & Opricovic, S. (2002). Multicriteria selection for a restaurant location in Taipei. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 21(2), 171–187. doi:10.1016/ S0278-4319(02)00005-1 Vial, G. (2019). Understanding digital transformation: A review and a research agenda. The Journal of Strategic Information Systems, 28(2), 118–144. doi:10.1016/j.jsis.2019.01.003 Voon, B. H. (2012). Role of service environment for restaurants: The youth vustomers’ perspective. Procedia: Social and Behavioral Sciences, 38, 388–395. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.03.361 Vu, H. Q., Li, G., Law, R., & Zhang, Y. (2019). Exploring tourist dining preferences based on restaurant reviews. Journal of Travel Research, 58(1), 149–167. doi:10.1177/0047287517744672 Wansink, B., van Ittersum, K., & Painter, J. E. (2005). How descriptive food names bias sensory perceptions in restaurants. Food Quality and Preference, 16(5), 393–400. doi:10.1016/j.foodqual.2004.06.005 Wills, W. J., Danesi, G., & Kapetanaki, A. B. (2015). Lunchtime food and drink purchasing: Young people’s practices, preferences and power within and beyond the school gate. Cambridge Journal of Education, 46(2), 195–210. doi:10.1080/0305764X.2015.1110114 Wu, Y., Ngai, E. W.-T., Wu, P., & Wu, C. (2020). Fake online reviews: Literature review, synthesis, and directions for future research. Decision Support Systems, 132, 113280. doi:10.1016/j.dss.2020.113280 Yan, X., Wang, J., & Chau, M. (2015). Customer revisit intention to restaurants: Evidence from online reviews. Information Systems Frontiers, 17(3), 645–657. doi:10.100710796-013-9446-5 Yüksel, A., & Yüksel, F. (2002). Market segmentation based on tourists’ dining preferences. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research (Washington, D.C.), 26(4), 315–331. doi:10.1177/109634802237482 Zhang, Z., Ye, Q., Law, R., & Li, Y. (2010). The impact of e-word-of-mouth on the online popularity of restaurants: A comparison of consumer reviews and editor reviews. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 29(4), 694–700. doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2010.02.002

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ADDITIONAL READING Beer, A., & Greitemeyer, T. (2019). The effects of background music on tipping behavior in a restaurant: A field study. Psychology of Music, 47(3), 444–450. doi:10.1177/0305735618755887 Cha, J., & Borchgrevink, C. P. (2019). Customers’ perceptions in value and food safety on customer satisfaction and loyalty in restaurant environments: Moderating roles of gender and restaurant types. Journal of Quality Assurance in Hospitality & Tourism, 20(2), 143–161. doi:10.1080/1528008X.2018.1512934 Hlee, S., Lee, J., Yang, S.-B., & Koo, C. (2019). The moderating effect of restaurant type on hedonic versus utilitarian review evaluations. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 77, 195–206. doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2018.06.030 Jung, S., & Jang, S. (2019). To cluster or not to cluster?: Understanding geographic clustering by restaurant segment. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 77, 448–457. doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2018.08.008 Li, H., Wang, C., Meng, F., & Zhang, Z. (2019). Making restaurant reviews useful and/or enjoyable? The impacts of temporal, explanatory, and sensory cues. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 83, 257–265. doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2018.11.002 Liu, S. Q., Choi, S., & Mattila, A. S. (2019). Love is in the menu: Leveraging healthy restaurant brands with handwritten typeface. Journal of Business Research, 98, 289–298. doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2019.02.022 Nakayama, M., & Wan, Y. (2019). The cultural impact on social commerce: A sentiment analysis on Yelp ethnic restaurant reviews. Information & Management, 56(2), 271–279. doi:10.1016/j.im.2018.09.004 Rodríguez-López, M. E., Alcántara-Pilar, J. M., Del Barrio-García, S., & Muñoz-Leiva, F. (2020). A review of restaurant research in the last two decades: A bibliometric analysis. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 87, 102387. doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2019.102387 Wang, X., Tang, L., & Kim, E. (2019). More than words: Do emotional content and linguistic style matching matter on restaurant review helpfulness? International Journal of Hospitality Management, 77, 438–447. doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2018.08.007 Zhu, D. H., Zhang, Z. J., Chang, Y. P., & Liang, S. (2019). Good discounts earn good reviews in return? Effects of price promotion on online restaurant reviews. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 77, 178–186. doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2018.06.028

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Basic Needs: Fundamental demands of human beings, such as breathing, eating, drinking, clothing, and sheltering, among others. Customer Reviews: Textual comments of customers posted on Internet-based platforms, such as websites and social media. Customers: Buyers and eaters of food and drink products. Differentiation: The division of the customer and restaurant markets into distinguishable groups or segments. Functional Values: The values that are related to the utility of food and drink products, such as price, convenience, and quantity, among others. Health Values: The values that are related to the healthiness of food and drink products, such as origin, ingredients, and eating/serving speed, among others. Restaurants: Business units that serve food and drink product.

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The Urgency of Digital Financial Services in Islamic Boarding Schools to Improve Financial Literacy Zainal Abidin State Islamic Institute of Madura, Indonesia Khotibul Umam https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7323-9352 State Islamic Institute of Madura, Indonesia

ABSTRACT The new normal COVID-19 pandemic has changed the pattern of people’s behavior in money transaction towards a safer contactless payment. Currently, digital financial service can be an alternative option to break down and finalize the rate of transmission of the corona virus, where transfer of funds or payment of financial transactions can be done online with digital applications without physical involvement. The use of digital finance in Indonesia has been growing significantly. Several Islamic boarding schools have implemented a non-cash payment system in various types of transactions. This chapter comprehensively discussed the urgency of non-cash transaction facilities in Islamic boarding schools to improve financial literacy in the new normal period. The results showed that digital financial service were very safe to use, because it could reduce physical interference/physical distancing as a form of implementing health protocols in financial transaction activities and increase financial literacy of students and high rate of responsibility for managing their personal finances.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-6477-6.ch025

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 The Urgency of Digital Financial Services in Islamic Boarding Schools to Improve Financial Literacy

INTRODUCTION The National Financial Literacy Survey of Financial Services Authority (Otoritas Jasa Keuangan) in 2016 revealed that the level of financial literacy in Indonesia has only reached 29.7%. The survey illustrated that from 100 populations of Indonesian, there were only approximately 30 people who were considered well literate. In another view, people did not yet have sufficient knowledge on the way to optimize the function of money to be more productive (Otoritas Jasa Keuangan, 2017). To expand access to financial literacy in whole areas in Indonesia, in 2014, the Indonesian Bank had launched a Digital Financial Service (LKD) system. Digital Financial Service used electronic money (E-Money) as a medium for electronic transactions both for payment and transfer activities (Bank Indonesia, 2018). The presence of Digital Financial Service was the impact of the development of technology 4.0 which demanded safety, fast, rapidness, and efficient economic transactions in completing billions of transactions. Digital Financial Service that was acknowledged from the 4.0 industrial revolution has obtained an extraordinary position after it enters the New Normal era during the Covid-19 pandemic. The limitation of physical interaction (physical distancing) among people has caused various forms of economic transactions to be carried out remotely (online) particularly by utilizing digital technology. The Indonesian Bank applies a community approach, one of which is boarding school as a means of reaching and facilitating public acceptance on Digital Financial Service (LKD). Based on information from the Ministry of Religion of the Republic of Indonesia, there are 27 Islamic boarding schools in 10 provinces with 1,400 santri affected by Covid-19 (Permana, 2020). Therefore, the presence of digital financial services at Islamic boarding schools during the New Normal Era in the Covid-19 pandemic has changed the pattern of public performance (the way) in making payment transactions towards more secure contactless payments. So it is not an exaggeration if the Digital Financial Services at this Islamic boarding school will succeed in curbing the speed of the spread of corona virus transmission, where funds transfers (payments) can be made online with digital applications. As one of the oldest educational institutions in Indonesia, Islamic boarding schools have a potency to develop financial literacy in the community through the development of Digital Financial Service in the Islamic boarding school environment. Based on statistical data from the Directorate General of Islamic Institution, the Ministry of Religion of the Republic of Indonesia in 2001, there were 11,312 Islamic boarding schools with 2,737,805 students (santri). In 2005, the number of Pesantren has increased to 14,798 with a total of 3,464,334 santri. Meanwhile, based on data from the Data, Information System, and Public Relations Division of the Secretariat of the Directorate General of Islamic Education, Ministry of Religion, there were 28,194 Pesantren spread in urban and rural areas with 4,290,626 santri in 2016, and those Pesantren are categorized as private boarding school (Muhyiddin, 2018). Number of efforts to improve financial literacy skills should be carried out as early as possible, so that people’s financial literacy competencies can increase. Financial literacy is important to be instilled from an early age because the knowledge and financial experience that is implanted will be internalized in the child so as to form the character and habits of managing their finances in the future as a good culture, such as knowing the meaning of money, saving habits, to prioritizing needs over desires and even understanding values for sharing (keuangan, 2020). Puncak Darussalam Islamic Boarding School is one of the Islamic boarding schools that have participated in increasing public financial literacy from an early age; one of which is by creating a boarding school financial institution in the form of a cooperation which implements Digital Financial Service (E-money) as a medium for students’ payment. As compared to cash, a transaction by using digital money is much faster and more convenient, especially 512

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for small valued transactions (micro payment), because digital money users do not need to provide a fixed amount of money or have to save a change (Bank Indonesia, 2006) The use of digital money at Puncak Darussalam Islamic Boarding School was started in 2014 known as ‘E-NuQood’. At the time, the use of E-NuQood could be used as a means of transactions for purchase payment at canteen/cooperation, administrative fees/school fees, and snacks and drinks supply in the cafeteria. The implementation of Digital Financial Service at Islamic boarding schools basically aims to facilitate transaction services, supervision, security, recording and tracking of financial transactions that have been carried out. With this digital money, students are expected to be more efficient in utilizing their money, so that they can maximize the use of their finance wisely. One of the successes in increasing financial literacy is influenced by the technology media approach being used. This study examined the urgency of digital payment development in Islamic Boarding School as a media to improve financial literacy in facing the New Normal era. It is expected that the habit of digital money service as a part of daily life in Islamic boarding school can affect the habits of students (santri), so that students can become pioneers in increasing public financial literacy, especially in the application of digital-based financial services to curb the spread of the Covid-19 through restrictions of physical interference (physical distancing) in a transaction.

LITERATURE REVIEW Financial literacy is knowledge, skill, and belief that influence attitude and behavior to improve the quality of decision-making and financial management in order to achieve prosperity (Otoritas Jasa Keuangan, 2017). Every community must have good financial literacy to avoid financial problems. Financial problems occur not only because of a lack of income, but also some errors in financial management such unavailability of financial plan for consumption, savings and investment activities. Therefore, a good understanding of financial literacy plays a strategic role in increasing the ability of individual’s financial management to lead to a prosperous economy. In line with the development of technology and information, the concept of financial literacy will continue to develop and will have consequences in the use of various digital media in the classroom, school and society (Abidin,, Mulyati, & Yunansyah, 2018). In this perspective, students need to become experts in understanding and using various forms of technological media and visualization of symbols to maximize their learning potential, keep up with technological changes, and actively participate in global community. Therefore, financial literacy learning is intended to develop students’ skills in economic decision-making to meet their needs. As an effort to increase financial literacy and the success of the non-cash movement in the community, in 2014, the Indonesian Bank launched a Digital Financial Service (LKD) system (Bank Indonesia, 2014). Digital Financial Service (LKD) is a payment system and financial service activity carried out in collaboration with third parties and using mobile and web-based technology tools and devices in the framework of financial inclusion (Bank Indonesia, 2016). Through Regulation Number 16/8/PBI/2014 of the Indonesian Bank concerning Amendments to the Indonesian Bank (BI) Regulation No 11/12/ PBI/2009 on electronic money (E-Money), BI can provide licenses for non-bank institutions (LSB) to issue electronic money (Bank Indonesia, 2014). Novani Karina Putri, a researcher at the Center of Indonesian Policy Studies (CIPS) explains that digital transactions can be an alternative to increase financial

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inclusion as a form of financial services intensification through digitalization and targeted to reach 75% by the end of 2019 (Ika, 2019). The Covid-19 pandemic whose spread time (end period) has not been identified, requires the public to face the New Normal. This period is a phase of changes in people’s behavior and activities by implementing health protocols to prevent Covid-19 transmission. In terms of finance, this period has changed the pattern of people’s behavior in making payment transactions towards a safer contactless payment. The limitation of physical interaction (physical distancing) in this period has caused various forms of economic transactions to be carried out remotely (online) by utilizing digital technology, so that it is not an exaggeration when this Digital Financial Service has succeeding to brake the speed spread of the corona virus transmission, where transfers of funds (payment) can be done online with digital applications without any physical contact. Furthermore, the Indonesian Bank currently uses a community approach, one of which is a boarding school, as a means of reaching and facilitating public acceptance of Digital Financial Service (LKD). as an effort to cease the spread of Covid-19. In its application, the Indonesian Bank synergizes cellular companies with Islamic boarding schools in one information technology application business model for financial transaction activities which include payment of school fees, parental transfers to students, and payment for Islamic boarding school business transactions, such as food stalls, cooperation (canteen), and others. The benefits of implementing these digital services are like simplifying and accelerating transaction services, and supporting the implementation of physical distancing, because there is no need for direct contact between sellers and buyers when making financial transactions.

METHOD RESEARCH In this study, we used qualitative research with case study. The application of case study was expected to discuss the data comprehensively and in-depth regarding the object of research, so that it could present valid and objective data in presenting relevant conclusion. This research was conducted at Puncak Darussalam Islamic Boarding School, Pamekasan District. The data were carried out through interview, observation, documentation, and questionnaires. The questionnaire was given to 50 students using random sampling techniques and researchers used 5 people to be interviewed. Researchers also observated and documented all research activities in the form of photos and documentation of digital financial service regulations, operational procedures and practices of using digital financial services at Puncak Darussalam Islamic Boarding School for about 1 month. After the data were collected, the data were analyzed by using descriptive qualitative analysis method which aimed to explain the data thoroughly, broadly and deeply about the object of research, so that it could present relevant conclusion. In addition, we used data triangulation to test the validity of good data obtained through the process of interview, observation, documentation, and questionnaire. The data that researchers get from interviews and questionnaires will be deepened with observation and documentation so that the data provided is truly factual in accordance with what happened.

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FINDING AND DISCUSSION Islamic boarding school is one of the oldest Islamic educational institution in Indonesia which have an important role in building intelligent and good behaved human resources. Islamic boarding school can be defined as community-based Islamic religious education institutions that provide Islamic teaching (diniyah) education or in an integrated manner with other types of education (The Indonesian Government, 2007). The people who stay Pesantren to seek knowledge and take a part in the education system programmed by Pesantren are called as santri (Atiqullah, 2013). At least, there are three main functions that are always carried out by Pesantren, namely: first, as a cadre center for religious thinkers (center of excellence); second, as an institution that can create qualified human resources; and third, as an institution that has a power to empower the community (agent of development). Thus, Islamic boarding school is also understood as a part involved in the process of social change in the midst of the changes that occur (Halim & Suhartni, 2005). In the midst of the strong spread of the Covid-19 pandemic, Islamic boarding school must take steps to adjust the update as a responsive step to changes in social behavior in activities by implementing health protocols to prevent Covid-19 transmission. All efforts to reform these behaviors need to be implemented, so that the existence of Islamic boarding school can be one of the pillars in breaking the chain of the Covid-19 spread. In terms of finance, Islamic boarding school needs to change the pattern of people’s behavior in making payment transactions towards contactless payment that is safer by utilizing digital financial service that provides physical distancing restrictions in their transaction activities. The introduction of digital financial service at Islamic boarding schools is one of efforts to increase financial literacy of students as well as to support non-cash movement (Gerakan Transaksi Non Tunai/ GNNT) for the realization of the stability of payment system and financial system in Indonesia. Besides, it also purposes to reduce the spread rate of the Covid-19 during the New Normal. The positive impact of digital financial services is enormous for individuals and the community which purposes to reduce the spread rate of Covid-19, especially in Islamic boarding school. The use of digital financial services must be implemented massively in Islamic boarding schools, so that a good financial literacy is required in order that the application of digital financial services can be accepted by students at Islamic boarding school. Basically, financial literacy is a good means to manage students and community finances in finding solutions and making the right decisions in financial problems, especially during the New Normal where everyone is obliged to apply health protocols in every transaction. As response to this phenomena, the Ministry of Education and Culture states that the target of financial literacy in school is the existence of facilities and infrastructure that can support financial literacy in school and increase the involvement of parents and the community (The Ministry of Education and Culture, 2017). The presence of digital financial services is one of the infrastructure facilities that greatly supports in increasing the financial literacy of santri in Islamic boarding schools, especially in preventing the spread of Covid-19, and increasing the interest of students to save and economize their finance. In addition, the application of digital financial service can maximize the role of parents in supervising and evaluating the daily expenses of students, so that they live frugally, not wasteful, and prefer saving by sending an message format through Short Message System (SMS) gateway system according to the information needed by parents in monitoring the financial cash-flow of the students. Puncak Darussalam Islamic Boarding School is a modern Islamic boarding school that participates in organizing digital financial service (LKD) in its financial transaction activities. The application of digital financial service at Puncak Darussalam Islamic Boarding School is known as E-NuQood inte515

