Handbook of Research on Contemporary Approaches to Orientalism in Media and Beyond 2020049338, 2020049339, 9781799871804, 9781799871828

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Handbook of Research on Contemporary Approaches to Orientalism in Media and Beyond Işıl Tombul Independent Researcher, Turkey

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Gülşah Sarı Bolu Abant İzzet Baysal University, Turkey

A volume in the Advances in Media, Entertainment, and the Arts (AMEA) Book Series

Published in the United States of America by IGI Global Information Science Reference (an imprint of IGI Global) 701 E. Chocolate Avenue Hershey PA, USA 17033 Tel: 717-533-8845 Fax: 717-533-8661 E-mail: [email protected] Web site: http://www.igi-global.com Copyright © 2021 by IGI Global. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without written permission from the publisher. Product or company names used in this set are for identification purposes only. Inclusion of the names of the products or companies does not indicate a claim of ownership by IGI Global of the trademark or registered trademark. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Tombul, Isil, 1980- editor. | Sari, Gulsah, 1984- editor. Title: Handbook of research on contemporary approaches to orientalism in media and beyond / Isil Tombul and Gulsah Sari, editors. Description: Hershey PA : Information Science Reference, [2021] | Includes bibliographical references and index. | Summary: “This book is intended to provide a snapshot of the current state of orientalism and media, show how orientalism is handled in cinema, series, painting, art, news, photography, writing, and advertising”-- Provided by publisher. Identifiers: LCCN 2020049338 (print) | LCCN 2020049339 (ebook) | ISBN 9781799871804 (hardcover) | ISBN 9781799871828 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Orientalism in art. | Orientalism in mass media. Classification: LCC NX650.E85 H36 2021 (print) | LCC NX650.E85 (ebook) | DDC 700/.458--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020049338 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020049339 This book is published in the IGI Global book series Advances in Media, Entertainment, and the Arts (AMEA) (ISSN: 2475-6814; eISSN: 2475-6830)

British Cataloguing in Publication Data A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library. All work contributed to this book is new, previously-unpublished material. The views expressed in this book are those of the authors, but not necessarily of the publisher.

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Titles in this Series

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Scientific Perspectives and Emerging Developments in Dance and the Perfoming Arts Bárbara Pessali-Marques (Bastidores - Dance, Research and Training, UK) Information Science Reference • © 2021 • 300pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799842613) • US $195.00 Handbook of Research on Narrative Interactions Recep Yilmaz (Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey) Information Science Reference • © 2021 • 401pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799849032) • US $265.00 Engaging Communities Through Civic Engagement in Art Museum Education Bryna Bobick (University of Memphis, USA) and Carissa DiCindio (University of Arizona, USA) Information Science Reference • © 2021 • 350pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799874263) • US $195.00 International Perspectives on Rethinking Evil in Film and Television Dilan Tüysüz (Adnan Menderes University, Turkey) Information Science Reference • © 2021 • 248pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799847786) • US $195.00 Handbook of Research on Methodologies for Design and Production Practices in Interior Architecture Ervin Garip (Istanbul Technical University, Turkey) and S. Banu Garip (Istanbul Technical University, Turkey) Information Science Reference • © 2021 • 534pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799872542) • US $245.00 Handbook of Research on Aestheticization of Violence, Horror, and Power M. Nur Erdem (Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey) Nihal Kocabay-Sener (İstanbul Commerce University, Turkey) and Tuğba Demir (İzmir Kavram Vocational School, Turkey) Information Science Reference • © 2021 • 696pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799846550) • US $245.00 Describing Nature Through Visual Data Anna Ursyn (University of Northern Colorado, USA) Information Science Reference • © 2021 • 367pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799857532) • US $195.00

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Multidisciplinary Perspectives on New Media Art Celia Soares (University Institute of Maia (ISMAI), Portugal & Polytechnic Institute of Maia (IPMAIA), Portugal) and Emília Simão (Escola Superior Gallaecia University (ESG), Portugal & Portuguese Catholic University (FFCS-UCP), Portugal) Information Science Reference • © 2020 • 279pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799836698) • US $185.00

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Editorial Advisory Board

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Ian Almond, Georgetown University, Qatar Tuna Baskoy, Ryerson University, Canada Halime Yücel Bourse, Galatasaray University, Turkey Recep Boztemur, Middle East Technical University, Turkey Aleksey Bykov, Saint Petersburg State University, Russia Ahmet Ersoy, Boğaziçi University, Turkey Suat Gezgin, Yeditepe University, Turkey José Antonio González Alcantud, University of Granada, Spain Richard A. Landes, Bar Ilan University, Israel Artur Lozano-Méndez, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Spain Per-Erik Nilsson, Uppsala University, Sweden Alev Fatoş Parsa, Ege University, Turkey Dilek Takımcı, Ege University, Turkey



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List of Contributors

Akgün Çomak, Nebahat / Galatasaray University, Turkey.............................................................. 536 Akiner, Nurdan / Akdeniz University, Turkey...................................................................................... 72 Akmeşe, Eşref / İnönü University, Turkey......................................................................................... 648 Akşit, Onur O. / Ege University, Turkey............................................................................................. 197 Al Halabi, Gina / Istanbul Bilgi University, Turkey.......................................................................... 557 Anaz, Mehtap / Université de Tunis-El Manar, Tunisia.................................................................... 398 Anaz, Necati / Istanbul University, Turkey........................................................................................ 398 Arslan, Hicabi / Aydin Adnan Menderes University, Turkey............................................................. 778 Atay, Tulay / Faculty of Communication, Hatay Mustafa Kemal University, Turkey........................ 838 Ateş, Hüdai / Ege University, Turkey................................................................................................... 12 Atiker, Barış / Bahcesehir University, Turkey................................................................................... 355 Barış, Baran / Dokuz Eylül University, Turkey.................................................................................. 338 Beyazoğlu, İbrahim / Eastern Mediterranean University, Cyprus................................................... 304 Beyazyüz, Selim / Düzce University, Turkey...................................................................................... 507 Biçer, Serkan / Communication Faculty, Fırat University, Turkey.................................................... 760 Bitirim Okmeydan, Selin / Ege University, Turkey.......................................................................... 453 Cicek, Filiz / Indiana University Purdue University Columbus, USA................................................ 123 Corral, Alfonso / Universidad San Jorge, Spain............................................................................... 107 Diker, Can / Üsküdar University, Turkey........................................................................................... 574 Erol, Ebru Gülbuğ / Cummunication Design Faculty, Muş Alparaslan University, Turkey............. 421 Evren, Ozan / Istanbul University, Turkey............................................................................................. 1 Gezgin, Suat / Yeditepe University, Turkey............................................................................................ 1 Guder, Feride Zeynep / Faculty of Communication, Üsküdar University, Turkey............................ 838 Gülsün, Mustafa / Muş Alparaslan University, Turkey..................................................................... 421 Gültekin, Gökhan / Aksaray University, Turkey............................................................................... 231 Gülüm, Erol / Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey..................................................................... 662 Gümüşel, Günseli / Atılım University, Turkey................................................................................... 251 Gündüz, Uğur / Istanbul University, Turkey..................................................................................... 145 Güntürkün, Elif / Anadolu University, Turkey.................................................................................. 324 Gürses Köse, İlknur / Ege University, Turkey................................................................................... 324 Güven, Fikret / Nişantaşı University, Turkey.................................................................................... 591 Ileri, Berna / Faculty of Fine Arts, Canakkale 18 Mart University, Turkey...................................... 214 İmik Tanyıldızı, Nural / Firat University, Turkey............................................................................. 681 Kalayci, İsa / Hatay Mustafa Kemal University, Turkey.................................................................... 920 Kamperis, Aya / Independent Researcher, UK.................................................................................... 53  

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Karcı, Huri Deniz / Ankara Medipol University, Turkey................................................................... 818 Kırteke, Simge / Independent Researcher, Turkey............................................................................. 974 Koç, Esma / Independent Researcher, Turkey.................................................................................... 574 Kunacaf, Ezgi / Independent Researcher, Turkey.............................................................................. 904 Kuşçi, Ahmet / Hatay Mustafa Kemal University, Turkey................................................................. 920 Landes, Richard A. / Bar Ilan University, Israel................................................................................. 33 Nazlı, Azra K. / Ege University, Turkey.............................................................................................. 197 Nicha Andrade, Julijana / Federal University of Minas Gerais, Brazil............................................. 92 Nizam, Feridun / Communication Faculty, Fırat University, Turkey................................................ 706 Okmeydan, Cudi Kaan / Yaşar University, Turkey........................................................................... 470 Oliva, Héctor J. / Universidad San Jorge, Spain................................................................................ 107 Özdemir, Emel / Communication Faculty, Akdeniz University, Turkey............................................ 799 Özdemir, Murat / Independent Researcher, Turkey.......................................................................... 858 Ozkan Altinoz, Meltem / Ankara University, Turkey........................................................................ 283 Ozkavruk Adanir, Elvan / Faculty of Fine Arts and Design, Izmir University of Economics, Turkey............................................................................................................................................ 214 Özkent, Yasemin / Selçuk University, Turkey.................................................................................... 939 Parlayandemir, Gizem / Faculty of Communication, Istanbul University, Turkey........................... 875 Parsa, Alev Fatoş / Ege University, Turkey........................................................................................... 12 Pembecioğlu, Nilüfer / Faculty of Communication, Istanbul University, Turkey...................... 145, 536 Pérez, Brenda / Universidad de Zaragoza, Spain.............................................................................. 107 Sarı, Gülşah / Bolu Abant Izzet Baysal University, Turkey................................................................ 231 Semiz Türkoğlu, Hülya / Faculty of Communication, Istanbul University, Turkey.......................... 730 Sezer, Işık / Fine Arts Faculty, Dokuz Eylül University, Turkey........................................................ 375 Sinha, Subir / Dum Dum Motijheel College, India........................................................................... 240 Soğukkuyu, Bahar / Dokuz Eylül University, Turkey........................................................................ 888 Söğüt, Fatih / Kırklareli University, Turkey....................................................................................... 717 Süar Oral, Selin / Istanbul Aydın University, Turkey........................................................................ 486 Süngü, Ertuğrul / Bahçeşehir University, Turkey............................................................................. 557 Sütcü, Özcan Yılmaz / İzmir Katip Çelebi University, Turkey........................................................... 633 Telseren, Aslı / Dogus University, Turkey & University of Paris, France......................................... 438 Tombul, Işıl / Independent Researcher, Turkey................................................................................. 181 Topal, Aslihan / Aydin Adnan Menderes University, Turkey............................................................. 778 Toros Ntapiapis, Nihal / Üsküdar University, Turkey....................................................................... 904 Türkoğlu, Süleyman / Faculty of Communication, Istanbul University, Turkey............................... 730 Yalçın, Seray / Kocaeli University, Turkey............................................................................................ 1 Yaşdağ, Meltem / The Ministry of Culture and Tourism, Turkey...................................................... 268 Yetkin, Barış / Giresun University, Turkey........................................................................................ 611 Yolcu, Ayşe Şebnem / Bingol University, Turkey............................................................................... 681 Yüceer Berker, Deniz / Istanbul Ayvansaray University, Turkey...................................................... 953 Yüksekdağ, Yusuf / Istanbul Bilgi University, Turkey...................................................................... 165

Table of Contents

Foreword.......................................................................................................................................... xxxiv Preface.............................................................................................................................................. xxxvi Acknowledgment.................................................................................................................................. xli

Volume I Chapter 1 Orientalism From Past to Present, Traditional to Digital........................................................................ 1 Suat Gezgin, Yeditepe University, Turkey Seray Yalçın, Kocaeli University, Turkey Ozan Evren, Istanbul University, Turkey Chapter 2 The Construction of Orientalist Discourse in the Documentary Series on the Digital Broadcasting Platform Netfix...................................................................................................................................... 12 Hüdai Ateş, Ege University, Turkey Alev Fatoş Parsa, Ege University, Turkey

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Chapter 3 Orientalism as Caliphator Cognitive Warfare: Consequences of Edward Saïd’s Defense of the Orient..................................................................................................................................................... 33 Richard A. Landes, Bar Ilan University, Israel Chapter 4 Virtual Orientalism/Imagined Dualism (VO/ID) Expansion: Examining the Mechanisms Behind the Objectifcation of Zen as an Aesthetic Style.................................................................................... 53 Aya Kamperis, Independent Researcher, UK Chapter 5 Analyzing Jordan Peele’s Get Out With Fanonism: Tracing Postcolonialism in Hollywood Representations...................................................................................................................................... 72 Nurdan Akiner, Akdeniz University, Turkey  



Chapter 6 Constructing and Reconstructing Orientalism: Depicting Orientalist Imagery in Contemporary Art in the Quest of Self-Identity............................................................................................................ 92 Julijana Nicha Andrade, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Brazil Chapter 7 New Portrayals of the Arab World in TV Series................................................................................. 107 Alfonso Corral, Universidad San Jorge, Spain Brenda Pérez, Universidad de Zaragoza, Spain Héctor J. Oliva, Universidad San Jorge, Spain Chapter 8 Engendering Orientalism: Fatih Akin’s Head-On and The Edge of Heaven....................................... 123 Filiz Cicek, Indiana University Purdue University Columbus, USA Chapter 9 The Diference Between the Western Refections of Disaster News and Orientalist Perspectives: Positioning Women in the Case of Titanic.......................................................................................... 145 Nilüfer Pembecioğlu, Faculty of Communication, Istanbul University, Turkey Uğur Gündüz, Istanbul University, Turkey Chapter 10 Aguirre, Caché, and Creating Anti-Colonialist Puzzles: A Normative Perspective............................ 165 Yusuf Yüksekdağ, Istanbul Bilgi University, Turkey Chapter 11 Harem and Woman From Orientalist Pictures to the Cinema: Harem Suare...................................... 181 Işıl Tombul, Independent Researcher, Turkey

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Chapter 12 Techno Fantasies of East and West: Ghost in the Shell....................................................................... 197 Onur O. Akşit, Ege University, Turkey Azra K. Nazlı, Ege University, Turkey Chapter 13 Orientalism Revisited: Orientalism as Fashion................................................................................... 214 Elvan Ozkavruk Adanir, Faculty of Fine Arts and Design, Izmir University of Economics, Turkey Berna Ileri, Faculty of Fine Arts, Canakkale 18 Mart University, Turkey Chapter 14 The Others of Babel in the Context of Orientalism............................................................................. 231 Gülşah Sarı, Bolu Abant Izzet Baysal University, Turkey Gökhan Gültekin, Aksaray University, Turkey



Chapter 15 Orientalism and Hollywood: Refection of India on Western Cinema................................................ 240 Subir Sinha, Dum Dum Motijheel College, India Chapter 16 Eastern Male Image in Contemporary Oriental Media: The Novel and Movie of The Lustful Turk...................................................................................................................................................... 251 Günseli Gümüşel, Atılım University, Turkey Chapter 17 Orientalist Museum Exhibitions in UK as a New Media at the Turn of the 21st Century: ReOrientalism of Orientalism.................................................................................................................. 268 Meltem Yaşdağ, The Ministry of Culture and Tourism, Turkey Chapter 18 Spatial and Architectural Representations of the East in Selected Western Films and Games........... 283 Meltem Ozkan Altinoz, Ankara University, Turkey Chapter 19 Orientalism, Colonialism, and Bouchareb’s Indigènes........................................................................ 304 İbrahim Beyazoğlu, Eastern Mediterranean University, Cyprus Chapter 20 Fantasies of Returning to Nature as an Escape From Culture: The Case of The Beach (2000).......... 324 Elif Güntürkün, Anadolu University, Turkey İlknur Gürses Köse, Ege University, Turkey Chapter 21 Representations of Masculinities in Gaya Jiji’s Film Named My Favorite Fabric.............................. 338 Baran Barış, Dokuz Eylül University, Turkey

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Chapter 22 Neo-Orientalist Approaches in XR (Extended Reality) Applications................................................. 355 Barış Atiker, Bahcesehir University, Turkey Chapter 23 Post-Orientalist Comments by Contemporary Women Photographers............................................... 375 Işık Sezer, Fine Arts Faculty, Dokuz Eylül University, Turkey Chapter 24 French Orientalism Representations of Ottoman in Caricatures in Le Petit Journal.......................... 398 Mehtap Anaz, Université de Tunis-El Manar, Tunisia Necati Anaz, Istanbul University, Turkey



Chapter 25 Reconsidering Gender Stereotypes Through Bollywood Cinema: Reconsidering Bollywood Movie Dangal...................................................................................................................................... 421 Ebru Gülbuğ Erol, Cummunication Design Faculty, Muş Alparaslan University, Turkey Mustafa Gülsün, Muş Alparaslan University, Turkey Chapter 26 Representing and Othering Oriental Women After 9/11: An Analysis of Body of Lies...................... 438 Aslı Telseren, Dogus University, Turkey & University of Paris, France Chapter 27 Tracing Orientalism in the Image of the Country Refected by the Media.......................................... 453 Selin Bitirim Okmeydan, Ege University, Turkey Chapter 28 Orientalism in Turkish Political Election Campaigns.......................................................................... 470 Cudi Kaan Okmeydan, Yaşar University, Turkey

Volume II Chapter 29 Diversity or Uniformity: Existing Demands and Representation Problems in Emoji as a Visual Language.............................................................................................................................................. 486 Selin Süar Oral, Istanbul Aydın University, Turkey Chapter 30 Projection of Orientalist Elements: White Man’s Burden................................................................... 507 Selim Beyazyüz, Düzce University, Turkey

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Chapter 31 Refections of Orientalism and Modernism in the Film Hamam by Ferzan Özpetek.......................... 536 Nilüfer Pembecioğlu, Faculty of Communication, Istanbul University, Turkey Nebahat Akgün Çomak, Galatasaray University, Turkey Chapter 32 Reiterative Presentation of the East in Western-Produced Video Games: A Foucauldian Discourse Analysis................................................................................................................................................ 557 Gina Al Halabi, Istanbul Bilgi University, Turkey Ertuğrul Süngü, Bahçeşehir University, Turkey Chapter 33 The Creation of Sustainable Orientalism in Cinema........................................................................... 574 Can Diker, Üsküdar University, Turkey Esma Koç, Independent Researcher, Turkey



Chapter 34 The Discursive Representation of Islam and Muslims in Movies....................................................... 591 Fikret Güven, Nişantaşı University, Turkey Chapter 35 A Comparative Study Oriented Tourism Advertisements in Turkey: The Internality of the Oriental-Self........................................................................................................................................ 611 Barış Yetkin, Giresun University, Turkey Chapter 36 Country in the East and West Claw: Winter Sleep............................................................................... 633 Özcan Yılmaz Sütcü, İzmir Katip Çelebi University, Turkey Chapter 37 Searching for the East in the Shadow of the West: Layla M as the Portrait of an Oriental Woman in Modern Orientalist Discourse.......................................................................................................... 648 Eşref Akmeşe, İnönü University, Turkey Chapter 38 The Trial of Traditional Turkish Culture With the Auto-Orientalist Cultural Industry....................... 662 Erol Gülüm, Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey Chapter 39 Women’s Images in Turkish Cinema in the Context of Orientalism: The Samples of Tight Dress..... 681 Nural İmik Tanyıldızı, Firat University, Turkey Ayşe Şebnem Yolcu, Bingol University, Turkey Chapter 40 An Orientalist “Journey” to Istanbul From the Super Bowl Final: The Shifting of Classical Orientalist Discourse............................................................................................................................ 706 Feridun Nizam, Communication Faculty, Fırat University, Turkey

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Chapter 41 Digital Games and Orientalism: A Look at Arab and Muslim Representation in Popular Digital Games.................................................................................................................................................. 717 Fatih Söğüt, Kırklareli University, Turkey Chapter 42 Orientalism, Islamophobia, and the Concept of Otherization Through Civil Confict, Digital Platform Netfix: The Example of the Messiah Series......................................................................... 730 Hülya Semiz Türkoğlu, Faculty of Communication, Istanbul University, Turkey Süleyman Türkoğlu, Faculty of Communication, Istanbul University, Turkey Chapter 43 Orientalism and Humour: Marginalization of the Turks in 9GAG...................................................... 760 Serkan Biçer, Communication Faculty, Fırat University, Turkey



Chapter 44 Evaluation of Women’s Perspectives in the East Societies on New Media News............................... 778 Hicabi Arslan, Aydin Adnan Menderes University, Turkey Aslihan Topal, Aydin Adnan Menderes University, Turkey Chapter 45 The Otherization of Turkey in the Orientalist Discourse: Turkey and Orientalism............................ 799 Emel Özdemir, Communication Faculty, Akdeniz University, Turkey Chapter 46 Transmedia Storytelling in Advertising: The Mediator Between Orientalism and Occidentalism..... 818 Huri Deniz Karcı, Ankara Medipol University, Turkey Chapter 47 Orientalist Representations of Antakya (Antioch-on-the-Orontes) in Digital Media Narrations........ 838 Feride Zeynep Guder, Faculty of Communication, Üsküdar University, Turkey Tulay Atay, Faculty of Communication, Hatay Mustafa Kemal University, Turkey Chapter 48 The West-East From Two Children’s Points of View: The Example of BBC-TRT............................. 858 Murat Özdemir, Independent Researcher, Turkey Chapter 49 The Transformation of Ion Perdicaris to Eden Perdicaris as a Retro Scenario and Orientalist Codes in Art: Woman and East “To Be Saved” From Eastern............................................................ 875 Gizem Parlayandemir, Faculty of Communication, Istanbul University, Turkey Chapter 50 Analysis of Poster Designs of Turkish TV Series on Ottoman History: Resurrection Ertugrul and Magnifcent Century Examples............................................................................................................ 888 Bahar Soğukkuyu, Dokuz Eylül University, Turkey

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Chapter 51 Orientalist Discourse in Communication and Media: Analysis of Researches in the Field of Media and Communication in Terms of Orientalism..................................................................................... 904 Nihal Toros Ntapiapis, Üsküdar University, Turkey Ezgi Kunacaf, Independent Researcher, Turkey Chapter 52 From Theory to Discussion Orientalism and History From Past to Present........................................ 920 İsa Kalayci, Hatay Mustafa Kemal University, Turkey Ahmet Kuşçi, Hatay Mustafa Kemal University, Turkey Chapter 53 Refection of Orientalist Discourse on Netfix Turkey: The Protector................................................ 939 Yasemin Özkent, Selçuk University, Turkey



Chapter 54 Reproducing Orientalism With Cinema: Aladdin (2019).................................................................... 953 Deniz Yüceer Berker, Istanbul Ayvansaray University, Turkey Chapter 55 Orientalist Approaches in Advertising: Sample Advertising With Nike’s “What Will They Say About You?” Slogan............................................................................................................................ 974 Simge Kırteke, Independent Researcher, Turkey Compilation of References.................................................................................................................xlii About the Contributors................................................................................................................. cxxvii

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Index..................................................................................................................................................... cxl

Detailed Table of Contents

Foreword.......................................................................................................................................... xxxiv Preface.............................................................................................................................................. xxxvi Acknowledgment.................................................................................................................................. xli

Volume I Chapter 1 Orientalism From Past to Present, Traditional to Digital........................................................................ 1 Suat Gezgin, Yeditepe University, Turkey Seray Yalçın, Kocaeli University, Turkey Ozan Evren, Istanbul University, Turkey

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The concept of orientalism, which the Western world puts forward as an academic discipline in order to recognize the Eastern culture, is commonly defned as the efort of the West to facilitate the establishment of the hegemonical structure by building itself over the East. Although orientalism contains diferent defnitions, it is related to many concepts. Among these, there are concepts such as “geographical discoveries,” “colonialism,” “imperialism,” “ethnocentrism” that contribute to our understanding of the relationship between Western-Eastern opposition. Concepts such as “technology” and “digitalization” have been added to these concepts in today’s world, and the orientalist discourse continues through digital technologies. In this context, a new concept defned as “digital orientalism” has emerged. The study aims to explain the changing/transforming understanding of orientalism today by shedding light on the understanding of orientalism from the past to the present. Chapter 2 The Construction of Orientalist Discourse in the Documentary Series on the Digital Broadcasting Platform Netfix...................................................................................................................................... 12 Hüdai Ateş, Ege University, Turkey Alev Fatoş Parsa, Ege University, Turkey Developing technology and communication opportunities show that the audience can access fction and documentary flms more easily than in previous years. This research reveals the extent of globalization with the development of communication technologies and how orientalism takes place in documentary flms through a netfix documentary. The orientalist perspective is transformed into a global perception through documentary flms and documentary series on digital platforms, World’s Most Wanted, Samantha 



Lewthwaite: The White. In this documentary, how the orientalist elements take place and how Islam is portrayed as a terror religion is revealed with the method of semiotic analysis, and the meanings created by the written-audio codes are revealed. Chapter 3 Orientalism as Caliphator Cognitive Warfare: Consequences of Edward Saïd’s Defense of the Orient..................................................................................................................................................... 33 Richard A. Landes, Bar Ilan University, Israel When Edward Said wrote Orientalism, he was defending the honor of the Western “other,” especially that of his fellow Arabs. Three years later, he published a book on Western media coverage of the Iranian revolution of 1979, in which he applied many of the principles he worked out in orientalism to Western journalists’ coverage of events in 1979. It is probable that Said did not know that 1979 was 1400 in the Muslim calendar, and that it marked the dawn of modern global jihad and the drive for a global caliphate. It is also probable that Said had no idea that his attack on the West for their “racist” attitudes towards his fellow Arabs actually paralyzed the West’s ability to deal with the cognitive war about to come. This chapter will analyze the way in which Said’s honor-driven analysis worked to the beneft of those working towards a global caliphate, warriors whose values and goals were the exact opposite of what he espoused in his post-colonial work. The problems with the Western reception of Saïd continue to haunt democracies and progressive eforts. Chapter 4 Virtual Orientalism/Imagined Dualism (VO/ID) Expansion: Examining the Mechanisms Behind the Objectifcation of Zen as an Aesthetic Style.................................................................................... 53 Aya Kamperis, Independent Researcher, UK

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In Virtual Orientalism, Jane Naomi Iwamura extends Edward Said’s theory through an analysis of the US post-war visual culture to trace the genealogy of the icon of the East she calls the ‘Oriental Monk’. The aim of the chapter is to explore the appropriation of the notion of Zen, particularly its application and exploitation as an aesthetic ‘style’, and the mechanisms behind such phenomena. The chapter extends Iwamura’s thesis to elaborate on the function of the Virtual Monk to question the development of its ontology in the contemporary world of neoliberalism and social media to introduce the concept of VO/ID, which has been deployed by capitalist corporations to market Zen as a lifestyle product/service. It ofers an insight into the process of identifcation within the framework of orientalism, that is, the way in which the Self and the Other come into being, and ofer Gen as a possible solution to the VO/ID expansion. Chapter 5 Analyzing Jordan Peele’s Get Out With Fanonism: Tracing Postcolonialism in Hollywood Representations...................................................................................................................................... 72 Nurdan Akiner, Akdeniz University, Turkey The colonial discourse racially defned the others and distinguished between people regarded as barbarous, infdels, and savage, such as the inhabitants of America and Africa. The formal abolition of slavery has not been the solution for Blacks, but they have often been subjected to the domination of sovereign ideology at diferent social life levels. The dominant ideology in USA is also infuential in representing Blacks in the cultural industry. This chapter examines the 2017 flm Get Out, directed by Jordan Peele, as an example of the recent diversity positive trend in Hollywood. Peele is the frst Black screenwriter



to win the Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay. The flm was analyzed by Roland Barthes’s semiotics theory and Frantz Fanon’s critical theory Fanonism. This research shows that Get Out is truly a Black renaissance in Hollywood. The signs of racism skillfully placed in the flm were analyzed by focusing on denotative and connotative meanings, and the racial oppression faced by African-Americans throughout history was revealed by regarding Fanonism. Chapter 6 Constructing and Reconstructing Orientalism: Depicting Orientalist Imagery in Contemporary Art in the Quest of Self-Identity............................................................................................................ 92 Julijana Nicha Andrade, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Brazil The purpose of the chapter is to show that orientalism is a dynamic construct that simultaneously represents continuity and change. The hypothesis outlines that contemporary artists build upon 18th century symbols to reconstruct orientalist art, hence reproducing the constructed, stereotypical neoorientalist or self-orientalist imagery. The hypothesis is seen to be true as the intimate artwork of Zahrin Kahlo, Lalla Essaydi, Eric Parnes, and Yasmina Bouziane shows that contemporary orientalist artists are using recurring symbols to depict their self-identity, even though they appropriate those symbols in an act of resistance to depict social change. A more productive path of expression may be one of authenticity rather than a recreation of existing imagery in the attempt to deconstruct it. Even though the continuity of the construct is obvious, change is granular and not as pronounced. Chapter 7 New Portrayals of the Arab World in TV Series................................................................................. 107 Alfonso Corral, Universidad San Jorge, Spain Brenda Pérez, Universidad de Zaragoza, Spain Héctor J. Oliva, Universidad San Jorge, Spain

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This work refects on how the representation of the Arab world has evolved in three fctional works that have emerged in the second decade of the 21st century: Homeland (Showtime Networks, 2011-2020), Tyrant (FX Network-Fox, 2014-2016), and Jack Ryan (Amazon Prime Video, 2018-). The goal is to determine whether the main socio-political milestones that occurred during this period (the Arab Spring, Syrian Civil War, appearance of ISIS, etc.) have transformed the already classic theories of authors such as Edward Said, Jack Shaheen, or Evelyn Alsultany, among others. A viewing and analysis of the frst season of each show demonstrates that the panorama has not improved in terms of discourse, topics, and stereotypes. It is clear, therefore, that the lens of 9/11 is still very present in the Hollywood mindset regarding Arabs, Muslims, and Islam. Chapter 8 Engendering Orientalism: Fatih Akin’s Head-On and The Edge of Heaven....................................... 123 Filiz Cicek, Indiana University Purdue University Columbus, USA This study explores the elements of orientalism in German-Turkish director Fatih Akin’s flms Head On (2004) and The Edge of Heaven (2007). Utilizing Homi Bhaba’s theory of third space where the immigrant usually exists and Edward Said’s critique of the colonial gaze, the chapter analyzes to what degree the bodies of immigrants willingly embody the mysterious “oriental” and to what degree and when they are projected upon the male and female character in these two flms. Akin’s characters dwell between perceived and imaginary Occident and the Orient, while living and travelling in the soil of both



the Germany and Turkey. Chapter 9 The Diference Between the Western Refections of Disaster News and Orientalist Perspectives: Positioning Women in the Case of Titanic.......................................................................................... 145 Nilüfer Pembecioğlu, Faculty of Communication, Istanbul University, Turkey Uğur Gündüz, Istanbul University, Turkey The women issue is important not only in Western but also in Eastern cultures. Positioned in between the East and West, Turkey always provides an interesting collection of cases and data. Apart from the daily consumption of the women images and realities, the image of the women is also mobile when it comes to the press, and thus, this mobility is extended worldwide through the new media possibilities in the age of information. However, the contradictory images of the diferent cultures were displayed in the history of media as well. This chapter aims to put forward how the positioning of women in the past took place specifcally in the case of Titanic news on the press of the time. The chapter questions the similarities and diferences of handling women in news comparing and contrasting the Western journalism of the time and Ottoman press coverage. Chapter 10 Aguirre, Caché, and Creating Anti-Colonialist Puzzles: A Normative Perspective............................ 165 Yusuf Yüksekdağ, Istanbul Bilgi University, Turkey This chapter explores the anti-colonial narrative potential of certain works of cinema taking Aguirre, the Wrath of God and Caché as a case in point. To do so, this chapter frst and draws upon the theoretical and normative lens put forward by Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak on the representation of the colonized other and her resulting political and intellectual call for self-refection on one’s privileged Western intellectual positioning. This lens has many normative implications for the ways in which the colonized subject and colonial history are discussed and represented. The partial lack of representation of the colonized other in Aguirre, the Wrath of God leaves the subjectivity of the colonizer in crisis and madness. Second, the narrative of Caché is explored and it is suggested that it resembles the rhetoric of Foucauldian disciplinary power of surveillance turned upside-down thus enforcing the complicit of colonialism to question her privilege.

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Chapter 11 Harem and Woman From Orientalist Pictures to the Cinema: Harem Suare...................................... 181 Işıl Tombul, Independent Researcher, Turkey Orientalist art played an important role in the orientalist knowledge base. Depictions of the East, especially in the art of painting, have created a representation of the East in the West’s mind. However, this representation is exactly what the Westerner wants to see. One of the subjects that Westerners want to see and hear most is the harem. In orientalist art, women are depicted here as if they were always standing naked for their masters. Whereas harem is a place of pleasure and delight for the West, it is a family institution for the East. There is a transition from orientalist paintings to cinema in harem representation. For this reason, this transition from painting to modern art needs to be read intertext. In this study, the refection of the harem institution from painting to the cinema in the Ottoman Empire is examined. Ferzan Özpetek’s movie Harem Suare (1999) was examined together with the paintings of



orientalist painters, and intertextual reading was made. Chapter 12 Techno Fantasies of East and West: Ghost in the Shell....................................................................... 197 Onur O. Akşit, Ege University, Turkey Azra K. Nazlı, Ege University, Turkey In this chapter, the science fction anime that takes its source from Masamune Shirow’s manga with the same name, Kōkaku Kidōtai (攻殻機動隊, Ghost in the Shell), is examined and compared with the U.S. adaptation flm Ghost in the Shell (2017) within the framework of techno-orientalism. The study aims a comparative critique through anime and flm, which both allow explaining the transformative potential-efects of technology in a socio-cultural context in the east-west axis, through dissociations, convergences, and integration. It is to review the representations of traditional Western-centered thought that is deconstructed with the narrative which maintains focus on technology axis; it is aimed to reveal with the analysis that takes the 2017 flm to the center. In this way, Ghost in the Shell ofers possibilities of representation in the axis of futuristic Eastern culture with the female-cyborg character that presents the cyber-society environment, the deconstruction of the idea that puts focus on anthropocentrism, especially the ‘Western man’. Chapter 13 Orientalism Revisited: Orientalism as Fashion................................................................................... 214 Elvan Ozkavruk Adanir, Faculty of Fine Arts and Design, Izmir University of Economics, Turkey Berna Ileri, Faculty of Fine Arts, Canakkale 18 Mart University, Turkey

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Orientalism is a Western and Western-centric broad feld of research that studies the social structures, cultures, languages, histories, religions, and geographies of countries to the east of Europe. The term took on a secondary, detrimental association in the 20th century which looks down on the East. However, this chapter will not dwell on the defnition of Orientalism that is debated the most; instead, it will discuss the positive contribution of Orientalism to Western culture. Even though the West otherizes the East in daily life, when it comes to desire, vanity, luxury, and famboyance without hesitating a moment it adopts these very elements from the Eastern culture. It could be said that this adaptation brings these societies closer in one way or another. The highly admired fashion of Orientalism in the West starting from the 17th century until the 21st century will be the focus of this study. Chapter 14 The Others of Babel in the Context of Orientalism............................................................................. 231 Gülşah Sarı, Bolu Abant Izzet Baysal University, Turkey Gökhan Gültekin, Aksaray University, Turkey Cinema is a branch of art that uses images. In this context, cinema can take Orientalism to a diferent dimension with images by using its own narrative language. In this study, the 2006 flm Babel by Mexican director Alejandro G. Iñárritu is analyzed in order to show how the orientalist elements were constructed in the West’s (Occident) otherization of the East (Orient). As a result of the analysis, it is seen that Babel put forward everything that is related to the East since its frst scene, mostly with an orientalist point of view, in a way that alienates the East. The flm is based on the fact that the language of the marginalized



can never be understood, and therefore, there is always a diference between the West and the East. Chapter 15 Orientalism and Hollywood: Refection of India on Western Cinema................................................ 240 Subir Sinha, Dum Dum Motijheel College, India Orientalism is a broad concept of cultural studies which is nurtured with the fabricated stereotypical images of the Middle East and the Eastern world that were developed or imagined by the West. Edward. W. Said strengthens the concept of the ‘Orientalism’ by his wide explanation and discussion about the Orient. However, Hollywood cinema shows an imprint of Orientalism while depicting the Indian scenario. Hollywood cinema with Indian set up shows several fabricated stereotypical concepts related to India and Indian society. The stereotypical concepts are mainly related to the Indian tradition, customs, rituals, poverty, illiteracy, etc. Even they use various beautiful landscape and Indian music in their own ways to give mystic charms to their cinema. Recently it was recognised that the stereotypical concepts about India and Indian society are changing rapidly in Hollywood cinemas which try to justify that the concept of Orientalism is changing with the passage of time or with the arrival of modernity. Chapter 16 Eastern Male Image in Contemporary Oriental Media: The Novel and Movie of The Lustful Turk... 251 Günseli Gümüşel, Atılım University, Turkey When the Ottoman Empire in the 17th century was at the peak of its power, British and French merchants who came to Istanbul were writing so-called memories of harems to their homeland, and these letters composed the image of Eastern male in Orientalism and details of Muslim male image, which was one of the most important prototypes. The details which were written by non-Muslims who had no chance to even come near to Sultan’s private life, recounted a period of literature to politics. Moreover, Muslim males who were called “not lustful Turk” in the past also have to face some kind of vexatious accusations today because of this created identity. In the same year, the producers proposed that The Lustful Turk movie had a big budget and an ambitious project; they were trying to afect potential audience. In this study, The Lustful Turk’s novel segments and the movie are analyzed in detail to understand top-level racist accusations to Eastern male image, especially the Turkish one. Also, contemporary media approaches will be evaluated from Edward Said’s point of view.

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Chapter 17 Orientalist Museum Exhibitions in UK as a New Media at the Turn of the 21st Century: ReOrientalism of Orientalism.................................................................................................................. 268 Meltem Yaşdağ, The Ministry of Culture and Tourism, Turkey In this chapter, the author examined the orientalist themed museum exhibitions totally held in Britain after 2000 to understand the real intention behind their thematic artifact selection and their efect on people as becoming media tool. These were “Turks: A Journey of a Thousand Years, 600-1600” in 2005, “The Lure of the East: British Orientalist Painting” in 2008, and recent “Inspired by the East: How the Islamic World Infuenced Western Art” in 2019, respectively. The author analyzed the criticisms in newspapers and magazines as well as curators’ interviews and catalogs for the museum exhibitions organized in United



Kingdom. In this way, the author also discussed the efects of the exhibition created with the media. Chapter 18 Spatial and Architectural Representations of the East in Selected Western Films and Games........... 283 Meltem Ozkan Altinoz, Ankara University, Turkey Aspects of Eastern culture have long been featured in Western cinema but seem to be less popular today. We see less use of spatial and architectural features attributed to the East and a worrying nihilistic trend, particularly in the gaming sector. Such distortions would seem to signify Western preferences, albeit ones shaped by real stakeholders, shape everyday perceptions of the East and its representation. This study traces oriental approaches through the use of space and architecture in several popular flms and games and tries to understand the logic behind their visualization. Chapter 19 Orientalism, Colonialism, and Bouchareb’s Indigènes........................................................................ 304 İbrahim Beyazoğlu, Eastern Mediterranean University, Cyprus Rachid Bouchareb’s movie Indigènes (aka Days of Glory, 2006) constitutes a powerful critique of the discourse of orientalism in signifcant ways that requires consideration. The chapter presents a descriptive and critical analysis of ambivalent positions during colonial encounters in the Second World War and analyses the totalizing and monist nature of the logocentric regime of meaning in the construction of a colonial orientalist discourse where knowledge and power enter into an agreement of sorts. The chapter throws light on ways in which Eurocentric history writing undermines the colonial soldiers’ struggle for recognition and opens up a vista onto the critical role of post-colonial cinema in giving the invisible subjects’ their due in history and popular media.

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Chapter 20 Fantasies of Returning to Nature as an Escape From Culture: The Case of The Beach (2000).......... 324 Elif Güntürkün, Anadolu University, Turkey İlknur Gürses Köse, Ege University, Turkey Modernism and its institutions have begun to be questioned by postmodern thinkers in almost every feld. Nature was afrmed as an ideal on the path to liberation from culture. According to Camille Paglia, culture, which was seen as a way to the main obstacle to freedom, and the hierarchical position of the contrasts such as East-West, nature-culture, etc., has become the focus of discussions in the world of art and thought as fctions that need to be questioned and overcome on the way to liberation. While the view of nature as a liberating potential fnds its place in consumer culture and popular culture as an extension of the opposing perspective originating from the counterculture, the return to nature has been fetishized by authenticating Eastern cultures with an Orientalist perspective. The beach, which is one of the representations of this common interests in the East in the art of cinema, will be examined in the light of the concepts of counter culture, postmodern subject, consumer culture, in the axis of natureculture and East-West dichotomies. Chapter 21 Representations of Masculinities in Gaya Jiji’s Film Named My Favorite Fabric.............................. 338 Baran Barış, Dokuz Eylül University, Turkey



Masculinity refers to the roles expected of men by gender ideology. Masculinity studies after 1990 revealed that masculinity cannot be taken as a universal subject. Another important concept in this study is orientalism. Orientalism generally refers to the West’s point of view regarding the East. In Western narratives, Eastern women are generally depicted as oppressed heroes, and men as heroes who are always strong. However, alternative narratives reveal that diferent forms of femininity and masculinity can be seen in Eastern societies. In this study, a Syrian director’s flm named My Favorite Fabric is analyzed with a semiotic method within the framework of these concepts. When the representations of masculinity in the flm are examined, it is seen that diferent forms of masculinity are constructed, and an alternative to the orientalist discourse is presented accordingly. It has been revealed that diferent variables are efective in the construction of masculinities. Chapter 22 Neo-Orientalist Approaches in XR (Extended Reality) Applications................................................. 355 Barış Atiker, Bahcesehir University, Turkey Being one of the most prominent refections of intercultural interaction, orientalism is the West’s description of the East according to its own beliefs and understanding. This concept also includes the alienation and isolation of the human while trying to defne ‘the others’. The digital culture has searched for alternative realities and identities visible through virtual worlds controlled by the individual. This search for identity has led to the transformation of a fctional and shallow imagination into a cultural commodity through various stereotypes, just like in orientalism. Extended reality is one of the new oases of neo-orientalism as a research subject that combines the concepts of virtual and augmented reality. The increasing fusion between the human mind and machines radically changes the way people are born, live, learn, work, produce, dream, discuss, or die. This research aims to interpret the efects of transformation of information in XR technologies within the axis of neo-orientalism perspective through new individual experiences.

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Chapter 23 Post-Orientalist Comments by Contemporary Women Photographers............................................... 375 Işık Sezer, Fine Arts Faculty, Dokuz Eylül University, Turkey Today, Iran, Morocco, Tunisia, etc. women photographers have made the orientalist visual expression form the focal point of their art: the orientalist painting tradition as a result of the painter Delacroix’s trip to Morocco in 1832, the imagination world and the painting tradition shaped by the economy-politics of the period, from the male-dominated point of view, the harem, the chamber, etc. It is based on fantasies based on the female body in oriental spaces. Although this painting movement maintained its efectiveness between 1832-1914, it is taken as a reference by photographers in today’s postmodern art environment. In today’s photography art, Shirin Neshat, Lalla Essaydi, Shadi Ghadirian, Majida Khattari, Meriem Bouderbala, who have Eastern and Western cultures and mostly live in Western countries, visualize the position of women in their countries with an interdisciplinary interpretation in their photographic visions that they shape with a post-orientalist attitude. Chapter 24 French Orientalism Representations of Ottoman in Caricatures in Le Petit Journal.......................... 398 Mehtap Anaz, Université de Tunis-El Manar, Tunisia Necati Anaz, Istanbul University, Turkey This study attempts to answer a number of questions inspired by popular geopolitics literature on how the



French newspaper, Le Petit Journal, depicted the Ottoman Empire (including the Sultan Abdulhamid II and the Turkish parliament) and refected their views to their readers in their publications. And how the Ottoman ‘other’ was constructed by the journal in relation to France’s political position during the Balkan Wars. The examination of the newspaper from 1908 to 1913 suggests that the journal’s understanding of the Ottoman subject rests parallel to that of France, especially during the years of the Balkan Wars in Europe. This study also expresses that war-time knowledge production via quotidian channels inform the geographical imaginations of the masses in particular ways. In the end, the authors re-emphasize that knowledge production on the orient involves a whole set of image constructions as introduced in orientalism studies. Chapter 25 Reconsidering Gender Stereotypes Through Bollywood Cinema: Reconsidering Bollywood Movie Dangal...................................................................................................................................... 421 Ebru Gülbuğ Erol, Cummunication Design Faculty, Muş Alparaslan University, Turkey Mustafa Gülsün, Muş Alparaslan University, Turkey The concept of gender determines the biological sex of an individual by birth. However, according to the understanding of gender, there are basic codes for men and women, and people act in accordance with these codes. Orientalism is an imitation or depiction of directions in the Eastern world. In terms of cinema, it is the creation of an Eastern atmosphere with the Eastern representation and images in the flms. Sports, common name for all body movements that are performed by obeying certain rules and techniques, are benefcial to physical development and aim to have fun and are open to everybody regardless of sex. Traditional gender stereotypes posit that women do certain kinds of sports. So, flms that depict this extraordinary contrast are remembered for their subjects. The flm Dangal depicts the father-daughter relationships of an Indian family living in an Eastern cultural tradition and a female wrestler with international status, unlike a family shaped according to oriental codes.

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Chapter 26 Representing and Othering Oriental Women After 9/11: An Analysis of Body of Lies...................... 438 Aslı Telseren, Dogus University, Turkey & University of Paris, France This chapter aims to analyze the reconstruction of the otherness of oriental women in the post-9/11 era via an analysis of the representations of the oriental women in Body of Lies (2008). To examine this subject, the shifts in orientalist discourse in this period, the neo-orientalist context, and ideological functions of Hollywood are considered from a postcolonial feminist approach. Considering the specifc position attributed to oriental women in the post-9/11 era, this chapter examines how Hollywood conveys gender and race relations through the construction and reconstruction of oriental women images and attempt to show how these images have participated in the reconstruction of the otherness of oriental women after the 9/11 attacks through the analysis of Body of Lies. Chapter 27 Tracing Orientalism in the Image of the Country Refected by the Media.......................................... 453 Selin Bitirim Okmeydan, Ege University, Turkey This chapter focuses on the relationship between Orientalism and country image, and the efect of the orientalist approach refected in the media on the country image. The image of a country is especially afected by the representations refected in the media. Therefore, media, where discourses and images



are produced and shared, play major roles in the formation and consolidation of the country’s image. A country that is generally featured in the media with negative images appears as a result of the orientalist approach towards countries marginalized by the West. Turkey is seen as the other by the West. This study features the authentic refections of the orientalist view of Turkey in the media and the efect of these refections on the country’s image with contemporary examples. Thus, this study based on literature review and case study method is aimed to reveal traces of Orientalism in Turkey’s image in the Western media. Chapter 28 Orientalism in Turkish Political Election Campaigns.......................................................................... 470 Cudi Kaan Okmeydan, Yaşar University, Turkey This chapter studies the use of orientalist elements in advertisements of Turkish political parties as a reaction to the orientalist approach of the West, based on examples. It is observed that especially the right-wing parties frequently use orientalist elements in political advertisements during election periods in Turkey. These orientalist elements usually consist of large historical mosque fgures and Ottoman motives. However, these orientalist elements are presented together with Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, Turkish satellites, unmanned aircraft, and modern city views to establish a connection between the past and future and show developed and contemporary aspects of Turkey. Thus, it is hinted to the West that a Muslim country taking pride in its past can also be a contemporary and developed country. The present study is focused on orientalism refections in Turkish political election campaigns and aims to reveal orientalist elements and orientalist perspective that are common in election campaigns.

Volume II Chapter 29 Diversity or Uniformity: Existing Demands and Representation Problems in Emoji as a Visual Language.............................................................................................................................................. 486 Selin Süar Oral, Istanbul Aydın University, Turkey Emoji is a Japanese term that reminds users in the digital world about history, community, attitudes, appearances, economics, and politics while texting. This study aims to address identity representations that are focused on the demands of distinction in the postmodern era and ofered by emoji in the digital world. The thesis also attempts to challenge whether the structure of multiple identities is feasible in the postmodern era and/or whether identities are re-uniformized in a symbolic language.

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Chapter 30 Projection of Orientalist Elements: White Man’s Burden................................................................... 507 Selim Beyazyüz, Düzce University, Turkey The age of discovery is one of the most important periods in human history whose efects continue to be seen. In this period, the world was traveled by European sailors, new continents were discovered, and the discovered resources, work, and labor power fowed to Europe. All these developments have led to changes in the perception of the East in the West. Orientalism, defned as the manifestation of the West on the East, has found a place in art, literature, all kinds of written or printed media, especially cinema. The purpose of the study is to examine the domination structures starting with colonialism in the context of orientalism through the narratives of cinema in light of information. The narrative of 12 Years a Slave (2013) was examined using the discourse analysis method which is one of the qualitative text analysis.



As a result, it was seen that the dialogues, images, character depictions, and the language used played an important role in the presentation of the othering; the white man was in the role of savior/god/good, and this situation was also supported by metaphors. Chapter 31 Refections of Orientalism and Modernism in the Film Hamam by Ferzan Özpetek.......................... 536 Nilüfer Pembecioğlu, Faculty of Communication, Istanbul University, Turkey Nebahat Akgün Çomak, Galatasaray University, Turkey Having the visual and linguistic text of the flm Hamam as the main data, the chapter discusses how the values are attributed to the images of orientalism and modernism and how these attributions afect the meaning, value, and consumption of the messages. Not only the cultural codes as Barthes mentioned were deciphered through the qualitative and descriptive methodology mainly following the discourse analysis, but also the chapter relies upon the data analysis making use of the 12T’s approach inspired by Stoller and Grabe’s Six-T’s Approach for Content-Based Instruction. In this research, each T refers to a diferent perspective that controls the quality of the sample questioned and helps to establish consistency, cohesion, and coherence of the text. These T’s put forward how the refections of orientalism and modernism were scattered in the flm Hamam and how Western images vs. Orientalism were put in a complementary and counteracting way helps to shape the new identities. Chapter 32 Reiterative Presentation of the East in Western-Produced Video Games: A Foucauldian Discourse Analysis................................................................................................................................................ 557 Gina Al Halabi, Istanbul Bilgi University, Turkey Ertuğrul Süngü, Bahçeşehir University, Turkey

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Today’s video game industry is full of examples of games that showcase Oriental stereotypes repetitively and portray them with the typical passive, barbaric, and violent perception. The methodology of this study builds its structure on that problem by gathering data from a conducted survey that focuses on video gamers based in the Middle East, with the aim of exploring how the reiteration of the stereotypical portrayal of the Orient in video games produced by the West afect people’s perception of the Orient. The data then gathered will be analyzed according to Carla Willig’s approach of the Foucauldian discourse analysis using six stages: (1) discursive constructions, (2) discourses, (3) action orientation, (4) positionings, (5) practice, and (6) subjectivity. The analysis’s main limits and strengths will then be taken into consideration, and recommendations will be suggested based on the results of the analysis. Chapter 33 The Creation of Sustainable Orientalism in Cinema........................................................................... 574 Can Diker, Üsküdar University, Turkey Esma Koç, Independent Researcher, Turkey The myth of modern culture’s superiority to other cultures is instilled as a norm to the masses through the media. The myth of the cultural superiority of the West not only formed with the economic possibilities of the West but was also supported by the non-Western world by self-orientalism, thus becoming sustainable. While themes such as modernity, development, and technological superiority are watched within the scope of Hollywood flms, several platforms have been created for non-US countries to watch alternative



flms. Although flms known as European and World Cinema have the chance to show themselves at flm festivals rather than flm theatres, non-Western directors face a cultural challenge in these festivals due to the sociocultural structure of Western-based flm festivals. In this study, by examining how non-Western directors are directed towards self-orientalism indirectly through festivals and funds, the relationship between the creation of sustainable orientalism in cinema and the political economy of the flm industry will be revealed. Chapter 34 The Discursive Representation of Islam and Muslims in Movies....................................................... 591 Fikret Güven, Nişantaşı University, Turkey September 11 has changed the world we live in. Justifcations and commentaries have been a revival of the East/West Orientalist binarism. Movies on September 11 and the subsequent Iraq War have continued to follow the same discourse, frst lending themselves as conveyors of knowledge and later passing their Orientalism under a guise of art. The selected movies are Paul Greengrass’s United 93, Peter Markle’s Flight 93, David Priest’s Portraits of Courage, Kathryn Bigelow’s The Hurt Locker, and Peter Berg’s The Kingdom. The subject matter of the movies discussed in this chapter focuses on September 11 and the subsequent Iraq War for being the major recent historical events which are continually depicted as an inherent East/West confict. It largely shapes today’s perception of the world or in other terms creates a sense of a new perception today despite the continuity of the same Orientalist binarism that has always been there. Chapter 35 A Comparative Study Oriented Tourism Advertisements in Turkey: The Internality of the Oriental-Self........................................................................................................................................ 611 Barış Yetkin, Giresun University, Turkey

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This study examines the orientalist infuences in the media. Studies that determine the orientalist elements in media content in Turkey are not sufcient. In order to eliminate this defciency, it was determined as the starting point of the research whether the orientalist stereotypes are still valid today and whether they contain epistemic violence. Based on this problem, some of the advertisements used in tourism promotion in the last 20 years within the framework of the ofcial state policies of the Republic of Turkey are selected. Historical understanding and analytical thinking are adopted. In this direction, cultural context research is conducted using comparative case studies. It is aimed to fnd out whether the situation defned as self-orientalism in tourism promotion advertisements coincides with Western orientalist stereotypes. Thus, it is desired to provide a new perspective to researchers working on this subject and to present meta-analysis data. Chapter 36 Country in the East and West Claw: Winter Sleep............................................................................... 633 Özcan Yılmaz Sütcü, İzmir Katip Çelebi University, Turkey Nuri Bilge Ceylan puts the perspectives of Anatolia under pressure through the analysis of individuals’ souls in the movie Winter Sleep (2014). He examines the “Western perspective” through the intellectuals (Aydın, Necla, and Levent) and the “religious and traditional perspective” of Anatolia through Imam Hamdi and Ismail. Ceylan gets individuals out of cultural and ideological codes and allows them to confront their own realities in Anatolian geography. This possibility can be expressed as a kind of Foucauldian



violence. There is a violence of going into the deeper layers of the repressed, unresolved points. This is an inner violence that comes from stripping all code and layers. This internal violence is the result of the soul analysis that is refected in Anatolia as a camera of people awakening in Winter Sleep. The immediacy of Anatolia’s vital existence can only be grasped in the depths of vital experience itself. Chapter 37 Searching for the East in the Shadow of the West: Layla M as the Portrait of an Oriental Woman in Modern Orientalist Discourse.......................................................................................................... 648 Eşref Akmeşe, İnönü University, Turkey Orientalism is defned as part of the discourse of power which includes the purpose of exploitation and domination that represents attribution of “Easterner” qualities that are opposite and inferior to the qualities that Euro-American cultures ascribe to themselves, and labeling them as irrational, uncivilized, inferior, not open to change, and so on. Orientalism, which is an expression of an extensive and longterm cultural and ideological process, states a discourse that marginalizes what it leaves out of EuroAmerican culture. This style of discourse is efective in diferent mediums and reproduced consistently. In this chapter, asserted Eurocentric arguments in the modern orientalist discourse are discussed with a critical approach through Dutch director Mijke de Jong’s flm Layla M. (2016). Chapter 38 The Trial of Traditional Turkish Culture With the Auto-Orientalist Cultural Industry....................... 662 Erol Gülüm, Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey Traditional Turkish culture has archaic, unique, universal, diverse, dynamic, competitive, and distinctive contents (traditional knowledge and practices, cultural codes, canonical images, motifs, structural patterns, etc.) that can be valued in diferent ways in cultural creative industries. However, this cultural capital cannot be utilized sufciently to meet Turkey’s sustainable economic development goals from the past to the present. One of the main reasons why the potential inherent in traditional culture cannot be efectively, creatively, and innovatively actualized is the predominance of auto-orientalist discourse in the Turkish cultural industry. Here, in this text, the trial of traditional culture with auto-orientalist Turkish cultural industry will be analyzed from historical, sociological, and economic aspects.

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Chapter 39 Women’s Images in Turkish Cinema in the Context of Orientalism: The Samples of Tight Dress..... 681 Nural İmik Tanyıldızı, Firat University, Turkey Ayşe Şebnem Yolcu, Bingol University, Turkey Orientalism, which we can defne as how the West recognizes the East, can be determined in many diferent felds such as literature, music, and architectural painting since ancient times. In orientalist ideology, the negative traits of the other are always emphasized. Because, as Said also emphasizes, the West can only create its own self by alienating and negating the East. The representation styles of marginalized societies; identities and genders are negative in parallel with the Western understanding in the movies that are dominated by the orientalist ideology. The Eastern woman, who is currently the absolute other in terms of gender, is marginalized once again in the examples of Orientalist cinema.



This study, based on the movie Tight Dress, aims to observe the hegemonic structure of the willingness to represent women in the patriarchal order of the Eastern Muslim-Turkish representation of women produced within the Western masculine fantasy discourse within the framework of feminist theory and to reveal the orientalist elements in the flm through semiotic analysis. Chapter 40 An Orientalist “Journey” to Istanbul From the Super Bowl Final: The Shifting of Classical Orientalist Discourse............................................................................................................................ 706 Feridun Nizam, Communication Faculty, Fırat University, Turkey This study is frstly built on the determination of the orientalist elements in Turkish Airlines’ commercial flm Journey, which was broadcast in the Super Bowl fnal of the 2019 American Football League, and how Turkish culture is represented in Istanbul with these orientalist elements. In the context of the sample handled in the study, Turkish architectural structures, Turkish historical structures, Turkish Islamic cultural elements, and Turkish traditions are included, and the presentation of Istanbul from the eyes of a “foreigner” with an orientalist point of view has been handled with the method of semiotic analysis. The main problem of the study is on the diferent presentation of the East and Istanbul, despite the usual orientalist perspective in media contents and especially in advertising. In this sense, it focuses not on antiorientalism, but on the conclusion that orientalism is presented with the change of classical narratives. Chapter 41 Digital Games and Orientalism: A Look at Arab and Muslim Representation in Popular Digital Games.................................................................................................................................................. 717 Fatih Söğüt, Kırklareli University, Turkey

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The cultural and ideological tools that enable the West to maintain the imperial and colonial rule over the East have been varied. With the help of Western-based digital technologies and communication tools, it is possible to produce, publish, and distribute all kinds of information easily and quickly. The western and Western perspective is also refected in the media content, and all kinds of popular media texts such as flms, music, newspapers, magazines, toys are the bearers of the political social, cultural, and ideological structure of the West. Media texts produce discourses, especially about the ‘East’ and position the East as one other. In this context, digital games should not be considered independent of the political, social, cultural, and economic structure in which they exist. The aim of this study is to assess research studies focusing on the orientalist perspective in digital games. While examining the relationship between orientalism and digital games within the framework of the literature, especially the Muslim and Arab representations in the plays were examined. Chapter 42 Orientalism, Islamophobia, and the Concept of Otherization Through Civil Confict, Digital Platform Netfix: The Example of the Messiah Series......................................................................... 730 Hülya Semiz Türkoğlu, Faculty of Communication, Istanbul University, Turkey Süleyman Türkoğlu, Faculty of Communication, Istanbul University, Turkey Orientalism is a form of marginalization that constitutes the thinking system of Western civilizations. The question of how the East is represented can be answered with series that have a global impact. In this study, the Messiah series, which is a digital television platform Netfix series that continues its broadcasting activities on a global scale, is discussed. The Messiah series is an American-made series that



draws the attention of the people of three great religions, which is about the belief that the prophet Jesus will return and save the world. Orientalist ideologies are presented in the series. It has been evaluated in terms of narrative structure, fction, characters, and space. For this purpose, the chapter discusses the orientalism fction and othering discourses in the series with the literature review method by considering the representation of the East in the series with its general framework. Chapter 43 Orientalism and Humour: Marginalization of the Turks in 9GAG...................................................... 760 Serkan Biçer, Communication Faculty, Fırat University, Turkey Edward Said undoubtedly didn’t analyze the concept of orientalism through an Ottoman or Turkish perspective in the context of the relationship with the West. However, although orientalism isn’t directly connected to Turkey, it indirectly concerns the country as the image of Turkey and East is the same in many articles, literary works, political texts, and orientalist pictures. The purpose of this study is to understand and analyze the orientalist viewpoint about the Turkish identity on “9GAG” internet site, one of the most known humour sites created after 2000 with the participatory culture. In this study, the two-level interpretation system of Roland Barthes, involving the systematic connotation and denotation and myth, is used. The images of Turks in caps are presented with signifers such as Turban, Islamic tabard, beard, prayer beads, coif, and shalwar. Signifed, on the other hand, is usually the element of East, religion/Islam, tradition, underdevelopment, and violence. The specifcally designed Turkish image is used as a kind of actor that creates a sense of threat. Chapter 44 Evaluation of Women’s Perspectives in the East Societies on New Media News............................... 778 Hicabi Arslan, Aydin Adnan Menderes University, Turkey Aslihan Topal, Aydin Adnan Menderes University, Turkey Turkey is located frequently in women’s media. The representation of women in the media, which should be evaluated in many aspects such as sociological, psychological, political, economic, and legal, has been frequently the subject of academic studies. In the country and in the world, women can generally fnd their place in the media within the social roles assigned to them. The view of countries towards women is also shaped by the efect of cultural, economic, political, and social structures. In Eastern cultures, the woman is usually burdened with roles in need of protection, such as the woman of her home, the mother of her child, a good wife, a self-sacrifcing woman who lives at home.

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Chapter 45 The Otherization of Turkey in the Orientalist Discourse: Turkey and Orientalism............................ 799 Emel Özdemir, Communication Faculty, Akdeniz University, Turkey This chapter aims to make out how the orientalism that dominates and that reshapes the East as Western discourse afects the construction of Turkish image that is infuenced by the new orientalism process, and how it has changed with the media. By studying the news and images about Turkey, it is purposed to analyze whether the otherization of Turkey in orientalist discourse that is generally established with diferent kinds of many bad images, expressions from past to now is still alive with all the images,



discourses, expressions in the media, or whether it has started to acquire a diferent point of view in orientalism today, or not. In this study, it is possible to see the reconstruction of Turkish image and the general perception of the West about Turkey in the process of new orientalism that is refected via the discourses, images, and expressions in the media by analyzing the news about tensions in the Eastern Mediterranean in the foreign press. Chapter 46 Transmedia Storytelling in Advertising: The Mediator Between Orientalism and Occidentalism..... 818 Huri Deniz Karcı, Ankara Medipol University, Turkey Otherization has been executed in both Orientalism and Occidentalism for a long time. People have always been expected to choose either side in a binary opposition such as “mother or father,” “male or female,” “destiny or coincidence,” “pasta or pizza,” “Fenerbahce or Galatasaray,” etc. However, the human itself is the balance of those binary oppositions such as “good and bad,” “normal and abnormal,” “optimistic and pessimistic,” etc. In this respect, this chapter ofered a new term, “medientalism,” indicating advertizing as a possible alternative medium to mediate between otherized opposites such as gender, race, ideology, lifestyle, religion within the fame of the opposition between Orientalism and Occidentalism. As a result, transmedia storytelling, a persuasive multiplatform strategy to reach the audience by telling stories, was suggested as a functional tool to employ in spreading the idea of mediation between otherized opposites. Chapter 47 Orientalist Representations of Antakya (Antioch-on-the-Orontes) in Digital Media Narrations........ 838 Feride Zeynep Guder, Faculty of Communication, Üsküdar University, Turkey Tulay Atay, Faculty of Communication, Hatay Mustafa Kemal University, Turkey

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This study aims to criticize the defnition and misinterpretation of “the East-the Orient” in the scope of Antakya city according to Orientalist approach and to analyze how this approach put into practice by the narration of the Westerners via scrutinizing digital media platforms. To uncover this dominant narration, Said’s Orientalist theory has been explored for the main arguments of the study. With the help of cognitive semiotics benchmarks, three digital media platforms are analyzed to indicate how Orientalist perspectives dominate the narration and representation of Antakya. Although the city conveys modern lifestyle and outlook, these perspectives are omitted, and these narrations fail to represent the core and unique characteristics of Antakya. Examples found in digital media prove the lack of such representations, including particularly the absence of images, narrations, and portrayals of inhabitants. In conclusion, close and critical reading of digital tourism genres are recommended, and although these platforms are new and digital, the way they narrate have echoes of the old. Chapter 48 The West-East From Two Children’s Points of View: The Example of BBC-TRT............................. 858 Murat Özdemir, Independent Researcher, Turkey This study discussed whether the media is a tool that produces orientalist representations and whether the media is efective in the internalization of orientalism. The aim of the study is to identify the orientalist discourse in the language and culture of the media through discourse analysis method, and to discuss the efects of the media on the formation of self-orientalism as well as the instrumentality of the media



on this issue. In the study, a sample of the documentary named Istanbul and Bristol in 1971 From Two Children’s Point of View, which is a co-production of BBC-TRT, was taken, and the documentary was analysed with the orientalist discourse analysis method of Edward Said. As a result of the research, it was seen that the media has a discourse that alienates Eastern culture and is also a tool in the production and internalization of orientalism. Chapter 49 The Transformation of Ion Perdicaris to Eden Perdicaris as a Retro Scenario and Orientalist Codes in Art: Woman and East “To Be Saved” From Eastern............................................................ 875 Gizem Parlayandemir, Faculty of Communication, Istanbul University, Turkey Based on mainly the perspectives of three thinkers, Walter Benjamin, Edward Said, and Jean Baudrillard, in this study, beyond the general perception and “Barbarian” and “Berbers,” the flm The Wind and The Lion, which was written and directed by John Milius in 1975 and inspired by a “real” life event that happened in 1904, and the transformation of the man kidnapped in real life, Ion Perdicaris, into a woman, Eden Pedecaris, in the flm, and the relationship of this transformation with the “orient” perception, the economic and political infrastructures of this relationship, its roots in Orientalist painting will be discussed through intertextual reading and discourse analysis. The analysis of this flm’s discourse sustains its importance since not only flm scholars but also audiences can receive the discourse of the flm via new media presently. Chapter 50 Analysis of Poster Designs of Turkish TV Series on Ottoman History: Resurrection Ertugrul and Magnifcent Century Examples............................................................................................................ 888 Bahar Soğukkuyu, Dokuz Eylül University, Turkey

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TV series are signifcant media products when considered as part of audience’s leisure activities at home. Marketing of leisure activities to the audience in front of the screen as an indicator of individuality is one of the basic conditions of media consumption. With the watched product, the person feels that he belongs to a community, or, on the contrary, he is unique. It is possible for the individual who watches the historical series to adopt/refect the national and social spirit. Again, as a part of the consumer society, the displays of the spectacular elements that emphasize the individual’s need to express himself/herself with commodities are quite high. In the study, the poster designs of two series that are shown in Turkey (and in various countries of the world) and reach a wide audience have been examined with both visual design elements and principles and semiotics to reveal clues about cultural memory and orientalism in terms of refecting the Ottoman history. Chapter 51 Orientalist Discourse in Communication and Media: Analysis of Researches in the Field of Media and Communication in Terms of Orientalism..................................................................................... 904 Nihal Toros Ntapiapis, Üsküdar University, Turkey Ezgi Kunacaf, Independent Researcher, Turkey Today’s people fall into the advertising network more and more every day with the developing technology. The modern world is exposed to many written and visual images in this area. All these images contain



a whole of meanings. Advertising, which is one of the concepts that afects and transforms society, is also a collection of messages. While conveying his messages, the facts that create and transform society, cultures, and identities, and creation processes occur in this context. The created advertisements, the concepts of self, and the “other,” East and West, have existed since the formation of human history and have been infuenced from time to time, and the Orientalist, re-orientalist perspective has shown itself in the advertisements. The underdevelopment of the East is a discourse aimed at religion, language, and races. The West spreads its Orientalist discourse to the world through mass media. This research investigates the orientalism efects in media and communication regarding how the media and communication feld is afected by Orientalism. Chapter 52 From Theory to Discussion Orientalism and History From Past to Present........................................ 920 İsa Kalayci, Hatay Mustafa Kemal University, Turkey Ahmet Kuşçi, Hatay Mustafa Kemal University, Turkey The subject of orientalism is generally discussed by both Western and Eastern researchers from a religiouscentered perspective. However, this issue can be understood by analyzing in terms of inter-communal and socio-economic-cultural interactions and perceptions. In this respect, revealing the relationship between orientalism and history strengthens the originality claim of this chapter. In addition to this, considering that mission of history science is not just “past,” knowledge about the current debates of orientalism is signifcant in analyzing the situation. This makes it necessary to research the “orientalismhistory-media” equation. In short, the refections of orientalism in media are also addressed in order to reach the current knowledge in this section. Therefore, it has been tried to reveal how a historical issue evolved in the 19th century.

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Chapter 53 Refection of Orientalist Discourse on Netfix Turkey: The Protector................................................ 939 Yasemin Özkent, Selçuk University, Turkey This study focuses on the analysis of the orientalist structures in The Protector (2018-2020) which is the frst original series of Netfix Turkey. The formation method of the image of the East through a popular culture product in a global digital broadcast program constituted the starting point of the study. New media platforms have also gained a place as the principal actor of orientalist fction with the development of digital technology today. As a digital platform producing special contents for each country, Netfix interprets cultural values through exchanging and re-producing them. Accordingly, discourse analysis method was used in the study to discover how orientalism related patterns were inserted in Netfix contents. Formation of orientalist discourse was examined through character representation and timespace representation categories formed through considering theoretic information. As a result, it was observed that orientalism has also found a representation area for itself in media devices emerging with technology. Chapter 54 Reproducing Orientalism With Cinema: Aladdin (2019).................................................................... 953 Deniz Yüceer Berker, Istanbul Ayvansaray University, Turkey The place and importance of mass media as an ideological device is accepted without any discussion today. The sovereign states, trying to impose their ideology and world view to “others,” impose the



dominant ideology by using the media as well as economic and political pressure. Cinema is like a mirror that reveals the socio-cultural and economic structures in societies and refects all changes and conficts. Therefore, the relationship between cinema and social structure is quite strong. At this point, the relationship between cinema and orientalism, which is the subject of the study, becomes important. Orientalism is constantly being reproduced through cinema, which is one of the most efective mass media. In this context, the movie Aladdin produced in 2019 will be analyzed in order to analyze how the orientalist perspective is reproduced with cinema and how the eastern image is “otherized.” In the study, critical discourse analysis method was preferred for the purpose of analyzing the social and political backgrounds of the ideologies in the flm. Chapter 55 Orientalist Approaches in Advertising: Sample Advertising With Nike’s “What Will They Say About You?” Slogan............................................................................................................................ 974 Simge Kırteke, Independent Researcher, Turkey Brands ofer indicators to audiences through advertisements in many topics such as political, ideological, economic, and cultural. In particular, while creating their advertisements, international brands make use of the indicators that assume the cultural and demographic structure of the geographic location they are published in and carry out advertising campaigns under the infuence of Orientalism. With these advertisements, it is presented how the West shows the East with an Orientalist perspective to the audiences that the advertisement reaches both in the geographical location where it is published and in the international geography. Within the scope of this study, the Nike brand, which emerged in Western societies and became a big name in the international arena, the advertising campaign with the slogan “What will they say about you?” and the SHE (Saudi Heroines Empowering a Nation) advertisement were examined and compared with the method of semiotic analysis, and their relationships with Orientalism were explained. Compilation of References.................................................................................................................xlii About the Contributors................................................................................................................. cxxvii

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Index..................................................................................................................................................... cxl

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Foreword

The publication of Edward Wadie Said’s Orientalism in 1978 inaugurated something of an intellectual revolution. This book, critically examining western depictions of the Orient in (mainly French and English) literature, examined the binary characterisations of Self and Other which ensured that representations were in key respectsgenerallymisrepresentations. Said was the ideal person to write such a book. A literary critic of great distinction, he was culturally positioned between his Palestinian birth, his education in a British school in Egypt (which he hated, according to his Autobiography) and in the United States, having acquired US citizenship through his father’s military service. If his first name seemed westernised, his middle name crucially located him in his cultural family. He was famously a lover of western classical music and a notable pianist. Such a background provided him with the cross-over insights which infused his work. To this he added influences from such theorists as Gramsci, Fanon, Foucault and Adorno, among others. He thus came to make powerful contributions to post-structuralist theory, discourse analysis, and postcolonial studies. Beyond this he was, in his own words, an organic scholar deeply involved in questions of the day including Palestinian/Israeli relations, western perceptions of such developments as the Iranian revolution, the liminal position of refugees and the specifically culturaland situational problems of immigrants. To all of this he brought knowledge of inter-faith relations from his upbringing as a Palestinian Christian educated in Anglican schools, while always remaining deeply sympathetic to Islamic causes. Orientalism almost immediately began to influence studies in many other fields. Perhaps the first of these was art history since art historians realised that the Saidian paradigm fitted perfectly analyses of the images of the East produced by western artists. In thus transferring ideas from texts to the visual, it was a small step to the consideration of photography and later cinema. In addition, other literary traditions beyond those in the English and French languages came to be considered. Some scholars also began to expand the geographical application of Said’s ideas to South Asia and the Far East and even to representations of Self and Other in cultural encounters in other part of the world apart from Asia. Inevitably, there were also respectful modifications to his ideas as well as some critiques. In particular, it was pointed out that there were some instances in which the western self was positively influenced by the Asian other, particularly in the considerable respect that developed in the nineteenth century for Asian crafts as representing a significant alternative to industrially produced products that were seen as becoming aesthetically debased. This might also be true in approaches to philosophy and nature. Nevertheless, Said’s uniquely powerfulideas continued to influence the writings of a vast array of scholars and to be applied to other periods and media not considered by him. This Handbook represents the considerable scope and scale of such collateral effects. In the more than fifty contributions to be found in these two volumes there are many which display Said’s influ 

Foreword

ence, some which modify his insights, and only one or two that are a little more critical. These articles move the debate forward into the extensive consideration of a number of films from the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, as well as various documentaries and the productions of modern digital platforms such as Netflix. Displays in museums and in exhibitions have also to be interrogated here, including the arrangement of artefacts, images and captions, as reflecting the perceptions of curators and of the contributors of articles in catalogues. An important area for the conveyance of cross-cultural ideas and mis/representations is that of advertising. Images and texts relating to adverts often perfectly reflect some of Said’s strictures in the twentieth century, and in many ways continue to do so as companies search for ways in which products might be alluring to customers. In advertisements, as in other media, the semiotic analysis of language is vital. Other print media include newspapers and journals, both those with a popular readership and those that offer political, economic and cultural analysis, including the character of trade blocs and of international diplomacy. In several of these media we can identify assumptions about the alleged characteristics of modernism and its supposed alternatives. Yet another medium is that of modern video games, which have developed such popularity among the young (and perhaps not-so-young) and which convey so many covert and overt stereotypes of the East. The contributions on Turkey are important in all of this, as representing a culture which in some respects straddles Europe and Asia in the same way that it straddles the Bosphorus. Not the least of such self-stereotyping can occur in Turkish travel advertisements in which the stereotypes may be perpetuated in the interest of attracting western travellers to the allegedly ‘exotic’ character of Turkish culture (and also in parallel examples from other Asian countries). Such representations of Turkey are often related to the particularly cross-cultural situation of the Ottoman Empire and its transformation in modern times. Yet another highly significant area is that of gender studies and very importantly the stereotyping of women but also of elements of masculinities. The representation of the lives and alleged treatment of women constituted an important part of Said’s arguments and continues to be so in all modern studies. All of this reveals the extraordinary riches contained in this Handbook. It represents a set of tremendously valuable insights into the current state of play in these cultural studies and in many respects provides a sequence of signposts to the manner in which such scholarship may develop or diverge in the future. Both editors and contributors are to be congratulated in producing such a prolific resource invaluable as a foundation for so much future scholarly work.