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grated into santri’s card. Practically, E-NuQood uses a SMS gateway system synchronized to a computer database server. Parents can register their cellphone numbers with E-NuQood operators to be able to run these services. After the parent’s cellphone number is registered on E-NuQood operator server, students will get an E-NuQood card to make transactions. All financial transaction services in this Pesantren are carried out with E-NuQood card, both for payment of education fees, minimarkets, and cafeterias by scanning the barcode on E-NuQood card. Each student has only one E-NuQood card which contains student’s virtual account data. Furthermore, all financial transactions in E-NuQood are recorded properly in the E-NuQood server computer database; it makes easier for parents and Islamic boarding schools to monitor and evaluate the expenses of students in Pesantren. Their parents can request a recapitulation of their children’s expenditure consumption report from the E-NuQood operator as validation of all transactions. Then, the E-NuQood application will send a SMS notification automatically to parents when their parents top up some funds in the E-NuQood application based on the nominal given. In addition, the E-NuQood service will also send an automatically SMS when students’ remaining balance of E-NuQood is less than 50,000 rupiahs. Besides, their parents can find out financial information of santri through SMS Gateway by sending the SMS format to E-NuQood cellphone number according to the information needed, like typing the word “check” to find out the remaining amount of E-NuQood’s balance, or typing “expenses” to check the total expenditure of students for one month. The students are given a maximum limit of daily spending money (pocket-money) in one day which they can spend to meet their daily needs according to the agreement with their parents (average of IDR. 10,000 to IDR. 20,000). This maximum balance can be topped up as long as there is an emergency need by reporting to the E-NuQood service operator at Pesantren. Students’ parents can add funds to the students’ E-NuQood account in two ways, namely (1) transferring money through the boarding school account by sending proof of transfer, and (2) depositing a number of funds directly to the E-NuQood operator. In addition, E-NuQood’s digital financial services synergize the role of parents and Islamic boarding schools in supervising and instilling the value of responsibility to students in spending their money. In this case, parents are given a space to monitor their children’s expenses at Pesantren through SMS gateway feature. In general, E-NuQood services already have good security features where there is information disclosure that can be accessed by parents and students by means of SMS gateway feature or scanning the barcode code on the E-NuQood card to check remaining balances and spending transactions. In addition, the use of E-NuQood card can only be accessed by the owner himself validated with the suitability of the user’s data and photos. For students who use other students’ E-NuQood card, they will a penalty by paying IDR 50,000 and will be required to replace the E-NuQood balance they have used. In addition, the E-NuQood service also offers a blocking system when students lose their E-NuQood card. The availability of CCTV in all transaction places totally supports transaction safety as long as there is misuse of E-NuQood, so that it can ease the tracking of every transaction being carried out. Currently, E-NuQood digital financial service is only applicable in Puncak Darussalam Islamic Boarding School environment and do not provide transfer facility services. E-NuQood’s financial service is only limited to storing services and reducing balances as a result of purchases, payments, cash withdrawals, and other transactions. The Islamic boarding school also provides generators to supply electricity for anticipation of blackout, so that it does not interfere with the transaction process for students. Abdul Hannan Tibyan (2019) as the chief of the Islamic boarding school explained that his party had proposed cooperation with Mandiri Syariah Bank to develop E-NuQood digital financial service, so that students’

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parents could directly top up funds to each student’s account and were still waiting for the cooperation to be conducted which has been agreed upon. According to the researcher’s analysis, the practice of E-NuQood digital financial service at Puncak Darussalam Islamic Boarding School is generally in accordance with maqashid shari’a. This is in accordance with the criteria of a study by Muamar et al (2017) which state that electronic money is generally in accordance with maqhasid shari’a. The suitability of E-NuQood’s service is in accordance with the principles of preserving property and benefit. In addition, the E-NuQood card feature which has a unique registered barcode certainly adds to the security features of the misuse of E-NuQood cards in realizing maqashid shari’a. Based on the results of questionnaires, 94% of respondents (students) stated that the E-NuQood service facilitates all payment transactions at Pesantren. All the conveniences and benefits of E-NuQood have encouraged students to accustom students to use these cashless services. The habit of E-NuQood as a lifestyle will certainly have an impact on effective and efficient financial management of students. This commitment can be seen from the data obtained from questionnaire which shows that 98% of santri stated that the E-NuQood service allowed students to spend their daily needs according to the scale priority of their needs. Besides, students can make payment transactions with contactless payment safer by reducing physical interference, because transaction payment is simply made by scanning the barcode in the E-NuQood card without having a contact with the cashier. Yusuf (2019), as one of the respondents explained that the imposition of fund limit in the E-NuQood application that was IDR. 20,000 per-day, made him prioritize his needs rather than his wishes. Usually, students spent their money to buy side dishes, bath soap, dippers, sandals and other basic necessities. In addition, parents are always watching their expenses. Yusuf said that he (sometimes) still left the balance in IDR. 20,000 for savings. In addition, with E-NuQood digital financial service, Yusuf and other students could calculate their remaining transaction refunds properly where they only need to match the remaining balance with the amount that has been spent. The amount was automatically shown on the cashier’s computer monitor. In general, E-NuQood service can increase students’ interest in saving. This can be seen from the questionnaire data which stated that on average, students left around 30% of their daily balance for savings. Abdullah (2019), as the operator of E-NuQood at Puncak Darussalam Islamic Boarding School stated that students were used to leave their remaining daily balance for savings. The balance of the savings could be withdrawn in cash during the Islamic boarding school vacation. One of the respondents, Maulana (2019), as one of the respondents revealed that he was accustomed to leaving his daily E-NuQood balance, so that it could later be taken during vacation and used to meet his needs during the vacation, such as paying the cost of returning to his hometown, buying souvenirs, and meeting his needs while enjoying his boarding school’s vacation. Maulana also added that the E-NuQood service made students more eager to save, because they believed that the money saved in the form of E-NuQood balance was very safe and could be retrieved or spent at any time. Similarly, Sauki (2019) also stated that the application of E-NuQood could enable students to set aside their money for saving monthly. This was because each student must be able to manage their money obtained from their parents to keep it completed and economic at the beginning of the month. Therefore, students are required to spend their money according to their needs to avoid extravagant behavior. Rikwentishe et al (2015) stated that the habit of saving is one of the keys to success to be an entrepreneur. Savings are an important instrument for the accumulation and formation of capital in enhanc517

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ing economic development through investing saved funds. It means that learning to saving is a good method to familiarize students with a way to handle current consumption, so that they can use these funds in the future both for consumption, investment and entrepreneurship activities. The role of control and assistance from boarding school and parents has caused santri to be wiser and more responsible in managing their daily consumption and expenses, so that they can spend their money according to the priority scale of their needs. In general, E-NuQood digital financial service at Puncak Darussalam Islamic Boarding School has implemented payments towards a more secured contactless payment by reducing physical interference as a form of implementing health protocols in financial transaction activities. Based on the results of observations made by researchers, transaction activity of digital financial service at Puncak Darussalam Islamic Boarding School is simply done by scanning the barcode on the E-NuQood card without interacting with the cashier. Students can see the number of payment items on the cashier’s monitor screen while checking the balance of the funds they have. In addition, digital financial service at this Islamic boarding schools has provided many transactions convenience to the students that they do not need to carry a cash with them wherever they go, so that they can avoid the risk of losing their money or being the target of counterfeit money crimes. Students believe in the safety of the balance of funds in E-NuQood. As evidence that 90% of respondents stated that the E-NuQood security system encouraged them to do savings on the financial application system. The imposition of a limit on the maximum transaction balance makes students learn on how to plan their finances, and even some have set aside their money for savings. An evidence showed that students had been accustomed to set aside their money to save in E-NuQood. It means that the presence of ENuQood allows students to practice a simple basic finance in managing their personal finances in their financial budgeting activities and making transaction decisions. The monthly money they receive from their parents must be utilized responsibly according to the priority scale of their needs. According to the researcher’s analysis, currently digital financial services in Islamic boarding schools need to adopt the latest technology, one of which is by using biometric intelligence authentication such as facial and voice recognition. This is based on the results of observations by researchers where students sometimes lose their e-Nuqud cards for transactions. Even though they have used E-Nuqud cards and CCTV, the security of transactions using cards (E-Nuqud) still cannot be guaranteed to be one hundred percent safe from criminal acts and eliminates the risk of Covid-19 because the cards used still have the potential to change hands. The Financial Services Authority and Bank Indonesia need to collaborate with Islamic boarding schools in developing digital financial service technology based on biometric intelligence authentication such as facial and voice recognition in reducing the risk of money theft and the spread of Covid-19. this system can be widely adopted due to its contactless and non-invasive process as an identification tool for ID verification services. The application of a contactless financial service system such as facial and voice recognition biometric intelligence is expected to provide safer digital financial services and prevent the massive spread of Covid-19.

CONCLUSION The implementation of digital financial services at Islamic boarding school is a strategic step in increasing financial literacy from an early age in the New Normal era. Digital financial service at Islamic boarding school is highly important to progressively developed, because it has been effective in preventing the 518

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spread of Covid-19 in the New Normal era. The results of this study showed that the contactless payment transaction by using digital financial service at Puncak Darussalam Islamic Boarding School was safer to use, because it reduced physical interaction (physical distancing) in transaction as a form to support the implementation of health protocols in financial transaction activities. The transaction activity was simply done by scanning the barcode on the E-NuQood card without interacting with the cashier. In addition, digital financial services can create students comprehensively understand the function of money and differentiate their needs and will, so that they can spend their money in the E-NuQood card balance wisely and responsibly. The imposition of a maximum balance limit has made santri learn to prioritize their needs rather than just satisfying their desires. In addition, the E-NuQood application service also presented an interaction between students, parents and Islamic boarding school in term of supervising and instilling philosophical values ​​of financial technology. It is hoped that the inhabiting of digital financial service as part of students’ daily life in Islamic boarding school is expected to improve students’ financial literacy competencies, so that they can become a pioneer in improving the quality of public financial literacy. Based on the empirical facts above, the Financial Services Authority and Bank Indonesia need to intensively encourage the development of digital financial services in Islamic boarding schools which will not only be card-based but already use contactless transaction technology based on biometric intelligence authentication such as facial and voice recognition as an effort to improve financial literacy and to put the brakes on the spread of Covid-19 in the New Normal era.

REFERENCES Abidin, Y., Mulyati, T., & Yunansyah, H. (2018). Pembelajaran Literasi: Strategi dalam Meningkatkan Kemampuan Literasi Matematika, Sains, Membaca dan Menulis. Bumi Aksara. Atiqullah. (2013). Prilaku Kepemimpinan Kolektif Pesantren. Surabaya: Pena Salsabila. Bank Indonesia. (2006). Working Paper: Upaya Meningkatkan Penggnanaan Alat Pembayaran Non Tunai Melalui Pengembangan E-Money. Retrieved from https://www.bi.go.id/id/publikasi/sistem-pembayaran/ riset/Documents/5a4a2a969d534111a3c8a439840b80b6WorkingPaper_MicroPayment.pdf Bank Indonesia. (2014, April). Peraturan Bank Indonesia Nomor 16/8/PBI/2014 tanggal 8 April 2014 tentang Perubahan Atas Peraturan Bank Indonesia Nomor 11/12/PBI/2009 tentang Uang Elektronik (Electronic Money). Retrieved from https://www.bi.go.id/id/peraturan/sistem-pembayaran/Pages/ PBI_16814.aspx Bank Indonesia. (2016). Surat Edaran Bank Indonesia Nomor 18/22/DKSP tanggal 27 September 2016 perihal Penyelenggaraan Layanan Keuangan Digital. Retrieved from https://www.bi.go.id/id/peraturan/ sistem-pembayaran/Pages/se_182216.aspx Bank Indonesia. (2018). Bank Indonesia Perkenalkan Layanan Keuangan Digital (LKD) di Pesantren, Jakarta: Bank Indonesia. Retrieved from https://www.bi.go.id/id/ruang-media/info-terbaru/Pages/BIPerkenalkan-LKD-di-Pesantren-261015.aspx Halim, A., & Suhartni. (2005). Manajemen Pesantren. Yogyakarta: Lkis.

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Ika, A. (2019). Pemerintah Perlu Gencarkan Literasi Keuangan Elektronik. Jakarta: Kompas. Retrieved from https://ekonomi.kompas.com/read/2018/02/25/180000926/pemerintah-perlu-gencarkan-literasikeuangan-untuk-transaksi-elektronik Keuangan, O. J. (2017). Strategi Nasional Literasi Keuangan Indonesia (Revisit). Otoritas Jasa Keuangan. Retrieved from https://www.ojk.go.id/id/berita-dan-kegiatan/publikasi/Documents/Pages/StrategiNasional-Literasi-Keuangan-Indonesia-(Revisit-2017)-/SNLKI%20(Revisit%202017).pdf Keuangan, O. J. (2020). Literasi Keuangan Bagi Anak Usia Dini: Apa Pentingnya? Retrieved from Otoritas Jasa keuangan: https://sikapiuangmu.ojk.go.id/FrontEnd/CMS/Article/20629 Muamar, A., & Salman Alparisi, A. (2017). Electronic Money (E-Money) dalam Lerspektif Maqashid Syariah. Journal of Islamic Economics Lariba, 3(2), 75–78. https://journal.uii.ac.id/JIELariba/article/ view/9657/7821 Muhyiddin. (2018). Pertumbuhan Pesantren di Indonesia dinilai Menakjubkan. Jakarta: Republika. Retrieved from https://www.republika.co.id/berita/dunia-islam/islam-nusantara/17/11/30/p088lk396pertumbuhan-pesantren-di-indonesia-dinilai-menakjubkan Permana, F. E. (2020, Oktober Kamis). Kemenag: 27 Pesantren Terpapar Covid-19. Retrieved from Republika.co.id: https://republika.co.id/berita/dunia-islam/islam-nusantara/qhiiru335/kemenag-27pesantren-terpapar-covid19 Rikwentishe, R., Musa Pulka, B., & Kaku, S. (2015). The effects of Saving and Saving Habits on Entrepreneurship Development. European Journal of Business and Management, 111–118. https://www. iiste.org/Journals/index.php/EJBM/article/view/25065/25669 The Indonesian Government. (2007). Peraturan Pemerintah Republik Indonesia Nomor 55 Tahun 2007 Tentang Pendidikan Agama dan Pendidikan Keagamaan dengan Rahmat Tuhan yang Maha Esa Presiden Republik Indonesia. Retrieved from http://simpuh.kemenag.go.id/regulasi/pp_55_07.pdf The Ministry of Education and Culture. (2017). Materi Pendukung Literasi Finansial: Gerakan Literasi Nasional. Retrieved from https://gln.kemdikbud.go.id/glnsite/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/cover-materipendukung-literasi-finansial-gabung.pdf

ADDITIONAL READING Ahyar, M. K. (2018). Literasi Keuangan Syariah Dan Pondok Pesantren (Studi Kasus Pondok Modern Asy-Syifa Balikpapan). Islamiconomic: Jurnal Ekonomi Islam, 191-210. Retrieved from http:// download.garuda.ristekdikti.go.id/article.php?article=871838&val=10404&title=LITERASI%20 KEUANGAN%20SYARIAH%20DAN%20PONDOK%20PESANTREN%20(STUDI%20KASUS%20 PONDOK%20MODERN%20ASY-SYIFA%20BALIKPAPAN) Development, O. f.-o. (2020). Advancing the Digital Financial Inclusion of Youth: Report prepared for the G20 Global Partnership for Financial Inclusion by the OECD. Paris: OECD. Retrieved from http:// www.oecd.org/daf/fin/financial-education/advancing-the-digital-financial-inclusion-of-youth.pdf

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Fatimah, S., & Suib, M. S. (2019). Transformasi Sistem Pembayaran Pesantren Melalui E-Money Di Era Digital. EKOBIS, 96-108. Retrieved from http://jurnal.unissula.ac.id/index.php/ekobis/article/ download/4978/3158 Haider, H. (2018, June 22). Innovative financial technologies to support livelihoods and economic outcomes. Retrieved from https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5b6c552ee5274a297e35fa39/ Digital_financial_services.pdf Herdiana, D. (2019, 06 02). Digital Financial Services (Layanan Keuangan Digital): Peluang dan Kemungkinan Penerapannya di Program KOTAKU. Retrieved from http://kotaku.pu.go.id/: http://kotaku. pu.go.id:8081/pustaka/files/Konsep_Layanan_Keuangan_Digital.pdf Marwini, & Salam, A. N. (2020). E-Money Based Boarding School Cooperative Development Model (Kopontren) As An Sharia Economic Acceleration Effort In Indonesia. AL-ARBAH: Journal of Islamic Finance and Banking, 103-117. Retrieved from https://journal.walisongo.ac.id/index.php/arbah/article/ download/5496/pdf Nur, B. S., & Hendratmi, A. (2020). Pengembangan Layanan Keuangan pada Lembaga Keuangan Non Bank (Studi Kasus Koperasi Pondok Pesantren Sunan Drajat Lamongan). Jurnal Ekonomi Syariah Teori dan Terapan, 532-543. Retrieved from https://e-journal.unair.ac.id/JESTT/article/view/15288/Bella%20 Suci%20Nur Sahay, R., Allmen, U. E., Lahreche, A., Khera, P., Ogawa, S., Bazarbash, M., & Beaton, K. (2020). The Promise of Fintech Financial Inclusion in the Post COVID-19 Era. International Monetary Fund. Retrieved from https://www.imf.org/-/media/Files/Publications/DP/2020/English/PFFIEA.ashx Saksonova, S., & Merlino, I. K. (2017). Fintech as Financial Innovation – The Possibilities and Problems of Implementation. European Research Studies Journal, 961-971. Retrieved from https://www.ersj.eu/ dmdocuments/2017-xx-3-a-66.pdf Seftaria, C., & Azra, U. (2017). Analisis Peluang Penggunaan Layanan Keuangan Digital (Lkd) Pada Masyarakat Kabupaten Aceh Besar Provinsi Aceh. Jurnal E-KOMBIS, 1-16. Retrieved from http://jurnal. utu.ac.id/ekombis/article/download/385/335

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Bank Indonesia: It is Central Bank of the Republic of Indonesia as referred to in the Basic Law Republic of Indonesia in 1945. Digital Financial Service: Digital financial services are payment and financial services using mobile or web digital technology through third parties. The third party in question is in the form of individuals or the general public. Financial Literacy: Financial literacy is knowledge, skill, and belief that influence attitude and behavior to improve the quality of decision-making and financial management in order to achieve prosperity. Financial Services Authority (OJK): An independent institution that has the function, task and authority of regulating, supervising, examining and investigating. OJK was formed based on Law Number 21 of 2011 which functions to organize an integrated regulatory and supervisory system for all activities in the financial services sector in Indonesia. Islamic Boarding House: It is Islamic educational institutions where students who is often known as Santri, live and study religious knowledge under the care of a teacher who is often known as ustadz or kiai. Santri: Santri are students who study in Islamic boarding schools.

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Chapter 26

Transforming to a Sustainable City Through Technological Change Chai Lee Goi https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0131-2818 Curtin University, Malaysia

ABSTRACT This chapter analyses the transformation of a sustainable city through the process of technological change. With urban areas having a growing majority population, it is very important to focus on how technology can help in creating a more sustainable future. Technology and innovation are central to the implementation of the sustainable development of a city. The technological revolution through technological change has an impact on building a sustainable city, which involves social, economic, and environmental aspects. Technological change involves the overall process of invention, innovation, and diffusion of technology.

INTRODUCTION 55% of the world’s population lives in urban areas. This amount is expected to increase to 68% by 2050 (United Nations, 2018). People want to live in cities that have a high level of quality of life. A report, ‘Transforming cities for the better through sustainable technology’ prepared by Siemens (2013) stated that: Cities are the core of global development. This is where our future takes shape, where economic growth springs from the bustling activities of more than half the world’s population, and where our most pressing environmental challenges are most eviden. The look and feel of cities in the future will be different from today. The need to improve quality of life, economic competitiveness, and environmental viability will drive a new way of living. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-6477-6.ch026

Copyright © 2021, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

 Transforming to a Sustainable City Through Technological Change

As discussed in the Arcadis Sustainable Cities Index 2018 (Arcadis, 2018), to enable a city to meet present and future needs, Sustainable cities can be thought of as places that are planned and managed with consideration for social, economic, environmental impact, providing a resilient habitat for existing populations, without compromising the ability of future generations to experience the same. Accordingly, measures of sustainability need to be able to measure current city performance, ability to mitigate future impacts as well as investment in future capability – ideally measured from the perspective of the citizen. Based on a broad measure of sustainability, encompassing social, environmental, and economic measures, the Arcadis Sustainable Cities Index (SCI) 2018 (Arcadis, 2018) has ranked London as the most sustainable city. The other cities ranked in the top 10 were Stockholm, Edinburgh, Singapore, Vienna, Zurich, Munich, Oslo, Hong Kong, and Frankfurt. In summary, the SCI has highlighted three significant findings. First, the importance of the profit pillar as a driver for long-term sustainability. Second, the need for mid-ranking cities to improve their performance across all pillars as a differentiator. Finally, the growing potential for cities to use the digital evolution of their service provision to promote engagement with citizens and as a key means of improving city life’s citizen experience. However, many cities are already experiencing an extremely high population density. This situation directly leads to environmental degradation, traffic congestion, inadequate urban infrastructure, and lack of essential services such as water supply, sanitation, and waste management. Environmental footprints of cities are quite alarming, which can threaten the natural resources required to sustain economic development and poverty alleviation rates. Maintaining economic growth, while creating sustainable livable cities is the biggest challenge that must be faced now and in the future. Technology and innovation can help achieve sustainable urban development by considering the economic, environmental, and social dimensions (Economic and Social Council, 2013). Technology plays a vital role in socio-economic and has been considered a critical development strategy (Bell and Pavitt 1993; Evenson and Westphal 1995; Heeks and Stanforth, 2015). The rapid advances in ICT enabled and fueled by computing discoveries have transformed the city by technologising and computerising it. ICT embodies a morphing power manifested in shaping how people create, do, and revolutionise things connected with almost every urban function, process, activity, and domain (Bibri and Krogstie, 2017). Technological change has led to significant improvements in quality of life, higher productivity, higher public service provision levels, less need for travel, and additional leisure time (European Commission, n.d). At the moment, not much research has been conducted regarding the transformation of a sustainable city through the process of technological change. Thus, the objective of this book chapter is to analyse the transformation of a sustainable city through the process of technological change. From the results of the review, a model has also been developed.

Methodology To complete this book chapter, we have reviewed journals, reports, books, and online articles. We have searched journals, reports, books, and online articles in databases and online resources. This includes Google, Google Scholar, Scopus, Web of Science, and Directory of Open Access Journals. In the process of finding relevant articles, two primary keywords have been used, “sustainable city” and “technologi524

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cal change”. Figure 1 shows the flow diagram of the narrative review of journals, reports, books, and online articles. Figure 1. Flow diagram of narrative review of journals, reports, books, and online articles

TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE Overview Technological change has many facets. The technological change includes creating new products, quality improvement, and efficiency gains for existing products (Rensselaer’s Department of Economics, n.d). As discussed by Stoneman (1995), “The Schumpeterian trilogy that divides the technological change process into three stages is often considered to provide a useful taxonomy. The first stage is the invention process, encompassing the generation of new ideas. The second stage is the innovation process encompassing the development of new ideas into marketable products and processes. The third stage is the diffusion stage, in which the new products and processes spread across the potential market. The impact of new technology occurs at the diffusion stage, and thus the measurement of impact is very much a measurement of how the economy changes as new technologies are introduced and used”. In summary, (1) invention is related to discovery, creation of knowledge, and new prototypes; (2) innovation is regarding to creation of a commercial product or process; (3) and diffusion is related to increasing adoption and use of the technology (National Research Council, 2010).

Invention Three perspectives dominate the discussion of the source of novelty in invention. First, the combination of new and existing technological capabilities are a principal source of inventive novelty. The new technologies are constructed from existing technologies, which in turn become available as building blocks in the construction of other new technologies. Second, human technological development taking the long-view from the time of hunter-gatherer societies to the present, has been gradualism. i.e. the slow

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accumulation of variations and improvements in the features of tools and technologies, the result of both deliberate modifications and accidental tinkering. Third, new technologies appearing with few antecedents that originate technological pathways rather than extend existing ones (Strumsky and Lobo, 2015). “An invention is distinguished from an innovation by its character as pure knowledge. The direct products of a technological invention are not goods or services per se, but the recipes used to create the goods and services. These new recipes may ultimately be embodied narrowly in patents, or more broadly in new firms or business units within existing firms; they may eventually (and in some cases, immediately) be associated with products (through a successful innovation)” (National Institute of Standards and Technology, 2003). Arthur and Polak (2006) and Strumsky and Lobo (2015) discuss that invention is rarely created anew from scratch. Instead, they are often constructed, put together, and from technological components already in existence. Even, Strumsky and Lobo (2015) mention that the taxonomy for classifying the novelty in the modern of the invention needs to cover two major sources of technological change: the combination of existing and new technological capabilities, and gradual tinkering.

Innovation The first three theories/ models of technology and innovation (product‐process concept, meta‐learning concept, and concept of technological interdependence), as discussed by Butler (1988), related technology and innovation to strategic management. Another four theories/ models of innovation adoption (Rogers’ innovation diffusion theory, Hall’s concerns-based adoption model, Technology acceptance model, and the chocolate model) discussed by Correia (2018) are based on real-world case analyses (refer to Table 1). In making technological innovation work for sustainable development, Anadon et al. (2016) highlighted that technological innovation processes emerge from complex adaptive systems involving many actors and institutions operating simultaneously from local to global scales. Second, learning from past efforts to mobilise innovation through structured cross-sectoral comparisons that recognise the socio-technical nature of innovation systems. Third, the current institutions such as rules, norms, and incentives shaping technological innovation. These institutions can be reformed through research, advocacy, training, convening, policymaking, and financing. Gilbert and Cordey-Hayes (1996)’s analysis recognised the organisational issues for implementing new technology and the importance of innovation. Innovation is defined as an idea, practice, product, or object that people perceive as new. The innovation begins with people’s awareness of that innovation. At the same time, diffusion is a process in which information regarding the innovation is conveyed via certain channels over time among consumers (refer Figure 2) (Yu and Tao, 2009). Even, the innovation goes beyond invention, which depicts the elaboration and prototyping of a new technological principle and it is related to diffusion, which refers to the spread of new technology into the wider society (Vergragt, 2006).

Diffusion Technological diffusion “is the process by which new technologies are adopted for use across individual firms or households in a given market, and across different markets” (Jaffe, 2015). However, it is tough to get from the realisation that the new technology could revolutionise the quality, speed, and innovativeness of the packaging and how we created it. The invention starts with the new technology’s 526

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Table 1. Theories/ Models of innovation Theory

Description

Product process life cycle1

This theory relates technological innovation to the stages of a product’s life cycle. By identifying, and separating, process and product innovations the pattern of innovation that appeared could be related to three different stages of a product’s development; the uncoordinated, the segmental, and the systemic.

Meta-learning1

The metaprogress function relates technological innovation to learning via scaling, doing, planning and sharing. The source of the learning depends on whether the innovation is occurring at the level of the equipment, plant, firm or industry.

Concept of technological interdependence1

This theory attempts to look inside the black box containing technology, and use the characteristics of different technologies to explain its impact on productivity.

Rogers’ innovation diffusion theory2

This theory provides a foundation for understanding innovation adoption and the factors that influence an individual’s choices about an innovation. There are four main components in Rogers’ diffusion theory: the innovation, communication channels used to broadcast information about the innovation, the social system existing around the adopters/nonadopters of the innovation, and the time it takes for individuals to move through the adoption process.

Hall’s concerns-based adoption model2

Concerns-based adoption model approaches innovation adoption from the perspective of those impacted by the adoption of the innovation and also charged with implementing the subsequent change. There are six assumptions in Concerns-based adoption model:      • Change is a process, not an event.      • Change is accomplished by individuals.      • Change is a highly personal experience.      • Change involves developmental growth.      • Change is best understood in operational terms.      • The focus of facilitation should be on individuals, innovations, and context.

Technology acceptance model

Technology acceptance model focuses on how the innovation is perceived by the potential adopter related to its ease of use, how easy the innovation will be to learn and implement, and its potential usefulness, the degree to which the innovation will improve the user’s personal or job-related performance.

2

The chocolate model2

This model focuses on innovation adoption and change related to an organisation. It is structured around four elements (change, adopters, the change agents, and the organisation) when made into an acronym for ease of recollection and use for planning.

Source: 1Butler (1988); 2Correia (2018)

appearance, and finally, the technology should be best practice out to the broader business (Rait, 2006), (refer to Figure 3). Even, under the diffusion theory, it is related to the spread of innovation through the population (Yasuda and Batres, 2012). Diffusion of emerging technologies model (refer to Figure 4), developed by de Almeida and de Moraes (2013) integrates four basic elements: (i) the current situation as a baseline (business as usual scenario); (ii) diffusion of innovations based on emerging technologies in the selected sectors, focusing on the mentioned new technologies; (iii) business models and industrial configurations along the period from 2010 to 2020, and (iv) business models and industrial configurations aligned to a vision for a sustainable future in 2030 (the period from 2020 to 2030).

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Figure 2. Diffusion of Innovation

Source: (Rogers, 2003; Yu and Tao, 2009)

SUSTAINABLE CITY Overview A sustainable city means “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (Rees and Roseland, 1991). Based on an aspect of social development, the World Summit in 2005 (United Nation, 2005a) has identified three pillars of sustainability, which is related to economic development, social development, and environmental protection. A summary of three pillars and indicators of sustainability can be referred to in table 2.

Environment According to Sharma (2008), a sustainable city includes environmental sustainability, heritage conservation, appropriate technology, infrastructure efficiency, placemaking, social access, transit-oriented development, regional integration, human scale, and institutional integrity. Table 3 discusses the details of environmental sustainability. The Environmental Performance Index (EPI) is designed to quantify and numerically mark national’s policies’ environmental performance. It is designed to supplement the environmental targets outlined in

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Figure 3. Technology diffusion Source: (Rait, 2006)

the United Nations Millennium Development Goals. EPI indicators provide a way to identify problems, set targets, track trends, understand outcomes, and identify best-fit policy practices (refer to Table 4).

Social Social sustainability is the determination and management of the positive and negative effects of systems, processes, organisations, and activities on people and social life (Balaman, 2019). According to Nobel Laureate Amartya Sen, there are five dimensions and issues in determining social sustainability (refer to Table 5) (Hodgson, n.d). by the way, UN Global Compact (n.d) focuses on six social dimensions of corporate sustainability (poverty, children, education, inequality, gender equality, human rights, indigenous peoples, labour and anti-racist action for business), of which human rights is the cornerstone. The aspect of social development towards building a more sustainable city “occurs when the formal and informal [processes, systems, structures, and relationships] actively support the capacity of current and future generations to create healthy and livable communities”. This social aspect covers equity, diversity, quality of life, democracy and governance, and inter-connectedness (Hodgson, n.d). In the experimental study of creating strong communities, Bacon et al. (2012), Woodcraft (2012), and Doğu and Aras (2019) conclude three dimensions of social sustainability: social and cultural life, voice and influence, and amenities and infrastructure (refer to Figure 5).

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Figure 4. Diffusion of emerging technologies Source: de Almeida and de Moraes (2013)

Economic “Economic sustainability refers to growth inclusive of practices that support the preferred percentage of its population below its preferred minimum standards of living level, without negatively impacting social, environmental, and cultural aspects of the community.” (Courtnell, 2019). Soubbotina (2004) discussed the importance of the relationship between balance economic goals with social and environmental. • •

If environmental and social losses resulting from economic growth turn out to be higher than economic benefits, the overall result for people’s wellbeing becomes negative. The economic growth itself inevitably depends on its natural and social conditions. To be sustainable, it must rely on a certain amount of natural resources and services provided by nature, such as pollution absorption and resource regeneration. Economic growth must be constantly nourished by the fruits of human development.

The economic system depends on the environment, business activities that respond to the market demands would affect the consumption of natural resources and disrupt environmental systems (Arora,

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Table 2. Three pillars and indicators of the sustainability of a city Pillar

Indicator Population graduated in secondary education Percentage of population with at least secondary education with respect to the total population1 2 Number of registered gender violence cases1 2 Unemployed rate1 2 3 Population rate at risk of poverty1 2 People per household1 2 Population that participated in the last election1 2 Population older than 65 years1 2 Population under 16 years old1 2 Population annual net growth1 2 3

Social

Ratio of immigrants1 2 Population Density1 2 Number of leisure facilities1 2 Number of hospital beds per 1000 people1 2 3 Total expense in social services1 2 Proportion of science and technology3 Expenditure in finance3 Proportion in education expenditure3 Copies of public books per 100 people3 GDP per capita1 2 3 GDP growth rate3 City unemployment rate1 2 Average household income1 2 Number of permanent contracts signed per 1000 inhabitants1 2 Municipal budget per inhabitant1 2 Non-financial total incomes1 2 Surplus/Deficit1 2

Economic

Indebtedness1 2 Investment1 Average rental price per m2 1 2 Average sale price per m2 1 2 Number of hotel places1 2 Proportion of tertiary industry output3 Utilisation of foreign capital per capita3 Per capita retail sale of consumer goods3 Gross industry output value growth rate3 Ratio of public/private vehicles1 2 Ozone1 2 NO21 2

PM101 2 Total domestic water consumption per dwelling1 2 Total electrical use per capita1 2 Surface of green area1 2 3 Ratio green coverage of built up area (in unit) 3

Environment

Surface of pedestrian zone1 2 Solid waste collection1 2 Non-Compliance Wastewater Treatment1 2 Sustainability plan, participation in projects and awards1 2 Wastewater discharge per enterprise (in ton) 3 SO2 emissions per enterprise (in ton) 3

Smoke and dust emission per enterprise (in ton) 3 Ratio of industrial solid wastes utilised3

Source: González-García et al. (2019); 2Rama et al. (2020); 3Yi et al. (2021) 1

2018; Majeed and Ozturk, 2020; Dabbous and Tarhini, 2020). In sustainable development, an economy’s system environment is set to comprise four subsystems: population, society, the natural environment, and other economies (Spangenberg, 2005).

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Table 3. Environmental sustainability Environmental development

Description

Balance with nature

Balance with nature emphasises the distinction between utilising resources and exploiting them. It focuses on the thresholds beyond which deforestation, soil erosion, aquifer depletion, siltation, and flooding. The principle promotes environmental assessments to identify fragile zones, threatened ecosystems, and habitats that can be enhanced through conservation, density control, land use planning, and open space design. Balance with nature does not support any act against nature, which includes cutting of hillside trees, quarrying on slopes, dumping sewage and industrial waste into the natural drainage system, paving and plinthing excessively, and construction on steep slopes.

Balance with tradition

Balance with tradition integrates plan interventions with existing cultural assets, respecting traditional practices and precedents of style. It calls for respect for the cultural heritage of a place. It also promotes architectural styles and motifs designed to communicate cultural values. An aesthetic sense of the area should be maintained.

Appropriate Technology

Appropriate technology emphasises the employment of building materials, construction techniques, infrastructural systems, and project management which are consistent with local contexts.

Cordiality

It is well known that, vibrant societies are interactive, socially engaging, and offer their members numerous opportunities for gathering and meeting one another. Therefore, modern society calls for cordiality among everybody. The design should follow the promotion of the interactive behaviour of society. It leads to the creation of places of solitude for the individual; spaces for “beautiful, intimate friendship” where unfettered dialogue can happen; the place where the individual socializes into a personality; creation of city-level domains like plazas, parks, stadium, transport hubs, gallerias etc.

Efficiency

The principle of efficiency promotes a balance between the consumption of resources such as energy, time, and fiscal resources, with planned achievements in comfort, safety, security, access, tenure, and hygiene. It encourages optimum sharing of public land, roads, facilities, services, and infrastructural networks reducing per household costs, while increasing affordability, access, and civic viability.

Source: Sharma (2008)

• • • •

“The institutional of society/ social capital: The economic must not undermine the sustainability of the societal institution system. Every economy needs suitable institutional conditions to be economically sustainable. The population/ human capital: The economy must not weaken human system sustainability. An economically sustainable economy needs human resources. The economy: The economy must not risk its economic sustainability. Thus, it must also be environmentally, socially and institutionally sustainable. The environment/ natural capital: The economy must not threaten the sustainability of natural systems. Environmental sinks and sources are indispensable for a economically sustainable economy”.

Transforming to a Sustainable City Through Technological Change The population living in major cities, especially in developing countries will have increased twofold in 2050 (Goi, 2019). As a result, a city experiences challenges related to growth, performance, competitiveness, and residents’ livelihood (McKinsey & Company, 2013). Thus, there is a need for technology to help a city be more responsive to residents’ needs, while also making urban areas more efficient and greener (Smart Cities Dive, 2017). To create a sustainable city, the General Assembly adopted the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, including 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in September 2015 (United Nations, 2015b).

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Table 4. Environmental Performance Index EPI

Objective

Issue Category Health Impacts (33%)

Indicator Environmental Risk Exposure (100%) Household Air Quality (30%)

Environmental health (40%)

Air pollution - Average Exposure to PM2.5 (30%) Air quality (33%)

Air pollution - PM2.5 Exceedance (30%) Air pollution - Average Exposure to NO2 (10%)

Water and sanitation (33%) Water resources (25%) Environmental Performance Index (EPI)

Agriculture (10%)

Unsafe Sanitation (50%) Drinking Water Quality (50%) Wastewater treatment (100%) Nitrogen use efficiency (75%) Nitrogen balance (25%)

Forests (10%)

Change in forest cover (100%)

Fisheries (5%)

Fish stocks (100%) Terrestrial Protected Areas (National Biome Weights) (20%)

Ecosystem vitality (60%) Biodiversity and habitat (25%)

Terrestrial protected areas (Global Biome Weights) (20%) Marine protected areas (20%) Species protection (National) (20%) Species protection (Global) (20%) Trend in carbon intensity (75%)

Climate and energy (25%)

Trend in CO2 emissions per kWh (25%)

Source: Wikipedia (n.d)

Technology and innovation are central to the implementation of the SDGs. To ascertain how much SDGs reply on technology, Vivanco and Makov (2020) systematically assessed the degree to which specific goals and targets require technological change (refer to Table 6). Gartner Hype Cycle for Emerging Technologies 2020 (Gartner, 2020) highlighted technologies that will significantly affect the economic, society, and environment over the next five to ten years. Among the five technological changes discussed are as follows: • •

Digital me: Technology is becoming increasingly integrated with people to create new opportunities for digital representations of ourselves. The way people interact with the digital world is also moving beyond screens and keyboards to use a combination of interaction modalities. Composite architectures: The composable enterprise is designed to respond to rapidly changing business needs with packaged business capabilities built upon a flexible data fabric.