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John M. MacKenzie Lancaster University, UK

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Preface

Orientalism begins to involve much more than the information gathering about the East in its general postcolonial period. In this period, this issue is reshaped with the work named Orientalism written by Edward Said. According to Said, who was influenced by Michel Foucault’s discourse theory, Orientalism is a Western discourse that dominates and reshapes the East. When we look at history, the West has established itself through the East with a dualist approach. The East has been the information object of the West. There is “otherization” in Orientalist discourse. There are stories of travelers in the past, novels that tell the East, and today the reconstruction of the East in discourse through all kinds of media. Discourse is established on all kinds of media such as cinema, television, news, newspaper, magazine, internet, social media, photography, literature etc. Today, under the headings of post-orientalism, neo-orientalism or self-orientalism, new orientalist forms work together with new media and traditional media. Therefore, this study aims to show how both new media and traditional media deal with orientalism today. Gender, race, religion, culture etc. are the main topics of orieantlist theory. Therefore, this study can be a source to show how orientalism is handled in cinema, series, painting, art, news, photography, writing, advertising etc. The book consists of 55 chapters in total. In the first chapter titled Orientalism From Past to Present, Traditional to Digital, it aims to explain the changing / transforming understanding of orientalism by shedding light on the present. The second chapter titled The Construction of Orientalist Discourse in the Documentary Series on the Digital Broadcasting Platform Netflix reveals how orientalism is realized in documentary films with a netflix documentary. Third chapter titled Orientalism as Caliphator Cognitive Warfare: Consequences of Edward Saïd’s Defense of the Orient analyzes the way in which Said’s honor-driven analysis worked to the benefit of those working towards a global Caliphate, warriors whose values and goals were the exact opposite of what he espoused in his post-colonial work. In the fourth chapter titled Virtual Orientalism/Imagined Dualism (VO/ID) Expansion: Examining the Mechanism Behind the Objectification of Zen as an Aesthetic Style, the concept of Zen, especially its applications as an aesthetic ‘style’, and the mechanisms behind such phenomena are examined. In the fifth chapter, Analyzing Jordan Peele’s Get Out with Fanonism: Tracing Postcolonialism in Hollywood Representations, Get Out is examined as an example of the recent positive diversity trend in Hollywood. In the sixth chapter, Constructing and Reconstructing Orientalism: Depicting Orientalist Imagery in Contemporary Art in the Quest of Self-Identity, it is shown that orientalism is a dynamic structure that represents continuity and change at the same time.  

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Preface

In the seventh chapter, New Portrayals of the Arab World in TV Series, three fictional series (Homeland (Showtime Networks, 2011-2020); Tyrant (FX Network-Fox, 2014-2016); and Jack Ryan (Amazon Prime Video, 2018-)) examines how the representation of the Arab world has evolved. In the eighth chapter entitled Engendering Orientalism: Fatih Akin’s Head-On and The Edge of Heaven, the orientalist elements in German-Turkish director Fatih Akın’s Head On (2004) and The Edge of Heaven (2007) films are examined. In the ninth chapter titled The Difference Between The Western Reflections of Disaster News and Orientalist Perspectives: Positioning Women In The Case of Titanic, it is aimed to reveal how the positioning of women in the past was realized in Titanic news, especially in the press of the period. Aguirre, Caché and Creating Anti-Colonialist Puzzles: A Normative Perspective, the tenth chapter discusses the anti-colonial narrative potential of certain works of cinema taking Aguirre, the Wrath of God and Caché as a case in point. In the eleventh chapter titled Harem and Woman From Oeintalist Pictures to the Cinema: Harem Suare, the reflection of the Harem institution from painting to cinema in the Ottoman Empire is examined. Along with the pictures of orientalist painters, Ferzan Özpetek’s film Harem Suare (1999) was examined and intertextual reading was made. The twelfth chapter, Techno Fantasies of East and West: Ghost in the Shell, takes a comparative critique through anime and film. Orientalism Revisited: Orientalism as Fashion, in the thirteenth chapter, examines the orientalism fashion from the seventeenth century to the twenty-first century. In the fourteenth chapter titled The Others of Babel In The Context of Orientalism, Mexican director Alejandro G. Iñárritu’s 2006 film Babel analyzes how orientalist elements were constructed in the marginalization of the East. The fifteenth chapter titled The Orientalism and the Hollywood: The Reflection of India on Western Cinema examines the reflection of India on Hollywood cinema. In the sixteenth chapter titled Eastern Male Image in Contemporary Oriental Media The Novel and Movie Of “The Lustful Turk” racist expressions towards the image of the Eastern male are analyzed in the axis of the novel and movie “The Lustful Turk”. Orientalist museum exhibitions in UK as a new media at the turn of 21st century: Re-orientalism of Orientalism, the seventeenth chapter examines the effect of orientalist themed exhibitions on people as a media tool. In the eighteenth chapter titled Spatial and Architectural Representation Problems of the East in Movies and Games, orientalist approaches in space and architecture are examined. The nineteenth chapter, Orientalism, Colonialism and Bouchareb’s Indigènes, examines the struggle for recognition of the colonial soldiers of Eurocentric historiography and the role of invisible subjects in the cinema. In the twentieth chapter titled Fantasies of Returning to Nature as an Escape from Culture: The Case of The Beach (2000), The Beach will be examined in the light of the concepts of Counter Culture, postmodern subject, consumer culture, in the axis of Nature. Culture and East-West dichotomies. In the twenty-first chapter, Representations of Masculinities In Gaya Jiji’s Film Named My Favorite Fabric, the representation of masculinity in a Syrian director’s film offers an alternative to the orientalist discourse.

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Preface

In the twenty-second chapter titled Neo-Orientalist Approaches in XR (Extended Reality) Applications, the effects of the transformation of information in XR technologies are interpreted in the perspective of new orientalism. In the twenty-third chapter, Post-Orientalist Comments By Contemporary Women Photographers, post-orientalist images from the interpretation of female photographers are examined. In the twenty-fourth chapter entitled French Orientalism Representations of Ottoman in Caricatures in Le Petit Journal, it analyzes how the French newspaper Le Petit Journal depicts the Ottoman Empire and reflects it on its readers in its publications. In the twenty-fifth episode, Reconsidering Gender Stereotypes Through Bollywood Cinema: Reconsidering Bollywood Movie Dangal, the film “Dangal”, which depicts father-daughter relationships in an Indian family and a female wrestler with international status, as different from a family shaped by oriental codes, is examined. In the twenty-sixth chapter titled Representing and Othering Oriental Women After 9/11: An Analysis of Body of Lies, the reconstruction of the otherness of Eastern Women after September 11 is examined. In the twenty-seventh chapter titled Tracing the Orientalism in the Image of the Country Reflected by the Media, the relationship between orientalism and country image and the effect of the orientalist approach reflected in the media on the country image is examined. In the twenty-eighth chapter titled Orientalism In Turkish Political Election Campaigns, the use of orientalist elements in the advertisements of Turkish political parties as a reaction to the West’s orientalist approach is examined. In the twenty-ninth chapter titled Diversity or Uniformity: Existing Demands and Representation Problem in Emoji As A Visual Language, it deals with the identity representations offered by emoji in the digital world. In the thirtieth chapter titled Projection of Oriented Elements: White Man’s Burden, the structures of domination starting with colonialism are examined through cinema narratives in the context of orientalism. Reflections of Orientalism and Modernism in the Film “Hamam” by Ferzan Özpetek, in the thirtyfirst chapter, examines the reflections of orientalism and modernism in the movie Hamam. In the thirty-second chapter, Reiterative Presentation of the East in Western Produced Video Games: A Foucauldian Discourse Analysis, it examines how the stereotypical depiction of the East is repeated in video games produced by the East. In the thirty-third chapter titled The Creation of Sustainable Orientalism in Cinema, the relationship between the creation of sustainable orientalism in cinema and the political economy of the film industry is revealed by examining the indirect orientation of non-Western directors to self-orientalism through festivals and funds. In the thirty-fourth chapter, The Discursive Representation of Islam and Muslims in Movies, films focusing on September 11 and the Iraq War that followed it are examined. In the thirty-fifth chapter, A Comparative Study Oriented Tourism Advertisements in Turkey: The Internality of the Oriental-Self, the orientalist elements in media content are examined. In the thirty-sixth chapter titled Country in The East and West Claw: Winter Sleep, Anatolian people are discussed from an east-west perspective in the axis of the movie Winter Sleep. In the thirty-seventh chapter titled Searching For The East in The Shadow of The West Layla M.as The Portrait of An Oriental Woman In Modern Orientalist Discourse, European-centric arguments put forward in modern orientalist discourse. The film Layla M. (2016) is discussed with a critical approach.

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Preface

In the thirty-eighth chapter titled The Trial of Traditonal Turkish Culture with the Auto-Orientalist Cultural Industry, the experimentation of traditional culture with the auto-orientalist Turkish culture industry is examined from historical, sociological and economic perspectives. In the thirty-ninth chapter titled Women’s Image In Turkish Cinema In The Context of Oriented: The Samples Of “Tight Dress” Film, the Eastern women representations produced within the hegemonic discourse of the West on the axis of the movie Tight Dress are analyzed. In the 40th chapter titled An Orientalist “Journey” to Istanbul from the Super Bowl Final: The Shifting of Classical Orientalist Discourse, the orientalist elements in the Turkish Airlines commercial film “Journey”, and Turkish culture with these orientalist elements in Istanbul. how it is represented is examined. In the forty-first chapter titled Digital Games and Orientalism: A Look at Arab And Muslim Representation in Popular Digital Games, focuses on the orientalist perspective in digital games are evaluated. In the forty-second chapter titled Orientalism, Islamophobi and The Concept Of Otherization Through Civil Conflict, Digital Platform Netflix, The Example of The “Messiah” Series, the orientalist elements in Christ, are discussed. In the forty-third chapter titled Orientalism and Humor: Mariginalization of The Turks In 9GAG, the orientalist perspective on Turkish identity is analyzed on one of the well-known humor websites “9GAG”. In the forty-fourth chapter titled Evaluation of Women’s Perspective In The East Societies On New Media News, the representation of women in the media is discussed in the axis of eastern societies. The forty-fifth chapter titled The Otherization of Turkey In The Orientalıst Discourse: Turkey and Orientalism examines the changing orientalism and the construction of the Turkish image with the media. Transmedia Storytelling in Advertising: The Mediator Between Orientalism and Occidentalism, in the forty-sixth chapter, examines the relationship between transmedia storytelling and othering. The forty-seventh chapter titled Orientalist Representations of Antakya [Antioch-on-the-Orontes] in Digital Media Narrations criticizes the definition and misinterpretation of the East within the city of Antakya according to the Orientalist approach. In the forty-eighth chapter titled The West-East From Two Children’s Point of View The Example of BBC-TRT, it is discussed whether the media is a tool that produces orientalist representations and whether the media is effective in the internalization of orientalism. In the forty-ninth chapter titled The Transformation of Ion Perdicaris To Eden Perdicarıs As A Retro Scenario and Orientalist Codes In Art: Woman and East “To Be Saved” From Eastern, the film The Wind and The Lion is discussed through intertextual reading and discourse analysis in orientalist painting. In the fiftieth chapter titled Analysis of Poster Designs of Turkish TV Series on Ottoman History: Resurrection Ertugrul and Magnificent Century Examples, the poster designs of two Turkish TV series depicting the Ottoman Empire are examined. The fifty-first chapter titled Orientalist Discourse in Communication and Media: Analysis of Researches in the Field of Media and Communication in Terms of Orientalism explores the effects of orientalism in the media. In the fifty-second chapter titled From Theory to Discussion Orientalism and History from Past to Present, the relationship between orientalism and media and history is discussed. In fifty-third chapter titled Reflection of Orientalist Discourse on Netflix, Turkey: The Protector, the orientalist structures are analyzed in Protector. In the fifty-fourth chapter titled Reproducing Orientalism with Cinema: Aladdin (2019), it is analyzed how the orientalist perspective is reproduced with cinema, especially for the movie Aladdin. xxxix

Preface

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In the fifty-fifth chapter titled Orientalist Approaches In Advertising Sample Advertising With Nike “What Will They Say About You?” Slogan, the relationship between Nike advertising and orientalism is examined. In conclusion, this book is very important in terms of offering detailed interdisciplinary data for communications theorists, media analysts, practitioners, researchers, academicians, and students working in fields that include mass media, communications, film studies, ethnic studies, history, sociology, and cultural studies.

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Acknowledgment

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As editors, we owe a great debt of gratitude to our dear academics who wrote chapters for this book. This book will shed light on researchers, students and academics interested in the field thanks to the contributions of valuable authors. We would also like to express our gratitude to the academics of the editorial advisory board who provided full support in the constitution of the book. Finally, we would like to thank the IGI Global publishing house for giving us the chance to publish our edited book.



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Chapter 1

Orientalism From Past to Present, Traditional to Digital Suat Gezgin Yeditepe University, Turkey Seray Yalçın Kocaeli University, Turkey Ozan Evren Istanbul University, Turkey

ABSTRACT The concept of orientalism, which the Western world puts forward as an academic discipline in order to recognize the Eastern culture, is commonly defned as the efort of the West to facilitate the establishment of the hegemonical structure by building itself over the East. Although orientalism contains diferent defnitions, it is related to many concepts. Among these, there are concepts such as “geographical discoveries,” “colonialism,” “imperialism,” “ethnocentrism” that contribute to our understanding of the relationship between Western-Eastern opposition. Concepts such as “technology” and “digitalization” have been added to these concepts in today’s world, and the orientalist discourse continues through digital technologies. In this context, a new concept defned as “digital orientalism” has emerged. The study aims to explain the changing/transforming understanding of orientalism today by shedding light on the understanding of orientalism from the past to the present.

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INTRODUCTION Orientalism is basically simple but essentially it is very complex. For this reason, looking at the events, social dynamics and turning points of the East and the West in the historical process; it is very important to understand both orientalism and orientalist thought correctly. The further we go back in the history of humanity, the more we evaluate the events within the historical context, the more we can approach these concepts with a holistic perspective and add scientific meanings and values. In this context, one DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch001

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 Orientalism From Past to Present, Traditional to Digital

of the most important questions to be asked while making sense of orientalism should be how societies living in different parts of the world try to position themselves on the stage in the historical process. Throughout the history, many societies living on different continents have adopted the most appropriate lifestyle in order to maintain their continuity. One of the most important factors that shape the lifestyles of these societies is the geographical features of the region that they live in and environmental conditions accordingly. For example indigenous people living in the rainforests of Papua New Guinea, still have to gather food to survive today, as did all humans on earth 13,000 years ago. Among the swamp soil and the trees that do not provide food, considering that the most important food source of these people is the sagu palm in the rainforest, it can be understood why these people are food gatherers rather than being hunters. In this respect, the thought of ‘geography may be the destiny of people’ seems quite reasonable. Even today, we observe the reflections of societies leading to very different lives in different geographies. In fact, when we look at the history of the world, while in the 13 thousand years following the Ice Age, literate and industrial societies with metal tools emerged in various parts of the world where in the same period there were societies that were illiterate and engaged in farming or hunting using stone tools. These differences state a fundamental phenomenon in the history of the world and their reasons are unclear and open to discussion (Diamond, 2010). Attempts to find answers to these differences have been made many times and are still ongoing. However, each answer contains some paradigms within itself. Of the interest of social scientists, especially anthropologists and historians, some thinkers approached to this subject on the basis of biological differences: they claimed that any population was superior in innate talent, intelligence or drive. However, it is quite clear in the light of today’s scientific developments that different development of different people is not related to biological differences. These explanations are nothing more than a reflection of the orientalist thinking. On the other hand, social scientists such as the British Edward Tylor and the American Lewis Henry Morgan adopted some aspects of Darwin’s evolutionist approach and tried to explain the differences between societies and their progress at different speeds. Tylor argues that cultures progress in a series of evolutionary stages, while Lewis Henry Morgan states that societies have three stages of development which classifies savagery, barbarism and civilization and defines the stages with technological development levels (Bates, 2009). Engels, who was influenced by Morgan, defined the Western history as a representation of the general development of humanity and approached the development of society and civilizations unitary. In the Asian-type society, this type of society has been somewhat pushed out of history, as the state and society that pulled it around were considered separately (Balandier,2010). As it can be seen in Haris’ study, “these ideas are associated with the characteristic feature of the 19th century British anthropology (Victorian Era) when the foundations of Orientalism were laid. During this period, cultural evolution, the idea that human societies developed in a certain direction, with a series of evolutionary stages and the idea of Westerners as the final stage of this development is widely accepted. In this sense, the origin of cultural evolution is sought in primitive societies and these societies, as the simplest societies, constitute the lowest step of the chronological development. In this sense, culture expresses an understanding that assumes the single and linear historical development of Europe, which is the highest point of civilization”(Nar, 2014, p. 1661). Although it was seen that the view of societies and cultures was “one-sided” and Western oriented in the early periods when the science of anthropology emerged, this situation reversed with the development of anthropology. Although there is no consensus on why societies move at different speeds and stages, explanations that approach this issue through the geography factor are more widely accepted. 2

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 Orientalism From Past to Present, Traditional to Digital

Why is it important to seek an answer to this question, although there is no absolute answer yet? Are the criticisms right which state that the search for an answer to this question is a futile effort and that it only contributes to the orientalist discourse? Diamond (2010), answers the question of “If we manage to explain how one people has superiority over another, wouldn’t it be like justifying this superiority?” as follows: “This objection is based on a general tendency to confuse explaining reasons with accepting results. The use of historical explanation is a separate matter from explanation itself. Understanding is often to repeat or perpetuate the results; it serves the purpose of trying to change those consequences, not the belief. That’s why psychologists try to understand the souls of murderers and rapists and social historians try to understand genocides and the doctors try to understand the causes of illnesses. The aim of these researchers is not to justify murder, rape, genocide or diseases. On the contrary, they want to break this chain by understanding chained causes” (p. 7). As Diamond expresses, understanding chained causes leads to break chains. Therefore, seeking answers to this issue should not be considered as contributing to the orientalist discourse. On the other hand, it is a fact that orientalism builds its Eastern-Western opposition through the answers given to this question. “The flattening quality of orientalism that ignores the originality of Eastern societies is the product of its own ideological thesis. Theses in the form of ‘progressive, civilized Western society’ against Eastern society, which is claimed to be static and underdeveloped, have created the ideological cover of the colonization process that forms the basis of capitalism’s progress towards the imperialist stage. Although the underdevelopment and progressiveness may be a thesis that can be attributed to a certain historical period, they arise from the framework of the Western centrist ideology that glorifies the stage of capitalism has reached in the West which is accepted as the end of history”(Keskinok, 2016). Before moving on to the dynamics that orientalism holds, it would be appropriate to try to explain the thoughts that feed the Western-centric ideology. Societies tend to judge customs according to their own standards, and this is not a phenomenon unique to Western societies. Almost every society finds the customs and traditions of different societies extraordinary and tends to look dissatisfied with them (Bates, 2009). According to Levi-Strauss (2014), “Everyone calls what they are not accustomed to as barbarian” (p. 9) but every habit, every belief or custom can be explained in its own context, no matter how strange, shocking or even revolting it seems. This situation, which is called ethnocentrism, is one of the main causes of inter-communal conflicts. Almost all of the political turmoil, wars and conflicts in history arise from the ethnocentric perspective. According to William G. Summer, the ethnocentric perspective is “more pride, arrogance, seeing one group’s beliefs superior to others” (https://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/Ethnocentrism). An ethnocentric approach lies at the basis of the West’s adoption of the idea that it is “superior” to the East and the effort to establish dominance over the East. Systems of thought such as Eurocentricity or American Exceptionalism emerged from this perspective. According to Clastres (1991), “every culture is ethnocentric by definition within the framework of its narcissistic relationship with itself. However, there is an important difference between Western ethnocentrism and its ‘primitive’ counterpart; any indigenous or Australian tribe also holds its own culture superior to others, but never tries to form a scientific discourse on other cultures” (p. 17). It is possible to say that the cultural ethnocentrism of Western thought, which is based on an exotic view of non-Western societies, has risen even more with reaching the Eastern lands. In the 15th century, the geographic discoveries initiated by Europeans for reasons such as seeing and recognizing the richness of the East, buying the goods of the East first hand, making new roads and maps and spreading their religion, created a breaking point in the history of the world. Geographical discoveries led to the start 3

 Orientalism From Past to Present, Traditional to Digital

of colonial activities and the spread of Western culture to the world. Europeans’ discovery of unfamiliar geographies turned into a colonial activity, more than a discovery in the short term. In this context, it would be appropriate to say that the first orientalists were Western explorers, geographers or missionaries. Zinn (2018), quotes Christoph Columb’s sentences written for the Arawak people from the ship diary as follows: “They brought us parrots, cotton bolls, spears and many other things and exchanged them with glass beads and rattles. They are ready to change everything they have. They have developed and healthy bodies and handsome faces. They are unarmed and do not recognize weapons. When I showed them a sword they cut themselves clumsily by their sharp edges. They don’t use iron. They make their spears out of reeds. These can be good slaves. With fifty people, we can submit to all of them and get what we want” (p. 7). Indeed, it happened as Columbus said. The West tried to get to know the peoples in different geographies with the explorers sent to the East. However, this is not a real meeting, but rather a method of figuring out how the West can pacify those societies in order to give them consent to their own regime. While doing this, West also wanted to attract the indigenous peoples to their own religion through the missionaries they sent. The West has gained the “power” thanks to the colonial activities, which is the result of the efforts to establish dominance over the societies that the Western world thinks. This problematic, romanticized as geographical discoveries, is “discovery” for Europeans while it means “occupation”, “slavery”, “exploitation” for the Indians in America, the Aztecs in the Yucatan Peninsula, the Incas, the Mayans or the African natives. The concept of geographical discovery can also be evaluated as an orientalist discourse as a result of the Eurocentric historical fiction and perception. On the other hand, “like missionary, orientalism strengthened the dominance of the West and nurtured Western colonialism. This situation has delayed the questioning of the legitimacy of the West at different levels” (Bets, 2018, p. 9). This study tries to reveal how the orientalist thought emerged and aims to explain the digital orientalism understanding considering the historical and intellectual processes that feed orientalism. While the first part of the study, which consists of two parts, sheds light on the concept of orientalism, the second part will discuss the concept of “digital orientalism” in the context of today’s changing social dynamics.

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A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE CONCEPT OF ORIENTALISM Although there is no consensus on when the concept of orientalism originated from the word “oriens”, which means “sunrise” in Latin, the general opinion is that it first appeared in the universities of the period in the 14th century by the Council of Vienna in order to understand the Eastern culture. Interested in Eastern culture, the West met the East with the Crusades and Geographical Discoveries during this period. After this meeting, departments such as Arabic, Syriac, Hebrew Language and Literature Departments were opened in various Western universities in order to understand the culture and richness of the East. Orientalism, which is also accepted as the science of the East, was used in England in 1779 and in France in 1799, and passed to the dictionary of the French Language Academy in 1883 (Turner, 2003; Nar, 2014). Contemporary criticism of orientalism has its origins in Edward Said. According to Said, the authority of the orientalist discourse is directly proportional to the success of constructing a reality through various prejudices affirming the Western world. These prejudices encode the West as the center of the

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 Orientalism From Past to Present, Traditional to Digital

world and the birthplace of civilization forever, and therefore the West is seen as the inheritor of modern civilization according to these prejudices (Jamerson, 2017, p.122-123). Since it is a system that transforms orientalism into an ideology, an operation beyond Eastern science, Edward Said was criticized by many orientalists when he put forward his thoughts that orientalism was not innocent at all. British-American historian Bernard Lewis said, “If someone says that ancient Greek studies can only be done by the Greeks, and that the ancient Greek researchers that were not done by the Greeks were spies and malevolent, we would consider him crazy. However, these views can gather supporters from the living orientals”(Ortaylı, 2009). Edward Said’s competence in the field, his experience and his being a Palestinian Christian Arab are two important factors that make his views on orientalism so popular. While defining orientalism, Said discussed the understanding of Reasoning (Discourse), which he described in Michel Foucault’s “Archeology of Knowledge” and “Discipline and Punishment”. Using Foucault’s knowledge-power formula, he emphasized that power and knowledge are intertwined with each other (Bulut, 2012). According to Lewis, who criticized Said’s view of orientalism, defined the concept as a school of painting composed mostly of Western European painters who have visited the Middle East, North Africa and painted what they saw or imagined, mostly in a romantic and extreme style. According to a more accepted definition, orientalism is a branch of academicism. In fact, with the Renaissance, there were Hellenists studying Greek in Western Europe, Latin who studied Latin, and they were called ‘classicalists’, while Hebrewists who studied Hebrew were called ‘orientalists’ (Lewis 1982 as cited in Bulut, 2012, p. 8) . Although Orientalism emerged as a science for the first time, it has been conceptualized over the West’s Eastern fiction, in this sense it is a complex subject that should not be considered one-sided. “Orientalism basically includes both a West-centered asymmetric world perception and in this context, it portrays a low, underdeveloped and irrational East” (Komel, 2014, p. 74). “The West defines itself by ‘alienating’ the East, in other words, by inventing an ‘East’ that is its completely opposite, by ‘Orientalizing’ the East” (Bulut, 2004, p. 13). Said (2016) stated that orientalism is a collective institution dealing with the Orient, and for the orientalist, he made the definition of “the person who researches, makes judgments, explains and teaches these provisions” for the orientalist (p. 4). On the other hand, it contains many different definitions within orientalism According to Said (1989), the first of these; Orientalism is a model of thinking based on the ontological and epistemological distinction between East and West, and includes the imagination between East and West. According to the second definition, orientalism is a discipline unique to Western universities that want to research and understand Eastern societies. Another definition is that Orientalism is a Westcentered institution that deals with the East, and the West is the way to dominate the East, re-establish it and become its supervisor. However, the point that needs to be underlined here is not that orientalism determines every word about the East unilaterally but that orientalism is a web of interests that inevitably comes into play and acts when it comes to the Orient. “In other words, Said defines Orientalism as a discourse-with reference to Michel Foucault-a discourse that through journalism, literature, academia and politics, encouraged, legitimized and even enabled or produced the British domination of great portions of the East” (Höglund, 2008). In this context, we can roughly define orientalism as follows: “An Orientalist discourse can be briefly defined as a communicative field that privileges Euro-American centric ways of thinking about places or people not considered part of Europe or the US.” (Jamerson, 2017, p. 122). The European-American centered way of thinking has a structure that legitimizes the superiority of the West over the East. Be5

 Orientalism From Past to Present, Traditional to Digital

cause as the West researches and learns the East, it opens up new areas where it can dominate the East. In this sense, orientalism shows itself in many different areas. Orientalism has appeared in many fields of art since the first time it emerged. While it was in close contact with the art of painting in the past, today it has spread to almost every field of art. In the early periods, Western artists, who had never seen the East and reflected their curiosity about the East and the images in their mind through their artworks, depicted the East with mysterious, hedonistic elements, on the other hand, they showed it as barbarian, primitive societies. Especially in the 19th century, we see that Western painters generally portray the West in an exaggerated way. From painting to literature, from plastic arts to cinema; art has become a tool of the West to strengthen the orientalist thought. Until recently, cinema has been one of the strongest fields of activity of the orientalist perspective. Cinema, which is an effective mass communication tool, reflects the beliefs and value judgments of Eastern societies by exaggerating and detaching them from context. The West, through the cultural representations of the East, overthrows the local and glorifies its own culture through historical distortions, excluding other than itself. Cinema, which is an effective tool in the production of mind-consciousness, sometimes alienates the East in individuals’ minds thanks to the meaning systems it creates with signs. But is orientalism’s current field of activity limited only to cinema? What tools does orientalism use in today’s digital age?

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FROM TRADITIONAL ORIENTALISM TO DIGITAL ORIENTALISM While using art as a tool, orientalism has found a wider area with the development and diversification of communication technologies. Especially with the introduction of mass media into our lives, the sphere of influence of orientalism has gradually increased. Mass media, which is one of the most important sources for the West to produce the image of the East, ensures the continuity of the orientalist perspective with its structure reaching millions. Especially mass media such as television programs, advertisements and cinema spread the orientalist discourse to the world. However, nowadays, thanks to the rapid progress of technological developments, the process of distribution of information has also become digital, and traditional mass media have taken new digital mass media. Orientalist discourse was also affected by this change and continued through digital technologies. In this context, a new concept of orientalism, defined as “digital orientalism”, has emerged. Jahshan (2014, p. 7) states that the images of the conflict broadcast on television during the Korean and Vietnam wars or, more recently, the reflection of the Iraqi War on the media are phenomenons that can be evaluated in this context, and at this point, indicates that Said’s“Theatrical of the East”definition is fully implemented in a digital context. However, when we consider the concept of digital orientalism within the current technological developments, it would be more appropriate to associate it with internet-based, especially new media technology, independent of the traditional mass media. According to Komel (2014) orientalism shows itself in the digital context as well as in the real world today. Social media platforms, environments such as computer or console games are among these areas where orientalism is seen. Digital games, in particular, target adolescents and young adults, causing the orientalist discourse to be easily processed. The game industry constantly releases digital games and these games are consumed very quickly. Quickly consumed popular culture products can easily affect the minds of individuals. 6

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 Orientalism From Past to Present, Traditional to Digital

Orientalism spreads its perspective imposed by digital games and popular culture products to the masses. “In parallel with the orientalist discourse in these products, the Eastern lands are reflected as a geography full of rich underground resources and treasures; Eastern societies are shown as barbaric, lazy, ignorant, aggressive and arrogant. Any kind of intervention in the East, which is defined as the opposite of the West and emphasized that it is in need of governance, is shown as legitimate. All of the symbols that make up the cultural image of the East are defined as anti-Western”(Taşkıran, 2019, p. 98). One of the studies on this subject was made by Sisler. In the analysis made by Sisler based on qualitative data, 15 computer games in the Middle East were discussed. According to this study, the representation of Arabs and Muslims in the game plays an important role in playing these games (Sisler, 2008). In this sense, digital orientalism is the face of a more insidious and more indirect hegemony compared to the traditional supremacy (Jahshan, 2014). “Just as travelers, historians and researchers in their time created the imaginary image of the East with novels, encyclopedias or paintings, this is accomplished today through video games, TV series and movies. After Said’s conceptualization of orientalism, the relations between East and West have been redefined according to power and power relations. In a sense, Orientalism is the West’s vision of being developed, powerful and modern in the mental world of the East. Western societies are in an effort to show the countries or societies that are in economic, political and technological conflict with them as bad, passive and inferior. Techno-orientalist thought is an effort to prove to East Asian countries and then to the whole world that the West is still strong especially in the context of America”(Becerikli, 2020, p. 1069). The emphasis on “West” when talking about orientalism is also considered to be Europe-America. However, there are some differences between the way Europe and America define the East. According to Said (1989) the East for Americans; especially China and Japan, that is the Far East. On the other hand, there is an understanding of the East for Europeans as being its “opposite image”. While explaining another aspect of digital orientalism, it is very important to make these two distinctions. Because in today’s technology world, orientalism has changed its shell. While traditional orientalism is transforming into digital orientalism, this concept refers to orientalism with a more American perspective. Therefore, talking about digital orientalism should not be mentioned without mentioning the USA and the technology race of the USA. “Today, America holds a position strikingly similar to that held by the British Empire of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Claims have been made both by the critical left and by the approving, neoconservative right that America, in fact, constitutes an empire” (Höglund, 2008). The USA is indeed making a name for itself in many fields and especially with its moves in digital technologies. While the leading country in the West is the USA, it is China in the East. Today, it is a fact that China takes a leading position in the production of technology. So much so that many technological products from mobile phones to computers, camera equipment to electrical objects, data storage devices to processors are produced in China. The overpopulation and cheap labor in East Asia causes the other parts of the world to carrytheir technology investments to countries in East Asia, especially China. The rapid rise of China and its technological development disturbsthe USA. In this context, tension between China and USA rises from time to time. One of the widelyknown examples of this is the Huawei crisis between USA and China. With the Huawei crisis, while China describes the US’ heavy moves against it as “economic fascism”, the US expresses its insistence on not backing down at every opportunity.On the other hand, with the Covid-19 pandemic, the competition between USA and China has become even

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more conflicted. By some commenters the statements of USA that the coronavirus was spread to the world by China are related to the fact that USA sees the rise of China as a threat. According to Mahoney and Mayer (2020), the US targeting China’s technology giant Huawei is due to an old fear that China might object to the West’s claim to be superior in civilization. If we approach the subject in terms of digital orientalism; according to Edward Said, the West has revealed itself as a superior civilization, legitimizing its hegemony with technological developments. Especially USA, which places itself in the center of the world, has started to see its technological progress as a “threat” while waiting for the collapse of China. Under the emergence of the concept of digital orientalism and effort to dominate the technologyglobally lies the West’s attempt to see the East as a “threat”. Mahoney and Mayer (2020) state that China is increasingly looking like the West with its unstoppable rise. On the other hand, it emphasizes that the West, which uses technologies similar to China’s technologies in the field of monitoring and public surveillance, has also started to resemble China. It is a fact that this similarity is not surprising in the globalizing world. However, this similarity is alarming for the USA, which is trying to dominate the East. Therefore, the USA did not delay in turning this situation in its favor. It is at this point that the concept of digital orientalism becomes meaningful: The West reflects the Chinese technology as “fearful” for the development of China in technology. This fear, which is expressed over the fact that China’s digital surveillance technologies are terrifying, makes the West’s own digital surveillance technologies more innocent. Shortly, “digital orientalism conceals how much democratic societies face the experiences and problems of the use of technology in China. It also prevents us from discussing socio-technological futures and the good society we need to imagine, by creating a ‘dangerous other’ and putting misleading dichotomies on the spot” (Mahoney & Mayer, 2020). Chinese and Western-based surveillance technologies are rapidly increasing and spreading around the world. Almost every country today uses surveillance technologies. In today’s world, where surveillance is tried to be legitimized, those under surveillance cooperate voluntarily “unwittingly” with the observers. While individuals worry about surveillance, they also become indifferent to the surveillance of their own countries under digital orientalist discourses. This indifference provides a comfortable environment for surveillance. It is also worth mentioning that in a world where smartphones, watches, computers, cameras located at every point under the name of security, face recognition systems constantly monitor and observe people, the ethical framework of this alarming situation should be determined and its boundaries should be clarified.

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FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTION In today’s world where internet based technologies are developing without slowing down and societies are changing accordingly, orientalism is applied in a different dimension. In this context, digital orientalism, which emerges as a relatively new concept, needs further research and discussion. In this new era in which we are surrounded by social networks, in the immensity of digital developments, drawing new boundaries should be the primary task for us social scientists, especially communication specialists. Finding out unanswered questions, searching answers for unanswered questions… We know that modernization that developed with the Modern Age; politically, nation-states created capitalism in the economic sense and urban life in the social sense. Humanity has taken another step. What about digitalization, which has affected the world with the Information Age, has / will bring to humanity? To which 8

 Orientalism From Past to Present, Traditional to Digital

point will issues such as orientalism evolve with digitalization which has been discussed from the past to the present? Seeking answers to these questions is very important in understanding the past, present and future.

CONCLUSION Today, where everything is digitalized, traditional orientalism has also been reconceptualized as digital orientalism. Orientalism has been given new meanings through technology and digitalization. Indeed, considering the technological developments in the world, the necessity of examining orientalism in a new dimension has emerged. While the differences between the East and the West were very visible in the historical process, orientalism had to reconstruct itself in the globalizing world where the differences decreased. This situation, which is made clear by technology and digitalization, makes it necessary for orientalism to continue its existence through new fields. In the first part of the study, we mentioned why it is important to seek an answer to the question of why societies have gone through different stages of development in the historical process. Today, the rise of China and East Asia in technology and the equalization of the technological progress conditions with the West do not prevent the West from continuing its orientalist discourses in the “digital dimension”. The structure of orientalism that puts the West in the center through inter-communal differences in the beginning, continues in a more hidden and dangerous way in today’s world where differences are decreasing.

REFERENCES Balandier, G. (2010). Siyasal Antropoloji [Political Anthropology]. İş Bankası Kültür Publishing. Bates, G. D. (2009). 21. Yüzyılda Kültürel Antropoloji: İnsanın Doğadaki Yeri [Cultural Anthropology]. İstanbul Bilgi University Press. Becerikli, F. (2020). Wolverine (2013) Filminin TeknoOryantalizm Bağlamında İncelenmesi [An Analysis of The Wolverine (2013) in terms of Techno-Orientalism]. Journal of Erciyes Communication, 7(2), 1055–1076. Bets, F. R. (2018). Dekolonizasyon [Decolonization]. Büyüyen Ay Publishing.

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Bulut, Y. (2004). Oryantalizmin Kısa Tarihi [Brief History of Orientalism]. Küre Publishing. Bulut, Y. (2012). Orientalism’in Ardından [After Orientalism]. Sociology Journal, 3(24), 1–57. Clastres, P. (1991). Devlete Karşı Toplum [Society Against the State]. Ayrıntı Publishing House. Diamond, J. (2010). Tüfek Mikrop Çelik [Guns Germs and Steel]. Tübitak Publishing of Popular Science. Höglund, J. (2008). Electronic Empire: Orientalism Revisited in the Military Shooter. The International Journal of Computer Game Research, 8(1). http://gamestudies.org/0801/articles/hoeglund

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Jahshan, P. (2014). Cyber-Orientalism and the Virtualization of an Image: Edward Said’s Legacy for a Digital Century. In CASAR Fifth International Conference, Beirut, Lebanon. Jamerson, T. (2017). Digital Sociologie. In J. Daniels, K. Gregory, & T. Cottom (Eds.), Digital Orientalism: TripAdvisor and Online Travelers’ Tales (pp. 119-137). Policy Press. Keskinok, Ç. (2016). Oryantalizmden emperyalizme doğru doğu toplumlarına batı merkezci yaklaşımların eleştirisi [Criticism of western approaches to eastern societies from orientalism to imperialism]. Journal of Science and Utopia. https://www.bilimveutopya.com.tr/oryantalizmden-emperyalizme-dogru-dogutoplumlarina-bati-merkezci-yaklasimlarin-elestirisi Komel, M. (2014). Orientalism İn Assassing’s Creed: Self-Orientalizing The Assassings From Forerunners of Modern Terrorism Into Occidentalized Heros. Teorija in Praksa, 51(1), 72–90. https://search. proquest.com/docview/1518934407?accountid=13314 Lévi-Strauss, C. (2014). Hepimiz Yamyamız [We Are All Cannibals: And Other Essays]. Metis Publishing. Mahoney, G. J., & Mayer, M. (2020). Donald Trump’s campaign against Huawei is a symptom of digital orientalism, ignoring similarities in Chinese and Western surveillance.https://amp-scmp-com.cdn. ampproject.org/c/s/amp.scmp.com/comment/opinion/article/3046357/trumps-campaign-against-huaweisymptom-digital-orientalism-ignoring Nar, Ş. M. (2014). Oryantalizm Üzerine Antropolojik Tartışmalar [Anthropological Discussions On Orientalism]. Turkish Studies-International Periodical For The Languages. Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic, 9(5), 1651–1669. Ortaylı, İ. (2009). Tarih ve Medeniyet [History and civilization]. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=6ir3HhwOO5Y.TRT Said, E. (1989). Oryantalizm Sömürgeciliğin Keşif Kolu [Orientalism]. Pınar Publishing. Said, E. (2016). Şarkiyatçılık [Orientalism]. Metis Publishing. Šisler, V. (2008). Digital Arabs: Representation in video games. European Journal of Cultural Studies, 11(2), 203–220. Taşkıran, Y. (2019). Dijital Oyunlarda Oryantalist Söylem [Orientalist Discourse İn Digital Games]. University of Atatürk.

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Turner, B. S. (2003). Oryantalizm, Postmodernizm ve Globalizm [Orientalism, Postmodernism and Globalism]. Anka Publishing. Zinn, H. (2018). Amerika Birleşik Devletleri Halklarının Tarihi [A People’s History of the United States]. İmge Publishing. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orientalism

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ADDITIONAL READING Abu-Lughod, L. J. (1991). Before European Hegemony: The World System A.D. 1250-1350. Oxford University Press. Almond, I. (2007). The New Orientalists: Postmodern Representations of Islam from Foucault to Baudrillard. I.B. Tauris. doi:10.5040/9780755696154 Bhabha, K. H., & Mitchell, W. J. T. (2005). Edward Said: Continuing the Conversation. University of Chicago Press Journals. Geiselberger, H. (2017). The Great Regression. Polity Press. Gould, J. S. (1996). The Mismeasure of Man. W. W. Norton & Company. Kottak, C. (2008). Anthropology: The Exploration of Human Diversity (13th ed.). McGraw-Hill. Rodney, W. (2012). How Europe Underdeveloped Africa. Pambazuka Press. Said, E. (1993). Culture and Imperialism. Knopf Publishing. Wolf, R. E. (2010). Europe and the People Without History. University of California Press.

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITION

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Digital Orientalism: Continuation of the orientalist discourse through digital communication tools in today’s world and a new approach to orientalism that emerged accordingly. Ethnocentrism: A belief that one’s own culture is superior to other cultures. Geographical Discoveries: The conventional term employed in historical literature to designate the major geographical discoveries made by European voyagers from the mid-15th to the mid-17th centuries. Imperialism: A condition in which one country has a lot of power or influence over others country, especially in politics and economic matters. Missionary: A person sent by a country to foreign countries to spread its religion. Orientalism: In short Western ideas about East. A thinking system that enables Europe-America centered thinking about the east. Orientalist: A person who does research about the east, rules over, explains these judgements and teaches them.

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Chapter 2

The Construction of Orientalist Discourse in the Documentary Series on the Digital Broadcasting Platform Netflix Hüdai Ateş Ege University, Turkey Alev Fatoş Parsa Ege University, Turkey

ABSTRACT Developing technology and communication opportunities show that the audience can access fction and documentary flms more easily than in previous years. This research reveals the extent of globalization with the development of communication technologies and how orientalism takes place in documentary flms through a netfix documentary. The orientalist perspective is transformed into a global perception through documentary flms and documentary series on digital platforms, World’s Most Wanted, Samantha Lewthwaite: The White. In this documentary, how the orientalist elements take place and how Islam is portrayed as a terror religion is revealed with the method of semiotic analysis, and the meanings created by the written-audio codes are revealed.

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INTRODUCTION “Everything is known through its opposite” … Explaining almost everything, this aphorism also clarifies the reason for the existence of the concept of Orientalism which was systematized by Edward Said and which refers to Western view on the East, their values, and the way they evaluate the East for the last three hundred years. The Eastern societies that had been colonized since the 18th century gradually lost power against the West and were dragged into a mentality that accepts the central position and the attitudes of the West. While defining themselves, these societies have considered the question of how DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch002

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 The Construction of Orientalist Discourse in the Documentary Series

modern they are as an equivalent for the question of how Westernized they are or they seem; and tried to define themselves through Western civilization. This accepted superiority of Western civilization has gradually been perceived as an almost natural, internal process by Eastern societies. Following the accumulation of knowledge that lasted for years after the Age of Enlightenment, the West transformed itself into a merely universal subject of knowledge by stigmatizing other societies in different fields. At the heart of the process of constructing the perception of “we” and “they” lie exclusion and differentiation. This process that begins at society level with looking down on those apart from themselves moves down to individuals; while doing this, different criteria are used in different fields. Perhaps the most common one of these criteria is the comparison of cultural values. The comparison of cultural values is conveyed and imposed to the society by means of art and literature. With the development of communication technologies, the East-West dichotomy and the Orientalist discourse that started with painting and literature have passed on another dimension via films, news, the media in the internet environment with different structures, and finally, via digital platforms. The media, by its nature, influences to a great extent the way people think, perceive, and live. At the same time, it constitutes one of the most important means of representation as well. Every visual-audial message placed on the media constructs a new reality in the minds of the viewers. Discovering to use the media much better functionally earlier than Eastern societies, the West managed to spread much more effectively and rapidly the perception of reality it wanted to construct concerning the East-West dichotomy which is one of the dichotomies existed all through human history. It is evident that there is no other type of program on the media and the digital platforms than documentary films and documentary series that claim to represent reality. By their nature, documentary films claim that they convey or reveal the reality; they are transporters of culture, transmitters of values. Reproducing knowledge within the process of establishing connection with reality, they produce new forms of representation as well. This study scrutinizes how the East is represented with the Orientalist point of view in documentary films. In this context, a five-episode documentary series named The Most Wanted (Netflix/2020) has been selected by goal-oriented sampling among the documentary productions on digital platforms; and the study discusses how the narration and the meaning is constructed through the phenomenon of religion and how orientalist values penetrate beneath the surface in the episode “Samantha Lewthwaite: The White Widow” which is the third episode of the series. In the documentary, the crime of terrorism is told from a Western director’s perspective through Islam. Through semiotic film analysis, the study puts forward the connection of the discourse used in the documentary series with the signs and presents in a table how the Orientalist images and the associations or myths created by connotations are constructed. As a result, it has been revealed that the documentaries on the digital platforms are also influenced by Orientalism, and that it is tried to make the audience discredit Islam. Based on the thought that everything exists with its opposite, the study tries to uncover the paradoxical contradictions between the East and the West along with the dichotomies and conflicts that are open to discussion and that do not contain a certain judgment in this documentary series.

Digital Platforms as Means of Globalization When considered as a process, globalization is a concept having a history of almost 500 years. The globalization tendency which began with the desire of the explorers who set off from the West to discover other places on earth showed itself as a consequence of the enslavement of Africa, the black continent; peasantry evolving into bourgeoisie; the industrial revolution; and the spread of the new colonialist

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 The Construction of Orientalist Discourse in the Documentary Series

economic structure that developed with the emergence of nation states. In this new form of economy, the local markets expanded and grew bigger; materialistic and interest-based relationships gradually spread; the traditional production was diminished and profit-oriented production was placed in the center; and international capital expanded further all around the world. The new form of economy changed, transformed and globalized every market it entered. Destroying, plundering, or despising the previously existing one are the characteristics of this system which is named as capitalism by social science scholars working on society (Koç, 2003: 52-54). In this context, globalization developed parallel with the rapid spread of the capitalist understanding and showed itself clearly. For this reason, ‘globalization’ has been one of the phenomena discussed for the last 50 years in many disciplines, especially in social sciences. The developing technological substructure along with the innovations in transportation and communication constitute the fundamental dynamics of this phenomenon; thus, this concept has developed not only in political economy but also in all the fields in social life. This phenomenon which affected all the individual and social classes paved the way for many fundamental changes in human life ranging from social interaction to individual differences. The phenomenon of globalization which also refers to a social change process has gained great speed and acceleration for it makes long distances come closer in a short time with satellite broadcasting, new communication technologies, electronic substructure systems, and fast means of transport. Big developments and innovations in new communication technologies along with the great convenience brought about by mass broadcasting made it possible to transmit the event, situation or information emerged at any point in the world even to the most remote places. In this sense, mass media made globalization occur in an extremely widespread, rapid, and effective way. In terms of time and space, today’s world is in a completely different shape in the minds of the people with a totally new understanding compared to the past. Getting from one point to another is much easier; sending information to another part of the world with a few finger moves is even simpler and faster by the help of communication technologies. It is inevitable that the interactions that are simplified and accelerated to such a degree bring along many changes; this increased the dependency of states on each other. As a consequence of these changes, the globalization phenomenon which cannot be reduced to a single dimension since it refers to a versatile and different process in terms of economy, politics, society, and culture started to be defined in different ways. In the general sense, the globalization phenomenon is the process in which Northwestern rich countries keep their hegemonic attitude and superiority against poor countries. Globalization deals with whether the economic, politic, social, and cultural rules set by these countries are accepted by undeveloped countries; and it is based on the mentality that determines these countries as global actors (Talas, 2005: p. 99-101). Zygmont Bauman, who made postmodern philosophy applied in the field of sociology, states that the globalization phenomenon which moves on versatilely is basically a process of change, and it brings about time and space compression. In this way, both time and space change, and this process changes societies and people as well. Thus, the world is standardized. According to Bauman, globalization divides while uniting; the more it unites, the more it divides into pieces at the same time (2017, p. 8). Apparently, globalization cannot be considered as a single concept; in parallel with the developments it brings about, it should also be scrutinized in terms of its positive and negative aspects that should be examined separately. While many thinkers speak of globalization with its positive aspects, many others criticize it and take its negative aspects into consideration. It is these opposite point of views that provide progress in the scientific area.

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 The Construction of Orientalist Discourse in the Documentary Series

Concerning its impact especially on the countries where there is more consumption than production, globalization is used in a totally negative meaning because according to them, local cultures cannot be globalized, but the strong brands of international capital can. This leads to the disappearance of the local; the local somehow vanishes. However, when considered in terms of culture and art, it is a well-known fact that they reflect the society they belong. Created after the local is wiped out by the dominant culture or art norms brought about by globalization, the artistic or cultural product wipes out the diversity, uniqueness, and subjectiveness of the societies as well. Although interaction, common language or reference is among the indispensables of art, the negative aspect of the concept of globalization is clearly revealed when the globalized one wipes out the other. In today’s world, no phenomenon or concept can be considered independent of political economy. Consequently, almost every job serves the financial interest as this economic power has been set as the primary condition for existence and hegemony. Today, the dominance of international capital which constitutes the economic leg of globalization has reached all countries including the United States of America. When big capitals are represented with a worldwide brand, this brand can manipulate the world, the consumer and most of the people (Kongar, 1997: 1). Therefore, globalization which is considered separately with each of its aspects can never be thought independent of economy. In other words, global economic activities are more determinative compared to all other areas. As a natural consequence, the societies which cannot withstand the global economy make social, political, cultural and economic compromises. This not only means the loss of some values, but also results in a consuming society to which a unilateral and dominant culture is imposed. The most fundamental one of the varying needs of the economic units is communication. Trading worldwide and reaching many more sources effectively in a short time depend on the development of communication and information technologies. Mass media along with the new media makes it possible for any information to be spread to very large masses as well as a single person. This technological development process which started with the printing machine continued with the information revolution through radio, cinema, television and telephone, and reached its golden age with the internet and mobile devices. Being indispensable for new communication technologies, the internet has become the most fundamental actor of McLuhan’s global village as well. Besides creating the global network society, the internet and digitalization of the media has led to radical changes in the ways people live, think, perceive and understand (Ustakara, 2014: p. 340). As the internet is so powerful and effective, this new communication form has an impact in particular on people, and in general on societies and cultures. In this interactive communication age when everybody and everthing is affected in some way and speed is in the forefront, culture also gets its share from change and transformation. Today when cultural elements show changes continuously, a global and similar culture is constructed; local cultures lose impact and are defeated by the global culture. At this point, the main problem is that the West who has the possession of the global media, which means, therefore the possession of the power to create a new culture has also the power to spread its own opinion and mentality overlooking all systems of thought and cultures. Hence, the thing that is referred as global culture is in fact the Western culture resulted from the hegemonic attitudes of the Western societies (Yılmaz, 2007: p. 507). With the development of communication technologies, the West started to show itself more and spread to the world, which started the process of cultural imperialism. While global culture is being gradually adopted by undeveloped or developing countries, the local vanishes or hybrid cultures are born out of the combination of two cultures. The internet environment constitutes the dominant power that increases the pace of globalization more compared to other forms of communication. Unlike traditional broadcasting, the digitalization of 15

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 The Construction of Orientalist Discourse in the Documentary Series

analogue methods has made it possible to share sounds, images and all kinds of information much easier via computers and the internet technology. The process has reached its peak with satellite broadcasting; the conventional methods are substituted with fiber optic cables. Till 1960s, cinema, till 2000s, television, and today, the internet has been the locomotive of globalization. Thus, underdeveloped societies have had the opportunity to know and examine the world in a more detailed way. It is evident that cinema and television continue to have an impact; however, the internet provides a more powerful and effective, and at the same time, an interactive communication. Remembering that the first television dates back to 1930s, it is observed that broadcasting technology has reached to an unimaginable height of development in less than a century. As a consequence of the combination of the internet and television broadcasting, and switching to pay broadcasting, digital platforms have been developed; thus, broadcast of many programs is transmitted to masses ‘anytime anywhere’. Unlike traditional media, the internet provides a communication environment where there is no limit for time, place, scope, or speed which keeps on increasing day by day. These new opportunities also have an impact on the habits of television audience and make their habits evolve in a different direction. Several reasons such as the changes in preferences and priorities, the increase in the number of choices, and shortage of time made people turn towards digital platforms on which they do not have to stick to the time and stream process imposed by television and can schedule a particular stream on their own. Plenty of choices in different genres offered on a digital platform and having the chance to watch them anytime anywhere give the users a great opportunity and freedom in their choices of content. Therefore, the transformation of television broadcasting as a result of its combination with the internet has been rapidly accepted and new digital platforms are established all around the world. The technology companies and producers that develop digital broadcasting systems catch the audience who does not want to lose time with commercials and offer more quality time for a small but regular fee. Besides the internet, the development of mobile technologies and convergence and cross-media processes push the audience to the digital platforms as well. The practicality of setting broadcast streaming, time and place has also impressed producers as it made it possible to consume good quality productions anytime. Producers are also interested in local cultural and social events along with programs, series and films on a global scale. Therefore, the audience interests are taken into consideration all the time (Özsoy, 2000: 126). The integration of the internet into our daily life practices in a rapid and accessible way, mobile communication technologies, and their convergence with each other have led people to drift away from traditional media and prefer digital platforms. All of these are also named as cross-media; it provides individuals with easy access to the applications and contents that can be used via mobile phones and tablets anytime. In 1990’s, television broadcasting through online digital platforms was seen in the sector as a new kind of broadcasting. The development of mobile communication tools and the spread of internet use in 2000s brought pay television broadcasting to a new dimension (Chalaby & Segell, 1999: p. 352). The digital platforms which have a specific broadcasting system have a different structure compared to other systems. Payment options, reaccess to contents, and use on different devices such as tablets and phones are among these differences. The audience can set their preferences according to their priorities and choose among the alternatives. Making interactive broadcasting possible; having higher number of channel opportunities than a satellite by means of the internet; and providing access to hundreds

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of different kinds of programs anytime anywhere are the most prominent features of digital platforms (Koyuncu, 2017: p. 319). Digital platforms which provide the audience with different experiences develop their contents according to the feedback they get and the demands of the audience. With this digitalization, the audience is freed of the necessity to watch certain programs at a certain time and place, and helps to determine the content to be produced as well (Chalaby & Segell, 1999: 352). The digital platforms, which are very attractive for users both with their interfaces that provide easy use via applications downloaded on mobile phones and tablet computers and their rich and unique content, are global media tools that have a lot of types. Netflix, Hulu, DC Universe, Amazon Prime Video, Youtube Premium, CBS All Access are the biggest global digital platforms that have millions of users. In the given context, the world has switched to a different dimension with the brand new media while it is being globalized. The international global powers that have the possession of the media and new communication technologies can direct the flow of information in a certain direction and in certain ways by determining the content on the new digital platforms they founded. Besides, the opinions and values placed in the programs are imposed; hidden advertising of goods is done; and Western culture is imposed on the audience as a respectable and honorable culture.

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Netflix and Documentary Series Headquartered in California, Netflix Inc. is an American production company that provides technology and media services. It was established in 1997 in the Silicon Valley by Reed Hastings and Marc Randolph. A subscription-based streaming service is the primary business of the company. The subscribers can access to a library of films and television series – including Netflix productions – and watch them online. The company produces and distributes content in many countries for a certain fee and within the rules it has set. As for April 2020, Netflix has 173 million subscribers worldwide and 73 million in the USA – it is not used in mainland China due to local restrictions, and in Syria, Crimea, Iran and North Korea due to US sanctions (Investor Letter Q2, 2020). It should be remembered that it is the largest entertainment/media company by market capitalization. Netflix is a commercial digital broadcasting platform that offers its subscribers television shows, series, films, and documentaries for a certain monthly fee. The company provides its users with broadcasting service on a monthly subscription basis offering a variety of payment plans with no commitments. Offering unlimited viewing on all devices such as phones, tablets, computers or smart televisions; the opportunity to view the downloaded contents on phones without internet connection; the chance to continue to watch the contents anytime from where it was stopped are among the prominent features of Netflix. Along with the contents produced by various producers, Netflix also offers its own productions under the title “Netflix Originals”. Thus, Netflix is no longer only a broadcaster but also a producer offering service in almost 200 countries. Founded as a film rental service, the company started DVD rental by mail through internet orders in 1998. In 1999, it built its subscription system and introduced its film recommendation system in 2000 based on the calculated points given by the subscribers (Netflix, 2019). In 2005, the number of subscribers reached 4.2 million; and the broadcasting system in which all users can watch films and television programs on their personal computers was established in 2007. Company’s first foreign service out of the USA was given in Canada in 2010; in 2011, the company started its service in Latin America and the Caribbean. A year later, it started to gain recognition in many

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 The Construction of Orientalist Discourse in the Documentary Series

countries in Europe; and the number of countries it provided service increased day by day. In 2013, Netflix debuted its own productions titled Orange is the New Black, House of Cards, Arrested Development and Hemlock Grove. Furthermore, it earned the first nominations for original online-only web television programs at the Emmy Awards, and the film named Roma won the Oscars for “Best Director”, “Best Foreign Language Film” and “Best Cinematography” in the 91st Academy Awards. This digital platform which offers different content for each country describes itself as an “internet entertainment service”. Having 148 million users by year 2019, Netflix not only is an entertainment service but also has the role of a bearer of culture. This institution which has a very large number of followers offers different content to people in many different groups from children to the elderly. With its own productions, it has become highly popular all around the world and has reached very large masses. Even though it is not the only digital platform on the world, it has 71 percent of the global market with its original productions (Global Television Demand Report, 2018: p. 2). According to the results reported by Compari Tech in the first quarter of 2020, the number of subscribers in Turkey is over 1.7 million with a financial gain of 53 million dollars. This digital platform which has personalization features such as Pay TV, Mobile TV, Video on Demand, and Catch Up has become the pioneer of the new digital broadcasting system. The advanced personalization features provide the user with recommendations based on personal preferences. The algorithm built on the platform constitutes the basis for the recommendation system (Osur, 2016: p. 37). In the first years of establishment, Netflix defined itself as “an authoritative online source for movies”; in 2002, Hasting, one of the founders, made an explanation as follows: “What we believe is the true strength of the Netflix model: a proprietary system for personalizing movie recommendations for each subscriber via a remarkably powerful and innovative rating system. Instead of someone else’s tastes to guide a subscriber’s choices, Netflx builds a profile of each person’s movie likes and dislikes to truly personalize a DVD recommendation” (Osur, 2016: p. 37). Netflix, as a digital platform, is shown as one of the establishments that use social media in an active and up-to-date way. When the social media platforms such as Facebook, Instagram and Twitter are examined, it is observed that Netflix has developed a warm relationship with its followers, which is reflected in its replies to its users. The representatives of the platform who sometimes reply to the comments on the social media in a witty way follow local and global movements along with the current agenda and answer their users accordingly. Preparing different contents and types of programs depending on the demand of the users in the region or country where the service is provided, Netflix offers a wide range of content from series to films, from competition shows to documentaries. Although Netflix is the biggest representative of the sector, the company keeps developing its content all the time in order to acquire new subscribers and so as not to lose the existing ones. The platform which offered film rental service in the beginning gives weight to the production of films and documentaries today. Aiming to increase the number of subscribers and its prestige by winning international awards with its films, it makes great contribution to film production. Financially, films are generally the productions with the highest numbers. Therefore, films constitute the most powerful means of a global broadcaster like Netflix and the market. These films are means of not only increasing the number of subscribers and income, but also conveying the discourse, opinions, values and messages of the dominant ideology. Among these tools, documentaries are the type of films that are viewed the most seriously as they create the perception that they present the reality. The first film co-produced by Netflix and partner companies was Art of Conflict: The Murals of Northern Ireland (Directed by: Valeri Vaughn, 2012) which was distributed by Netflix as well. This film was 18

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also the first documentary film it produced. Following this film, Netflix made an exclusive distribution deal for a documentary about the Egyptian revolution named The Square (Directed by: Jehane Noujam, 2013) which won awards at the Toronto and Sundance film festivals and was nominated for the Oscar for “Best Documentary” (Zeitchik & Chmielewski, 2013). The documentary named The White Helmets (Directed by: Joanna Natasegara, 2016) which was distributed by Netflix won the Oscar for “Best Documentary – Short Subject” in 2017. Reaching 100 million subscribers all around the world, Netflix won the Oscar for “Best Documentary – Feature” for the film Icarus. Table 1. The Number of Films Netflix Produced by Year 2012

2013

2014

Film Documentary

1

1

7

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

2

18

40

70

40

7

10

19

18

22

2

4

7

6

1

1

3

4

7

10

31

66

99

75

Short Film Special Film Total

1

1

7

Source: (Netflix, 2019)

The number of films produced by Netflix between 2012 and September 2019 are presented in Table 1. It is observed that the institution began film production with documentaries. In 2015, feature film production was added to documentary production that started in 2012. Today, with its direct contribution to film production, Netflix is of great importance in the cinema industry. Many productions in different genres and almost 300 films have been produced since it began film production. Besides the USA where it was founded, Netflix also made films in many different countries with different directors in the languages of those countries. Nevertheless, the real contribution of Netflix was not in the film production sector but in distribution. The films are no longer viewed at movie theaters; they are viewed everwhere on mobile devices, computers, and televisions via digital platforms.

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Table 2. The Number of Films Netflix Distributed Internationally Films in English

54

Films in French

17

Films in Spanish

32

Films in Korean

11

Films in more than one language

11

Films in other languages

66

Total

191

Source: (Netflix, 2019)

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 The Construction of Orientalist Discourse in the Documentary Series

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Including films in many different languages such as Japanese, Spanish, French, and German, Netflix has bought distribution rights for films from different countries and offers them as contents on the platform. The contribution of Netflix in the film industry could not be ignored after it broke the record with the film Bird Box which reached 45 million viewers in a week. This number corresponds to the 32 percent of almost 140 million subscribers of Netflix in 2019 when the film was debuted. Despite all the negative criticism the film received, it was widely shared on social media accounts such as Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter, which caused an increase in the ratings (Clark, 2018). This also attracted the attention of film producers; they have started to produce films without being concerned about the boxoffice revenue as Netflix has canalized its investments to film productions to be offered to the already present viewers, not for the movie theaters. This tendency reveals how effective and powerful the impact of digital platforms on film industry is. While the traditional film industry is gradually being replaced by the digital film industry, the digital platforms see how the developing media technology influences film production and distribution with the Netflix example (Gür, 2018). Netflix has had an impact on many businesses including film industry and film festivals in the process it started with distribution. The first nominations of Netflix films in festivals started with documentaries. In the years when Netflix had just stepped into film production, the film The Square was nominated for the Oscar for “Best Documentary” besides its several nominations in film festivals (Özsefil, 2019). Directed by Alfonso Cuaron, the film Roma (2018) received world-wide fame after it was nominated for the Oscar for “Best Picture” and was also shown in movie theaters. Then, the films The Ballad of Buster Scruggs, Mowgli, and Bird Box met the viewers in movie theaters as well. Following the negotiations with Hollywood producers, a number of Netflix production films were shown in movie theaters before they were streamed on the platform (Küstür, 2019). In spite of the fact that Netflix’s priority is to stream the films it produces on the platform, it is also important to show them in movie theaters and participate in film festivals in order to increase the popularity of the films and make them gain prestige. In conclusion, by producing documentary films and series in more than one language in different cultures, Netflix reaches its viewers all around the world today. Besides gaining economic interest, these documentary films and series aim at entertaining as well. Through these documentaries, public opinion is formed; particular values, opinions, ideologies, and images are imposed on the individuals; and various products are advertised in a hidden way. While there are many discussions on the legal processes and control concerning the digital platforms, the opportunities that the internet provides in a free environment are still a concern for the countries. On the other hand, Netflix has been searching for new types of expression by providing opportunities also for independent cinema producers besides mainstream film makers. Netflix has a great impact on film industry – positive and/or negative; it shows how powerful new media technologies can be.

Reflections of Orientalism on Cinema and Documentary Films It is not possible to have a certain idea about the emergence process of Orientalism. However, when the dialectic between Western and Eastern worlds is taken into consideration as the phenomenon at the heart of the concept, it is possible to say that the emergence of Orientalism is as old as the time since the West and the East emerged; that is, it is as old as its existence (Bulut, 2014: p. 18). Edward Said systematized the concept from the 20th century till our day and introduced it in the field of social sciences. According to Said, Orientalism is a manner of writing, vision and study peculiar to the Orient (the East) in which the needs, perspectives, ideological tendencies and values identified for

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the Orient are constructed by the West. The Orient is taught and studied in pre-determined ways, and then it is administered and pronounced upon. Thus, the Orient becomes dependent on Western learning and consciousness, and takes the form of representation shaped by the set of forces that are hold by the West (2017, p. 227). For Said, Orientalism is a Western school of interpretation that has chosen the Orient as its material. The East has been poles apart from the West for centuries. The West was interested in the East which had reached a certain level of civilization long before it did; taking advantage of the richnesses of the East, the West aimed to construct its own identity. Agriculture, as it symbolizes the fact that the East had adopted a settled life before the West did, is taken as an example for the phenomenon that constitutes the dialectic between the East and the West. Although there were vast fertile lands both in Asia and Europe, Europe fell behind in agricultural technology in that period and could not develop agricultural areas. This problem was overcome by being in a continuous commercial relationship with the East while taking its share from Asia’s unique products such as precious fabrics like silk, and spices (Bulut, 2014: p. 18). The relations between the East and the West were based on the mutual needs of the different societies and states both in the East and the West. Since it was difficult to make a clear geographical distinction between the West and the East in that period, these relationships are more than merely the interaction between two regions (Bulut, 2014: p. 18-19). As a consequence of the Macedonian King Alexander the Great’s expeditions to the East, Western societies encountered for the first time with Eastern societies in great numbers. New communal societies were formed such as the Commagene Empire who were Western but settled on Eastern lands and continued their existence for years. In the same way, Atilla’s expeditions resulted in great migrations of societies that came from Middle Asia and settled in Europe; yet, unlike Alexander’s expeditions, they led to massive ethnic conflicts. These major events – when considered within the conditions of those times – prevented the clear line between the East and the West, and paved the way for Eastern societies to follow more expansionist policies with the birth of Islam within a few centuries after Atilla marched to Europe. Islam started to spread and expand from the 7th century on, and gained power as a phenomenon belonging to the East by being associated with the Islamic world. This constituted a new critical threat for the Western world. In that period, by means of Christianity, images against this new religion were constructed and Mohammad, the prophet of Islam, was identified with negative characteristics. Accordingly, leading figures of Eastern Christians wrote refutations against Islam. The West decided to define the East which they considered for the first time as the opposite party with these refutations (Bulut, 2007: p. 428). In this context, Islam was generally tried to be shown as a barbaric, aggressive, and destructive religion. While the Umayyads of Al-Andalus were threatening the West through Spain in the 9th century, the Crusader armies under the leadership of the Pope launched expeditions to the East through Anatolian lands. In that period, Crusaders considered the East as a heaven on earth including the holy lands (Jerusalem and nearby areas). In spite of the fact that conquering the holy lands and saving them from Muslims seemed to be the main purpose, the different states that formed the alliance had different economic, political and military concerns. Feudal lords’ desire to gain economic power on Eastern lands; knights’ quests for adventure; ambitious efforts of the clergy to spread their religion; and the curiosity of the explorers about the East led to the differences in the West’s definitions of the East (Hentsch, 2008: p. 61). Apparently, expansionist policies have always been set forth in terms of political economy in every century within its particular conditions. Thousands of people died in the wars on the Islamic lands which continued at intervals until the 15th century. While fighting with the armies from the West, the Islamic world was

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also exposed to Mongol incursions from the other direction and lost power due to these attacks. The Crusader armies were in a continuous interaction with Eastern societies through these expeditions and they had the chance of getting to know the Islamic civilization closer. Besides many inventions such as gunpowder, compass, paper, and printing machine, they were also introduced with mathematics. As a result of these expeditions, Western societies discovered new commercial markets, invaded new lands, introduced with precious fabrics and various spices, and had a forceful and destructive impact on Eastern societies (Hitti, 2011: p. 255). In the 18th century, Orientalism went through a significant development and change, and became an institutional field of knowledge. While the East lost power against the West with the change in political conditions, Orientalism became an academic discipline. Within the conditions of those times, the West tried to dominate over the East in an imperialist way (Bulut, 2014: 71). In the late 18th century, the East which had always been a focus of interest for the West started to be explicitly considered as an area that should be civilized by the West. Orientalism which gradually turned into an ideology served the purposes of revealing the differences of the East, examining these differences to transform East’s richnesses into a form that the West can make use of, and imposing and spreading all around the world the idea that the West is superior (Boztemur, 2002: p. 135). While the colonialist, imperialist mentality gained power in the 19th century, Orientalist studies accelerated. Although the East had the possession of the richnesses that the West was in need of, it could not use them effectively (Bulut, 2014: p. 87). Looking from a different perspective for its own life style and interests, the West considered the East as an “academic field of study” and an object of its imperialistic purposes. In this period when the number of academic studies increased, researchers who made analyses on various subjects and fields through an Orientalist perspective were also sent to the East as well as the ambassadors. In this period, as colonialist activities continued in different fields, new inventions emerged as well. While colonialism which was of critical importance for Western states gained new attributions, “cinema” was born as Lumiere brothers organized the first public screening of a film in December 1895. Soon after this invention, film makers started to record images from different parts of the world for various purposes. During these recording attempts, many different countries and societies had the chance to learn about these new invented devices; and the images obtained from these places were shown in different parts of Europe. In the following years, the majority of the images obtained from different continents consisted of the ones taken on the colonized lands. For the West, the East appeared exotic and mysterious. Recorded through the perspective of the Europeans, these images were shot in the way they wished and expected to see them as it was them who would watch these images. Considering the East as primitive and undeveloped, the West placed itself at a modern and civilized position with the images taken by the cinema technicians that went there. The Orientalist perspective directly contributed to the spread and establishment of colonialism, monarchy, and imperial ideologies. In the first films consisting of unedited raw images, the contributions to the colonies were filmed; what the colonialist Western societies did were tried to be shown as legitimate and valuable. This shows that cinema was used as a tool of consent in that period for illustrating in their own geographies the activities the Western did on Eastern lands. These images taken until the invention of editing were almost ‘document films’; in the following years, the shootings were brought into another dimension as editing techniques were developed. Everything including the construction of the story, costume and set design, characters, composition, and editing served as a reason to question the reality of what is shown.