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Table 5. Social sustainability dimensions and issues Dimension

Issue

Quality of life

To what extent will the project improve:      • affordable and appropriate housing opportunities for the target group?      • physical health outcomes for the target group?      • mental health outcomes for the target group?      • education, training, and skill development opportunities for the target group?      • employment opportunities for the target group?      • access to transport for the target group?      • the ability of the target group to meet their basic needs?      • safety and security for the target group?      • access to community amenities and facilities for the target group?

Equity

To what extent will the project:      • reduce disadvantage for the target group?      • assist the target group to have more control over their lives, socially and economically?      • identify the causes of disadvantage and inequality and look for ways to reduce them?      • identify and aim to meet the needs of any particularly disadvantaged and marginalised people within the target group?      • be delivered without bias and promote fairness?

Diversity

To what extent will the project:      • identify diverse groups within the target group and look at ways to meet their particular needs?      • recognise diversity within cultural, ethnic and racial groups?      • allow for diverse viewpoints, beliefs and values to be taken into consideration?      • promote understanding and acceptance within the broader community of diverse backgrounds, cultures and life circumstances?

Social cohesion

To what extent will the project:      • help the target group to develop a sense of belonging in the broader community?      • increase participation in social activities by individuals in the target group?      • improve the target groups’ understanding of and access to public and civic institutions?      • build links between the target group and other groups in the broader community?      • result in the provision of increased support to the target group by the broader community?      • encourage the target group to contribute towards the community or provide support for others?

Democracy and governance

To what extent will:      • the project allows for a diverse range of people (especially the target group) to participate and be represented in decision-making processes?      • the processes of decision-making for the project will be clear to and easily understood by staff and stakeholders?      • the project has a budget sufficient to ensure adequate delivery by qualified trained staff?      • the project ensure that the use of volunteers is appropriate and properly governed?      • the duration of the project be sufficient to achieve the desired outcomes?      • have you considered what will happen when the project ceases?

Source: Hodgson (n.d)

• • •

Formative AI: This is a set of emerging AI and related technologies that can dynamically change to respond to situational variances. Algorithmic trust: Trust models based on responsible authorities are being replaced by algorithmic trust models to ensure privacy and security of data, source of assets and identity of individuals and things. Beyond silicon: As technology approaches the physical limits of silicon, new advanced materials are creating breakthrough opportunities to make technologies faster and smaller.

Bibri (2019) discussed that humans are moving into an era where instrumentation, datafication, and computerisation are routinely pervading the very fabric of cities, coupled with the interlinking, integra-

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Figure 5. Framework to measure social sustainability

tion, and coordination of the systems and domains. A new era is presently unfolding wherein sustainable urbanism is increasingly becoming data-driven. Thus, there is a need to develop and apply data-driven innovative solutions and sophisticated approaches to overcome the challenges of sustainability and urbanisation. Finally, Figure 6 summarised the overall idea of transforming a sustainable city through technological change. Technological change especially the development of ICT technology changes the landscape of the formation of a sustainable city. The rapid development of technology and application in the city also led to the existence of a smart city. As discussed by Toli and Murtagh (2020), “holistic approaches covered all dimensions of sustainability, the environmental, the social and the economic one, and presented a balanced point of view on what a smart city should be”. “Ultimately, a city that is not sustainable is not really smart” (Ahvenniemi et al., 2017).

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Table 6. Description of specific goals and targets for each of SDFG that directly reply on technological change for the achievement Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) Goal 1: No poverty

Specific goals and targets explicitly requiring technological change for the achievement None. Increase agricultural productivity.

Goal 2: Zero hunger

Ensure sustainable food production systems and implementation of resilient agricultural practices. Increase investment, including technology development, to enhance agricultural productive capacity in developing countries.

Goal 3: Good health and well-being

Reduce hazardous chemicals and air, water, and soil pollution and contamination.

Goal 4: Quality education

None.

Goal 5: Gender equality

Enhance the use of enabling technology, in particular information and communication technology, to promote the empowerment of women. Achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water.

Goal 6: Clean water and sanitation

Improve water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping, and minimising the release of hazardous chemicals and materials, reducing the proportion of untreated wastewater, and substantially increasing recycling and safe reuse. Increase water-use efficiency across all sectors and ensure sustainable withdrawals and supply of fresh water. Expand capacity-building support to developing countries in water and sanitation-related activities and programs, including water harvesting, desalination, water efficiency, wastewater treatment, recycling and reuse technologies. Ensure universal access to affordable, reliable, and modern energy services. Increase substantially the share of renewable energy in the mix.

Goal 7: Affordable and clean energy

Improve energy efficiency. Facilitate access to clean energy research and technology, including renewable energy, energy efficiency, and advanced and cleaner fossilfuel technology, and promote investment in energy infrastructure and clean energy technology. Expand infrastructure and upgrade technology for supplying modern and sustainable energy services.

Goal 8: Decent work and economic growth

Increase economic productivity through diversification technological upgrading, and innovation. Improve resource efficiency in consumption and production. Promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization in developing countries. Upgrade infrastructure and retrofit industries to make them sustainable, with increased resource-use efficiency and greater adoption of clean and environmentally sound technologies and industrial processes.

Goal 9: Industry, innovation, and infrastructure

Enhance scientific research; upgrade the technological capabilities of industrial sectors. Facilitate sustainable and resilient infrastructure development in developing countries through enhanced technological and technological support. Support technology development, research and innovation in developing countries. Increase access to information and communication technology and strive to provide universal and affordable access to the Internet in least developed countries.

Goal 10: Reduced inequalities

None. Ensure access for all the adequate, safe, and affordable housing and basic services and upgrade slums. Provide access to safe, affordable, accessible, and sustainable transport systems.

Goal 11: Sustainable cities and communities

Reduce the environmental impact of cities, including air quality and municipal and other waste management. Support technology development, research and innovation in developing countries. Support least developed countries, including technological assistance, in building sustainable and resilient buildings. Achieve the sustainable management and efficient use of natural resources Reduce food waste at the retail and consumer levels and reduce food losses along production and supply chains.

Goal 12: Responsible consumption and production

Achieve the environmentally sound management od chemicals and all wastes throughout their life cycle. Reduce waste generation through prevention, reduction, recycling, and reuse. Support developing countries to strengthen their technological capacity to move toward more sustainable patterns of consumption and production.

Goal 13: Climate action

Strengthen resilience and adaptive capacity to climate-related hazards and natural disasters. Raising capacity for effective climate change-related planning and management in least developed countries and small island developing states. Prevent and significantly reduce marine pollution.

Goal 14: Life below water

Foster the sustainable use of marine resources, including through sustainable management of fisheries and aquaculture. Increase scientific knowledge, develop research capacity, and transfer marine technology.

Goal 15: Life on land

None.

Goal 16: Peace, justice and strong institutions None. Enhance access to science, technology, and innovation and enhance knowledge-sharing, including through a global technology facilitation mechanism. Goal 17: Partnerships for the goals

Promote the development, transfer, dissemination, and diffusion of environmentally sound technologies to developing countries on favorable terms. Fully operationise the technology bank and science, technology, and innovation capacity-building mechanism for least developed countries and enhance the use of enabling technology, in particular information and communication technology

Adopted from Vivanco and Makov (2020)

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Figure 6. Transforming a sustainable city through the technological change

CONCLUSION The technological revolution through technological change has an impact on building a sustainable city. Technological change involves the overall process of invention, innovation, and diffusion of technology. Technological change is a necessity in the formation of a sustainable city and the urban transformation is unstoppable (Lacarta, 2019). “Transformations in urban design are not a new phenomenon, rather than a continuous process. Over the past 50 years’ cities have changed incomparably” (Mozuriunaite, 2016). Changes in a city are needed to address the current and future challenges to sustainability posed by the far-reaching trend. The best is practice is “through a composition of mechanisms, including strengthening city governance, enabling technological and social innovations, applying sustainable urban planning and infrastructure development, and impelling social behaviour change; supported by systems-driven policy and practice-focused scientific evidence” (Crane et al., 2021).

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Chapter 27

Towards Divine Values’ Strategic Application: Critical Insights Into Management of Change

Miftachul Huda https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6712-0056 Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Malaysia Amjad Omar Safori https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6212-3132 Zarqa University, Jordan Abdullah Rofiq Islamic College of Attanwir, Indonesia Azmil Hashim Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Malaysia

Mohd Aderi Che Noh Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Malaysia Mohd Hairy Ibrahim Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Malaysia Ahmad Kilani Mohamed Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia Arieff Salleh Rosman https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2308-0299 Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia

ABSTRACT The technological progression is widely being transformed into many sectors, such as education, business, and social interaction and communication. Such expansion has its unique basis since it provides the service enhancement through real-time-based interrelation towards the certain object in the smart platform. However, the problematic challenges have been emerged for instance cyber-bullying, moral challenges in online, cyber-crime, which all required the particular attention on the spiritual enhancement as the foundation in the personality development. This chapter attempts to propose the theoretical framework in responding the challenging issues in online basis. The critical assessment is conducted through books, conferences, and articles related to the divine-strategic principles to give insights into the management of change. The outcome reveals that the particular element of mashlahah (appropriate goodness) played a significant role in underlying the critical elements on driving pathway of management of change. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-6477-6.ch027

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 Towards Divine Values’ Strategic Application

INTRODUCTION With the number of progression in the technological development, in the last decade, this expansion is substantively transformed into the various sectors including education, business, and also social interaction and communication. The particular development could be clearly viewed in the age of big data for instance (Maseleno et al., 2019; Huda et al., 2016) and also Internet of Things (IoT) (Jia et al., 2019; Tan & Wang, 2010). In this regard, such progression with its distinctive unique is based on providing the service enhancement through real-time inter-personal interaction with their peers using smart based platform. Moreover, the wider context of technology adoption especially through smartphone application usage is significantly beneficial value into the learning aid (Anshari et al, 2017), in the sense that is supposed to contribute in disseminating the overall phase of learning technology as a part of the main goal achievement (Basuki et al., 2020; Kholili et al., 2020). In this view, characterising the contribution users can access should do also with the extent of managing the performance amidst the teamwork organisation. The main area of such attainment is enlarged to point out distributing the usability of technology enhancement (Huda et al., 2019a), in reflecting to the usage of knowledge expertise in the organisation (Al-Kurdi et al., 2020). Clearly, the view of beneficial value could be visibly in such transmission towards various areas. However, the problematic challenges have been emerged for instance cyber-bullying, moral challenges in online, cyber-crime, where all these requires the particular attention on looking into the element of spiritual enhancement as the foundational point in the personality development. Many has been conducted in particular basis on developing model of integrated framework systems for organisation management (Jagoda & Samaranayake, 2017), information quality for organisation stability (Batyashe & Iyamu, 2020; Huda et al., 2018a), technology use in violence prevention (Harris et al., 2020; Huda et al., 2019b; Stonard, 2020). While such number of initiative and approaches, there has been a lack of scholarly direction of particular attention to have seen the element of divine engagement to propose into change management, especially in the theoretical perspective approach. In order to respond towards such challenging issues, the understanding stage on the divine involvement is displayed to the refinement on getting active of transmitting the heart point to make the soul empowerment beyond transforming the capability to conduct appropriately in line with the strategic way of commutating properly (Huda et al., 2019c). The capability of doing such goodness is considered to give a clear point to the inner part of human spirit necessary to be embedded through collaborating with their partnership in the organisation. As such, this chapter attempts to propose the theoretical framework on responding the challenging issues in online basis. Moreover, the main concern will give to examine the divine values in underlying the management of change. Through critical assessment of books, conferences and articles, related to the divine-strategic principles, such enhancement refers to give insights into the management of change. The expected outcome reveals that the distinctive feature of mashlahah (appropriate goodness) played a significant role in underlying the critical elements on driving pathway of management of change. The value of this study could be recommended as one of the fundamental sources on theoretical knowledge contribution and enriching knowledge supplement for the stakeholders in assisting their views for the decision making process.

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Understanding Divine Values The ultimate point of having the divine engagement refers to have a sufficient adaptation towards stewardship of God, one of which is through upholding zikrullah (remembrance to God). In attempting this idea, the extent of balance between soul-based human condition and personal sustenance should bring along with committing into the purpose as acknowledged into the niyyah (intention as the main commitment), where all such attainment should do with maximizing the whole effort including human capability of both critical thinking essence together and spiritual basis (Huda & Sabani, 2018). In the achievement process on getting adopted towards what to do appropriately in terms of obligatory or prohibited consequence, the committed awareness to contemplate such attainment refers to lying on the ultimate purpose in transforming the inner state of making the capability to work together and also having sufficient communication in transferring the information into others (Jung, 2015). The commitment to know the individual potentials together with advancing the actual condition in looking at the circumstance for adapted caring has to be involved with revealing the purpose of the subsequent act wisely within the religious principle. In this view, divine values stand with the individual and social concern towards the inner state of heart through God’s stewardship. Figure 1. Understanding Divine Values

With understanding on the divine involvement, the refinement on getting active of transmitting the heart point to make the soul empowerment should do with going beyond transforming the capability to conduct appropriately in line with the strategic way of commutating properly. The extensive point of transferring knowledge information in getting touch with others is positively related to the essentials of divine values (Mohamad, 2020). The particular attribution of having such divine engagement should be involved in giving the feedback towards making sense of looking at whole part of life on what to conduct wisely within the normal tradition. With the positive way in influencing the thinking skills and practicing basis, it is necessary to incorporate the understanding basis to have a sufficient experience towards the life meaning. The strategic pattern on self-development in the social interaction for instance

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might play a role in reflecting the worldview through religious perspective in looking at the phenomena mainly with the natural basis. In addition, developing the notion of what to conduct appropriately in line with reflecting the worldview of Islamic values for instance could be managed into an individual and social concern in looking at the whole context of the way to give the feedback with their partnership appropriately with a polite scheme. In responding to the significant contribution towards developing the extent of self-view on having the mutual line on caring with others, the strategic partnership on maximising the individual capability towards the positive point of view is significant to adopt the value of self-development (Belo, 2020). Through implying with the significant contribution of theoretical basis on the way to perceive the significant point of view in developing the individual and social’s positive consideration, having the divine commitment of reflecting to the understanding stage together with the practical implementation should bring along with giving the valuable insight on getting active of positive relationship. In this view, the positively reflected commitment to conduct the particular attribution on developing the selfempowerment needs to perform the enhancement through sustaining the feelings of accepting on what to have in terms of meaning the life circumstance from the family matters, and society concern.

Divine Values Quality in Teamwork Commitment In the effort to support the religious quality which the individual commitment to look at a whole into safe circumstance, the strategic way on contemplating the God’s ultimate connection might stand with the scale of religious societies in adopting the portrait of having the responsibility awareness amongst the others. It can be managed in a particular way that the God is always in the mind of human thinking involved in the heart of personality as a continued attachment figure. The responsive awareness on dependent feeling to God could play a similar coexistence in enabling the human quality to present God in the mind and spirit as articulated into the whole involvement of human affairs (De Clercq et al., 2019). With the beneficial effects on the essence of taking a point of having the meaning for life, divine engagement refers to incorporate the strategic coordination with preparing the individuals’ commitment with their refinement and confidence. In this view, the continued involvement in boosting the essence of meaning in life will enable the individual personality to adopt the priority of doing goodness with others together with keeping away from the harmful deed. As a result, the quality of individual performance in coordinating with the social orientation should be empowered through the extent of confidence with God’ care as noted in the tawakkul’s point of refinement (Huda and Sabani, 2018). The commitment here should be enlarged with taking into account of continued support from their prayer scale in enabling the capability of doing the wise deed. Assigned into the confident quality through God’s engagement, taking care with the sufficient commitment on relying upon divine empowerment is associated with the continued mediation that all matters of practice are in God’s stewardship, in that all the doing is entirely mediated into the control management for the self. This is because the inner state of individual performance is the main element in taking a point of God’s stewardship as the main involvement amidst all human activities. Associating with all deed the human could achieve the performance scale, the strategic alignment of looking at the whole point on optimism after practical stage should do with expanding the positive assimilation of feeling organised in the essence of the divine involvement. The moral quality amidst individual and social basis should bring along with having a sufficient view towards the meaning of life (Aldulaimi, 2020). In line with the understanding stage of social orientation role, the individual quality 545

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assigned into the relationship with coordinating their thinking skills and practical stage might need to provide individuals with making the life performance with advancing the recognizance towards self in relation to the others (Huda et al., 2018a). As a result, the incorporation of dealing with the individual performance towards the social interaction for instance should do with conducting the worship in that they may achieve to the goodness. In terms of making a substantial element for taking a look at the meaning of life, attempts to carry out recognizing the relationship between the complementary natures of accumulating the committed awareness on dong goodness refer to advance essence of practicing the nature of meaning in life assigned with the divine involvement. Figure 2. Divine Values Quality in Teamwork Commitment

In a wider context, the divine quality substance amongst the individual personality might point out looking into the strategic incorporation of social coexistence in the sense that is articulated into stewardship with God. In other form, the continuous remark on doing goodness may be signified into getting a consistency on making the partnership by asking to God for any kind of act involved in the real life commitment. In supporting the divine accountability committed with the daily lives consequence, the extent of degree on how the divine involvement could be expanded in a particular way towards keeping in mind on staying in the right path fitted into the conditional circumstance refers to assist the individual personality to achieve the expected stage of meaning the life (Javed et al., 2019). As a result, the outcome

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of this tendency is to put forward the belief scale on expanding the ordinary sustenance in relation with the maturity of life situation in terms of social interaction across the multiple backgrounds. The expansion of mutual link of positive thinking together with the continued practice is involved into the condition circumstance in enabling the individual personality to enhance the essence of having a meaningful life. Getting actively incorporated into meaning in life, the strategic way on providing the consistency to do appropriately and wisely within the uncertain situations may advance to raise the extent of individual performance cope with relying on the religious principle (Soleman et al., 2020). In conjunction with the coping the essential nature of function towards the religious mates, the continued support on habituating the life circumstance about the social change condition is necessary to have a sufficient understanding of religious commitment together with the engaged awareness.

Change Management Between Prospects and Consequences In expanding the change management potentials assigned into determining the innovative variability towards what to conduct in a particular approach, understanding of change management in sustaining the project management scale requires to have a substantial focus on advancing the duty of work through coordinating the schedule plan. In expanding the consistency of adapting the project requirement, the extent of change management needs to bring along with directing on the individuals with the impact of change implementation mainly amongst the older style (Helpap & Bekmeier-Feuerhahn, 2016). Towards the number of individuals with the consequence of change execution, the generated plan of process and the extent of organisation direction transformed within running systems should be deployed with the discipline-strategy (Weiner, 2020). Through generating the wider context on driving the necessary conduct as an approach in enabling the reform process in change management, the cooperation amongst its membership has to do with looking at a whole part on providing the understanding commitment towards the structure of organisation. In short, the number of individuals to be impacted from the change management as an innovative platform to reconstruct the organisation management, the point of arranging the process together with technical flow structured in a team should bring along with performing the discipline as a main value for transformation process. In particular, the mutual understanding amongst its membership should be prioritised as the main point in enabling the new atmosphere in the organisation to be more widely cooperated. In line with the cooperative engagement in organisation structure, the wisely coordinated process and system as the transformation procedure of change management should be taken into consideration in enabling the technical incorporation of innovative enhancement in the certain programs can be transmitted efficiently across the membership commitment. In terms of providing the coordination on gaining the discipline procedure, structural point together with strategic tool needs to expand in a particular way to transform the realisation process in transmitting the knowledge distribution of the change management in the wider context on behavioural manner (Hayes, 2018). The committed awareness of such behavioural manner in enabling the individual potentials to go further in line with managing the discipline across membership organisation is required to enhance the mutual vision in the sense that is prescribed in the contextual basis on the transition consequence. Moreover, both achieving the goal and conducting plan management should be well structured in a particular way in organising the individual manner through visioning the quality across the training program, such as organisation commitment, leadership performance and also professional and moral quality (Al-Ali et al., 2017; By, 2005). As a result, it is necessary to point out disseminating the certainly specified activities to have a sufficient 547

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Figure 3. Change Management between Prospects and Consequences

understanding towards prescribing the transmission procedure through organisation structure, systematic basis and also the teamwork commitment. In addition, the attempts to achieve the project management within the teamwork should bring along with outlining the specific programs of organisation structure to be effectively deployed through transitioning the strategic approach in defining the change management (Cameron & Green, 2019). Moreover, teamwork commitment played a significant role in transmitting the new information related to the improvement process together with the administration procedure in the context of contemporary needs. In the attainment process, the number of strategic cooperation in the certain organisation needs to have a responsive coordination along with trying to be more accessible in line with the governance procedure (Van der Voet & Vermeeren, 2017). As such, the extent of achieving the main goal is determined for generating the project management as a similar project team outline process and context, in which the change management with the team readiness and continuous effort. Getting clear of continuous attempts outlined through expanding the necessary steps requires to assist the individuals with the impact of change management in that they may reach the solution appropriately in line with the goal plan achievement. In order to give the potential solution among those impacted by the change management context, the need to enhance the upgrade together with expansion process in providing the necessary skills to perform better in the job improvement should be taken into consideration in a particular way on conducting the whole effort (Doppelt, 2017; Huda et al., 2018d). With getting matured of the transition process, outlining the main achievement of project management refers to enhance the effective strategy in deploying the resources with a more structured manner. As such, the transition process with the newly adapted duty role needs to develop the potential solution in implementing what to do wisely in the context of running smoothly on the systems, processes, and also organizational arrangement.

Wider Context of Change Management Transition Process In further, the wider scale of transition in process, consequence and also adaptation in the job roles has to go through directing the mutual outline of achievement plan towards the goal of change management.

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This procedure attempts directly in enabling the transition process to run well in line with the arranged organisation commitment. In terms of expanding the actual change referring to undertaking the project management, getting actively arranged discipline to manage the change as the vision for being the main platform in supporting the actualisation stage towards various styles requires to undertake the necessary act of disciplines (Stouten et al., 2018). Amongst such initiatives are the essential points of conducting project management and change management by coordinating with entire organisation structure. Through organizing the tactical step, the active engagement of cooperation amongst the entire organization structure refers to expand the initiative cognizance on reengineering the work processes (Huda et al., 2018e). Moreover, attempts to integrate the organization structure assigned with the information systems component has to go through following the acquisition procedure to redesign the component in the organisation space together with increasing the potential market for the program and product channel. With expanding the technique to advance the change management, undertaking the plan management refers to apply for the number of independence of the actual change through altering the stage of systems, processes, organization structures with the structured approach in managing technical implementation and membership understanding. Looking at the plan management procedure of change construction with the innovation initiative, both plan and implementation should bring along with customizing the unique circumstance in facing the uncertain situation through approaching the cultural side towards the specific change (Lozano et al., 2016). In this view, the stage of implementation procedure on the change management in giving the feedback in influencing what necessary act to conduct widely within the pathway of organisation goal is to be incorporated in contemplating the complex condition managed into well adapted structure (Cummings et al., 2016). Towards change management engaged into the number of various disruptions for instance, creating individual quality amongst all membership should be deployed in the daily work as their duty attributed into the organization’s structure in ensuring the value coordination through making culture of new habit. Through the extent of value system to synergy with the historical side of previous changes, the integration pathway on taking into account the tactical steps together with actual activities within teamwork needs to interchange the circumstance from the present-day state assigned to the preferred forthcoming condition. Figure 4. Wider Context of Change Management Transition Process

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Through advancing the organisation planning activities, the way to think wisely in line with expanding the teamwork commitment into the main target and also the achievement result has to go through identifying the notion of what to perform to be accomplished in accordance with the lesson reflection. In driving the rule of drawing a picture of the resources together with information needed to conduct in the work plan, getting a clear determination of space for the project consumption together with managing the individual commitment of communication strategy in teamwork should build a comprehensive skill of active engagement across all element membership (Schuh et al., 2017). In such way, the essential space of looking for the actual content in the project management should deal with delivering the positive consequence towards the contemporary needs and demands of organization plan. In valuing the basic components of redefining what to comprehend in a particular way to accept change consequence, the conducive readiness on thinking skills into achieving the project management is required to go through adapting an ability to work with building the innovative commitment across the individual quality together with mobilising the ability in implementing the change existence in the organisation (Slater, Evans & Turner, 2016). As such, the improvement could be achieved in a particular way to organise the strategy of integrating the arranged plan and actual practice in that the achievement target could be contemplated within the organisation vision.

Expanding Divine-Strategic Awareness for Change Management In the attempts to expand the essential value of divine strategic awareness in advancing the management of change, it is worthwhile to expand its wider transmission amongst the teamwork commitment to enhance the collaboration assurance amidst the management of change. The divine-strategic awareness should be deployed through stabilizing the guideline principle towards religious and moral expertise to underlie what to do wisely within the organisation. In this view, the key principle of divine substance here is extensively assigned into the religion’ consciousness together with transforming the reflection in the extent of expanding the survival towards the human wellbeing (Morin et al., 2016). Between individual and social responsibility, the concise consideration for being pious in the extent of human life has to be carefully determined to have a sufficient knowledge understanding together with practical reflection from the Divine revelations texts (Huda et al., 2019c). The extensive point of spiritual values in underlying the social life across diverse background for instance should bring along with religious belief consistency and actual practice stability in order to assist in creating peaceful coexistence (Huda et al., 2020). In particular, the context of change management basis has to be more properly conducted in line with the way of divine values to undertake the personal reflection through interpreting the reality existence with its consistent transmission. In this regard, it is important to have a sufficient adaptation with an intellectual structure through combining the emotional pathway to provide a direction to achieve the goals in the organisation. In line with achieving the organisation through concentrating the main target, the systematic coordination amongst the teamwork partnership should be really engaged with the extent of critical thinking expertise. With the logical reasoning expansion, the way to take into account the substantial pathway of the continuous commitment on religious awareness has to be expanded into the stage of knowledge and practice in the way to look at a whole part of goal achievement. The particular point is that the awareness stage on extending religion acknowledgement to see the significance of creating the peaceful coexistence regards to offer the potential contribution into the teamwork partnership in order to strengthen the togetherness in working expansion (Morin et al., 2016). The simultaneous linkage between consis550

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tent awareness and divine value played a significant role to implement the strategic harmony amidst the teamwork commitment. The importance of committing with the strategic awareness on managing properly amongst teamwork partnership amidst the change management refers to particularly contribute in extending the primary necessity to maintain the harmony amongst the membership in the certain organisation with the multiple backgrounds. In particular, the implementation stage in yielding to carry out disseminating the consciousness incorporated on religious concern on looking at the importance of working together in advancing the expertise of contextualising the peaceful coexistence should do with expanding the application strategy for divine value engagement. Figure 5. Expanding Divine-Strategic Awareness for Change Management

In terms of expanding the particular point to enhance the strategic awareness on divine engagement for change management amongst the membership, it is necessary to look at a whole context of the way to drive organisation through divine engagement in ensuring the work efficiency together with spiritual health for the mental spirit. Through bringing such attainment into the general context in organisation structure with the multiple background, the consistency of driving the ruler on how the vision to be made clearly in line with the main goal achievement should be taken into consideration in the application principle on critical, logical and creative thinking skills (Ali & Lai, 2016). The significance of practical stability towards such engagement refers to incorporate the interconnection between commitment and spirit to consistently look at a whole context of phenomena as the potential value to grab at any condition with addressing the positive feedback. It means that the primary determination of particular awareness on seeing the chance coming at the certain organisation refers to give the point in implementing the strategic commitment to achieve the main target by the wise consideration of risk management (Wiesner, Chadee & Best, 2018). In this view, the expansion of divine commandment here refers to underlie the intelligence skills to supply the ability to manage the organisation properly and wisely in line with the main contribution to be achieved in the basis on the vision-main agenda. As a result, the application procedure of divine engagement in consistently disseminating the pathway on the real moral values has to be involved with maintaining the membership goodness linked between belief and wise practice in a

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real condition. With this regard, the procedural context on applying for the balance between belief and spirit is basically needed to perform the strategic partnership amongst the membership commitment. This is to ensure that all beyond the capacity to manage in a proper way could bring into influencing the platform as the pathway to comprehend the phenomena of certain circumstance in the organisation.

Empowering Divine Understanding for Change Management In the way to sustain strategic awareness of divine engagement, the necessary act to comply with empowering its understanding stage should be taken into consideration through an outstanding value in transmitting its significant contributions into change management. The essence of divine understanding is basically based on expanding religious understanding in the extent to enhance the strategic effort to give a critical basis quality in the balance between mind and action (Kirrane et al., 2017; Sachdeva, 2019; Sani & Ekowati, 2019). Both individual and social responsibility sustenance have to bring into consistent mind of extracting the value of religion basis, an Islamic spirituality, as a core point in creating the theological understanding for instance (Febriani, 2020). With this regard, the valuable insights gained from the way to comprehend in looking at a whole part of life circumstance should be essentially transmitted into a multiple principle through expansive distribution of religious foundation conception. In the attempts to strengthen divine comprehension basis amongst the teamwork partnership, religious principle as the core value of understanding the circumstance amidst the organisation during the change management has to be involved properly through the balance between mental and spiritual piece in underlying the main point in enhancing the human well-being. With this regard, the strategic element for exposing both soul and mind in divine engagement should be transmitted in a particular way to enlarge the character expertise together with expanding the religious awareness commitment. Figure 6. Empowering Divine Understanding for Change Management

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In line with expanding the proper way to further regulate the divine engagement for individual development, the extent of strategic awareness in looking at a whole context on determining the accurate orientation on certain issues in organisation should bring along with making balance between practical attitude and mind refreshment. Through empowering the compassion on further direction to have a sufficient reflection to perform the balance compliance inn sustaining organisation structure, attempts to contextualise the human spirit together with critical thinking skills in enabling the teamwork partnership has to be involved with constructing the entire submission to the divine engagement (Huda et al., 2019). With this regard, the mutual involvement of moral and spiritual substance could be determined to support the entire element of heart control in playing the significant role in the organisation structure. It is stated that underlying system for expanding the role of mind mechanism in controlling the inner part of partnership member in the context of building the personal commitment with social responsibility is basically referring to the particular substance in the attempts to embed the moral qualities through religious commitment as the main priority. At this point of view, the religious inculcation in embedding the core value for organisation structure would enable the wider view in looking at the certain circumstance on partnership management committed to inculcate the essential principles of pious quality (Rocha& Pinheiro, 2020). The extent of spiritual quality on demonstrating divine engagement should be concisely carried out disseminating the practical substance in performing the reality circumstance. With the dimension of viewing the life phenomena, it is necessary to have a sufficient knowledge understanding especially in enabling the appropriate way for addressing the issues possibly unexpected in the certain condition. In addition, both individual and social responsibility to have the sufficient knowledge comprehension could give a potential value in deploying the good and bad deed amidst the organisation performance. Through the wider context of looking at the circumstance towards the strategic partnership to respond the change management challenges, the need to expand the clear reason to achieve the guidance together with religious principle in directing what to do wisely in line with the moral quality commitment (Adawiyah et al., 2020). In this view, all membership is basically regulated into achieving the guidance of practical stage in underlying their performance amidst the change management condition. In the organisation structure, divine understanding strength could be deployed in a proper way to enable the individual responsibility in seeing the phenomena at the positive side through determining the reality range in combining such dimension of conducting the goodness together with incorporating the guidance principle for moral decision process. Associated with engaging the religion’s practical wisdom, the necessary act to endure the competency in raising the experiential scale has to be significantly determined to focus on the stability of the way to think and act in a proper basis (Huda et al., 2020). At this point of view, engaging with the particular contribution in seeking the better understanding stage in order to give a proper solution from misunderstanding of mutual line background should be taken into consideration in absorbing the ethical commitment to carry out amongst the teamwork membership. In particular, the proper decision for what to do wisely in line with the determination process amidst the change management refers to have a sufficient comprehension of religion’s well understanding and practical stability in ensuring the wise deed in organisation structure.

Consistently Engaging With Divine Reflection for Change Management Viewed as the extent of divine reflection, the strategic awareness of what to do wisely within denoting the principles of sacred concept on practical wisdom, the significant role to deploy the way to shape the environmental commitment consistently on organisation has to address the particular enhancement in 553

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both knowledge and beliefs. It is clear to deploy that the necessary act to transmit the extent of carrying out such attainment amidst the contemporary circumstance within the different condition. In terms of setting the extent to transform the divine reflection from the scale of religious understanding, the practical stability assigned with the wisdom basis could be concentrated through integrating knowledge and belief in underlying the human practice (Hassan et al., 2020). With this regard, the attempts to transform both knowledge and belief gained through Divine revelation, the Qur’ān, to supply the main principle for what to do and how to achieve particularly in the context of human practices should do with having a sufficient reflection in supplementing the experiential basis together with practical commitment (Anwar et al., 2020). In the way to reflect on what can do amongst the teamwork partnership, creating the environmental atmosphere refers to apply for the activities together with producing the experiential expertise on looking at both information and knowledge committed to support the good deed. In transmitting the enhancement process through performing the upgrade stage of particular point in enabling the human action into conducting the good deed, the initiative of getting a clear picture of knowledge-based experience from practical consistency is basically the key role in enabling the teamwork sustenance to have a sufficient comprehension towards the clearly achieved vision (Huda et al., 2019d). As explained through setting the divine engagement transmitted into the knowledge expertise, attempts to necessarily have an appropriate recognizance in the organisation circumstance with the proper way in standing up the certain place in creating the understanding stage referring to the religions’ principle. Figure 7. Consistently Engaging with Divine Reflection for Change Management

In addition, the mutual link between knowledge, belief and practice of divine engagement should bring along with creating the consistency in the implementation stage through expanding what to do properly within the organisation. Considering the mutual link between knowledge and belief to God, for instance, the knowledge attribution could be expanded in distributing the quality assurance in responding the change management consequence. In particular, the basis of true knowledge confirmed into reflecting the message from something happens amidst the human life refers to begin with expanding the stage to have a sufficient enhancement of the wisdom (Ganzin et al., 2020). With the knowledge attribution

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organised into the extent of belief system to contribute in looking at the picture of something good leading to ultimately the practical stage, committing with the action to do goodness into the circumstance of organisation will give a beneficial value in transforming the fundamental point where individuals can have access for the collective responsibility. In this view, it is necessary to note that the knowledge comprehension extent to comply with the discipline commitment transmitted into the moral expertise amidst the organisation structure sustained the balance between personal and social quality in underlying the way to do amidst the teamwork partnership. In terms of gaining the important role on conceptualising the organisation systems together with giving the particular attention in preserving social harmony amongst the teamwork partnership, creating the stability commitment in the practical aspect of divine engagement comes from the knowledge comprehension where the scale of good association is potentially reflected through the critical thinking skills together with the creative mind (Ayob & Saiyed, 2020). In achieving the basis on emphasising the extent of individual responsibility within the social coexistence, the need to develop an inner part of spiritual enhancement in empowering the development of intellectual capability should do with facilitating the experiential learning to serve in the organisation commitment. Both moral and intellectual expertise could give a mutual direction in taking the beneficial value on the way to reflect knowledge comprehension in conducting the goodness (Azemati & Habibabad, 2019). In achieving this attainment, it is necessary to perform what to do wisely in line with having a sufficient point of view in transmitting the moral substance from the spiritual quality in determining the real application procedure amidst the organisation. With this regard, divine engagement strategic approach could enable the potential value of normal principle in developing the way to think positively within a team. In terms of the knowledge and practical skills in the organisation atmosphere, developing the thinking skills in creating the appropriate and concrete procedure to apply for amongst the membership partnership is potentially engaged into creating the extent of peaceful coexistence in the context of social, racial and religious quality. The mutual concern of partnership to have the balance between soul and mind in a nature pathway yields the consequence to influence the memberships’ beliefs and opinions with the existence of religious values in underlying the organisation atmosphere amidst the change management.