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 The Construction of Orientalist Discourse in the Documentary Series

In the following years, the question of whether the cinema reflects reality or not was the most discussed topic concerning cinema and editing. Certain cinema theoreticians and art critics reminded that since it was fiction, reality should not be searched in cinema or art, and indicated that the criticism was unfair. The reality presented by cinema is a new produced reality; this means everthing shown in the films is reflected from a subjective perspective, and sometimes is twisted and distorted. This discussion has also been significant and critical in terms of Orientlist representations. If cinema is fiction, then, directors and producers can construct a context the way they like within their flexibility of thought and present their films on their level of artistic reality. For instance, in the films made after the USA-Vietnam war, the people who lived in this wonder of nature, Vietnam were depicted with extremely negative characteristics and portrayed as a primitive society; it was conveyed to the audience that the USA was in fact trying to modernize them. Since cinema is fiction, and the director presents a fictional work of art, the blame cannot be put on the director. However, on the other side of the coin, if this method in which the reality is distorted is approved, should the director be held responsible at all? How should the reality of the films that have been produced through an Orientalist perspective including the colonialist films and Hollywood cinema be questioned and evaluated? The main problematic of the study should be considered in this regard within the framework of Orientalism. Edward Said indicates how the USA cinema presented Muslims in this context as follows:

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“…There is now, for example, a new wave of large-scale feature films whose main purpose is to first demonize and dehumanize Muslims in order, second, to show an intrepid Western, usually American, hero killing them off. Delta Force (1985) began the trend, but it was carried forward in the Indiana Jones saga, and innumerable television serials in which Muslims are uniformly represented as evil, violent, and, above all, eminently killable. One of the changes from an old habit of exoticising the Orient in Hollywood films is that romance and charm have now been completely eliminated, as they have also been in the ninja films that pit a white (or even black) American against endless number of black-masked Orientals, all of whom get their just deserts.” (2013, p. 28). As stated by Said, the director does not make decisions coincidentially while making up the fiction; moreover, the thing presented to the audience as fiction is part of a bigger fiction. During the period known as ‘cold war’ or two poles world order, the USA presented Soviet Russia to the West as the other and an enemy. Following the September 11 attacks, the same intention was targeted to the Islamic world, and a negative perception of Muslims was created through films. The September 11 attacks were reported to be committed by “Muslim terrorists” or “Muslim criminals”; not terrorists or criminals. As a result of the UK’s and central Europe’s approach, considering England and European countries as the center, the term Middle East started to be used in the 19th century along with definitions like the East, the Far East, and the Near East. As a matter of fact, even this process reflects the West’s colonialist approach to the East. After the September 11 attacks, the East, again, was the geography that the West was interested in. Through these films, the USA had to take revenge from the bad guys, clear the region from these barbarian terrorists, and make the region modern and civilized in the way it wanted. The invasion of Afganistan and Iraq was announced to the whole world by George Bush, the president of the USA at that time, stating that the USA had no other purpose than fighting with the bad people. When the USA foreign policy shared these opinions with the world, American film producers shared the same thoughts and feelings; which was criticized by Said.

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 The Construction of Orientalist Discourse in the Documentary Series

In the last century, the USA which constitutes the central power of Western societies has tried to impose the enemy that the West should fight or the “other” through cinema. During the times when the USA considered Russia as the first threat to fight with, in Hollywood films, Americans were shown fighting Russian terrorists. Or when Vietnam, China, or Japan is a threat for the USA, the bad guys in the films are from these countries. It should not be considered as a coincidence that the character that the director or the script writer portrays as the bad guy in the film is chosen among the individuals who do not comply with the US policies. Also according to Said, the Orientalist representation forms in Hollywood cinema are always based on negativities. The Arabs in particular, and the Muslims in general, are reflected as lustful; bloody terrorists; sadist; treachers; slave traders; lazy; unaware of the developments on the world; helpless; unwise; ignorant; and lowbrow. Consequently, constructing the perception as if these societies which have been fed on defeatism and terrorism will conquer the world contributes to America’s policies and the hegemonic perspective of the West (Said, 2017: p. 300). This perception created by the Hollywood cinema is underlined in the documentary films made by the West; since it is much easier to accept documentaries as reality, the orientalist perspective is still included in the documentaries. Just like the Western film technicians in the first years of cinema who shared with the audience the images they had taken from the colonized lands, the documentary films today serve the same purpose. In other words, Western directors or directors who neglected their identities shoot stories of Eastern societies in a way that is beneficial for the West for money or popularity. Furthermore, documentary films which are produced for ideological purposes are supported behind the mask of “reality and scientificness”. The Orientalist perspective has been reflected in and has penetrated into documentary films and series so much that visual, audial, and written codes and signs appear frequently in this kind of documentary films and series.

The Analysis on Netflix Documentary Series The Most Wanted

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Method In communication sciences, all the processes between the source and the receiver are explained with different theories and the findings are analyzed through different methods. Scholars have long been questioning and trying to find out how the message is received by the receiver. The messages conveyed through television are assumed to be perceived passively by the audience, and changed depending on the culture and knowledge accumulation of the audience. In addition, the messages shown on television serve certain purposes and are used to construct the desired perception in the minds of the audience. At this point, every message that is shown is analyzed, and the content and the purpose of the message are revealed. In this part, how the Orientalist images are placed in the film has been put forward through semiotic analysis. This study focuses on the crime of “terrorism” and is limited to the placement of Islamic elements with an Orientalist perspective. All forms of communication are made up of certain codes and signs. The codes provide the organization of the signs and their relations with each other; in this way, they show that signs refer to other meanings besides their own. Messages are given to the audience through certain codes and signs; and the communication structure which is defined as social interaction is formed with these messages (Fiske, 1990: p. 1-2). The codes are systems of meaning, and meaning is constructed by the interaction between the signs and the environment they are positioned in.

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 The Construction of Orientalist Discourse in the Documentary Series

The study analyzes the visual, audial, and written codes given to the audience through the documentary series, and thus, considering cultural values and ideologies as a whole, looks for traces of Orientalism. In addition to this, the consistent relations and connections in the narrative of the film need to be structured in order to construct the basis for semiotic analysis. According to Barthes, this consistency is possible with “the principle of pertinence”. According to this, the phenomena are interpreted through the same perspective and the analysis is done within the examined topic. All the data within the analysis makes up the corpus. The corpus is identified by verifying the connections and the phenomena within the scope over and over again (Barthes, 1993: p. 72). Texts and films are interpreted through the reader’s or the audience’s cultural or personal predictions. While the relation between the signifier and signified determines the denotation, the difference between the two and the interpretation of these differences reveal the connotations. The formal interpretation of signifier-signified relation makes up the connotation, whereas the interpretation concerning the content makes up the associations and myths (Fiske, 1990: p. 85-88). The traces of Orientalism are presented in the table which explains the signifiers-signifieds, connotations, and myths through the data obtained from the documentary. In addition, the audial and visual codes in the film contribute to revealing and understanding the messages given through the images that are analysed. The table is based on Roland Barthes’s two levels of signification approach.

Findings

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Released by Netflix, the biggest online digital platform of the world, in 2020, The Most Wanted is a five-episode documentary series about the people accused of various crimes who have not been arrested despite the global investigations and the prices put on their heads. The crimes of the wanted can be listed as ‘mafia relations, genocide, and terrorism’. The study analyzes the third episode of the series which is about a British woman called Samantha Lewthwaite who is accused of terrorist crimes but has not been arrested. The director of the episode titled “Samantha Lewthwaite: The White Widow” is Hugo Van Offel. This documentary which is totally based on Orientalism is presented to the audience with features reinforcing and strengthening the perception of “the association of Islam and terrorism” which has been created by especially the Hollywood cinema and the Western media. The woman in the center of the documentary, Samantha Lewthwaite, is not an ordinary British citizen. She is described in the documentary as a “white Western woman who converted to Islam” with her free will. Starting with the images of the London subway attack in 2005 and an interview, the documentary opens with the phrase “the first suicide bomber attack in the United Kingdom”. It implies that such terror incidents have started with attacks made in the name of Islam. The documentary is based on the interviews with the witnesses, journalists, experts, and the law enforcement officers who tried to catch the terrorist named Samantha.

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 The Construction of Orientalist Discourse in the Documentary Series

Table 3. Analysis Based on Barthes’s “Two Levels of Signification” Approach How Many Times Shown

Signifier

Signified

Connotation

Association/Myth

London, Mombasa, Nairobi and Mogadishu

14

General view of the city

Orderly cities against dilapidated, ruined buildings

Development of the West against underdevelopment of the East

Developed /Underdeveloped Civilization myth Underdevelopment ideology

London, Mombasa and Mogadishu

33

Muslim woman

Woman in burqa or hijab

Conservatist women contrasting with European women

Past and unprogressive

London, Mombasa and Mogadishu

17

Muslim man

Man in taqiyahs, keffiyehs, or snow masks

The implicit Orientalism of men in outfits of Eastern culture – frightening, horrifying

Past and unprogressive Backwardness Fear

Mombasa and Mogadishu

14

Weapon

AK-47, Rocket launcher, Molotov

The chaotic and unlawful society structure in which the ones with the weapon construct their own justice

Religion of terrorism Death

Arabic writings and weapons: Labeling Islam as a religion of terrorism

Religion of terrorism

Anti-modernist

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Place

Mombasa and Mogadishu

8

Flag

The flag with white Arabic script and images of weapons on black background

Mombasa, Nairobi and Mogadishu

12

Vehicle

Barrow, carriage and motor tricycle

Animals are used, outdated vehicle

London

6

Newspaper

Headline

The woman in hijab in the news with the headline “Mother of All Terrorists”, news about Samantha Lewthwaite

London

3

Worship

Salat and prayer

Society that is far from rationality, anti-realistic and mystical

Anti-rationalist

London, Mombasa and Mogadishu

3

Building

Mosque and minaret

Far from modernity

Faith Orientalist element

The episode consists of the footages taken in London, Mombasa, Nairobi, and Mogadishu. The city views, the number of which is noted as 14 in the table, only consists of the footages taken by drone cameras; the footages with constant or active cameras on the streets of the city are not included in the number. While the documentary displays the development and magnificence of London 4 times through the general view of the city (omniscient point of view) from the sky, the city views from Kenya and Somali are shown through 10 different drone footages taken in Nairobi, Mombasa, and Mogadishu. The ruined houses, the chaos of the cities, the buildings damaged in explosions and conflicts, and unplanned urbanization in Kenya and Somali make reference to the countries’ chaotic, uncanny, and underdeveloped structure. Interestingly, in one of the scenes, the modern look of London is shown by drones, then, the news about Samantha Lewthwaite with the heading “Mother of all terrorists” is given, and next, the

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 The Construction of Orientalist Discourse in the Documentary Series

ruined buildings in the cities of Somali are shown. To explain it in the language of editing, footage a plus footage b equals footage c, that is, the implied new meaning – in this constructed scene, the perception that England will also turn into ruins if terrorism cannot be avoided is implied to the audience. In only one scene, the modern and luxurious hotels on the coast of Somali are shown with drone footage. The contrast between the East and the West is put forward through these footages as developed-undeveloped; and the welfare levels of the countries are also portrayed in this way. Regarding the images of woman shown in the documentary, it is emphasized in many parts of the film that Samantha Lewthwaite, who is the focus of the episode, is white and a widow; she is presented as the image of Muslim woman in the photograph with her Muslim husband and child. The film shows the stereotype of Muslim woman in burqa or hijab 33 times; 18 of these pictures are the photographs of Samantha Lewthwaite by which she is insistently and repeatedly shown as “the perpetrator of terrorist attacks”. Only at the end of the film, it is stated that she has not been arrested or judged, and her crime has not been ascertained yet. Women are also seen in several footages on the streets of Kenya and Somali; yet, the number 33 in the table consists of only the pictures in which a woman is foregrounded. Particulary, the women in burqas are shown as potential criminals; moreover, the picture of a woman in burqa in the city of Aylesbury where the main character was born is chosen and shown on purpose. This city is also known as the city where the rebelling actions of the separatists took place in the past. Samantha’s father had engaged in many armed conflicts with the Irish separatist terrorists in this city when he was a British commander; and also in this city, he married an Irish woman and Samantha was born. In the film which depicts terror incidents, the problems the British had with the Irish in the past are also reminded to the audience through Muslims. With the images of Zakia Hussein in hijab, who is the Director of Community Policing at the Somali Police Force, the existing Orientalist ideology in the film is tried to be broken. However, in the interview, referring to Samantha Lewthwaite, Zakia Hussein says, “We are both from the United Kingdom”. With this statement of hers and her hijab, Hussein is reflected through Western norms, and is tried to be positioned right against Lewthwaite through the perception of “Muslim woman on the good side”. The director who has built the good and bad dichotomy through two Muslim women has tried to be unbiased with the dialectic he created. In spite of the fact that the main character in the film is a white British widow woman, there are a lot of images of men in different types most of whom are African descent men. Starting with Samantha’s husband who is shown in taqiyah, the Muslim man profile is displayed through men with beards; in turbans, snow masks, jubbas, and military camouflage uniforms. While the phenomenon of terrorism is being explained in the film, 17 Muslim man images, regardless of being involved or not, are shown in the accompanying pictures. In these pictures, the terrorist groups on the African continent or ordinary Muslims are shown. In the first scenes of the film, a crowd with Arabic banners and Arabic headbands is shown in a protest in England. These pictures indicate that the country is civilized and free in every respect. The inclusion of images of Muslim men as armed terrorists on the streets of England or in African countries serves to the reinforcement of the perception that Muslim men are potential terrorists. In the interview with the British Colonel Patrick Mercer, while he is talking about the extent of the danger, Muslims are shown finishing their worship service during a demonstration in England, and then, a man in turban and jubba is shown saying, “As Europeans, you will suffer the most”, without indicating what he was saying earlier. With this statement, it is implied that Muslims are in fact threatening them. There are of course quite a lot of images of weapons in the scenes where terrorists are shown. It is pointed out that uncontrolled and excessive arming brings along unlawfulness and injustice, and this can only happen in undeveloped countries. Kalashnikovs (AK-47) and rocket launchers, which are associated 27

 The Construction of Orientalist Discourse in the Documentary Series

especially with the Middle East geography and terrorists, are frequently included in the film. Besides showing the soldiers and weapons of the regular armies in England, Kenya, and Somali, the film shows weapons 14 times in the scenes where the terrorists are shouting Islamic slogans. The flag hanging from a minaret is perhaps one of the most striking images in the documentary. The flag is black with white Arabic script and two white Kalashnikov pictures. The flag with white Arabic script on black background which we know from terrorist groups such as ISIS, Al-Qaeda, or Al-Shabaab is shown 8 times in the film. The flags seen particularly in the scenes where terrorist groups get on their pick-ups with heavy weapons are conveyed to the audience as the symbol of Islam. In the documentary, the images of carriages and motor tricycles which we are accustomed to see in India are shown in Kenya and Somali 12 times; the anti-modernist structure of the countries is portrayed through outdated and primitive vehicles. Furthermore, the image of a camel on the coast is included in the documentary as the inevitable image of Orientalism. When the written codes are taken into consideration, it is observed that newspapers are foregrounded. The newspaper with the photograph of Samantha Lewthwaite next to the heading “Mother of all terrorists” is shown 6 times; in addition, she is seen in burqa in many photographs in other magazines or journals. On the other hand, the words such as ‘mujahid, jihad, martyr’ written in her diaries are shown to the audience as well. It is also stated that a 34-lined poem written for Osama Bin Laden was also found in these diaries. The references concerning the mystical structure of Muslims are reflected through the footages taken during their worship service. In the documentary, Muslims are shown three times as doing salat or praying; the signs of mosque and minaret are also given three times. In addition, the sound of azan is placed as an audial code at the background while showing the images of minarets and in the following scenes. It is told in the documentary that Samantha considered such extraordinary processes natural as her childhood was full of terrorist actions. Concerning her teenage years, she is described as a normal teenager. In the interview, it was stated that the only thing that differed her from other people was that “her best friend was a Muslim”. There is another significant point in the film that should be mentioned. The British Colonel Patrick Mercer describes Samantha as an ordinary “young individual conforming to the norms of English society” with fair skin and blue-green eyes. He believes that she cannot be called a monster or a demon, and emphasizes that the change started after she converted to Islam. So, a question comes to the mind: are the ones who do not conform to the English society demons or monsters?

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CONCLUSION The world has gone through great changes and developments for the last three hundred years. Especially, the developing technologies and scientific activities in the West made humanity believe that the West is a more civilized, progressive, and developed society. However, it is apparent today that despite the technological advancements and scientific developments, the West could not present a civilized human vision. On the contrary, it has smashed the humane values of all civilizations under the powerful wheels of the capitalist world view and wasted them for its own interests. Globalization rapidly gained acceleration with the mass communication tools developing in the West. Contrary to the extensive and positive developments that new communication technologies and globalization were supposed to bring along, the world presents standardized views in the way the West desires to see the humanity. It has

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 The Construction of Orientalist Discourse in the Documentary Series

become meaningless to discuss the extent of globalization, but it is significant to discuss its contribution to humanity. With the technological developments in communication and transportation networks, it has become easier to spread ideas and messages rapidly. It is not the big fish which eats the little fish anymore; it is the fast fish which eats the slow fish. Mass communication which started with written works and newspapers and moved further with the radio, cinema, telephone, television, and computer has reached its peak with today’s tablet computers. When the global digital network, the internet, was added to these inventions, all individuals got the opportunity to be in communication and interaction regardless of time and place. Developed in 1990s, the digital platforms provided their users with the opportunity to watch films, series, documentaries, and various programs on different devices. Discovering and developing mass communication technologies earlier, the West has used mass media to spread the values and ideas of global powers to other societies. With the developments in recent years, it has shown that phenomena such as the ethical values, freedom, democracy, human rights, and the superiority of the system of justice are only valuable on the condition that they serve the West in terms of international law. The book written by Edward Said in 1978 titled Orientalism revealed the negative attitude in the West’s perspective on the East despite the concepts put forth by the West. For centuries, the West considered the East exotic; yet, following the enlightment, colonialism, and the industrial revolution, exotism turned into Orientalism. All the values belonging to the East are criticized by the West in a negative way; particularly, the Islamic geography is targeted as it is in socio-economic relations with the West. After the wars and commercial activities lasted for years, colonialism projected a new perspective to the West; the West has sunk into the effort to use the rest of the world for their own interests. The Orientalist perspective became evident mostly in the field of art rather than science, economy, and social life. It was especially observed in the accounts of Western travelers and in the works of artists and musicians; and spread with the invention of cinema in the 20th century. Following the invention of cinema camera, many technicians sent to the colonized lands presented the footages they shot on those lands to the West; they historicized and naturalized the processes. With the developments in the cinema sector and television broadcast, the Orientalist opinion manifested itself in certain types of programs in the media. This perspective which reached its peak with the Hollywood cinema was also reflected in the documentary films as well. Since fictitious and documentary films started to be streamed on digital platforms, films have been released from the imprisonment in movie theaters and televisions, and turned into an object of easy consumption that people can access anytime anywhere. This object is of course prepared to serve Western global capital so that the existing system and order can be sustainable. In this way, the societies which consider themselves inferior than Western societies can easily accept any innovation brought about by the West. Netflix, the biggest digital platform of the world, provides its users with easy access to many contents that are viewed thousands of times everyday. Netflix earned money from the distribution of many productions in the past; however, today its priority is to stream the films or programs which are its own productions. The third episode of the documentary series The Most Wanted titled “Samantha Lewthwaite: The White Widow”, which comprises the topic for this study, constitutes a prototype that serves the global capital as it contains orientalist elements. The West labels Islam as “a religion of terrorism” and the documentary, trying to base it on documents and incidents, imposes this idea. Most of the Orientalist elements that are observed frequently in the American media and the Hollywood cinema are used in the documentary. In this episode which depicts terrorism, references to Islam

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and Muslims are great in number. Showing something related to Islam right after showing something related to terrorism results in attributing the incidents to Islam, not to terrorism. The signs in the documentary and the written and audial codes that support these signs are significant in terms of showing the point Orientalism has reached. The blameworthy attitude of the Western media is also shown in this documentary. The prejudice that is tried to be constructed against Islam is also at work on a digital platform which has reached millions of people today. In conclusion, while the Western media makes people regard other civilizations with prejudice, it makes its own people build prejudices far from reality as well.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTION Documentary films and documentary series that claim to show the real need to be examined more. This research is special in that it shows that orientalism is also featured in documentary films. It guides communication researchers and viewers to conduct orientalism research on documentary films. While globalization is taking place, it creates awareness by showing how orientalism takes place in documentary films, which leads to further studies. How the different is rejected through orientalism in documentary series, which is one of the most consumed content of digital platforms, has been examined in depth in this study.

REFERENCES Aslanoğlu, R. A. (2000). Kent, Kimlik ve Küreselleşme. Ezgi Kitabevi. Barthes, R. (1993). Göstergebilimsel Serüven. İstanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları. Bauman, Z. (2017). Küreselleşme, Toplumsal Sonuçları. Ayrıntı Yayınevi. Boztemur, R. (2002). Oryantalizm ve Marksizm. Doğu Batı Düşünce Dergisi, 20(1). Bulut, Y. (2007). Oryantalizm, Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı İslam Ansiklopedisi (Cilt 33). İstanbul: Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı Yayınları. Bulut, Y. (2014). Oryantalizmin Kısa Tarihi (5. Baskı). İstanbul: Küre Yayınları.

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Chalaby, J. K., & Segell, G. (1999). The Broadcasting Media in the Age of Risk: The Advent of Digital Television. New Media & Society, 1(3), 351-368. . doi:10.1177/14614449922225627 Clark, T. (2018). Bird Box in Its First Week, But We Don’t Know How Many Finished The Movie. https:// www.businessinsider.com/netflix-says-45-millionaccounts-watched-bird-box-in-first-week-2018-12 Erkal, E.M. (2000). İktisadi Kalkınmanın Kültür Temelleri. İstanbul: Der Yayınevi. Fiske, J. (1990). Introduction to Communication Studies. Routledge. Gür, D. A. (2018). 190 Ülke 130 Milyon Abone: Netflix Buraya Nasıl Geldi? https://journo.com.tr/ netflix-buraya-nasil-geldi Hentsch, T. (2008). Hayali Doğu. Metis Yayınları.

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Hitti, P. K. (2011). Haçlı Seferleri’nin Doğu Hristiyanlığı Üzerindeki Etkileri. https://dergipark.org.tr/ tr/download/article-file/255258 Investor Letter 2020 Q2. (n.d.). https://web.archive.org/web/20200717051752/https://s22.q4cdn. com/959853165/files/doc_financials/2020/q2/FINAL-Q2-20-Shareholder-Letter-V3-with-Tables.pdf Koç, M. (2003). Küreselleşmenin Sosyolojik Boyutları. In Küreselleşme ve Psikiyatri (pp. 52-63). Ankara: Türk Tabipler Birliği Yayınları. https://www.ttb.org.tr/kutuphane/k_psikiyatri.pdf Kongar, E. (1997). Küreselleşme ve Kültürel Farklılıklar Çerçevesinde Ulusal Kültür. www.kongar.org /makaleler/ Koyuncu, E. (2017). TV Yayıncılığı Alanındaki Dijital TV Platformları Sosyal Paylaşım Ağlarını Neden Kullanırlar? Trakya Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 19(1), 315-335. https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/ trakyasobed/issue/30919/335679 Küstür, S. (2019). Netflix Yeni Filmlerini Önce Sinema Salonlarında Gösterecek. https://www.teknoblog. com/netflix-orijinal-filmlerini-ilk-olarak-abdsinema-salonlarinda gosterecek/ Netflix. (n.d.). Netflix Filmleri. https://www.netflix.com/tr/browse/genre/34399 Osur, L. (2016). Netflix and the Development of the Internet Television Network. Surface, Syracuse University. https://surface.syr.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1448&context=etd Özsefil, İ. C. (2019). Oscar Adaylığı Elde Etmiş Netflix Orijinalleri. https://www.filmloverss.com/oscaradayligi-elde-etmis-netflix-orijinalleri/ Özsoy, A. (2000). Televizyon ve İzleyici: Türkiye’de Dönüşen Televizyon Kültürü ve İzleyici. Ankara: Ütopya Yayınevi. Said, E. (2013). Medyada İslam (2. Baskı). İstanbul: Metis Yayınları. Said, E. (2017). Şarkiyatçılık, Batı’nın Şark Anlayışları. İstanbul: Metis Yayınları. Talas, M. (2005). Küreselleşmenin Sonucu Olarak Türkiye’de Kimlik Krizi. Tabula Rasa Felsefe-Teoloji Dergisi, 5, 99-115. Ustakara, F. (2014). Küreselleşmenı̇n Sürükleyı̇cı̇ Gücü Halkla İlı̇şkı̇ler ve Halkla İlı̇şkı̇lerı̇ Dönüştüren Küreselleşme. Global Media Journal: TR Edition, 5(9). https://globalmediajournaltr.yeditepe.edu.tr/ sites/default/files/Fuat%20USTAKARA%20.pdf

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Yılmaz, A. (2007). Romantizmden Gerçeğe Küreselleşme. Minima Yayıncılık. Zeitchik, S., & Chmielewski, D. C. (2013). Netflix Enters Oscar Race With Move Into Original Documentaries. https://www.latimes.com/entertainment/envelope/la-xpm-2013-nov-05-la-fi-ctnetflix- square20131105-story.html

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ADDITIONAL READING Beck, U. (2018). What is globalization? John Wiley & Sons. Jameson, F., & Miyoshi, M. (1998). The cultures of globalization. Duke University Press. Jenner, M. (2018). Netflix and the Re-invention of Television. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-94316-9 Lobato, R. (2019). Netflix nations: The geography of digital distribution. NYU Press. McDonald, K., & Smith-Rowsey, D. (Eds.). (2016). The Netflix effect: Technology and entertainment in the 21st century. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. Sardar, Z. (1999). Orientalism. McGraw-Hill Education. Sutkutė, R. (2020). Representation of islam and muslims in western films: an “imaginary” muslim community. Eureka: social and humanities (Vol. 4). Scientific Route. Venkateswarlu, K. (2020). Colonialism, orientalism and the Dravidian languages. Taylor & Francis.

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITION

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Documentary Film: A documentary film is a non-fictional motion-picture intended to document reality, primarily for the purposes of instruction, education, or maintaining a historical record. Globalization: The process of interaction and integration among people, companies, and governments worldwide. Globalization has accelerated since the 18th century due to advances in transportation and communication technology. Netflix: Netflix, Inc. is an American over-the-top content platform and production company headquartered in Los Gatos, California. Netflix was founded in 1997 by Reed Hastings and Marc Randolph in Scotts Valley, California. Orientalism: In art history, literature and cultural studies, Orientalism is the imitation or depiction of aspects in the Eastern world. These depictions are usually done by writers, designers, and artists from the West.

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Chapter 3

Orientalism as Caliphator Cognitive Warfare: Consequences of Edward Saïd’s Defense of the Orient Richard A. Landes Bar Ilan University, Israel

ABSTRACT When Edward Said wrote Orientalism, he was defending the honor of the Western “other,” especially that of his fellow Arabs. Three years later, he published a book on Western media coverage of the Iranian revolution of 1979, in which he applied many of the principles he worked out in orientalism to Western journalists’ coverage of events in 1979. It is probable that Said did not know that 1979 was 1400 in the Muslim calendar, and that it marked the dawn of modern global jihad and the drive for a global caliphate. It is also probable that Said had no idea that his attack on the West for their “racist” attitudes towards his fellow Arabs actually paralyzed the West’s ability to deal with the cognitive war about to come. This chapter will analyze the way in which Said’s honor-driven analysis worked to the beneft of those working towards a global caliphate, warriors whose values and goals were the exact opposite of what he espoused in his post-colonial work. The problems with the Western reception of Saïd continue to haunt democracies and progressive eforts.

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INTRODUCTION Ask the current generation of prominent scholars in Middle East Studies, what impact Edward Said’s work had on their field, and they will recount a triumphant narrative about a fundamental paradigm shift, like one of Kuhn’s scientific revolutions, that deconstructed previous work on the Orient, as expressions of Occidental imperialism. Ask critics, and they will tell you that that “revolution led to a massive loss of relevant knowledge, replaced with politically correct insistence that any negative generalizations about Arabs and Muslims were, by definition “essentialist,” “Orientalist,” “racist,” and “Islamophobic.” DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch003

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 Orientalism as Caliphator Cognitive Warfare

Saïd saw the West observing the Arabs, and “he did not like what he found” (Khawaja, 2009), taking umbrage at a clearly superior West (in both war and economic production) that looked down on an Arab and Muslim world that had – despite having massive petrodollar infusions of wealth – not only failed to modernize, but lost to Israel in successive wars. This invidious attitude of the superiority-minded Westerners lies at the heart of Saïd’s assault on Orientalism: “The essence of Orientalism is the ineradicable distinction between Western superiority and Oriental inferiority… disregarding, essentializing, denuding the humanity of another culture, people, or region” (Saïd, 1994a, p. 42, 108). Instead, he fought to his dying breath against “the tightening of the grip of demeaning generalization and triumphalist cliché,” that he saw all around him (Saïd, 2003a, p. xiv). This chapter explores the consequences of Saïd’s assault on negative depictions of the Arab world, and their extension to Islam over the course of the last generation.

BACKGROUND: THE INTOLERABLY INVIDIOUS COMPARISON So crucial was this problem of alleged Western superiority to Saïd, that it became virtually the yardstick of what he used every rhetorical technique to condemn. More than once, this led to some reductive readings of the Western canon (Ibn Warraq 2007, p. 27f). And if those who admired Arabs and Islam like the romantics could get short-shrift from his pen, then certainly anyone who dwelled on the authoritarianism of Arab political culture, of the impact of misogyny, of the belligerence of shame-honor culture, religious triumphalism and intolerance towards minorities, the ruthless way in which Arab armies fight – all that came from racist Orientalists demeaning the objects of their study and an “incitement to anti-Arab and anti-Muslim violence” (Saïd, 1986). Put simply, like so many other Arab intellectuals in the decades following the double-military defeat of combined Arab armies by Israel (1967-73), Saïd looked in the global mirror and, as an Arab, he felt humiliated. Khalil Hawi, three years before his suicide at the sight of Israelis coming into a civil-war devastated Lebanon in 1982, wrote “Wounded Thunder”:

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How heavy is the shame, do I bear it alone? Am I the only one to cover my face with ashes? The funerals that the morning announces echo in the funerals at dusk. There is nothing over the horizon, save for the smoke of black embers (Ajamai, 1996, p. 97). In 2003, an Arab journalist wrote a scathing indictment of the mentality among his fellow Arabs that illustrates precisely the way in which the dominating imperative (rule or be ruled) operates within a hierarchy of humiliation to lock dictatorship in as the single model of Arab political behavior (Smith, 2010): I do not exaggerate by saying this [that Arab culture is addicted to tyranny], because within each one of us there is a little dictator who feels gratification when he is repressed by those stronger and more brutal than he, and who at the same time does not refrain from acting this same way, in his milieu, towards those weaker and inferior in status. And when that milieu expands, he gradually imposes this on more people, so that when this sphere grows and he is the one who decides first and last, and who gives the

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orders, dictatorship spreads and it is imposed on all the people. Thus, yesterday’s oppressed become today’s oppressor; yesterday’s subjugated become today’s subjugator; he that was wronged now becomes the wrongdoer; the humiliated becomes the arrogant (Rashid, 2003). But rather than address those failures, rather than examine those failures in their cultural context, Saïd preferred to shame the West for noticing it. The October 1973 war in particular produced a whole mass of analyses, having for their background some almost incredibly atavistic pieties [?] about the Arab mind, the Islamic mentality, and Arab society, all of them resting upon a wickedly simplified, colonial view – openly racist in its more honest expressions – of the Oriental personality (Saïd 1983, p. 264; see also, Saïd 1997, and 2003a). Not unusually, after having dismissed the “Orientalist” explanation, Saïd offers no counter-explanation for the repeated failure of modern Arab armies, and not just against Israel (DeAtkine 1999). One senses the importance of shaming the other in Saïd’s language about anybody who says things he does not approve of about the Arabs and Muslims: “perfervid… venomous… irrational… vulgar defamation… pretentious… bogus… dehumanizing… incoherent… boring… Neanderthal… retrograde polemicist… gushing prattle… mediocrity… ludicrous… inhuman… belligerent… dishearteningly ignorant… self-repeating… self-winding… unrelieved rubbish… self-deceiving… jejune… preposterous… frivolous… peddling rubbish… thought-stopping fury… belligerent collective identity… demeaning generalizations and triumphalist clichés (Saïd, 1981, 2002, 2003a; Karsh and Miller, 2008). The rhetoric reflects a tendency to denounce criticism as “dehumanization.” It also projects a zero-sum mentality onto the West when that best describes the mind-set Saïd protects from criticism (Bensimon 2009). In one of his many attacks on his bête-noir, Bernard Lewis, for example, he derides him for pointing out that Islam has never evinced the same curiosity about the West that the West has for Islam, few translators, fewer mechanisms for translation (dictionaries) (Lewis, 2002, pp. 155-57; Saïd, 2002, July, p. 73). And yet the very moment he belittled Lewis for his Orientalist clichés, the UN published a report on the Arab world – written by Arabs, in which the discussion of translations into Arabic noted:

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The Arab world [350 million] translates about 330 books annually, one fifth of the number that Greece [11 million] translates. The cumulative total of translated books since the Caliph Maa’moun’s time (the ninth century) is about 100,000, almost the average that Spain translates in one year (UNDP, 2002, p. 78). It’s not like Saïd is incapable of seeing the problems in the Arab world. The problem is that, when he does (Saïd 1998), he sounds just like the Orientalists he disdains. But more often, it’s denial and hostility to those Arabs willing to criticize their own people. When Saïd did address the UN report, he focused on Arab disunity; but rather than explore the cultural elements that contribute to that failure (e.g., D. Landes, 1999, chap. 24), he offers the Palestinian cause as the solution (Saïd 2002, August 19). He thus replicates the very techniques that despotic Arab leaders use to distract the people they immiserate with the Zionist scapegoat – anti-Zionism as a WMD, weapon of mass distraction (Manji, 2003). As for those Arabs who address the Report’s findings in the media, they “reek of subservience, inauthenticity and a hopelessly stilted mimicry” (Saïd 2003, January 16-22). The motto of Orientalism and all its successor attacks on an “essentially racist” West is: ‘don’t you dare say things about Arabs that make them look bad, especially since it’s your fault they’re having 35

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these problems.’ Saïd’s extraordinary ability to affect the way Westerners speak about the Arab and Muslim world, may have “reinforced his defensive self-pride” (Saïd 2001), but they came at a much larger cost, a cognitive failure of major proportions at a critical time. And so, while Arabs in the Middle East, tormented by the thought they might be “marked by a special propensity for tyranny, a fatal brand that rendered them unable to find a world beyond the prison walls of the despotism” (Ajami 2011), Saïd had a different approach: condemn the West for even thinking such a thing, and blame the West for the very problems he denied. As a result, precisely everything that mattered in the Arab and Muslim world during the quarter century of his “Orientalist” writings (1978-2003) – religious triumphalism and intolerance, authoritarian politics, war-ready elites, Hama rules – he shamed compliant Westerners into not discussing. Horrified at the very thought of being seen as a “racist,” an “Orientalist,” many liberal and progressives scholars avoided any of these invidious, imperialist tropes that suggested Arab inferiority, no matter how accurate they might be. Those working in Middle Eastern Studies, filled with a combination of “pathological niceness” (Ibn Warraq 2007) and self-lacerating criticism, embraced Saïd’s critique of their field and their culture with such enthusiasm that within a decade Orientalism served as “a generalized swearword” (Kramer, 2000, p. 37). How should Westerners talk about Arabs and Muslims according to Saïd? The way they talk about people in democracies, as variegated individuals with many concerns, as human beings, not cultural stereotypes.

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At all costs the, the goal of Orientalizing the Orient again and again is to be avoided, with consequences that cannot help but refine knowledge and reduce the scholar’s conceit. Without “the Orient” there would be scholars, critics, intellectuals, human beings, for whom the racial, ethnic, and national distinctions [NB: no mention of religion] were less important that the common enterprise in promoting human community. (Saïd, 1994, p. 328). Determined to see the Arab world as basically the same – i.e., moved by political and economic motives primarily – and offended by the very suggestion that Arab political culture was systemically authoritarian, post-Orientalist, Middle Eastern experts expected democracies to sprout any moment in a Middle East upon which they projected their liberal mindset, dismissing anything less sanguine as “vulgarized… reductionist stereotyping” (Brynen, 1995, p. 66). “As liberalization marches across the Middle East political landscape, can democratization be far behind?” asked one reviewer of Brynen’s book (Bill, 1999, 468). The non-post-Orientalist answer: ‘very far behind’ (Kramer, 2000, pp. 61-83). Saïd’s presentation of the Palestinian issue, so fundamental to his approach, applied all these Western concepts (nationalism, nation-state, self-determination, democracy, human rights, justice, dignity) to a conflict in which these concepts had to compete with Muslim supremacism, Arab honor, and “strong horse” political culture for the hearts of people who claimed Palestinian leadership (Landes, 2014, June 24). Forbidden to focus on the authoritarian elements of Arab political culture, encouraged to see it as not in any way different from the democratic West, post-Orientalist scholars and journalists greeted the wave of protests that hit the Arab world in 2011, as an “Arab Spring,” by which they meant, springtime for democracy. Even one of Saïd’s “Orientalist villains, Fouad Ajami got swept up in the excitement (Ajami, 2011); while others hailed it as definitive proof that Huntington and the other Orientalists were wrong about the “clash of civilizations (Mahdavi and Knight 2012). Instead it proved a springtime for tribal and religious warfare, and a winter for the Arab world (Phillips 2012; Cockburn 2016, Part 4; 36

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Filiu and Lacroix, 2018). Following the lead of the post-Orientalist, US intelligence so misread events that both NSA Clapper and Hillary Clinton spoke of the Muslim Brotherhood as a “largely secular” and moderate movement (Mohammed, 2011; Clapper, 2011). A decade later the totals run: no democracies, one failed attempt (Egypt), one very limited success (Tunisia), three states riven by tribal and religious warfare (Syria, Libya, Yemen), hundreds of thousands dead, and a flood of millions of refugees who destabilize neighboring nations (Turkey, Jordan, Europe).

SAÏD, THE ORIENTAL ORIENTALIST: CONCEALED SHAME-HONOR DYNAMICS

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In an earlier essay, I discussed Saïd’s attitude towards shame-honor dynamics as particularly revealing dimension of Orientalism’s shortcomings (Landes 2007). He categorically rejected any and all discussion of the differences between the West and the Arabs in terms a much higher valuation placed in the latter culture on both gaining/preserving honor and avoiding shame even at the cost of shedding blood (Saïd 1979, p. 43, citing Glidden 1972), no matter how much evidence suggested that such patterns (BlackMichaud, 1975; Boehm, 1984; Weiner, 2013) may have an exceptional hold on Arab culture (Hamady, 1960; Pryce-Jones, 1984; Patai, 2007; Darwish, 2008; Smith, 2010). Actually, since 1978, if anything, the Arab world, and particularly its political culture, have behaved very much in conformity with these shame-honor dynamics. And yet, the more dramatically selfdestructive and self-impoverishing their political and social behavior by Western standards, the more violence, repression, and hate-speech, and religious zealotry has risen in Arab culture in the two score years since Orientalism (Saïd, 1998 January), then the more Saïd and post-Orientalist scholars have insisted we “read” this dramatically different, pre-modern culture as an expression of the same forces that shape modern democracies. The key elements in their behavior, according to this kind of analysis, must be analyzed using categories of social and economic forces, nationalism, dignity, rationality. In a piece Saïd wrote in early 2003, shortly before his death, he expressed his disgust with the pathetically weak state of the Arab world unable to unite against Bush’s planned invasion of Iraq. He also lashed out at the Westernized Arabs who criticized their own culture, citing the UN Arab Development Report (UNPD, 2002): “The only ‘good’ Arabs are those who appear in the media decrying modern Arab culture and society without reservation [sic]. I recall the lifeless cadences of their sentences for, with nothing positive to say about themselves or their people and language, they simply regurgitate the tired American formulas already flooding the airwaves and pages of print. We lack democracy they say, we haven’t challenged Islam enough, we need to do more about driving away the specter of Arab nationalism and the credo of Arab unity. That is all discredited ideological rubbish. Only what we, and our American instructors say about the Arabs and Islam – vague re-cycled Orientalist clichés of the kind repeated by a tireless mediocrity like Bernard Lewis – is true. The rest isn’t realistic enough… (If I had the time, there would be an essay to be written about the prose style of people like Ajami, Gerges, Makiya, Talhami, Fandy, et. al., academics whose very language reeks of subservience, inauthenticity and a hopelessly stilted mimicry that has been thrust upon them.) (Saïd, 2003, January 16-22) Apparently, anyone who understood the demands of civil society – self-criticism above all (Ibn Warraq 2008, pp. 75-83) – registers on Saïd’s radar screen as a sell-out. These voices are inauthentic, 37

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stilted; they are shameless dhimmis. Such people, Saïd felt, were submitting to Western imperialism, not reflecting Western liberal values… the same ones Saïd was busy appropriating for the Palestinian cause. The most striking irony in all this, is that Saïd, despite espousing the most high-minded cosmopolitanism, actually came to embody the very shame-honor dynamics he so scornfully denounced. In their introduction to the Saïd reader, Bayoumi and Rubin write: In critical ways, Said envisioned Palestine not simply as a place, but as an irrefutable idea, an experience, and an act of irrepressible human will-tied to a people. The idea of Palestine was the grounds on which his understanding of humanism developed as a motif in Orientalism’s account of colonialism and its strategies of domination, just as it informed his notion of the responsibilities of the intellectual. Europe’s study of the Orient was, after all, for Said an ‘intellectual’ (as well as a human) failure. In The World, the Text, and the Critic, he argues that “criticism must think of itself as life-enhancing and constitutively opposed to every form of tyranny, domination, and abuse; its social goals are noncoercive knowledge produced in the interests of human freedom,” and he posits that the most useful adjective to be joined to criticism would be oppositional (2019, p. xxii; italics mine). How tragic for his posture as a humanist and ‘intellectual’ that he sided with one of the more tyrannical, abusive, coercive, movements of his day. Saïd wrote the quoted remark in 1983, when the PLO had just spent seven years in a merciless civil war, massacring Arab civilians in Lebanon (Becker, 1984, Part 6); and Bayoumi and Rubin edited their volume at a time that Palestinians leaders openly embraced the genocidal aspirations of the Nazis (Herf, 2008; Burdman, 2010). And what drove Saïd to place so much of his intellectual capital in the Palestinian movement? Could it have been the very shame-honor drives he contemptuously dismissed as the invention of invidious, racist, Orientalism? In his last writings denouncing both Arab dictators who cannot stand up to the West and those who Westernize by criticizing their own people, Saïd found one group to admire amidst all this shameful lack of Arab manhood. The courageous “Palestinian people.”

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Remarkably though, the great mass of this heroic people seems willing to go on, without peace and without respite, bleeding, going hungry, dying day by day. They have too much dignity and confidence in the justice of their cause to submit shamefully to Israel as their leaders have done. What could be more discouraging for the average Gazan who goes on resisting Israeli occupation than to see his or her leaders kneel as supplicants before the Americans? (Saïd, 2003 January 16-22) NB: in 2003, “resisting” consisted primarily in suicide attacks on Israeli civilians in malls, trains, and restaurants (Alvanou 2008). This passage carries echoes of the very “Arab Street” he elsewhere in the same essay dismisses as an invention of “mediocre Orientalists.” There is no place in this fantasy heroism for negotiation, compromise, recognition that the ‘justice’ of the Palestinian cause might need to make some room for the Jewish/Zionist ‘other.’ No acknowledgment that the “heroic dream” of Palestinian is tribal justice (‘my side right or wrong’), a triumphalist religious imperative (Bartal, 2008, p. 29), an imperialist impulse (“from the river to the sea”) that so far, Arab armies have not been capable of achieving by the sword and to which they have sacrificed the Palestinian people, especially the refugees, for over a half-century (Romirowsky and Joffe, 2013). Anything like that, in Saïd’s view, would be mere pandering to Orientalist

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westerners and Zionists determined to humiliate the brave and noble Palestinian people who sacrifice all for their “dignity.” Indeed, if anything qualifies as “Orientalism” here, it is Saïd’s interpretation of a collective, “courageous and noble” Palestinian people, defying their corrupt and cowardly rulers to stand up for the demands of honor. More likely, the Palestinian people here constitute a construct whereby Arabs can restore honor lost. ‘They,’ he assures us ‘don’t want their leaders to compromise with the Israelis, to negotiate with them.’ They are the last bastion of his Oriental notion of “heroic” Arab honor. And so, Saïd works against the decent life that presumably (to we liberal cognitive egocentrists to whom he appeals) all Palestinians want (the political and economic factors Saïd emphasizes in Orientalism and the dignity he invokes in a final essay, 2003, July 2). He does not even mention the demonizing lies and abuse with which Palestinian leaders lead these wretched souls to embrace suicide terror and child sacrifice, cheering on a literally suicidal war in which “they could only lose, only die, only bleed and starve daily.”1 On the contrary, Saïd cheers on the worst of it in search of honor, and heaps contempt on any move to self-criticism and moderation – too modern, too self-hating (Saïd, 2003a, p. xxi). Saïd speaks from his tenured position at Columbia, where he can say anything he wants and not only not get “disappeared,” but rather get lionized by the culture he assaults (Karsh and Miller 2008). And yet his point is not that the Arabs are “too tribal, too insular, too unself-critical, too stuck on models of honor that demand dominion and do not work in the modern world.” For a proud Arab, all that talk is too subservient to the West, too self-hating, even if Saïd’s anti-Western message thrives on precisely that self-critical Western ethos. No, his “self”-criticism complains that Arabs aren’t proud enough to resist this western onslaught, aren’t courageous enough to fight back, aren’t suicidal enough to turn their back on everything that might lead to the reform he himself (in a parenthetical clause) admits they need. As a result, his criticism of the Arabs in 2003 resembles that of Palestinian leaders critical of the Arab League in 1948: their failure was not that they should have accepted the offer made by the UN and built a strong and dignified Palestinian nation alongside Israel, but that they failed to wipe Israel out.

ORIENTALISM AND ISLAM: THE SOUNDS OF SILENCE

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It is likely that Saïd took these positions from Arab pride, something that became particularly acute in 1967, which seems to have marked a turning point for him.2 Certainly when he wrote Orientalism he had relatively little to say about Islam, partly because he knew so little about it (Binder, 1988, pp. 120–21). Does Said realize how insistently Islamic doctrine in its many variants has traditionally proclaimed the applicability of religious standards to all aspects of human life, and the inseparability of man’s secular and spiritual destinies? What does he suppose the Ayatollah Khomeini and the Muslim Brotherhood are all about? (Kerr, 1988 December, p. 545). But in 1981, he published Covering Islam, in which he assaulted the Western, especially the American press for its coverage of the revolution in Iran, and Khoumeini’s accession to power. Here he applied all the strictures he had already laid out for covering Arabs, to Muslims: negative remarks about them were all “previously discredited” Orientalist ideas, suddenly revived by events in Iran. As a result, he claimed, Western observers reverted to type: looking down with a sneer on “Muslims, generally nonwhite people” (1994, p. 19). 39

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Of course, Saïd was more than capable of disparaging, especially religion, whose results he thought “were often disastrous” (Saïd, 1983, p. 2900). Hart describes his attitude towards religion, consistent across his opus and “transcultural and transhistorical” generalization: “dogmatic, deferential to authority, otherworldly, subservience-compelling, and violence-producing” (Hart, 2003, p. 45). But somehow, Saïd doesn’t apply his “secular critique” to Islam. On the contrary, his main concern is to defend it from Orientalist racist generalizations about Islam and Arab culture as “primitive,” and fanatically religious. In his book on Covering Islam, updated in 1997, at the very dawn of global Jihad (Bin Laden 1998), Saïd has nothing to say on jihad, religious violence, blind obedience, except to condemn Orientalists for dwelling on the subject. Essentially, Saïd’s success in academia meant that nothing of real import in the Arab and Muslim world could be addressed.

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His most extreme formulations imply that although Orientalism explains imperialism, and imperialism explains Western depredations against the Orient, Islam bears no explanatory relation whatsoever to terrorist acts by Muslim believers performed in the name of Islam—even when those acts are justified in detail by fatwas based on Islamic scripture and jurisprudence, ratified by Islamic jurists, have precedents in Islamic history, and are approved of by millions of Muslims (Khawaja, 2007, p. 699). As a result, academics downplayed even ignored people like Bin Laden in the 80s and 90s, preferring to highlight the “Muslim Martin Luthers,” leaving it to “Orientalists” – journalists and academics (Lewis, 1998) – to pay attention to the Jihadis, whom the post-colonial academics promptly denounced for dwelling on the negative (Kramer, 2000, p. 52-57). When it came to evils of imperialism, the Western variety got the lion’s share of scholarly attention; the role of imperialism in Islam, not so much (Karsh, 2006). While one can criticize Saïd for his contradictory attitude towards “essentializing” – forbidding it when thinking of the Orient or Islam, doing it to Orientalism (Khawaja, 2007; Windschuttle, 1999) – the issue here is somewhat different. One need not essentialize Islam, or paint all or even many Muslims with the same brush, or deny the variegated nature of the religion of over a billion people, in order to identify a strain of Islam that constitutes a direct threat to, and identifies itself as a mortal enemy of, the West, democracy, human rights, religious tolerance, and human freedom to choose… and certainly of the secular humanism that, at least in his own mind and the minds of his admirers, Saïd champions (Selby 2006). The modern strain begins in the late 19th century with al-Afghani, takes shape with the Muslim Brotherhood ideologue, Sayyid Qutb, and turns into an active movement in 1979/1400 with the emergence of both the Shi’ite revolution in Iran under Khoumeini and al Qaeda under the leadership of the Palestinian Abdullah Azzam and Osama Bin Laden (Landes 2011, chap. 14; Filiu, 2011; Bartal 2016). By the end of the 20th century, apocalyptic Jihad had developed a full-blown eschatology (Furnish 2005; Cook, 2006), and radical Jihadi groups had sprung up and grown all over both the Muslim world and among Muslims in the West, especially among university students (Husain, 2007). Here we find, resurrected in its most millenarian form, the doctrine of the fundamental enmity between Dar al Islam (realm of Islam/Submission) and Dar al Harb (realm of the sword/war). Starting in 1400 AH, and metastasizing in 2000 AD, the West has been confronted by a growing generation of apocalyptic Muslim militants, Caliphators, who believe fervently that now (this generation at the most) is the time for a global Caliphate. Where there was Dar al Harb (especially western democracies) there

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shall be Dar al Islam. #GenerationCaliphate. Whether by Jihad (Osama) or Da’wa (Qaradawi) “Europe and the US will be conquered by Islam” (Landes 2018). In the coming decades, these Caliphator beliefs would create much more active (to the outside, aggressive) Muslim communities, from Afghanistan, to Palestine, to Sudan, to Nigeria, to the universities in the West. Starting in 1979 (1400 AH), Muslims showed the world an unusually fierce face, engaging, in the name of Islam, in violent acts of many kinds, including an eight-year-long war between Iran and Iraq that used their own child soldiers as cannon fodder, and some of the more savage uses of a new weapon, soon to become the Caliphator jihadi’s weapon of choice: suicide bombing. And Saïdians repeatedly accused anyone who drew attention to these forms of cruel violence as dehumanizing. This apocalyptic Islam at once fascinated (Destiny Restored) and frightened other Muslims (takfir), who, to this day, are its most numerous victims. Like most apocalyptic phenomena, Caliphator beliefs could leap sectarian splits (Shi’i vs. Sunni) even as it created new ones (Mujahiddin vs. Westernizers). That it represented the full-blown beliefs of only a tiny fraction of the variegated billion-plus population around the world when Saïd wrote, however, does not make this Muslim movement any less relevant for Western thinkers – information professionals (academics and journalists), intellectuals, intelligence analysts, policy-makers, voters. For indeed, a group of Muslim believers, convinced the apocalyptic time has come to conquer the world, armed with scriptural passages that call for terror-inducing slaughters (Stern and Berger 2015), had only one meaning for infidels who inhabit Dar al Harb (especially those in democratic lands): the choice between conversion, death or (maybe) submission (dhimma). One doesn’t have to think they will succeed in realizing their millennial dream of global conquest, not to recognize how much damage they can do on their way to failure (like Bolshevism, Nazism and Maoism). They may be a tiny minority of Muslims, but as far as infidels who, as the folksong has it, ‘treasure freedom’ are concerned, they’re just the kind of subject they needed to know about. Saïd, however, considered them “non-subjects.” Once having proven to his own satisfaction that it’s unforgivable “Orientalism” and “racism” to claim that Islam is inherently terrorist (the essentialist thesis updated), he can comfortably assert that the “connection between Arabs, Muslims, and terrorists… is entirely fictitious” (Saïd, 1997, p. xiv); and after 9-11 to advise his readers…

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…to look with deepest suspicion on anyone who wants to tell you the real truth about Islam and terrorism, fundamentalism, militancy, fanaticism, etc. You’d have heard it all before, anyway, and even if you hadn’t, you could predict its claims. Why not look for the expression of different kinds of human experience, instead, and leave those non-subjects to the experts… who get us into one unsuccessful and wasteful war after the other (Saïd, 2002). Saïd consistently read the traits that alarmed some of his Western concitoyens as “not Islamic,” and anyway, the fault of the othering West. Westerners, he advised, were better informed by understanding this violence as righteous indignation directed against a culpable West.3 The fallacy in Saïd’s accusation of Western essentializing about Islam is that, one need not say all, or even most Muslims are Mujahiddin for a global Caliphate, in order to identify military jihad as Islamic and to note the resonance such triumphalist strains (Landes, 2018) have among Muslims not only along the arc from Morocco to Indonesia whose profound differences Saïd felt “made a mockery” of any effort to generalize about Islam. On the contrary, this weird apocalyptic tiding, it turned out, had an uncanny appeal even among Western Muslims (Stern and Berger, 2015). 41

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In reality, it’s not about essentializing Islam. It’s about saying things about aspects of Islam and about some Muslims that are accurate, but that make those Muslims about whom they speak, look very bad by Western progressive standards. (To say someone or some group is not humane does not constitute “dehumanizing;” sadism is a uniquely human trait). Muslims, especially those who so behave (like targeting children), violently reject “the terrorist label.” And non-Muslims who find out about them, predictably grow wary. High-minded information professionals, however, did their best to play down the Islamic dimension of violence, lest it generate hostility to Muslims… Islamophobia (Bawer 2009). Instead, academics, even the ones Saïd didn’t like, such as Fawaz Gerges, did their best to blame the Westerners warning about Islamic terror for making the problem – and in this case, only months before 9-11.

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Should not observers and academics keep skeptical about the U.S. government’s assessment of the terrorist threat? To what extent do terrorist “experts” indirectly perpetuate this irrational fear of terrorism by focusing too much on farfetched horrible scenarios? Does the terrorist industry, consciously or unconsciously, exaggerate the nature and degree of the terrorist threat to American citizens? (Gerges 2001). Saïd and those who followed his lead imposed a Muslim sensitivity on the public sphere: anything that might provoke their anger should be avoided, any fears that arose among non-Muslims were phobias, any warnings, Western war-mongering. Are there other religions with these triumphalist strands? (Landes 2016). Yes. One need not even be monotheist to demand that others acknowledge publicly acknowledge the superiority of one’s religion to theirs; but monotheist triumphalists, especially the supersessionist ones, are among the most ambitious religious imperialists: “One God in heaven, One Faith on earth.” One can draw a solid strand from the Crusaders who, after their genocidal explosions against Jews in the Rhineland, entered Jerusalem, bragging that their horses waded in blood up to the bridals, singing: “This is the day the Lord made, let us rejoice therein!”… to the medieval inquisition torturing and executing people for their beliefs… to the Wars of Religion that plagued early-modern Europe… to the Deutsche Christen who gave Hitler their unrequited love, to the acephalous Phineas Priesthood of murderous zealots in the US today. The problem for Saïd and so many others in the late 20th, early 21st century, was that they launched their program of essentializing criticism at the West and their corresponding refusal to dwell on problems in the Muslim world, just as Caliphator apocalyptic expectations and ambitions hit the Umma. Saïd took upon himself the task of defending all but the most extreme Caliphators (whom he roundly if ineffectively denounced). He did this with a three-pronged attack already laid out in Orientalism. 1) He systematically minimized the “non-subjects,” the “entirely fictitious” links between Islam and terror attacks. 2) He accused Westerners who show alarm at these “fictions” of being xenophobes, racists, and, like Huntington, warmongers. And 3) he explained what little he did admit about the problems in the Muslim world as the fault of the West, especially the US and Israel. When Saïd lists the horrible stereotypes that Westerners have of Muslims, as if they were ridiculously wrong, he expects us to follow his lead and drop such negative images from our discourse: it was all the fiction of an invidious Western need to view the Arabs and Islam as inferior. Saïd writes sarcastically about an article in the Chicago Tribune identifying Khoumeini’s revolution as a particularly dangerous religious phenomenon.

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Mosley’s attack on Iran was supported by a truly cosmic editorial in his paper [Chicago Tribune], the same day, accusing Khoumeini of nothing less than a “holy war on the world.” The jihad (holy war) motif… has become the single most important motif in Western media representations of Islam. (Saïd 1981, p.114). The reader, of course, is supposed to respond, ‘What Orientalist nonsense!’ And yet, the Chicago Tribune’s “first draft of history” proved correct: Khoumeini was only the most visible of the apocalyptic Jihadis in 1400 AH (1979/80) who believed that the time had come for global Jihad and world conquest (Kahalaji, 2008). No matter how many other kinds of Islam there were and are, and no matter how important the non-military meaning of jihad [“to struggle”], this particular “active cataclysmic” (Landes, 2011, chap. 2) apocalyptic strain of Islam was precisely what infidel Westerners needed to learn most about: Dar al Islam, Dar al Harb, dhimmi, harbi, al wala’ w’al bara.’ Thirty years later, in addressing an audience of some 400 Homeland Security personnel, I asked how many knew the meaning of Dar al Islam and Dar al Harb, and only a couple of dozen raised their hands. But after 9-11, Saïd’s version, now the version the cognitive Caliphator warriors wanted Westerners to adopt, increasingly became the dominant voice: that terror has nothing to do with Islam, and jihad means inner struggle, that Islam is a religion of peace. Writing shortly after 9-11, insisting it was “impossible” to write the history of so-variegated Islam, Saïd heaped scorn on Bernard Lewis for dwelling on jihad (“an ideological portrait of ‘Islam’ and the Arabs that suited dominant pro-imperial and pro-Zionist strands in US foreign policy”), and piously wished Karen Armstrong would have “allowed herself to wander among aspects of the spiritual life of Islam that, as a former nun, she has obviously found congenial” (Saïd 2002). He attacked the Huntington thesis as “a blanket declaration of war against all civilizations” (Saïd 2001, p. 49), despite the way it had been so spectacularly illustrated that day. Rather than see Muslim culture as part of the problem like

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…the vulgar and jejune Thomas Friedman who has been peddling this rubbish, which has, alas, been picked up by equally ignorant and self-deceiving Arab intellectuals – I don’t need to mention any names here – who have seen in the atrocities of 9/11 a sign that the Arab and Islamic worlds are somehow more diseased and more dysfunctional than any other, and that terrorism is a sign of a wider distortion than has occurred in any other culture (Saïd 2003, July 2). What scholar would hazard even a less caricatured and empirical approach? From a Caliphator point of view, Saïd and his post-colonial followers were the preparatio Califatae, they cleared the roads for the Caliphate just as Roman imperial roads had cleared the way for the Gospels according to Eusebius. His accusations of racism, Orientalism, xenophobia prepared the ground for ‘Islamophobia,’ the perfect accusation for Caliphators to use as a weapon. In a sense his secular demopathy – translating a triumphalist religious war into terminology taken from the advanced democratic discourse of human rights, equality, democracy, decolonization, and dignity – impugned the West with its own standards and crippled its response to attack. The Caliphator information jihadis had no trouble adopting Saïd’s secular indictment of the West. Indeed, 20 years after Orientalism, the academic scene was highly disposed to adopt a key formula, one might even say, a prime Caliphator directive for infidels: ‘When Jihadis attack a democracy, blame the democracy.’

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One can see the combination of Saïd’s impact after the turn of the millennium in the contrast between the anti-Islamic ways that government officials and the media behaved in the ‘80s and ‘90s that Saïd found so offensive (Saïd 1981, 1997, 2002), and the reaction of the British to the jihadi attacks on London of 7-7-05. Shortly thereafter, the BBC informed its journalists not to use terror to describe the attack (Editorial Guidelines, 2005), and a spokesman for police intelligence declared: “As far as I am concerned, Islam and terrorists are two words that do not go together.” During the Obama administration, it was policy not to even mention terror and Islam together (Countering Violent Extremism, 2016), leading to some extraordinary displays of learned helplessness from administration officials (Pipes, 2013 Spring). 9-11 is, I think, a key moment to consider in judging Saïd’s work. When the “non-subject” of jihadis showed not only how ruthless they could be, but how readily they metabolized Western sins – real, inflated, imagined – as a justification for killing infidels civilians in Saïd’s very own city? Was it still justified to inflate Western sins and minimize Muslim ones? Did it make sense to obsess over the Israelis and their uniquely evil occupation, while dismissing the palpable links between Hamas and Al Qaeda?4 In his contradictory assault on essentializing Islam and his essentializing assault on Westerners, Saïd produced a paralyzing phobia among Western academics about making any generalizations, certainly negative ones, about Arabs and Muslims. Orientalism taught an entire generation of Arabs the art of self-pity — “were it not for the wicked imperialists, racists and Zionist, we would be great once more” — encouraged the Islamic fundamentalist generation of the 1980s, bludgeoned into silence any criticism of Islam, and even stopped dead the research of eminent Islamologists who felt their findings might offend Muslim sensibilities and who dared not risk being labeled “Orientalist” (Ibn Warraq, 2007, p. 17). When Husain Butt recalled how he and his friends “used to laugh in celebration whenever people on TV proclaimed that the sole cause for Islamic acts of terror… was Western foreign policy… draw[ing] away any critical examination from the real engine of our violence: Islamic theology” (2007), he could thank among others, Edward Saïd. Ironically, “the Christian agnostic became a de facto apologist and protector of Islam” (Ibn Warraq, 2007, p. 53).

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FUTURE RESEARCH AND DIRECTIONS We need to deconstruct the pejorative meanings and uses of “Orientalism” and to apply similar standards to all cultures, rather than the moral inversion of accusing a self-critical culture of systemic racism and absolving cultures that revile admitting any wrong. Scholars and researchers need to understand the dynamics of shame-honor cultures. They need to distinguish between dignity and honor, between triumphalist religiosity and non-domineering forms, between human and humane, between cultural criticism and racial prejudice. The current uses of “Islamophobia,” “racism,” and “Orientalism,” as terms of disdain, are major impediments to our understanding the social and cultural factors shaping both interpersonal and international relations. They make us vulnerable to appeals based on dignity (human rights, democracy, equality) made by people who do not share those values, who even work to undermine them. Self-criticism in particular, deserves more scholarly attention: the reciprocal ability to both give and accept criticism, both privately and publicly, stands as the most critical dimension of peaceful, productive, positive-sum cultures (among which, democracies feature prominently). People, movements, cultures, 44

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where power is used to silence criticism and deny responsibility, expending enormous economic, social and psychological capital expended), stunt their own growth, and then blame their failures on others, often those they envy. The ability to self-criticize is both a key to future success (emotional resilience, learning from the past) and a litmus test of the sincerity of those who lay a claim on our moral attention.

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CONCLUSION Today, we are sadder but not wiser. If anything, thanks to the pioneering work of what he calls his trilogy – Orientalism, Question of Palestine, and Covering Islam – Saïd laid the secular groundwork for an enormous Western cognitive failure in dealing with the war declared by those risibly “cosmic,” millennial jihadis who do aim at world conquest. That attitude had been so effectively inculcated, certainly in academic circles in the 1990s, that, after 9-11, when Caliphators who waged cognitive Jihad insisted on the narrative of an Islam of Peace, that has nothing to do with terror, a broad consensus emerged that the best way to deal with the Muslim question was not to ask it (Bale, 2013). A graduate student in Middle Eastern Studies at Princeton (Bernard Lewis’ department) who wanted to study Jihad after 9-11 as a service to his nation, was advised that if he insisted, he would not get a job in academia where the narrative favored a less abrasive Islam. Instead, he’d end up in one of those “think-tanks” that Saïd considers manufacturers of imperial wars. And, indeed, that is where he ended up. Five years later, readers complained to the publisher that a study of Muslim apocalyptic thought was “hate speech – not the hate-speech of the Caliphators in their wild apocalyptic rantings, but that of their translator (Cook, 2006). Indeed, these were the years that the apocalyptic ravings of the seers in the 1990s spread and weaponized in the circles of global Jihad. This analysis raises an important if unanswerable question. Did Saïd understand what he was doing? It’s hard to believe that he would have knowingly shielded global Jihad from scrutiny. Presumably he understood that, as a “secular humanist,” he was at best the Caliphator’s useful idiot, at worst, among those at the top of their enemies list. Did he recognize their dangers but think them negligeable in comparison with the added power they brought to the anti-Israel, anti-US agenda he had so deftly formulated… like the Iranian Communists who did not expect Khoumeini’s faithful to devour their movement. Was he seduced by the easy blend of post-colonial anti-imperialism with the Caliphators’ ‘Two Satans’ apocalyptic narrative of good and evil? Was he so enamored of his discourse’s power to paralyze Westerners with their own liberal principles, to make them squirm at the very prospect of being called a xenophobe, to knock the Israelis off their moral pedestal… that he ended up believing that jihad really was a “non-subject,” that “Islamic terror” was a completely fictitious formulation, and that “world conquest” was a risible xenophobic fantasy? If so, he certainly was not alone. Like Judith Butler, professing his anti-imperialist principles, he embraced the most ruthless and ambitious imperialists in the world… the “anti-imperialism of fools.” When Saïd wrote, in the 25th anniversary edition of his key book, “I would like to believe that Orientalism has had a place in the long and often interrupted road to human freedom…”, he let slip his aspiration to play a role in the Occidental grand narrative, and inadvertently described his place in that long road to human freedom. He mastered the Western idiom brilliantly, and then put it to the service of a political movement that had nothing to do with freedom, one of the most violent, irredentist, and fanatically religious products of 20th century Arab political culture. In so doing, he was heedless of the costs, and when Caliphators appeared openly in the 21st century, he embraced them in his anti-Western 45

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vendetta. And like so many autophagic “progressives,” he shamed his companions on that long road to freedom, into stupidity about their (and his) deadly enemies. In the grand narrative of freedom, which is not anywhere near journey’s end, Saïd’s Orientalism will feature as a major interruption.

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Bin Laden, O. (1998). Declaration of Jihad against Jews and Crusaders. In B. Lawrence (Ed.), Messages to the World: The Statements of Osama Bin Laden. Verso. Bin Laden, O. (2001). Recruiting Tape. http://www.ciaonet.org/cbr/cbr00/video/excerpts/excerpts_index. html Binder, L. (1988). Islamic Liberalism: A Critique of Development Ideologies. University of Chicago Press. Black-Michaud, J. (1975). Feuding Societies. Basil Blackwell. Boehm, C. (1984). Blood Revenge: the Enactment and Management of Conflict in Montenegro and Other Tribal Societies. University of Pennsylvania Press.

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Brynen, R., Korany, B., & Noble, P. (Eds.). (1995). Political Liberalization and Democratization in the Arab World: Theoretical Perspectives. Lynne Rienner Publications. Burdman, D. (2010). Genocidal Indoctrination: Palestinian Indoctrination to Genocide. Genocide Protection Now. https://www.ihgjlm.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/Genocidal-Indoctrination.pdf Butt, H. (2007 July 1). My Plea to Fellow Muslims: You Must Renounce Terror. Guardian. https://www. theguardian.com/commentisfree/2007/jul/01/comment.religion1 Clapper, J. (2011, February 10). Testimony before House Intelligence Committee. CSPAN. https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=POwd44zH9GA Cockburn, P. (2016). The Age of Jihad. Verso. Countering Violent Extremism (CVE) Subcommittee. (2016). Interim Report and Recommendations. Author. Darwish, N. (2008). Cruel and Unusual Punishment. Thomas Nelson. DeAtkine, N. (1999). Why Arabs Lose Wars. Middle East Quarterly. https://www.meforum.org/441/ why-arabs-lose-wars Filiu, J.-P. (2011). Apocalypse in Islam. University of California Press. Filiu, J.-P., & Lacroix, S. (Eds.). (2018). Revisiting the Arab Uprisings: The Politics of a Revolutionary Moment. Oxford University Press. Furnish, T. (2006). Holiest Wars: Islamic Mahdis, Their Jihads, and Osama bin Laden. Praeger. Gerges, F. (2001, March 12). The Ultimate Terrorist: Myth or Reality? Daily Star (Beirut), p. 12. Glidden, H. (1972). The Arab World. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 128(8), 984–988. doi:10.1176/ ajp.128.8.984 PMID:5058119 Hamady, S. (1960). Temperament and Character of the Arabs. Twain Publishers. Hart, W. (2003). Edward Saïd and the Religious Effects of Culture. Cambridge University Press. Herf, J. (2009). Nazi Propaganda for the Arab World. Yale University Press. Husain, E. (2007). The Islamist: why I became an Islamic fundamentalist, what I saw inside, and why I left. Penguin. Copyright © 2021. IGI Global. All rights reserved.

Ibn Warraq. (2007). Defending the West: A Critique of Edward Saïd’s Orientalism. Prometheus Books. Karsh, E. (2003). Arafat’s War: The Man and His Battle for Israeli Conquest. Grove Press. Karsh, E. (2010). Palestine Betrayed. Yale University Press. Karsh, E., & Miller, R. (2008, Winter). Did Edward Said Really Speak Truth to Power? Middle East Quarterly, 13–21. https://www.meforum.org/1811/did-edward-said-really-speak-truth-to-power Kerr, M. (1988, December). Review of Orientalism. International Journal of Middle East Studies, 12, 4.

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Khalaji, M. (2008). Apocalyptic Politics: On the Rationality of Iranian Policy. Washington Institute for Near East Policy. Khawaja, I. (2007, October). Essentialism, Consistency and Islam. Israel Affairs, 13(4), 689–713. doi:10.1080/13537120701444961 Khawaja, I. (2009). Orientalism, Racism, and Islam: Edward Said Between Race and Doctrine. Policy of Truth. https://irfankhawajaphilosopher.com/2017/06/01/orientalism-racism-and-islam-edward-saidbetween-race-and-doctrine/ Kramer, M. (2000). Ivory Towers on Sand. Academic Press. Landes, D. (1999). Wealth and Poverty of Nations: Why Some are so Rich and Some so Poor. W.W. Norton. Landes, R. (2007). Edward Saïd and the Culture of Shame. Israel Affairs, 13(4), 167–181. Landes, R. (2011). Heaven on Earth: The Varieties of the Millennial Experience. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199753598.001.0001 Landes, R. (2014, June 24). Why the Arab World Is Lost in an Emotional Nakba, and How We Keep It There. Tablet. https://www.tabletmag.com/jewish-news-and-politics/176673/emotional-nakba Landes, R. (2016, February 10). Triumphalist Religiosity. Tablet. https://www.tabletmag.com/sections/ israel-middle-east/articles/triumphalist-religiosity Landes, R. (2017). Caliphaters: A 21st Century Millennial Movement. MERIA, 21(2). http://www. theaugeanstables.com/2019/09/18/caliphaters-a-21st-century-millennial-movement/ Landes, R. (2019). Oslo’s Misreading of an Honor-Shame Culture. Israel Journal of Foreign Affairs. Lewis, B. (1976, January). The Return of Islam. Commentary. Lewis, B. (1990, September). The Roots of Muslim Rage. Atlantic. Lewis, B. (1993). Islam and the West. Oxford University Press. Lewis, B. (1998, November/December). License to Kill: Usama bin Ladin’s Declaration of Jihad. Foreign Affairs, 77(6), 14–19. doi:10.2307/20049126

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Lewis, B. (2002). What Went Wrong? Western Impact and Middle Eastern Response. Oxford University Press. Loewen, T. (2016). Caveat Lector: An Examination of the Said – Lewis Debate. https://www.academia. edu/10520204/Caveat_Lector_The_Lewis_Said_Debates Mahdavi, M., & Knight, W. A. (2012). Towards the Dignity of Difference: “Neither End of History’ nor ‘Clash of Civilizations. Routledge. Makiya, K. (2007). The Tyranny of Silence: War, Tyranny and Uprising in the Arab World. Norton. Manji, I. (2003). The Trouble with Islam Today: A Muslim’s Call for Reform in Her Faith. Random House.

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Mohammed, A. (2011, June 30). U.S. shifts to closer contact with Egypt Islamists. Reuters. https://www. reuters.com/article/us-usa-egypt-brotherhood-idUSTRE75T0GD20110630 PA TV. (2020). Children and Education. Palestinian Media Watch. https://palwatch.org/analysis/99 Patai, R. (1973). The Arab Mind. Scribner and Sons. Phillips, J. (2012, December 20). The Arab Spring Descends into Islamist Winter: Implications for U.S. Policy. Heritage Foundation. https://www.heritage.org/report/the-arab-spring-descends-islamist-winterimplications-us-policy Pipes, D. (2013, Spring). Denying Islam’s Role in Terror: Explaining the Denial. Middle East Quarterly. Pryce-Jones, D. (1989). The Closed Circle: An Interpretation of the Arabs. Ivan Dee. Quandt, W. B. (1990). After the Gulf Crisis: Challenges for American Policy. Arab American Affairs, 35, 11–19. Quandt, W. B. (1994, July-August). The Urge for Democracy. Foreign Affairs, 73(4), 2–7. doi:10.2307/20046737 Rashid, A. (2003, June 23). Long Live Dictatorship. Al-Itihad. Romirowsky, A., & Joffe, A. (2013). Religion, Politics, and the Origins of Palestine Refugee Relief. Palgrave MacMillan. doi:10.1057/9781137378170 Saïd, E. (1978). Orientalism. Vintage. Saïd, E. (1981). Covering Islam. Vintage. Saïd, E. (1983). The World, the Text, and the Critic. Harvard University Press. Saïd, E. (1986). The Essential Terrorist. The Nation. https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/essentialterrorist/ Saïd, E. (1993, October 21). The Morning After. London Review of Books, 15(20). https://www.lrb. co.uk/v15/n20/edward-said/the-morning-after Saïd, E. (1994a). Afterward. Orientalism. Vintage. Saïd, E. (1994b). The Politics of Dispossession: The Struggle for Palestinian Self-Determination: 1969–1994. Pantheon Books. Copyright © 2021. IGI Global. All rights reserved.

Saïd, E. (1996). Peace and Its Discontents: Essays on Palestine in the Middle East Peace Process. Vintage. Saïd, E. (1997). Introduction. Covering Islam. Vintage. Saïd, E. (1998, January). The Problem is Inhumanity. Al Ahram Weekly; reprint. Saïd, 2000, 234–238. Saïd, E. (1999). Out of Place: A Memoir. Vintage. Saïd, E. (2000). The End of the Peace Process: Oslo and After. Vintage. Said, E. (2002a, April 11). Thinking Ahead. Le Monde.

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Saïd, E. (2002b, April 21). What has Israel done. Al Hayat. Saïd, E. (2002c, July). Impossible Histories. Harpers. https://harpers.org/archive/2002/07/impossiblehistories/ Saïd, E. (2002d, August 19). Arab Disunity and Factionalism. Al Hayat. Saïd, E. (2003a). Introduction. In Orientalism. Vintage. Saïd, E. (2003c, July 2). Dignity and Solidarity. Al Hayat. Saïd, E. (2004a). Humanism and Democratic Criticism. Columbia University Press. Saïd, E. (2004b). From Oslo to Iraq and the Road Map. Vintage. Saïd, E. (2001, October 22). Adrift in Similarity. The Nation. Said, E. (2003b). An Unacceptable Helplessness. Al-Arahm. Saïd, E., & Hitchens, C. (1988). Blaming the Victims: Spurious Scholarship and the Palestinian Question. Verso. Schapira, E. (2002). Three bullets and a dead child. https://vimeo.com/67662480 Selby, J. (2006). Edward Saïd: Truth, Justice and Nationalism. Interventions, 81(1), 40–55. doi:10.1080/13698010500515241 Smith, L. (2010). The Strong Horse: Power Politics and the Clash of Arab Civilizations. Doubleday. Steinberg, G. (2007, October). Postcolonial Theory and the Ideology of Peace Studies. Israel Affairs, 13(4), 786–796. doi:10.1080/13537120701445166 Stern, J., & Berger, J. M. (2015). ISIS: The State of Terror. HarperCollins. Stetkyevich, S. P. (1993). The Mute Immortals Speak: Pre-Islamic Poetry and the Poetics of Ritual. Cornell University Press. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). (2002). Arab Human Development Report. Oxford University Press.

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Windschuttle, K. (1999, January). Edward Said’s Orientalism Revisited. The New Criterion.

ADDITIONAL READING Bale, J. M. (2017). The Darkest Sides of Politics, II: State Terrorism, “Weapons of Mass Destruction,” Religious Extremism, and Organized Crime. Routledge. Bat-Ye’or. (2002). Islam and Dhimmitude: Where Civilizations Collide. Farleigh Dickinson University Press. Irving, R. (2006). For Lust of Knowledge: Orientalists and their Enemies. Penguin.

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Landes, R. (2021). (in press). Stupidity Matters: A Medievalist’s Guide to the 21st Century. Academic Studies Press. Leung, A. K., & Cohen, D. (2011, March). Within- and Between-Culture Variation: Individual Differences and the Cultural Logics of Honor, Face, and Dignity Cultures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100(3), 507–526. doi:10.1037/a0022151 PMID:21244179 McCants, W. (2016). The ISIS Apocalypse: The History, Strategy, and Doomsday Vision of the Islamic State. St. Martin’s Press. Nawaz, M. (2007). Radical: My Journey Out of Islamist Extremism. Lyons Press. Salzman, P. C., & Divine, D. R. (2008). Postcolonial Theory and the Arab-Israeli Conflict. Routledge. Schleifer, R. (2006). Psychological Warfare in the Intifada: Israeli and Palestinian Media Politics and Military Strategy. Sussex Academic Press. Weiner, M. S. (2013). The Rule of the Clan. Farrar, Strauss, Giroux. Wettlaufer, J., Nash, D., Hatlen, J. (2021). Honour and Shame in Western History. Routledge (in press).

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Apocalyptic: Belief that the climax of history is imminent, that certainly within the lifetime of the believer there will be either the beginning of a millennial, messianic era or the End of the World entirely. Until now, this frequent belief has been disappointed. Before disappointment, though, apocalyptic time radically disinhibits believers, preparing for the final battle between good and evil. Active cataclysmic: believers play a major role in bringing about the apocalyptic cataclysm that destroys evil on earth. Caliphators: A Muslim apocalyptic millennial movement believing that in this generation (apocalyptic), Dar al Harb will be eliminated and a global Caliphate will be established in which all surviving infidels become dhimmi (millennial goal). Cognitive Warfare: Warfare undertaken by the weak side in an asymmetrical conflict, manipulation of information and ideas designed to convince the stronger side not to use its superior strength, to make patriots of one’s own and pacifists of the enemy, to redeploy in order to better fight the kinetic (military) war. Trojan Horse, Treaty of Hudaybiyya. Da’wa: “Summons” whether summoning infidels to convert, or lax Muslims to return to strict commitment. Among Caliphators, Da’wa is a form of cognitive/information warfare summoning infidels to either convert or behave like dhimmi. Dar al Harb “Realm of the Sword”: Countries where infidels rule, areas with which Islam is at war, areas to be conquered by the sword. Harbis: infidels destined to the sword. Dar al Islam “Realm of Submission”: Countries where Islamic law (Sharia) governs. Dhimmi (“Blameworthy”): The status of infidels under Sharia law, protection from Muslim violence assured by submission to rules governing behavior, systemic degradation of status, legal humiliation. Perceived violation allows Muslims to attack dhimmi who have violated the rules. Dignity Culture: The conviction that each individual at birth possesses an intrinsic value in principle equal to that of every other person. Inner-directed by a sense of integrity independent of what “others”

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think. Guilt-integrity vs. shame-honor. Because everyone has intrinsic dignity, such cultures tend towards positive-sum interactions, protect human rights, and favor democratic systems of government. Islamophobia: “An outlook or world-view involving an unfounded dread and dislike of Muslims, which results in practices of exclusion and discrimination” (Runnymede Trust). The key problem is defining “irrational” or “unfounded fear.” Islamophobia in current usage is often used to reject any criticism of Islam, to silence any rational or founded reason to fear it. Jihad (“Struggle”): The “great Jihad” inner struggle; the “little Jihad”: war against infidels. Soldiers in the kinetic war are called Mujahiddin. Millennialism (“Thousand Years”): Belief that in the future, this world, permeated by evil, will be purified and a reign of peace, plenty, mutual love and justice will govern mankind for an extended period (a thousand years). Heaven on Earth. Shame-Honor: An emotional and existential orientation that places primary importance on avoiding shame and acquiring, maintaining and regaining honor. Other-directed concern for one’s reputation. In a shame-honor culture it is legitimate, expected, even required to shed blood for the sake of honor. Honor cultures find criticism, especially public, humiliating; they tend towards zero-sum interactions – one wins (honor) only if the other loses (shame), and towards social hierarchies. Triumphalist Religiosity: The need to have the public (especially members of other religions) visibly acknowledge the superiority of one’s own religion and its practitioners.

ENDNOTES

2



3



4



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1

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See the depressing panoply of hate speech aimed at children, PATV, 2020. For documentation of the systematic brainwashing designed to produce “martyrs” at precisely the moment Saïd was writing, see Schapira, 2002. Saïd makes numerous remarks about how the “shock” of the loss of the ’67 war “dislocated” him and proved a turning point in his career (1999). See also Saïd, 1994, pp. xiii, xv. For one example of many, in his essays written during the Jenin Refugee Camp operation against what Palestinians themselves called the “suicide capital,” he never once mentions the terror campaign both Hamas and the PLO had conducted against Israeli civilians for over a year. On the contrary, his only vituperation is for Sharon and the Israelis, while the Palestinians deserve the “moral high ground” as “one of the great moral causes of our time.” As for Palestinians as terrorists? The very mention is “total dehumanization.” (Saïd, 2002, April 11; April 21). In the essays he wrote from 2000 to 2003, he mentions Hamas 18 times and Bin Laden 23, never substantively and most often dismissively, but mentions Sharon 178 times and “occupation” 183 times often in causal explanations for Palestinian violence. See Bartal 2016.

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Chapter 4

Virtual Orientalism/Imagined Dualism (VO/ID) Expansion:

Examining the Mechanisms Behind the Objectification of Zen as an Aesthetic Style Aya Kamperis Independent Researcher, UK

ABSTRACT In Virtual Orientalism, Jane Naomi Iwamura extends Edward Said’s theory through an analysis of the US post-war visual culture to trace the genealogy of the icon of the East she calls the ‘Oriental Monk’. The aim of the chapter is to explore the appropriation of the notion of Zen, particularly its application and exploitation as an aesthetic ‘style’, and the mechanisms behind such phenomena. The chapter extends Iwamura’s thesis to elaborate on the function of the Virtual Monk to question the development of its ontology in the contemporary world of neoliberalism and social media to introduce the concept of VO/ID, which has been deployed by capitalist corporations to market Zen as a lifestyle product/service. It ofers an insight into the process of identifcation within the framework of orientalism, that is, the way in which the Self and the Other come into being, and ofer Gen as a possible solution to the VO/ID expansion.

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INTRODUCTION In Virtual Orientalism, Jane Naomi Iwamura analyses the American Orientalism through visual culture and introduces the concept of “Oriental Monk” (Iwamura, 2011). She attributes the reach and impact of the image of the Monk to the broadcast channels deployed, such as and newpapers, magazines and television, which help reach a much wider public than academic or governmental reports as initially posited by Said. While these channels on the surface seem benign, disguised as fashion and entertainment, the impact of the image of the cultural icon created is as powerful if not more powerful a tool in achieving the state’s hegemonic ends. This paper further extends the analysis into the mechanism of Virtual Orientalism and consider how the new media has affected the development of the icon. While DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch004

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 Virtual Orientalism/Imagined Dualism (VO/ID) Expansion

Said’s initial thesis was primarily concerned with Western Europe’s relation to the Arab world, rather than America’s relation to East Asia, his theory is still illuminating in this context and thus will inform much of this article. The chapter comprises three parts: as the concept of Zen has often been associated with simplicity and ascetic reduction, it begins with a discussion on the Japanese concept of Ma (間)and its relationship to minimalism in terms of creative and lifestyle practice. Ma is in everyday use in the Japanese language, widely employed as an umbrella term to take account of such concepts such as space and silence. The application of minimalism and Ma in various fields of art will be examined. Mirroring the framework utilised by Iwamura in her elucidation of the Virtual Monk, by discussing the impact of new media and employing Ma and minimalism to argue that the Monk has now been further abstracted since Iwasmura described. The second section discusses the various mechanisms posited to engender and reinforce Orientalism. It begins by questioning Said’s claim regarding the silent Other and explores the role the Orient plays in the construction of Orientalism as well as the East/West dichotomy. It is followed by expanding Iwamura’s suggestion that the Oriental Monk manifests as a result of psychological defence mechanism, discussing the psychoanalytical theories offered by Mulvey and Studlar in relation to the objectification of the Orient. The third part of the chapter examines the impact of globalisation and the advances in the new media on the development of contemporary Zen. It explores the mechanisms of Capitalist Orientalism and the paired concepts of Virtual Orientalism and Imagined Dualism (VO/ ID), which work together to delineate the further augmentation of the Virtual Monk and its exploitation by the neoliberal states and corporations. Finally, the article returns back to the notion of Ma and discuss Tetsuro Watsuji’s work on the intercultural understanding of the concept to illuminate its use as an intersubjective phenomenon. The paper aims to make such constructs transparent to empower the consumers and dispel the dualist fallacies to offer a possible alternative by introducing the concept of Gen as a possible solution to the VO/ID expansion.

BACKGROUND

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Do you know that even when you look at a tree and say, `That is an oak tree’, or `that is a banyan tree’, the naming of the tree, which is botanical knowledge, has so conditioned your mind that the word comes between you and actually seeing the tree? (Krishnamurti, 1969, p. 25) Edward Said’s concept of Orientalism is defined as the system of thinking employed by the West to continue colonial domination over the East. The foundation of Said’s seminal book, Orientalism, was that the West has historically held the power of representation over the East, arguing that the Western academic and state discourse produces the homogenous and exoticised Oriental Other in order to identify itself in opposition as superior, civilised and modern. Central to Said’s argument is that such rigid fixing of identity is detrimental, or ‘insidious’ as described by Iwamura, to the Orient, claiming that it prevents integration or equality. Iwamura’s definition of Orientalism in her book, Virtual Orientalism, shifts the focus from the relationship between the Anglo-French and the Middles East to that of the US and the Southern/Eastern Asia, namely India, China and Japan. Iwamura introduces the concept of the “Oriental Monk”, a representational of image of the East, created and employed by the US media to make the alien Other palatable for the American audience. She examines how and why the representations of the Oriental Monk, 54

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 Virtual Orientalism/Imagined Dualism (VO/ID) Expansion

a personified image of the general quality of the Orient, is constructed and recycled by the Occident and the hegemonic Orientalist ideology throughout history by outlining the catalysts that have produced and continue to produce such an icon. She analyses the genealogy of the Oriental Monk through three key figures, D. T. Suzuki, Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, and Kwai Chang Caine (from the popular television series Kung Fu, played by David Carradine), to reveal the development of the projected icon particularly in relation to the media platforms employed and the US political climates that founded each rendition of the Monk. Iwamura notes that the American Orientalism’s sense of ambivalence toward East Asia has been mirrored in its attitudes toward Asian Americans, feared as an economic threat but also imagined to be industrious, over-achieving model citizens particularly in the last few decades since the post-war era. D.T. Suzuki represents the 1950’s Zen boom, the Yogi Maharishi Mahesh and his celebrity followers the 1960’s psychedelia, Kung Fu’s Kwai Chang Caine the Monk’s ontological transformation into a virtual icon. According to Iwamura the image of the Monk is utilised as an ideological contrivance occurring in the cultural discourses of various historical epochs in an attempt to quell any social change considered to be threatening to the colonial infrastructure. Improvements in the Oriental’s political and/ or economical position produce stress points in the historical continuum which destabilise previously clearly demarcated racial/cultural boundaries thereby provoking a response from the dominant ideological network through its institutions (legal, governmental, academic etc.) and cultural productions (TV, Film, print media, design etc.). Now in the age of internet and social media, lay people can become ‘influencers’ to shape and affect the public opinion, to utilize their powers to promote particular lifestyles with associated projects. The dissemination of information and ideas has become a mass process with a much wider, global impact rather than being the domain of well-educated elites as was the case in the context of Said’s original thesis. This paper extends the theory and propose that Iwamura’s Oriental icon is now further dehumanised as an abstraction; with the Monk acting as the conduit to its virtual habitat, the Virtual Monastery if you will, the contemporary model is an extra stylised version of the East. The article focuses on the Orientalism of the notion of Zen and its appropriation as an abstracted aesthetics and lifestyle. Moreover, it posits that such objectification and exploitation of Zen and its associated ethos are expanding at the expense of both the Orient and the Occident since in the context of corporate Orientalism, the hegemonic forces are deployed against all consumers globally, including the West. According to Jeremy Carrette and Richard King, such capitalist exploitation of the Virtual Orientalism works only when deployed together with the Imagined Dualisms of the Self/Other, a psychologised belief in the ontology of an independent and autonomous self. These notions, Virtual Orientalism and the Imagined Dualism, when combined as a neoliberal corporate strategy, will be expressed as VO/ID hereafter in this article. VO/ID differs from cultural colonialism in that it is not a political strategy utilised by any specific nation; rather, it is a process in which the supposed empire is created in the imagination of the consumers and often utilised by the corporations for capitalist gains. The hegemonic dynamics are a lot more complicated as there is no specifically dominant nation propagating the phenomenon. Rather, it is a network of capitalist corporations that deploy the cultural trend that is independently occurring to their benefit by reinforcing the notion by offering consumable services and products. The aim of the article is to examine the mechanism of VO/ID from the roots of its manifestations and the platforms used to survive and strengthen, before offering a possible solution to the issue in the form of Gen.

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MAIN FOCUS OF THE CHAPTER Minimalist design has been associated closely with Japanese Zen with the ascetic attitude and quality. This has manifested most popularly in lifestyle designs including fashion and architecture. When people talk of Zen design, they do not necessarily mean traditional Japanese style but more the imagined, stylised and modernised concept, which manifest as simple designs with the use of wood, stone and natural lights. The colour white as the primary base with touches of light colours are used to emphasise the lightness. While Iwamura mentions that the image of the Monk is multisensory experience and includes the environment within which he resides virtually, in the process of transplantation the notional environment has transformed into a more Westernised version. This article proposes that Orientalism has since expanded the perception of the original Monk and his space, developed into a more abstracted concept while still preserving the key qualities of the original form. The icon has been revamped through further dehumanisation and exaggeration of the Zen minimalist aesthetics introduced earlier in the Suzuki era – modernised, almost unapologetically idealised and futuristic – a Westernised version of contemporary Zen. As one of the key characteristics considered fundamental to Zen as philosophy and practice is the process of subtraction and the consequential simplicity (Kurosawa, 2004) – qualities which many minimalist works share. Engaging directly with the material and the space it occupies by stripping the work to down to its absolute essence, eliminating all unnecessary and distracting features, minimalists encourage the viewer to be conscious of the encounter with the work itself. This allows for a purer reaction to the work itself, rather than the associated beliefs and conceptions; in lieu of admiring aesthetics, the viewer must actively engage with each work in order to experience it. Reducing the artwork to its basic structure was a technique first explored by Russian avant-garde artists in the first quarter of the twentieth century such as Tatlin and Rodchenko (Tate Archive, 2013). Numerous contemporary artists have since been experimenting with the use of such minimalist approach through various disciplines and mediums: John Cage’s silent piece of music, 4’33”, is said to have been inspired by Robert Rauschenberg’s work where he spent a month erasing a drawing by Willem de Kooning, with the resulting artwork being a framed white paper. In the late 1950s artists Frank Stella exhibited his black paintings at the Museum of Modern Art in New York in 1959 (Brown, 2012). Like the rise of the Virtual Monk, it has been suggested that it may be the sociopolitical iconoclastic mood of the postwar US, combined with and expedited by the rapid advancement in the mass media technology, that contributed to the popularisation of minimalism as an artform as well lifestyle design and practice. Japanese houses were traditionally made entirely of natural materials such as wood and paper with exceptionally simple designs, emphasising the use of Ma (間) (Millar, 2001). The notion of Ma is in everyday use in the Japanese language whose English equivalent does not exist but has often been described as a meaningfully empty space-time interval (Loots, 2010), p. 74). It is widely employed as an umbrella term to take account of other related concepts such as the void, emptiness, silence, pause, lull etc. (Goda, 2010) It does not manifest by compositional elements in the sense of an enclosed entity; rather, it takes place in one’s imagination in the occurrence of ‘the simultaneous awareness of form and non-form deriving from an intensification of perception.’ (Loots, 2010), p. 76) Much like the silences between sounds or gaps between physical structures, the lack of a presence can be, depending on one’s mode of perception, experienced as tangible and meaningful. Alan Fletcher says, in his book The Art of Looking Sideways:

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‘space is substance. Cezanne painted and modelled space. Giacometti sculpted by “taking the fat off space”. Mallarmé conceived poems with absences as well as words. Ralph Richardson asserted that acting lay in pauses ... Issac Stern describes music as “that little bit between each note - silences which give the form”. (Fletcher, 2001, p. 370) Loots states that Ma ‘eludes representation and refuses explication’ (Loots, 2010), p. 74). In describing Hemingway’s use of space in his writing he says that the experience of Ma is: ‘not to understand what is missing [...] but rather “how” we can detect some dark gravity‘ (Loots, 2010), p. 76). Referring to the use of the “pregnant pause” in Kabuki theatre, Goda claims that Ma is ‘a property of the interpretative moment rather than the material presence of a thing’, stating that, ‘Ma is difficult to pin down because it is an entirely relational concept and the word is only intelligible within our most subjective responses to temporal and spatial discontinuities’ (Goda, 2010, p. 3). This relationality will be discussed in further detail later in the last section of the article in relation to Tetsuro Watsuji’s theory of Gen. The conditions under which Ma is most likely to be experience is claimed include quietness, calmness and simplicity (Goda, 2010). By pursuing a simple and clean lifestyle, one is liberated from distractions, whereby identity-formation can take place. Zen aesthetics thus often employ subdued colour systems ranging from black and white to grey, nude and dark brown while abolishing all functionless detail. (Weihua, 2010) John Cage described Robert Rauschenberg’s unmodulated white paintings as ‘airports for the lights, shadows and particles.’ (Cage, 1994) The same has been said of Cage’s own work, 4:33, as well as the minimalist decluttering, where the ma is created and the moment of mindfulness happens. Mindfulness as a notion and practice, brought over from the Eastern philosophy by thinkers such as Suzuki, has been made fashionable and popularized in the West by academics and artists such as Suzuki himself, Alan Watts, John Cage, David Lynch and other influential figure in a last few decades. It is now said to be a $4 billion industry with technology giants such as Google and Apple adopting the philosophy and practice of Mindfulness as part of their corporate training. (Purser, 2019) The exploitation of the Oriental icon and its accompanying ethos will be discussed further later in the chapter. One of the criticisms against Said’s thesis is the fact such Orientalism took/takes place beyond the colonial time or place; contrary to his proposition, Orientalism was practiced in times of history before the Anglo-French colonialism and outside of his premised regions. However, Said himself had claimed that his book was focusing on specific time and place and that there are possible extensions of the notion that was beyond the scope of his publication at the time. Numerous studies, including Iwamura’s work, have since focused on American Orientalism, which had widened its perceptual range from the Middle East Orient towards East Asia during the 19th century due to the East Asian importation and immigration. Said’s theory has evidently stimulated further discussions on the expanded notions such as Inverse-Orientalism, Self-Orientalism, and Occidentalism. In critiquing Joseph Conrad’s work, Said describes how the Occident perceives the Orient as a faux reality. As in the case in the film ‘Lost in Translation’ (Coppola, 2003), the Oriental is often deployed as an impersonal theatre background or props, where the West can play out their psychological dramas (Said, 1978). Said has often been condemned as the ironic propagator of Orientalism. It as been claimed that through his approach to the subject he reinforces the East/West dichotomy by labeling the Orientals as the ‘silent Other’ who cannot represent themselves. Within the framework of Orientalism, however, plethora of representatives of the Other have been active participants and expediters in the discourse, particularly in the forms of what are now called inverse Orientalism and positive Orientalism. Figures such as D.T. Suzuki and Maharishi Mahesh Yogi are considered the pioneers in contemporary marketing 57

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of spirituality for their use of the Oriental dichotomy to their advantage in promoting their teachings to the world (Iwamura, 2011). Suzuki’s role as an active agency of Orientalism propagation is well documented; Borup, citing Fader, describes him as the “popularizer” (Borup, 2004, p. 471) of Zen Buddhism. Iwamura depicts Suzuki as one of the original Oriental Monk and his conceptual and physical image set the prototype form for her icon. Nevertheless, the Suzuki-style marketing tactic utilized by many Oriental Others since, such as Marie Kondo, they are still coming from the Orientalist passive position as they employ the assumed power of the West to their advantage. It has also been posited that the self-inflicted Orientalism is rooted in self-contempt or self-deprecation, often in an effort to assimilate (Forbush, 2017). Equally, however, the sense of nostalgia and fantasy for the imagined Orient is not limited to the West and there are also undeniable tendencies for Occidentalism in the Orient. Japaneseness is said to be formed and reaffirmed in direct relation to the Western Other through the process of self-identification opposite an inferior Other. It has been claimed that the pace and severity with which Japan’s imperialism was altered has led to hyperbolic forms of Orientalism and Occidentalism; Japan’s view of itself (as arguably a significant part of the Orient) in relation to the Occident has varied widely since it opened its doors, from inferior to equal, or even at times superior to the Occident. James G. Carrier defines Occidentalism as ‘stylized images of the West,’ (Carrier, 1995, p. 1) which are, rather than mere passive representations, social, political, and economic tools employed with intentions similar to the Saidian Orientalism. Just as the Occidental Self’s need to believe in the fantasised Other, the Other experience the need to believe in the objectified idea of the Occident. Yokoyama asserts that the perception and the use of the Westerner in Japan is a form of ‘deification’. Yokoyama elaborates on the complexity of such conceptualisation by clarifying that since a God can be good or evil for the Japanese, the notion thus represents both a desire of and an aversion to the Occidental Other, allowing the perception of ‘gaijins’ (foreigners) as ‘non-persons’ (Yokoyama, 1994, p. 177). Carrier observes Japan as a ‘particularly fruitful source’ of Occidental images, a country where representations of the Occidental Other are abundant in popular culture (Carrier, 1995, p. 1). It has been argued that the Japanese use of the representational image of the West inverts the “feminization” imposed by the occupation of post-war Japan by the US troops (Cornyetz, 1994). Millie Creighton claims that images of Western people are a ‘pragmatic tool consciously utilized [sic] by the advertising industry’ to help present ideas that may ‘evade Japanese cultural values,’ (Creighton, 1995, p. 145) which in turn forge and affirm self-identity. This represents a reciprocal defense mechanism that compliments the Western Orientalism; together these mutual forces contributes to a dynamic construction and evolution of the Other. Such stance of Self-Orientalism in this context is of acceptance and embrace, rather than negation, of the projected image and the assumed East/West dichotomy. Whether for affirmation of the self-identity, self-deprecation or for self-defence, Orientalism is not a monocausal process, where the Oriental Other has become a complicit agent in the continued Orientalism. Whether in the form of positive-, inverse-, self-Orientalism or Occidentalism, the core premise of the East/West dichotomy is still remains; whatever the means or motivation, such discourse still reinforces the dualist foundation. ‘[t]here have always existed Fatal Women both in mythology and in literature […] mythology and literature are imaginative reflections of the various aspects of real life’ (Praz, 1933, p. 189) As the American Orientalism towards the Monk has always been “positive”, unlike the image of the Middle-Eastern iconographies debated in traditional Orientalism discourses (Borup, 2004; Said, 1978), 58

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the notion has been interpreted as benign. However, this paper argues, as with the proposition put forward by Iwamura, that the affable Monk may be a psychological strategy deployed to emasculate the East as a self-defense against the threat of the inscrutable. By giving a clear and agreeable form, the ambiguous presence of/from the East is made more palatable and less foreboding. Iwamura suggests that the Oriental Monk as an objectified representation was created for the symbolic castration of the East to keep the West feeling safe and secure of its central position in the world. Similarly, the simplification and stylisation of the entire Zen way of being into a design style may be a psychological strategy to moderate a sense of inadequacy in the inability to comprehend the complex nature of Zen. This mechanism has been compared to that in sexism, where the goal of the objectification of the woman is the dismissal and devaluation of the enigmatic Other. Iwamura proposes that the creation of the projected image is rooted in the bewilderment and fear of the unknown culture; the uncertainty was condensed into the form of the Oriental Monk to give form and feminised so to suck out the potency of the mystical presence. Iwasmura references Mulvey’s psychoanalytic film theory regarding the position of the female in relation to the Orient’s position from the perspective of the West. According to Mulvey’s theory, based on Lacan’s concept of the infantile “mirror stage”, the infant sees the idealised image of itself in the mirror and responds with attraction and despair simultaneously. Iwamura argues that the Oriental Monk represents the “ego ideal” to the US audience who want to both vicariously celebrate as the symbol of subaltern demographic and castrate the unintelligible Other. The representation of the otherworldly Monk struggles to coexist with any notions of sexuality; he is consequentially emasculated and the threat of his dominance is turned into a fiction or a fantasy. Orientalism in this context is in essence a manifestation of the West inferiority complex and a defense-mechanism against what is portrayed as the holy presence. Quli argues that the key part of the rationale for the salvage studies is to “protect the feminine, passive third world from the modern, masculine West.” (Quli, 2009) The notion of feminisation often suggests a negative and subordinate status of the female, based on the basis of the Freudian theory of castration anxiety:

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During the American occupation in the immediate postwar period, Japan was perspectively “feminized” and metaphorically raped as a result of its subordinate positioning […] deprived of self-governance, forced to surrender and capitulate to the Western other, upsetting the terms of power and masculinity. (Cornyetz, 1994) Mulvey, in discussing the objectification of the female maintains that, “castration anxiety is alleviated by either fetishistic scopophilia in which female characters are over-valued and idolized, or sadistic voyeurism where they are ultimately demystified by being saved, devalued, or punished” (Mulvey, 1981, p. 35). Studlar, however, proposes that such an idea inadvertently perpetuates the oppressive strategies that it seeks to uncover and change, as it necessarily by logic accept Lacanian and Freudian reduction of the female to what she lacks (Studlar, In the Realm of Pleasure: von Sternberg, Dietrich, and the Masochistic Aesthetic, 1988). Citing the work of Deleuze and Felix Guattari, whose theory was centred on the infantile stage before Lacan’s “mirror stage”, Studlar emphasise the mother’s image. As opposed to Iwamura’s take, the infant, in this case the audience, derives pleasure from the recognition of and submission to the powerful mother/hero. Studlar hence contrasts Deleuze’s emphasis on masochism to the Mulvey’s theory of sadism, concluding that, within such a masochistic framework, the Other is not defined by the lack. Unlike the sadism construct, where the Other’s power is not outlined by the “phal59

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lic” and a transference of the male power, within Studlar’s construct the mother possesses what the male lacks – the breast and the womb – and is hence powerful in her own right (Studlar, Masochism and the Perverse Pleasures of the Cinema, 1985). The woman therefore represents the formidable unknown, thus potent and dominant, that needs to be confined within a manageable frame. Stadlar proposes that the impact of the dynamics of this pre-Oedipal stage in relation to such a powerful maternal imago must be acknowledged (Studlar, In the Realm of Pleasure: von Sternberg, Dietrich, and the Masochistic Aesthetic, 1988, p. 30). The infant “regards the mother as both sacred and profane, loving and rejecting, frustratingly mobile yet the essence of rhythmic stability and stillness” (Studlar, Masochism and the Perverse Pleasures of the Cinema, 1985, p. 609). The Monk represents the archetypal mythological characteristics of the soothing caregiver and emasculating fetale simultaneously. Obviously not the direct imagery of the Dragon Lady or the Geisha – more the Orient as the femme fetale with all the fine balance of the alures and danger. Mimicking the powerful mother could be interpreted as an aspiration for the admired Other, which is a common form of self-defense. Perhaps the appropriation of Zen is a cultural manifestation of the deep anxiety of the Other. The psychical need that is fulfilled may then be one where the object of desire and fear is the mother, rather than the Oedipal father as claimed by Iwamura. This form of mimicry differs from Bhabha’s use of the concept (Bhabha, 1994) in this context; rather, it is a form of psychical integration. According to D. W. Winnicott, ‘projection and introjection mechanisms [...] let the other person be the manager sometimes, and to hand over omnipotence.’ (Winnicott, 1986, p. 50) Freud’s notion of mourning has been compared to Maria Torok and Nicolas Abraham’s concept of introjection, since they, like Freud, deploy the language of conquest, claiming that the self ‘advances, takes over, assimilates’ the object. Introjection is a process of coping to deal with the sense of loss, whereby the self extends outward and absorbs the object of loss, principally the caregiver, by mimicking their behaviors or attributes. (Torok, 1986) Akin to Freud’s melancholia in relation to mourning, whereas introjection is regarded as a normal stage of development, incorporation, on the other hand, is considered an unsuccessful form of introjection. As Derrida describes, “I pretend to keep the dead alive, saved inside me … but it is only in order to refuse … to love the dead as a living part of me.” (Derrida, 1986, p. xvi) By refusing to mourn the loss through the psychic mummification, while the subject may seem to go through the motions of introjection and adopt its stylized articulation with superficial signs, the process is ultimately inauthentic. The stylisation of Zen and its appropriation may thus be interpreted as a collective psychical form of incorporation. Whoever reaches into a rosebush may seize a handful of flowers; but no matter how many one holds, it’s only a small portion of the whole. Nevertheless, a handful is enough to experience the nature of the flowers. Only if we refuse to reach into the bush, because we can’t possibly seize all the flowers at once, or if we spread out our handful of roses as if it were the whole of the bush itself – only then does it bloom apart from us, unknown to us, and we are left alone. Lou Andreas-Salomé (Andreas-Salome, 2011) The resilience of the Oriental icon means that it can afford to not only shape-shift but be abstracted beyond the virtual figure as proposed by Iwamura, but into a dehumanised psychic space, the virtual 60

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Monastery as opposed to the personified Monk. Marie Kondo is another abstracted Monk; the icon is no longer male or authoritative in the traditional way nut still uses both the race and gender Othering to her advantage, successfully marketing her ‘Konmari’ method. She has been named one of Time magazine’s 100 Most Influential People in the World and now lives in Los Angeles. (https://shop.konmari.com, 2020) This essay extends Iwamura’s theory and proposes that the iconography of the Monk has been further abstracted since, passed down the western disciples from the Oriental master. One could interpret such Hollywood effect as an even more blatant form of Orientalism than one Said initially brought into its critical discourse in terms of the socio-political context. However, perhaps the whole process has come full circle and Suzuki has managed to preserve the spirit of Zen, albeit in an evolved form. Rather than being diluted or inauthentic, what is refer to as the contemporary, Westernised Zen is the abstracted apostle with no race or gender, not need for personification. In discussing the transformation of Zen in the US, Borup references Agehananda Bharati’s concept of the “pizza-effect’’ (Borup, 2004, p. 477). Just as Allan Watts became the Western disciple of the Oriental Monk of Suzuki, acting as the palatable bridge of Zen and Japanese culture, the new Californian Zen, represented by the abstracted monk of the social media in the form of architectural and product design, making the Oriental spirituality safe for consumption for the masses. The transplanted mixed race disciple is intercultural; the contemporary Zen is a complex and nuanced hybrid, occupying what Bhabha calls the “third space.” (Rutherford, 1990; Bhabha, 1994) The transplanting of the seed was bound to change its nature in the Western soil. It would be contrary to the spirit of Zen to not embrace its transformation; to not accept the modern Buddhists or Western Zen is to assume “jus sanguinis” of the ethos (Forbush, 2017). Salvage paradigm that mourns the loss of traditions, whether rooted in colonial nostalgia/guilt, is contradictory when applied to Zen, whose embracing of change is core to its both philosophy and practice, reinforcing the Orientalism (Quli, 2009). The beginning of such cultural estrangement had already began in the Japanese in relation to Zen decades ago, as noted by expressed by Suzuki in a Newsweek article from 1959: ’although nearly 5 million Japanese still profess to ne Zen followers, few know anything about the discipline.’ (Iwamura, 2011, p. 53) In the process of ‘protecting’ the tradition and purity of Zen and by labelling the contemporary Zen practitioners as Orientalist, one risks committing the same Orientalist mistake by reinforcing the essentialist view. On the other hand, if this manifestation of the colonial mimicry were to be interpreted in the same light as Bhabha’s observation (Bhabha, 1994), then what is happening with the stylized Zen is perhaps a form of VO/ID, reinforced and deployed by a global corporate consumerist market. While Borup refences Sharf and Faure as examples of successful contextualisation of the Suzuki Zen (Borup, 2004), this article extends their argument in the context of Iwamura’s theory of Virtual Orientalism and propose that the impact is not necessarily progressive in the way it may seem on the surface. The conceptually fabricated monastery is kept alive by the notion of self, which itself is a fabrication, to serve the constant need to fulfil the desire for the Other. With increased international access to the real Orient through improved technology and transport, the Oriental/Occidental Other had to be replaced by a virtual one. Along with the economic systems, the representational platforms for the icons must also adapt to the changing technologies. The improvements in travel mean that the Other is no longer geographically inaccessible in real terms. The need to preserve the place for the representational Other means that the icon now had to be pushed out into the virtual realms of internet and social media, further into an abstracted and dehumanised form. There has always been abundance of prominent figures who spearhead sociocultural movements and booms and their successes have invariably depended on their ability to utilise the new forms of com61

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munication platforms, and technology of the time. Until the first half of the twentieth century, formal academic writing governmental reports played the most important role of knowledge dissemination, hence Said’s focus on the state officials and scholars. In the second half of the last century depended heavily on the mass media, namely the press and broadcast, where mainstream figures such as journalists and media celebrities played vital roles in influencing the masses. Iwamura’s analysis of the Virtual Monk mainly focuses on its representations in on print media – fashion magazines and newspapers in particular – and the television programme, Kung Fu. It seems now impossible to discuss the impact of social media on the manifestation and evolution of the Virtual Monk. We live in the world of the influencer economy, where celebrities play even more significant a role as the marketing tool and strategies to endorse such fads and styles. It is in this sense that Suzuki was the exemplar master of marketing, with a great awareness of the importance of the new technology mass media; by the end of the decade, he would have his own New Yorker profile, and celebrity status to match. While Buddhist texts had been circulating in Europe and the US for a hundred years, they were considered an esoteric interest for a scholarly few. Suzuki’s US arrival in the 1950s transformed the entire image of the Eastern culture. The stylised Suzuki Zen, simplified as easily consumable exotica, appealed to both the glamorous elite and the countercultural Beat Generation. The fact it can now involve non-academics means that Orientalism is no longer a one-way construct, informed solely by academics – if there was ever a question of the directionality of its development, it has now become even more dynamic, with celebrities and the ordinary public influencing the construction of the image of the Monk. Spirituality is arguably the most popular Asian cultural imports to the West. It has been argued that spirituality should not be considered merely as a set of beliefs, practices, communities, and so on, but as a carefully manufactured set of media representations that practitioners and nonpractitioners engage with. The media representations are thus not trivial, but in fact central and critical to the shaping of the entire spirituality industry. Zen has been transplanted and transformed in the West. It has evolved from a stylised spirituality of the Suzuki Zen into what is now packaged up for sale as a luxury Hollywood Zen, marketed back to the Orient to reinforce the Self-Orientalism of the notion. The general mindset of Generation Y, young adults with birth years ranging from the early 1980s to the early 2000s, coupled with the rapid advances in new media technology, has been suggested to have had a huge impact on the recent resurgence of the Zen inspired simple living. Despite probably being the most educated generation in history, the millennial generation is faced with a global economic recession, poor career prospects and delayed milestones such as homeownership. Having seen their parents fall victim to downsizing and frequent layoffs in spite of long working hours made them wary of pursuing the same path, many are said to be turning for satisfaction in a different direction: “making a life” is favoured over “making a living”. (Eddy S.W. Ng., 2010) In his 2014 New York Times Bestseller book, Essentialism – the disciplined pursuit of less, Greg McKeown makes a case for the importance of living by design and not by default by eliminating nonessentials and consciously distinguishing the vital few from the trivial many. (Mckeown, 2014) Marie Kondo, in her book The Life-Changing Magic of Tidying Up: The Japanese Art of Decluttering and Organizing, along with her award-winning Netflix series, Tidying Up with Marie Kondo, also emphasises the disposal of redundant and superfluous items to concentrate on essentials, with her now famed mantra: “discard everything that does not spark joy”. (Kondo, 2014) Joshua Fields Millburn and Ryan Nicodemus, through their publication, Minimalism – Living a meaningful life, along with the feature-length film, Minimalism: A Documentary About the Important Things, demonstrate why working long hours, wasteful spending habits and ephemeral indulgences inevitably lead to depression, and how removing the excess leads to existential contentment. (Minimalists, 2020) 62

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All these authors present systematic minimalist approaches for determining priorities, which will eventually lead to a meaningful and satisfied state of being. Decades after Suzuki-Zen was introduced to the West, “Minimal” is still the it word for the “contemporary” culture globally. With appearances, inter alia, on NPR, NBC, FOX, Forbes, NYT, the Wall Street Journal, Vogue, GQ, BBC, at Harvard Business School, Apple, and several large conferences such as SXSW, TEDx, World Economic Forum and World Domination Summit, with millions of social media followers, these authors above are just a few examples of the celebrity ambassadors who symbolise and validate such minimalist lifestyle for the masses. (Moon, 2019; Why Minimalistic Interiors Are Good For Your Wellbeing, 2018; Bunker, 2017) Social media outlets, such as blogs, vlogs, Facebook, Twitter, Instagram and Pinterest, have become the new mass communication platform over the last two decades, overtaking traditional media. With their image-heavy user-generated contents, online influencers are now in direct competition with established publications such as magazines and newspapers as a source of information and inspiration. It cannot be denied that many bloggers also adopt an aesthetic of faux-minimalism, posting new images of their minimalist lifestyle every day, seemingly unaware of the irony. Simplicity is merely used as a stylistic device whilst the amount of the purchased items remains abundant. This phenomenon has been quickly identified and utilised by mass-market retailers, who have jumped onto the bandwagon with minimalistic collections, transforming minimalism into a mainstream fashion trend. Corporate brands exploit the high viral marketing potential of such influencers; an increasing number have turned commercial and become financially sound via advertisements and sponsorships, transforming into professional ambassadors, releasing new high-quality content at a pace that traditional publications cannot keep up with. (Carlson, 2009) Due to its viral nature, social media posts make lingering interests and concerns apparent, reflecting the social climate in a society. Electronic word-of-mouth (eWOM) has become the new form of word-of-mouth communication and a major source of cultural formation and consumer behaviour. (Lee, 2012) Suzuki’s depiction and promotion of Zen as a laissez-faire spirituality, coupled with the West’s deep-seated conception of the self as an autonomous ontology that needs individual nurturing with the well-being practice, helped the wide and fast spread of the whole variety of Zen culture globally. Akin to the marketing phenomenon where a brand becomes so established in the public’s mind and no longer requires celebrity ambassadors to endorse it, through the use of mass media and eWOM, the dehumanisation of the representational icon has now reached a further abstracted virtual form, no longer needing to even take on any specific fictional character like Kung Fu’s Kwai Chang Caine, let alone a real form. One fundamental, invariable feature of the Monk is that it is a reflective shapeshifter. The Orient in the Monk has been so abstracted by the VO/ID process that it no longer belongs to anywhere even remotely relatable to the Orient and can be packaged and sold to the Orient themselves. In the context of social media, the boundary between promotion and product can blur, overlapping “between journalistic, narrative or non-commercial text and advertisement” (Cornyetz, 1994, p. 119) By employing the seemingly apolitical language of psychology and the areligious rhetoric of the exotic Orient, the force of the VO/ID is deployed by the corporate brands to effectively create a new kind of cultural and economic hegemony. Concerns with the symptoms rather than the cause of the projected image of the Other may be due partially to how deeply embedded the Orientalism notion and the assumed dichotomy is in the Western collective psyche. While Orientalism has been used as a promotional and commercial tool, as well as a social or political strategy, the objectification and the encrusted abstraction of Zen is effective for a reason. It not only pacifies or fulfil the psychic anxieties and desires, but it also reconciles existential incongruencies experienced by the encounters with Other. It allows the otherwise passive subject to 63

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grasp the tangible entity to utilise it to their own benefit. Both side of the dichotomous relationship, the Self and Other, require the belief in the dualism, even if has to be imagined out of fantasised ontology, akin to the ideation of the opposite gender. The infantile drive is manifested collectively, not only by the Occident towards the Orient and vice versa, but also towards themselves by both parties, with Orientalism serving as an existential pacifier to basic drives. It is the process of Othering itself therefore, that is of essential necessity for the collective psyche, manifested through cultural production. The Orientalist derives pleasure through disassociation and appropriation. While the Orientalist phenomenon seemed like an intentional socio-political strategy, the continued manifestation and the popularity of the cultural icon may indicate that it is in the public psyche – not as a result of imperial manipulation but of basic instinct.

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SOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Jeremy Carrette and Richard King argue that the field of psychology is largely responsible for constructing the concept of the private self – an autonomous ontology that can suffer or develop independently through individual practice – which in turn has led to the need for and explosion in the self-management industry. In their book, “Selling Spirituality: the Silent Takeover of Religion” (King, 2005), Carrette and King claim that spirituality has been utilised by policymakers and the corporate wellness industry to sustain efficient and docile workforce, as well as to divert public attention from actual societal issues. By focusing on the individualized, internal problems such as stress and its privatized management, any external concerns, such as social, ethical and environmental matters are passively accepted as personal responsibility or an inevitable feature of contemporary life. Simultaneously, the self-managed employees as a valuable corporate resource function with increased efficiency, self-soothing and propelling itself tirelessly, in the belief that such cog work is moral. Foucault, in discussing the societal networks that create individual ‘subjects’, says: “It is a form of power which makes individuals subjects. There are two meanings of the word “subject”: subject to someone else by control and dependence; and tied to his own identity by a conscience or self-knowledge. Both meanings suggest a form of power which subjugates and makes subject to.” (Foucault, 1982, p. 781) According to Carrette and King, the neoliberal capitalist systems like VO/ID is reliant on the delusion of the self, which has been embedded deeply into the mind of the public through a long process of psychologisation over a hundred years by utilising the regime of governmentality to make itself the central ideology of state institutions particularly welfare, educational and medical systems (King, 2005). Examining the aesthetics of impermanence, Inouye contemplates the ontology of the self and maintains that no such thing exists: ‘on the one hand, the relative permanence of our bodies formulate a sense of who we are … on the other hand, nothing teaches us the truth of change than our bodies’ (Inouye, 2008, p. 36). Based on the ontological questions raised by the Ship of Theseu thought experiment, where the assembled parts that makes the whole object are replaced gradually, Lopes examines the manifestation of the Ise Jingu (Ise shrine) in Japan. Ise Jingu’s physical building, despite being over 2000 years old, is rebuilt every twenty years as part of the Buddhist ceremony and in cerebration of transiency. Lopes claims that the ontology of the shrine uniquely manifest through their temporal presence (Lopes, 2007). Quoting Bogsnar, Lopes describes the rebuilding cycle as a piece of theatre: ‘ephemerality … can paradoxically yield lasting or enduring achievements’ (Lopes, 2007, p. 83). He compares the ontology of Ise Jingu as a ‘real object’ with that of a theatre, as opposed to that of a statue. Unlike traditional Western architectures whose ontology manifest as sculptural objects with the emphasis on the spatial 64

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aspects of their existence, Ise Jingu, through the process of rebuilding reconciles impermanence with permanence.‘While many cultural institutions and sites in Japan have elected to register with UNESCO as pieces of world heritage, Ise Grand Shrine has resisted this trend, as the traditions and rituals that take place there, far from being relics of the past, are still very much alive.’ (Living Heritage: Ise Grand Shrine, 2015) Perhaps the ontology of the self as this constant process of transformation may be comparable to that of Ise Jingu and the rebuilding process, where the permanence that is manifested through the impermanence and action is the essence of the temporal ‘object’. As expressed by Wu, ‘the notion of individual consciousness is no more than an abstraction in the face of the practical everydayness of [human] activities.’ (Wu, 2001) Watsuji’s theory of Gen offers significant insight for the present discussion. The Japanese word for ‘human being’ is ningen (人間), which comprises two characters for ‘person’(人/nin), and ‘between’( 間/gen). In “The Significance of Ethics as the Study of Human being” (Watsuji, 1996), Watsuji focuses on the character “Gen” in examining Japanese ethics, claiming that this term embodies the Japanese comprehension of the ontology of the human as a relational being, which is strikingly different from major Western philosophies that emphasises the autonomy of the individual (Wu, 2001; Purser, 2019; King, 2005) Emphasising the sense of ‘in-between-ness’ of the character Gen, he proposes that ningen contains three meaning strands: • • •

as individual human being as socially enmeshed human beings as the space (Ma) between beings in which the enmeshment occurs

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In such a condition, ‘one must see the two sides of [being both/neither individual and/or social] the person as being in a constant state of tension (Carter, 2001, p. 127). Human being is hence a “unity of contradictions” (Wu, 2001, p. 98), an ontological condition, and Ma is the space where such delicate ambiguity is temporarily held in between the ontologically schizophrenic states. Watsuji contrasts the Japanese term 存在 sonzai (existence) against its European counterparts. The character 存 (son) designates preservation, while 在 (zai) designates the subject’s staying-in-place against departure (Watsuji, 1996). Taken together, unlike “is” or sein, sonzai hence means ‘the self-sustenance of the self as between-ness’. (Wu, 2001, p. 99) Ethics, then, is the manner of being for such a subject as its activities unfold in the practical actions of the everyday. The ontology of self is in this context manifests in the continual reflection on one’s behaviour towards and in relation to others. Taking ningen’s condition of intersubjective betweeness as the point of departure, the laws of ethics are to be located in the double structure of human existence as both individual and totality. This structure is essentially a movement of negation that unfolds through the dialectic between individual and totality, the movement of absolute negativity returning to itself in the form of the nonduality of self and other. (Wu, 2001, p. 99) Watsuji believes that ningen represents simultaneously the public (世間 se-ken) and the individual human beings living in it (Watsuji, 1996). The character 世 se/yo is equivalent to “generation” thereby giving the term “public” a historical dimension, while 間 Ken, which again is the character for Ma (between), implies ‘living and dynamic betweeness, as a subjective interconnection of acts.’ (Wu, 2001, p. 98) The ontology of ningen ‘entails the unity of the sociality and individuality of humanity’ (Fogel, 65

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2015) and that the self is fundamentally rooted in the intersubjective in-between-ness and thus cannot be defined without the network of social space (Maynard, 2002). ‘What characterizes a person as human is that one is always together with other humans. In Japanese history, the only physical escape from the community was through withdrawal into the mountains, and in that case a person was referred to as sen-nin (仙人) “hermit”, a world of otherworldly nuance. There never has been a Japanese word for “privacy.”’ (Nitschke, 2018) According to Watsuji, ‘the structure of existence (sonzai) appropriate to human beings (ningen) expects and depends on trust and truth in human relationships … human relationships are those of trust; and at a place where human relationships prevail, trust is also established.’ (Watsuji, 1996, p. 343) Watsuji’s Gen existence, the no-self being, is not a passive act; rather, it is an active and dynamically responsive way of being – as aptly put by Thich Nhat Hanh, ‘When bombs begin to fall on people, you cannot stay in the meditation hall […] you have to learn how to help a wounded child while still practicing mindful breathing.’ (Purser, 2019, p. 191) – only then the Virtual Monk comes back to life, becomes you, and ceases to be a mere projected representation. Go to the pine if you want to learn about the pine, or to the bamboo if you want to learn about the bamboo. And in doing so, you must leave your subjective preoccupation with yourself. Otherwise you impose yourself on the object and do not learn. Your poetry issues of its own accord when you and the object have become one – when you have plunged deep enough into the object to see something like a hidden glimmering there. However well-phrased your poetry may be, if your feeling is not natural – if the object and yourself are separate – then your poetry is not true poetry but merely your subjective counterfeit. (Basho, 1966, p. 43)

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FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS The possibility of the Other is necessarily intimidating and reassuring simultaneously, not only in the context of Orientalism but in any form of Othering. Further studies into the precise nature of such identification processes regarding Orientalism in relation to the infantile development will help deconstruct such notions of essentialism and binarism. Comparative examinations into gender study may also generate useful insights into the psychological mechanisms behind the process of Othering. It should be noted that the comparison to gender study employed in this article applies to the current state of Orientalism. It represents the general acknowledgement of the reality of the persistence of essentialist belief in dualism. Further studies into the application of the VO/ID expansion theory on other stylised cultures would yield better understanding of the political infrastructures of the phenomenon and the impact of the corporate forces. The argument regarding the impact of the neoliberal politics at individual, national and global level would benefit from analyses of the effects of VO/ID in cultures outside of the US and European countries (where the belief in the psychologised self is prevalent) to gain additional insight into the sociopolitical mechanisms and the influence of the social media.

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CONCLUSION The chapter Addressed three major fallacies in the Orientalist discourse: the myth of the silent Orient, the myth of the subordinate woman, and the myth of the Self. Founded on the theory that it is the psychologised notion of the individual self that plays a major role in the capitalist promotion of stylised Zen, the chapter demonstrated the impact of VO/ID on such market and its expansion. Accordingly, it offered Tetsuro Watsuji’s theory of Gen as a possible solution to instigate a fundamental paradigm shift. We must all re-cognise our complicity in perpetuating the three fallacies of dualism examined as, after all, these myths are the reflection of our operational imagination that make us human. Nevertheless, as expressed by Borup, these discourses help polish the mirror of our perception so to forces us all to stare squarely at ourselves so that we can act authentically. When one touches the surface of the mirror it is merely a representation of oneself. In the film, “Lost in Translation” (Coppola, 2003), the two protagonists disguise their own sense of lostness by pretending to themselves that they recognise a fellow Self in each other and by attributing their disorientation to the Oriental Other. The peculiar backdrop of Tokyo and its eccentric occupants are reduced to mere representations that they can project their anxiety in an effort to cope and avoid facing their own loss. We see the process of incorporation when they imitate the behaviours of the Other: ‘I don’t feel anything,’ one utters. This sense of disorientation can be, however, a positive transformation if experienced actively rather than suffered passively. The role of Said’s thesis as cultural critique cannot be overemphasised. Our role as academics is not to criticise or judge but to illuminate and help re-cognise the complex dynamics of cultural discourse. Not to judge but describe; the proverbial water that ebbs and flows (fragments, merges, conjoins, stagnates, disperses), or the plant that gets transplanted in various soils and adapts to new environments, may not be the Zen but the whole discourse of Orientalism – rather, the Zen in the context is the eye that observes the water’s movements and the adaptations of the plant. Recognising the Orientalist filters may help gain a new insight into one’s own subjectivity and its impact on the wider Orientalist discourse. Said maintains that anyone who studies Orientalism must necessarily position himself in relation to the Orient, a site that is not geographical, but rather a conceptual and discursive ‘space’. Such understanding may help us remain objective over our own subjectivity and the necessarily biased frameworks and filters. Everyone is lost in Translation and everyone is Other, including one’s self, thus nobody is the Other. As Inouye affirms, ‘Only because of our interdependence with everyone and everything can we become thoroughly condemned and, therefore, endlessly compassionate and moved.’ (Inouye, 2008, p. 39)

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ACKNOWLEDGMENT This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-forprofit sectors.

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Basho, M. (1966). The Narrow Road to the Deep North. Penguin Books. Bhabha, H. K. (1994). The Location of Culture. Routledge. Borup, J. (2004). Zen and the Art of Inverting Orientalism: Religious Studies and Genealogical Networks. In New Approaches to the Study of Religion, Volume 1, Regional, Critical and Historical Approaches (pp. 451 - 487). Berlin: Verlag de Gruyter. Brown, M. (2012, May 18). Haywards gallery’s invisible show: ‘the best exhibition you’ll never see’. Retrieved from The Guardian: https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2012/may/18/hayward-galleryinvisible-show Bunker, J. (2017, October 9). How to be a minimalist. Retrieved from https://www.gq-magazine.co.uk/ article/expert-advice-on-how-to-become-a-minimalist Cage, J. (1994). Silence: Lectures and Writings. Marion Boyars. Carlson, B. (2009, September 11). The Rise of the Professional Blogger. Retrieved from The Atlantic: https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2009/09/the-rise-of-the-professional-blogger/307696/ Carrier, J. G. (1995). Occidentalism: Images of the West. Oxford University Press. Carter, R. E. (2001). Encounter with Enlightenment: A Study of Japanese Ethics. State University of New York Press. Coppola, S. (Director). (2003, November 4). Lost in Translation [Motion Picture]. Retrieved from IMDB. Cornyetz, N. (1994). Fetishized Blackness: Hip Hop and Racial Desire in Contemporary Japan. Social Text, (41), 113–139. doi:10.2307/466835 Creighton, M. R. (1995). Imagining the Other in Japanese Advertising Campaigns. In Occidentalism: Images of the West. Oxford University Press. Derrida, J. (1986). The Wolf Man’s Magic Word: A Cryptonom y. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Eddy, S.W., & Ng, L. S. (2010). 2010. New Generation, Great Expectations: A Field Study of the Millennial Generation. Journal of Business and Psychology, 25(2), 281 - 292. Evans, V. (2015, October 8). Beyond words: how language-like is emoji? Retrieved from http://blog. oxforddictionaries.com/2015/11/emoji-language Copyright © 2021. IGI Global. All rights reserved.

Fletcher, A. (2001). The Art of Looking Sideways. Phaidon. Fogel, J. A. (2015). The Emergence of the Modern Sino-Japanese Lexicon: Seven Studies. Brill. doi:10.1163/9789004290525 Forbush, S. T. (2017). Japan’s internationalization: Dialectics of Orientalism and hybridism. In Intercultural Communication in Japan: Theorizing Homogenizing Discourse. Routledge. Foucault, M. (1982). The Subject and Power. Critical Inquiry, 8(4), 777–795. doi:10.1086/448181

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Goda, S. (2010). An Investigation into the Japanese Notion of ‘Ma’: Practising Sculpture within Spacetime Dialogues (PhD Dissertation). University of Norttumbria at Newcastle. https://shop.konmari.com Inouye, C. S. (2008). Evanescence and Form: An Introduction to Japanese Culture. Palgrave Macmillan. doi:10.1057/9780230615489 Iwamura, J. N. (2011). Virtual Orientalism: Asian Religions and American Popular Culture. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199738601.001.0001 King, J. C. (2005). Selling Spirituality: The Silent Takeover of Religion. Routledge. Kondo, M. (2014). The Life-Changing Magic of Tidying Up: The Japanese Art of Decluttering and Organizing. Ten Speed Press. Krishnamurti, J. (1969). Freedom From The Known. HarperCollins Publishers. Kurosawa, M. (2004). Eight Elements of Japanese Aesthetics / Yattsu no Nihon no Bi-ishiki. Kodansha. Lee, C. M. (2012). What drives consumers to spread electronic word of mouth in online consumer-opinion platforms. Decision Support Systems, 53(1), 218–225. doi:10.1016/j.dss.2012.01.015 Living Heritage: Ise Grand Shrine. (2015, December 8). Retrieved from All About Japan: http://allaboutjapan.com/en/article/1077 Loots, C. (2010, Spring). The Ma (間) of Hemingway: Interval, Absence, and Japanese Aesthetics in In Our Time. The Hemingway Review, 29(2), 74–88. doi:10.1353/hem.0.0061 Lopes, D. M. (2007). Shikinen Sengu and the Ontology of Architecture in Japan. In Global Theories of the Arts and Aesthetics. Blackwell Publishing, Inc. Maynard, S. K. (2002). Linguistic Emotivity: Centrality of Place, the Topic-comment Dynamic, and an Ideology of Pathos in Japanese Discourse. John Benjamins Publishing Company. doi:10.1075/pbns.97 Mckeown, G. (2014). Essentialism – the disciplined pursuit of less. New York: Crown Business: Penguin Random House USA. Millar, L. (2001). Textual Space: Contemporary Japanese Textile Art. Surry Institute of Art and Design College University. Minimalists, T. (2020). Retrieved from The Minimalists: https://www.theminimalists.com/

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Moon, C. (2019, February 1). Zen and the Way of Tidying. Retrieved from https://www.lionsroar.com/ zen-and-the-way-of-tidying/ Mulvey, L. (1981). Visual and Other Pleasures. Indiana University Press. Nitschke, G. (2018, May 16). Ma: Place, Space, Void. Retrieved from Kyoto Journal: www.kyotojournal. org/the-journal/culture-arts/ma-place-space-void Praz, M. (1933). The Romantic Agony. Oxford University Press. Purser, R. E. (2019). McMindfulness; How Mindfulness Became the New Capitalist Spirituality. Repeater Books.

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Quli, N. E. (2009). Western Self, Asian Other: Modernity, Authenticity and Nostalgia for ‘Tradition’ in Buddhist Studies. Journal of Buddhist Ethics. Rutherford, J. (1990). The Third Space: Interview with Homi Bhabha. In The Third Space: Interview with Homi BhIdentity: Community, Culture, Difference (pp. 207–221). Lawrence and Wishart. Said, E. (1978). Orientalism. Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. Saito, Y. (2007). The Moral Dimension of Japanese Aesthetics. The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 65(1), 85 - 97. Studlar, G. (1985). An Anthology: Vol. 2. Masochism and the Perverse Pleasures of the Cinema. University of California Press. Studlar, G. (1988). In the Realm of Pleasure: von Sternberg, Dietrich, and the Masochistic Aesthetic. University of Illinois Press. Tate Archive. (2013, October 2). Minimalism, Tate Archive. Retrieved from http://www2.tate.org.uk/ archivejourneys/reisehtml/mov_minimalism.htm Torok, N. A. (1986). L’écorce et le noyau (Paris: Aubier-Flammarion, 1978). In N. Lukacher (Ed.), Primal Scenes: Literature, Philosophy, Psychoanalysis (pp. 88–90). Cornell University Press. Watsuji, T. (1996). Watsuji Tetsuro’s Rinrigaku: Ethics in Japan (Suny Series in Modern Japanese Philosophy). State University of New York Press. Weihua, Y. (2010). The Application of Zen Style in Modern Fashion Design. IEEE 11th International Conference on Computer-Aided Industrial Design & Conceptual Design. Why Minimalistic Interiors Are Good For Your Wellbeing. (2018, October 21). Retrieved from Japana Home: https://japanahome.com/journal/minimalistic-interiors-good-wellbeing/ Winnicott, D. W. (1986). Home is Where We Start From: Essays by a Psychoanalyst. W. W. Norton & Company. Wu, J. (2001). The Philosophy of As-Is: The Ethics of Watsuji Tetsuro. Stanford Journal of East Asian Affairs, 96 - 102.

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Yokoyama, T. (1994). Gaijin: The Foreigner in Japan. In e. A. Uenda, & t. M. Eguchi. In The Electric Geisha: Exploring Japan’s Popular Culture (pp. 175–184). Kodansha International.

ADDITIONAL READING Beauvoir, S. d. (1947). The Ethics of Ambiguity. Editions Gallimard. Eng, D. L. (2001). Racial Castration: Managing Masculinity in Asian America. Duke University Press. doi:10.1215/9780822381020 Fromm, E. (1989). Beyond the Chains of Illusion. Abacus.

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Jodidio, P. (2009). Taizo Kuroda. Prestel Verlag. Kristeva, J. (1991). Strangers to Ourselves. Columbia University Press. Nietzsche, F. (1886). Beyond Good and Evil. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. Ricoeur, P. (1992). Oneself as Another. The University of Chicago Press. Sartre, J.-P. (1943). Being and Nothing. Editions Gallimard. Snodgrass, J. (2003). Presenting Japanese Buddhism to the West. The University of North Carolina Press. Suzuki, D. T. (1959). Zen and Japanese Culture. Bollingen Foundation. Inc. Suzuki, D. T. (1972). The Zen Doctorine of No-Mind. Weiser Books. Tanizaki, J. (1977). In Praise of Shadows. Leete’s Island Books, Inc.

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

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Gen (間): The experience of an intersubjective Ma and the dynamic response to the Ma. Imagined Dualism: The belief in the essentialist dichotomy of the Self/Other, East/West and/or Male/Female. Ma (間): The presence of a meaningful space/time interlude. Occidentalism: The projected image of the Occident. Orientalism: The projected image of the Orient. Oriental Monk: A personified representation of the Orient. Virtual Orientalism: The manifestation of Orientalism in the visual media. VO/ID: The paired concept of Virtual Orientalism and Imagined Dualism.

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Chapter 5

Analyzing Jordan Peele’s Get Out With Fanonism: Tracing Postcolonialism in Hollywood Representations Nurdan Akiner https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0295-9373 Akdeniz University, Turkey

ABSTRACT The colonial discourse racially defned the others and distinguished between people regarded as barbarous, infdels, and savage, such as the inhabitants of America and Africa. The formal abolition of slavery has not been the solution for Blacks, but they have often been subjected to the domination of sovereign ideology at diferent social life levels. The dominant ideology in USA is also infuential in representing Blacks in the cultural industry. This chapter examines the 2017 flm Get Out, directed by Jordan Peele, as an example of the recent diversity positive trend in Hollywood. Peele is the frst Black screenwriter to win the Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay. The flm was analyzed by Roland Barthes’s semiotics theory and Frantz Fanon’s critical theory Fanonism. This research shows that Get Out is truly a Black renaissance in Hollywood. The signs of racism skillfully placed in the flm were analyzed by focusing on denotative and connotative meanings, and the racial oppression faced by African-Americans throughout history was revealed by regarding Fanonism.

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INTRODUCTION One of the 15th century’s critical technological developments is to make ships move rush in the oceans using wind energy. However, gaining speed in the oceans using wind energy and gigantic sailboats designed accordingly, although considered a crucial development for humanity, accelerated Africa’s pillage and even turned it into a business. Although the discovery of wind energy is a source of great

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch005

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 Analyzing Jordan Peele’s Get Out With Fanonism

pride for Europe, it is one of the most tragic examples of the abuse of science against humanity, such as the atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in terms of its results. Today, the bottom of the Atlantic Ocean is filled with the wreckage of some 1,000 ships trading slaves on a line from Africa to Brazil, the USA, the Caribbean. More than 12 million Africans are estimated to have been smuggled into the American and Caribbean colonies by Europeans. The longest part of the journey in slave ships across the Atlantic Ocean from the West of Africa to the American and Caribbean colonies is called the Middle Passage. According to a very conservative estimate, the number of deaths in the Middle Passage alone is 1.5 million. The number of deaths on land during the slave trade is unpredictable (Miller, 1981). Declared as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 2017, Valongo Wharf was built in 1811 and was used as a place of download and trade for slaves brought from Africa until 1831, when the Transatlantic slave trade was banned (the slave trade continued secretly until 1888). Valongo Wharf was created during the light rail system and flamboyant buildings as part of the 2016 Rio Olympic Games. The first place where nearly four million enslaved Africans (now ten times the number in the United States) set foot in Brazil is Valongo Wharf, an enormous role in the Transatlantic slave trade (Lima, 2020). Mass graves that were accidentally encountered in Portugal and Brazil’s excavations, the first country that commodified Africans in the 1440s, reveal the terrible extent of the “transatlantic slave trade.” The Africans enslaved in Portugal were found in a dump in Lagos, a coastal town in the Algarve, a popular tourism destination. Most of the skeletons discovered were chained and had traces of severe trauma on their bodies. Worse, one-third of these corpses were children. The area in question is currently an underground car park with a golf course on its roof (Ferreira et al., 2019). After the Europeans colonized the American continent, the blacks, whom the European traders abducted from the African continent by force and enslaved, lived under challenging conditions for many years; even after abolishing slavery in the USA in 1865, blacks continued to work as slaves and were exposed to racist rhetoric. So much so that, after the persecution, blacks have become alienated from their identity and history with the influence of the culture industry. With this alienation, black people, who have always been aware of the discriminatory treatment, started to think and act like white people. In this context, Jordan Peele aimed to remind all blacks of their forgotten past and identity with the 2017 film “Get Out.”

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THE AFRICAN-AMERICANS IN USA: HISTORICAL BACKGROUND For the first time in 1619, twenty Africans were brought as slaves to the American continent, where Europeans invaded and settled. The blacks were chained to the galleons, which were abducted from the African continent colonies. They were persecuted and tortured by slave traders on these ships throughout their journey. These people, who were sold very cheaply as slaves, were employed in the Lower South states of America in the cotton fields extending into Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas, without any rights and pay (Bullard, 1993). The American War of Independence took place between 1775 and 1783, and the colonial peoples in the American continent united around the phenomenon of “independence” against Britain and formed the United States of America. The previous “Boston Tea Party” incident set the stage for the American War of Independence (Barley, 2007). They were reacting to the high tax imposed on tea by Britain, a

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prominent colonial state. The American colonial forces disguised as Native Americans and poured tons of tea into the Boston Harbor to eliminate England’s high taxes. The American Declaration of Independence was proclaimed in 1776. In the introductory sentences of this declaration, it is seen that all humanity is created equal, and it is emphasized that they have some inalienable rights such as life, freedom, and access to happiness. After becoming president, Abraham Lincoln formally abolished slavery in 1865. However, this did not provide a solution for their situation as blacks without economic power had nowhere to go. This time, blacks were worked as slaves in secret. Discriminatory treatment of blacks in social, economic, and political spheres continued (Bullard, 1993). Although slavery was abolished, discriminatory policies against blacks continued. The clearest example of blacks’ discrimination is the racist Jim Crow laws, which advocate the principle of “separate but” equal. Jim Crow is a character created by Thomas Rice, an English comedian, in 1828. The character Rice portrayed by painting her face black with charcoal was black with the low mind, primitive and humiliated. After a while, “Jim Crow” became the name used to humiliate blacks. Mainly after 1890, with these segregation laws that oblige the separation of races in all areas of life in the South, it aimed to keep blacks apart from whites in social life (Bullard, 1993). The best example of this is when blacks and whites have separate seating arrangements on buses. Rosa Parks, who was subjected to racist treatment in line with this discriminatory policy, was asked to leave the seat reserved for blacks because the white seats were occupied, and Parks was arrested for refusing this. With this incident, Martin Luther King, against discriminatory policies, “I Have a Dream!” With the slogan (I Have a Dream), he started an excellent resistance for freedom and equality and carried out many actions without violence. Thus, the Hollywood film industry, which played a major role in the production of racial relations, started to set up its narrative structure only implicitly against the blacks since then, and the marginalization of blacks in the products of the culture industry continued (Artz, 1998). During slavery, black people were forbidden to be educated to prevent them from getting empowered by learning how to read and write. However, blacks had learned to read and write at the risk of all kinds of punishment. Blacks, who have the power to communicate with this power, have taken a big step for their freedom (Küngerü & Akıner, 2016). In his book Black Skin White Masks, Frantz Fanon opposed black people’s humiliation because of their skin and discussed that black-skinned people had to wear white masks to become respected by society. According to this, when black-skinned people saw that white-skinned people have all the privilege, they started to act with the idea that they should be like white people to be successful. As Fanon points out, the alienation that occurs due to the whitening of the brain of a black person who experiences a “whitening” complex results in black people forgetting their roots and culture (Akıner, 2014). According to Fanon, the black person is defined as “non-white,” which results in the attribution of positive or negative characteristics that the black person does not have. However, since white people are considered natural and defined by their characteristics, black people prefer to be a white person to be a subject; they wear white masks. Fanon’s dialectical point of view later Nelson Mandela’s “I fought against white domination. I fought against black domination. I defended the ideal of a democratic and free society where everyone has equal opportunities and lives together in harmony” (Lee, 2015).