Strengthening Divine Practice for Change Management In the stage of practical stability on directing the way of individuals within the organisation, the necessary point in expanding the divine commitment to apply for amidst the change management has to bring along with taking into consideration about the religious practice. It can be stated that the religious principle to conduct properly within the organisation atmosphere refers to the practical stage of knowledge and wisdom to play an important factor towards the experiential substance together to make more actual practice in the membership partnership (Md Rosli, Sharip & Thomas, 2019). With this regard, the mutual link between knowledge and action could be comprehended as the simultaneous significances of reflecting the real life circumstance in enabling the society at general stage to conduct the goodness appropriately within the organisation. Through conceiving the mutual link between religious principle and its further transmission of reflection for the significant contributions into the community consistency, attempts to create the various steps in implementing the divine values commitment are in line with the way to practice into the organisation community (Muflih & Juliana, 2020). This is an important stage to give a significant contribution into the membership through expanding the religious practice in constituting the strategic coordination for an individual way to conduct wisely together with a specific motivation 555

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in balancing the circumstance for being more convenient. As such, the stage of interaction for personal and social aspect refers to obtain the understanding level of further reflection relying upon the particular essence of wondering the actual practice as an act of worship. Figure 8. Strengthening Divine Practice for Change Management

In line with the reliance in encompassing the strategy and implementation stage, it is necessary to consequently commit with divine strength to give insights into the individual responsibility concerning the way to talk, discuss and also collaborate within a team. With this regard, the main point is that mutual responsibility embedded amongst all membership would enable the worldview with a proper consequence of conducting the significant actions within thought and varied walks of life (Ouragini, 2020). It states that the level of worldview as the main driver in directing the thinking way and actual implementation would enable to have a sufficient understanding assigned into the proper intention as the main commitment. The extent of personal insights to obtain the thinking skills and actual implementation refers to enhance the divine engagement within consistency of religious practice. As a result, the entire effort to achieve the individual commitment to learn especially in line with the experiential basis could play a significant role in ensuring the membership partnership in connecting such attainment profoundly in a creative cohesion. As such, the expansion would be transformed into all membership within the organisation atmosphere in the sense that is deployed with looking at a whole context of divine consciousness into the practical way. As the significant role in distributing the thinking style, the form of practical stability within the religious comprehension is considered to give a sufficient influence for the positive feedback to conduct the goodness in the context of organisation partnership. In this view, the stage level of strategic consciousness to comprehend the phenomena amidst the organisation membership is potentially engaged into the critical thinking skills together with compassionate coordination as the main supplementary to sustain the organisation atmosphere (Rahman et al., 2019). As the main value of conducting the goodness, the effort to enable individual in reflecting the divine principles refers to inspire the quality assurance for making a positive overview to take action in the organisation. Through reflecting an inspiration as the

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way to go further in the action plan, the particular attention should be taken into account the overview of theological concepts within sacred texts (Huda and Kartanegara, 2015), in enabling the extent of divine practices including ritual and liturgical worship practices, prayer, and adherence to dietary and ethical codes could enable to flow religious communities mutually formatted to clearly shape the human with wise actions. In addition, the continued engagement into the particular practices should bring along with determining the transformation through adopting the systematic approach of committed awareness of beliefs and practices. Moreover, the extensive point on managing the useful consideration to have a sufficient comprehension on reflecting the divine principle associated with the religious traditions amidst the teamwork membership. The mutual link of having the divine engaged practical stage to sustain the way to conduct wisely within the practical wisdom is necessary to collectively make the committed intention as an act for worship in order to represent the spiritual principle regularly underlying in all manner commitment (Huda et al., 2020). Attempts to achieve such attainment could be extensively determined to have efficiency for a mutual recognisance amongst the membership partnership in maintaining the strategic awareness potentially leading to gain the worship value. Thus carrying out such principle requires the comprehension the principal commitment of religious practice to achieve the wisdom in shaping the soul and mind in the organisation atmosphere amidst the change management. In enhancing the substance of practical stage in transmitting the knowledge and practice in organisation, there should be encouraged repeatedly within a fundamental value in the decision making process amidst the change management.

Contextualising Mashlahah (Appropriate Goodness) for Change Management The main context of religion’s principle, mainly in the Islamic point of view, is regarded to give a beneficial value on strengthening the sustainability cooperated with the self-discipline. In the contextualisation procedure, mashlahah (an appropriate goodness) considered to be the appropriate goodness for change management is potentially engaged to play a role in the organisation sustenance in order to transform the discipline culture (Ishak & Asni, 2020). In particular, the extent of self-discipline requires the necessary act to strengthen the sustainability of the commitment through expanding the religious awareness in the sense that is continually engaged into the spiritual existence. Both intellectual and emotions are supplied through approaching the way of interaction across membership partnership in the organisation structure. Through the mashlahah awareness expansion, such interaction approach with being more peacefully intellectual and emotional underpinning requires the ethical engagement to transmit the major predictors of behavioural manners in organisation commitment (Dusuki & Abdullah, 2007). In this view, the contextual basis in directing both soul and mind towards a fundamental element of spirituality encouragement for inner substance is considered to be the significant dissemination of religious exercise in incorporating the contemplation, reflection and growth of mashlahah in embedding the goodness to do wisely together with the virtue amongst the strategic membership amidst change management. In the extent of self-discipline raised from the mashlahah, the encouragement process should bring along with expanding the individual responsibility in giving the essentials of positive feedback through directing the worldly life. Involved with the practical wisdom application, the wider context on contributing the significant pathway into the individuals’ worldviews could give a potential benefit into the way to think, to practice and to reflect on contemplating both knowledge and understanding (Rehan, Block & Fisch, 2019). Moreover, the sufficient determination on looking at a whole context of appropriately social practice amidst the change management has to be involved with benefitting to the teamwork mem557

 Towards Divine Values’ Strategic Application

Figure 9. Contextualising Mashlahah (Appropriate Goodness) for Change Management

bership in the sense that aims to ensure the pious rise to the mashlahah especially engaging into divine spiritual values (Huda and Kartanegara, 2015). In stressing the way to expand both spiritual and moral qualities in underlying both individual and social responsibility commitment, it is necessary to develop the intellectual and behavioural harmony in a practical stage to achieve the teamwork partnership along with the human life at both individual and social levels. With this regard, cultivating the practical stage of conducting goodness towards the other membership within the organisation structure should bring a combination between physical and mental enhancement process in enabling the individual membership to comply with the pious manners and responsibility engagement (Abd Razak, 2019). It is sure that in change management the sustenance of behavioural and logical pathway in directing the particular practice refers to enhance individual and social interaction commitment together with the strategic transparency of looking at the chance and challenge of organisation. In addition, the tactical steps on conceiving the mashlahah approach refers to the overall vision to have a sufficient understanding with regards to both impact and feedback to be achieved in a particular way for individual membership as a micro point to determine the right manner (Hoque, Mamun & Mamun, 2014). In order to obtain the organisation situation of right time and place amidst the change management, attempts to realise the mutual respect, cooperative engagement, and also social justice are actually encouraged amongst all individuals to have an entire accountability to have a look at the consequences towards what to do in their practice. In this view, the actual performance with the moral and spiritual insights played an important role to transmit the mutual comprehension to respond the challenging issues in organisation. Through understanding the mutual respect amidst the change management, the mashlahah commitment should be expanded in a particular way to transform the contribution pathway to build the better conception in dealing with the organisation procedure context (Machmud & Hidayat, 2020). Determining the commitment amongst the different individuals and groups in the negotiation process as the solutions to communal difficulties, the application stage of mashlahah strategic approach should be expanded in a particular contribution into the peaceful harmony in the organisation structure (Ali et al., 2018). In the contextualisation process of the strategic pathway of ensuring the positive feedback from behavioural manners, the foundation of interpersonal direction in an appropriate and proper

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way to have sufficient acceptance towards the different views amongst the teamwork membership is potentially associated with the consciousness into the conflict organization engagement through rational and emotional approach. In such way, the relationship encouragement could be contemplated to expand the sufficient understanding, skills and practice of a whole circumstance situation context through the careful rationality amidst the change management.

CONCLUSION This chapter did examine the essentials of divine engagement procedure in the context of change management in the organisation structure commitment. In particular, the technological progression is transformed widely into many sectors, such as education, business, and social interaction and communication. The age of Internet of Things (IoT) has its unique basis since it provide the service enhancement through real-time based interrelation towards the certain object in the smart platform. However, the problematic challenges have been emerged for instance cyber-bullying, moral challenges in online, cyber-crime, where all these requires the particular attention on looking into the element of spiritual enhancement as the foundational point in the personality development. Proposing the theoretical framework on responding the challenging issues in online basis would give the beneficial outlook in examining the divine values on change management amidst the IoT age. The outcome reveals that the particular element of divine engagement through mashlahah (appropriate goodness) played a significant role in underlying the critical elements on driving pathway of management of change. The value of this study could be recommended as one of the fundamental sources on theoretical knowledge contribution and enriching knowledge supplement for the stakeholders in assisting their views for the decision making process.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Divine Value: The extensive essence of values related to the Divine obedience, in the sense that upholds the sufficient adaptation towards stewardship of God, one of which is through upholding zikrullah (remembrance to God). It is Divine balance between soul-based human condition and personal sustenance committed into the purpose as acknowledged into the niyyah (intention as the main commitment). Divine Values Quality in Teamwork Commitment: The strategic way on contemplating the God’s ultimate connection might stand with the scale of religious societies in adopting the portrait of having the responsibility awareness amongst the others. Management of Change: Determining the innovative variability towards what to conduct in a particular approach and understanding of change management in sustaining the project management scale requires to have a substantial focus on advancing the duty of work through coordinating the schedule plan. Mashlahah (Appropriate Goodness): Strengthening the sustainability cooperated with the selfdiscipline. In the contextualisation procedure, mashlahah (an appropriate goodness) considered to be the appropriate goodness for change management is potentially engaged to play a role in the organisation sustenance in order to transform the discipline culture.

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About the Contributors

Patricia Ordóñez de Pablos is a professor in the Department of Business Administration in the Faculty of Business and Economics at The University of Oviedo (Spain). She completed her education in The London School of Economics (UK). Her teaching and research interests focus on the areas of strategic management, knowledge management, organizational learning, human resource management, intellectual capital, information technologies, with special interest in Asia (Bhutan, China, Laos, Myanmar). She is Editor-in-Chief of the International Journal of Learning and Intellectual Capital (IJLIC) and International Journal of Asian Business and Information Management (IJABIM), respectively. She has edited books for IGI-Global, Routledge and Springer. Mohammad Nabil Almunawar is currently an associate professor at the School of Business and Economics, Universiti of Brunei Darussalam (UBDSBE), Brunei Darussalam. He received his bachelor’s degree in 1983 from Bogor Agricultural University, Indonesia, master’s degree (MSc) from the Department of Computer Science, University of Western Ontario, London, Canada in 1991, and Ph.D. from the University of New South Wales in 1998. Dr. Almunawar has published more than 100 papers in refereed journals, books, book chapters, and international conference proceedings. He has more than 30 years of teaching experience in the area of information systems. His overall research interests include applications of IT in management, e-business/commerce, digital marketplace/platform, digital business ecosystem, health informatics, information security, and cloud computing. Currently, he focuses his research on digital platform and digital business ecosystem. Xi Zhang is currently a professor and the head of dept. information management & management science (IMMS), working on knowledge management computing, big data business analytics, fintech. I have published several research papers in refereed top-tier journals (e.g., JMIS, IEEE TKDE, IEEE TEM, JMSE, JASIST, Scientometrics, JKM, IMM), and conference proceedings (e.g., WWW, HICSS, PACIS, ECIS, AMCIS). He was the recipient of KDD CUP 2019 3rd Prize (task2). Due to his research achievements on knowledge management, he was honored to receive the China Management Youth Award (2016), supported by the Excellent Youth Funding of NSFC (2017), and Distinguished Youth Funding of Tianjin Natural Science Foundation (2018). He is the Associate editor of Journal of Management Science and Engineering, International Journal of Asian Business and Information Management and IJSWIS. ***

 

About the Contributors

Abdullah Alabdulatif is Assistant Professor of Computer Department, College of Sciences and Arts, Qassim University. He graduated from Qassim university, Saudi Arabia in 2004. received a bachelor of computer Science degree. Then entered Newcastle University, UK and received a master of computer security and resilience degree in 2009 and PhD in information security from Nottingham Trent University in 2014. He has 6 research papers in referred international journals and conferences. He is interesting research in Academic & Research includes Wireless security, IoT security, Blockchain Security. Yudo Anggoro, Ph.D., is a faculty member at School of Business and Management, Bandung Institute of Technology. Yudo Anggoro completed his bachelor’s degree in Industrial Engineering at Bandung Institute of Technology (ITB) in 2004. After working as a professional banker at Citibank Indonesia for two years, then he received a full scholarship to pursue a master’s degree in management science from the School of Business and Management, Bandung Institute of Technology, and graduated as the best student in 2009. He received his Ph.D. in Public Policy with minors in Industrial Policy and Economic Competitiveness from the University of North Carolina, Charlotte, the United States of America in 2015. Yudo Anggoro’s research interests are Economic Competitiveness, Industrial Policy, Transportation and Infrastructure Policy, Public Management, Regional Economic Development, Government Performance, Leadership, Public Economics, and Strategic Management. Rizaldy Anggriawan is a master student in the Department of Financial and Economic Law, Asia University, Taiwan. He completed his bachelor degree in the International Program for Law and Sharia, Faculty of Law, Universitas Muhammadiyah Yogyakarta. His research interests focus on the areas of business law, antitrust law, and corporate law. Muhammad Anshari is researcher and academic staff at School of Business & Economics, Universiti Brunei Darussalam. His professional experience started when he was IT Business Analyst at Astra International. Research Fellowship from The Government Republic of China (Taiwan) at National Taiwan University (Jan-Dec 2014). Research Fellowship from King Saud University - the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia 2009. Senior Associate Researcher of Informatics Department, Universitas Islam Negeri Yogyakarta, Indonesia. Syamimi Ariff Lim is an Assistant Professor in the UBD School of Business and Economics. Her research interests include Digital Business, E-Government, E-learning, Change management and motivation issues. Yandra Arkeman is an expert in Artificial Intelligence (AI) and blockchain technology. He earned a PhD in Manufacturing Systems Engineering with dissertation on Intelligent Manufacturing Systems using Genetic Algorithms from University of South Australia (2000). Then he conducted his first Post Doctoral research at Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Kansai University, Osaka, Japan, for 2 years (2004-2006) and his second Post Doctoral research at Department of Computer Science, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia, USA, for 4 months (2009/2010). His biography is included in Who’s Who in Science and Engineering 1998/1999 by Marquis Publication. He is the Head of Master of Agro-Maritime Log He had a Master of Engineering in Advanced Manufacturing Technology from University of South Australia with the thesis on Application of Artificial Intelligence for Flexible Manufacturing Systems Design. He obtained his first degree in Agroindustrial Technology from Bogor 649

About the Contributors

Agricultural University (IPB), Indonesia, with the “skripsi” (undergraduate thesis) on CAQ (Computer Aided Quality). He is a Professor at Department of Agroindustrial Technology as well as Department of Computer Science, IPB University. Since 2008, he also works at Surfactant and Bioenergy Research Center (SBRC) at IPB University, as a researcher on bioenergy sustainability and climate change. He was the Head of SBRC in 2019. In March 2014, he established CEALS (Center of Excellence for Agroindustrial Logistics and Supply Chain Management). In 2018 he established BRAIN (Blockchain, Robotics and Artificial Intelligence Networks). Since 2019, he is the Head of Master Program in Agro-Maritime Logistics, IPB University. Vibha Bhandari is currently working as an Assistant Professor with the Department of Business Administration, College of Applied Sciences, University of Technology and Applied Sciences,Sultanate of Oman. She has earned her doctorate in the area of International Business, Finance and Economics from Jai Narain Vyas University Jodhpur, India in 2002. She has completed two Faculty Development Programmes (FDP) at Indian Institute of Management (IIM) Ahmedabad and International Programme for Development of Management Professionals (IPDMP) at IIM Calcutta. With a keen interest in research and teaching she has worked closely with some of the leading academicians in designing various programmes and courses at graduate as well post graduate levels. Possessing academic experience of closely two decades, she is a dedicated researcher and innovator of pedagogical methodologies. She is an active reviewer for many journals, publications and research proposals. Having attended various conferences as a key-note speaker, session chair, and participant, she has to her credit various publications. Her research interests include areas pertaining to macroeconomics, finance, banking, international business, strategic and general management. Sevenpri Candra is presently an associate professor at BINUS University. He also serves as a Reviewer for several prominent journals and conferences. Prior to joining BINUS, he has more than 7 years professional career in IT & Consulting Business that give a credence as a Manager. Throughout the time working in different industry and roles, he put his knowledge to focus as a Faculty Member at BINUS. My research interest area is in Business & Technology as well as my specialties as a professional. Mohd Aderi Che Noh is Professor of pedagogy in Islamic education, Faculty of Human Sciences, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris Malaysia. Omkar Dastane is a Senior Lecturer and Head of Postgraduate Center at FTMS College, Malaysia (offering UK universities’ MBA in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia). Omkar is a founder member of ASCENT international conference series and associate editor of the International Journal of Accounting, Business and Management. He also serves on a reviewer board of international journals. His research interests include consumer perception, choice modelling, electronic commerce and mobile commerce. His papers are published in several international journals including the Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services among others. Erika DeJong Watanabe is an Associate Professor at The National Institute of Technology, Fukushima College.

650

About the Contributors

Manlio Del Giudice is Full Professor of Management at the “Link Campus University”, where he serves as Director of the CERMES Research Centre and Director of Master in Smart PA. He holds a Ph.D in Management at the University of Milano-Bicocca. He developed his academic and scientific career abroad for more than 10 years in a number of worldwide renewed universities (e.g Grenoble School of Business; University of Twente; United Arab Emirates University; University of Waikato; George Washington University; ESG Management School; Coventry University; Universidad De Murcia; Euromed Business Institute; University of Nicosia among others). He had been hired as Full Professor in 2018 as one of the 20 youngest professors in Italy among all scientific sectors. Currently, he serves as the Editor in Chief of the Journal of Knowledge Management (ISI WoS ranking #8 Information Science, #35 Management, Impact Factor, Q1 Impact Factor 2019: 4.805). He holds key editorial positions and leading guest editor role in a large number of “call for papers” in several international mainstream scientific journals on management. His main research interests deal with knowledge management, technology transfer, innovation and technology management. His scholar profile shows more than 140 peer-reviewed articles, more than 70 of them ranked as “A Class” according to the Italian ANVUR ranking journal list such as MIS Quarterly (4* Elite), Journal of Organizational Behavior (4*), Journal of World Business (4*), Journal of Product Innovation Management (4*), Long Range Planning (3*), IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management (3*), Journal of Technology Transfer (3*), Journal of Business Research (3*), R&D Management (3*), Technological Forecasting and Social Change (3*), Production, Planning & Control (3*), and International Marketing Review (3*). Alongside 12 international monographs published by Springer, Palgrave Macmillan, and Elsevier. His studies had been internationally recognized by significant impact, as evidenced by about 8,000 citations and the H-index (= 45) (at February 2021). He has recently supported the Emerald Publisher’s Department in charge of the Ethical Issues and Investigations on publication malpractices (according to the COPE Ethical Guidelines). Moreover, he has been newly appointed by the Ministry of Education in Italy as one of the five Commissioners for the National Scientific Qualification (ASN), for the field of Management Sciences. He is serving as Expert Evaluator for the Campania Region, for the National Research Council of Norway and for the European Commission in the areas of innovation and technological management and forecasting. His main research interests deal with knowledge management, technology transfer, innovation and technology management. Ika Fauzia is a lecturer at the Department of Islamic Economics, College of Economics (STIE) Perbanas Surabaya. She is also a member of the Provincial Board of the Indonesian Association of Islamic Economist (IAEI) Jawa Timur and the Islamic Economic Society (MES) of Jawa Timur. She is the author of more than 13 books on Islamic Economics, Entrepreneurship, Business Ethics, and Arabic for Business. Simin Ghavifekr is a member of the Department of Educational Management, Planning and Policy, Faculty of Education, University of Malaya. She is teaching and supervising postgraduate students. So far, she has published many Books, Chapters in Books, and articles in local and international journals, including Scopus and ISI. She is also the Editor-in-Chief for the journal of Malaysian Online Journal of Educational Management (MOJEM). Dr Simin’s interests are in education leadership, policy, management, administration, and educational change, as well as, e-learning and integration of ICT in an educational setting. Chai-Lee Goi is a senior lecturer at Faculty of Business, Curtin University, Malaysia.

651

About the Contributors

Azmil Hashim is Associate Professor of Islamic education, Faculty of Human Sciences, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris Malaysia. Manzoor Hashmani has more than 25 years of broad IT experience both in the fields of research and development. He has done both his M.E. and Ph.D. from Nara Institute of Science & Technology, Japan in a very short duration of four years. He did B.E. (Computer Systems Engineering) in 1991 from Mehran University of Engineering & Technology, Jamshoro, Pakistan. After Ph.D. he worked in NS Solutions Corporation, Japan for about three years. Here he supervised parts of a large governmental project (Japanese) and worked as a lead researcher and developer. He then worked for BBR (Broadband Research) Japan for about two years. Here he participated in a project which involved HDTV, VoIP and teleconferencing. As part of this project, Dr. Hashmani designed and developed a bandwidth broker to allocate and manage network bandwidth. Besides industry experience of 5 years, Dr. Hashmani has worked in academia for around 20 years. He has on his credit many funded research project. He successfully supervised 7 PhD projects and 50 MS/MPhil projects. He has more than 100 research papers (in journals and conferences of international repute) on his credit. Miftachul Huda is a researcher at Faculty of Human Sciences, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris Malaysia. His research interest includes the field of educational studies: moral, Islamic and multicultural education, learning theory, adaptive teaching and learning technology. He has been experienced in working on research for more than five years. Contributing several works, he is currently the member of the advisory editorial board in some international journals. Traveling in some countries with scholarly intent makes him extensive experience on his research expertise in international trend and issues. Thus, he commits to contributing his knowledge to the benefit of society through professional and social activities. Mohd Hairy Bin Ibrahim is associate professor, Department of Geography and Environment, Faculty of Human Sciences, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris Malaysia. Aisha Zahid Junejo is a Graduate Assistant at Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Malaysia. She received her Bachelors of Engineering degree in Computer Systems’ Engineering in 2016 and Masters of Engineering degree in Computer and Information Sciences in 2018 from Mehran University of Engineering & Technology, Jamshoro. She has been actively contributing her research work in international scientific journals and conferences since then. Currently, she is pursuing her Ph.D. studies in Information Technology from Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS. Her major research interests include (but not limited to) Blockchain Technology, Internet of Things and Data Science. So far, she has published around 9 research articles with 4 being in the blockchain technology. Domitilla Magni is a Researcher in Management at RomaTre University. She obtained her Ph.D. in “Management, Banking and Commodity Sciences” at Sapienza, University of Rome. She is a Visiting Professor at various top tier universities across the world (e.g., New York University, Montpellier Business School, South-Western University of Finance and Economics, La Salle University). She is Adjunct professor at University of Turin for the class of Management and Business Planning, at Link Campus University for the class of Neuromarketing, and at University of Bergamo for the class of International Business. She is also a Professor in the MIB – Master of International Business – at Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore. Her research interests include Knowledge Management, Innovation and Technology 652

About the Contributors

Management, and Open Innovation. She is also part of the Editorial Board for Journal of Intellectual Capital (Emerald), Journal of Knowledge Management (Emerald), and International Journal of Learning and Intellectual Capital (Inderscience). Restu Mahesa currently is receiving Ph.D at the School of Business and Management, Bandung Institute of Technology. Restu Mahesa received his bachelor’s degree in Civil Engineering from Bandung Institute of Technology in 1995. In the year of 2016, he earned his master’s degree in Strategic Management from Prasetiya Mulya Business School, Jakarta. His research interests are in Smart Cities, Urban Development, Social and Cultural Studies, Political Science and Public Policy. His most recent publications are ‘Platform Ecosystems for Indonesia Smart Cities’, and ‘Dataset on The Sustainable Smart City Development in Indonesia.’ Restu Mahesa works as a director on urban township management in property developer in Indonesia. Ahmad Kilani Mohamed is Associate Professor of education, sciences and religion in Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. Khairunnisa Musari is an assistant professor at the Department of Islamic Economics, Postgraduate Program and Faculty of Islamic Economics Business (FEBI), Universitas Islam Negeri KH Ahmad Shiddiq (UIN KHAS), Jember. She is a Deputy Coordinator of Central Indonesia for Central Board (DPP) of the Indonesian Association of Islamic Economist (IAEI), Secretary for Provincial Board of IAEI Jawa Timur, Secretary of Indonesian Economist Association (ISEI) of Jember, and Member of Expert Board of Islamic Economic Society (MES) of Lumajang. She has experience as a Senior Specialist for Islamic Finance of United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) Indonesia. She was listed as the Top 300 Most Influential Women in Islamic Business & Finance 2019 and Top 150 Most Influential Women in Islamic Business & Finance 2020 by Cambridge-IFA. Now, she also becomes a Lead Independent Associate Ambassadors of VentureEthica. Armando Papa is currently Associate Professor of Management at the Faculty of Communication Sciences, University of Teramo. Earlier, he joined the University of Rome Universitas Mercatorum. He earned the Italian National qualification as Full Professor in 2020. He was formerly research fellow at University of Turin. He holds a Ph.D. in Management from the University of Naples Federico II and a Postgraduate Master in Finance (2011). He is also Member of the EuroMed Research Business Institute. He won the Best Paper Award at the 9th EuroMed Conference in Warsaw (Poland) in 2016. He is skilled in Knowledge Management, Open Innovation and Technology Entrepreneurship, Corporate Governance and Family Business. He is Associate Editor of Journal of Knowledge Economy (Springer) and Assistant Managing Editor of Journal of Knowledge Management (Emerald). He is listed as Innovation Manager at the Italian Ministry of Economic Development. Engaged in various peer-review processes for several ranked and outstanding international management. He is engaged as editorial board member for the Journal of Intellectual Capital, British Food Journal, Management Research Review, and other international journals. He is member of the I.P.E. Business School of Naples. Rossana Piccolo is Research Fellow at the Department of Economics of the University of Campania–Luigi Vanvitelli. She holds a European PhD in Entrepreneurship and Innovation, with specialization on Behavioral Finance in the credit sector. She received a Master’s Degree in Finance and Markets from 653

About the Contributors

the Second University of Naples, Italy, with specialization on Advanced Corporate Finance, in 2012. Her studies and research interests are focused around the behavioral aspects of Innovation, Management and Finance. She is currently involved in research studies on soft dimension of technological innovation and the role of knowledge management in fintech. She is also involved in several peer review processes for international journals. Dian Palupi Restuputri is a lecturer and researcher in the Industrial Engineering department at the University of Muhammadiyah Malang. Her research interests are in the area of ergonomics and human factor engineering. She received his bachelor’s degree in Industrial Engineering from Diponegoro University (2007). She holds a master’s degree in Industrial Engineering from Institute of Technology Bandung (2012). Abdullah Rofiq is a senior educator for Islamic studies and management in Islamic College of Attanwir, Talun, Indonesia. Arieff Salleh Bin Rosman is Associate Professor of Islamic Studies, in Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. Nika Safitri is a researcher in University of Muhammadiyah Malang. Amjad Omar Safori is assistant professor at Faculty of Media, Zarqa University, Jordan. His research interest included Digital media, Credibility of media, Credibility of news, Social Media and Journalism. Wijang Sakitri is a lecturer in Economics Faculty UNNES. She is interested in economics education, english for specific purposes and TEL. Veronica Scuotto (Ph.D., FHEA, MBA, BA-Honour) joined the University of Turin (Italy) after working at the University of the West of Scotland (UK) and then at the Pôle Universitaire Léonard de Vinci in Paris (France) as an associate professor in Entrepreneurship and Innovation. She obtained the Italian National qualification as Full Professor in 2020. She received a Ph.D. in Marketing and Enterprise Management from Milan Bicocca University (Italy). She has been invited as a guest speaker to GfWM Knowledge Camp; World Young Forum; and PDW at the AoM Conference, among others. In 2018, she organised a conference on ‘Cognitive Perspective in Entrepreneurship Research’ jointly with IPAG University in Paris. She teaches entrepreneurship and loves encouraging young student entrepreneurs to develop new, creative business ideas. Veronica has also combined this interest with her research focus on small to medium enterprises, knowledge management and digital technologies. Her research interests are focused on SMEs, entrepreneurship, knowledge management and digital technologies which have resulted in the publication of several articles featured in peer-to-peer journals, such as the Journal of Product Innovation Management (4*), Journal of World Business (4*), Journal of Organizational Behaviour (4*), Journal of Business Research (3*), Production Planning & Control (3*), Technological Forecasting and Social Change (3*), International Marketing Review (3*), and IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management (3*), among others. She has authored two books. Veronica is the Editorial Assistant for the Journal of Intellectual Capital and an Editorial Board member of the Journal of Knowledge Management. Veronica is also a member of the International Council for Small Business and is a mentor for the Techstars Smart Mobility Accelerator in Turin, Italy. In 2020, Veronica’s work on 654

About the Contributors

JOB was awarded as the tenth most cited article. She also received two awards as the best Paper of the EuroMed/SIMA track ‘New Challenges in Open Innovation’ in 2016 and the ‘best-commended paper’ in 2017 at the annual EuroMed Academy of Business (EMAB) conference. In 2018, she was recognised by the International Council for Small Business (ICSB) as a global partner of excellence. She also has an industrial background. She worked as a commercial manager at GNS China (consultancy company) based in Beijing (China), she was a marketing consultant for a fashion publishing and advertising agency, Ichnos Srl, in Naples (Italy), and was a digital account manager at P.O.S.H. marketing agency in Glasgow (the United Kingdom). Ahmad Budi Setiawan is a senior researcher in the field of Information and Communication Technology. Currently Ahmad Budi works at the Information Technology Application Research and Development Center, Human Resources Research and Development Agency, Ministry of Communication and Informatics of Indonesia. Ahmad Budi has a Master of Information Technology educational background from the University of Indonesia. Currently Ahmad Budi is also serves as the Head of the Information Division at the Indonesian Research Association. Tan Jing Pei has over ten years of retail leasing and marketing experience in multinational and government-linked companies in Malaysia. Currently, she is working at a property development and Investment Company. The asset portfolio under her care more than 1.5 million sq.ft. Her expertise in leasing and marketing include concept and layout plan development, tenant mix planning, formulation of leasing strategy, negotiation of the lease, analyze rent & budget and advertising & promotion strategy. With her profession as a Registered Property Manager with BOVEAP (The Board of Valuers, Appraisers, Estate Agents and Property Managers), she actively involves in property management. The asset includes stratified shops/offices, malls and office towers. With great passion and expertise at work, her research interests focus on the shopping mall, shopper experience, shopper satisfaction, shopper behaviour and operational performance. Peggie has obtained her MBA qualification from Anglia Ruskin University. Khotibul Umam, M.E.I., is a lecturer at the Faculty of Islamic Economics and business at the State Islamic Institute of Madura (IAIN Madura). He was born in Sampang, East Java, May 14, 1991. Currently, he is active in mentoring and teaching undergraduate students and has written several articles on Islamic economics and business. In addition, he is active as a speaker in national and international forums. Several articles that have been published are: (1) Urgensi Standarisasi Dewan Pengawas Syariah Dalam Meningkatkan Kualitas Audit Kepatuhan Syariah (The Urgency of Standardization of the Sharia Supervisory Board in Improving the Quality of Sharia Compliance Audit), (2) Pendidikan Kewirausahaan Di Pesantren Sebagai Upaya Dalam Membangun Semangat Para Santri Untuk Berwirausaha (Entrepreneurship Education in Islamic Boarding Schools as an Effort to Build the Spirit of Students for Entrepreneurship), (3) The Importance Of Good Customer Ethics In Improving The Financing Portion Of Mudharabah, (4) Pengaruh Pengumuman Kenaikan Tarif Tenaga Listrik Terhadap Abnormal Return Dan Volume Perdagangan Saham (Studi Kasus Pada Perusahaan-Perusahaan Yang Masuk Dalam Kelompok Jakarta Islamic Index) (The Effect of Announcement of an Increase in Electric Power Rates on Abnormal Return and Stock Trading Volume (Case Studies on Companies Included in the Jakarta Islamic Index Group)), (5) Efektivitas Pengawasan Dewan Pengawas Syari’ah Pada Bank Pembiayaan Rakyat Syari’ah Di Provinsi Di Yogyakarta (Effectiveness of the Supervisory Board of Syari’ah on Rural Banks Syari’ah in the Province of Yogyakarta), (6) Analisis Perlakuan Biaya Penyelenggaraan Ibadah 655

About the Contributors

Haji Dalam Perspektif Akuntansi (Analysis of the Cost Treatment of the Hajj from an Accounting Perspective), (7) Strategi Pengembangan Agroekowisata Jambu Air Di Kecamatan Camplong Kabupaten Sampang (Jambu Air Agroecotourism Development Strategy in Camplong District, Sampang Regency). Abubakar Mukhtar Yakasai currently is receiving Ph.D at the School of Business and Economics, Universiti Brunei Darussalam. Abubakar Mukhtar Yakasai received his bachelor’s degree in Business Administration from Bayero University Kano, Nigeria in 2008. In the year of 2014, he earned his master’s degree in Marketing from International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM). His research interests are in E-Commerce, Digital Marketing, the Internet of Things (IoTs), CRM, and Consumer Behaviour. His current research project is on the B2C online shopping in Nigeria. Abubakar Mukhtar Yakasai works as a lecturer in the Department of Business Administration, Yusuf Maitama University Kano, Nigeria (formerly: Northwest University Kano, Nigeria). Gatot Yudoko, Ph.D., earned his bachelor’s degree in industrial engineering in 1985 and master’s degree in Transportation in 1990, both from Institut Teknologi Bandung, Indonesia. He, then, earned a Master of Applied Science (MASc) degree in Management Sciences in 1993, and a Ph.D. degree in Planning in 2000, both from the University of Waterloo, Canada. Until this present day, his research interests include Operations Strategy and Sustainability, Green Logistics (Reverse Logistics) and Supply Chain Management, and Technology and Industrial Policy. Zaroni Zaroni is a Chief Financial Officer (CFO) of PT Pos Logistik Indonesia, a subsidiary of PT Pos Indonesia which is a state-owned company engaged in postal services with 4,367 branch offices and 33,000 sales points throughout Indonesia. He is also the author of Logistics & Supply Chain: Konsep Dasar, Logistik Kontemporer, Praktek Terbaik (2017), Circle of Logistics: Memahami Strategi dan Praktek Terbaik (2019), and Logistik Halal: Memahami Ekosistem, Operasional, dan Praktik Terbaik (forthcoming).

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657

Index

A adoption of e-commerce 17-18, 21, 24, 27, 31, 33, 163, 440-441, 444-445, 450-451, 453-454, 456-457 Adoption Readiness (AR) 318 Agricultural Financial Platform 233 Agro-Industry 216, 223-225, 231-233 analytical skill 234, 238, 240, 243, 249, 252, 254 Artificial Intelligence (AI) 1, 51, 55-56, 59, 143, 146, 194, 213 ASCN 50-51, 61-62, 127, 135 ASEAN 37-38, 40, 48, 50-53, 56, 60-70, 80, 85, 92-93, 97, 127-128, 135, 142, 145-146, 162, 166, 267, 385, 442, 448, 455, 458-459 ASEAN-5 189, 463, 490 Asia 1, 14, 20, 38, 42, 46-48, 50-51, 57-58, 60-61, 67-68, 70, 76, 83-85, 90-93, 95-96, 98-99, 101, 120, 122, 141-142, 147-148, 162, 165-168, 182, 184, 187, 206, 230-231, 256, 268, 333, 335, 343, 355-357, 364-367, 383, 385, 387, 391, 413, 415, 439, 442-443, 457, 463-466, 470, 479, 481-484, 486-488, 490, 495, 506 Asia Pacific 76, 84, 92, 141, 182, 335, 443, 465-466, 479, 490 ASNC 62-64, 70 audit 364-366, 370-371, 377-387, 472 auditor 364-366, 371, 378, 380-381, 383-384, 387, 466 Augmented Reality 50, 52, 192, 194-195, 206, 208, 210, 213

B Bank Indonesia 18-19, 35, 151, 512-513, 518-519, 522 banks 4, 73-75, 77-79, 81-82, 109, 144-150, 154-162, 180, 260, 302-303, 306, 309, 315, 317, 563 Basic Needs 491, 510 big data 2, 16, 56, 59-60, 65, 67, 73, 138, 140, 143, 185, 217, 226-227, 229, 317, 538, 543 Blockchain 48, 59, 83, 94-97, 99, 101-103, 364, 366,

372-377, 379-387, 462-463, 465-467, 474-490 blockchain technology 95-97, 101, 103, 364, 366, 372373, 375, 377, 379, 382-384, 386-387, 462-463, 465-466, 474-477, 480-481, 486-487, 489-490 Brunei 51, 92-93, 104-107, 109-119, 121, 123, 125129, 134-142, 319, 334, 364, 439-444, 448-450, 454-460 Business-to-Consumer (B2C) 320, 341

C Capital Formation 441, 461 challenges 2, 5, 8, 13, 39, 46-47, 50-51, 57, 61, 64-65, 67-68, 71, 77, 79-82, 84, 90-91, 96-97, 100-101, 110, 113, 125-126, 128-134, 136-142, 168, 188189, 216, 231, 235, 253, 261, 267-268, 270-272, 274, 276, 279-282, 284-296, 298, 302-303, 305, 307, 309, 311-313, 315-316, 336, 342-344, 346, 348, 353, 355-357, 384-386, 389-391, 413, 426, 440, 453, 463, 466, 471, 486-489, 523, 532, 535, 537, 542-543, 553, 559 change management 271-272, 276-277, 279-280, 283, 285, 290-291, 293-294, 296, 298-300, 543, 547-564, 566 Channel-Credibility 341 China 51, 57-58, 60-61, 67-68, 76-77, 80, 86, 91-93, 98, 106-107, 110-111, 147, 161, 184, 186, 212, 252, 255-261, 263, 265-268, 296, 302, 317, 338, 443, 467, 470, 476, 481, 489, 502, 541 circular economy 83-87, 90-92, 96-102 citizen preferences 393, 395-397, 399, 401, 403, 405408, 417 co-creation 68, 207, 419-426, 432-438 competencies 234-240, 242-243, 245-251, 253, 512, 519 constraints 10, 12, 144, 148, 150, 158, 191, 199, 262, 360, 377, 447, 472 consumer innovativeness 165, 170, 172, 175, 178179, 185  