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REPRESENTATION OF BLACKS IN HOLLYWOOD AND DIVERSITY POSITIVE The main focus in critical theory is the power of large companies that want to monopolize cultural production. Theodor Adorno and Max Horkheimer, members of the Frankfurt School, discuss the cultural industry in their primary text, Dialectic of Enlightenment (1947). This text provides an appealing critique of the mass entertainment culture of consumer capitalism. According to Adorno and Horkheimer, the culture industry plays a significant role in the reproduction of capitalism. When Adorno and Horkheimer wrote the work, they focused on leading entertainment companies such as Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer (MGM), Twentieth Century - Fox, and Radio Corporation of America (RCA) (Horkheimer & Adorno, 1972). If Adorno were alive today, he would point to international media companies like Walt Disney Corporation, AOL Time Warner, or News Corporation. According to them, such organizations produce goods intending to increase corporate profits rather than foster critical thinking and human freedom. In other words, in this process, a culturally oriented production line is formed, such as film, music. It is combined with standard tasks shared among workers like other manufacturing products (Smith & Riley, 2011). In other words, the culture industry is a part of the Industrial Revolution, which is actually a product of industrial technology and is a means of making profit through culture. With the recent acceleration of liberal globalization, a new type of capitalism, industrial and fiscal based on speculation, rose. From now on, real power is in the hands of some global conglomerates and economic groups whose weight in world affairs seems to be more important than governments and states. Today’s modern hyper-companies are taking over various media industries in many different continents countries through concentration mechanisms. Moreover, these global conglomerates are also exerting pressure on governments to eliminate laws that prevent the creation of monopoly-duopolies and restrict concentrations. These giant media companies widely distribute their messages, including these chain symbol makers, television, animation, film, video games, CDs, DVDs, publishing, Disneyland-style theme parks, and sporting events (Akıner, 2014). Film technology has changed the narrative of film in the historical process. The USA has invented the machines that produce widespread cultural meaning, and by integrating this meaning with the ideological power, it has used its dominant discourse globally through all cultural industries, especially Hollywood (Miller, 2012). Hollywood is the most vigorous wing of the global movie industry and is above all a commodity-producing industry. Hollywood has a critical ideological discourse in this context. American liberal-conservative understanding dominates the culture produced by global communication networks. It is articulated with American domestic policy and supports American interests at the global level.

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Blacks in the Hollywood Film Industry Few films in Hollywood Cinema objectively examine African-Americans’ social position and their racist behavior and problems. While the Hollywood film industry creates an art form that allows the other to be portrayed, it is also an essential tool in conveying nationalist discourses. The Hollywood film industry plays a vital role in shaping the viewer’s perception of “us” and “them,” with its choice to represent cultures outside of the culture in which it exists. Cinema reveals who is strong or weak, who is capable of exercising power and brutality, and who is incapable; legitimize the situation of those who have power, and conveys message to the powerless to stay where they are (Kellner & Ryan, 1988). In its simplest definition, racism is any policy, attitude, action, or inaction that supports individuals or groups according to their race (Wolf & Guin, 2004). Orientalism discourse puts the Orient in a 75

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downward position to justify what the West has done to the East. Esposito concludes that what makes information good or bad, right or wrong, is related to society’s needs that produce the information. On the other hand, Foucault points out that the discourse’s producer has the power to make it right (obliges according to the meaning of validity or scientific status) (Akıner, 2014). Hall puts the final point: “The question of whether the discourse is true or false is less important than whether it is effective in practice.” According to Stuart Hall (1997), the Non-Western “Other” is defined by the West, the “Us (the Self),” and the “Them (Other)” is essential in the formation of the self. The “Other” is a person or group different from the West itself. An easy way (perhaps the most straightforward way) to characterize the “Other” is to look at someone’s skin color as a marker of racial difference. Seeing that “white” was the accepted norm in Western countries, people of color were automatically “marginalized.” In The Spectacle of the Other, Stuart Hall (1997) discusses three moments in which the West encountered black people and led to an avalanche of popular representations based on the sign of racial difference: The first is the West African kingdoms, a source of black slaves for three centuries. It is the contact between the European merchants and the 16th century. Its effects would be seen in slavery and the post-slavery societies of the new world. The second was the struggle between European powers to control colonial lands, markets, and raw materials during the European colonization of Africa and imperialism. Third, after the Second World War, there were migrations from the third world to Europe and North America. Western ideas about images of race and racial differences are profoundly shaped by these three moments of fate. In representations in the Hollywood film industry and other media representations, “Us-West” is seen as contemporary, rational, rugged, open, and masculine. “Other-East” has been regarded as the opposite: uncivilized, irrational, weak, barbaric, and feminine Non-Western. Before the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s, black actors were often represented in the Hollywood film industry’s products by stereotypes, in other words, by fixed, simplified, generalized stereotypes of members of a group that ignored individual characteristics of individuals. After the Civil Rights Movement, the racism that had been openly displayed on the screen until then became less accepted. Civil Rights Movement aimed to establish equality in civil rights for African-Americans and led by nonviolent resistance advocate Martin Luther King. Thus, the Hollywood film industry, which played a significant role in racial relations production, started to establish the narrative structure against the black people only in a disguised way (Artz, 1998). But in the 1980s, black participation in horror movies was rather fleeting or absent. In horror films of this period, the vast majority of black characters were not only killed in the plot, but blacks were also the first to die (Coleman, 2011).

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Diversity Positive and Hollywood Film Industry The sensitivity shown in the representation of groups exposed to ethnic racism and sexist discrimination has increased in recent years. As a culture carrier, Hollywood is the epitome of momentum. Diversity Positive is a part of colonialist Western societies’ daily lives like the USA, including Hispanic, Italian, Jewish, and African immigrants, and do not have a homogeneous structure. Diversity positive refers to the work done to leave behind the ethnocultural discrimination that has left traumatic marks on the world’s recent history. Thanks to diversity positive, the Hollywood film industry has enabled tolerance and tolerance concepts to be considered a marketing policy in one aspect.

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One of the most striking researches on the subject was conducted by the USA-based media research platform Annenberg Inclusion Initiative. The report proves with the data that diversity positive has gradually increased over the past years. “Inequality in 1,200 Popular Films: Examining Portrayals of Gender, Race / Ethnicity, LGBTQ & Disability from 2007 to 2018” is remarkable about the directors (Smith et al., 2019): Considering 1200 films and 1,335 directors, only 80 of them were found to be black. This number corresponds to 6 percent in the percentile. Of the 80 directors, only 5 are female directors, and the remaining 75 are male. On the other hand, a group of 42 Asian or Asian Americans occupies only 3.1 of the percentile. In this group, the number of female directors is only 3, while 39 directors are male. With this in mind, the number of those who want to embrace the belief that a “new world” is possible increases rapidly both within the industry and among the audience. According to the UCLA, 2019 Hollywood Diversity Report, it is noteworthy that in 2018, not only the representatives in the leading roles and supporting roles, but also the 15 directors behind the camera were black, which corresponds to 13.4 percent in the percentile (Hunt et al., 2018). Fourteen of these directors are men, while 1 of them are women. The year 2018 saw a historic increase in the number of black directors in the industry. It is no coincidence that Sony hired four black directors for high-budget movies. The annual Hollywood diversity report focuses on diversity, both in front of and behind the camera. The evidence in the report highlights that America is increasingly favoring different film and television content by different audiences. This diversity is significant to Hollywood. Because blacks make up about 40 percent of the USA population (Hunt et al., 2018), in the report, the number of female film directors that almost doubled from 2016 to 2017 is also striking, but it can be concluded that it is not sufficient in terms of only 12.6 percent of all directors.

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Fanonism in the Context of Postcolonial Theory When evaluated in postcolonial theory, there is a hegemonic relationship between West and East based on power and domination. “Orient” is a phenomenon that has been constructed by naturalizing stereotypes by generations of intellectuals, artists, commentators, writers, politicians, and the mass media industry. Colonialism includes a range of comprehensive practices, such as trade, bargaining, war, enslavement, genocide, and rebellion in the lands newly created by the colonists. As the origin of the word, colonialism means a farm or settlement, and this settlement revived relationships in the settled space. These applications have produced various documents such as private and official records, commercial documents, letters, and scientific literature. Practices and written documents have influenced the studies of colonialism and postcolonialism (Loomba, 1998). Postcolonial theory has many definitions. Postcolonial theory emerges as a theory, method, and trend that investigates the social, economic, political, cultural, and psychological effects of the conditions that emerged in the colonial period and after. The position of “Third World” countries against colonial practices and the effects of colonialism and the characteristics of colonial societies are also examined (Ashcroft, Griffiths Gareth, & Tiffin, 2002), (Young, 2001), (Loomba, 1998), (Gandhi, 1998), (Quayson, 2000), (Parry, 2004), (Appiah, 1991), (San Juan Jr, 1998). The Empire Writes Back: Theory and Practice in Postcolonial Literatures is one of the most important works ever published in postcolonialism, written by Bill Ashcroft, Gareth Griffiths, and Helen Tiffin and published in 1989. In this book, Ashcroft, Griffiths, and Tiffin discuss the relationships in postcolonial works and examine the forces acting on postcolonial text words. As noted by Bill Ashcroft, Gareth Griffiths, and Helen Tiffin, the theorists of postcolonialism, along with Said, some critical scholars such as Homi K. These, at best, laid the theoretical groundwork, and 77

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 Analyzing Jordan Peele’s Get Out With Fanonism

the theoretical process of using postcolonialism in cultural analysis occurred after The Empire Writes Back. According to Ashcroft, Griffiths, and Tiffin, more than 75% of the world’s people today have experienced colonialism in the modern period. When looking at people’s worlds of perception, literature, music, arts, and dances, it is easy to detect the effects and prevalence (Ashcroft, Griffiths & Tiffin, 2002). Fanonism is the term that expresses the anti-colonial pro-liberty critique developed by the Martinique psychiatrist Frantz Fanon (1925-1961), a pioneering postcolonial theorist and activist. Fanon’s work in Algeria prompts him to join the Algerian liberation movement; has led him to publish work on racism and colonialism. These include his work on racism and its colonized psychology The Black Skin White Masks (1952) and The Wretched of the Earth (1961), published just before his death. In this work, Fanon addresses the colonized, politically, economically, and culturally oppressed peoples, which he describes as the “damned of the earth - the wretched of the earth” and ignored by the colonial powers. In The Fact of Blackness (1952), on the other hand, he addressed the construction of prejudice, and the powerful and defining psychological effects of this on the self-construction of black peoples (Ashcroft, Griffiths & Tiffin, 2013). The Wretched of the Earth and Black Skin, White Masks, two important works of Fanon, also shed light on the problems caused by the psychological tension and loss of self-created by the “in-between” of black people in the world of whites. In his book The Wretched of the Earth, he emphasizes Europe’s colonialism and criticizes the racist movements they carried out along with the ideals promised by Western civilization. Frantz Fanon is an essential contributor to the field of postcolonial theory. Contrary to popular belief, long before Edward Said, Frantz Fanon concluded his colonial claim by saying, “Europe is the creation of the Third World.” According to Fanon, the colonial transfers all the wealth of the colonial regions to the metropolis. It uses all the resources in the colonies for its benefit. Fanon (1963) defines this situation as follows: “This European opulence is scandalous, for it has been founded on slavery, it has been nourished with the blood of slaves, and it comes directly from the soil and from the subsoil of that underdeveloped world. The well-being and the progress of Europe have been built up with the sweat and the dead bodies of Negroes, Arabs, Indians, and the yellow races ”. Eurocentrism, orientalism, and racism played a vital role in the historical formation of colonial discourse. With European-centered thinking, the European “white man” has fixed his position, placed himself in the center of the world, including everything excellent and beautiful in his European identity, which he produces directly, and defines himself by looking at the other. The relationship between West and East is a relation of power, domination, and a hegemonic relation. The concept of orientalism, which became popular with the work of Edward Said, examines the processes built and still maintained by European thought. Edward Said (1979) argues that Europeans divide the world into two parts. East and West or Occident and Orient, or civilized and uncivilized. These concepts are an utterly artificial limit; “they and we” depend on “their and our” concepts. Frantz Fanon (1986) talks about black people being the other of whites. This marginalization also acts by the black man’s wishes to prove himself, whether he wants it. To understand this, all that needs to be done is to examine children’s magazines. On the pages of these magazines, the words “okay boss, okay, boss” are spilled from the mouths of every black person. Black people who appear in movies, who are not intelligent, who are spoken of slang, or are punished with death in the slightest and ridiculous mistake are examples. Fanon explains these stereotypes of black people as a concern to remind black people of the dominant ideology at every opportunity.

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We come across black typologies that are not allowed to express thoughts on serious issues: “If a black man is to speak of Marx, the first reaction will always be the following: “Let’s get you to our level, then you get up and stir things against our benefactor! Ungrateful to you! What can be expected from people like you”. These black people’s typologies are so engraved in memories that black in Europe has become synonymous with everything’s evil. Based on this, Fanon states that all archetypes of low value are represented by blacks (Fanon, 1986).

METHOD OF THE RESEARCH Get Out (2017), directed by Jordan Peele, draws attention with its narrative structure by borrowing and transforming signs, cultural codes, and myths from historical and social processes. This situation causes the audience to reinterpret the narratives. Despite being in the horror genre, Get Out, which is also described by film critics as a documentary on the fate of African-Americans in the international arena, has hidden elements because it is a product of the Hollywood film industry. The director skillfully designed the signs in the film. In this context, the visual indicators selected from the film have been analyzed with the concepts of French Linguist Roland Barthes’ theoretical approach, denotation, and connotation. Frantz Fanon’s critical theory has also been interpreted with Fanonism. Jordan Peele’s debut feature Get Out was one of the few films that successfully achieved the commercial success that was the dream of all horror filmmakers at the box office. Get Out grossed more than $ 250 million worldwide with a budget of $ 4.5 million. Although the film raises commercial concerns about being a USA-made and blockbuster film, it criticizes blacks’ dominant ideology through the culture industry from within through diversity positive.

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Synopsis and Details of the Film Chris (Daniel Kaluuya) is a young black photographer. He has a happy relationship with a white woman named Rose (Allison Williams). One day, Rose invites Chris to his family home. Despite warnings from his black friend Rod (Lil Rel Howery), Chris agrees to join the White Anglo-Saxon Protestant family. Chris senses an oddity in the behavior of the black workers in the mansion. She is hypnotized by Rose’s mother, Missy Armitage (Catherine Keener), and plunges into the dark world. In this dark world, control is in the hands of white, wealthy, and liberal families. A weekend meeting of wealthy white families takes place at the Armitages’ home. Different plans are made for Chris at this meeting. Chris is unaware of the situation he is in, and he becomes uneasy with the actions of the young black man attending the meeting. Writer, screenwriter, and comedian Jordan Peele directed and scripted the movie Get Out. The movie, released on February 24, 2017, is 104 minutes. The film is produced by Jordan Peele, Jason Blum, Sean McKittrick, and Tedd Hamm. Black director Jordan Peele’s film, Get Out, with references to America’s problem of racism and blacks’ historical exploitation, was nominated for Best Director, Best Original Screenplay, and Best Actor for Best Picture. The film won an Oscar for Best Original Screenplay, and Jordan Peele became the first African-American to receive this award (Dockterman, 2018).

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Semiotics and the Cinema

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The Swiss linguist Ferdinand De Saussure (1857-1913) and the American philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914) were pioneers of semiotics. After the studies of Saussure and Peirce, semiotics studies in America and Europe continued with different approaches. Roland Barthes, Umberto Eco, Claude Levi Strauss, Christian Meltz, Louis Hjelmslev are some of these theorists. Each scene of a film contains signs. The branch of science that studies these signs is semiotics like all kinds of forms, objects, phenomena that represent something outside of itself and can replace what it represents. In this respect, words, symbols are generally called signs (Rifat, 2013). The sign can represent and replace all kinds of objects and phenomena. Thus, the sign shows entities other than itself. The whole of signs constitutes the system, that is, the system. The system has been implemented by people to facilitate social life and communication (Akerson, 2005). The denotation is the first meaning created by an object in the world in our mind and belongs to the domain of existence. The concept of connotation has a value instead of a literal meaning and belongs to the field of myth. Roland Barthes’s denotation and connotation concepts can be applied to cinema, literature, and similar fields. This form of interpretation turns into a different form of meaning and interpretation in cinema, by combining with the social and cultural values of the audience, apart from the image that is literally reflected on the screen (Berger, 1995). According to Roland Barthes, myths, which are a process of making sense of the world, are ideologically based and differ from legends in this respect. Primitive myths are about life and death, man and gods, good and bad (Fiske, 2010). In his book Mythologies, Roland Barthes (1972) discusses the mythical meanings or cultural connotations of many French daily life phenomena, such as wrestling, steak and chips, toys, Garbo’s face, and striptease. Its purpose is to take the world of “things without saying” and show the connotations associated with it (which often reveal themselves as ideological issues). These “meanings,” which Barthes discovered in some details with brilliant methodological success and creative insight, are those objects’ connotations. In Empire of Signs (1970), he does the same for Japanese culture. In the context of this discussion, a myth is, among other functions, a narrative that serves to connect individuals to their culture and to explain natural and supernatural phenomena (such as the creation of the world and the origin of man). The literary critic Mark Shorer (1968) describes the myth as: “Myths are the means of our constant struggle to make our experiences understandable to ourselves. A myth is a great image that gives philosophical meaning to the realities of everyday life, provides control.” Genre films, considered a product of the Hollywood studio system, are considered one of the most influential ideologies (Kellner & Ryan, 1988). The Hollywood film industry has superior power in naturalizing and spreading stereotypes beyond what was anticipated.

RESULTS Director and screenwriter Jordan Peele wrote Get Out, the thriller about racial hypocrisy when debates on police violence against African Americans were intense, and hate crimes rose. In Peele’s own words, “The movie was written in the Obama era, which I’ve been calling the post-racial lie.” While Peele describes Get Out as documentary, horror, and comedy, he adds a new category to these genres: the social thriller (Yuan & Harris, 2018). The social thriller genre came back to the fore with Jordan Peele’s Get Out. Although commonly described as a horror movie, Peele describes Get Out as a “social thriller,” 80

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 Analyzing Jordan Peele’s Get Out With Fanonism

let the things that appear on the screen be as scary as they want, but society itself is horrifying and evil. According to director Peele, we are the evil (Castillo, 2017). Death of the Deer: When the deer’s sequence is examined, the deer depicted on a rock in the Paleolithic period symbolizes the “magic of hunting” or the hope that such depictions will magically come true (Gibson, 2009). Besides, the deer is considered by many civilizations as a sacred animal. The deer was accepted as the guide of the gods’ path by the American natives (Armutak, 2002). The deer used to reference the hunting ritual in this scene reminds of the “hunting magic.” Even though it was an unfortunate traffic accident for our hero Chris (Daniel Kaluuya) on his way to meet his girlfriend’s family, the hunting spell has already begun with its the connotative meaning in the film. Because his girlfriend, Rose, who was at the wheel at the time, was the “hunter” of the hunting party, which was first started by European slaves in the 16th century. In Get Out, Jordan Peele uses the deer as metaphor for representing the United States’ AfricanAmerican population. Rose’s father complained about the deer population, “One down, a couple of hundred thousand to go. These things are everywhere here” and speaks of the damage they are doing to ecology. The camera clearly shows the audience that Chris is uncomfortable with this comment. The deer is both metaphor and metonym, just like the teacup used in hypnosis, in the context of the meanings it represents. It represents the African-American population on the one hand, and on the other hand, historically, it refers to slavery in the South. After the prohibition of slavery in the USA, the southern economy suffered because slavery was its primary source. Hypnosis with Teacup: Chris’s mind becomes blurred as Rose’s mother, Missy Armitage, stir the teacup. Rose’s mother, Missy (Catherine Keener), is a hypnotist who puts black people in a trance. Throughout the film, African American characters are used only for their bodies. Rose’s mother, Missy Armitage, catches Chris at her weakest point during hypnosis. When Chris was a child, his mother died in a car accident. Chris continued to watch television instead of calling the police because his mother did not come home. “I just thought that if I did, it would make it real,” he tells Rose. “I just sat there.” The main character, Chris, is tortured through hypnosis like a black slave just as he was centuries ago. The teacup used as a hypnosis method, with its connotative meaning, evokes the “Boston Tea Party” that led the United States to independence. The main reason behind the Tea Party incident is the heavy taxes imposed by Britain, which emerged from the Seven Years’ War as a significant colonial power, to thirteen American colonies to make the colonies pay for the cost of the war (Sander, 1997). Unwilling to pay this tax, the American colonial forces disguised as Native Americans by creating a fictitious event and poured tons of tea on British ships into the sea. As in the Boston Tea Party incident, reality has been turned into a propaganda tool by fictionalizing a fabricated event. Connotation comes from the Latin connotate, which means “to write with.” Thus the connotation relates to historical, symbolic, and emotional issues that are told by a term or “come with it.” The denotation belongs to the field of existence, the connotation to the field of myth. It has presented a metaphorical richness within the plan. The teacup is both the Boston Tea Party’s metaphor and the USA’s creation myth’s metonym with its flamboyant meaning. Carole Shammas (1990) defines tea as “the commodity that started the American Revolution.” In the process leading up to independence, tea gained a mythological dimension in American society due to its political role. The Tea Party for Americans has become an emblem of their belief that a determined and organized group can bring about significant political change came and ended in independence (Carp, 2010).

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Table 1. Selected signs from Get Out (2017)

Source: (Get Out, 2017)

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 Analyzing Jordan Peele’s Get Out With Fanonism

In other words, the USA’s white and religious people, the White Anglo-Saxon Protestant Americans, did not want to share tea with people of dark skin. As a cultural tradition of whites, drinking tea excluded African Americans and became a metaphor associated with whites (Heneghan, 2003). With the dimension of connotation, which is a term used to express the cultural meaning added to a figure in a text or even a text, the tea ritual has also begun to be associated with stereotypes for women in the USA. While Chris remembers the past, he is opposite a TV instead of Missy Armitage. From this point of view, we see that the culture industry imposes White Anglo-Saxon Protestant morality that has clouded Chris’s mind since childhood. The system, which enslaves black people in the historical process and alienates them with discourse in the information age, does this by constructing messages implicitly. They do not realize that all immigrants and blacks living in America are destroying their cultures by being influenced by the liberal-conservative morality that controls the media. Identities that cannot produce counter-discourse are doomed to be bleached. The reaction of Chris, who received the command of “sink into the floor” from Missy Armitage, actually observes the historical victimization of the black people. In other words, it is as if Chris is startled by the violence of the oppression and exploitation of blacks since the 16th century. For this critical scene where the character should cry, Jordan Peele took five shots with British actor Daniel Kaluuya. Kaluuya’s eyes’ expression was profound in each shot, and a tear flowed from the young actor’s eyes in each scene. Her ability to control her tears and do justice to her role deeply affected the filming crew, especially director Peele (Yuan & Harris, 2018). When the scene of Chris’s fall into the dark world is examined with the connotative meaning, this scene represents the blacks are thrown into gaps in galleons while being brought from Africa to America and Europe. Chris falls into a void he doesn’t know what is. This stage’s space is the concept of “Sunken Place,” which is synonymous with the director’s cinema. After the movie’s February release, Sunken Place has become a metaphor that expresses the racist treatment all blacks are subjected to and how it silences blacks. Sunken Place is a metaphor used to express blacks’ helplessness in society against systematic and institutional racism. It also represents the control that white people can claim over black people through psychological, economic, and cultural pressure (Dictionary, 2018). Following the film, Sunken Place featured an excerpt from the film, along with photographs or written examples of black people who extort white people, and its influence expanded as it spread from language to language. Mainly Jordan Peele produced many important examples himself. Jordan Peele describes Sunken Place as the trivialization of black people and adds that “no matter how much we shout, the system silences us.” In Table 2, there is a historical representation of blacks’ treatment who were smuggled out of Africa after a long voyage by European traders on board. As seen in this picture, the blacks were chained and transported to the colonists’ ports in the galleons’ dark voids. The dark void that Chris is thrown into in the film, historically originates from this. Missy Armitage and her family locked up in Sunken Place to control black people before the transfer takes place. As white people’s minds are transplanted into blacks’ bodies, the hypnotized blacks remain sinked in Sunken Place (the command to be sinked into the floor). After the transplant takes place, it becomes the brain of a white person who now rules the black body. Thus, the person who owns the black body mentally continues to live in Sunken Place, but the person who rules the body is now a white. Just as Frantz Fanon points out, he forgets his self and culture by wearing the “white mask.” The technique of taking the African-American body and replacing it with a white brain refers to Frantz Fanon’s black skin-white mask metaphor with its connotative dimension. At this point, Fanon says that 83

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the black individual must wear a “white mask” for the white European to accept them. The only way to hide the “inferiority of darkness” is to wear this mask. The white mask is the acceptance of the values, thoughts, and norms of the European master. The black skin, the white mask, involves detecting this duality and division in the colonized consciousness. It causes alienation (Fanon, 1986). However, this is not from the colonized black itself, but It is important to emphasize that colonial violence stems from its psychopathological effects. All negative expressions about colonialism (lazy, stupid, animal, halfhuman) entered the colonial lands with colonialism, and the colonial discourse turned into a language of violence (Hammer, 2017). Table 2. The Fall into the Dark World and the Sunken Place Metaphor

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Source: (Get Out, 2017)

Now that the Armitage Family has developed a system that only uses African Americans for their bodies, whites will now have a chance to become black. The second stage is the surgical procedure of changing the person’s identity. This surgical procedure also refers to the history of medical racism, discrimination, and apartheid that privileged whites’ lives over blacks. Like surgeries performed on slaves, Armitageler uses the lives of blacks to help whites live longer. The white people who steal black bodies for their immortality point to who the “man-eating cannibals” actually are, the main stereotype of Africans in colonial discourse. Those who stole black bodies to extend their own lives with its semantic dimension and enslaved African peoples with its historical dimension are real cannibals. Fist-Bump sequence shows the fist salute, which is the ritual of greeting among blacks. The young black man Logan responding to Chris’s fist-bump with a hand shake in this scene. The connotation of the responding to a fist-bump with a hand shake reveals whiteness’s inability to understand Blackness or Black forms of sociality. This black-looking young man whose demeanor has been bleached, just as Fanon said, will not be able to hide the blackness of his skin, no matter how white he behaves with his attitude. Fanon describes the method used by black people to distinguish themselves from white as slang. According to this definition, the use of slang when the white person talks with black reminds the black person of his place, while the white person’s talking too softly with the black person is seen as a fake kindness. However, the black person does not need this artificial courtesy (Fanon, 1986). Chris, dismissing these bleached fake attitudes of the black in front of him, decides that nothing is going well and begins to worry.

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Looking for next African-American Victim: Rose is seen as a hunter searching for new prey. The trophy step in hunting is not random prey, but hunting a carefully selected and distinctive prey among the prey can be hunted (Bağcı, 2014). On the other hand, Rose’s character is seen to exhibit all the stages of this step. He is very selective and patiently pursue the prey until he finds the prey he targets. It tries to be selective by looking at the distinctive characteristics of the people it determines as prey. The scene in question refers to Rose’s hunting trophy with its connotative meaning. Rose is displaying her hunting trophy with pictures of her African-American victims on the wall behind her at this scene. Table 3. Positioning Blacks as Prey in the Context of Colonialism

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Source: (Get Out, 2017)

Throughout the film, the audience observes black men socializing in wealthy white neighborhoods. If Chris unwittingly wears a white mask so that the white elite can accept him, it will lead him to a great disaster. Chris’s girlfriend Rose takes him to his family’s mansion and sets the stage for a party, especially older whites. While White Anglo-Saxon Protestant or liberal Americans appeared progressive in Jordan Peele’s Get Out, they also adopted “post-racial” ideologies called the post-racial ideology of colorblindness that secretly oppress minorities contemporary society. “Do they know I’m Black?” Chris was referring to his girlfriend and his family. Rose argues that Chris’s race was not a significant factor. Rose shrugs her shoulders, “No, should it be?” he says. Today, white liberals such as the Armitage family believe that color blindness ideas promote racial equality; however, it does the opposite. Color blindness is the racial ideology that suggests that the best way to end discrimination is to treat individuals as equally as possible, regardless of race, culture, or ethnicity (Williams, 2011). Color blindness perpetuates racism as it allows minorities and those with racial problems to be invisible. This micro invalidation results in a denial of racially motivated action, and expressions such as “I don’t see color” reject people of color’s experiences and encourage the racial purity of whiteness. Director and screenwriter Jordan Peele also criticizes color blindness from first to the last frame of the signs he uses throughout the film. As seen in Table 3, the fact that black slaves brought from Africa are exhibited in slave markets and sold to whites by merchants is the source of inspiration for the film’s auction scene. In articulating mythical meanings, Roland Barthes (1972) focuses on the cultural connotations of the world of “things without saying.” The connotation of the scene of auctioning Chris in the yard of Dean Armitage’s (Brad-

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 Analyzing Jordan Peele’s Get Out With Fanonism

ley Whitford) house is Transatlantic Slave Trade centuries ago. There is no dialogue in this scene, and Jordan Peele constructs all the meaning through camera angles and music use. The Armitage family and their guests’ passion for youth, athletic prowess, and “trendy” dark skin sees them in the auction of their victims’ black bodies. In the party scene where Chris has to interact with white men and women socially, there are many references to his blackness and physicality. A man is seen trying to communicate with Chris saying, “I know Tiger.” A woman asks Rose questions, referring to Chris’s sexual abilities. The dialogues in question reinforce the stereotypes of black people. At the party at the Armitages’ house, the movie’s protagonist Chris classifies him as an athletic, muscular, and sexualized individual in the context of racist stereotypes by elite whites. The use of racist stereotypes is a way of establishing racial identity and maintaining dual consciousness. “Double consciousness” is often associated with William Edward Burghardt Du Bois, who introduced the term into social and political thought, famously, in his groundbreaking The Souls of Black Folk (1903). It is a seminal work in the history of sociology and a cornerstone of African-American literature. Du Bois explains the situation of African Americans in his book: “The American identity, a soul that yearns for the fulfillment of full social inclusion and is attached to American history, values, and spaces, contradicts the black identity, a soul that is the victim of Americanism, systemic racism, and hegemonic patriotism.” This double consciousness, the sense of perceiving itself only through the eyes of others, to clothe its soul the measures of a world that gives nothing but ridicule and pity for man is a strange consciousness. That duality is always felt as American and black. Two souls, two thoughts, two foundations that do not make peace with each other, two designs that fight each other, in a black body that only strength and strength protect from disintegration. Much like the W.E.B. Du Bois, Frantz Fanon also mentioned the double consciousness in Black Skin, White Masks, and expressed his despair to be neither white nor black. Fanon (1986) describes the double consciousness and origin faced by African Americans in Black Skin, White Masks, arguing that African Americans’ cultural and social confusion stems from European culture. The scene in question emphasizes that the racist ideology continues in today’s USA in a hypocritical way under cover of the ideology of color blindness, and the objectification of the black body continues. The white elite society in the USA targets the black race to maintain its survival and is portrayed by the director as a harbinger of the future of racial objectification. According to Fanon, it is unacceptable for a white woman to be with a black man. A white woman with a black man degrades classically and suffers from some kind of disease. Because after seeing the extraordinary sexual power of black men, he will not want to be white again (Fanon, 1986). It is concluded that the Rose character reflects Fanon’s thoughts while tracking the prey like a hound, who is continuously in search of black men. In the scene where the Armitage family neutralized Chris by preventing him from escaping, Rose’s saying to Chris “you were among my favorites” is the most important proof of this. Hypnosis in the Entertainment Room: The scene with Chris tied on the sofa shows that this is an entertainment room. There is an ancient television in the playground. This old fashion television takes audience to the first time Adorno and Horkheimer criticized the culture industry as a means of making a profit through culture. It is seen that the culture industry silences the masses who cannot control the discourse by imposing dominant ideologies on the masses in the historical process. Television, which is the sacred device of the culture industry, appears to be an entertainment tool that kills in entertainment room. Because entertainment on television is the supreme ideology of everything, and under entertainment, races can be represented, barbarism and tragedies can be hidden (Postman, 2006). This killing is the destruction of cultures in a metaphorical context. As shown by the hypnosis 86

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in the entertainment room, Chris, a black individual, is forced to sit in front of the TV. The connotative meaning of this scene is the imposed dominant ideology to blacks through television as the primary entertainment medium. Blacks cannot resist, and like the tea cup’s function, they are simply hypnotized to the thought of the dominant white man. Thrush in the sofa indicate that Chris wasn’t the first victim. Chris’s realization of this thrush is when he realizes his past, and with this sequence, cotton carries us to the dimension of connotation. The thrush emerging from the sofa Chris was tied to is a sign of the times in American history when blacks, forcibly brought in from Africa and enslaved, were employed in cotton fields. In the past, the cotton collected by his enslaved ancestors becomes Chris’s salvation. It is also when he turns his ears off to the culture industry dominating the United States. Until then, alienated from his roots and culture, Chris takes off his white mask identified by the Fanon dialect and escapes prey. In the scene that follows this, Chris kills his a major antagonist and hunter Dean Armitage (Bradley Whitford) while he is in hunting position with the deer’s head, which stands on the TV and is used as a metaphor in the film. Thus, the prey kills its predator. Chris’s liberation by killing Dean, in dimension of connotation, expresses the metaphor of the hunt (exploited) and the hunter (colonialist) mentioned by Frantz Fanon in “The Wretched of The Earth.” From the moment the anger among the colonial people directed against the colonizer, he has always been alert to take up the pain of being oppressed. He is always ready to come out of his prey role and become a hunter. According to him, concessions should never be made, as there can be no compromise, either colonized or saved; it is just a power relationship (Fanon, 1963). The scene of Chris’s best friend Rod (Lil Rel Howery) trying to convince the police that his friend has been kidnapped: Rod represents blacks’ common sense in this scene. Rod repeatedly warns his best friend Chris, who meets his girlfriend’s family, to be wary of whites. After a while, when he fails to hear from Chris, he goes to the police. Black cops ignore Rod’s suspicions and do not believe him sarcastically. Various diplomas stand out on the wall behind black cops in the relevant sequence. The scene’s connotation refers to the metaphor of “black skin, white masks,” pointed out by Fanonism. The black police went through the educational processes that is one of the fundamental ideological apparatus of the state, adopted the dominant discourse, and has already wore white masks. But Rod doesn’t have a mask, and that’s why he worries about Chris’s life.

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CONCLUSION Daniel Kaluuya, who plays Chris in the film, reacts to director Jordan Peele when he first reads the script: “Holy shit, man! Are you allowed to say this? Are we going to get in trouble? This is fucking epic and unapologetic! ” Jordan Peele edited the film under the director style described by the auteur concept in Get Out. Using the codes that integrate the meaning, music, and camera angles, he ultimately left his impact on the film. One of the factors affecting the setting is the actor. Daniel Kaluuya, who gave life to Chris’s character, is also a choice the director made to reinforce the film’s meaning as an auteur. He thought that the crying in the hypnosis scene, which was especially crucial for the movie, would be best expressed by the meaning in Daniel Kaluuya’s eyes. Jordan Peele also stated that he wanted to explain blacks’ problems and remind black people that they exist as black, stating that he would not give white actors a role in his films and wanted to set up in his cinema.

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What makes “Get Out” into a “horror” movie is that, throughout the film, audiences are intimately witnessing the bad luck of African-Americans. Initially, the first depictions of African Americans in the Hollywood film industry were limited to derogatory stereotypical images of people of color. In line with dominant stereotypes, African American characters were portrayed as inadequate, childish, excessively sexualized, and criminal. The fact that blacks can today shoot their films under the roof of Hollywood in the context of diversity positive is a kind of black renaissance, as emphasized by director and screenwriter Jordan Peele. Nearly a hundred years after the Harlem Renaissance, director and screenwriter Jordan Peele launched a new kind of Harlem Renaissance in Hollywood with “Get Out.” In a backstage statement to the press after the Oscar award ceremony, Peele expressed his pride in being a part of this movement. Harlem Renaissance was an African American cultural movement that lasted roughly from the 1910s through the mid-1930s, the period is considered a golden age in African American culture, manifesting in literature, music, stage performance and art. With his masterpiece Get Out, Jordan Peele broke the stereotypes of African Americans by using the “golf club” that is one of the signs representing White Anglo-Saxon Protestants. Just like Tiger Woods who is the most successful golf player of all time, Peele used the Get Out and started the black renaissance at the heart of Hollywood film industry. Directed and written by Jordan Peele, Get Out is like the reflection of the ideas of Frantz Fanon, whose works are considered the cornerstone of the beginning of the postcolonial theory. In other words, the movie itself was inspired by Fanonism.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS Get Out, directed and written by Jordan Peele, is a revolutionary work that finds itself a place on the big screen within the scope of the diversity positive trend in the Hollywood film industry; it is also one of the most critical signs postcolonial theory is still alive. The concepts that Peele put forward or brought again to the agenda, Sunken Place, social thriller, Hollywood Renaissance etc. should be introduced to the key concepts of postcolonial theory through with further academic studies.

REFERENCES Akerson, F. E. (2016). Göstergebilime Giriş. Bilge Kültür Sanat Yayınları.

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Akıner, N. (2014). Uluslararası Medya Emperyalizmi. Hükümdar Yayınları. Appiah, K. A. (1991). Is the post-in postmodernism the post-in postcolonial? Critical Inquiry, 336–357. Armutak, A. (2002). Doğu ve Batı Mitolojilerinde Hayvan Motifi I. Memeli Hayvanlar. Istanbul Üniversitesi Veteriner Fakültesi Dergisi, 28(2), 411–427. Artz, L. (1998). Hegemony in Black and White: Interracial Buddy Movies and the New Racism. Cultural Diversity in the United States, 67-77.

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Ashcroft, B., Griffiths, G., & Tiffin, H. (2002). The Empire Writes Back: Theory and Practice in Postcolonial Literatures. Routledge. Ashcroft, B., Griffiths, G., & Tiffin, H. (2013). Post-colonial studies: The key concepts. Routledge. Bağcı, A. (Ed.). (2014). Sürdürülebilir Avcılık. Orman ve Çevre Bakanlığı. Barley. S. R. (2007). Corporations, Democracy, and the Public Good. Journal of Management Inquiry, 16(3), 201-215. Berger, A. A. (1995). Cultural criticism: A primer of key concepts. Sage Publications, Inc. Bullard, S. (1993). Free at last: A history of the civil rights movement and those who died in the struggle. Oxford University Press. Carp, B. L. (2010). Defiance of the Patriots: The Boston Tea Party and the Making of America. Yale University Press. Castillo, M. (2017, March 10). Where to Stream the Movies That Influenced Get Out. New York Times. Coleman, R. R. M. (2013). Preface & We Always Die First – Invisibility, Racial Red-Lining, and SelfSacrifice: 1980s. In Horror Noire: Blacks in American Horror Films from the 1890s to Present. New York: Routledge. Dictionary. (2018). What does the Sunken Place mean. https://www.dictionary.com/e/pop culture/ sunken-place/ Dockterman, E. (2018). Everyone Inculuding Jordan Peele Is Excited by His Oscar Win. https://time. com/5185301/jordan-peele-get-out-oscar-reactions/ Du Bois, W. E. B. (2008). The souls of black folk. Oxford University Press. Fanon, F. (1963). The Wretched of The Earth. New York: Grove Press. Fanon, F. (1986). Black Skin, White Masks. London: Pluto Press. Ferreira, M. T., Coelho, C., Cunha, E., & Wasterlain, S. N. (2019). Evidences of trauma in adult African enslaved individuals from Valle da Gafaria, Lagos, Portugal (15th-17th centuries). Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine, 65, 68–75. Fiske, J. (2010). Introduction to communication studies. Routledge.

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Gandhi, L. (1998). Postcolonial theory: A critical introduction. Allen & Unwin. Gibson, C. K. (2009). How to Read Symbols: A Crash Course in the Meaning of Symbols in Art. Herbert Press. Hammer, R. (2017). Epistemic Ruptures: History, Practice, and the Anticolonial Imagination. International Origins of Social and Political Theory, 153-180. Heneghan, B. T. (2003). Whitewashing America: Material Culture and Race in the Antebellum Imagination. University of Mississippi.

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Horkheimer, M., & Adorno, T. W. (1972). Dialectic of Enlightenment. Seabury Press. Hunt, D., Ramón, A. C., Tran, M., Sargent, A., & Roychoudhury, D. (2018). Hollywood Diversity Report 2018: Five Years of Progress and Missed Opportunities. UCLA College of Social Sciences, 27. https:// socialsciences.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/UCLA-Hollywood-Diversity-Report-2018-2-27-18. pdf Küngerü, A., & Akıner, N. (2016). Siyahi Eleştirinin ‘Görünmez Adamı’: Henry Louis Gates Jr. Abant Kültürel Araştırmalar Dergisi, 2016(1), 75–85. Lee, C. J. (2015). Frantz Fanon: Toward a Revolutionary Humanism. Ohio University Press. Lima, T. A. (2020). Valongo: An uncomfortable legacy. Current Anthropology, 61(S22), S000–S000. Loomba, A. (1998). Colonialism/postcolonialism. Routledge. Miller, J. (2012). Global Nollywood: The Nigerian movie industry and alternative global networks in production and distribution. Global Media and Communication, 8(2), 117–133. Miller, J. C. (1981). Mortality in the Atlantic slave trade: Statistical evidence on causality. The Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 11(3), 385–423. Parry, B. (2004). Postcolonial Studies: A Materialist Critique. Routledge. Peele, J. (Dir.) (2017). Get Out. Blumhouse Productions. Postman, N. (2006). Amusing ourselves to death: Public discourse in the age of show business. Penguin. Quayson, A. (2000). Postcolonialism: Theory, practice or process. Polity. Rifat, M. (2013). Açıklamalı Göstergebilim Sözlüğü. İş Bankası Yayınları. Ryan, M., & Kellner, D. (1988). Camera politica: The politics and ideology of contemporary Hollywood film. Indiana University Press. Said, E. (1979). Orientalism. Vintage Books. San Juan, E. Jr. (1998). Beyond Postcolonial Theory. Palgrave Macmillan. Sander, O. (1997). Siyasi Tarih: İlkçağlardan 1918’e. İmge Kitabevi. Shammas, C. (1990). The Pre-Industrial Consumer in England and America. Oxford University Press.

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Smith, P., & Riley, A. (2011). Cultural theory: An introduction. John Wiley & Sons. Smith, S. L., Choueiti, M., Pieper, K., Case, A., & Choi, A. (2019). Inequality in 1,100 popular films: Examining portrayals of gender, race/ethnicity, LGBT & disability from 2007 to 2019. USC Annenberg Inclusion Initiative. http://assets.uscannenberg.org/docs/aii-inequality-report-2019-09-03.pdf Stuart, H. (1997). The Spectacle of the ‘Other’. In S. Hall (Ed.), Representations. Cultural Representations and Signifying Practices (pp. 223–290). Sage. Williams, M. (2011). Colorblind Ideology is a Form of Racism. Psychology Today. www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/culturally-speaking/201112/colorblind-ideology-is-form-racism

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Young, R. (2001). Postcolonialism: An historical introduction. John Wiley & Sons. Yuan, J., & Harris, H. (2018). The First Great Movie of the Trump Era. Vulture. https://www. vulture. com/2018/02/making-get-out- jordan-peele.html

ADDITIONAL READING Césaire, A. (2001). Discourse on colonialism. NYU Press. Durix, J. P. (1998). Mimesis, Genres, and Post-Colonial Discourse: Deconstructing Magic Realism. Macmillan. doi:10.1057/9780230377165 Eagleton, T. (1990). Nationalism, Colonialism, and Literature. University of Minnesota Press. Foucault, M. (1971). Orders of Discourse: Inaugural lecture delivered at the Collège de France. Social Sciences Information. Information Sur les Sciences Sociales, 2(10), 7–30. doi:10.1177/053901847101000201 Foucault, M. (1977). Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison (A. Sheridan, Trans.). Vintage. Said, E. (1993). Culture and Imperialism. Chatto & Windus. Spivak, G. (1990). The Post-colonial Critic: Interviews, Strategies, Dialogues (S. Harasym, Ed.). Routledge.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Diversity Positive: It refers to the works carried out to leave behind the ethnocultural discrimination that left traumatic marks on the world’s recent history. Fanonism: The name of the anti-colonial libertarian criticism formulated by Martinique psychiatrist Frantz Fanon (1925–1961). Get Out: The film that initiated the Black renaissance in the Hollywood film industry, directed and written by Jordan Peele. Harlem Renaissance: The social and artistic explosion that was inspired by the Black Studies, or Africana Studies; with the development of the Harlem neighborhood in New York City, Harlem was emerged as a Black cultural center in the early 20th century. Hollywood Renaissance: The concept expressing the change and transformation that Jordan Peele initiated on the big screen with his award-winning masterpiece Get Out, which was released in 2017, in favor of African Americans in the USA. Postcolonialism: It is a theory that investigates the social, economic, political, cultural, and psychological effects of the conditions that emerged during and after colonialism. Social Thriller: Coming back to the agenda after the 70s with the movie Get Out. It is a type of film that depicts the ugly and unacceptable examples of oppression in the society using elements of tension and fear. Sunken Place: Coming to the agenda with the movie Get Out, it is a metaphor used to express the helplessness they experience in the face of systematic and institutional racism faced by Blacks in society. It represents Blacks silenced by the dominant ideology in the USA. 91

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Chapter 6

Constructing and Reconstructing Orientalism: Depicting Orientalist Imagery in Contemporary Art in the Quest of Self-Identity Julijana Nicha Andrade Federal University of Minas Gerais, Brazil

ABSTRACT The purpose of the chapter is to show that orientalism is a dynamic construct that simultaneously represents continuity and change. The hypothesis outlines that contemporary artists build upon 18th century symbols to reconstruct orientalist art, hence reproducing the constructed, stereotypical neo-orientalist or self-orientalist imagery. The hypothesis is seen to be true as the intimate artwork of Zahrin Kahlo, Lalla Essaydi, Eric Parnes, and Yasmina Bouziane shows that contemporary orientalist artists are using recurring symbols to depict their self-identity, even though they appropriate those symbols in an act of resistance to depict social change. A more productive path of expression may be one of authenticity rather than a recreation of existing imagery in the attempt to deconstruct it. Even though the continuity of the construct is obvious, change is granular and not as pronounced.

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INTRODUCTION Orientalism is a construct very much alive today (Thomas, 2001; Kerboua, 2016; Shatz, 2020). One sees the reproduced Orientalist imagery that Western travelers and explorers created in the 18th century in the art of Eastern artists living in the West. However, these artists show us a contemporary and resilient prism of Neo-Orientalism and Self-Orientalism. The definitions of Neo-Orientalism and SelfOrientalism, though, are not completely suitable when we look at the interpretation of Orientalism in contemporary visual arts. The artist’s efforts to self-identification are much more layered and present a complex combination of the two concepts. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch006

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 Constructing and Reconstructing Orientalism

In the effort to understand the continuity and change of Orientalism, this chapter makes use of the theory of self-identity (Horowitz, 2012) and takes visual art as narrative analysis. It studies the contemporary trend of Orientalist art by Zahrin Kahlo, Lalla Essaydi (2020), Eric Parnes (2011) and Yasmina Bouziane (2019), and their layered construction and reconstruction of Orientalism throughout their quest for self-identification. The selection of these four artists was based on their contemporality; Orientalist focus of any kind; international recognition, and Middle Eastern origin. Examining the visual art of Zahrin Kahlo, Lalla Essaydi, Eric Parnes and Yasmina Bouziane as a form of narrative (Adler et al., 2017) allows us to open the black box of contemporary Orientalism and decipher the layered harmonious and fragmented levels of self-identification. The artists’ narratives are analyzed through their visual work, interviews and personal statements that are publicly available online. The objective of the chapter is to show that Orientalism is a dynamic construct that simultaneously represents continuity and change, as well as to advocate for greater articulation of the contemporary self-identity of Orientalist, Arab artists.

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BACKGROUND During colonial periods, the Orient represented a mystical, magical place that was to be studied by Western explorers and government officials. It represented the binary opposite of the West, barbaric, exotic, erotic, unknown and un-civilized. Later, Orientalism became an influential theory introduced by Edward Said, which outlines the Western attitude and stereotyping towards the Eastern peoples (Said, 1978). As Said (1978) argues, the root of the stereotypical representations of the Orient is in the 18th Century French and British colonization of the Middle East and North Africa that depicted the Orient as very static and monotonic. In Said’s words “…as if they have consensually agreed on one common representation.” (1978, p. 20). Similarly, in Root’s words “[T]he quality of timelessness and the presentation of Araby as a static, decadent entity well past its prime helped create an imaginary Orient undifferentiated by place, time, and national or cultural specificity” (1996, p. 164). Among the many examples of these representations are the Orientalist paintings of French Neoclassical artists as Delacroix, Gerome, and many others who depicted women, men and sceneries of Algeria and Morocco through the eyes of the male Western explorer. The historical background of the relationship between Orientalism and visual arts starts with the origins of the French Académie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture which later became Academy De Beaux-Arts. The Academy emphasized the intellectual component of artmaking and distinguished the sophisticated bourgeoisie painters from the ordinary craftsman. After its recognition by Louis XIV, the Academy De Beaux-Arts controlled all artistic and academic activity in France and heavily influenced the academic teaching at the Royal Academy of England and the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts (Trodd & Denis, 2000). The standardization of the academic painting trends was enforced by the rigorous acceptance criteria to the Paris Salon that was the exhibition place where artists could seal their carriers. Only artists who strictly followed the academic standards could have a chance of exhibiting (Ibid). Orientalist painting emerged as part of the academic painting and was a combination of the artistic movements of Romanticism, Neoclassicism, Realism, Idealism and History painting. Initially, Orientalist painting aimed at depicting historical events, however, the political feelings and the curiosity towards the East resulted in creating romanticized images instead. As painting Eastern scenes became more and more fashionable, painters voyaged to North Africa, the Middle and the Far East to better depict the 93

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 Constructing and Reconstructing Orientalism

unknown lands and people and to show the Western audience a new, exotic and sensual culture. Some of their works were sketches to be finished in their studios in France. Other Orientalists presented iconic images of an Oriental reality fabricated in their studios, as many haven’t even traveled to the Orient (one example is the painter Antoine-Jean Gros). Artists painted for the European eyes and objectified the subjects as lazy, erotic, nonchalant, dull and even savage depicting Orientalist environments as tropical, idyllic, backwards, and patriarchic in Realist and picturesque painting style (McLeod, 2000 in Nicha, 2013). Colonial powers were producers and consumers of Orientalism which also served as a means of propaganda in support of the imperialist countries (Nicha, 2013). More recently, academic and History painting has been widely criticized by modernists and post-modernists for their use of idealism, mysticism, abstract idealization and conservativeness (Trodd & Denis, 2000; Behdad & Williams, 2012). After 9/11 a new form of Orientalism emerged, Neo-Orientalism, which criticizes Western behavior specifically towards Islam and the Muslim world. It’s worth noting that Neo-Orientalists are Easterners themselves (male, female or other) who render biased accounts of their region, religion and culture and engage politically and intellectually with the events in the West and the Middle East (Behdad & Williams, 2012). With the increased internal political divisions regarding Arab migrants based on extremist and terrorist groups or lone wolfs, the current public representation of the Orient is the one of a Muslim radical and terrorist suspect (Shatz, 2020). The same image of a savage barbarian is kept, only in a different package. The term is continuous, yet the change of Orientalism alludes on the focus to Arab man, women and culture. Therefore, Neo-Orientalism is a continuity of its predecessor (Behdad & Williams, 2012). Orientalism is reconstructed as the interactions between the Orient and the Occident are not binary and distantly divided anymore. With intensified globalization and migration, the Orient is in the Occident and vice versa. Self-Orientalism arises as a conscious or unconscious appropriation of the constructed image of the Orient in an attempt for Easterners to differentiate themselves from the Westerners (Kondo, 1997). Shatz (2020) argues that Orientalism today is not the same as the Orientalism Said discussed. Shatz (2020) rightly points out the latest instances of Orientalism, including the visual arts’ efforts to fight that negative representation, however, he fails to recognize that that change is not enough. The Orientalist representation as a threat to Western society is so strong that the isolated efforts to fight that representation pass unnoticed by the wider audience. Said depicted the continuity of the discourse, but additionally, we notice a change of that discourse, adapted to the contemporary setting. Orientalism, hence, is a dynamic construct that reflects change and continuity simultaneously. Art’s role in society is to criticize and question, but if the spectators are told the same story and continuously misrepresent the important aspects of contemporary societies, how do we know who the Orient is? How do we debunk the constructed images? Art should be a way to demonstrate that heterogeneity and cultural richness because the Other is not one thing, but a palette of cultures, customs and expressions. The difficulty to represent the plurality of Arab identities lies in their complexity and heterogeneity. That is particularly noted in the attempt for self-representation among Arab artists. Horowitz (2012) argues that each person has a repertoire of self-schemas, the unconscious generalization about the self that is dormant and can be activated when that person needs to process specific information. The overall constitution of self-schemas is called self-organization. Active self-schemas are the ones that are present in the current state of identity. Alternative self-schemas are activated on a case basis and can shift the person’s state of mind (Horowitz, 2012, pp.2-3). Between those two extremes, Horowitz lists three more categories that are mildly conflicted, vulnerable, and disturbed (Ibid).

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He further argues that alternative selves are an active part of a historical transition from tradition to modernity. However, through the quest to self-identity, contemporary Arab artists show us that the alternative selves are a construction of the complex blend between the two. Identity comes from the Latin for Idem, the quality of sameness, of being the same. However, we know that throughout time, identities change and adapt. As Horowitz argues, Identity exists in past, present, and future time frames. I am “the me” that was, and my present contains a focus on my becoming even more me in the near future. Or, perhaps, I feel dissociated now from past “me” and my expectations of “what next” may seem conflicted. In psychodynamic research on variation in self-states, as related to motivation, one considers: (a) social views of the person as well as (b) conscious and (c) unconscious information within that person…. Unconscious pictures, inner cognitive working-models, and maps of self are dynamic and complex networks of rich, but sometimes contradictory bits of information. The goal for maturity is to increase harmony between different schematizations. (2012, p.2) Depending on where the generalizations of the self in the scheme between harmonious and fragmented lie, different amount of self-transformative work needs to be done. If one is leaning on the harmonious side, then one’s sense of self is intending and conscious about their attitudes. If one is leaning more on to the fragmented side, then one’s self is confused and lacks emotional governance (Ibid). The leaning towards one or the other end can be identified by the narrative one tells themselves. Narratives are then analyzed and structured according to categories. Narratives are strong projections of one’s perceptions and identity and can be communicated verbally or via media, visual art, film, music, etc. (RimmonKenan, 2006). In this chapter, the focus falls on visual art as a narrative because the artist’s repeating representation of contemporary Orientalism doubles down the complexity of symbols. Visual narratives are constructed by symbols that appear in patterns (Thomas, 2001). Signs, symbols and art are reflections of a constructed reality that is constantly reproduced (Ibid). Studying the visual narratives helps us identify the key description of the “self”, the “other” or the “we” (Rimmon-Kenan, 2006; Horowitz, 2012). The theoretical framework and the interpretation of self-schemas are analyzed by identifying the recurring patterns commonly used in 18th century Orientalist paintings in contemporary paintings and photography. The patterns and the artists’ opinions are matched with their personal statements available on their online portfolios and interviews in online magazines and papers.

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MAIN FOCUS OF THE CHAPTER The Art of Lalla Essaydi, Zahrin Kahlo, Yasmina Bouziane, and Eric Parnes There are many contemporary Orientalist artists among which Marwa Adel, Ahmed Morsi, Mina Nasr, Adel el Siwi, Reada Saadeh and many others who construct the diverse art scene in the Middle East, regardless of their country of residence. The reason for selecting the following four artists is based on their significant international recognition and online availability to their personal statements. The arts of Zahrin Kahlo, Lalla Essaydi, Eric Parnes and Yasmina Bouziane are personal and deeply intimate reflections of their struggle for self-identity. Their narratives are constructed using symbols

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and gestures that are recurring in Orientalist literature and painting, hence the interpretation of those symbols is done by using Horowitz’s (2012) framework. Hypothesis: Contemporary artists build upon 18th century paintings to reconstruct Orientalist art hence reproducing the constructed, stereotypical imagery through contemporary Neo-Orientalist or SelfOrientalist art, failing to depict the contemporary and complex images of Arab men and women. Lalla Essaydi is a contemporary painter and photographer who works with the Arabic female identity and household scenery constructed through the 18th century Orientalist painting. She was born in Morocco but resided in the United States and Saudi Arabia. In her art, Lalla Essaydi explores the real and symbolic spaces of the female body and the architecture around her. Raised in a traditional Muslim family, Essaydi is familiar with the spaces specially designated for women and their personal stories intertwined with those segregated spaces. As the public world was traditionally reserved for men, women were to be kept away from the public eye (“Truth and Beauty Lalla Essaydi - Exhibitions - Sundaram Tagore Gallery”, 2018). Through staged photography, Essaydi plays with calligraphy, henna, the women subject and traditional Arabic architecture. “By reclaiming the rich tradition of calligraphy and interweaving it with the traditionally female art of henna,” she says, “I have been able to express, and yet, in another sense, dissolve the contradictions I have encountered in my culture: between hierarchy and fluidity, between public and private space, between the richness and the confining aspects of Islamic traditions.” (“Truth and Beauty - Lalla Essaydi - Exhibitions - Sundaram Tagore Gallery”, 2018, para.7). She takes inspiration from Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres and recreates his paintings to offer an alternative view of Orientalism. Particularly, she has reproduced Ingres’s “La Grande Odalisque” (see Figures 1 and 2). Figure 1. Essaydi, L. (Artist). (2009). Harem #8. [Photography].

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Retrieved from http://lallaessaydi.com/8.html

Her photographs present the multifaced identity of Muslim women. According to Essaydi, her work goes beyond Islamic culture to include the Western fascination with it (Proctor, 2017).

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Figure 2. Essaydi, L. (Artist). (2008). Les Femmes du Maroc: La Grande Odalisque. [Photography]. Retrieved from http://lallaessaydi.com/9.html

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My work speaks primarily in terms of Moroccan identity, but visual identifiers such as the veil, harem, ornate ornamentation, and sumptuous color also resonate with other regions in the Muslim and Arabic worlds where the place of women has historically been marked by limited expression and constrained individuality (“Through the Orientalist looking-glass: An interview with Moroccan artist Lalla Essaydi.”, 2020, para.7). At the same time, her work is deeply personal. As she herself writes: “In my art, I wish to present myself through multiple lenses – as artist, as Moroccan, as traditionalist, as liberal, as Muslim. In short, I invite viewers to resist stereotypes.” (Essaydi, n.d.). In her statement she reflects upon the complexity of expressing who she really was as a child and the contemporary woman she has become, shaped by the Eastern and Western cultural stirs. Zahrin Kahlo’s photographs are also intimate stories, explorations of her identity (see Figures 3 and 4). She paints the portrait of a free woman proud of her femininity. Growing up, Kahlo was exposed to different cultures and identities that she embodied. She has Mexican heritage but was born and raised in Morocco and lived in France and Italy (“Zahrin Kahlo Moroccan Photographers Intimate Diary on Femininity”, 2016). As she claims: My work is based on the double identity of a woman who has decided to no longer be the symbol of a single culture. The photography becomes an ideal way to represent the intimate sphere of a woman, with all her ghosts, her fantasies, her complexes and with images connected to the memories and the unconscious. A photography that wants to be vulnerable with the traces and signs of the time and all its imperfections. I’m looking for my HURIJA, my freedom. I am an Arab, but also free to be a woman? The

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look of the West on Arab women is sometimes linked to subordinate images: the home, the patriarchal authority, the veil that prevents an identity or a body which is the object of the desires of others. I want to determine my destiny to succeed, I have need to break with old stereotypes and diktats. CHRONICLE OF A YOUNG ARAB is the desire to be a woman who has control of his body, following the desires and pleasures without being subject to prejudice.… Nothing she hides the pride of her being an ARAB WOMEN. I love life and the intimate nature of sensuality. The photograph becomes the story of the disruption that an Arab woman can live today. (“Zahrin Kahlo Moroccan Photographers Intimate Diary on Femininity”, 2016, para. 10) Figure 3. Kahlo, Z. (Artist). (2019). Chroniques d’une Jeune Arabe [Photography]. Private collection.

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Retrieved from https://www.behance.net/gallery/12421927/CHRONIQUES-DUNE-JEUNE-ARABE

Kahlo has also taken inspiration from 18th century Orientalist art, particularly in her series of Neo Orientalism where indirectly she recreates the work of Ingres and Delacroix. Her self-portraits resemble Gerome’s “Veiled Circassian Beauty”. Yasmina Bouziane has Moroccan and French background. She worked as a photographer in the earlier years of her career, as well as on video, filmmaking and writings. In her piece “Inhabited by Imaginings we did not choose”, Bouziane uses staged self-photography to explore issues of identity and gender trying to bridge the gap between the East and the West. She diverts the clothing codes and plays with the studio setting, replicating the photo studio established by the French government in Maghreb during the colonial period. She dresses up as traditional Arab woman, man, transvestite and contemporary woman wearing western elements, like cowboy boots and sports shoes (Naguib, 2018). What is interesting in this series is that the Arab woman is the one pointing the camera at the viewer – meaning that she is in control of her representation. Moreover, Bouziane deconstructs the idea that photography is a documentary. On the contrary, she shows that photography always tells a story, and the one who holds the camera is the author of that story (see Figure 5). (Untitled No. 6, Alias “The Signature” From the Series “Inhabited by Imaginings We Did Not Choose,” n.d.). Last, but not least, the art of Eric Parns consists of mixed media, sculpture, photography and installation art. He is Iranian American who considers his art to be Neo Orientalist. What is even more interesting is that he talks about the Neo Orientalist trademark. As he explains:

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Figure 4. Kahlo, Z. (Artist). (2015). Kelaa. Neo Orientalism [Photography]. Private collection.

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Retrieved from https://en.193gallery.com/zahrin-kahlo

I gathered a selection of various pieces that all fall within the category of what I must insist on calling ‘trademarked’ Neo-Orientalism – if you know the art theory I work with, you know why – and that all still nonetheless explore what we know as ‘traditional’ Islamic arts in different ways. For instance, the exhibition’s canvases featuring portrayals of classic academic Orientalism, yet incorporating various high-end fashion designer symbols, or the large-format photographic prints of henna hands featuring brand name logos such as that of Gucci, for example, all address the challenges that contemporary Islam faces with the global advance of consumer culture. (Bekhrad, 2013, para. 10). In one of his series of work, he uses oil on canvas depicting the stereotypical images of the Arab men as violent and dull. Similarly, as the other artists studied in this chapter, he builds upon the depictions and symbols from 18th century paintings (see Figures 6 and 7). His art is a mixture of traditional and contemporary cultural elements. He works with elements of the Persian Empire and ancient Mesopota-

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mia, as well as pop culture, consumerism, corporate life and the violence Arab people face in America, especially after 9/11. Figure 5. Bouziane, Y. (Artist). (1994). Untitled No.6 alias “The Signature”. [Photography]. Retrieved from https://www.mbam.qc.ca/en/works/69136/

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Contemporary Orientalist Artists and Their Self-Identities Lalla Essaydi, Zahrin Kahlo, Yasmina Bouziane and Eric Parns are aware of the West’s creation of the fantasy East and they evoke it from a modern angle. They play with codes, traditions and narratives from the modern world, challenging the traditional representations of Arab men and women. Parns particularly works with Neo-Orientalism, the West’s depiction of the Arabs after 9/11 as violent and aggressive terrorists, alluding to the racial profiling the United States government pursued. Kahlo also works with this concept, but from a woman’s perspective. She presents the multilayered identities of a woman, her intimacy, her sexuality, her choice on how to use the veil, as well as the diversity among

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the Arab cultures and their interaction with globalization. Self-Orientalism is present among all artists, but most prominently in the art of Essaydi and Bouziane. Both accept the West’s gaze of the Orientalist woman and work with that Western gaze to recreate it in a manner that gives voice to the female model. She is not an object, but a subject with feelings, desires and needs that inhabits multiple identities. The four artists convert Self-Orientalism and Neo-Orientalism into an act of resistance. Their narratives are multilayered, complex, heterogeneous and mystic, but most importantly they are breaking stereotypes. Figure 6. Parnes, E. (Artist). (2011). Neo Orientalist TM. [Oil on canvas]. Private collection.

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Retrieved from http://www.eric-parnes.com/index.php?f=works_alldetails&id=66

Through their narratives, the artists are demonstrating the reality of being an Arab man or woman. They are consciously seizing existing Oriental imagery to accept or deny a specific part of their selfidentity. In their art, Kahlo, Essaydi and Bouziane try to capture the different roles women play in contemporary societies as professionals, mothers, citizens, wives, intellectuals, but also as housekeepers, timid subjects behind the veil, and caregivers. The same goes for the representation of Arab men in Parns’ art as breadwinners, violent, with kitsch taste for furniture and clothes. However, none of them breaks the expectation of the Westerner to see the Orientalist mysticism. They all embrace Neo-Orientalism and Self-Orientalism yet as an act of resistance, they still replicate the Orient Said described and they do not present the alternative selves Horowitz (2012) talks about. The artists are giving continuity of an identity that has actually changed, but those changes are represented as symbols, as hints and not as visually bold statements.

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Figure 7. Parnes, E. (Artist). (2012). Foreign exchange. [Photography]. Private collection.

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Retrieved from http://www.eric-parnes.com/index.php?f=works_alldetails&id=85

Even though the artists present an image of an Arab men and women who break stereotypes, they are portrayed in a way that is still backwards. In Bouziane’s art, the background of the photo studio is improvised, and the staging of the objects is very disorganized and even falling apart. Parnes’ representation of Arab men is similar. He portrays them as Persian warriors dressed in traditional cloth clothes from modern global brands as Gucci, Dolce and Gabbana and such. Kahlo and Essaydi in the process of empowering women still portray them as overly sexual and expressionless. The artists’ narratives demonstrate recurring patterns such as the nude woman, the lazy woman, the sexual woman, the dangerous Arab man, the violent Arab man, and the Arab backwardness among others. These patterns narrate their self-identities. It seems as if the artists were battling between harmonious and fragmented self-organization and as if both categories were living side by side. In line with Horowitz (2012) arguments, a harmonized self-organization is a result of self-schemas that people accept besides their contradictions, extremes and frustrations. Transitions between self-schemas would be smooth and their response to frustrations softened. In their heterogeneous narratives, the artists seem to accept the contradictions of their identities because they use the predictable Orientalist symbols combining them with their current identities, mixing globalization and cultural diversity. However, as the artists don’t detach from the expected Orientalist symbols and they do not show the viewer the contemporary and the idea of the future Arab man and woman, it seems as their transition between schemas is conflicting. In the encounter of the narrative, the viewer is shaping and refining their senses of the other person, or at least the part of that person that they choose to represent through the narrative (Adler et al., 2017). The artists reinforce the self-schema of otherness to define themselves and use Orientalism as a trademark, in Parnes’ words, to their self-identity. They choose to show the part of their person that the viewer

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is already familiar with. They embody the social view, and the conscious and unconscious images of themselves. In Horowitz’s (2012) categorization, what they all share is contradictions of expectations, intentions and values of their self-schemas. The artists simultaneously express positive and negative emotions towards the traditional Orientalist depiction. Continuity of Orientalism is obvious, but change is not highlighted. Change is reflected in the granular representation of the woman subject, but it is intertwined with the continuity of the concept, alluding to the mystic Arab woman hidden behind the veil or the violent Arab man. Alternatively, change is in the contemporary representation of the Arab women and men whose identity is multilayered, complex and oftentimes, cosmopolitan. In the art of Essaydi, Bouziane, Kahlo and Parnes, we see that nuanced change that needs to be more pronounced for the viewer to grasp the contemporary idea of an Arab man and woman. Contemporary Moroccan and Iranian societies (countries which the artists represent) have advanced since the 18th century1. The changes since the 18th century women and men depicted in Gerome’s and Delacroix’s paintings are that women have greater social and political involvement, men are not violent warriors by nature, societies are globalized and information and thought travel much faster and via different means. Departing from the artist’s narratives and personal journeys, one sees that they all are cosmopolitan, most of them follow a liberal political thought, they are of Muslim background and they are highly educated. Modern masculinity and femininity are politicized and not confined.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS

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This chapter opens the floor to a few future research directions. The shortcoming of this chapter is that the artists’ works studied here are deeply personal, reflecting their path to self-identity, hence a generalization to the contemporary image of Arab identity is simply impossible. Studying a larger sample of Arab artists might resolve this limitation. From the art of the four artists studied here, it is interesting to note how contemporary Arab female artists increasingly work with the female body and the empowerment of women agency throughout the years, whereas male Arab artists focus on other subjects, other than the male body. Further exploration and comparison of the artistic subjects between male and female artists might give more insights into this assumption. Orientalism and the intellectual branches deviating from it widely study media (text, paintings) produced in the past, overseeing the bulk of visual production at the current state. The contemporality portrayed in this chapter aimed to close that gap, but this chapter as such is not enough. The intellectual production of content depicting the contemporary complex Arab identity is more than necessary.

CONCLUSION The chapter showed that Orientalism is a concept that is subject to continuity and change, even though that change is granular. Contrary to Said’s monolithic representation of the Orient, most recently we are witnesses to a change of the concept of Orientalism narrowing it down to the Arab peoples. Furthermore, Arab artists and intellectuals are appropriating the term, accepting and challenging the stereotypes of violent, dull, non-intellectual, Arab men and women. However, in the process of their appropriation of

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Orientalism in the form of Self-Orientalism or Neo-Orientalism, they do not offer the audience alternative representations of the self. The analysis has confirmed the hypothesis that contemporary artists build upon 18th century paintings to reconstruct Orientalist art hence reproducing the constructed, stereotypical Neo-Orientalist or SelfOrientalist imagery. That is clearly noted in the continuity of the concept through the artists’ narratives. The symbols that the artists are choosing to use for constructing their narratives would be meaningless by themselves. Put in the wider context, they are Oriental elements which create a constructed Orientalist reality even today. It is apparent that the contemporary artists are not trying to reproduce reality by using these symbols, but to criticize it. However, the lack of new symbols that present to the viewer a more contemporary approach of Orientalism is lacking. From their narratives, one sees that change is present, but that change is not highlighted. Representation is dependent on who is in control of the narrative, but even though the narrative is written by the Arab artists themselves and even though they are problematizing the stereotypical identities, they are still not showing us an image, a representation of the complex Arab identities in the contemporary world. The counter-narrative is very silent as nuances of the diverse Arab identity are still lacking. A more productive line of creating the contemporary narrative would be one that lies in the harmonious end of Horowitz’s spectrum of self-organization where the artists are acceptive of the complexity of their contemporary Arab identity and move away from old-age representations of modern selves. Contemporary Arab identity should be stripped of past assumptions and stereotypes, so the current and future visions of the Arab visual narrative can be created. Of course, the argument doesn’t support the denial of past identities but argues for a depiction of current and projections of future ones. Orientalism’s role in society is subject to plasticity due to the alterations in global culture, economy and society and the artist’s role should be to imagine and depict it.