Index

Consumer perspectives 301 conventional players 71, 74, 77-78, 82 COVID-19 38, 54, 67, 84, 96, 104-107, 109-117, 119124, 134, 152, 196, 271, 293, 295-296, 440, 443, 454, 470, 472, 474, 487, 489, 492, 507, 511-515, 518-521 Critical Thinking Skill 254 cultural systems 388-389, 393-394, 396-399, 403, 405-407, 417 Customer Dominant Logic 418, 422, 438 customer reviews 180, 491-492, 500-501, 510 customers 23, 49, 73-74, 77-79, 86-88, 93-94, 96, 103, 105-106, 112-119, 124, 147, 149-151, 155-158, 160, 171, 178-179, 183, 188, 193, 206, 209, 302303, 307-310, 312, 315, 317, 320, 328, 331-333, 335, 337, 418-429, 431-433, 436, 438-439, 442446, 448, 450, 452, 454, 465, 471, 478, 491-495, 497-500, 502, 504-505, 507-510

D defendant 2, 10, 16 development 4, 6, 8, 10, 12-14, 18-22, 28, 34, 38-43, 46-48, 50-53, 55-66, 68-69, 73-74, 77, 81, 84-85, 88-91, 94-95, 97, 99-100, 106-108, 112, 115, 120, 122, 125, 127-140, 142, 144, 146-152, 158159, 162-163, 165-167, 171, 179-181, 185, 189, 193-194, 206, 209, 214-217, 219-233, 236-237, 242, 246, 248-253, 255-258, 260-270, 272-273, 290, 293-294, 296, 298, 313, 315-316, 320, 323, 333, 337, 342, 344-345, 350, 358, 360-365, 369, 375, 390-391, 393-394, 397, 399, 405-406, 408, 413-414, 416-417, 420, 426-427, 435, 440-442, 444, 447-448, 456-460, 467, 472, 488, 492, 501, 512-513, 515, 518-521, 523-526, 528-532, 535, 537-543, 553, 555, 559-563, 565 differentiation 22, 209, 491-492, 500, 502, 510 diffusion 122, 124, 220, 300, 310-311, 338, 463, 523, 525-530, 537-541 Digital Adaptation 454, 461 digital economy 20, 42, 47, 113, 116, 125-127, 136, 140143, 212, 214-216, 219, 222, 225-230, 232-233 Digital Economy Masterplan 2025 116, 125, 127, 136, 140-141 digital ecosystem 76, 127, 143, 148, 218 digital financial service 511-519, 522 digital identity 62, 127 Digital Malls 187 digital marketplace 104-113, 115-119, 124 digital technology 4, 18, 47, 83, 91, 99, 103, 187, 193, 195, 215, 217, 219, 226-227, 254, 274, 298, 354, 658

444, 472, 512, 514, 522 digital transformation 56, 83-84, 94, 96-97, 103, 115, 127, 187-188, 221-222, 225, 270, 508 Digital Wallet (or E-Wallet) 186 digitalization 1, 38-39, 47, 72, 83-86, 94, 96-97, 99, 103, 109, 113, 127, 148, 208, 214, 219, 302, 476, 492, 501-502, 514 Digitalized Media Board 193, 213 digitization 3, 38, 55, 83-84, 94, 103, 106, 111, 116, 128, 135, 145, 214, 218 Disruptive Technology 50, 70, 476 distribution 3, 39, 90, 92, 95-97, 102, 173-174, 180, 182, 184, 197, 199, 208, 215, 219, 224, 260, 384, 400401, 442, 455, 464, 469-470, 472, 485, 547, 552 Divine Value 542, 551, 566 Divine Values Quality in Teamwork Commitment 545-546, 566

E e-commerce 17-25, 27-28, 30-35, 38, 94, 104-107, 110-111, 113, 116-117, 120, 122, 124, 144, 152154, 163-164, 166-167, 188, 210-211, 215-216, 219-220, 222, 225-226, 228, 231, 320-321, 323, 328, 333, 336-337, 339, 341, 439-454, 456-461 e-commerce platform 18, 21, 107, 113, 441, 443, 449, 461 e-Justice 1-2, 12, 14-15 e-learning system 271, 281, 285-288, 291-292, 294, 300 Electronic Agrobusiness 233 e-litigation 1-2, 4, 10, 14 environment 7, 18, 21-22, 28, 30-31, 33, 43, 50-57, 61-64, 69, 82, 84-85, 88-91, 99, 108, 111, 126128, 131, 133-134, 139-140, 142, 148-149, 190, 192, 194, 213, 225, 236-237, 240, 242-243, 246, 264, 271-273, 276, 280-283, 285, 288, 293-294, 297, 299, 311, 317, 322, 327, 330-331, 339, 346, 359, 389, 416-417, 420, 444, 447, 453, 463, 465, 488, 490, 493, 500, 504, 507-508, 512, 516, 523, 528, 530-533, 538, 540-541, 564 E-Summon 1 ethical awareness 165, 167, 170, 172, 175, 179, 183-184 e-vendor 327-328, 331, 333-334, 341

F factors 9-10, 15, 17-19, 21-22, 27, 30-31, 33, 48, 51, 53, 66, 72-73, 91, 100-101, 106, 116, 129, 132-135, 137, 141, 145, 156, 163, 165, 167, 172, 180, 182-184, 188, 191-192, 194-195, 197, 210-212, 219-220, 224, 237, 242, 247-248, 251,

Index

253, 261-262, 273, 291-294, 296, 298, 302-303, 306, 308-311, 314, 316, 319-326, 328, 330-331, 333-334, 336-337, 339-340, 344, 349, 353, 356, 358, 360, 399, 405-408, 414, 420, 439-441, 444, 446, 448-450, 454-456, 458-459, 467, 495, 497, 506, 539, 541 family business 342-345, 347, 349-353, 356, 358363, 434 family-owned business 342-344, 354-355, 357-358 FAO 262, 269 farming 154, 214-215, 226, 228, 231, 256-257, 260 financial literacy 162, 511-513, 515, 518-519, 522 Financial Services Authority (OJK) 150-151, 522 financial services industry 71, 74, 77-79, 82, 145, 164 Financial Technology (Fintech) 38, 49, 144, 164, 168, 181, 184, 186, 228 fintech 38-39, 47-49, 60, 71, 74-82, 115, 144-155, 157164, 166, 168-169, 179-181, 183-186, 227-229, 301, 313, 316, 521 food and beverages industry 106, 439, 441 food fraud 469-470, 472, 489-490 Food Processed MSMEs in Semarang 17, 21, 23 food recalls 465, 472, 477, 486, 490 food supply chains 462-463, 465-467, 474, 479, 486, 488 Fourth Industrial Revolution 72-73, 81-82, 127, 143, 417 Functional Values 510 Functional/utilitarian Value 491

G Generation Y 71, 73, 82 Government digitalisation 127

H Halal 45, 83, 85, 87-90, 92-102, 364-369, 371, 377-378, 382-387, 462-470, 472-474, 477-490 Halal Assurance System (HAS) 364-365, 367, 387 Halal Blockchain 462 Halal Cacao 462, 481-482 Halal Cat Food 462, 483-485, 487 Halal chili 482, 484 halal industry 45, 83, 85, 88-90, 93-99, 364-365, 382, 384, 467, 487 Halal industry in Asia 364 halal logistics 83, 85, 89, 92-97, 99-101, 387 Halal poultry 462, 479-480 health value 491, 495, 497, 504 Health Values 510

higher education 61, 68, 234, 250, 270-271, 274-276, 279, 292, 294-299, 310, 559, 561

I ICT Integration 270, 297 IDT 262, 269 immersive technologies 50-54, 62-64, 70 Implementation challenges 125, 313 Indonesia 1-7, 10, 12-15, 17-21, 27-28, 32, 34-35, 3738, 40-43, 45, 47, 51, 58, 83, 92-93, 97, 100-101, 144, 146-148, 150-153, 156-159, 161-162, 165169, 173, 180-182, 184-185, 189, 212, 214-217, 221-234, 237, 252, 255-262, 265-268, 273, 342347, 351, 353-357, 362-367, 384-386, 388-391, 393-397, 399-400, 405-408, 411, 413-414, 418, 444, 457, 459, 467, 490, 511-513, 515, 518-522, 542, 562-563 Industrial Revolution 71-74, 77-79, 81-82, 126-127, 143, 187, 214, 216-217, 219-220, 233, 298, 417, 512 Industrial Revolution 4.0 71-74, 77-79, 82, 187, 214, 217, 220, 233 Industry 4.0 1, 14, 80-81, 99-100, 217-219, 231, 242, 251, 253, 336, 408, 427 Information Technology 4, 6, 9-11, 14, 23, 34-35, 72-73, 95, 151, 163, 181, 183, 189, 207, 211-212, 214, 216-217, 222, 224-227, 230, 232, 242, 245, 272, 276, 285, 296, 298, 312-314, 317-318, 320-321, 335, 339, 391, 414-415, 427, 446, 455-460, 465, 472, 487, 514, 560 innovation 17, 23, 33-35, 50-70, 73-74, 78, 80-81, 96, 98, 122, 124, 126-127, 132, 139, 141-143, 145, 148, 150, 158, 163-164, 167, 170-171, 178-180, 184-185, 209-210, 212, 215, 217, 219, 227, 242, 252, 270-273, 284, 288, 293, 295, 297-298, 300, 311-313, 342-344, 346, 349-351, 353-356, 358363, 414, 417, 420, 427, 435-436, 441, 444-447, 454, 461, 475, 488, 521, 523-528, 533, 537-541, 549 integrated model 211, 298, 319-320, 324-325, 456 Integrated TAM-TPB-TOE Framework 17 internal audit 364-366, 370-371, 377-384, 387 internal audit system 365-366, 379, 383, 387 Internet of Things (IoT) 1, 65, 143, 215, 233, 543, 559 internet penetration 19, 109, 118-119, 439, 461 invention 72, 300, 363, 408, 523, 525-526, 537, 539-540 Islamic Boarding House 522 Islamic social finance 37, 39, 45, 47 Islamic values 418-419, 428-431, 435, 437-438, 545 Islamic work ethic 433, 435, 437-438, 560, 562 659

Index

issues and challenges 97, 270, 272, 274, 276, 279-280, 282, 284-289, 291-296, 312

J Japan 51, 57, 59, 72, 76, 86, 91-93, 181, 360, 458, 467, 491, 495, 499, 501 Justice Seeker 1

L lawsuit 4, 6-8, 13, 16 literacy 2, 137, 162, 226, 229, 243, 248, 252, 275, 297, 362, 511-513, 515, 518-519, 522 Litigation 3-4, 13, 16 Logistics Management 90, 93, 97, 99, 101, 254

M Malaysia 4, 37-38, 40, 42-43, 46, 51, 57-58, 88, 9293, 95, 100, 107, 121, 123, 163, 166, 187-190, 192, 196-198, 205-206, 208, 210, 212, 260, 270, 272, 275-276, 294-298, 326, 329, 334, 337, 365, 444, 455, 462, 467, 470, 487, 489-490, 523, 542, 561-562 management of change 542-543, 550, 559, 566 maqasid shariah 418, 429 Mashlahah (Appropriate Goodness) 542-543, 557559, 566 mediating variable 341, 405 micro and small enterprises (MSEs) 145-146, 164 Mixed Reality 52-54, 68, 70 Mobile Application (MobileApp) 213 Mobile Banking 301-307, 309-318, 338 Moderating Variable 336, 341 MSMEs 17-21, 23-24, 27-28, 31-35, 37-38, 40-45, 104-106, 109-120, 122, 127, 152, 157, 162, 440444, 447, 454-455, 458-459 mutual fund 165-169, 173, 178-180, 184, 186

N non-conventional players 74, 77-79, 82

O Ombudsman 9, 12, 16 online shopping behaviour 211, 319, 324-325, 329, 331, 334, 336 operational performance 187, 189-190, 192, 195-196, 202-205, 443 660

P P3DT 262, 269 P4K 262, 269 payment 2, 4, 7, 19, 38, 45, 74, 77, 109, 112-116, 118, 145, 148, 159, 166-167, 183, 186, 302, 313, 317, 320, 326, 336, 440, 442-444, 448, 511-519, 522 Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Lending 144-145, 147, 162, 164 Peer-to-Peer Lending 77, 144-145, 161-162 Perceived Credibility 309-310, 319 perceived ease-of-use (PEOU) 318, 321 perceived risk 163, 172, 182, 211, 309-310, 314, 317, 319, 323-325, 328-329, 331, 333-338 perceived usefulness 17, 21, 27, 33-34, 89, 165, 167, 169, 171, 175, 178-179, 182-183, 191, 207, 308310, 312, 316, 321, 326-330, 334-335, 338, 439, 445-447, 450, 452, 454, 456, 458-459 performance expectancy 165, 167, 170, 172-173, 175, 179, 181, 184, 191, 206 PKS 262, 269 plaintiff 2, 4, 8, 16 platform 18-21, 32, 34, 37, 39-48, 51, 61-62, 70, 95, 105-109, 112-120, 122, 130, 135, 139, 146, 154, 161, 165-168, 178-180, 225-229, 231-233, 282, 286-287, 290, 324, 328-329, 339, 388, 393-397, 400, 406-408, 411, 413-417, 439, 441, 443-444, 448-450, 452-453, 461, 481, 495, 497, 542-543, 547, 549, 552, 559 platform ecosystems 388, 393-396, 400, 406-408, 411, 414, 417 Platform Ecosystems for Smart Cities 388, 396, 417 policy responsiveness 389, 393, 395-397, 399, 403, 405-408, 416-417 political leadership 388-389, 393, 395-397, 399, 403408, 416-417 poverty alleviation 41, 46, 48, 223, 225, 255, 261265, 524 price 45, 116, 258-259, 420, 437, 491, 494, 496-497, 499, 502, 509-510 privacy concern 165, 171, 173, 175, 179, 329 procurement managers 234-235, 237-238, 243, 245, 249 purchase behaviour 185, 324-325, 341

Q qualitative research 134, 141, 172, 220, 276-278, 312314, 317, 514 Quick Response Code (QR) 193, 213

Index

R

T

radical innovation 350-351, 360, 363 restaurants 105, 107, 109, 112-113, 115-116, 118-119, 491-493, 495-508, 510 Retail 4.0 187, 212 retail technology 181, 187, 212 reverse logistics 83-92, 96-102

TAM framework 439, 441, 444, 446, 449 Tayeb 463, 466, 468, 479, 481, 483, 486, 490 technological change 51, 270-277, 279-280, 282-291, 293-296, 299-300, 358, 523-526, 532-533, 535537, 539-540 technological innovation 51, 61, 96, 272, 295, 349-350, 359, 445-446, 461, 526, 537-539 TECHNOLOGICAL TRANSFORMATIONS 50-51, 54 Technology 4.0 214-216, 226, 229, 512 Technology Acceptance 21-22, 36, 171-172, 181-184, 188, 191, 205-207, 209-210, 224, 301, 310, 313, 315-317, 319, 321-323, 329, 331, 335-340, 439440, 444-445, 448-449, 454-455, 457-458, 526 technology adoption 181, 188, 191-192, 205, 301-302, 310, 316, 326, 338, 452, 455, 458-460, 541, 543 Tourism 7, 65, 67, 90, 121, 124, 171, 185, 191, 206, 252, 298, 360, 362, 365, 382, 437, 491, 498, 503-509 traceability 94-97, 364, 369, 371, 377, 382, 384-385, 462-463, 466, 473-477, 479-481, 488-489 trackability 462, 477 transformation 4, 51, 56, 64, 66, 72, 74, 77, 83-84, 90, 94, 96-97, 103, 109, 115, 127, 132, 163, 187-188, 214-217, 220-223, 225, 256, 261, 266, 270-271, 279, 284, 293-294, 297, 299, 508, 523-524, 537, 539, 547, 557 trial 2, 6-10, 13, 16 two-sided markets 108, 121, 124 Two-sided network 104

S santri 511-513, 515-519, 522 service logic 418, 424, 434, 436 service-dominant logic 418-419, 422-424, 434-438 shopper satisfaction 187, 192, 195, 202-203 shopping mall 187-196, 205-206, 209-210, 213, 337 skills 33, 79, 110, 127, 132-133, 137, 146, 148, 158, 217, 234-253, 256, 264, 272-273, 279-280, 282, 285, 291, 294, 299, 327, 338, 344, 346, 353, 356, 366-367, 423, 453, 512-513, 544, 546, 548, 550551, 553, 555-556, 559 small businesses 144-148, 150-151, 155-156, 159-160, 164, 223, 350, 360, 440-441, 443, 448, 450-451, 453-456, 460 small enterprises 46, 145-146, 164, 439, 442-443 smart cities 50-57, 61-65, 67-69, 125-129, 131-142, 185, 388-400, 405-408, 411, 414-417, 532, 537, 540 Smart malls 187 Smart Nations 53 smart urban services 388-389, 393, 395-397, 399, 401, 403-408, 417 social media 19, 37, 45, 107-109, 114-115, 118, 121, 123, 144, 153, 180, 222, 254, 274, 354-356, 362-363, 439, 443, 447, 449-451, 453-454, 492, 501, 510 society 2, 8, 35, 42, 51, 56-57, 65, 68-69, 74, 86, 105, 113, 127, 167, 180, 185, 212, 217, 219, 232, 236, 265-266, 271, 274-276, 293, 296-298, 307, 315, 336, 338, 351, 353, 356, 384, 389-390, 397-398, 415-417, 419, 455, 457, 513, 523, 526, 531-533, 538, 545, 555, 559-560 Strategic Application 542 Strategic Management 67, 121, 123, 270-271, 299, 416, 435, 526, 538 Succession Planning 342, 351-354, 357, 363 Supreme Court 1-4, 6-14 sustainable city 62, 64, 523-524, 528-529, 532, 535, 537-539 systemic change 271-272, 276, 279-280, 285, 287, 291, 293-294, 297, 300

U urban sustainability 388-391, 393-394, 406-408, 413, 417 urban systems 63, 388-389, 393-394, 396-397, 399, 401, 403, 405-408, 416-417 urbanization 54-55, 60-62, 90, 389-391, 414-415, 539 user generated content 491-492

V Value Network 104, 109, 120-123, 312

W waqf crowdfunding 37-38, 40-46 Wawasan 2035 125, 127 well-being 50-51, 55, 62-64, 68, 128, 262, 428, 481, 552, 565 661