REFERENCES Adler, J. M., Dunlop, W. L., Fivush, R., Lilgendahl, J. P., Lodi-Smith, J., McAdams, D. P., McLean, K. C., Pasupathi, M., & Syed, M. (2017). Research Methods for Studying Narrative Identity. Social Psychological & Personality Science, 8(5), 519–527. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550617698202 Behdad, A., & Williams, J. A. (2012). On Neo-Orientalism, Today. http://www.entekhabi.org/index.html Bekhrad, J. (2013). Pop Goes the East - the 15th Sharjah Islamic Arts Festival. REORIENT - Middle Eastern Arts and Culture Magazine. http://www.reorientmag.com/2013/01/sharjah-islamic-arts-festival/

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Essaydi, L. (n.d.). Lalla Essaydi. http://lallaessaydi.com/1.html Galerie 127. (2019, December 2). Yasmina Bouziane. Retrieved from https://www.galerie127.com/ portfolio/yasmina-bouziane/ Horowitz, M. J. (2012). Self-Identity Theory and Research Methods. Journal of Research Practice, 8(12), 1–11. http://jrp.icaap.org/index.php/jrp/article/view/296/261 Kahlo, Z. (2012). Zahrin Kahlo. https://www.behance.net/zahrinkahlo Kondo, D. (1997). About Face: Performing Race in Fashion and Theater. Routledge.

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McLeod, J. (2000). Beginning Postcolonialism. Manchester University Press. Naguib, S. (2018). Art contemporain: Rencontre avec la directrice du musee slaoui autour de l’exposition “orient fantasme.” Kawn Culture. Retrieved from http://www.kawnculture.com/photographie-rencontreavec-la-directrice-du-musee-slaoui-autour-de-lexposition-orient-fantasme/ Nicha, J. (2013). Orientalist Art as Means of Cultural Imperialism over the Middle Eastern Countries [Unpublished undergraduate dissertation]. Bissell Library, American College of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece. ParnesE. (2011). Eric Parnes. https://www.eric-parnes.com/ Proctor, R. A. (2017). Lalla Essaydi’s Powerful Photographs Celebrate the Female Gaze. Galerie. Retrieved from https://www.galeriemagazine.com/lalla-essaydis-powerful-photographs-capture-the-female-gaze/ Rimmon-Kenan, S. (2006). Concepts of Narrative. In A. Korhonen, M. Hyvärinen, & J. Mykkänen (Eds.), The Travelling Concept of Narrative (Vol. 1, pp. 10–19). Helsinki Collegium for Advanced Studies. https:// helda.helsinki.fi/bitstream/handle/10138/25747/001_03_rimmon_kenan.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y Root, D. (1996). Cannibal Culture: Art, Appropriation, And The Commodification Of Difference (Icon Editions) (1st ed.). Westview Press. Said, E. (1978). Orientalism. Pantheon Books. Shatz, A. (2020, June 25). “Orientalism,” Then and Now. The New York Review of Books. Retrieved from https://www.nybooks.com/daily/2019/05/20/orientalism-then-and-now/ Thomas, J. (2001). Readers in Cultural Criticism: Reading Images. Palgrave. Through the Orientalist looking-glass: An interview with Moroccan artist Lalla Essaydi. (2020). Global Voices. https://globalvoices.org/2020/07/11/through-the-orientalist-looking-glass-an-interview-withmoroccan-artist-lalla-essaydi/ Trodd, C., & Rafael Cardoso, D. (2000). Art and the Academy in the Nineteenth Century. Manchester University Press. Truth and Beauty - Lalla Essaydi - Exhibitions - Sundaram Tagore Gallery. (2018). http://www.sundaramtagore.com/

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Untitled No. 6, alias “The Signature” From the series “Inhabited by Imaginings We Did Not Choose.” (n.d.). https://www.mbam.qc.ca/en/works/69136/ Zahrin Kahlo Moroccan Photographers Intimate Diary on Femininity. (2016). http://africandigitalart. com/2016/02/zahrin-kahlo-moroccan-photographers-intimate-diary-on-femininity/

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Neo-Orientalism: A continuation of Orientalist thought. Neo-Orientalists are intellectuals of Oriental descent, appropriating the Orientalist bias and actively engaging with political and intellectual events occurring in the East and the West. Self-Organization: A combination of self-schemas that are dominant and construct the self-identity at a given time. Self-Orientalism: A conscious or unconscious self-identification with constructed Orientalist images. Self-Schemas: Unconscious belief about oneself that activates when the individual needs to understand or process specific pieces of information. Visual Narratives: Combination of visual symbols and gestures that when summed portray a message. Visual narratives can be sculptures, paintings, photographs, and other forms of visual art.

ENDNOTE

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1

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It is controversial to measure the development of a country without falling into the trap of measuring the Arab countries’ social advancements against the West’s due to the cultural and historic differences. For that reason, only a higher-level overview of change is shared in this chapter.

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Chapter 7

New Portrayals of the Arab World in TV Series Alfonso Corral Universidad San Jorge, Spain Brenda Pérez Universidad de Zaragoza, Spain Héctor J. Oliva Universidad San Jorge, Spain

ABSTRACT This work refects on how the representation of the Arab world has evolved in three fctional works that have emerged in the second decade of the 21st century: Homeland (Showtime Networks, 2011-2020), Tyrant (FX Network-Fox, 2014-2016), and Jack Ryan (Amazon Prime Video, 2018-). The goal is to determine whether the main socio-political milestones that occurred during this period (the Arab Spring, Syrian Civil War, appearance of ISIS, etc.) have transformed the already classic theories of authors such as Edward Said, Jack Shaheen, or Evelyn Alsultany, among others. A viewing and analysis of the frst season of each show demonstrates that the panorama has not improved in terms of discourse, topics, and stereotypes. It is clear, therefore, that the lens of 9/11 is still very present in the Hollywood mindset regarding Arabs, Muslims, and Islam.

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INTRODUCTION The Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region entered the second decade of the 21st century in a very different way from how it had started the new millennium: if 2001 was the year of the World Trade Centre attack and the subsequent War on Terror, 2011 was the year of the Arab Spring. From a geopolitical perspective, there was a change from unrest to hope, since everything suggested that democracy would be established in Arab countries after the overthrow of Zine El Abidine Ben Ali in Tunisia and Hosni Mubarak in Egypt. According to Eugene Rogan (2012), these events were the most significant that had DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch007

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 New Portrayals of the Arab World in TV Series

taken place in this region since the Islamic Revolution that ended the Shah of Iran in 1979. However, the other pieces on the Arabo-Islamic board did not fall at the same rate. Indeed, journalistic jubilation diminished as conflicts stalled (Yemen, Libya, and Syria) and Islamism began to reap its first electoral victories (Tunisia, Egypt, and Morocco). Any expectation regarding the Arab Spring was laid to rest with the coup d’état that removed Mohamed Morsi from the Egyptian presidency in July 2013. To make matters worse, the Syrian civil war and the Iraqi misgovernment turned the Middle East into a powder keg. And this climate was exploited by Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi to announce, in Mosul, the creation of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (or Syria; henceforth, ISIS), a caliphate that brought with it the “third wave of jihadism” (Gerges, 2014). It is difficult to summarise everything that followed these events, but through the lens of global media coverage we can highlight the migration crisis, the internationalisation of the Syrian conflict, Kurdish self-determination, terrorism, the umpteenth page in the Palestinian issue, the coup d’état in Turkey, the nuclear agreement with Iran, the Iranian-Saudi struggle for regional power, and the assassinations of Jamal Khashoggi and Qasem Soleimani. Concurrently with the emergence of this new geostrategic scenario, a question arose that would end up underpinning this research: would these events transform the classic Orientalist representation of the Arab and Islamic world that had hitherto prevailed in the American entertainment industry? In this context, the purpose of this work has been to reflect on how the notion and portrayal of the Middle East has evolved in fictional American works from the second decade of the 21st century. In particular, this involves an analysis of the first season of the following three series: Homeland (Showtime Networks, 2011-2020); Tyrant (FX Network-Fox, 2014-2016); and Jack Ryan (Amazon Prime Video, 2018-). However, before presenting the results, we will review the main lines of discourse and the stereotyping of the Arab and Muslim in audiovisual productions.

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HOLLYWOOD, THE ARABS, ISLAM, AND ORIENTALISM In order to understand the logical links between American films and Arab or Muslim societies, one must start from Orientalism, a paradigm that, since its conception by Edward Said (1978), defines a Western style of thought that seeks to dominate, restructure, and exercise authority over the East, its civilisations, peoples, and regions. In other words, Orientalism displays a standardised way of writing, viewing, and studying dominated by ideological imperatives, perspectives, and prejudices. Hence, as far as the Arab and Islamic world is concerned, this portrait, which was established with the medieval Crusades, has evolved and mutated along with major international events such as imperialism, world wars, the creation of the State of Israel, the oil crisis, the Iranian Revolution, the collapse of the Soviet Union, and the attacks of 9/11. The initial interpretations and representations of the East were shaped by merchants, travellers, diplomats, painters, novelists, historians, and soldiers. It was only many years later, with the development of technology, that the mass media was added to this list (Said, 1997), among which the cinema stands out as the main tool in the construction of Orientalist imagery (Rius-Piniés, 2015). In this sense, the United States has owned the international media story since the end of World War II, thanks to its press agencies and entertainment industry. In fact, in an obvious propaganda and public relations manoeuvre, this country has used film discourse to amplify and legitimise its hegemonic image in the rest of the world, further justifying its commercial and political interests in the Middle East (Navarro, 2008; Said, 1997: 108

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124). It is enough to mention their favourable position towards Israel with regard to the issue of Palestine, a fact that has made Arabs and Muslims the object of every kind of stereotype and derogatory prejudice. The procedure adopted by Hollywood was to revive the classic European representation of the Arab world and embellish it until it became a kind of theme park made up of deserts, palm trees, oases, souks, belly-dancing women, snake charmers, palaces, harems, sails, flying carpets, terrorists and multimillionaire sheiks (Alsultany, 2012; Shaheen, 2009; Steinberg, 2002). However, in order not to offend sensibilities, these stories were set in invented locations, such as Abistan, Bukistan, or Karamesh (Shaheen, 2009). Of course, the Arab world has made the perfect set for adventure and entertainment (Navarro, 2008); a scenario in which the staging has been completed with the aromavision technique: here the spectator “could vividly smell the camel-shit-smeared, dirt-ridden, sweat-clinging clothing of Muslim characters” (Steinberg, 2002). Although it is an animated film, the best example corroborating all of the above is probably Aladdin (Ron Clements and John Musker, United States, 1992). It would, nevertheless, be unfair not to mention that, throughout history, other productions have recreated a more human or real Orient, including The Thief of Baghdad (Raoul Walsh, United States, 1924). In general terms, the male stereotype is Homo islamicus, a threatening, retrograde and violent being; an evil, depraved, conspiratorial, lewd, licentious, hypersexual, barbaric, sadistic, ignorant, inferior, monstrous, treacherous, stupid, dishonest, amoral and fanatical species; an entity whose physiology is completed with beards, turbans, weapons, ugliness, and dirt (Alsultany, 2012; Beltrame, 2009; MartínMuñoz, 2010; Navarro, 2008; Said, 1978; Said, 1997; Steinberg, 2002). In his analysis, Shaheen (2009) records many of the terms and qualifiers used in Hollywood to refer to Arabs or Muslims. As a collective, Muslims are an anonymous mass, demonised and dehumanised, therefore rendering them murderable or subjugable (Said, 1997). For their part, female figures often suffer a process of sexual reification to the point that they appear before Western societies simply as victims of the macho violence of Islam or Islamic fundamentalism (Alsultany, 2012; Rius-Piniés, 2015). The exclusion of Muslim women is systematised through the abusive use of veils and burkas (Navarro, 2008). However, they are often relegated to the background, and they rarely receive the prominence that Arab or Muslim men do. Even though there is a dominant imagery, reality shows us that this representation has undergone fluctuations or evolutions. In fact, it has not always received the same level of interest from Hollywood or the communication industry. Probably the first major turning point after the Second World War came in the 1970s, with the oil crisis and the Iranian Revolution, events that were understood as a direct challenge to the West and its dominance: Islam was returning and doing so through militancy, radicalism, and fundamentalism (Sardar, 1999). At this point, films lost much of their clichéd exoticism, sensuality, romance, and charm; the Arabs now appeared luxuriously dressed, well-armed and with full coffers, an uncomfortable image for the West (Said, 1997). In short, the idea that Muslims were seriously disturbed and that the cause of their disorder was deeply rooted in their barbaric religion, as the Orientalists of old had always maintained, regained its strength (Sardar, 1999). The next milestone was linked to the collapse of the Soviet Union, in other words, coinciding with the end of the 1980s and the beginning of the 1990s. The end of the cold war brought about the clash of civilisations, a theory championed by Lewis (1990) and Huntington (1993; 1996), which postulated an international geostrategic scenario dominated not so much by ideological disputes as by conflicts of a cultural or civilisational nature. In other words, when the Soviet bloc ceased to be a threat, the Arab and Muslim world became the principal enemy of the West on the grounds of history and the perception of values. The World Trade Centre bombing in 1993 fueled this discourse and the definitive association between Islam, the Arab world, and terrorism (Rius-Piniés, 2015). According to Said (1997), this imaginary 109

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connection had never before been so evident. To paraphrase this author, Islam’s role in kidnappings and terrorist actions, descriptions of how Muslim countries pose a threat to the West and its way of life, and speculation about conspiracies to blow up buildings, sabotage planes, or poison water supplies, occupy a significant space in Western consciousness. It was in this context that the attacks of September 11, 2001, occurred, and the subsequent War on Terror that led to the invasions of Afghanistan and Iraq, as well as the strengthening of the cinematic dialectic and iconography of the preceding decades. As a result, in order to get international public opinion on its side, the George W. Bush administration relied on the entertainment industry to further demonise its Arab and Muslim enemy, a propaganda practice that is common in warfare, as happened with Japan in the Second World War or later with the Soviet Union (Alsultany, 2012). From Mokdad’s (2015) perspective, in addition to placing these attacks in a global context to realign foreign policy in favour of the United States and justify its intervention in other parts of the world, US post-9/11 productions have been characterised by three trends: realism, history and personification. Firstly, the storyline is given realism because it makes you the owner of the truth. With this aim in mind, new elements are incorporated into the plots, such as embedded journalism, audiovisual language, or documentary film strategies (camera held on the shoulder, sudden movements), resources that are perfectly illustrated in Zero Dark Thirty (Kathryn Bigelow, United States, 2012). This realism is subsequently reinforced with historical and geopolitical references that revive the origins and disagreements of the turbulent relationship between the Middle East and the United States. Among other things, through titles such as Munich (Steven Spielberg, United States, 2005), Syriana (Stephen Gaghan, United States, 2005), and Argo (Ben Affleck, United States, 2012) Hollywood resurrects the Arab-Israeli conflict, the fight for oil, and Islamic fundamentalism. Finally, it incorporates the psychological trauma of the American, now embodied by a soldier who has nothing to do with the invincible militarised male characters of the cinema from the 1980s or 1990s. This new pattern reveals the vulnerability of the hero, someone who has suffered abuse and torture. One example of this is American Sniper (Clint Eastwood, United States, 2014). For her part, Alsultany (2012) defends the existence of “simplified complex representations”, in other words, a process by which producers, screenwriters and directors end up racialising Arabs and Muslims when the intention was to end classical stereotyping. However, it is necessary to add at this point that stereotypes are equally used as narrative resources in many audiovisual productions, not for ideological purposes, but as reductionist plot mechanisms that reflect a shared system of values and beliefs at a given time. To substantiate her paradigm, the author details up to seven of these strategies: inserting patriotic Arab or Muslim Americans; sympathising with the plight of Arab and Muslim Americans after 9/11; challenging the Arab/Muslim conflation with diverse Muslim identities; flipping the enemy; humanising the terrorist; projecting a multicultural US society; or fictionalising the Middle East and Muslim countries. In spite of all this, the 9/11 attacks mean “Today’s reel Arabs are much more bombastic, brutal, and belligerent, much richer, ruthless, and raunchy. They are portrayed as the civilised world’s enemy, fanatic demons threatening people across the planet. Oily sheikhs finance nuclear wars; Islamic radicals kill innocent civilians; bearded, scruffy ‘terrorists,’ men and women, toss their American captives inside caves and filthy, dark rooms and torture them” (Shaheen, 2009, p. 4). Another of the resources shared by post 9/11 cinema and television are those images that show faceless crowds, masses praying and shouting verses from the Koran or untranslated phrases, of which Allahu Akbar stands out (Navarro, 2008). To counteract the hordes there are the spectacular individualities, namely the stills showing a child with a grenade launcher or a woman covered in a large black burka. This procedure reinforces the orientalist discourse that espouses Islam as a threat while concealing the real 110

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causes of conflict, which in turn makes it possible to legitimise certain political and military practices such as, for example, military interventions in “enemy” countries (p. 296). In parallel, the government has also invested billions of dollars in diplomacy campaigns to win “the hearts and minds” of North American Muslims (Kumar, 2012). At this point it is not unreasonable to say that the revolutions that the MENA region began to experience in Tunisia, in December 2010, may well have transformed the hegemonic representations through which Arabs and Muslims are represented by the American cultural industry. The fact that the demonstrators were clamouring for democracy, freedom, and dignity encourages us to reflect on this (Alsultany, 2012; Rogan, 2012). This is one of the main tasks of this work, as detailed below.

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HYPOTHESES, OBJECTIVES, AND METHOD The initial hypothesis is that American works of fiction still represent Middle Eastern communities and peoples according to the premises already established in theories such as Orientalism and the clash of civilisations. In particular, the starting point is that the main socio-political events of the 21st century have not mutated the classic patterns used to represent Islam and Arabs. Furthermore, it is assumed that the characterisation of these people has intensified to such an extent that Arabs and Muslims have been barbarised and appear in fictitious television shows as violent and bloodthirsty beings. In this respect, the producers of the series will have opted to dehumanise their characters, who will not be associated with familiar or affective environments with which the Arab community can identify. The general goal of this work has been, therefore, to describe whether the notion and portrayal of the Middle East has evolved in fictitious American works from the second decade of the 21st century. From this standpoint, the aim is to ascertain whether audiovisual productions pursue a simplistic and monolithic discourse based on generalisations and stereotypes about the Arab world; or whether an alarmist and securitarian discourse prevails, based on the fear and threat posed to the West by Islam, Muslims, or Arabs, thus incurring the construction of an “Other” as opposed to an “Us”. Likewise, the intention has been to decipher whether the image of Arabs and Muslims is subject to stereotyping, as this influences the viewer’s perception when it comes to creating a collective meaning for the series and, in turn, could lead to racist and Islamophobic positions. On the other hand, once the physical, psychological, and contextual characterisation of the protagonists has been described, the aim is to discover whether a direct association is established between the Middle East, terrorism, or religious fanaticism. At the same time, other aspects will be studied in detail, including the weight of terrorism and religion in the story or a character’s behaviour; the female element, its victimisation and symbols; the links between fiction, history and reality, and the presence of the clash of civilisations theory; the dichotomy between good Arab/Muslim and bad Arab/Muslim, in other words, between hero/ally or villain/enemy; the audiovisual language and the function of the shots, camera movements, colour, music and sounds, among other factors. Only in this way can it be ascertained whether the manner in which Arabs and Muslims are portrayed has evolved towards a model that abandons generalisations and stereotypes, or whether, on the contrary, it has evolved towards a pattern in which the negative and pejorative qualities of its people have been reinforced in order to further demonise them. To demonstrate the hypotheses raised and to accomplish all these aims, three representative and relevant television series have been selected for scrutiny, after thorough screening: Homeland, Tyrant, and Jack Ryan. Specifically, the qualitative analysis concerns only the first season of each production. 111

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Compared to other audiovisual products, TV series have been gaining in importance, both for the number of productions (especially on Video-on-Demand platforms), and in terms of popularity and audience numbers since the end of the first decade of the 21st century (Amidon, 2013). This factor is decisive when it comes to understanding television series as a leading ideological, propagandistic and cultural vehicle due to their high level of acceptance and impact on mass audiences, and makes them an ideal and relevant tool for testing the scope of the objectives proposed in this research. Homeland is a US series that began in October 2011, to address the issue of international terrorism and Islamic radicalism in different contexts and countries, with the role of the CIA as the central thread. Since then, the production has been both praised and criticised, above all, by the Arab and Muslim communities, who claimed that the depiction of them in the series was simplistic and did not reflect reality, but rather a small, intentionally manipulated segment related to terrorism (Rosenberg, 2012). The creators and promoters of Homeland include Gideon Raff, Alex Gansa, and Howard Gordon, the latter two being known for having produced another series with similar themes, 24 (Fox, 2001-2010). In total, the series ran for eight seasons and had 96 episodes that were broadcast on the Showtime channel. Two of the driving forces behind Homeland, Gideon Raff and Howard Gordon, joined Craig Wright to give birth to Tyrant, in 2014. The series premiered on the FX channel (therefore, within the orbit of Fox and, today, Disney) under an aura that combined American appeal with criticism from some Arab countries for the choice of filming areas and the noise generated by Homeland (Alsultany, 2015; Rose, 2014). This series narrates the political and family affairs of the Al-Fayeed dynasty, which rules with an iron fist in Abbudin, a fictional country in the Middle East that is on the verge of experiencing its own Arab Spring. In particular, the story focuses on the relationship between the two brothers, Jamal and Bassam, since the former inherited power from his father, Khaled. Essentially, this link is merely the umpteenth reflection of the East-West conflict. In 2016, it was announced that Tyrant would be cancelled after three seasons and 32 episodes (Goldberg, 2016). The sample finishes with Jack Ryan, the Video-on-Demand (VOD) series broadcast by the Amazon Prime Video platform (2018-). It is a work of fiction ascribed to the action genre with the characteristics of a spy drama that focuses on Jack Ryan, the main character and recurring protagonist of various novels by the American writer Tom Clancy, recognised for his bestsellers focusing on military thrillers with strong geopolitical and espionage themes. Clancy maintained a patriotic discourse closely aligned with American propaganda and geostrategic interests by always situating the stories and basing the character’s conflicts around current events and the US agenda (Terdoslavich, 2005). This is not Clancy’s first incursion into the audiovisual field, as Jack Ryan has previously appeared or starred in several films, including The Hunt for Red October (John McTiernan, USA, 1990), Patriot Games (Phillip Noyce, USA, 1992), and The Sum of All Fears (Phil Alden Robinson, USA, 2002). As far as the Amazon series is concerned, each season is themed, that is, it deals with a main plot that is resolved at the end while developing subplots that are resolved or left open between the different seasons. An economist by training and a CIA analyst in financial and economic surveillance matters, Jack Ryan becomes a field agent when he discovers a web of financing and economic crime that can help arrest one of the US’s most wanted terrorists, Suleiman, and dismantle his international Islamic fundamentalist terrorist network. So far, this has been the only season where the main plot has dealt with the West-East conflict in these terms, as the second season moves the action to Venezuela where conflicts unrelated to this are dealt with. With the new Jack Ryan, the temporal, geopolitical, economic, and ideological dimensions are updated to the predominant context faced by US foreign policy, introducing conflicts with the Islamic world as the starting point for this new audiovisual media venture. 112

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The following pages offer the main findings and ideas drawn from a qualitative analysis of each series. The results of the work are presented specifically for each show, leaving the overall interpretation for the conclusions.

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HOMELAND: THE RESURGENCE OF NEGATIVE MIDDLE EAST STEREOTYPES In the year that Homeland was produced, 2011, the international community had its gaze firmly fixed on the Arab Spring, although the events of 9/11 were still present in the American psyche. Like any audiovisual product it is a child of its time, insofar as it takes into account the political and social context surrounding it; Homeland responds to a stereotyping of Middle Eastern communities and peoples related to the clash of civilisations theory. In other words, its footage helps reinforce the “Otherness” of the East, creating an encounter between two blocks that are presented as homogeneous and appear to be determined by a single culture. The discourse is therefore charged with ideology and a feeling of belonging to the USA based on a reductionist viewpoint and full of stereotypes that recreate these two blocs: on the one hand the democratic, free West and, on the other, a doctrine that appears to embrace global terrorism. This is “Us” versus “Them”, good against evil, the United States against the Middle East, or civilisation and progress against disorder, barbarism, injustice, and violence. The result is that the concept of war is ever present and the two declare themselves to be enemies. In fact, the contention of the Middle Eastern communities in the production seems clear: Western imperialism is the cause of all their ills. The protagonist of Homeland, a US sergeant named Nicholas Brody, returns to his native country after eight years in captivity with the aim of assassinating the US vice-president. And he has converted to Islam, a fact suggesting that the most radical members of terrorist cells are capable of psychologically manipulating a war hero for their own interests. Brody thus stands as a clear victim of the groups living in the Middle East, which in reality are a minority within a vast community. In this way, Homeland makes the exception the rule and encompasses an entire people under the same negative attributes. This series includes no everyday moments where the Arab and Muslim world can be identified, nor does it include hybrid characters in terms of culture and identity: all the characters are linked to terrorism, the holy war, and enmity with the United States. There are particularly striking scenes where they appear to be praying or torturing Brody. The predominant images do not reflect the causes and contextual background and depart from any individuality by constantly presenting people as a group. In contrast, in the harassment of women, the imposition of the burka, contempt for life, or stoning, the focus does rest on this individuality, especially when it concerns the burka, as this symbolises the exclusion of women, and is thus a monolithic and unidirectional representation of the Islamic veil. At the height of this system, which is unwilling to bring about social change and in which Islamic fundamentalism poses a global threat, the figure of Abu Nazir gains importance as the antagonist in Homeland. Although a certain humanity towards Brody or his personal motivations can be observed in some sequences, his very being embodies the imminent danger to the West, for at no time does he abandon his attempt to attack the United States and take the life of the vice-president. Abu Nazir is the “most dangerous terrorist in the world” and has managed to plant a mole in the upper echelons of US intelligence. Everything therefore points towards an enemy that should not be underestimated, as he is no longer as ignorant or inept as in the past. In other words, the terrorist threat exists and is a phenomenon that cannot be avoided. The digital effects reinforce this concept even more strongly, since they recreate 113

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bloody and spectacular scenes that have a greater effect on the spectator, who comes to perceive the fiction as if it were reality. On the other hand, far from abandoning the classic characterisation of Arabs and Muslims, Homeland expands this with even more pejorative qualities: these beings are presented as aggressive, bloodthirsty, and unscrupulous. This portrait is toughened up further thanks to the scenography, since the environments to which they are associated are, in most cases, dangerous and violent, a world where insecurity, chaos and terrorism reign. However, there is also a certain implicit Orientalism, as the exoticism and mysticism of the pre-1980s and the idea of the East as synonymous with luxury, despotism, and sensuality are revived. However, this is now linked to the notion that the Arabs are a dark, refractory, and dehumanised people who objectify women. This topic is introduced into the plot at the hands of the prince allied to Abu Nazir, who has all manner of wealth at his disposal, and who holds a casting call to select several white women to form part of his harem in exchange for a very high salary. In other words, this is the cliché of a Pasha surrounded by women, but who tries to seduce Western women, since no Arab woman satisfies him. Here, therefore, the two sides of the same coin are fused: on the one hand, the classic pejorative and exotic representation of the Arabs and, on the other, the conceptualisation of the Middle Eastern people as being close to and collaborating with international terrorist networks. Both archetypes are still used as narrative tools in Homeland to portray the most extreme and strange part of the Middle East, thereby singularising all the Arab communities in which Islam is at the centre. In short, classical patterns of representation still occupy a substantial part of Homeland’s narrative. Although it is possible to appreciate an updating of the traditional archetypes, this evolves towards an even more barbaric and bloody conceptualisation of their communities. The negative attributes overcome the generalisation and stereotyping of its people, and the overriding impression on the viewer is that “the terrorists are still out there looking for blood”. Although in the first year of US production the theory of the clash of civilisations and the approach to Jihadist terrorism inherited from 9/11 continued to be the norm in the audiovisual industry, there have been developments in this respect in the other seasons of the series. Namely, Homeland has adapted the characterisation of Arab and Muslim societies according to the historical, social, and political context. For example, in its fifth season (2015), ISIS is introduced as one of the main figures, one year after this radical group proclaimed its caliphate from the Iraqi city of Mosul.

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TYRANT: THE ARAB SPRING BETWEEN UTOPIA AND DYSTOPIA In general terms, it could be said that Tyrant is Hollywood’s homage to the Arab Spring. Although, when the messages and images of the first season are critically broken down, entertainment takes a back seat, because Tyrant is an interested and Americanised version of the events that took place in several Arab countries beginning in 2011. The presence of the United States in the story is constant, in fact, the Stars and Stripes is the first thing the viewer sees in the opening frame, which is completed with the typical two-storey house, with a driveway and garden. The main character, Barry, then enters the scene as he tries to get in touch with his friend Fauzi. And this is the first culture shock: Barry uses his Anglo-Saxon name, but corrects himself because he is talking to an Arab and they know him as Bassam. While jogging, the audience discovers through a flashback that Bassam is the youngest son of Khaled Al-Fayeed, leader of Abbudin, a fictional country that could 114

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be likened to any other in the MENA region. Little by little, the storyline that revolves around Bassam and his two families unravels: the American family he created with Molly and her two children; and the Arab family where Khaled, his mother Amirah and his older brother Jamal are the most prominent. After twenty years of self-imposed exile in Pasadena, California, which has all but dearabised him, Bassam decides to return to his homeland to attend the wedding of his nephew Ahmed, Jamal and Leila’s son. Even before he lands, there are hints as to how this world in which dictators, palaces, oil, flags, luxuries, military uniforms, entourages, yachts, weapons, cars, statues, and self-portraits coexist with repression, torture, inequalities, backwardness, veils, filth, crime, savagery and terrorism. Souks, carpets, satellite dishes, palm trees, and the desert complete the scenery and aromavision of Abbudin. The main plot focuses on Jamal’s management of the government, after he came to power following Khaled’s sudden death. In this sense, the new leader complies with the media template for an Arab tyrant, an inept, unstable, depraved, authoritarian, impulsive, and monstrous being, a traumatic personality who, in this case, is the product of his father’s educational model. Luckily, Jamal now has Bassam, his beloved brother, by his side, the Western doctor, the perfect family man and the best advisor to his entourage. However, Bassam (or the American lion tamer) does not always succeed in curbing the fierce and contemptible instinct of Jamal (the Arab lion), who is even capable of slapping his wife, raping his daughter-in-law, murdering his lover, shooting his father-in-law, and leaving his main political opponent at death’s door. As the events progress, Bassam sets himself the goal of transforming despotism and clientelism into democracy. In a clearly paternalistic attitude, he wishes to guide Abbudin into the 21st century, but he will have to deal with several stakeholders, including the political opposition to the Al-Fayeeds, led by Sheik Rashid and his son Ihab. The two head up an organisation that is as closely related to the most democratic Islamism as it is to the most blatant terrorism: while the father’s whereabouts have been unknown since the Ma’an Gas Attack (a false-flag operation orchestrated by the military regime led by Tariq Al-Fayeed, the protagonists’ uncle, which took place at the same time Bassam left Abbudin), the offspring has been engaged in stirring up the masses to overthrow the oppressors since he returned from Syria. In this context, a citizen decides to immolate himself to protest against the horrendous living conditions, and his gesture culminates in a popular revolt and the taking of public space to fight for freedom, dignity, and democracy. This subplot gives two nods to the Arab Spring: first, to Mohamed Bouazizi, a martyr and the germ of the Tunisian revolution; and secondly, to everything experienced in the camps in Tahrir Square in Cairo. As if that were not enough, this association is rounded off with constant references to activism on social networks (Twitter, YouTube, etc.) and the involvement of corrupt soldiers, pseudo-terrorist groups, power-hungry women (Jamal’s wife Leila closely resembles the Tunisian Leila Ben Ali or the Egyptian Suzanne Mubarak), or of Islamism (very closely related, incidentally, to Egypt’s Muslim Brotherhood, who are even quoted). In this respect, we should also note the realpolitik of the US Embassy as reflected in the hypocrisy of Ambassador John Tucker, a character with a lot of weight in the subplots and decisions of the Al-Fayeeds. Even so, the links between Tyrant, history, and reality are more than evident as demonstrated by the allusions to Saladin, the Crusades, Zionism, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Syria, the Arab League, Amnesty International, the death of Muammar Gaddafi, the BBC, and the United Nations. On the other hand, this series breaks with some of the classic patterns for stereotyping Arabs and Muslims. For example, although religion, terrorism, and the status of women are present in the story, it cannot be said that these issues are categorical, simplistic, or hegemonic. Suffice it to say that there is 115

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hardly any mention of the veil, nor excessive uses of Allahu Akbar or the other terrorist iconography. On the contrary, Tyrant’s interpretation is that there is an Arab world far removed from this more recurrent Orientalism, but also that in the MENA region there is still no room for democracy, at least according to the Western meaning of the term. The iron fist, corruption, lies, and conspiracy dominate the political spectrum. In this feral part of the globe, the price of life is different and you do not hesitate to shoot children, hang innocent people, or blow up planes. Indeed, here one of Tyrant’s key messages emerges: the cause (or fault) of conflict, chaos, and injustice is not so much social or cultural as it is the tyrants, who permit such acts or who mistreat and subjugate women. That is what makes Jamal and, to a lesser extent, Tariq, the anti-heroes. Standing against this is Bassam, the differential factor, someone who has lived between the two worlds and who is waging a war against their stigmas and internalising the Manichaean conflict. Because this character is a hybrid between the “Other” and the “Us”, between Bassam and Barry, between the Al-Fayeed who denies his past and the paediatrician who has lived the American dream, between the Arab and the Westerner, between the superhero and the tyrant, between the Muslim and the sceptic, or between coffee and alcohol. The idea of 20 years away from Abbudin is constantly repeated and this period is intended to represent the process of identity deconstruction and uprooting. It is interesting to witness that for the Arabs he is Amriki, while for the Americans he is just the son of another genocidal maniac. In this inner struggle, he himself says “My name is not Smith or Jones”. As well as the occasional visit to the mosque, it is Molly and Fauzi, his wife and his journalist friend, who support Bassam as the events unfold. Fauzi is undoubtedly the most complex character in the story, a man who breaks with the patterns of the traditional image of Arabs and Muslims and represents moderation, reflection, reason, openness, democracy, friendship, loyalty, a sense of family, and evolution. Once again, this is where the good Arab or Muslim (Fauzi) and the bad Arab (Jamal or Tariq Al-Fayeed) are defined. In this sense, it can be said that Tyrant leaves no room for the figure of the dehumanised Muslim. Ihab Rashid may come close at some points, but he is always far from the stereotype that prevailed after 9/11. In short, this series is a faithful reflection of the Hollywood paradox: trying to eradicate stereotypes while ending up reproducing or reinforcing them (Alsultany, 2015).

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JACK RYAN: AN UPDATE OF THE STEREOTYPICAL REPRESENTATION? In Jack Ryan there are issues common to Homeland, Tyrant, and any other work of fiction that talks about Arabs and Muslims. However, Jack Ryan does not only limit itself to replicating recognisable patterns and symbolism accepted by the audience, but also introduces a series of nuances and forms of representation that are new when it comes to generating a readjustment of these concepts, such as the justification of antagonists’ motivations. Nevertheless, the typical Arab or Muslim continues to reflect the classical patterns of representation. In other words, it perpetuates the image that associates Arabs and Muslims with tribal culture, dedicated to grazing in an indeterminate desert area in the Middle East or Central Asia (presumably Syria). Both the scenes that take place in rural settings and those at the Suleiman cell’s base of operations lend weight to the idea of a primitive barbaric culture, which is clearly backward in terms of technology and economic development when compared to the West, and which is bordering on poverty. The display of their activities (grazing, crafts), their clothing (ethnically and culturally indeterminate, but recognisable as traditional), and their austere (almost precarious) way of life encourage the clichés of unsophistication, barbarism, and primitivism associated with them. 116

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This imagery is reinforced by the inclusion of European or American aid workers (dressed in Westernstyle clothing) who are prisoners of the terrorists. Hence, the confrontation is not only aesthetic and visual, but also conceptual: the hostages are civilian doctors deployed to the region to provide humanitarian aid (embodying the scientific and moral superiority of the West), but where the response to their altruistic intention has been their capture by local violent forces (the East is shown as an aggressive barbarian who opposes Western progress), and where they are used as victims of the conflict to generate a certain image. In this sense, the stereotype of the terrorist has undergone a certain evolution, with the introduction of differentiated nuances between various groupings that are, in principle, aligned with the same interests. In this respect, Suleiman’s organisation has a violent clash with those who, on the basis of their appearance and costumes, can be recognised as militants of the Islamic state. This marks an updating of the Western representation of a Jihadist, as it identifies different branches and trends within a complex, convoluted web which, far from constituting a homogeneous movement, very often even embraces opposing and conflicting factions. Another key aspect of Jack Ryan is the Manichean representation of the good Muslim and the bad Muslim. Although, on balance, the representation is negative because of the narrative weight of the antagonists, it is not possible to say that Islam is globally identified with evil. The cultural-religious identification (positive-negative) therefore revolves around three axes. Firstly, through the antagonism that is evident in the conflict between Jack Ryan (the West, the CIA, and the French police forces) and Suleiman (the East, his terrorist organisation, and the other violent cells). On the other hand, the civilian population is shown to be relatively neutral, that is, it is not explicitly stated that they are aligned with the main thrust of confrontation. At most, they are portrayed as collateral victims on both sides or as colluding with local terrorist cells, a fact that once again tips the balance in the direction of a Middle East that tends towards the negative. Finally, the character of James Greer personifies a positive representation of Islam. Although he is not a protagonist, he plays an important role: he is also a CIA agent and Jack Ryan’s boss; he also plays the archetypal mentor and, later, the role of friend/companion of the hero. The fact that Greer is openly Muslim (he is an American who converted to Islam in order to marry his wife and, after divorce, continues to maintain and develop his faith) is striking within the stereotypical construction. The fact that there is a Muslim so close to the hero and aligned with US interests introduces a mechanism for positive recognition of Islam that contrasts with the previous clichés: this good Muslim is not only good because he is an active party in the fight against international terrorism but also because he is an utterly westernised Muslim. This represents a tolerable or preferable Islam, because it is necessary for people to embody at least a modicum of Westernisation in clear opposition to those Arabs or Middle Eastern people who are still barbaric and so prone to violence. On the other hand, in the development of the antagonist or villain, there is a more profound characterisation than usual. Throughout the season, different stages in Suleiman’s life are shown that explain his crucial development before he became the leader of the terrorist group confronting the US and Jack Ryan. Through this biographical explanation and the presentation of his traumas and motivations, it is possible to understand (and to a certain extent to empathise) with the character, something which is unusual in simplistic action stories and rarely seen in stories where the antagonists are aligned, in a stereotypical way, with the archetypal Muslim, Islamist, or terrorist. This enriches the (antagonist-villain) paradigm and evolves the stereotype by endowing it not with reason, but with motives. In some way, the character is humanised and not merely reduced to the role of a bloodthirsty terrorist leader whose only motivation is to serve Allah.

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To this end, some scenes from Suleiman’s past life are very revealing with respect to his current nature. The series itself begins with a flashback to the war in Lebanon during the 1980s. The scene portrays the childhood of Mousa (the original name of Suleiman, which is his alias or nom de guerre), where he is with his brother playing and dancing to Western pop music. They are surprised by a sudden bomb attack, apparently a mistake, that destroys their home, leaving them badly wounded and orphaned. This is the first great tragedy to mark the genesis of Suleiman, but not the only one. Throughout the season, other fundamental events are disclosed that explain the present Suleiman through the traumas of Mousa: he spends his youth in the West (France) with his brother, there he receives a university education and shows great talent, but when it comes to finding a job he is despised because of his ethno-religious background and is ostracised to the fringes of French society. This marginalisation and lack of opportunity lead his brother Ali to enter criminal circles, which eventually lands Mousa in prison after he takes the blame, instead of his brother, for possession of weapons and assault on an officer. It is in prison that all of the above events crystallise into the metaphorical death of Mousa and the birth of Suleiman. Up to that point, despite the calamities suffered (including ethnic and religious discrimination and the horrors of war), there had been no sign of even the slightest religious feeling on the part of the character (moderation or even secularism are suggested). However, once in prison, Mousa encounters two realities that he had not experienced before: the recognition and support of an Islamic community and the radical interpretation of Islam. This new refuge channels the misery, hardship and anger that awaken a Suleiman who does not hesitate to point to the West and the infidels as the cause and origin of all his ills. Another mechanism used to humanise Suleiman are the scenes of his present-day family. He is the leader of a terrorist group, but also a father who loves his children and his wife, Hanin. And it is indeed here that the role of women in the Islamic context once again plays a categorical role in the construction of stereotypes. The viewer can develop a strong connection and empathy with Hanin, despite the fact that she is, in principle, a character aligned with the antagonists. Represented as having a strong and confident personality (a result of her husband’s prestige and importance in the community), she is shown to defy other men (especially representatives of the Islamic state with whom no one seems to agree). However, this empowerment diminishes as she discovers more details of Suleiman’s organisation, especially the plans for a mass attack using a modified version of Ebola. In this way, Hanin’s pride is replaced by fear and oppression that force her to flee with her young daughters (although not her son). With this turn of events, her femininity returns to a position more in line with the portrayal of Arab women as victims and prisoners. This subplot includes sequences of action and persecution, and shows the hardships the mother and her daughters endure in order to reach a refugee camp in Turkey. Yet Hanin is another example of a Muslim who is good at being a victim and cooperating with the protagonist (and the West) by revealing Suleiman’s whereabouts. In Jack Ryan, there is another case that ends up slightly modifying the stereotyped image and dehumanisation of the terrorist. It begins with a family scene in the middle of a typical Arab village: a father says goodbye to his son and leaves on a motorbike. He seems to be a popular and affable character, who is greeted with joy by everyone. But just outside the village he is hit by a missile from an American combat drone. Next, we cut to Victor Polizzi, the pilot who fired the shot from thousands of miles away, in the United States, at the base from which the unmanned combat vehicle has wiped out not an exemplary father and neighbour, but a wanted terrorist, the leader of a local faction. The curious thing is that the drone operator appears emotionally and psychologically depressed by his own actions: he feels very guilty about carrying out targeted killings after spending weeks observing his targets from a distance, learning about their daily lives, work, and family activities, and the people around 118

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them. He even jokes with his partner about the romantic encounters of some of the local inhabitants they are monitoring, which shows that the American soldiers themselves end up empathising with the people under surveillance. It is this feeling that leads Victor to facilitate Hanin’s escape, when he intervenes without following official orders and fires a drone at one of Suleiman’s lackeys who had been sent to prevent his wife’s escape. Thanks to Victor’s interference, Hanin and her daughters manage to escape just as the woman is about to be raped by the terrorist. The character of Victor and his storyline shows a humanised and sensitive Western fighter who is remorseful and suffers from his actions in contrast to the ruthless behaviour of the antagonists. In other words, the goodies kill too, but they have a heart. The baddies do not. And the most evil is Suleiman, who orders the murder of his own wife when he discovers that she has fled. This interpretation of Jack Ryan therefore shows that the representation of the Arab and Islamic world continues to perpetuate patterns that make use of the aesthetic, symbolic and narrative issues of previous eras. Meanwhile, others are updated (bringing the fictional representation a little closer to reality) and some of these ideas are looked at in greater depth (such as the cases where the antagonists are humanised or explained beyond a simple archetypal construction), but without developing a critical, integrating, or didactic discourse.

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CONCLUSION At this stage, the completed analysis demonstrates that negative stereotypes have been reinforced in all three series. The productions not only continue to incorporate the classical ways of representing Arabs and Muslims as narrative tools, but also strengthen the most pejorative qualities of recent decades. After observation and reflection, the conclusion is reached that the communities of the MENA region live on a fictitious and unreal planet, as the entertainment industry continues to generalise a heterogeneous group of people through negative attributes, making them terrorists, barbaric, sadistic, violent, and aggressive. In Homeland and Jack Ryan the ecosystem is much more primitive, tribalised, and Islamised, while in Tyrant it is more urban and developed, but markedly stratified from a socio-economic perspective. In all three works, situations of conflict predominate where subjugation, weapons, and torture are the norm. There is hardly any room left for the affective, familiar, and sentimental environments of the Arab and Muslim characters, a fact that prevents the Arabs (who also watch these series) from seeing a reflection of themselves or identifying with these stories that fail to illustrate their customs, routines, or ways of life. In short, these audiovisual representations still do not convey sincere words, gestures, or feelings, even though this is the key to humanisation. In tune with the post 9/11 context, the plots offered by Homeland and Jack Ryan link themes such as terrorism, action, and American intelligence. None of these three ingredients has any particular weight in the plot of Tyrant, although the presence of the United States does appear to be overdimensioned in the figure of the Embassy. Despite the differences, the underlying interpretation is that the US has the solution to the challenges of the Arab world, be that terrorism or a lack of democracy. It does not seem unreasonable to say that this is a form of neo-colonialism. It must be recognised that the fictional audiovisual products studied have been created for entertainment and their goal is not to generate reflection or undertake a detailed analysis of the situations and characters they describe. Nevertheless, the final result is a perpetuation and reconstruction of stereotypes, as well as the transmission of values and ideas that should be carefully considered because of the associations they 119

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generate in the viewer’s mind. The final impact is dependent on issues such as symbolism, intentionality, and the ideological-propaganda agenda. The evolution of the classical patterns of representation towards this resurgence of negative qualities therefore has a direct impact on the viewer’s perception of Arabs, Muslims, Islam, and the countries in which these identities are predominant. This does, in fact, contribute to fuelling fears that did not previously exist, on the basis of biased and simplistic arguments, justifying, among other things, interventionist international policies with respect to the Middle East, while at the same time making it more difficult to manage interculturality in Western societies. Through these practices, Orientalism ends up evolving towards a more racialised, Islamophobic, or neo-Orientalist position.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTION This work is an attempt to delve deeper into the field of studies that analyse the entertainment industry in order to understand the factors contributing to the generation of clichés, prejudices, and stereotypes about the Arab and Islamic world. Its purpose is to encourage free thinking while trying to transcend any intercultural distortion or rejection of that which is different. The journey does not end here, as this phenomenon is complex and ongoing. Indeed, future studies must open up new ways to study the discourse and stereotypes in productions that are created in European or Arabic countries. Furthermore, it would be interesting to analyse how the messages of these series are perceived by audiences.

REFERENCES Alsultany, E. (2012). Arabs and Muslims in the Media: Race and Representation after 9/11. New York University Press. Alsultany, L. (2015). ‘Tyrant’ o como luchar contra los estereotipos [‘Tyrant’ or how to counteract stereotypes]. Afkar-Ideas, 46, 75–77. Amidon, M. (2013). Netflix: the company and its founders. ABDO. Beltrame, F. (2008). La construcción occidental de la figura del enemigo islámico. La nueva hegemonía de Estados Unidos [Western manufacture of the Muslim enemy. The new hegemony of the United States]. Aposta. Revista de Ciencias Sociales, 42, 1–14.

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Gerges, F. (2014). ISIS and the Third Wave of Jihadism. Current History (New York, N.Y.), 113(767), 339–343. doi:10.1525/curh.2014.113.767.339 Goldberg, L. (2016, September 9). Why FX Canceled ‘Tyrant’. The Hollywood Reporter. https://www. hollywoodreporter.com/live-feed/why-fx-canceled-tyrant-926904 Huntington, S. P. (1993). The clash of civilisations? Foreign Affairs, 72(3), 22–43. doi:10.2307/20045621 Huntington, S. P. (1996). The clash of civilisations and the remaking of world order. Simon & Schuster.

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Kumar, R. (2012). Diálogo intercultural y cine: estudio comparativo de la representación del islam en Hollywood y Bollywood [Intercultural Dialogue and Films: A Comparative Study of the Representation of Islam in Hollywood and Bollywood]. In Y. Onghena & A. Vianello (Eds.), Políticas del conocimiento y dinámicas interculturales (pp. 127-123). Cidob edicions. Lewis, B. (1990). The roots of Muslim rage. Atlantic Monthly, 266(3), 47–60. Martín-Muñoz, G. (2010). Unconscious Islamophobia. Human Architecture, 8(2), 21–28. Mokdad, L. (2015). El cine americano posterior al 11-S [Post-9/11 American Movies]. Afkar-Ideas, 46, 71–73. Navarro, L. (2008). Contra el Islam: La visión deformada del mundo árabe en Occidente [Against Islam: The Distorted Vision of the Arab World in the West]. Almuzara. Rius-Piniés, M. (2015). De Rodolfo Valentino a ‘Los Nuestros’ [From Rodolfo Valentino to ‘Los Nuestros’]. Afkar-Ideas, 46, 68–70. Rogan, E. (2012). The Arabs: A history (2nd ed.). Penguin Books. (Original work published 2009) Rose, L. (2014, June 24). FX’s ‘Tyrant’: 11 Secrets From the Israeli Set. The Hollywood Reporter. https:// www.hollywoodreporter.com/live-feed/fxs-tyrant-11-secrets-israeli-714661 Rosenberg, Y. (2012, December 18). ‘Homeland’ Is Anything but Islamophobic. The Atlantic. https:// www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2012/12/homeland-is-anything-but-islamophobic/266418/ Said, E. W. (1978). Orientalism. Penguin Books. Said, E. W. (1997). Covering Islam: How the media and the experts determine how we see the rest of the world (2nd ed.). Vintage Books. (Original work published 1981) Sardar, Z. (1999). Orientalism. Open University Press. Shaheen, J. (2009). Reel Bad Arabs: How Hollywood Vilifies a People. Olive Branch Press. (Original work published 2001) Steinberg, S. R. (2002). French Fries, Fezzes, and Minstrels: The Hollywoodization of Islam. Cultural Studies, Critical Methodologies, 2(2), 205–210. doi:10.1177/153270860200200210

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Terdoslavich, W. (2005). The Jack Ryan agenda: policy and politics in the novels of Tom Clancy: an unauthorized analysis. Forge.

ADDITIONAL READING Alsultany, E. (2012). Arabs and Muslims in the Media: Race and Representation after 9/11. New York University Press. Navarro, L. (2008). Contra el Islam: La visión deformada del mundo árabe en Occidente [Against Islam: The Distorted Vision of the Arab World in the West]. Almuzara.

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Said, E. W. (1997). Covering Islam: How the media and the experts determine how we see the rest of the world (2nd ed.). Vintage Books. (Original work published 1981) Shaheen, J. (2009). Reel Bad Arabs: How Hollywood Vilifies a People. Olive Branch Press. (Original work published 2001) Steinberg, S. R. (2002). French Fries, Fezzes, and Minstrels: The Hollywoodization of Islam. Cultural Studies, Critical Methodologies, 2(2), 205–210. doi:10.1177/153270860200200210

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITION

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Arab Spring: The denomination that has been used for the revolutionary process that, from December 2010, was carried out in several countries of the Middle East and the North of Africa. Aromavision: The audiovisual resource that allows the viewer to feel experiences not linked to the visual sense, such as smell or touch. Dearabisation: Denying or depriving a person of his/her Arab identity. Entertainment Industry: The sector that includes cinema, video games, television, music, etc. Homo Islamicus: The metaphor that explains that Muslims are a specific species or race, with no links to the rest of human beings. MENA Region: The geographic area that incorporates the Middle East and North Africa.

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Chapter 8

Engendering Orientalism: Fatih Akin’s Head-On and The Edge of Heaven Filiz Cicek Indiana University Purdue University Columbus, USA

ABSTRACT This study explores the elements of Orientalism in German-Turkish director Fatih Akin’s flms Head-On (2004) and The Edge of Heaven (2007). Utilizing Homi Bhabha’s theory of “third spaces,” which immigrants often inhabit, and Edward Said’s lens of the postcolonial gaze, I analyze the degree to which the bodies of immigrants willingly embody the mysterious “oriental,” and how and when it is projected upon male and female characters in these two flms. Akin’s characters dwell between a perceived and imaginary Occident and Orient, while living and traveling in the soil of both Germany and Turkey.

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INTRODUCTION Immigrants from South Asian and Afro-Caribbean nations have been journeying to Britain for over a century now; France has become host to an estimated four and a half million immigrants, many from north Africa, and since WWII, Germany alone has received some seven million non-German residents, the majority of them Turks (Salhani, 2006). This number has increased since the Syrian refugee crisis, resulting in the rise of racial and nativist tensions throughout Europe. These developments have been expressed through recent films made by and focusing on the lives of European immigrants and their descendants, films which have themselves been moving to a cultural center stage and capturing more mainstream audiences not only in their host countries but also across the world. This trend signals an increased visibility, a louder voice, and more social capital for immigrant communities. Indeed, cinema has become a window through which we can gain insight to the dynamics of these communities in Europe, as well as a platform through which the issues of discrimination, assimilation, and integration can be tested and voiced.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch008

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 Engendering Orientalism

Despite the manifest relevance of European immigrant films, they have received relatively little scholarly attention. In the case of the Turkish-German Cinema, there has been some work done, which is referred to in this study, but a closer look is needed..

OVERALL APPROACH

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This study explores the elements of Orientalism in German-Turkish director Fatih Akin’s films HeadOn (2004) and The Edge of Heaven (2007). Utilizing Homi Bhabha’s theory of “third spaces,” which immigrants often inhabit, and Edward Said’s lens of the postcolonial gaze, I will analyze the degree to which the bodies of immigrants willingly embody the mysterious “oriental,” and how it is projected upon male and female characters in these two films. Unlike his predecessor, Kutlug Ataman, whose transgender characters in Lola and Bilidikid (1997), perform dual identities—on stage, they are oriental femme dancers who cater to the desires of Western fantasies of gazing upon the harem girl and off stage they tackle life head-on as hetero-homosexual Turkish and Kurdish males in Kreuzberg, Berlin—Akin dances with Orientalism, yet with a borrowed Occidental gaze (Baer, 2008; Hillman, 2006). While Ataman’s film is self-aware of both the gap and the mingling of the Oriental and Occidental gaze and seeks to critique it, Akin’s films instead utilize Orientalism to lure the viewer, whose Occidental perceptions towards the Orient have already been conditioned by the colonial gaze from previous centuries. In his landmark book, Orientalism, Edward Said (1979) laid out how the East was/is denied the telling of its own narrative. In his introduction, Said quotes Karl Marx, who stated, “they cannot represent themselves; they must be represented,” referring to the peasants and the proletariat (as cited in1979, p. 8). So was the attitude of the West toward the East. Said contends the West defines itself as the superior civilization against the “Orient,” a cultural concept that was created out of the Western imagination and one that came to stand as “truth” about the cultures and peoples spanning from Turkey to Japan. Said also pays homage to Benjamin Disraeli, the British Prime minister who stated that the “[t]he East is a career,” (1979, p. 13). This statement is taken to mean that the officers, foreign legion soldiers, artists, diplomats, and archeologists alike helped create a mythical third place in the lands of the East where Westerners are in charge, and as such, they project, impose, and downright force upon the aspirations and desires of the West on the East. Said calls this Western approach to the East, particularly that of the Europeans, an “Orientation,” or an imaginary place created by the West at the expense of the peoples of the “Orient.” Here, men and barbaric and women are voiceless. Critiquing Flaubert’s popular representation of women in particular Said states that: Oriental woman; she never spoke of herself, she never represented her emotions, presence, or history. He spoke for and represented her. He was foreign, comparatively wealthy, male, and these were historical facts of domination that allowed him not only to possess Kuchuk Hanem physically but to speak for her and tell his readers in what way she was “typically Oriental.” My argument is that Flaubert’s situation of strength in relation to Kuchuk Hanem was not an isolated instance. It fairly stands for the pattern of relative strength between East and West, and the discourse about the Orient that it enabled (1979, p. 14). Orientalism, then, functions as a self-serving narrative which continue to help shape policies, wars, exploitation of natural resources, and the labor of its peoples in the name of its supposed superior civi124

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 Engendering Orientalism

lization. Furthermore, Said goes on to explain how, in the absence of self-narration, the Orient, and Orientals, too, viewed the self from the Occidental perspective, recreating Orientalism in their arts and literature. In time, the internalized Orientalism thereby became quite authentic. “Oh, East is East, and West is West, and never the twain shall meet,” wrote Rudyard Kipling in his infamous 1889 ballad, even though his own birthplace and life proved otherwise—a British subject born in India and shaped by both cultures. So, too, are the characters of German-born film director Akin to their Turkish parents. Akin’s characters dwell between a perceived and imaginary Occident and Orient while living and traveling in the soils of both Germany and Turkey. Akin, who was born in Hamburg, is not free of either the ongoing colonial gaze or the internalized version of it as a German-Turk. As such, he also utilizes the “Turkish” Orient’s appeal to Western audiences in creating his male and female characters, whose quest-to-self journey always takes them back to motherland Turkey, to the Orient. In Head-On, Akin’s main characters consummate their marriage not in Germany, where they live, but in a hotel in the Pera district in Istanbul, with its Victorian and Baroque architecture referencing the city’s complicated relationship with the colonial West. While the characters struggle during their journey, an Ottoman chorus sings by the Golden Horn, standing on oriental rugs, with the Blue Mosque, Hagia Sophia and Harem of Topkapi Palace serving as the backdrop. Unlike Ataman, Akin does not feature Orientalist elements in order to deconstruct them. A discerning student of Rainer Werner Fassbinder (Elsaesser, 1996, p.129-147) and Douglas Sirk, Akin seeks to make films for critics and his family (lay people) alike. He also seeks populism, reaching broader German and European audiences whose conditioning of viewing Turks has been through the Orientalizing gaze. Hence, the rugs, mosques, music, and food in Head-On serve as tantalizing invitations to them in an attempt to create bridges between Western and Eastern culture. Akin is not the first Germany-based artist/director to feature Orientalist elements in his work. In the absence of effective models for portrayal of immigrants or for self-expression, especially in the visual arts, some postwar filmmakers readily internalized and perpetuated the Orientalizing approach in order to reach bigger audiences, such as Fassbinder’s Ali: Fear Eats the Soul. Everyone seeks to escape to a third space from time to time, regardless of where they are situated, and cinema provides a powerful tool and an essential outlet for expression and representation of any given group—in Akin’s case, Turkish immigrants in Germany. It also creates certain perceptions that come to stand in for reality. Taken together, these films provide increased visibility to underrepresented gender categories in the immigrant context, yet I argue that Akin mostly caters to the Western gaze in order to appeal to mainstream audiences. In Akin’s Head-On, Cahit is a forty-something-year old punker of Turkish origins but with a sense of Western nihilism who crashes head-on into a wall in an attempt to kill himself—hence the title of the film, in which both the literal and metaphorical lives of the two main characters collide head-on. At the hospital, Cahit meets Sibel, who also has attempted suicide in protest against her repressive Turkish parents. In her quest for personal and sexual freedom, Sibel convinces Cahit to enter into a pretend marriage. The pretend marriage soon blossoms into love. Akin utilizes love as a survival device for Sibel and Cahit. He also utilizes jail as an educational device for Cahit. When Sibel choses sexual freedom over love, Cahit kills Nico in a jealous rage, ends up in prison, where he becomes strong enough to embrace life because of his love for Sibel. Sibel, too, forced into space of self-discovery. After Nico’s death appears on the front page of the newspapers, she is disowned by her father and brother. Fearing for her life, Sibel moves to Istanbul, but remains in touch with Cahit. After his release, Cahit come to her and asks her to start a new life with him

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in Turkey. She decides to remain in Istanbul with her child and partner. Cahit takes off alone, heading to Mersin, the city of his birth to complete his journey to self-hood.

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(O/A)ccidental Turk Like Birol Unel who plays him, Cahit is shaped more by the German culture than the Turkish. Cahit is quite impatient with a taxi driver with inferior German language skills who has been deported from Bavaria back to Turkey, and even prefers to speak in English rather than Turkish with Sibel’s cousin, Selma1. Back in Hamburg, when Sibel’s brother judgingly asks him what he had done with his Turkish, Cahit replies that he has “thrown it away.” He is not the only Turk who lacks good command of Turkish. Many children born to Turkish parents speak Turkish with a German accent because their parents were first generation immigrants who either spoke German with Turkish accents, or no German at all. Language, then, especially accented language, marks an individuals’ race and class. It becomes a source of discrimination and privilege, integration and resistance, to the hegemonic culture. This is reflected in Akin’s “accented cinema” as his characters move from, place to place, from country to country, and from person to person, speaking multiple languages (Naficy, 2001, p. 23). Cahit’s lack of Turkish marks him as a double outsider in Germany. With his sense of hopelessness and Western nihilism after the death of his German wife, Cahit becomes at once the perfect Turkish antihero of Yilmaz Guney’s Western dramas and the emasculated man in crisis who never feels at home in Fassbinder’s post-war Germany. In fact, “home” for Cahit, as we see in the end, will be back in Mersin, Turkey—the motherland—although his resistance to the Turkish language is thus revealed as a denial of his past. But he must first shift the object of his lust from the infidel German Maren, the postmodern rubble-woman (Trümmerfrau), and find his heart and self through the Turkish Sibel. Maren is left behind without even so much as a goodbye. Cahit has been choosing German women over Turks—before Maren, his dead wife, Catherina, was also German. It is the love of a fellow Turkish woman who will save his life, however, that finally drives him against the wall at 80 miles per hour. But this is only after his death wish through an alcohol- and drug-addled lifestyle and a love for the infidel. After falling for Sibel, Cahit reverts to a violent Oriental male type and kills the man who had dared to insult his wife’s honor. And to cap it all off, the slain man was Greek, so we have a Greek killed by Turk. Ethnic clichés lurk behind the scenes and between the lines in Head-On, as in all Akin’s previous films. Akin also confirms the stereotypical image of non-integration over Turkish and German integration. Turks and Germans can play at love, even be lovers, but they do not end up as “proper” husbands and wives. In his earlier films, In July (2004) and Short Sharp Shock (1998), Turks end up with Turks and Germans with Germans—and the story is no different in Head-On. The impulse to this is as much a patriarchal as it is a racial one that keeps the unspoken law of the East and West not crossing certain boundaries, thus echoing Kipling’s edict that two shall not entwine. Western, emancipated women would not be as accommodating or as dutiful or worthy as Turkish Muslim women. They are the objects of desire to be possessed and conquered, but when it comes to marriage and procreation, only a Turk will do. Similarly, in most movies the Westerners who fall in love with an Oriental will suffer greatly, often ending up dead. Kebab Connection, a 2004 German film, directed by Anna Saul, tries to overcome this East and West divide through a romantic comedy. One wonders then, why Akin, who is one of the screen writers of the film, does not write such narratives for the mainstream films he directs. Why does

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he adhere to the East and West divide so closely while his characters cross physical borders? Why can they not effectively cross emotional and racial boundaries? Such an impulse comes from not only Akin’s own upbringing but also his overall populist philosophy toward cinema. While he may be a student of Fassbinder and Güney, he is also a self-confessed product of Hollywood Cinema, and, as he puts it himself, he wants his aunt (someone with only an elementary school education) to like his films, as well as the art critics (Cicek, 2012). This adherence to the traditional and populist yields Akin some interesting results in Head-On. Sibel’s redemption in motherhood and marriage with a fellow Turk offers a traditionalist alternative to being rescued by a German male lover, as in some earlier films made by sympathetic German female directors, such Helma Sanders-Brahms’ 1975 Shirin’s Wedding (Shirins Hochzeit). While Sibel’s antihero “husband” (Cahit) and caring husband (the taxi driver) are a welcome relief from the archetype of the oppressive Oriental husband, such as in Tevfik Baser’s 1986 film, 40 Square Meters of Germany (40 Quadratmeter Deutschland; Almanya 40 Metre Kare)—in Head-On Akin instead displaces these stereotypes on Sibel’s father and brother. Akin’s mix of the traditional and populist may also be seen in the way he romanticizes and glorifies the dutiful Eastern Muslim women for Cahit against the backdrop of Germany and German women. After all, Sibel does get a tattoo like that of Maren; has “[sex] like a man,” like Maren does; and does drugs and take up a punk lifestyle like the rest of her fellow Germans—only to end up in Turkey, in the motherland, with a Turkish gentleman, redeemed by motherhood. For both Cahit and Sibel, the motherland here becomes the Promised Land in reverse, a psychic resolution by spiritual return. They both escape to the mysterious yet dangerous Oriental Istanbul to survive and rebirth themselves. In the end, Cahit follows the German doctor’s advice at the clinic after his suicide attempt who asked: “Why don’t you go to Africa and help people?” Africa, for the German, is part of the Orient where even an immigrant German Turk can function as a white savior, which is an ongoing phenomenon in Europe and other parts of the West, where the Westerner feels good about himself by saving the noble savages of the Orient. When in Germany, Cahit, a Turkish immigrant male, almost destroyed himself. Sibel too, is almost destroyed by Turkish men, namely her father and brothers who are set to save the family honor by attempting to kill her. Turkish Orientals in the West are destructively caught between two cultures. The first generation in particular is often depicted as not wanting to integrate; refusing to assimilate and adopt Western values. They struggle to understand and accept the German part of their children’s identity. As such, Akin’s Cahit and even Sibel, who was born in Germany, must go back to the Orient to sort out their lives because the East and West contradictions that brought their lives to a suicidal halt cannot be solved in his Germany. The Turkish im/migrant space in Germany is clearly marked as Orient in Head-On. Turkish neighborhoods, homes, and people are constructed as the Other, echoing and mimicking the Orientalist gaze of the Occident. In his Golden Bear acceptance speech at Berlinale, Akin states that the film is made for the second generation of Turks, his own generation, as he aims to help the second generation to break free from the dualistic German-Turkish existence that is in constant conflict. But by critiquing only the backward Turkish/Oriental and not the German culture that has refused to accept itself as a migrant nation that insists even third-generation Turks are not German and thus must return to Turkey (a country where they have never been!), he leaves Turks in Germany feeling negatively represented by such onesided victim narratives that further cement the image of the backward Turk of Said’s description. Akin is not wholly successful, though, in his quest to address Turks in Germany who yearn for more accurate 127

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 Engendering Orientalism

narratives of daily lives—narratives that are not imbued with constant internal generational and gender conflicts, and where women in particular are not always the helpless victims (Gokturk, 2003, p. 182). The Turkish motherland is also constructed in opposition to the German fatherland, and the men in Sibel’s life are representatives of the Turkish patriarchy. Although Akin’s characters move with relative ease between the East and West, in the end, the Orientals and their progeny fail to bridge the gap and are firmly cemented in the Orient outside of Germany, a place that drew them to suicide. This is inconsistent with the everyday lives of the Turkish immigrants who live in an alternative third space (Bhabha, 2005, pp. 53-316; Rutherford, 1990, pp. 207-21), where both the Turkish and German socio-economic and cultural values are present, valued, embraced, and practiced to varying degrees. While Akin places the fault on the backward ways of first-generation Turks who refuse to assimilate, it is Germany that does little to embrace its immigrants who are not of German blood. For example, Turks are often faulted for living together in certain neighborhoods and not mixing with Germans, yet it was the original German official policy of the 1960s that demanded racial segregation by stamping specific neighborhoods on Turks’ passports, in which they were allowed to stay. It was the post-war, post-Nazi era Germany that insisted on separating Germans from non-Germans, Westerns from Easterners, and denying citizenship to children who are born to Turkish parents in Germany, all the while having granting of automatic citizenship to migrants with German ancestry from Europe and Russia. At the same time, as a people who had never been colonized, Turks strongly resisted assimilation, aided and abetted by the German government’s own refusal to admit that it had become a country of immigrants. Germany’s “affirmative action” policies during this period funded an “ethnic” theme-based cinema, but the films produced with this money from the German government also (over)emphasized the immigrants’ victim status. They failed to go beyond the pre-existing stereotype of the “Muslim Turk from the East,” complete with its assumed oppressive male and oppressed female constructions of the Orient, another mythology rooted in a previous century. Lacking in the new German ethnic cinema, therefore, was any depiction of the immigrant as a modern worker adapting to the exigencies of a modern capitalist society and negotiating an existence at the (lower) margins of the host economy and culture. The result, according to Deniz Gokturk, was that German policies like affirmative action for ethnic cinema which sought to give voice to the immigrant, instead only produced “well-meaning projects encouraging multiculturalism that, however, often result[ed] in the construction of binary opposition between Turkish Culture and German Culture” (2003, pp. 183-190). Europe’s “failed multicultural” immigration policies resulted in “parallel societies” rather than the integrated ones (Salhani, 2004). “Well meaning” here refers to the migrant cultural projects funded by the German government that perpetually depict violent males and victim females, denying the existence of Turks in Germany who do not fall into these binary categories. Projects from outside of this negative ethnic box have not been funded thus far—certainly not the ones that takes a critical look at both the Germans and the Turks who happened to live together in real life—unlike the films that depict otherwise. The gap between the Orient and Occident remains unabridged in Germany in the collective cultural psyche. It is in this political and cultural backdrop that Cahit and Sibel meet one another as two lost souls who are stuck, between the East and West, Orient and Occident. This conflict, this feeling of being stuck, is placed solely on the shoulders of the immigrants who as individuals had no direct involvement with the colonialism Orientalist tug-of-war. Yet here they are right at the center of it, as displaced Turks in Germany who are responsible for solving their own issues with no help from their fellow Germans. In Head-On the Germans get off scot free from any responsibility of improving the lot of the Oriental Turk amongst them. The film raises the struggles of the second-generation Turks in Germany with attempts 128

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to disrupt traditions and overcome gaps and conflicts between generations, genders and races, yet unlike Lola and Bilidikid whose old and young, women and men, German and Turkish characters face their issues head-on and resolve to remain in Germany and find ways to co-exist; indeed, Head-On’s characters have minimal interaction with Germans. Outside of Maren’s character who only amplifies the gap between the Turkish and German culture and Turkish and German women, Germans seem non-existent in Turks’ lives in Germany. Akin’s two troubled Turks cannot find salvation in Germany, living with Germans. With the happy accident of a match made in the suicidal heaven of a German psychiatric clinic, which functions as a healing/civilizing Western device for the Easterners, Cahit and Sibel set out to save one another. Cahit must overcome his own Turkish toxic masculinity and Sibel must overcome the toxic masculinity of Turkish men, first through the aid of the Western science and then by rebelling against the oppressive Turkish traditions through their sham marriage, which enables them to invoke and find love and strength in one another, long enough to survive the Orient that is set in the German-Occident. It is a face-off between generations, genders, parents and children, brothers and sisters, and males and females through the bodies of Sibel and Cahit.

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Melody in Drama: Gender-in(g) Soundtracks Music is an integral part of Akin’s melodrama. Reference may be made to Hollywood, and certainly to the Turkish tradition of Yesilcam as influences on Akin in this respect. The extravagances of Indian Bollywood may also be offered as exemplary of the escapist use of music (and dance) for emotional release within the confined, pressurized context of the intricate dynamics of intimate human and social relations. In this film, music is employed not only to both sustain and structure the narrative, but it also has the function of punctuating dramatic moments in the narrative (Flinn, 2004, pp. 1-15). Head-On starts with a male voice signaling a start, “1, 2, 3…” over a black screen, before we see images; then comes music, and the scene. This ordering reflects Akin’s own prioritizing insofar as he chooses his soundtracks before writing his scripts. The soundtrack to Head-On switches back and forth between the East and the West, present and past, masculine and feminine, aggressive and melancholic. Western punk rock of the 80s, for example, struts its rebellious, violently discordant tones. In his first scene, as Cahit argues with Maren and begins to break chairs over the table at the neighborhood bar and kick the man who insulted him by calling him “gay,” the punk rock soundtrack aids him in venting his anger. In another scene Cahit and Sibel are dancing in their Hamburg apartment, jumping up and down, to Punk is Not Dead2 Akin captures Cahit’s raw energy by an intermittent freeze of his face in midair, as he is screaming along to the music he frees the restrictions of his domestic space newly decorated by Sibel, and claims it for the masculine: “Punk..! Is..! Not..! Dead..! Yeah Baby!!!” The music of the East which sets the tone of the film at the countdown start, conversely, is melancholic; later, bittersweet nineteenth-century love songs will situate Istanbul in its Oriental past. These songs, used between scenes to divide the film into chapters, are sung by Turkish-German female singer Idil Uner against the backdrop of a romantic Istanbul skyline comprising the silhouettes of mosques and their minarets in the historical Golden Horn (Halic) district (Gocek, 1987, p. 24). This image can be read as a modern-day Thousand and One Nights, told by the poetess (asik) Scheherazade. The film opens (and closes) with a tableau featuring Idil Uner, accompanied by clarinet virtuoso, Selim Sesler, and a group of male musicians in black tuxedos. Uner’s body, clothed in long, velvet, red dress, dramatizes and feminizes the scene. Her mouth voices the words translated on screen, 129

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the songs of yester-love, love gone wrong, of the flirtatious, and of impossible love. With each interval (the interruption of the main narrative), the scene becomes more and more sexually charged, taking the viewer on a journey into the present-past of the decadent Orient, which, with its forbidden harem and sexual delights, had so captured the imagination of the prudish Christian Occident3. The presence of the mosques stands strong as a reminder of the moral codes for human sexual desires; the voice of the woman in a red velvet dress calls for love and temptation juxtaposed against the backdrop of the minarets from which Muslims are called to prayer. On this Orientalist carpet, the woman, desire and patriarchal control are laid out before the viewer. The viewer is invited to engagement: Which one will you choose? Woman or mosque, desire or duty? As the viewer watches the story unfolding, of characters who struggle with their dark passions (kara sevda), the boundary line and the tension between religion/men and sexuality/ women is that of power. Cahit kills for it. Sibel oscillates between rebellion and subordination

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Life Imitates Art Imitates Life In hindsight, the Oriental music sets the perfect stage for the lead actress, Sibel Kekilli’s, own background as a counter to the wholesome Muslim-Madonna-mother image her character achieves at the film’s conclusion. Plucked from a shopping mall and unknown before Head-On (this was her first feature film), Kekilli was exposed by the tabloid newspaper Bild-Zeitung as an ex-porn actress; apparently in her past she had used the pseudonym “Dilara,” and Akin’s was actually not her first film. At the Berlinale in February of 2004, Akin and cast members including Kekilli were on hand to collect the Golden Bear for the film. Head-On was feted, even appropriated perhaps, as the first German winner of the award for eighteen years, while for its part, reported Akin, “the Turkish film world saw it as part of Turkish cinema” (Mitchel, 2012). When the lurid Bild story broke and a media frenzy followed, the wholly untouchable Muslim-woman archetype was thus fractured. Kekilli herself admitted, “Yes, I did make these (porno) films. But that’s the past. What counts is the Golden Bear (Deutsche Welle, 2012).” Akin, who already knew her past, found the tabloid reporting “bigoted and disgusting.” And the Berlinale director who had to handle the scandal, too, was frustrated: “We’re behind her all the way… But I have nothing to say here morally… Thanks to the media, she can’t go out of her home, she’s totally besieged” (Deutsche Welle, 2012). Indeed, after seeing reproductions of some of the pornographic images in Bild, the actress’s father was quick to disown her: “The disgrace is too great for the family… Sibel moved to Hamburg two years ago. Apparently, she worked in the city hall and now this news. I can never forgive her for it. I don’t want to ever see her again” (Deutsche Welle, 2012). Sibel’s father in Head-On also disowns her after reading about his daughter in a newspaper that she had been transformed into an unfaithful, promiscuous woman in her search for her personal freedom and sexual liberation.4 On various occasions, Kekilli explained that she did porn because of lack of money and opportunity, but she was nonetheless publicly humiliated and punished by her family for her activities. Kekili’s acting achievement in the role of Sibel was widely recognized, however. She won a Lola (Germany’s premier film prize) for her work in the film, as well as a Bambi (Germany’s oldest media award). The awards ceremony for the Bambis that year was held at the Theater am Hafen in Hamburg, where Kekilli seems to have experienced an emotional meltdown: “She railed against the media, calling their interest in her past part of a “dirty smear campaign” and describing the ordeal of having her past being resurfaced as “media rape” (Cummings, 2011). Even though Kekilli was born and raised in Germany, the German media’s and the audiences’ insistence on viewing Kekilli both as victim and a sensual Oriental woman, stripped her dignity and her 130

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claim to agency as an actor and as an individual, very publicly exposed the Occidental gaze upon their enduring desires of the Orient. As a result, Kekilli was cast to the winds and into a no-man’s-land by the German In hindsight, the Oriental music sets the perfect stage for the lead actress, Sibel Kekilli’s, own background as a counter to the wholesome Muslim-Madonna-mother image her character achieves at the film’s conclusion. Plucked from a shopping mall and unknown before Head-On, Kekilli was exposed by the tabloid newspaper Bild-Zeitung as an ex-porn actress with a pseudonym “Dilara”. At the Berlinale in February of 2004, Akin and cast members including Kekilli were on hand to collect the Golden Bear for the film. Head-On was feted, even appropriated perhaps, as the first German winner of the award for eighteen years, while for its part, reported Akin, “the Turkish film world saw it as part of Turkish cinema” (Mitchel, 2012). When the lurid Bild story broke and a media frenzy followed, the wholly untouchable Muslim-woman archetype was thus fractured. Kekilli herself admitted, “Yes, I did make these (porno) films. But that’s the past. What counts is the Golden Bear (Deutsche Welle, 2012).” Akin, who already knew her past, found the tabloid reporting bigoted and disgusting. And the Berlinale director who had to handle the scandal, too, was frustrated: “We’re behind her all the way… But I have nothing to say here morally… Thanks to the media, she can’t go out of her home, she’s totally besieged” (Deutsche Welle, 2012). Indeed, after seeing reproductions of some of the pornographic images in Bild, the actress’s father was quick to disown her: “The disgrace is too great for the family… Sibel moved to Hamburg two years ago. Apparently, she worked in the city hall and now this news. I can never forgive her for it. I don’t want to ever see her again” (Deutsche Welle, 2012). Sibel’s father in Head-On also disowns her after reading about his daughter in a newspaper that she had been transformed into an unfaithful, promiscuous woman in her search for her personal freedom and sexual liberation4. On various occasions, Kekilli explained that she did porn because of lack of money and opportunity, but she was nonetheless publicly humiliated and punished by her family for her activities. Kekili’s acting achievement in the role of Sibel was widely recognized, however. She won a Lola (Germany’s premier film prize) for her work in the film, as well as a Bambi (Germany’s oldest media award). The awards ceremony for the Bambis that year was held at the Theater am Hafen in Hamburg, where Kekilli seems to have experienced an emotional meltdown: “She railed against the media, calling their interest in her past part of a ‘dirty smear campaign’ and describing the ordeal of having her past being resurfaced as ‘media rape’ (Cummings, 2011). Even though Kekilli was born and raised in Germany, the German media’s and the audiences’ insistence on viewing Kekilli both as victim and a sensual Oriental woman, stripped her dignity and her claim to agency as an actor and as an individual, very publicly exposed the Occidental gaze upon their enduring desires of the Orient. As a result, Kekilli was cast to the winds and into a no-man’s-land by the German media, neither rejected nor accepted, existing for a while in a new and a rather abstract third space (Bhabha, 1994, p. 53). Most Turks in Germany refused to see the film on the grounds that both the film and Kekilli reflected badly on Turkish women and the Turkish community in Germany as a whole (Cicek, 2006). They felt they had no control over the narrative beyond this rejection. As for Kekilli, in time she was able to embrace her newfound fame and go on to play a lead role in a number of European and US films and TV series, but with each film, there comes a renewed interest in her porn-past. Kekilli herself has thus come to function as an embodiment of sensual Oriental odalisque (DelPlato, 2002, p. 9) in media discourse as well as in real life.media, neither rejected nor accepted, existing for a while in a new and a rather abstract “third space” (Bhabha, 1994: 53). 131

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Most Turks in Germany refused to see the film on the grounds that both the film and Kekilli reflected badly on Turkish women and the Turkish community in Germany as a whole (Cicek, 2006). They felt they had no control over the narrative beyond this rejection. As for Kekilli, in time she was able to embrace her newfound fame and go on to play a lead role in a number of European and US films and TV series, but with each film, there comes a renewed interest in her porn-past. Kekilli herself has thus come to function as an embodiment of sensual Oriental odalisque (DelPlato, 2002: 9) in media discourse as well as in real life.

Gavur/Infidel/ Occidental Lover Another female character in the early part of the film who reflects the male projections of desires and fears in the Madonna/whore binary, is Maren, played by Catrin Striebeck. Maren is Cahit’s non-committal German lover. The two have aggressive, drug-induced sexual sessions, followed by scenes in which they are casually naked, playing backgammon, or drinking. One minute glorified—before sex, and the next ordinary—post sex, Maren’s body and sexuality are thus simultaneously glorified and undermined. From the Islamic perspective, Maren is also the German gavur woman, the sexually liberated, free Fräulein, in equal measure desired and despised by the Turkish immigrant. In the Turkish-Muslim collective psyche, the tall, blue-eyed infidels are accessible (which makes them attractive) but possessing an easy virtue (which makes them worthless). Akin’s The Edge of Heaven is a postmodern narrative put together from the connected but disjointed stories of its central characters, Ayten, Lotte, Yeter, Ali, Nejat, and Susanne. Ayten is a member of a leftist armed political resistance organization in Istanbul. After clashes with the police during the May Day celebrations, she goes into exile in Germany. A German student, Lotte, offers Ayten a room at her mother, Susanne’s, house. Lotte and Ayten soon become lovers. However, described as a “typically strict German” by her daughter Lotte, Susanne is not thrilled by the prospect of having an asylum seeker Turk under her roof.

Revolution Now, Here: Ayten vs. Goethe

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On the lecture podium in Hamburg, a professor quotes from Goethe. He explains that Goethe was talking about revolutions, which to him seemed uncontrollable, and which therefore destroy many good, old things, as well as create new ideas. Among the students is Ayten, a homeless Turkish female political activist in exile. Oblivious to Goethe’s teachings, Ayten is sleeping. She is here illegally and wants a Marxist revolution for the illiterate, the hungry, and the poor back in Turkey. Sometime after the lecture she encounters Lotte, a German student who asks: • • • •

Where do you live? Nowhere. But where do you sleep? Do you really want to know?

Goethe will be proven right in the course of the film. Death will claim two of the females characters—Lotte and Yeter—as we follow Ayten’s revolutionary journey to self-discovery. The four surviving characters, Susanne, Ali, and Nejat, along with Ayten, will journey back to Turkey, “on the other side” 132

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and “the edge of [blue] heaven” (Keough, 2008), and by the end of the film, there is at last an offering of an emotional closure for the audience (Keough, 2010). The Edge of Heaven is primarily about paternal and maternal relationships, as well as cultural identities, gaps, differences, and similarities. Ali and Nejat are father and son, Lotte and Susanne mother and daughter, and Ayten and Yeter also mother and daughter; they crisscross between Germany and Turkey, in death as in life. Death, in various guises, as well as love, is also at the heart of The Edge of Heaven.

Prostitute Mother, Criminal Father After the lecture on Goethe’s take on revolutions at Hamburg University, the scene cuts to the red-light district of Bremen where Ayten’s mother, Yeter, lives. Played by Nursel Kose, Yeter is a forty-something, self-sacrificing Turkish mother working as a prostitute in order pay for her daughter Ayten’s education back in Istanbul. She is completely in the dark about Ayten’s revolutionary aspirations, as is Ayten about her mother’s real occupation. Yeter has been sending shoes to Ayten since telling her daughter that she works at a shoe shop. Shoes serve here also as metaphor for this marginalized female immigrant, who had to flee her motherland after her husband was “shot and killed in Maras in 1978” (Tunc, 2011). Ali, a Turkish man in his 60s, played by Tuncel Kurtiz, meets Jesse (Yeter) in the red-light district of Bremen. Ali begins visiting Yeter regularly and proposes that she live with him and make love to him exclusively, for which he will provide for her financially. Soon afterwards, conservative Turkish Muslim men confront Yeter, and feeling that her life is in danger, she accepts Ali’s offer. Yeter’s selfdetermination comes to an abrupt end when Ali hits and kills her in a jealous rage. The masculine crisis here is caused by the hegemonic rejection of his existence, the socio-cultural center forcing him to find and (re)create his own center at the edges, in a now confined, marginalized space (Pels, 1999). Looking out of the window of his prison cell, Ali comments to the German Prison guard, “It’s very small.” In contrast, Nejat, played by Baki Davrak of Lola and Billidikid, seems to be at peace with himself and his surroundings. Whether he is teaching Goethe at a German University, eating Turkish food with Ali and Yeter, or reading a book in Turkish, he slides in and out of spaces with relative ease. The exception to this is when he is with his Turkish father. His father clumsily tries to open up a conversation about love and sex, for example, but it gets short shrift:

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• •

Who are you [sleeping with] these days? A gentleman does not ask such questions.

There is clearly a disconnect between father and a son which is not only generational, but also in terms of class and education as well as individuals. Their non-relationship comes to an abrupt end when Ali goes to jail after killing Yeter. His father’s fatal action shakes Nejat’s faith in his father’s humanity, so, in contrast to Head-On, it is the child who disowns the parent—a child who embraced the Occident through Goethe and disapproves his father’s Oriental ways. Leaving behind his father in a German jail, Nejat takes Yeter’s body back to Turkey for her burial. There, he decides to buy a German bookshop from a German shopkeeper who has become homesick for the fatherland and the German language. He is a weary and tired Occidental in the Orient, yearning for the company of his fellow Germans. His only conversation with a Turk happens when he orders tea in his broken Turkish—it is implied by his thick accent that he hasn’t learned Turkish despite all his years 133

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in Turkey, resisting assimilation. Historically, it is the Oriental who has forced to learn the Occidental language due to political, military and socio-economic conditionings: •

Cengiz, bize cay getir! (Cengiz bring us tea!)

To which little boy-Cengiz obliges, keeping the colonial Oriental and Occidental boundaries intact symbolically. Clearly, for this lonesome cultural missionary warrior, East and West have not met, so he seizes the chance to converse with Nejat, the German philosophy professor of Turkish origin. To him he can entrust his shop/German culture in the East/Istanbul and go back to the Heimatland/Germany in peace. Homi Bhabha articulated how an immigrant no longer exists in the homeland they left behind nor are they rooted yet in the adapted land in which they reside, and that this rootlessness forces them to create an alternative mental space to exist in, the third space (2006, p. 53). Nejat too now exists in a third space, in his new home in Istanbul above the German bookstore he just bought, keeping Goethe’s Germany within himself. Akin’s characters demonstrate that the German-Turkish community is not fixed in place. This extends to Germans in Turkey, in this case Lotte and Susanne. As we will see, that third space embodies both the East/Turkey and the West/Germany. In fact, it is the meeting and mingling of the bodies of the people from both lands that is at the center of Akin’s narratives, utilizing both Occidental and Oriental archetypes, perpetuating them at times, deconstructing them in certain instances, and sometimes doing both simultaneously.

Crossing the Boundaries: Death of the Blue-Eyed Blonde “Torture the blondes,” Hitchcock once famously said, and he tortured and killed a few, including Tippi Hedren in The Birds and Kim Novak in Vertigo. The master of suspense was a master at shifting the dark emotions of fear, anxiety, uncertainty, and desire from the male psyche to a female body. The blonde functioned as the body projection of masculine desires and fears, sometimes to the point of killing them in order to quell the inner turmoil of the male hero. The blonde as glyph for woman is a sacrificial tool in the male’s quest for life—especially if they cross the East - West cultural boundaries. This is true for blonde Lotte, who falls in love with a raven-haired Turkish beauty. When upon their first meeting, Lotte asks Ayten at the cafeteria where she comes from. Ayten answers her with a question:

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• •

Do you really want to know? Yes.

And Lotte does care. Caring is the key for the coexisting of Turks and Germans in The Edge of Heaven. She has a keen interest in other cultures; she has been studying Spanish and, having just visited India for three months, finds her own Orient in Ayten. Rescuing Ayten then becomes her personal avocation. The film lands Lotte into the dangerously sexual and wonderfully mysterious Ayten/Orient/Istanbul. Soon Ayten’s life will overtake hers and eventually devour her. After fighting for political asylum in Germany for a year, Ayten is deported to Turkey and subsequently jailed. Lotte immediately follows her to Istanbul, takes a room above Nejat’s bookshop, and begins studying the Turkish justice system. The empowered Occidental hero/ine has come to save the oppressed Oriental female victim. It is thus through this gaze of a German woman that Akin proceeds to criticize Turkish justice. 134

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Earlier Akin had touched up on the issue from an educational point of view with Nejat who goes to the police to find Ayten to pay for her education. The police had asked him why he did not pay for a homeless Kurdish child’s education instead. Now it is Lotte’s turn. She and Nejat are looking for the same person in the same city, are living in the same house, but do not know it due to Ayten’s pseudonym, “Gul” [Rose]. In Germany, Ayten had transformed into the more feminine name Gul the lover, but once in Turkey she goes back to the Marxist Ayten. Lotte is looking for love, looking for Gul in Ayten in the chaos and mystery of the Orient, which she supposes to be “timeless, otherworldly, incomprehensible, and waiting to be discovered by Westerners in search of self” (Mask, 2010). Love, once in Istanbul, proves to be unattainable, as Ayten is sitting in jail and waiting for her sentencing, which could be up to fifteen years. And the jail, symbolic of the Turkish legal system, proves to be as impenetrable as the walls of the Sultan’s harem. Palace guards are replaced by jail wardens. Even her conversations with the German consulate are conducted through secure partition walls, by telephone instead of face to-face in the more intimate setting of an office. Life in the Orient turns out to be difficult for Lotte, made harder by her mother’s refusal to continue helping her, financially or emotionally.

Love Turkish Style

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As the outdoors are dangerous for women in general, so the mysterious Other Orient is particularly dangerous. This has long been reflected in Western art and media, by American TV shows and Hollywood films from Road to Morocco to Midnight Express (Cicek, 2008). Having transgressed both racial and sexual boundaries, Lotte’s death proves inevitable. Such was the case in Ferzan Ozpetek’s Hamam (Turkish Bath, 1997), in which an Italian man who first has his homosexuality emotionally healed as he restores a hamam in Istanbul and is then stabbed to death after taking a Turkish male lover (Girelli, 2007, p. 23). Both directors of Turkish origins, Akin and Ozpetek each explore the possibilities of sexual freedom but then make up for the transgressions by inexplicably killing their characters. As the Turkish father in Hamburg tells his son in Kebab Connection (Saul, 2004) ‘you can date a German, you can even sleep with a German, but you must never marry a German or get her pregnant.’ The existing colonial era racial boundaries between Occidental and Oriental remain intact in Akin’s movies. In real life Kekilli who married a German man to be free from the constraints of her Turkish parents must marry a fellow Turk in Head-On. Boundaries of intimacy between east and West proves to be deadly for the Lotte. A few hours after finally seeing her lover Ayten in jail, Lotte ends up dead at the hands of street children. Addicted to glue, they had stolen her bag and with it the gun. High and dazed in the slums, one of them points the gun at her and shoots, as if playing. As recently as one of the endings in Babel ((Iñárritu, 2006), love and life in and with the Orient is still a deadly game, especially if you are a woman and not heterosexual.

German Mother-in(g) Turkey Lotte’s mother, Susanne, as the rational nurturing figure, in order to shed her “Germaneness” and find her free-spirited, life-enriching femininity, has to go back to the East, to Istanbul, to the gateway to the Orient à la in her 1960s to ‘70s hippie youth, when, in her disillusionment with Western capitalism, she and others ventured into the lands of Nepal, Tibet, and India in search of a short cut to enlightenment. Susanne does not quite succeed, judging by her contempt at having to host Ayten, her daughter, Lotte’s

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lover, and also to pay for Ayten’s legal fees when seeking asylum in Berlin. As she had done thirty years earlier, now here she is in Istanbul, staying at her late daughter’s room above Nejat’s German book shop. Hanna Schygulla (Fassbinder’s Maria Braun) plays Susanne, who travels to Turkey to grieve her daughter Lotte’s death in Istanbul. Once there, she sits at an old Victorian/colonial hotel room, dark as death, and laments the loss of her only child. Afterwards she moves into Lotte’s room in Nejat’s apartment, where she transforms from being “so German,” as Lotte once called her, into a nurturing and loving mother. Susanne had come to Istanbul many years ago, as she was hitchhiking from Germany to India. Now she is back under deadly circumstances. By the time Susanne visits Ayten in jail, Ayten’s political aspirations and rhetoric of the European Union as the solution to Turkey’s socio-economic and political problems will have become unimportant. Ayten had sought justice, equality and freedom for all through Marxist ideology, but this brought more death than life, beginning with her father’s political martyrdom and resulting in her mother’s migration to and ultimate death in Germany—and now her lover, too, is murdered. All she can do is utter an apology to Susanne, who comes to visit her in jail wanting to help her now. For that is what Lotte would have wanted, she tells Ayten. Ayten repeats herself in agony, speaking through the jail telephone in tears: “I’m sorry… I’m really sorry.” The daughter of the sexualized prostitute, the uneducated Oriental victim-female, who sought to empower herself through education, political activism and armed struggle has failed, too, in politics and in love, causing Lotte’s death. Susanne, the resourceful Occidental mother, steps in to save and nurture Ayten now. She is there to tame the violent Oriental Other through love, care and kindness.

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The Books of the Migrant – Civilizing the Oriental Father Looking at the men who go to the mosque to pray during the Feast of the Sacrifice (Kurban Bayrami), Susanne and Nejat exchange stories from the Koran and Bible, which turn out to be the same story of Abraham (Ibrahim), a father asked by God/Allah to sacrifice his son to prove his love for him. Bayrams (holy-days) in Turkey are also a time to forgive and heal. Susanne asks where Nejat’s father is now as he tells her how his father used to tell him that he would stand even against God himself to save his son from being sacrificed—and comes to a place of forgiveness. Nejat travels further into Turkey to his father’s birthplace to find him. It is there that we see Nejat’s father Ali shedding a tear as he finishes reading the book, The Blacksmith’s Daughter (Die Tochter des Schmieds /Demircinin Kizi), which Nejat had given him in Hamburg before he was deported back to Turkey. Since Ali insisted on maintaining his Oriental, violent, misogynist ways instead of integrating and accepting the civilized German culture, he is deemed hopeless by German institutions. Written by a Turkish-German author, Selim Ozdogan, this novel features a female protagonist and explores her relationship with her father. Ali has yearned for feminine love in his life so much that he paid for it with money, apparently unable to relate to women in a healthier way—but looking for love in a brothel in Bremen had proved fatal; he had first befriended the prostitute Yeter as a lover-companion, and then killed her in a jealous rage, becoming a murderer. Rendering Yeter into yet another Turkish female victim of the Turkish Orient in Germany. Sibel is a second-generation female who fights for self-empowerment; in contrast, Yeter as a first-generation immigrant is not able to in Akin’s narrative. Akin’s inclusion of Ozdogan’s Die Tochter des Schmieds in the film, whose female protagonist leaves her father and Turkish village behind and migrates to Germany to an uncertain future, serves as social 136

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engineering device, a form of education, and a tool for us to gain insight into the migrant women’s lives. Ozdogan is not alone in his attempt to come to terms with the Turkish German history of its women workers. Another Turkish-German author, Feridun Zaimoglu, has “championed these underrepresented and underappreciated women,” specifically as “equivalents to the Trümmerfrauen who built up Germany brick by brick after World War II, (KDJ, 2009).” This revaluation of the immigrant women workers’ past, however, has to be set in the context of the defensive push-back by the German nationalist, even fascist reactionaries. The books of migrants are opposed by the books of denial and bigotry, in Germany, inheritors of the ideal of Aryan pure-blood. Politician and banker Thilo Sarrazin’s 2010 book, Germany Is Abolishing Itself (Deutschland schafft sich ab) is a prime case in point. This disturbingly popular work focusing on Germany’s Muslim (Turkish and Arab) population and multiculturalism policy described Oriental Turkish migrant women as unintelligent and lower class, diluting the overall intelligence of Germany. The murderous father/male and prostitute mother/female plays into the racist narrative, while a German mother/female, Susanne, keeps civilization and knowledge intact for both the Germans and Turks by looking after the German bookstore when Nejat, the immigrant Turkish son, goes to make amends with and forgive his murderous father Ali, prompted by Susanne, who now becomes a surrogate mother to Nejat as well, who grew up without one.

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The Privileged Intellectual Nomad In Akin’s films’ collective consciousness, the men of the Orient do not fare well. This is mostly the case in The Edge of Heaven. Oriental Muslim fundamentalist men threaten Yeter and set off the chain of events that results in her death. Ali the divorcee is a drunk and jealous man who ends up killing Yeter. The Turkish male comrades in arms who were supposed to help Ayten/Gul when she escapes to Germany are no different than their sworn capitalist enemy. Not even the Turkish boys are innocent, since one of them (accidently) kills Lotte—one of the very same children that the Turkish judge had asked Nejat to support earlier, instead of Ayten. Only the privileged intellectual nomad, the educated university professor Nejat has redeeming qualities (Pels, 1999, pp. 63-86; Said, 1998, p. 53). With the help of the mothering of Susanne and his bluecollar cousin in Istanbul, a simple craftsman with Forest Gump-like qualities, Nejat is able to come to terms with his father’s now compromised humanity. Nejat also is the only man untouched by amorous love and loss.5 The film ends where it begins, by the Black Sea, from which Nejat’s surname is appropriated in reverse: “Aksu,” which translates as “White/Pure water”. Said, himself who was an exilic, stateless man from the Palestinian territories, stated that, “[e]xile for the intellectual in the metaphysical sense is rest-lessness, movement, constantly being unsettled, and unsettling others” (Said, 1994, p. 53). Nejat, has become a restless intellectual post-modern nomad. He has traveled there to find his father to make amends. The father does not resurface in the film again, however. A neighboring lady signals the completion of the symbolic patricide in Nejat’s quest for self-discovery: “He’s gone fishing.” As the holder of the active gaze, Nejat’s desire to find Ayten in Istanbul had functioned as a classic cinematic narrative, a neopostmodern Sufi plot (as it was for Cahit in Head-On) in his quest of self-discovery. Mulvey states that an active/passive heterosexual division of labor [has] controlled narrative structure…the man controls the film phantasy and also emerges as the representative of power in a further sense: as the bearer of

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the look of the spectator, transferring it behind the screen to neutralize the extra-diegetic tendencies represented by woman as spectacle. (Mulvey, 1989, p. 20) This is certainly the case with Nejat; the film starts and ends with him. Yet in The Edge of Heaven, this is not strictly about the person as such, but a triggering device in the character’s journey to the divine (Mannani, 2007, p. 10), in this case, an earthly Heaven. Nejat entered the film driving through a tunnel; now he stands by the edge of the Black Sea-Heaven. His father dwells within its “unpredictable weather,” as described by the villager, and his mother’s body rests in its hills. Ayten father’s body rests similarly, in Maras in Southeastern Turkey. Through the employment of this symbolic “matricide” and “patricide,” the film enables the Turkish youth, Ayten and Nejat, to achieve freedom of personhood as adults with the help of their German surrogate mother, Susanne (Russell, 2008). Susanne steps in for the well-meaning doctor in Head-On by helping and healing the self-inflicted wounds of the Turks in their own Orient, away from Goethe’s Germany in The Edge of Heaven. Their predecessor, Kaiser Wilhelm II, a.k.a. Hajji Muhammed Wilhelm, due to his self-confessed fondness for Islam, once sought to build a railroad from Berlin to Baghdad, then an Ottoman land, prior to WWI. The railways had become an important tool of the new imperialism, and Wilhelm II was in a railway race with Colonial France who was set to build an East-West railroad in Africa (Maloney, 1984). Hurgronje (1915), a Dutch Orientalist at the time, claimed that Wilhelm II also encouraged Ottoman Muslims to wage jihad against the Christians, especially the Orthodox Christians in the Balkans and the Eastern Anatolia, in order to better compete with Imperial Britain and Tsarist Russia for political and economic power. Revisiting the Wilhelm II’s 1916 statements regarding the Orient, John Lewis-Stempel writes in The Express (2014, October, p. 12) that Max von Oppenheim, a German archeologist and “crack Orientalist,” was his main agitator in the region, trying to jumpstart a “jihad for Deutschland” in the Ottoman lands. According to Maloney, the railroad was the main cause of WWI in which Germans and Turks fought as allies. Now in the post WWII, post-Nazi Germany, the lives of Turks and Germans have now become further intertwined. And yet, while Akin has his Turkish characters face and do battle with their personal obstacles and collective past demons, Germany’s demons are mostly overlooked. This is done to keep Germany as the civilized space and Germans as the agents of healing for the troubled and troubling violent Oriental male and oppressed female, resulting in the erasure of Germany’s violent past that created the need for migrant workers initially in the absence of German men who physically and psychologically disappeared in the war. This becomes clearer toward the end of the film when anti-Western and anti-imperialist Ayten gives up her armed struggle and adopts Susanne as a mother in place of her missing/dead Turkish one. Doing so she also replaces Lotte, now a dead German daughter. In order to co-exist in peace and harmony, Akin pushes for West to accept and love East and East to give up its violent ways and yield to the West. Keeping West in their superior Occidental position over the Orient.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS Turkish guest workers in Germany were often described by scholars as “mute” men (Aksoy & Robin, 2000, p. 206), and women who were unable, or not permitted, to integrate into German society. Fatih Akin’s films Head-On and The Edge of Heaven bring increased visibility and much needed voice to these “mute” immigrants, but at the same time his films perpetuate some of the same migrant and immigrant 138

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stereotypes that contribute to the very muteness of the immigrant who cannot tell their own narrative. Although there have been a few studies on these two films as well as Akin’s and other German-Turkish films from the perspectives of music, religion, and border crossings, the analysis of these films from the perspective of Said’s Orientalism is extremely limited. This study aims to contribute to the discourse of Orientalism in contemporary European Migrant Cinema in particular, and future research will benefit from further examination of the immigrant male gaze and concomitant emasculation, as well as the orientalization of characters.

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CONCLUSION Akin could be regarded as a privileged intellectual nomad. He operates as an individual artist within the collective. As such, his films come to function as part artistic and part social engineering, as well as taking their place in the populist capitalist medium. Akin himself is keenly aware of the entertainment aspect of film as both art and popular genre. Art and entertainment are not always mutually exclusive, of course. In Hollywood Cinema, where money and glamor are made to march together, this can result in two-dimensional work with archetypal characters that lack the accents and nuances of cultural, ethnic, racial, sexual, and gender identities. There are, it is true, the occasional “incidental characters” created for effect or simple narrative role, such as the “Muslim terrorist,” or, for comic relief, such as the gay male friend. Lacking depth, these roles enable, in this case, the Muslim and the gay Other to gain visibility, but only in a superficial and generally negative light. For some, that visibility might be better than none at all, while others prefer no visibility to such depictions. Yet the tension between the money and entertainment-driven Hollywood archetypes and the inclusion of marginal Others does occasionally produce works of genuine artistic value, as, for example, with the aid of independent cinema led by Sundance, Tribeca, Cannes and other more artistically driven independent film festivals supporting alternative depictions of the non-Western peoples. Fatih Akin’s films embody this tension between art and entertainment, the underground and the popular, a tension that is reflected in the racialized characters embodying Orient and Occident and gendered at times on the active male/West and passive female/East axis, as well as in the narrative as a whole. Akin is a filmmaker who is a graduate of a German film school, the University of Fine Arts of Hamburg, and as such he is artistically driven. He utilizes diverse genres in Head-On and The Edge of Heaven, including classic Hollywood melodrama, and postwar German and New German Cinema, to tell autobiographical tales through their exiled migrant characters. And they travel in varying directions—within and to Turkey and Germany. The bodies of Akin’s characters, as in his earlier film, In July, are bodies transported between Turkey and Germany, to be buried in their birth countries, Yeter in Turkey and Lotte in Germany. Even in death, and especially in death, as in love, the Orient and Occident will remain separate. Akin’s migrants are perpetual nomads with archetypal gender roles. The Occidental Germany had made it hard to put roots down for the Oriental Turk, who exists on the margins of German society. In his films, Akin desires for visibility to operate from the center to the margin (not the other way around) with an artful yet populist approach. He wants to be intellectual, but he also wants to entertain; he wants his aunt to like his films as well as the critics. This too is a lesson he learned from Guney and Fassbinder, both of whom wanted to make artful cinema that still appealed to the general public. As such, HeadOn follows the melodramatic genre, one with which Akin’s aunt—and uncle, as well many of his other 139

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relatives—would be familiar. As depicted in Supersex, Turkish migrant families of the 1960s and ‘70s in particular would regularly get together and watch tearjerker melodramas from home, finding a collective comfort in the not so happy endings that befell the films’ heroes and heroines. From this melodramatic formula comes the glorification of the sympathetic victim character, Sibel, the oppressed-victim, yet sensual odalisque of the Orient at the heart of Europe. Head-On includes all the usual Turkish melodrama themes of rape, murder, jealousy, and virtue, as well as the requisite hospital and jail settings that do little to counter and deconstruct the violent and oppressive Oriental Turkish image. Also, the melody epilogues that bridge the scenes further accentuate Turkish culture and Turkey as the mysterious Promised Land. It provides the Turkish immigrants with an imaginary third space as an alternative to the one they have, in which they can continually renegotiate their marginal identity, as Germans to Turks in Turkey, and Turkish to Germans in Germany. However, that journey back to homeland-Turkey usually does not happen in real life (Caglar, 1995, p. 223). Most migrants and their children choose to remain in Germany for various financial and social reasons. Indeed, most Turks who return feel further alienated by native Turks, who call them “German” (“Almanci” or “Germander”). This inability to return creates a vicious cycle wherein there is little hope of upward mobility in either country. Unlike Lola and Bilidikid, Akin’s ending in Head-On says to us that there is no chance of visibility for these characters in Germany other than as victims or criminals, and he offers no realistic alternative for a third space of existence. This feeds into the German media’s focus on the perpetually “hyphenated” identity of the Turks, which in itself stresses gender, national, and religious identities at the expense of other forms of identification (Caglar, 1995, p. 309). This is especially so for Akin’s women. Thus Sibel, as the oppressed, has her mode of empowerment presented as marriage and motherhood. Yet still, there is one redeeming future: Unlike Guney and Fassbinder, Akin is able create moments of female active resistance and empowerment without having to kill off his main female characters. In contrast to Fassbinder’s Maria Braun, who kills herself at the end of the film, Sibel’s attempt at suicide is rendered meaningless and, from the onset of the film, removed as an option. In Akin’s films, women are needed for love, healing, and nurture. Akin’s films give mixed messages on Orientalism, misogyny and women’s empowerment in general. The temporary room created for the Marxist lesbian in The Edge of Heaven and for the businesswoman, Selma in Head-On only accentuates the importance of mothering, and hence works against that empowerment. As for Sibel, she mothers herself by becoming one, naturally (for Akin), in Turkey. Amorous love, on the other hand, is equated in all three films with death (of Lola, Nico, Yeter, and Lotte). Each death triggers emotions and shifts that are transformative for the remaining lead characters. Love triggers death; death triggers transformation. Susanne follows the migrants to their roots to mother them there as the more civilized and rational German. Akin gives us the postmodern nomad who is in constant motion, with each character moving within their assigned archetypal Oriental and Occidental racial and gendered role and mobile-centers with relative ease, featuring the characters’ journey to self—triggered by love. So, love itself becomes home, and that home is the new battleground between East and West. The colonial-era’s, manufactured Orient and Occident trope still endures, as it constantly meets and mingles in the streets of Berlin, Hamburg and Istanbul. All the while, as Birol Unel puts it, “Home is where [the] foot is” (Cicek, 2006) and where the hearts beats, and where Yeter’s shoes yet search for their grounding. .

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REFERENCES Aksoy, A., & Robins, K. (2000). Deep Nation, the National Question and Turkish Cinema Culture. In Cinema and Nation. New York: Routledge. Ataman, K. (Director). (1997). Lola and Bilidikid. Millivres Multimedia. Baer, N. (2008). Points of Entanglement: The Over determination of German Space and Identity in Lola + Billy the Kid and Walk on Water. Transit. Accessed June 3.2012, https://escholarship.org/uc/ item/8q04k8v1 Bhabha, H. K. (2004). Location of Culture. Routledge Classics. Caglar, A. (1995). German Turks in Berlin: Social exclusion and strategies for social mobility. The Journal of the European Research Centre on Migration and Ethnic Relations, 21-3, 309–323. Cicek, F. (2006, July 18) Research interview with Birol Uner, Berlin. Cicek, F. (2006, June 15). Research interviews with German-Turkish actors, actresses, and residents of Berlin. Cicek, F. (2008, November 24). Orientalism in Film and Television. In Muslim Voices. Indiana University Global Studies Program. Cicek, F. (2012, May 16). Research interview with Fatih Akin, Cannes Film Festival, France. Cummings, T. (2011, June 16). ‘Game of Thrones’ Actress Sibel Kekilli Performed in Adult Films. Yahoo! Contributor Network. Accessed July 23, 2012, http://tv.yahoo.com/news/game-thrones-actresssibel-kekilli-performed-adult-films173300981.html DelPlato, J. (2002). Multiple Wives, Multiple Pleasures: Representing the Harem, 1800–1875 (Vol. 9). Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. Elsaesser, T. (1996). Fassbinder’s Germany: History, Identity, Subject. Amsterdam University Press. Girelli, E. (2007, April 30). Transnational Orientalism: Ferzan Ozpetek’s Turkish dream in Hamam (1997). New Cinemas: Journal of Contemporary Film, 5(1), 23–38. doi:10.1386/ncin.5.1.23_1 Gocek, F. M. (1987). East Encounters West: France and the Ottoman Empire in the Eighteenth Century. Oxford University Press.

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Gokturk, D. (2002). Beyond Paternalism: Turkish German Traffic in Cinema. The German Cinema Book. Gokturk, D., David, G., & Kaes, K. (Eds.). (2005). Is the Boat Full? In Xenophobia, Racism and Violence. Germany in Transit: Nation and Migration (pp. 105-147). University of California Press. Hurgronje, C. (1915). The Holy War, Made in Germany. The Knickerbocker Press. KDJ. (2009, January). Die Tochter des Schmieds. Love German Books Blog, 4. Keough, P. (2008, June 29). Artist on the “Edge”. The Boston Phoenix. https://www.thephoenix.com/ BLOGS/outsidetheframe/archive/2008/06/29/artist-on-the-quot-edge-quot-interview-with-fatih-akin.aspx

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Kipling, R. (1889, December 2). The Ballad of East and West. Pioneer. Lewis-Stempel, J. (2014, October 12). The Kaiser’s Jihad. The Express. Maloney, A. (1984). Berlin-Bagdad railway as a cause of World War I. The Center for Naval Analyses. Mannani, M. (2007). Divine deviants: The dialectics of devotion in the poetry of Donne and Rumi. Peter Lang Publishing. Mask, M. (2010, August 18). Eat, pray, love, leave: Orientalism still big onscreen. Morning Edition, NPR. Mitchel, W. (2012, August 15). Going to Extremes: Fatih Akin on His Turkish-German Love Story Head-On. Indiewire. https://www.indiewire.com/article/going_to_extremes_fatih_akin_on_his_turkishgerman_love_story_head-on Mulvey, L. (1989). Visual Pleasure and Other Pleasures. Indiana University Press. doi:10.1007/9781-349-19798-9 Naficy, H. (2001). An Accented Cinema: Exilic and Diasporic Filmmaking. Princeton University Press. doi:10.1515/9780691186214 Ozpetek, F. (1997). Dir. Steam: Turkish Bath. Sorpasso Film, Promete Film, Asbrell Productions. Pels, D. (1999). Privileged Nomads. Theory, Culture & Society, 16(1), 63–86. Russell, D. (2008). Reconsidering matricide in Spanish cinema of the transition: Furtivos [Poachers]. Studies in Hispanic Cinemas, 4(1), 19-33. Rutherford, J. (1990). The Third Space. Interview with Homi Bhabha. In Identity: Community, Culture, Difference (pp. 207–221). Lawrence and Wishart. Said, E. (1979). Orientalism. First Vintage Books Edition. Said, E. W. (1994). Representations of the Intellectual: The 1993 Reith Lectures. Pantheon Books. Salhani, C. (2004, December 8). Analysis: Europe’s failed multiculturalism. UPI. Accessed 2020, December, 27. https://www.upi.com/Defense-News/2004/12/08/Analysis-Europes-failed-multiculturalism/28161102508536/

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Salhani, C. (2006, February 13). Politics and policies: France versus immigration. United Press International (UPI). https://www.upi.com/Defense-News/2006/02/13/Politics-Policies-France-vs-immigrati on/58881139836604/?ur3=1 Sarrazin, T. (2010). Deutschland schafft sich ab (20th ed.). DVA Dt.Verlags-Anstalt. Saul, A. (2004). Dir. Kebab Connection, with contribution from Fatih Akin. WDR. Staff, D. W. (2012, February). From Bare to Bear for Ex-Porn Queen. Deutsche Welle Culture, 2. http:// www.dw.de/from-bare-to-bear-for-ex-porn-queen/a-1118125-1 Tunc, A. (2011). Maras Katliami: Tarihin Arka Plani ve Anatomisi. Belge Yayinlari.

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ADDITIONAL READING Armes, R. (1987). Third World Filmmaking and the West. Berkley: University of California Press.Berger, J. (1991). Keeping a Rendezvous. Pantheon Books. Beier, L., & Matussek, M. (2007, September 28). From Istanbul to New York. Interview with Director Fatih Akin, Spiegel Online International. Accessed, August 18, 2012, https://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/spiegel-interview-with-director-fatih-akin-from-istanbul-to-new-york-a-508521.html Berghahn, D. (2006). No Place Like Home? Or Impossible Homecomings in the Films of Fatih Akin. New Cinemas: Journal of Contemporary Film, 4-3, 151-57. Bottcher, A., Burford, S., & Morris, A. (2012). Beyond Stereotypes How Artists of Turkish Descent Deal with Identity in Germany. In Humanity in Action. Accessed November 10th, https://www.humanityinaction. org/knowledgebase/236-beyond-stereotypes-how-artists-of-turkishdescent-deal-with-identity-in-germany Eckermann, J. P. (Ed.). (1949). Words of Goethe: Being the Conversations of Johann Wolfgang Von Goethe. Tudor Publishing Company. Erdogan, N. (2002). Mute Bodies, Disembodied Voices: Notes on Sound in Turkish Popular Cinema. Screen, 43-3, 233-249. Foucault, M. (1990). History of Sexuality. Vintage. Gokturk, D. (2003). Turkish Delight-German Fright: Unsettling Oppositions in Transnational Cinema. In (Eds.) Derman, D. and Ross, Mapping the Margins: Identity Politics and Media. New Jersey: Hampton Press. Linke, U. (1995). Murderous Fantasies: Violence, Memory, and Selfhood in Germany. New German Critique, NGC, 64(64), 37–59. doi:10.2307/488463 Ozguven, F. (1989). Male and Female in Yesilcam: Archetypes Endorsed by Mutual Agreement of Audience and Player. (Ed.), Woodhead, C. Turkish Cinema: An Introduction, (35-41). London: University of London SOAS Turkish Area Study Group Publications. Schneider, J. (2009). From “Kanak Attack” to “GerKish” Generation: Second Generation Turkish Narratives in German Culture and Politics. International Journal on Multicultural Societies, 11(2), 212–229.

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Williams, L. (1998). Melodrama Revised. In Browne. N, (Ed.) Refiguring American Film Genres: History and Theory, (42-88). California: University of California Press.

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Accented Cinema: Refers to the films from the Third World as well the works of migrants, refugees, exilic and other displaced people who cross multiple borders and speak multiple languages with accents; often from margins to the center.

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Active/Male, Passive/Female: Refers to how traditional films present men as active, whose gaze and story the camera follows and presents women as the passive secondary characters who are there to aid the male hero in his journey. Colonial Gaze: The way in which the West controls and exploits natural and human resources through a dehumanizing narrative of non-Western lands and people by creating and maintaining an imaginary division between the colonizers/civilized, and Other, colonized/savage. Madonna Whore Complex: Refers to the ongoing dichotomy in viewing women as good, as in virtuous mother, Madonna’s as in Virgin Marry, and bad as in sexually active, seductive femme prostitutes. The split reflects inner conflict the patriarchal men experience in relating to women who could be both virtuous and have sexual desires. Melodramatic Formula: Is when a female character temporarily assumes the main active role and gains agency in a film due to the absence of a male character whose masculinity is in crises. The classic active male, passive female nexus is temporarily abandoned until the male hero returns to assume his patriarchal active role, restoring patriarchal power dynamic between genders and society. Orientalism: The way the Occident imagines Asia, especially the Middle East, in a mysterious but ultimately inferior to the West. This attitude is rooted in the colonialist era and continues to shape the West’s socio-cultural and economic policies toward the non-Western continents, one that often exploits their natural and human resources. Third Space: An abstract, in-between place, in which the migrants, refugees and exilic people who have uprooted themselves from their native lands and struggles to put roots in his/her host country, exist. Bhabha who coined the term states that third space: “gives rise to something different, something new and unrecognizable, a new area of negotiation of meaning and representation.” Transnational Cinema: Studies influence of globalization on the filmmaking process and promotes cross cultural and international filmmaking process, one that goes beyond nationals and embraces Third World Cinema, Accented Cinema as well as commercial Cinema.

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ENDNOTES 1



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Like Cahit, Uner was also born in Mersin, which he left at the age of six, and speaks very little Turkish, preferring German (he has also little patience for people—least of all artists and intellectuals—who are not fluent in German), or else English. Punk is Not Dead: by The Exploited, a Scottish punk band from the second (“new”) wave of UK punk. See: http://www.amazon.com/The-Exploited/e/B000APBP90. C.f. its employment by Virginia Woolf as the 1928 representation of a seventeenth-century (gender) liminal space for the eponymous Orlando. Relationships between the personal lives of actors made use in the film have also been noted in respect to Unel and Cumbul; other examples no doubt found their way onto the film scenario from Fatih Akin, one such being the idea of Cahit’s being propositioned for marriage by a stranger (Sibel), which apparently occurred to him (unlike Cahit, he did not accept, but he did see its value as a plot device) Originally Nejat’s character falls in love with a single mother, whom he meets in the Black Sea village, but Akin edited the scene out. See: The Edge of Heaven DVD Extras..

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Chapter 9

The Difference Between the Western Reflections of Disaster News and Orientalist Perspectives:

Positioning Women in the Case of Titanic Nilüfer Pembecioğlu https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7510-6529 Faculty of Communication, Istanbul University, Turkey Uğur Gündüz https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6138-6758 Istanbul University, Turkey

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ABSTRACT The women issue is important not only in Western but also in Eastern cultures. Positioned in between the East and West, Turkey always provides an interesting collection of cases and data. Apart from the daily consumption of the women images and realities, the image of the women is also mobile when it comes to the press, and thus, this mobility is extended worldwide through the new media possibilities in the age of information. However, the contradictory images of the diferent cultures were displayed in the history of media as well. This chapter aims to put forward how the positioning of women in the past took place specifcally in the case of Titanic news on the press of the time. The chapter questions the similarities and diferences of handling women in news comparing and contrasting the Western journalism of the time and Ottoman press coverage.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch009

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 The Difference Between the Western Reflections of Disaster News and Orientalist Perspectives

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INTRODUCTION: MEDIA IN OTTOMAN TIMES Nowadays, women issues are considered more than ever with the impact of the new media, the increasing number of violence against females, the identity issues, and the reaction to the traditional structure of the society. A diachronic and synchronic analysis of the women’s issues provides that it took a long way for different societies to understand the value of women and position them in the society. Due to cultural, economical, social, educational or political reasons the women’s issue has always been kept behind the other issues. Let it be urbanization or agriculture, raising domestic animals or growing up children, but especially kitchen work and housework were attributed to the women’s responsibility areas in society. Yet, males were only responsible for the managerial issues. Throughout history, many voices were upraised or silenced yet in the 21st century women’s issues are still hot topics to be discussed. Regarding the acknowledgment of women’s rights, many people prefer to point out the human rights would be enough, and even naming the issue with the feminine words sound ‘weak’ enough. Yet, to some others, women are more equal than men, having some special rights gained by birth. The mobility of the women, marrying or not, giving birth to children or not, women in arts, women in politics, women in history, women in the field of entrepreneurship gain many different perspectives in current times. With all the identities women carry and all the cultures they might be originated from, the languages, customs, and traditions the women issues would be discussed more and more. That’s because the women are discovered again and again in the new era, and they are questioned more than ever. The relationship of women with the media was a complex one. When the first daily newspapers begin to appear, the journalists or the media owners had no idea about the differences between the male and female audiences. The aim was just to deliver news, the press never had a concept such as the women image or female vs. male images in the media. Throughout the time, first, the press discovered the women as the audience and then the cinema and television. Nowadays, there are even television channels broadcasting mainly for the female audience and the media industry is dwelling on gender differences more than ever. There are more and more Women’s TV Channels all over the world they all make use of the latest substructure and modern technology to reach their audiences. Today, more than 30 television channels operate throughout the world. 9Gem, 10 Peach in Australia, Colours Lifestyle, Metro Channel in the Philippines, Cosmopolitan TV, MOI&cie, OWN, Slice, W Network, Twist TV in Canada, Diva Universal, STAR World in Asia, Divinity in Spain, Escape, Lifetime, Oxygen, VH1, WE TV in the USA, Estil 9 in Catalonia, ETC, Eve in Southeast Asia, La5, Mya in Italy, Living in the UK, Nova in Spain, OnStyle in South Korea, Passion, Sixx in Germany, RTL 8 in the Netherlands, SIC Mulher in Portugal, Sony Channel in Southeast Asia, Téva in France reach a wide range of both male and female viewers. All these television channels cope up with the difficulties yet they seem to be doing fine because, they prefer differentiating the male and female as two different, distinct categories requiring completely different communication and marketing strategies. Daalmans et.al, state that regardless of the genre as well as the country of origin of the program, women were underrepresented on men’s channels, while gender distribution on women’s channels was more equal. The representation of women in terms of age and occupation was more stereotypical on men’s channels than on women’s channels, whereas men were represented in more contra-stereotypical ways (e.g., performing household tasks) on women’s channels. Since television viewing contributes to the learning and maintenance of stereotyped perceptions, the results imply that it is important to strengthen viewers’ defenses against the effects of gender stereotyping when watching gendered television channels, for instance through media literacy programs in schools. (Daalmans, Kleemans & Sadza, 2017). 146

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 The Difference Between the Western Reflections of Disaster News and Orientalist Perspectives

As seen in the distribution of the channels, women issue is important not only in Western but also in Eastern cultures. Positioned in between the East and West, Turkey always provides an interesting collection of cases and data. Apart from the daily consumption of the women’s images and realities, the image of the women is also mobile when it comes to the press. Thus, this mobility is much more extended worldwide through the new media possibilities in the age of information. However, the contradictory images of the different cultures were displayed in the history of media as well. Once the stages of communication are considered as the past, Ottoman society, there are things to be flashed. Even if Gutenberg found the press by 1436, it arrived at the Ottomans by 1727. Regarding the communications turning stones, the first stamp is used in 1840 in Europe, the first stamp in the Ottomans is used by 1863. It was easier to follow the technology and innovations as the time gets closer to the current dates. However, in 1876 the first telephone used by Graham Bell, and the first city system established in Europe was in Paris, by 1879. And it reached to Ottomans only in 1908 after the second constitutional monarchy. Mainly used in the palace circles and common systems were established only by 1911 in Istanbul. However, the first newspapers published in Turkey were the French ones. Just after the French Revolution, the first printing press was established in the French Ambassadorship building by Vermainac, to provide first-hand information and explain the French innovation to ensure the support of the whole world, especially the Ottomans. In 1795, the first publication of 6-8 pages was named as “Bulletin des Nouvelles” to be published every two weeks (Topuz, 1973:28) Koloğlu (1994) states that the first newspaper was published in Antwerp in 1605 both in French and Dutch. Similarly, the first Turkish newspaper Vekayi-i Misriye is accepted to be published in Cario by 1828. It was also published in several different languages. Being in the multilingual, multicultural atmosphere and geography, the first Turkish newspaper is published in Istanbul by the state in 1831. Its name was Takvim-i Vekaî and it was published only 250 to be distributed among the high level government officers and consulates in Istanbul. This was a kind of official communication among governmental officials related to serious pieces of information. The newspapers in their general sense, targeting the civics soon arrived. The first private Turkish newspaper Tercüman-ı Ahval is published in 1860. It reached up to a few thousand circulations because, in those days, the newspapers were given to special specified people only. In 1860 a new private newspaper Ceride-i Havadis appeared and it applied a different strategy of circulation to be carried to the subscribers only. Topuz, explains their PR strategy: “They hired people for this job. These people were not only selling the newspapers on certain spots but also delivering the papers to subscribers, running throughout the whole city or certain districts and shouting the latest news on the newspapers. They were also getting some feedback about the publications and having the pulse of the audience. In 1878 this kind of circulation spread out of Istanbul out to the whole country” (Topuz, 2003) Up to 1959 these strategies approved success, however, new companies were established just for the delivery of the newspapers. These companies made good usage of the railroads and postal services as well. With the increase of literacy and the new multi-party system bringing a new political era after 1946, the newspapers reached up to the little villages and towns apart from the big cities. Especially, after 1957 and the opening of new parties mass media gained more importance in the country. Topuz on the other hand, explains how these newspapers were reaching to their target audience: “With the press, images were also involved into communication for the first time. The first newspapers with pictures were Ayine-i Vatan (1866), Muhip (1867), Utarit (1867). The rising literacy rates contributed to the press as well. With the hope of finding new audiences, the newspapers started to have women 147

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supplements with the main newspaper. The first women supplement Terakki (1868) paved the way for the first children’s newspapers Mümeyyiz (1869) and Hakayikü’l-Vakayi (1870) as well as the first special entertainment issues of Asır (1870), the first scientific newspaper Hadika (1869), first humor İstikbal (1875) (Topuz, 2003) Here, the question is perhaps if the Ottomans could have a real Orientalist mentality or Eastern type of journalism regarding the press. Because the dynamics of the Ottoman press were highly related to the Ottoman journalists in abroad and the foreign press in the country. On one hand, most of the best writers of the country were writing in the newspapers abroad but on the other hand, the western press was also so much inside the country that the number of the foreign-based newspapers were even reaching more than 400 up to the first years of the republic. On one hand, the Turkish newspapers were published abroad but on the other hand, there were so many foreign presses published in Turkey. According to Baykal (1990:44-47) for example, starting in the 1820s and specifically between 1914–1971 around 350 French newspapers and magazines were published within the Ottoman borders. Le Stamboul, La Republique, Tout-Pera, L’Economiste d’Orient, Moniteur Oriental, Llyod Ottoman, Jeune Turc, L’Aurore, La Patrie were among the most popular ones. According to Topuz, (2003), during the administrative reforms period, 1839-1876 in Ottoman history the westernization movements helped people to have more tendency to follow the press and learn other languages. Democracy and the freedom of expression movements started among the young journalists living abroad. They established associations and fractions and had a great impact on society. Their attitude had a negative impact on the government side and restricted their movements or activities in various ways. However, they continued the movement of freedom by publishing their own newspapers abroad. London based Muhbir (1867) and Hürriyet (1868), Paris based Ulum (1869) and Geneva-based Hürriyet (1870) were among the most influential ones. Apart from these, there were also newspapers having their own publications in Rum, Armenian, Old Spanish, Ladino, and Hebrew as well as German and English ones. By 1923, besides the 7 Turkish newspapers in Istanbul, there were 5 French ones. The newspapers aiming to establish democracy were circulating around 12.000 throughout in the new republic. And the foreign press was selling around 4.000. All these mean that the Turkish audience was used to the traditional way of delivering the news and the western type of it at the same time. However, during that time the foreign press was delivering the news around a week later and these had to be discussed in the following week. Although so many people think that women are the neglected part of the society, the press history is full of examples of women as readers and writers. Contrary to the contemporary press, these were highly involved with the women as their main subject. The image of the Turkish Women in Press is characterized as intellectual, publicly involved, socially active and extroverted, open-minded and flexible, modernized enough to cope up with any systematic thought or discussion and critical enough where needed. The basic problem on the side of the women’s literacy was establishing the reading habit and making the press understandable and comprehensible for the women followers. The prejudice and main assumption is that as the women of the time, they read less, react less. (Akgün-Çomak & Öcel, 2012:123-124). Akgün-Çomak and Öcel state that, the image of women in the press was active from the very beginning. Women were not just the subject of the news. They were there as writers, columnists, interpreters, critics, and reporters as early as 1860. And some of them even took place as the chief editors of the newspapers. The newspapers published for the women were also successfully acclaimed by society and approved by all the audience. This was perhaps due to the fact that the literate and socially upper-level people also took part in it such as the daughters of the famous historian Ahmet Cevdet Pasha, Emine 148

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Semiye Hanım, and Fatma Aliye Hanım. The other famous and influential writers such as Halide Salih (Halide Edip Adıvar), Nigar Bint Osman (Nigar Hanım), Selma Servet Seyfi. Apart from the women writers, there were also some male ones also writing under the women pseudonames. Among them, Ahmet Rasim as “Ahmet Rasime & Leyla Feride”, Celal Sahir “Jülide Sahir or Jülide” could be mentioned. Throughout time, the press for women became more, influential, and enriched through different magazines appealing to women only. “Hanımlara Mahsus Gazete”, “Mehasin Mecmuası”, “Süs”, “İnci Mecmuası”, “Hanım Mecmuası”, “Kadın Mecmuası”, “Hanımlar Alemi Mecmuası”, “Kadınlık Duygusu Mecmuası”, “Mürüvvet Mecmuası”, “Demet Mecmuası”, “Bilgi Yurdu Işığı /Bilgi Yurdu Mecmuası”, “Seyyale Mecmuası” were a few to mention(Akgün-Çomak & Öcel, 2012:124). The women audience first wanted to be recognized as a separate identity in the eyes of the media. Thus, from the early ages, the written media developed a nice tailored identity for the females. In Turkey, for example, this was providing them a kind of image of self-sufficient, self-confident identity and putting them into a safe layer. After developing enough audience, then came the active female representatives functioning well in the media. This was important not only to attract the attention of the women into the ‘able’ role models but also to develop a kind of trust and guidance for the developing new society mainly established by the young and motivated generation. This was the other angle of the triangle. The last point was creating the consumer role models, witnessing the efficient use of products, or suggesting better ones. The appeal was such high that the female image in the media sold more than ever especially with the economic freedom of the women. The positioning of women in the society and press, the values attributed to women could be visible. It could even be possible to emphasize the concept in different ways through different media. In countries like Turkey, verbal language plays an important role in shaping the culture, values and traditions. Yet, the media sometimes yield data and provide important perspectives to look back to history and see if there are any changes or not throughout time. Up to the date, when the daily press occurred in the past, having a single aim as just to deliver news, the press never had a concept such as portraying the women’s image or female vs. male images in the media. In its global sense, the female image is seen as an extra value to make the issues more important, effective, convincing, or innocent depending upon the event that occurred. These smooth and elegant appearances would mean a lot for the women as well as men in society. However, the meanings attributed to the press appearances of women changed a lot throughout the time. The women were put into a position of the aggrieved, oppressed, suffering, or victimized more than any other class in the society. The audience thus witnessed more closely how they suffer and victimized through the news in the press. Whereas, specifically in the first half of the 1900s, the woman image was still looked at in clusters requiring the pencil sketches or blurred photos at the beginning of the visual ages they begin to be replaced by photographs of the black and white silhouette. Even at these first occurring’s, the names and the images were handled with great care, not to cause any social outrages. Later on, more sensational photos and scenes would be delivered to the newspapers just to create more audience participation and better sales. The image of women is always questioned in news, specifically in newspapers and the press. In the paper, the global news axis will be considered for focusing on women specifically in disaster news. The reason for that is mainly the selling rate of the newspapers rather than the socializing the women with the news or informing the society about their issues. The Titanic ocean liner sunk in 1912 as a disaster questioned in a global perspective. The event caused many reflections in different countries and in the different press in different ways. The paper concentrates 149

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on the women images portrayed in the global press in 1912 within the framework of the Titanic news and how the women images in different countries reflect their position in society. Following a quantitative and descriptive methodology and analyzing the way of Eastern and Western type of reporting the paper concentrates on the data collected throughout the first pages of the world press concentrating on the news. This study is limited by the number of accessible newspapers of the time (around 20) allocating the specific information as a piece of news in 1912. Since different media at different time clusters puts forward ongoing discussions on the issue into the front pages, the analysis would be limited between 1912 up to the date. Throughout the paper, the image of women in the East and West will be compared and contrasted. How the news is valued and how the women are positioned in the pieces of news would be focused on. Yet, these images were analyzed depending upon the social perspectives as well as the percentage of the media coverage. Even if the event occurred in the West, the world press showed much interest in the disaster for many years all over the world. As the data, the newspaper articles having the Titanic news are classified as the ‘East’ and ‘West’. After a discourse analysis, the texts are classified and evaluated regarding the social classes over the hundreds of photographs to notify the women image. The similarities and differences between the images are analyzed as well as the visualization stage questioning the interleaving concepts such as violence, disaster, and value systems positioning the women in the core. In the study, a specific case is questioned about the Titanic disaster and global images of the world wide newspapers were scanned to filter the image of women of the time to be compared with the female image in the Ottoman time newspapers. In conclusion, this study compares and contrasts the women portrayals of media in the Western and Eastern media. In order to exemplify the difference, the data and interpretations are limited to a specific event and Titanic news was analyzed. Thus the choice of the media reflections in times of crises were analyzed. These narrative reflections provided some fundamental concepts as well as the projected identity of the globalized or localized culture codes. These visual and made up identities were compared and contrasted through the textual discourses as well as the semantic field symbols.

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HOW MEDIA PORTRAYED WOMEN IN EAST AND WEST Media portrayals of women are very important. The women are portrayed as little naïve girls, grown-up daughters of the family, brides, wives, or mothers. They may be portrayed all alone or within a group let it be the friends or workmates, neighbors, etc. The frequency of the portrayals seems to be depending upon the cultural background, function, and respectability of the women. Cultural values had a lot to do with the wording and design of the news and newspapers as much as visual media. The local and global aspects of the narratives and the long-term decision-making processes make it possible when the issue comes to male and female representation. In its global sense, the female image is seen as an attractive component to make the issues more important, effective, convincing, or innocent depending upon the event that occurred. These smooth and elegant appearances would mean a lot for the women as well as men in society. However, the meanings attributed to the press appearances of women changed a lot throughout the time. The women were put into a position of the aggrieved, oppressed, suffering, or victimized more than any other class in the society. The audience thus witnessed more closely how they suffer and victimized through the news in the press.

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 The Difference Between the Western Reflections of Disaster News and Orientalist Perspectives

The press was gaining more attention in the past due to the lack of information and low media literacy rates. Thus, a single newspaper would have the chance of being read by at least 10 or more people, the pictures were examined for minutes, and the news was poured from ear to ear. Representation has a lot to do with the culture, too. Yet it is a very difficult concept to define. Cultural differences might cause different cultures to develop different types of characters or portrayals of women. Also, there seems to be a clear-cut difference between the Western and Eastern types of Women. It is interesting to see that as much Western media stereotypes the Eastern women, the Eastern media does the same for the women of the West. Pembecioğlu (2015) states that the image of western women in Chinese advertisements is widely used. In most cases, it’s been argued that Chinese women feel extremely insecure about their physical appearance so they spend more on cosmetics and changes of appearances more frequently than the western ones. A high number of women attempt to change their physical appearances through aesthetic operations or other interferences just to look like western women. They use soaps or makeup to make their faces look white. Whereas the women of the East would like to resemble Western women, the Easterners are portrayed in the media in many different ways. For example, it’s always been a question of how Eastern women were portrayed in Western films. East Asian women have been portrayed as aggressive or opportunistic sexual beings or predatory gold diggers using their feminine wiles (Tajima, 1989). Western film and literature have continually stereotyped East Asian women as cunning “Dragon Ladies”. This stereotype invokes others within the same orientalist repertoire: “Lotus Blossom Babies”, “China dolls”, “Geisha girls”, “War brides”, etc. To Sue et.al., (2007) this attention has led to the idea that orientalist stereotyping is a specific form of racial microaggression against women of East Asian descent. For example, while the beauty of Asian American women has been exoticized, Asian American women have been stereotyped as submissive in the process of sexual objectification. Kim, (1984) argues that in the 1980s that the stereotype of East Asian women as submissive has impeded their economic mobility. Another typical Eastern women stereotype frequently used in the western world is the Tiger mother type reappearing after 2011 specifically. Depending upon the Confucian child-rearing techniques mainly, the parenting style refers to a strict or demanding mother who pushes her children to high levels of scholastic and academic achievement. This notion of being a tiger mother is also linked to the Asian stereotype of being more left-brained and proficient in math and sciences. However, if ever the Ottoman press has a representation function as the Orientalist approach, the image of women on that side was totally different. Having the women writers from the very beginning of the press history of Turkey was a contributing factor to establish a group of women, thinking, evaluating, criticizing, and researching. The writing club was full of enthusiastic followers, academicians, brilliant, and socially effective women. The women as the audience in those years were also having a nice, literate, wise, and interactive group mainly contributed to the image of working women (Terakki Muhadarat Gazetesi, 1869:5) Women’s letters having reflections were also published in the newspapers (Terakki Muhadarat Gazetesi, 1869:3). Soon, most of the newspapers had either a page for the female audience or covered the reflections of the women audience through sent letters, columns, critics, etc. The newspapers giving special attention to the women audience could be summarized as Terakki Muhadarat, Vakit, Mürebb-i Mukadderat, Aile, İnsaniyet, Hanımlar, Mürüvvet, Hanımlara Mahsus Gazete, Mehasin, Kadın Alem-i Nisvan, Kadınlık. This also helped the language to be more sensitive and less elaborative. Having more letters and reflections from the females, the female audience also increased the tendency of being responsive and having better use of time, attending to university and targeting the upper levels of the government and society. The audience could also form the expectations from the press in an open way (Terakki Muhadarat Gazetesi,1869: 104) The trouble with the language was that 151

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the Ottoman language was full of Arabic and Persian vocabulary requiring a higher level of education. This was the main problem of the female audience of the time. Regarding the topics, the letters to the editors could vary from the travel in the city to the appropriate behaviors in society. They frequently mention the importance of having a female part of the press as an influential point for the young generation especially for female literacy and higher education (Diyojen, 1871: 176).

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MAIN FOCUS OF THE CHAPTER Titanic was one of the utopias of the century when it was built when all the tickets were sold out and when it first left the port of Southampton for New York. For many people it meant different things. To some, it was the way of luxury for the high class people, but to some others, it was the new continent, new life and new expectations. The news about her was all around the world. East and West were publishing news about it as there were also 6 Ottoman passengers in it. Yet, a total of 2,208 people sailed on the maiden voyage of the RMS Titanic, the second of the White Star Line’s Olympic-class ocean liners, from Southampton to New York. The exact number of people aboard is an estimated figure. Because, not all of those who had booked tickets made it to the ship; about 50 people canceled for various reasons, and not all of those who boarded stayed aboard for the entire journey (Eaton & Haas, 1995). The main aim of this study is to put forward how the positioning of women in the past took place specifically in the case of Titanic news on the press of the time. The paper questions the similarities and differences of handling women in news comparing and contrasting the western journalism of the time and Ottoman press coverage. Concentrating on the images of the past and how these images were used as well as the reflections of the audience the study aims to put forward the values attributed to women in the past. This kind of diachronic approach reveals the fact that women were given importance in society. Their suffering reflected in the press was considered to be the main suffers of the society not as the pseudo reflections of the past. The research aims to evaluate the discourse level of the reflections of the past regarding women’s representations if they were placed in the front page or not. It also aims to evaluate the impact of this reflection in modern times. The research is believed to unveil many different perspectives on being a woman in Turkey in the modern ages. The data is collected mainly concentrating on the special case chosen, the sink of the Titanic, and aims to find out how this foreign-based news is covered in the newspapers of the Ottoman time. The content analysis of the data would also be analyzed regarding the image of women. In the paper, the global news axis will be considered for focusing on women specifically in disaster news. The image of women is always questioned in news, specifically in newspapers, press. The reason for that is mainly the selling rate of the newspapers rather than the socializing the women with the news or informing the society about their issues. Throughout the paper, the image of women in the East and West will be compared and contrasted. How the news is valued and how the women are positioned in the piece of news would be focused on. The paper concentrates on the women images portrayed in the global press in 1912 within the framework of the Titanic news and how the women images in different countries reflect their position in society. The Titanic ocean liner sunk in 1912 as a disaster questioned in a global perspective. The event caused many reflections in different countries and in the different press in different ways. The paper concentrates on the data collected throughout the first pages of the world press concentrating on the news. This study is limited to the number of accessible newspapers of the time (around 20) allocating the specific informa152

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tion as a piece of news in 1912. Since different media at different time clusters puts forward ongoing discussions on the issue into the front pages, the analysis would be limited between 1912 up to the date. These images were analyzed depending upon the social perspectives as well as the percentage of the media coverage. Even if the event occurred in the West, the world press showed much interest in the disaster for many years. As the data, the newspaper articles having the Titanic news are classified as the ‘East’ and ‘West’. After a discourse analysis, the texts are classified and evaluated regarding the social classes over the hundreds of photographs to notify the women image. The similarities and differences between the images are analyzed as well as the visualization stage questioning the interleaving concepts such as violence, disaster, and value systems positioning the women in the core. In the study, a specific case is questioned about the Titanic disaster and global images of the worldwide newspapers were scanned to filter the image of women of the time to be compared with the female image in the Ottoman time newspapers.

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ANALYSIS OF THE TITANIC NEWS AND WOMEN PORTRAYALS It is important to understand why the pictures are important in newspapers. Objects pictured may be factual or fictional, literal or metaphorical, realistic or idealized, and in various combinations. The idealized depiction is also termed schematic or stylized and extends to icons, diagrams, and maps. Classes or styles of the picture may abstract their objects by degrees, conversely, establish degrees of the concrete (usually called, a little confusingly, figuration or figurative, since the ‘figurative’ is then often quite literal). Stylization can lead to the fully abstract picture, where reference is only to conditions for a picture plane – a severe exercise in self-reference and ultimately a sub-set of the pattern. But just how pictures function remains controversial. Philosophers, art historians and critics, perceptual psychologists, and other researchers in the arts and social sciences have contributed to the debate and many of the most influential contributions have been interdisciplinary. Some key positions are briefly surveyed below. Powell (1997:15) defines culture as “the sum total of ways of living, including values, beliefs, aesthetic standards, linguistic expression, and patterns of thinking, behavioral norms, and styles of communication, which a group of people has developed to assure its survival in a particular physical and human environment”. Additionally, Powell points out that cultures are not static entities because of the interaction that takes place between cultures and the people who part of them. Geertz’s symbolic anthropology considered culture to be a system of interacting symbols and meanings that continually influence one another (Geertz, 1973). It might be possible to state that having the same or similar values for more than a century, the societies position or condition themselves in the media messages disseminated. In the past, when the aim was only to disseminate the news, concepts such as the image of women was out of the question. When the local and global perspective and the long- term decision making processes of these narratives are evaluated, it is seen that the male and female images of the narratives are not ordinary. Globally, the image of “she” is much more important than the male one. This female type of representation brings a more important, effective, persuasive, or innocent dimension to the incident. These soft and elegant looks mean a lot not only to women but also to society. Still, we see that the representation of women in the press has changed and changed over time. At present, more victims, the oppressed, suffering, or victimization takes place more.

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Within the framework of this study, the concept of ‘women’ is dealt with especially in the context of disaster news of Titanic. The study aims to question the image of women in the press, especially the image of women in newspapers. The reason for this is that, beyond the positioning of women in the social environment, it is the media informing women about social events too. The presence of women in newspapers generally stems from society. That means, society is aware of women and cares about what happened to women, and that’s why they buy the newspaper. In disaster news, in tımes of crisis, there could be billions of details to make news about. Which of them are carried up to the front page most has to do with the publication policies and the cultural tolerance levels. The other details seem to be minor or trivial to them. Yet, another newspaper prefers to put the news among the others instead of sparing a whole page for it. That also could be interpreted as the minimizing of the event of the century.

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Figure 1. New York American, The New York Times, The New York Herald, The Evening Sun

The newspapers of the past were reaching millions of people at that time. Of course there was the radio as the main news center. However people would like to buy a newspaper just to visualize what has happened. As it could be exemplified in the New York American newspaper headline, this type of page coverage seems to be giving more importance to the numbers of the lost and equally to the image of titanic. Here, human life seems to be valued more than anything else, however, they are seen as a big bunch of people, rather than the individuals, degraded into the numbers only. There is also a class distinction mentioned by the name J.J. Astor who was the richest passenger aboard the RMS Titanic and was thought to be among the richest people in the world at that time with a net worth of roughly $87 million when he died (equivalent to $2.3 billion in 2019). The New York Times paging did not make use of the famous image of Titanic. Instead it presented the names of the people who have lost their lives and only some of them were in the album of the great loss. The New York Herald on the other hand, made use of the pictures more than words. Here the two women were given much more importance than the others. Their size of photograph is visible as much as titanic itself. They perhaps want to emphasize that the ship is also “a female character” and all those females lost their lives now! One other thing they do is just mention the children. Apart from the other newspaper, they were concentrating on children for the first time. The Evening Sun, prefers to be more serious and instead of the passengers it makes use of the captain as the highest official responsible authority of the vehicle. This newspaper chose to report not on the accident, the passengers who were rescued and safe.

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Figure 2. The News Leader, The Washington Times, The Daily Mirror, The Times Dispatch

The News Leader preferred to put the lines on the side columns positioned the huge boat in the middle of the other news. That means it was not a whole front page value for the newspaper editors at that time. However, the paging of the photos covers around 2/3 of the news. It is interesting to have all the male photos on the same page in The Washington Times as if it’s just a men’s world. It also talks about the committee question regarding the sink of the unsinkable ship proposing revising the records and testifies as well as calling them a general ignorance causing the disaster. Whether due to the importance given to the crew or the scarcity of the number of the women in occasion this newspaper provided more of a man’s world. It might be interpreted that the females have nothing to do with the serious topics, even if their pictures cannot stand there. The Daily Mirror published all the names of the passengers and uses a smaller photo of the boat compared to the other newspapers. One other novelty they apply was just colouring the issue to sound like an old one in the past. The Times Dispatch on the other hand concentrates on the number of the survivors rather than the lost ones. One other thing is that the newspaper concentrates not on rumors but on the first-hand truth that they got it all from the new arriving Carpatia carrying the saved passengers of Titanic. Apart from these, The Daily Mail for example preferred not publish any photographs.

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Figure 3. Titanic Was A Huge Mystical Element

In many languages a boat is referred as a female. Thus, when the percentage between the male and female representations are considered, the representation of the female would be more even if the number of the female passengers were less. However, some newspapers wanted to emphasize the importance of ‘she’ as the Titanic and solely put it onto their front cover or keep it for the latest edition. This could be regarded as a kind of mourning or perhaps a last farewell to Titanic. The New York Times issue covering the 1/3 of it with the Titanic photo is actually exhibiting the beauty of a female. As for the newspaper readers might need to see some pictures to imagine the size of the accident the headlines carry big size

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photos to help the understanding and visualization. Sometimes they even try to compare and contrast it with the panoramic view of Big Ben and House of Parliament. This might be interpreted as the kind of a beauty contests and the audience is comparing and contrasting the degree of her beauty with the queen’s beauty. This newspaper was providing another perspective comparing it with the house of parliament and other monuments to put it into a more solid ground to provide the audience a better understanding.

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Figure 4. Titanic In Ottoman Headlines

There were so many different Ottoman newspapers of the time, yet, not each of them were concentrating on the foreign affairs. It was mostly due to the density of the local and national agenda and partly was stemming from the practical lack of substructure or technology in those days. The foreign press in the country was already delivering the foreign news around a week later and these had to be discussed in the following week. Under all conditions, the quick transfer of the news to Ottoman was attributed to the specialty of the news. On 19 April 1328 Servet-i Fünun for example the headline was “Titanic Ferry Crash” It was followed by two sentences. “In the Titanic Ship crash, many people from England and America’s most elegant families on their way to America perished. In this context, it has been verified that the billionaire Miralay Astor, one of the most famous names in the world, has lost and perished.” Here the content seems to be a twofold one, as the first one is Titanic and the other one is the loss of Astor. It seems that both equally were important to the audience. On a later issue the newspaper follows “Until now, there had been no marine accident that caused such perseverance losses to people and property. Many cruise and naval construction companies and marine engineers will be investigating what caused such a massive marine accident to occur, with the all-around perfect (Titanic) ship sinking so sadly. They will be concerned about the issue for a long time to decide whether this is a terror event or an accident. This terrible accident on the shores of the New World is an event of international significance. Thousands of families have been mourning in Europe and America and many people have been mourning. It is interesting that the newspaper has another issue the same day, probably in the evening issue due to the cruel situation. 19 April 1328 Servet-i Fünun issue puts the same headline as “Titanic Ferry Crash” and continues the news “On the evening of the fourteenth Sunday of April, the industrial wonder (Titanic), submerged. Unfortunately, after the collision with an iceberg, only a small amount of the passengers and crew are saved. The whole ferry, with all its valuable goods, and even the postal bags and the precious belongings of the passengers were sunk by the stern. Due to the collision of the world’s largest ship with an iceberg, there has been great damage and loss of all times in maritime lines, which has not been encountered in history until now.” In order to visualize it they put a huge iceberg and a half seen Titanic to demonstrate the size of the accident.

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Figure 5. Titanic Image In Popular Culture

April 20, 1912 Tanin: “Titanic Disaster” is reported as follows: “Telegrams have been giving a lot of information about a great disaster for a few days. The news given so far was gathered here and here, but it was still in a state that could show the severity and degree of the disaster that occurred. European newspapers, which received the latest mail, describe the “Titanic Disaster” with all its vain.” 25 April 1912 Vazife: The “Titanic Steamer”, the largest steamboat of the White Star Line Company to operate between England and America, sank by an iceberg. Out of the 2490 passengers in it, only 868 survived. First of all, saving women and children has the force of law on British ships, and women constitute the largest portion of this amount. Even weeks later the event, the newspapers were still publishing the new arriving stories, the narratives of the first hand ones through the saved passengers. May 4, 1912 Vazife mentions Titanic with the title “Chief Orchestra of the Titanic Ferry”. It transfers the story of the orchestra of the Titanic. “The conductor orchestra of the Titanic Ferry has been on the ships operating on the Europe-America line for many years. It was on Mauritania, the world’s largest ship, before the Titanic. He was convinced that one day he would die to the sea. One of his friends reports an interview with him regarding this idea: - Old friend, what would you do if you accidentally find yourself on a ship in such an accident one day? - Immediately I gather my entourage together and make them play their instruments to give the last concert.. -Which tunes, which type of music? -The most favorite Protestant song “I am very close to you, O my Lord!” suits the mood.

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Figure 6. Titanic Image In Comedy Films Mocking The Tragedy

Here is what Titanic’s old man and the conductor of the orchestra called it. He chanted as he planned and until half of his body is submerged in water, he played “I am very close to you, O Lord!

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Figure 7. Titanic as a toy, an accessory or cards to enjoy the family

Figure 8. Board games and puzzles for the family

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Not much heard of it after the accident. Because most of the stories were coming through the foreign press and the bilingual of those times living in İstanbul were spreading the news even before it’s been published. The publication of the newspapers were enduring much of the financial suffers and they could only publish limited issues for the subscribers. Due to the research and endless conspiracy theories about it, Titanic always occupied its own agenda. For many years, the stories of the saved ones the stories of the pretended to be saved were all told. Many people put their stories into films, audio and video recordings. But none of them were as famous as the Cameron’s story. Thus, the tragedy were not remembered as the event where hundreds were lost their lives and went into the ice cold sea. The thing remembered was the love story behind it. So the audience heard about it more. The more Titanic became an item in Popular Culture the more movies appeared. These movies turned to be humorous and mocking films in times. Professional or amateur documentaries, books, songs and poetry contributed to the agenda of Titanic. Much of these could be considered for adult due to the tragedy underlined. Yet, there occur the video games, toys, babies, model ship and accessories as ornamental items leek into the lives of the modern people.

Figure 9. Titanic Version of Barbie Babies and Titanic Adventure

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Titanic and the concept that it was lost might be a traumatic one. Perhaps that’s why the people were trying to involve some others into this extremely unique event. Thus, there occur more for the families to enjoy a board game with their kids. Or, here is the deck of cards to play with a friend. A lego set to build the whole ship again admiring the design building a slip. The most interesting ones perhaps are the Barbie babies with the crimson overgrown waiting to be rescued from the sinking Titanic. One other thing is the computer game in which you are stuck in Titanic and try to save your life and as many other rescuers as possible. There are even the ice molds when you feel hot, or blankets with Titanic inscriptions or teddy bears for clinging in difficult situations. Young couples get married with the Titanic theme and Titanic images were applied as marriage decors or the largest ball rooms of the chic hotels named after Titanic. Not only the hotels, but also the touristic attractions, honeymoon suits, and even the hospitals are named after Titanic. This post truth type of valuing and entertainment brings a kind of luxury into lives of the customers. And they perhaps would like to get the feeling of a survivor. People several times wanted to sell the tickets of all Titaniclike cruises. Titanic II is also planned as an ocean liner intended to be a functional modern-day replica of the Olympic-class RMS Titanic. The tickets are thought to be sold already for the 2022 voyage. Even if it were the imitation or pseudo – Titanic, people really urge to be there, longing to understand how it would feel. Figure 10 shows a Titanic theme park and restaurant in the form of a shipboard. Searched in Google, there could be more than 26.700.000 Titanic Restaurants each having similar designs to serve their customers. It is incredible that these are the places to be met, eat outside and enjoy the time. Thus, it could be argued that people are still wondering how it could feel to be in such an atmosphere.

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Figure 10. Titanic Theme Park, Restaurant and Shipboard

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS Regarding all the information pointing out the popularity of Titanic proves that there need to be many other occasions to search for the reflections of Titanic. Not only could the portrayals of the women but also the children be analyzed. One other thing emphasized in the Titanic news is the class distinction between the known families and the unknown families. The press paid some special attention to the rescued passengers of the Titanic. They were found, interviewed and some were frequently mentioned

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in the news. It could be interesting how people lead different lives even if they were in the same boat once upon a time. Regarding the future research directions, the more newspapers of the old times the better it could be formulated that there are not many differences between the Eastern and Western types of reporting disaster news. Other disaster news could be handled and searched dwelling on how different cultures handle the same news. When the Covid-19 news considered in the 21st century, at least it could be said that they are almost uniformed. The East or West really look like each other, making all the cultures alert. The more digital copies of the local, regional or national papers could be found and analyzed. Yet, the concentration point wouldn’t change that much. The news-making strategies of the past East and West were not that much different either. However, slicing the news to give way to the first-hand stories made it a long way for the audience. Thus, they talked more of the event. Yet, the continuity of the stories due to the lack of enough communication substructure of the time wouldn’t be handicap anymore. However, it is not the news sliced in the modern age, it’s the number of the items and concepts associated with the image of Titanic. The materialistic values seem to be gaining more importance even if the event is more than tragic. With the help of the 3D printers or new types of cruises, people still die for being in the original Titanic. Perhaps, with virtual reality or augmented reality people would love to get the feeling of being there. Digital twinning ideas might provide new settings for the smart designs of the future. Yet, something is clear that people will always be remembering the giant unsinkable Titanic of those times.

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CONCLUSION Understanding the nature of the emergency situation may take time and making news about the overall event needs to be depending upon the shreds of evidence and fact checks. Thus, the far end of the world where the Titanic collides with the iceberg was so isolated that there were limited chances of taking actual photos. If the event took place today in somewhere the whole media could serve millions of photos from the accident area. Yet, in those days the access was limited due to special circumstances. This was not only due to the farness of the event but also the full agenda of the world. In the very same days, Turkish soldiers were fighting with the Russian, French and British soldiers including New Zealanders, Australians, and even Indians. So, the number of newspaper readerships was high and the national agenda was full of minute detail. The international agenda was arriving a few days delayed yet, it was also followed closely. The positioning of women in the newspapers of the time was usually following international pagination. In sea disasters, there has always been the rule of “women and children first”. The news of the time gives the impression that the newspapers of the time didn’t feel the need of making specialized news about the occurrence. The women’s photos serviced by the press usually belong to those who were rich and well-known people from the first class, not of the poor and unknown, second class ones. In the East and West, the same mentality served the broadcasting policy. And, taking the Ottomans as the representative of the East might even be wrong because there were so many foreign press representatives in the country yet, there were so many Ottoman journalists in abroad as well. Figuring out how the Titanic news found their way in the past and what were the main dynamics of the news-making in the past is not an easy thing we could handle at the moment. The decision making process as well as the cultural limits were some of the main reasons. The substructure, technical quality 160

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 The Difference Between the Western Reflections of Disaster News and Orientalist Perspectives

or the concept of journalism of those times were all different. It would be just dwelling on the possibilities and interpretations why a certain piece of news is delivered in that way but not in another way; why this picture is chosen but not the other. The time line of the event and the recurring news about Titanic symbolizes that the disasters such as Titanic are timeless. Even if it’s more than a century after the Titanic disaster, the media still makes use of it through different occasions and provides consumption chances to the audience. Here, the western media and entrepreneurs could be blamed to be concentrating more on the consumerism side of the concept, and profiteering the issue. However, it could also be the demand stemming from the audience. An example could be drawn from Turkey having many restaurants, clubs, ball rooms of the hotels and wedding themes specifically designed due to the huge demand from the customers. As the Eastern part of the world, Turkey has nothing to do with the Titanic disaster, however, we have many hospitals and hotels named after Titanic as well. This might be accepted as a kind of paying attention or showing the respect or simply valuing it. People in those times couldn’t believe that such a thing had happened and they wanted to make the name live longer at least. So, becoming a part of the popular culture, nobody remembers the sad side of the story but the still surviving part brings an extra joy to the concept. Rehman (1993) states that mass communication plays a key role in global understanding. In some respects, the media makes a very constructive contribution by presenting sympathetic and accurate depictions and images of distant places and people. According to the writer, more people in the “first world” move away or give up geocentrism and ethnocentrism (Rehman, 1993). When we look at the articles from the newspapers of the time, it is seen that the presentation and visualization of the Titanic accident in the Ottoman press was carried out with extremely humanistic concepts. The choice of the words, the structure of it still make the audience touched by the event. However, in the texts mentioned, it is been figured out that there are concepts such as us and them, that is, there is a line between East and West. It could be stemming from the far distance of the occurrence or it may be due to the awareness of the difference between the East and West. Differences in the perception of the world by the East and the West have been the subject of many studies. Research experiments reveal that Western people always focus on the name or object, whereas Eastern people focus on predicates and actions. This assumption could easily be seen in the newspapers. Mentioning the names and economic side of the situation etc, seems to be a Western approach to the event. In an experiment motherhood activities of Eastern and Western mothers were recorded and analyzed. The findings prove that unlike Eastern mothers, Western mothers always try to make their children memorize the names or objects. However, Eastern mothers emphasize the predicates and actions of their children. According to Bueno, Westerners always focus on the central things or the main object, whereas the Easterners focus on the background of the object and its environment. Westerners (American, European) looking at the same picture focused on the main object in the picture and talked about the central object instead of the background (Bueno, 2012). Yet, specifically in the case of Titanic, these findings couldn’t be proved directly because the journalism of the time was just like Chinese whispers, pouring information from one ear to another. There, in the Ottoman time, most probably all the data regarding the shipwreck and the accident were taken from foreign sources thus, there could be no uniqueness to be attributed to the Eastern evolving or Orientalist stereotypes. However, regarding the other Western originated news, there seems to be always a compare and contrast situation such comparing Titanic with the Parliament House or comparing the richness of dead men, etc. Concentrating more on the naming part seems to be turned into labeling in the Western world and teaching of the objects turned to be the materialistic values to gain nice profits. 161

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Bueno explains that in another experiment, children from Eastern and Western countries were asked to draw houses. Western children focused on the interior of the house and drew the interior of the house. However, Eastern children focused on their home from outside and drew how their house look like from the outside. The results of the experiments revealed show that Eastern children focus on what others think and feel about their home and how others view his home. It has been revealed that Westerners focus on themselves regardless of the opinions of others about their homes. As can be inferred from this, Western people have an “insider perspective”, that is, they see things from the speaker’s perspective, whereas Orientals have an “outsider perspective”, that is, they see themselves from the perspective of others. Westerners with an insider view focus on what they think and feel. Therefore, they believe that others feel the same, which is referred to as the “Egocentric Projection”. On the other hand, Orientals with an outward-looking perspective focus on what others think and feel. They try to imagine how others feel and think about themselves, which is referred to as “Relational Projection” (Bueno, 2012). Basically, this seems to be true in the case of reporting about the Titanic disaster since it’s got nothing to do with the Ottomans at that time, it might be referred to as the relational projection. The newspapers prove how sad the event was and they felt really sorry about the number of people losing their lives or losing all their money etc. It brought a kind of identification with the people in difficult times, considering the despair and helplessness of the situation. In conclusion, apart from the aforementioned things, there seems to be not much difference between Western journalism and Eastern journalism of the time specifically portraying women in newspapers regarding the Titanic case. One main reason here lies where the news was taken. The Western originated news could not be changed much when it comes to Ottoman’s journalism of that time. However, in Ottoman journalism history there seems to be no distinction between East and West because they believe that they are in both, having most of the Balkans, their borders reach to the midst of Europe. Thus, the type of journalism might not be classified as Eastern journalism taking its roots only from Eastern traditions, values, etc. One other factor is that the journalists on the way to follow liberation and freedom already occupy journalism positions abroad and vice versa, there seem to be too many foreign originated journalists in Ottoman’s fields. Thus, there seems to be no distinction between the reflections or portrayals of the women. They seem to be extremely sensitive about the women portrayals and the content of the news. Referring back to those days this could also be accepted as an example of good journalism.

REFERENCES

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Akgün-Çomak, N. & Öcel, N. (2000). Türk Basınında Kadın. İstanbul Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Hakemli Dergisi, 10. Baykal, H. (1990). Türk Basın Tarihi: 1831 – 1923. Afa Matbaacılık. Bueno, C. R. (2012). West and East, Cultural Differences. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=ZoDtoB9Abck&t=611s Daalmans, S., Kleemans, M., & Sadza, A. (2017). Gender representation on gender-targeted television channels: A comparison of female-and male-targeted TV channels in the Netherlands. Sex Roles, 77(56), 366–378. doi:10.100711199-016-0727-6 PMID:28845082 Diyojen, İstanbul, 1287/1871, N. 176, p.3 (Bir Hanım İmzasıyla Aldığımız Varakadır)

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Eaton, J. P., & Haas, C. A. (1995). Titanic, triumph and tragedy. WW Norton & Company. Terakki Gazetesi, İstanbul, 1285 /1869, n.85, p.3 (Terakki) Terakki Gazetesi, İstanbul, 1285/1869, n.85, p.5 (Bir Hanım Tarafından Aldığımız Varakanın Suretidir.) Geertz, C. (1973). The interpretation of cultures (Vol. 5019). Basic Books. Kim, E. (1984). Asian American writers: A bibliographical review. American Studies International, 22(2), 41–78. Koloğlu, O. (1994). Osmanlı’dan Günümüze Türkiye’de Basın. İletişim Yayınları. Pembecioğlu, N. (2015). The Image of The Western Women in Chinese Advertisements. 4th Annual International Conference On Journalism & Mass Communications (JMComm 2015), Singapore. Powell, R. J. (1997). Black art and culture in the 20th century. Thames & Hudson. Rehman, S. N. (1993). The role of media in cross-cultural communication. Intercultural Communication Studies, 15–21. Sue, D. W., Bucceri, J., Lin, A. I., Nadal, K. L., & Torino, G. C. (2007). Racial microaggressions and the Asian American experience. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 13(1), 72–81. doi:10.1037/1099-9809.13.1.72 PMID:17227179 Tajima, R. (1989). Lotus blossoms don’t bleed: Images of Asian women., Asian Women United of California’s Making waves: An anthology of writings by and about Asian American women. Beacon Press. Terakki Muhadarat Gazetesi. İstanbul, 1285/1869 n.104, p.3-4 (Üç Hanım İmzasıyla Matbuamıza Varaka) Terakki Muhadarat Gazetesi, İstanbul, 1285/1869 n.3, p.3 (Belkıs Hanım İmzasıyla Gelen Varakadır) Terakki Muhadarat Gazetesi, İstanbul, 1285/1869 n.3, p.3 (Belkıs Hanım İmzasıyla Gelen Varakadır) Terakki Muhadarat Gazetesi, İstanbul, 1285/1869 n.5, p.5 (Faika Hanım İmzasıyla Gelen Varakadır) Topuz, H. (1973). 100 Soruda Türk Basın Tarihi. Gerçek Yayınevi. Topuz, H. (2003). II. Mahmut’tan Holdinglere Türk Basın Tarihi. Remzi Kitapevi.

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ADDITIONAL READING Frey, B. S., Savage, D. A., & Torgler, B. (2011). Behavior under Extreme Conditions: The Titanic Disaster. The Journal of Economic Perspectives, 25(1), 209–221. doi:10.1257/jep.25.1.209 Frey, B. S., Savage, D. A., & Torgler, B. (2011). Who perished on the Titanic? The importance of social norms. Rationality and Society, 23(1), 35–49. doi:10.1177/1043463110396059 Hines, S. (2011). Titanic: One Newspaper, Seven Days, and the Truth that Shocked the World. Sourcebooks, Inc.

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Larabee, A. E. (1990). The American hero and his mechanical bride: Gender myths of the Titanic disaster. American Studies (Lawrence, Kan.), 5–23. Preston, P. (2008). Making the news: Journalism and news cultures in Europe. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203888599 Steeves, H. L. (1987). Feminist theories and media studies. Critical Studies in Media Communication, 4(2), 95–135.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Balance: In its artistic or aesthetic sense, balance is the feeling of the layout being evenly distributed across the page. It is analogous to the physics sense of balance, in which each of the page elements can be thought of as having weight (virtually identical to its weight in the visual hierarchy), and the “torque” created by each weight and its distance from the center of the page should sum to zero. Balance can be achieved passively, through symmetry and the even arrangement of elements (which is easier but often seen as dull), or dynamically, by arranging very different elements in different spacing, but still arriving at balance. In journalism, the rate of the information and interpretation or the proportion of the written part and the visual part are expected to be in balance. Depiction: It is reference conveyed through pictures. What the image yields as a part of the message carried by the visual. Headline/Heading: It is the text indicating the nature of the article below it. A headline’s purpose is to quickly and briefly draw attention to the story. It is generally written by a copy editor, but may also be written by the writer, the page layout designer, or other editors. Niche: It is a specialized segment of the market for a particular kind of product or service. It implies a specific placement or positioning of the consumer and rates those as high valued ones. Representation: It is the use of signs that stand in for and take the place of something else. It is through representation that people organize the world and reality through the act of naming its elements. Signs are arranged in order to form semantic constructions and express relations. Titanic: RMS Titanic was a British passenger liner operated by the White Star Line that sank in the North Atlantic Ocean on 15 April 1912, after striking an iceberg during her maiden voyage from Southampton to New York City. Of the estimated 2,224 passengers and crew aboard, exactly 1496 died, making the sinking at the time the deadliest of a single ship in the West. Tolerance: It is the state of understanding and tolerating, or putting up with, conditionally. Victimization: It is the process of being victimized or becoming a victim. The field that studies the process, rates, incidence, effects, and prevalence of victimization is called victimology. Women Television Channels: These channels aim to broadcast music videos and films specifically for women.

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Chapter 10

Aguirre, Caché, and Creating Anti-Colonialist Puzzles: A Normative Perspective Yusuf Yüksekdağ https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2867-1212 Istanbul Bilgi University, Turkey

ABSTRACT This chapter explores the anti-colonial narrative potential of certain works of cinema taking Aguirre, the Wrath of God and Caché as a case in point. To do so, this chapter frst and draws upon the theoretical and normative lens put forward by Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak on the representation of the colonized other and her resulting political and intellectual call for self-refection on one’s privileged Western intellectual positioning. This lens has many normative implications for the ways in which the colonized subject and colonial history are discussed and represented. The partial lack of representation of the colonized other in Aguirre, the Wrath of God leaves the subjectivity of the colonizer in crisis and madness. Second, the narrative of Caché is explored and it is suggested that it resembles the rhetoric of Foucauldian disciplinary power of surveillance turned upside-down thus enforcing the complicit of colonialism to question her privilege.

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INTRODUCTION In this chapter, two particular ways are offered and explored in which the historically dominant and othering discourse towards the other are questioned via the narrative of a work of cinema. In other words, this chapter assigns an anti-colonialist narrative potential to certain works of cinema. One particular way that is offered is the intentional lack of representation of the other as a subjectmatter; leaving the colonialist protagonists without any material in the script, which otherwise can produce a justificatory set of knowledge for their conquest. It is this very dialectic process where the colonial power or the empire defines itself as superior in relation or in opposition to what the other is and vice versa (Spivak, 1985; Spivak, 1988; Said, 1978). Notably, the othering is not only about colonial DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch010

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 Aguirre, Caché, and Creating Anti-Colonialist Puzzles

or imperial forces defining and ascribing certain characteristics or norms to the people of distant lands, and acknowledging them as ‘truly’ the other (Ashcroft et al., 1998). It is also about defining itself, one’s characteristics and norms as universal; creating a (superior) subjectivity on the basis of and in contrast to what the other is assumed to do or be. The very question of representation of the other should then be subject to a well-warranted scrutiny in any intellectual endeavor including the works of cinema – especially considering the recent progressive turn in media industries accommodating a higher degree of cultural diversity in production, narration, and casting (Gonzalez-Sobrino et al., 2018.). Aguirre, the Wrath of God (1972) is an exemplary movie, which has such a narrative that goes to the point of ridiculing the colonial state of mind, whose othering practices fail throughout the movie. Such practices throughout the script seem to fail, in particular, due to partial lack of representation of the other. In the end, Aguirre, the Wrath of God seems to point to the madness of the colonialist state of mind when faced only with itself. The second anti-colonialist puzzle is turning the historically dominant and othering gaze upside down. Caché (2005) accommodates such a narrative, resembling the Foucauldian disciplinary power of surveillance conducted rather on the privileged, enforcing to question one’s own privileged positionalities (Foucault, 2012; Winokur, 2003). While Caché’s narrative has been analyzed in relation to its debate on colonialism and its prospective features for the age of surveillance, such a normative questioning has not warranted much attention (Celik, 2010; Herzog, 2010; Levin, 2010). Movie narratives featuring a critical or even emancipatory prospect warrant a normative assessment as such, so their interpretative prospects are better comprehended and evaluated in respect to relevant philosophical and normative perspectives. Such a normative outlook is one of the gaps in media studies that would highlight and scrutinize such emancipatory narratives in the works of cinema. In addition, while there are many discussions on Aguirre, the Wrath of God and Caché and their exposure of colonialism, they have not drawn much attention in regard to their anti-colonialist narrative potential. As well as the contemporary forms of orientalist and othering discourses in different media outputs, the movie narratives on underprivileged groups, inner workings of privilege, colonial history and the Western subject deserve a critical analysis especially now when many media formats claim to provide non-discriminatory or even progressive representations of minority groups, racial politics and whiteness (Hughey & González-Lesser, 2020). With the proposed normative and anti-colonialist outlook, this chapter aims to complement many media discourses and representation studies offered in this edited contribution. This chapter has three parts. The first part introduces Spivak’s discussion on the representation and making of the other, and later briefly the Foucauldian debate on the use of disciplinary power. The second part explores the anti-colonialist prospect of narratives in movies, and then focuses on Aguirre, the Wrath of God and Caché against the backdrop of the theoretical debate in the first part thus delineating the ways in which both movies have an anti-colonialist narrative. Methodologically, a simple narrative structure analysis is used with a focus on rhetorical features in the movies. The former, Aguirre, arguably, works to the extent of making the practice of othering impossible and has implications for conclusions about the madness of the colonial state of mind. The latter, Caché, focuses on the already-othered subjects, in the form of the French treatment of Algerians. Caché offers a narrative in which once the privileged is subjected to the disciplinary power of surveillance, she starts questioning its past and guilt in the effects of colonialism and one’s personal part in it. The last part provides a short discussion on the prospects of analyzing movies with such a normative lens.

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REPRESENTING/MAKING AND DISCIPLINING THE OTHER With the increasing diversity of productions and post-TV production, comes the call for diversity in representation of otherwise vulnerable or minority groups, and also the inclusion of non-Western productions in collaboration. While this is an important development, still present is the concern about how representation of the other and more specifically of the colonized other might be vulnerable to being subjected to dominant and mostly Western schools of thought in processes of production, narration, and casting. In addition, as in any interpretative and constitutive moments of meaning-making, there is a potential of dominant interpretations for the Western audiences despite the prospect of any media output for resistance to dominant meanings and norms (Hall, 1989). Even the allegedly anti-colonialist perspectives representing a certain other, or trying to speak for marginalized groups might run into the problem of contextualizing the understanding of the other as homogenous and more importantly as designated by Western perspectives and assumptions. Any anticolonialist narrative then encounters the problem of representation as such. Especially when it comes to the question of representation of the other not simply as a descriptive text but as an imaginative endeavor, there comes the risk of propagating and reproducing othering practices and discourses. This goes not only for cinematic representations per se, nor a matter of dutiful representation, but it is of an ultimate issue of epistemology of representation as Spivak (1988) discusses in her seminal critique “Can the Subaltern Speak?”. The term subaltern can be conceptualized as a subset of the other that emphasizes the subalternity of some groups i.e. the colonized, marginalized, silenced, and dominated and not merely a discriminated or oppressed ‘other’, such as other dominant local groups or another colonizer or imperial forces or individual. However, for the purposes of this chapter, there is merit in using the terms ‘the other’ and ‘the subaltern’ or ‘the colonized other’ interchangeably: firstly in order not to take an a priori stance on deciding what warrants the title the subaltern, and given that Spivak’s epistemological debate also has implications for representation of the other in general. Moreover, the purpose of drawing from this discussion on representation of the other is to discuss Aguirre, the Wrath of God and Caché, whose narratives feature the colonized other. Mainly by drawing on Spivak’s critique, the following sections deal with representing/making of the colonized other. This is followed by a brief introduction to the Foucauldian notion of disciplinary power of surveillance and the mechanics of how any group, in particular the colonized other, is subject to such institutionalization of disciplinary power.

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Spivak on the Problem of Representing and Making the Other In an interview in 1977, Michel Foucault and Gilles Deleuze discuss the role of intellectual while placing emphasis on letting ‘the other’ talk and rebuffing their intellectual role in such a representation. As Filippo Menozzi (2014) rightly points out, Deleuze’s specific emphasis on letting the other speak has its roots in the very discussions of his time where the function of an intellectual was put into question. Therefore Deleuze, in order to escape from the criticism of not fulfilling the political involvement of public intellectual, simply asserts how “representation no longer exists” and the theory itself is actually a form of action (Foucault & Deleuze, 1977). For Spivak, Deleuze and Foucault unwittingly conflate two meanings of representation: (i) being a proxy on behalf of others and (ii) re-presenting someone or something. They think beyond representation (first meaning) there comes the real possibility of disclosing the power structures inflicted upon

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the other. And they intentionally refrain from speaking for others as public intellectuals, and rather aim to give the microphone to them. Being that the context of this discussion is their activism and role as public intellectuals, they argue that that theory is a form of action in the end and thus are engaging in theoretical activism (Foucault & Deleuze, 1977). By intentionally ‘not speaking for them’, they simply assume the ability of the other to speak for themselves, presuming they have a voice. For Spivak, however, by still representing (second meaning) and talking about them and assuming the intellectual privilege in doing so, the theorists as such still end up being ventriloquists for the other – while, and more unsettlingly, also inducing their own subjectivity that is part of the dominant (Western) knowledge and power structures (Steyerl, 2007; Menozzi, 2014). Even so, by talking about them, especially while the other is alive and present yet mute, one potentially ends up speaking for them, in a way then dialectically positing inability of the other to actually speak for themselves – especially considering how they conceptualize the theory as a form of action. Similar representations are very common in the context of history of de/colonization. For example, during the wave of decolonization after the World War II, and the subsequent decolonization movements in African countries, a Paris correspondent of The Economist reports in 1956:

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Only the Africans clearly know what they want. They want complete local autonomy, with their own prime ministers, ministers and legislatures. But they are not nationalists [...] They respect French culture and ideas […] In return, some of them want a federal, not a French, government to express this unity (The Economist, 1956). As a result, the colonized African is then either represented as they respect the French culture and merely pursue local autonomy, or they aspire for their nationalist movement. All the while we cannot epistemologically hear the voice of an African individual. It is either the former or the latter representation in the making; disregarding, for instance, their economic class position and what it implies especially for the interests of an African working class individual. This is also in the vein of Spivak’s discussion on widow-sacrifices in colonial India, where both the dominant Hindu interpretation (‘that the widow wanted to die’) and the dominant British interpretation (‘saving the women’) provide different ways to speak for the widow who in the end is rendered and made mute (Kapoor, 2004). This is a problem of epistemology of the other in general and thus a problem of colonial historiography. Spivak is not against representation in both forms nor are Spivak’s concerns, unlike what some argue, simply a matter of better and “dutiful representation” (Naiboglu, 2014: p. 125). It is firstly an epistemological cry in regard to ‘Western’ representations (second meaning) of the other, and secondly an emphasis on complexities and differences of the colonized subject (Naiboglu, 2014). In particular, it can be claimed that hidden underneath Spivak’s theoretical inflation and heavy jargon, the reasoning behind her rigorous critique is threefold. First, for Spivak, the individual and subject are being conflated by Deleuze and Foucault, and it is the very nature of the subject that it is not homogenous. Second, as a representer (second meaning), the ultimate privileged disposition of the intellectual or theorists should be taken into account (Menozzi, 2014). Third, and more practically, assuming the non-homogeneity of the other and thus stripping away one’s own privileged and dominant position in knowledge production, one should aim at disclosing the differences and complexities of the other – yet this is hardly done even by the scholars of colonization (Kaltmeier, 2017).

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Spivak on Western Intellectuals Spivak’s first concern is about the ways in which certain theories try to disclose power relations by assuming we, as individuals, are all subject to discourses of power. Spivak simply makes a leap of judgment about certain French intellectuals and theorists that they conflate the individual with the subject in that they homogenize and overgeneralize the human experience without any due consideration of very singular experiences – especially for the individuals whose experiences diverge from that of the colonizer (Janz, 2012). Such a concern towards a white gaze is also shared by George Yancy (2012) in his discussion of racism. The mere assertion that we are all subjugated to power and domination and the fact that race is a constructed category do not make the experience itself neither obsolete nor universal. It is a pejoratively unique experience only faced by the black person (Yancy, 2012). This non-situated or non-subject individual then is also what makes Spivak especially critical of Foucault and Deleuze in the sense that the other in particular is not heard in their works. At best, they are not given an undistorted microphone. No doubt, for instance, contemporary Foucauldian perspectives do provide illuminating discussions for the colonial history and race studies. There is however an underrepresentation of the issue of race in Foucault’s works that harbor, in “less careful hands”, the danger of disregarding the foundational role of the geopolitical materialities and experiences the other suffers from (Spivak, 1988: p. 274; Howell & Richter-Montpetit, 2019). This is especially worrisome considering that a latent universalist understanding of the individual would not be possible if it is not in contrast or relation to another’s subjectivity. This then leads to overlooking the nonuniversality of Western perspective and understanding of an individual (including the other) that might be very well composed without any due consideration of their socially, historically and economically determined subjectivity – in a way authorizing scholars or intellectuals to re-present the other as a non-subject, and at best ‘letting them speak’ without actually hearing them speak (Morris, 2010; Spivak, 2010). Notably, Andrew Robinson and Simon Tormey (2010) argue that Spivak’s critique does not go beyond a call for a better representation of the other and the criticism towards Deleuze is overstated. It is claimed that Deleuze should be even considered a postcolonial thinker (Price, 2014). However, as Gozde Naiboglu (2014) argues, this is not only a call for a better representation as Robinson and Tormey claim, it is rather a contextualized epistemological criticism towards the dominant theoretical underpinnings of Western intellectuals. The nature of the criticism itself nonetheless is still relevant to the extent of discerning the very challenge of representation of the other. Regardless of Deleuze’s own complicity, representation itself in a double-bind form always inscribes the risk of propagating the hegemonic and dominant Western structures of thought (Burns & Kaiser, 2012). So, as for her second concern, the complicity of Western intellectuals Spivak points to is then the implication of the conflation of the two conceptions of representation and their resistance to questioning their own privileged theoretical underpinnings and dispositions – economic, institutional, gendered or geographic (Kapoor, 2004; Spivak, 2010). Arguably, Deleuze and Foucault both show resistance to the ideological critique and to the delineation of the actual material interests of the other – induced by their skepticism to ‘ideological criticism’ and its appeal to absolute truths about material conditions (Scatamburlo-D’Annibale et al., 2018). For Spivak, the problem persists not in the need to speak for the silent other per se, but in then assuming/neglecting the Western dominant disposition that disregards actual geopolitical materialities of marginalized individuals while falsely claiming not to do so. This is the idea Spivak borrows from Marx’s (1954) The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte: The problem was not that peasants needed a voice, but they chose the wrong representer, Louis Napoleon, to speak 169

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on their behalf (Hartley, 2003: p. 248). So Spivak’s challenge is firstly an epistemological one indeed asserting the silence of the subaltern, yet it is secondly a call for a political, practical and intellectual project – an achievable one – in which one actively questions one’s theoretical underpinnings, and the subsequent or constitutive intellectual, economic, geographical or gendered privilege one enjoys. One can rephrase this question and ask how then can the subaltern speak for itself and re-present itself? As David Lloyd (2014) points out though, this project assumes a certain group consciousness that there is one single group of people. This is to assume, borrowing the Marxist terminology, the other constitutes a class for itself (p. 7). As Spivak points out it is yet again a dominant and hegemonic Western structure of thought to assume that the other necessarily has such a formed consciousness and performativity – homogenous in terms of their interests (Bracke, 2016). That is also why even non-Western scholars, while trying to re-present the other, mostly rely on the indigenous dominant groups and disregard stories of the marginalized individuals and the complexities of their interests (Spivak, 1988). As such, Spivak points to how there is still no mention of women and many other subgroups – a well-warranted exemplification which drives many of Spivak’s work in Subaltern Studies. What Spivak then comes to as a third point is rather a demand for better re-presentation of the other since the re-presentation of the other in many accounts of colonial history is appreciated yet found insufficient. To that end, Mark Griffiths (2017) offers a threefold ethical and normative suggestion based upon Spivak’s concerns, by rightly pointing out that her project is not to disengage from representation in both sense of the word, but to make it a reflective challenge for the Western intellectual to do so (Alcoff, 1991). This challenge is then a call for a non-universalistic approach to subjectivity, hyper focused on self-reflection of one’s privileged position, and making the other or their silence heard even if this requires naming or even speaking for them, depending necessarily on whether the former two suggestions are established (Ramsey-Kruz, 2007; Griffiths, 2017). Note that Spivak finds Jacques Derrida’s project of deconstruction to be a useful attempt in recognition of the European subject’s attempt to self-consolidate itself as a subject in relation to a determined other (Spivak, 2010). The binaries upon which the European subject is constituted in the making of the other also reflect the ways in which their dominant and colonialist position is justified: civilized/not primitive, intellectual/not uneducated, wealthy/not resource-poor, and powerful/not vulnerable. Questioning these and how they are constructed or refraining from the ways in which they are constructed in any intellectual production would surely enable one to escape from an inadvertent universalist approach to the interests of the other. This might serve as one of the building blocks of self-reflection on our privileged intellectual, gendered, economic, or geopolitical position. That is why, despite her critique, Spivak (2010) applauds Foucault’s work that highlight the processes of “disciplinarization and institutionalization, the constitution, as it were, of the colonizer” that both dismantle the processes of othering and shed light on the ways in which the other is disciplined into silence that maintain Western privileges (p. 265).

Disciplining the Other In Discipline and Punish, Foucault (2012) utilizes Jeremy Bentham’s prison reform structure, Panopticon, as a model of representation for modern forms of surveillance and their implications. Panopticon is an architectural design where the surveilled is structurally left uninformed about the identity, location and even the presence of the surveiller. For Bentham, this design would simply sustain the internalization of rules and regulations by the inmates and would enable compliance without the need for a use of violence (Whittaker, 1999).

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For Foucault, modern forms of surveillance resemble the governing idea of Panopticon. Rather than purporting violent punishment, a surveilling gaze is instituted to discipline people. Unlike the torturer of medieval context, this is a deterritorialized power. It is present in the street with CCTV to protect our security, in the workplace where one is recorded for the purpose of productivity and efficiency, in the online classroom, and even in the comfort of one’s home. For Foucault, this concerns a certain historical period where disciplinary surveillance has started to emerge in many institutions such as schools and workplaces to regulate, manage and ‘perfect’ every aspect of life (Carpenter, 2020). Unlike disciplinary punishment, they are not feared but justified in the ‘interest’ or rather the common good of the relevant parties (Sheridan, 2016: p. 45). This is especially in line with the rationalization of the colonialist groups’ methods that overemphasize the proper and efficient ‘management’ of the colonized land and subjects. As a case in point, especially in the height of online communication and education tools ‘necessitated’ by global pandemics such as the COVID-19 Pandemic started in 2020, digital surveillance measures in assessing student or professional performance are not only made possible (e.g. IP logs, camera surveillance) but they are also incorporated more and more as the norm – nothing to fear: they prevent academic dishonesty, and they provide productive efficiency. In a more broad sense, digital technologies and everyday datafication of lives enable a system where an invisible other (states and state agencies, corporations or intruding individuals) is able to collect personal information that is deeply private and not easily accessible otherwise. The inequality of data relations in the world should also be taken into account (Couldry & Mejias, 2019). It is not only that certain countries and its citizens are left without ownership or access to data, it is also that their interests, preferences and identities might not be taken into account in the streams of data that constructs our lives via platforms such as face recognition technologies or smart city applications. Unlike previous forms of disciplinary punishment, the implications of modern forms of disciplinary power are then threefold: (i) it enables compliance with and internalization of the rules, (ii) it encompasses larger and more intruding forms of surveillance, and (iii) it enables a system of constant norm-based scrutiny for individuals, thus, maintaining (Western) privilege and discourses of knowledge.

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ANTI-COLONIALIST PUZZLES IN AGUIRRE, THE WRATH OF GOD AND CACHÉ As mentioned, Spivak arguably does not go against the very project of representation. She makes a call for action so that the constative location of the other is deplaced to a performative one, where agency can be exercised, and thus this project is relevant for any form of intellectual endeavor (Bracke, 2016; Conway, 2018). Stephanie L. Daza (2013) calls for advancing such performativity through the use of media outputs given the very imaginative and thus performative and transformative potential and desires of visual texts in comparison to less-imaginative potential of written texts. Media is a locus of action for individuals and exercise of their agency as it connects people, and lets them share and imagine (Couldry, 2020). In particular, movie narratives have complex and engaging potential (Cutting, 2016). This is not to deny the implications of post-structuralist theory arguing that conflicting and dominant discourses might still be embedded in any form of work including movie narratives (Derrida, 1976; Cohen, 2001). However, it is also possible to assume a normative perspective that aims to, at the least, indulge a form of anti-colonialist and emancipatory narrative. This way, opposing interpretations to dominant meanings might be enabled through which the given disparities, inequalities, and power differences of any sort are

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questioned that has actual detrimental consequences for interests of the people. As Nick Couldry (2020) suggests, imagining – through more fictional outputs like TV series, movies and games – is one of the ways through which media connects people and enable them to gain new understandings of the world, and movie narratives that aim to create or illustrate non-dominant, anti-colonialist or anti-orientalist puzzles – if not deconstruction – warrant exploration. This opens up then the project of exploring cinematic works where privileged positionalities can be questioned vis-à-vis the narrative. Considering the potential erroneous ways where the other is represented, this chapter sees a potential in illustrations questioning the dominant subject in the cinematic practice. If the first concern of Spivak is taken very seriously, then speaking for the other is not problematic per se, but it still warrants scrutiny. Therein also comes the potential for cinematic narratives – either representing or speaking for the other – to do so in a more self-reflective manner, or for merely featuring questions or puzzles on privilege and Western subjectivity. The next section will discuss how Aguirre, the Wrath of God and Caché provide or resemble such anti-colonialist illustrations and puzzles. Another methodological note is needed at this point. In addition to scrutinizing the representative realm of cinema and assuming its potential for anti-colonialist puzzles, there is also a merit in recognizing the philosophical and normative function of cinema in general. The philosophy-cinema nexus can be understood in three ways. The first is the philosophy of cinema, which deals with film theory, aesthetics and semiotics of cinematic works. The second is the philosophy on cinema, where philosophical texts and arguments are discussed or represented using the cinematic narrative as an example, case or a hypothetical scenario. Third is the philosophy in cinema, where the philosophical features of the movie itself are questioned (Mcgregor, 2014). The following discussion over Aguirre, the Wrath of God and Caché will mostly resemble the second nexus in order to illustrate anti-colonialist puzzles drawing on Spivak and partially Foucault’s accounts, yet the philosophical features of these movies in themselves will also be touched upon.

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Aguirre, the Wrath of God: Non-Representing the Other and Rendering the Colonizer Mad Werner Herzog’s Aguirre, the Wrath of God is a story of an expedition that takes place in 1560 set alongside the Amazon River, where the colonial Spanish Conquistadors seek the treasures of the mythological and legendary being, El Dorado, imagined as a location, or a king, or a structure that is full of treasures and gold. Its protagonist (Aguirre) is loosely based on Lope de Aguirre (1510-1561), known as El Loco - the Madman. The expedition down the Amazon River while facing dangerous rapids, led initially by Ursua, consists of his wife (Flores), Aguirre (the second in command) and his daughter (Inez), a nobleman (Guzman), soldiers, enslaved individuals, a priest, and a black slave (Okello). The camerawork is especially illuminating in the scenes covering the initial stages of the expedition, almost turning the movie into a docu-drama (Ames, 2018). The story follows Aguirre’s arrest of Ursua and then using Guzman as a puppet-leader, followed by disease, hallucinations along with invisible arrow attacks from the riverbank. In the end, Aguirre is illustrated in a confused setting on the wreck of the raft, alone, with the rest of the expeditioners already dead (Figure 1). Eric Ames (2018) suggests that Aguirre, the Wrath of God “explores the madness and the hopelessness of Western striving, what Oswald Spengler, writing of the cinema in 1917, called “the unrestrainable Faustian impulse to conquer and discover” (p. 83). In light of the second part of this chapter on

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representation/making of the other, arguably, the narrative featured in Aguirre mirrors how, exacerbated by the camerawork and dream-like setting, a high degree of absence of visualization of the people of Amazon river renders the striving colonizer mad. This is not to claim that the not-yet-to-be colonized other is not subject to any visual representation. Lack of representation is still a way to define the other. Take the instance when the expeditioners initially face and encounter what may be the physical remnants of a group of people of the Amazon River. Seeing the village set on fire alongside the river, they land next to the village. Unaware of what expects them, they first push Okello to the front to foment fear for people they have never seen before. Resembling the point of Spivak on the lack of regard for complexities, differences and thus the material realities of the subaltern, the Conquistadors assume that what works as allegedly a fearful image for another colonized other or themselves – a black person – would surely also work for the people around the river. Okello is the other to them, they assume, speaking on behalf of people they have never seen. The ‘first encounter’ with ‘savages’ come very late in the movie. In addition, the visual rhetoric of the movie hints at a sensation of a dream on the part of the Conquistadors in this scene. Such a hallucinatory sensation is present and gradually increasing throughout the movie. In many acts of violence and horror, we see the killing but not the perpetrator (Ames, 2018). In one instance, a soldier walking in the jungle is taken by a rope above the trees and what follows is merely the sound of dying breath of the soldier. The colonizer and its gaze (or rather the aspiring colonizer) is left alone in the journey most of the time. Arguably, Aguirre, the Wrath of God’s narrative exemplifies how the striving colonizer when faced only with itself allow a disaster – where not only its superiority cannot be constructed, but that it is the foundational ontology of the colonizer being missing.

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Figure 1. Ending of Aguirre, the Wrath of God (1972)

The very subjectivity of the colonizer then is in crisis as it necessitates a binary superiority. Without the other, they are left alone with the self-proclaimed superiority and colonization. And once it is not

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substantiated via the other, the colonizer loses the sense of itself, and is left alone in madness. The very scene where Guzman sits in front of a parchment and draws a map to affirm he owns these lands now without actually ever setting a foot connotate with the first instances of madness in Aguirre, the Wrath of God. While Roger Ebert (1999) suggests death as the ultimate destiny in the movie, it can be also claimed that the ultimate destiny of Aguirre is madness as he is surrounded by corpses and hundreds of monkeys in the end of the movie (Figure 1).

Caché: A Disciplinary Tale on the Privileged

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[Caché] is a tale of morality dealing with how one lives with guilt. Do I accept it? And if I don’t what do I do? And if I do, what do I do? (Haneke, 2006). Caché is a story of individual and collective forgetting and guilt in the context of the French colonial past and in particular against the backdrop of the Paris massacre of 1961, when the Parisian police attacked and killed hundreds of Algerian protesters in the final years of Algerian War of Independence. The Paris massacre is one of the repressed instances of French colonial history, and as Ipek A. Celik (2010) suggests, Caché’s ethical project is to signify the presence of colonial structures existing still today. The movie right after its release was also received in the line of its social commentary on colonial violence in France (Celik, 2010: p. 65). In regard to Caché being an ethical and a scholarly project, the complicity of the scholar also warrants some scrutiny. Ruben Andersson (2014) makes this point about clandestine migration and how network of aid workers, migration scholars, activists as much as defense contractors are all part of what he calls ‘illegality industry’ (p. 15). Andersson emphasizes the fact that complicity has degrees and Haneke’s own complicity as the author of this ethical project can be put into a question. Regardless, the narrative featured in the movie provides many anti-colonialist allegories and puzzles inviting the audiences to reflect on issues of Western privilege, colonial injustices and individual complicity. In particular, it illustrates a debate about the implications of surveillance on questioning one’s own privilege. Caché starts with the protagonist (Georges) and his family being terrorized with static surveillance tapes of their private lives and in particular of the scenes that reflect Georges’s childhood memories (Figure 2). He then suspects one of the integral figures of his childhood, Majid, an Algerian orphaned boy whose parents were killed during the Paris massacre and being taken care of by Georges’s parents. In their second confrontation, Majid again denies his part in surveillance tapes and kills himself in front of Georges. According to Celik (2010), the violence inherited in Majid’s suicide reflects the repressed violence and oppression of the French colonial past. It would be however a mistake the think of colonial violence as only attributable to ‘past’ injustices. The colonial discourse and violence are still things of today, and their neglect would again lead to an epistemic injustice of silencing the existing material interests of the other. With Majid’s openly stated wish that he wants Georges to be present before he kills himself, there is a clear link made between public forgetting of the colonial past and Georges’s own denial and guilt not only for his past wrongdoings but for the very current epistemic injustice Majid suffers from in the form of Georges’s apathetic colonial amnesia during the scenes towards their past relationship.

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Figure 2. Caché (2005)

The moment Majid kills himself is an important threshold in Caché. Georges has now something not to fear per se but rather to delve into under the constant and now non-identifiable gaze of surveillance: his past creeds, his unveiled guilt in being a minor complicit in subjectivity of the colonized other. The audience then is invited into the past relationship between Majid and Georges. It is revealed that during their childhood, Georges tricks Majid into killing a rooster, and then goes on to complain about Majid’s ‘violent’ behavior, which in turn leads Georges’s parents to send away Majid to an orphanage. A foolish boy’s lie indeed - yet this is an interpretative ‘moment’ for the audiences to question the degree of their own complicity in similar wrongdoings. The very journey following this breakthrough for Georges echoes the Foucauldian idea of the power of disciplinary surveillance: putting a non-identifiable surveillance on the privileged makes him question his past, and go into this journey of guilt - especially after not figuring out who sends the tapes. This journey illustrates a reversed Panopticon so to say, this time working on the privileged for once. Georges simply stops questioning who sends the tapes, internalizing the surveillance and is function. The particular identity of the surveiller becomes obsolete – it is a silent other who merely hints at holding the information of past wrongdoings and disciplines Georges into a norm-based scrutiny and internationalization of un-rule (assuming that the norm and the rule is public forgetting of the colonial past as conducted by the French). The final sequence in the movie is one of the rare times we see Georges silent and thoughtful in the dark, later partially admitting his guilt.

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FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS Both Aguirre, Wrath of God and Caché provide illuminating anti-colonialist puzzles. However, the very Western identity of the author of such intellectual practices and its implications on representing the other should also be questioned. In addition, there is a merit in incorporation of normative and ethical perspectives in discussions over movies. Movies are not only an exemplary visual text but their complex narrations feature philosophical issues on their own.

CONCLUSION Notwithstanding the potentially different interpretations of Spivak especially considering rigorous academic jargon and theoretical inflation of her deconstruction, three issues raise here for a substantiated anti-colonial perspective when it comes to representation of the other: (i) the subjectivity of the other should be recognized, (ii) the Western positionalities and privilege should be scrutinized, and (iii) more emphasis should be given to complexities and the actual interests of individuals. In addition, as discussed, Foucauldian account of disciplinary power delineates the ways in which marginalized groups are disciplined into internationalization of the dominant rules and norms. While this is not confined to the experiences of the other for Foucault and it is rather a universal statement about politics, Spivak still sees its potential to disclose the processes of disciplinarization, institutionalization and maintenance of the Western-privileged position and norms. In this chapter, these normative suggestions were utilized to explore to what extent such concerns are illustrated and echoed via movie narratives, in the cases of Aguirre, the Wrath of God and Caché. It is suggested while the absence of vivid representation of the other in the former hints at a crisis the privileged suffers from, the latter also illustrates the implications of disciplinary mechanisms if they are exerted on the privileged for a change.

REFERENCES Ames, E. (2018). Aguirre, the Wrath of God. Bloomsbury Publishing. Andersson, R. (2014). Illegality, Inc. Clandestine migration and the business of bordering Europe. University of California Pres. doi:10.1525/9780520958289

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Ashcroft, B., Griffith, G., & Tiffin, H. (Eds.). (1998). Key Concepts in Post-Colonial Studies. Routledge. Bracke, S. (2016). Is the subaltern resilient? Notes on agency and neoliberal subjects. Cultural Studies, 30(5), 839–855. doi:10.1080/09502386.2016.1168115 Burns, L., & Kaiser, B. M. (2012). Introduction: Navigating Differential Futures, (Un)making Colonial Past. In L. Burns & B. M. Kaiser (Eds.), Postcolonial Literatures and Deleuze: Colonial Pasts, Differential Futures (pp. 1–20). Palgrave Macmillan. doi:10.1057/9781137030801_1 Carpenter, C. (2020). Power in Conservation: Environmental Anthropology Beyond Political Ecology. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780429324659

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Celik, I. A. (2010). “I Wanted You to Be Present”: Guilt and the History of Violence in Michael Haneke’s Caché. Cinema Journal, 50(1), 59–80. Cohen, T. (Ed.). (2001). Jacques Derrida and the humanities: A critical reader. Cambridge University Press. Conway, J. M. (2018). When food becomes a feminist issue: Popular feminism and subaltern agency in the World March of Women. International Feminist Journal of Politics, 20(2), 188–203. doi:10.1080/ 14616742.2017.1419822 Couldry, N. (2020). Media: Why It Matters. Polity Press. Couldry, N., & Mejias, U. A. (2019). The Costs of Connection: How Data Are Colonizing Human Life and Appropriating It for Capitalism. Stanford University Press. doi:10.1515/9781503609754 Cutting, J. E. (2016). Narrative theory and the dynamics of popular movies. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 23(6), 1712–1743. doi:10.375813423-016-1051-4 PMID:27142769 Daza, S. L. (2013). Storytelling as Methodology: Colombia’s Social Studies Textbooks after La Constitución de 1991. Qualitative Research in Education, 2(3), 242–276. Derrida, J. (1976). Of Grammatology. John Hopkins University Press. Ebert, R. (1999, April 4). Aguirre, the Wrath of God. https://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/great-movieaguirre-the-wrath-of-god-1972 Foucault, M. (2012). Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. Vintage. Foucault, M., & Deleuze, G. (1977). Intellectuals and power: a conversation between Michel Foucault and Gilles Deleuze. In D. Bouchard (Ed.), Language, Counter-Memory, Practice: Selected Essays and Interviews by Michel Foucault (pp. 205–217). Cornell University Press. Gonzalez-Sobrino, B., González-Lesser, E., & Hughey, M. W. (2018). On-Demand Diversity? The Meanings of Racial Diversity in Netflix Productions. In D. G. Embrick, S. M. Collins, & M. S. Dodson (Eds.), Challenging the Status-Quo: Diversity, Democracy, and Equality in the 21th Century (pp. 321–344). Brill. doi:10.1163/9789004291225_017 Hall, S. (1989). Cultural Identity and Cinematic Representation. Framework: The Journal of Cinema and Media, 36, 68–81.

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Haneke, M. (Director). (2006). Caché [Film: DVD]. Sony Pictures Home Entertainment. Hartley, G. (2003). The Abyss of Representation: Marxism and the Postmodern Sublime. Duke University Press. doi:10.1215/9780822384557 Heiduschka, V. (Producer), & Haneke, M. (Director). (2005). Caché [Film]. Les films du losange. Herzog, T. (2010). The Banality of Surveillance: Michael Haneke’s “Caché” and Life after the End of Privacy. Modern Austrian Literature, 43(2), 25–40. Herzog, W., & Prescher, H. (Producer), & Herzog, W. (Director). (1972). Aguirre, the Wrath of God [Film]. Werner Herzog Filmproduktion.

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Howell, A., & Richter-Montpetit, M. (2019). Racism in Foucauldian Security Studies: Biopolitics, Liberal War, and the Whitewashing of Colonial and Racial. International Political Sociology, 13(1), 2–19. doi:10.1093/ips/oly031 Hughey, M. W., & González-Lesser, E. (2020). Racialized Media: The Design, Delivery, and Decoding of Race and Ethnicity. New York University Press. Janz, B. B. (2012). Forget Deleuze. In L. Burns & B. M. Kaiser (Eds.), Postcolonial Literatures and Deleuze: Colonial Pasts, Differential Futures (pp. 21–36). Palgrave Macmillan. doi:10.1057/9781137030801_2 Kaltmeier, O. (2017). Doing Area Studies in the Americas and Beyond: Towards Reciprocal Methodologies and the Decolonization of Knowledge. In K. Mielke & A. Hordnidge (Eds.), Area Studies at the Crossroads: Knowledge Production after the Mobility Turn (pp. 47–64). Palgrave Macmillan. doi:10.1057/978-1-137-59834-9_3 Kapoor, I. (2004). Hyper-Self-Reflexive Development? Spivak on Representing the Third World ‘Other’. Third World Quarterly, 25(4), 627–647. doi:10.1080/01436590410001678898 Levin, T. Y. (2010). Five Tapes, Four Halls, Two Dreams: Vicissitudes of Surveillant Narration in Michel Haneke’s Caché. In R. Grundmann (Ed.), A Companion to Michael Haneke (pp. 75–90). Wiley-Blackwell. doi:10.1002/9781444320602.ch2 Lloyd, D. (2014). Representation’s Coup. Interventions, 16(1), 1–29. doi:10.1080/1369801X.2012.726444 Marx, K. (1954). The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte. Foreign Languages Publishing House. Mcgregor, R. (2014). Cinematic Philosophy: Experiential Affirmation in Memento. The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 72(1), 57–66. doi:10.1111/jaac.12044 Menozzi, F. (2014). Postcolonial Custodianship: Cultural and Literary Inheritance. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781315818849 Morris, R. (Ed.). (2010). Reflections on the History of an Idea: Can the Subaltern Speak? Columbia University Press. Naiboglu, G. (2014). Beyond Representation: The Ethics and Aesthetics of Change in Turkish German Cinema After Reunification [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK.

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Price, J. (2014). Desiring Animals: Biopolitics in South African Literature [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Arizona State University, Arizona, United States. Ramsey-Kruz, H. (2007). The Non-Literate Other: Readings of Illiteracy in Twentieth-Century Novels in English. Brill. doi:10.1163/9789401204712 Robinson, A., & Tormey, S. (2010). Living in Smooth Space: Deleuze, Postcolonialism and the Subaltern. In S. Bignall & P. Patton (Eds.), Deleuze and the Postcolonial (pp. 20–40). Edinburgh University Press. Said, E. (1978). Orientalism. Pantheon Books.

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Sheridan, C. (2016). Foucault, Power and the Modern Panopticon [Unpublished Senior Thesis]. Trinity College, Hartford, Ireland. Spivak, G. C. (1985). Three Women’s Texts and a Critique of Imperialism. Critical Inquiry, 12(1), 243–261. doi:10.1086/448328 Spivak, G. C. (1988). Can the Subaltern Speak? In C. Nelson & L. Grossberg (Eds.), Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture (pp. 271–313). Macmillan. doi:10.1007/978-1-349-19059-1_20 Spivak, G. C. (2010). Appendix: Can the Subaltern Speak? In R. Morris (Ed.), Reflections on the History of an Idea: Can the Subaltern Speak? (pp. 237–291). Columbia University Press. Spivak, G. C. (2012). An aesthetic education in the era of globalization. Harvard University Press. Stein, S., & de Oliveira Andreotti, V. (2015). Complicity, Ethics and Education: Political and Existential Readings of Spivak’s Work. Critical Literacy: Theories and Practices, 9(1), 29–43. The Economist. (1956, March 31). New Deal in the French Union. Economist. Whitaker, R. (1999). The End of Privacy: How Total Surveillance Is Becoming a Reality. New Press. Winokur, M. (2003). The ambiguous panopticon: Foucault and the codes of cyberspace. Retrieved from https://journals.uvic.ca/index.php/ctheory/article/view/14563/5410 Yancy, G. (2012). Look, a White! Philosophical Essays on Whiteness. Temple University Press.

ADDITIONAL READING Bhambra, G. K. (2017). Brexit, Trump, and ‘methodological whiteness’: On the misrecognition of race and class. The British Journal of Sociology, 68(51), 214–232. doi:10.1111/1468-4446.12317 PMID:29114873 Chow, R. (1993). Writing Diaspora: Tactics of Intervention in Contemporary Cultural Studies. Indiana University Press. Chow, R. (2002). The Protestant Ethnic and the Spirit of Capitalism. Columbia University Press.

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De Genova, N. (2017). ‘The “Migrant Crisis” as Racial Crisis: Do Black Lives Matter in Europe? Ethnic and Racial Studies, 41(44), 1–18. Grønstad, A. (2016). Film and the Ethical Imagination. Palgrave Macmillan. doi:10.1057/978-1-13758374-1 Hiddleston, J. (2007). Spivak’s ‘Echo’: Theorizing otherness and the space of response. Textual Practice, 21(4), 623–640. doi:10.1080/09502360701642359 Hobsbawm, E., & Ranger, T. (2000). The Invention of Tradition. Cambridge University Press. Jonsson, S. (2008). A Brief History of the Masses: Three Revolutions. Columbia University Press. doi:10.7312/jons14526

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Mulhall, S. (2002). On Film: Thinking in Action. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203453476 Praeg, L. (2008). ‘An Answer to the Question: What is [ubuntu]?’. South African Journal of Philosophy, 27(4), 367–385. doi:10.4314ajpem.v27i4.31525 Wartenberg, T. E. (2007). Thinking on Screen: Film as Philosophy. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203030622

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

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Decolonization: The processes through which the colonized entities (the individual or the state) go through a process of dismantling of colonial rule or discourses. Geopolitics: A term to describe the international and transnational power relations based on economic and geographical factors. Materialities: A term that describes and emphasizes on the importance of physical properties of socio-cultural realm and their implications for the study of culture. Normative: That relates to the realm of value-judgments. Panopticon: An architectural design of surveillance where the surveilled is unaware of the identity, location, or presence of the surveiller. Postcolonial Studies: A scholarly field in which the past or existing colonial doings, discourses and their effects are studied. Representation Studies: A scholarly field in which representations in any textual or visual form, how they are constructed, interpreted, and constitute meaning are analyzed. Subaltern: The marginalized, lower classes or the colonized other who cannot exercise their agency. Subjectivity: Non-universal and complex features and processes that construct the individual subject.

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Chapter 11

Harem and Woman From Orientalist Pictures to the Cinema: Harem Suare

Işıl Tombul https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7793-7227 Independent Researcher, Turkey

ABSTRACT Orientalist art played an important role in the orientalist knowledge base. Depictions of the East, especially in the art of painting, have created a representation of the East in the West’s mind. However, this representation is exactly what the Westerner wants to see. One of the subjects that Westerners want to see and hear most is the harem. In orientalist art, women are depicted here as if they were always standing naked for their masters. Whereas harem is a place of pleasure and delight for the West, it is a family institution for the East. There is a transition from orientalist paintings to cinema in harem representation. For this reason, this transition from painting to modern art needs to be read intertext. In this study, the refection of the harem institution from painting to the cinema in the Ottoman Empire is examined. Ferzan Özpetek’s movie Harem Suare (1999) was examined together with the paintings of orientalist painters, and intertextual reading was made.

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INTRODUCTION Edward Said (1979) showed that orientalism has a much more meaning than research having been done on the East. He treats orientalism as a Western style used to reconstruct the East. According to the theory of orientalism, the East is a knowledge object of the West. The West is rethinking, shaping and constructing the East through literature, art and science. Orientalism is a discourse and within this discourse the East is reconstructed according to the fantasies of the West. One of the places where orientalism shows itself mostly is art. Orientalist art used to be a communication tool that imparts knowledge from the East DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch011

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 Harem and Woman From Orientalist Pictures to the Cinema

through paintings and novels. However, the imagination of Western artists and orientalist art, which was shaped according to the demands of the Western consumerism, also created a knowledge structure for the East. Thus, a discourse towards the East was formed. Writers who described the East without seeing the East personally, painters who paintedthe harem pictures without seeing a harem emerged, and after a while, Europe has learned the East by means of thethe works of these writers and painters. Every book about the harem has sold well since the 18th century (Lewis, 2004: 12). The depiction of orientalized women is a racialized and sexualized coding. The reader is presented with different representations of Oriental woman in a highly visual literary-descriptive style. Those who write about the Ottoman Empire use depictions of female appearance and beauty to present a range of racial and ethnic Ottoman identities that they expect to be only partially understandable to Western readers. Beauty expresses both the objects of the gaze and the owners of the gaze in a series of views and through that gaze which gender and racialize (Lewis, 2004: 142). Art has a great place in the construction of the marginalized East. Orientalist studies, which are seen as the way of exploration of colonialism, have also formed the literary art over time, the main success and continuity in Orientalist construction has been achieved with Orientalist cinema. Films about sheiks and harem have been very popular in the West. This provides a knowledge base. Therefore the Foucauldian discourse was important for Said (1979). In this study, orientalist cinema was reached by starting from orientalist paintings. In Orientalist paintings, the construction of woman was looked at, and then the subject of the harem in the Ottoman Empire was discussed. Turkish-born Italian director Ferzan Özpetek has often been criticized for perceiving Turkish culture as an orientalist. The Ottoman harem is handled in Ferzan Özpetek’s movie Harem Suare (1999). In this film, an intertextual reading was made based on harem and female representations in Orientalist paintings.

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ORIENTALIST ART AND ORIENTAL WOMAN The ideological reasons behind how the West portrays the East are related to colonialism. The West has always consideredthe East with sexuality and portrayed it as female. In its encounter with the East, it feels almost like the groom lifting the bride’s veil. In paintings, travel books, stories, poems, fascinatingly and exoticly beautiful women are depicted in the harems of ugly, vulgar, sluggish, immoral, barbarian Eastern men. Thus, there is a Europe that builds its own civilization against the barbarism of the “other” (Bulut, 2002: 25). Although many European painters did not see the inside of the harem, they presented paintings from Eastern harems containing eroticism, mystery and lust. In these paintings, the Eastern woman in the harem is more like the property of the Western bourgeois man rather than the private property of the sultan (Kontny, 2002: 129). As French painters could not model Muslim women, they modelled French women; these painters, who had never been to the East, drew Ingres’s Turkish Bath painting based on Lady Montagu’s impressions; they created stereotypes about the East before Gros, who was invited to Napoleon’s Egypt expedition, set foot in Egypt; British Bonnington, on the other hand, drew pictures on the harem without going beyond Italy (Kömeçoğlu, 2002: 45). The first examples of orientalism emphasized by Said can be seen in Eugène Delacroix’s paintings. The Death of Sardanapalus painting depicts a pre-Islamic period and emphasizes the tyranny of Eastern

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 Harem and Woman From Orientalist Pictures to the Cinema

rulers. The painting tells that as soon as Sardanapalus realizes that he is defeated, he takes the horses, dogs and the women in his harem to death with him (see Benjamin, 1997; Lemaires, 2001). The Orientalist painting art, which was used by the French and British until the 1870s, advanced. The first group included figural compositions, war, hunting, harem, bath, dance, daily life, local clothing, portraits. In the second group, there were archaeological sites and city views under the influence of ancient and Islamic architecture (Bal, 2010: 14). The travellers in the 19th century were mostly those who were tired of European modernism and seek exoticism and purity in the East. For this reason, the artists made enthusiastic depictions of a collective imagination (Germaner, 2007: 299-300). In Orientalist paintings, it is possible for the Western artist to define the East according to their own culture. These artists tried to depict scenes that they were not accustomed to in European society and therefore surprising to them. Men were shown in a much slower pace of life than in the West, even in working environments. There were scenes based on exaggerated demands such as in today’s movies containing violence and eroticism, as well as scenes of the bath, harem, and the prisoner market in which the oriental woman played the leading role. The orientation of the artists to these issues is mostly related to the demands, awards and sales opportunities they receive (Germaner, 2007: 301-304). Photographers and artists who created images of women brought up for European consumption were alleged to show either Muslim women in the harem or Jewish women and prostitutes. Almost all of the models that emerged belonged to these two categories (Benjamin, 2003: 171). Jean Gerome gave the image of the East in his mind, not the truth. For example, he turned a small fountain in the courtyard of Topkapı Palace, where no one could undress, into a bath scene. In addition, there was an area only wide enough for birds to drink water. Orientalist painters often added the figure of a black servant to the picture to highlight the beauty of the women in the bath. While this is in line with the definition of “master and slave” of the orientalist understanding of history, it also provides the contrasts such as well-groomed-neglected, light color-dark color (Bal, 2010: 18-21). Dressing style constitutes the most distinctive form of the uniqueness of a society, its immediately perceptible feature. Although there are changes in detail, the effect remains homogeneous as a whole. Societies’ dressing styles are learned through writing, photography or cinema. The fact of belonging to a particular cultural group often arises through dressing traditions. For example, in the Arab world, the veil worn by women is immediately noticed by tourists. In the eyes of the observer, a woman is a woman hiding behind a veil (Fanon, 1965: 35-36). The all-encompassing veil, which forms a barrier between the body of the Eastern woman and the Western view, places the Eastern woman’s body in a place beyond the reach of the Western gaze and desire. The practice of veiling and the woman with the headscarf thus go beyond simple references. It is not surprising that in Western discourses there are countless depictions of veiled women made in an effort to reveal the hidden secrets of the East. The veil is one of the metaphors in which the fantasies of the West penetrating the mysteries of the East and attaining the innerness of the other are realized phantasmatically (Yeğenoğlu, 1998: 39). Whether male or female, the Western subject’s desire for the Eastern other is always mediated by the desire to access the sphere of the woman, the female body, and the truth of the woman. What explains such an obsession with the Eastern woman is the metonymic union established between the Orient and its women. The Orient, seen as the embodiment of sentimentality, has always been understood in feminine terms, and accordingly its place in Western imagination is constructed by the simultaneous gesture of racism and feminization. This image requires the study of the Eastern and Eastern women (Yeğenoğlu,

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1998: 73). Because according to Grosrichard (1998: 144), after Aristotle, Europeans defined the women’s being as a lesser being than men:

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“Whether they were philosophers, jurists or doctors, the Europeans did nothing other than define woman ‘s ‘being’, after Aristotle, as a ‘ lesser being’ in relation to man . Metaphysically, she is an existence without essence, or a (male) essence whose actualization is hindered. It is something which exists ‘in otherness’, not ‘in itself . A woman, therefore, can ‘be or be thought’ only ‘ in man and through man’ - as, for example, Spinoza’s finite mode can be and be thought only by th e attribute of the substance it expresses. And just as the difference in ontological status between substance and mode means that between substances there is a real distinction, while between the finite modes of the same substance there is only a numerical distinction, so - mutatis mutandis - between man and woman the distinction is real, while between women there can be only numerical distinctions; man is to woman what substance is to mode, and the one which makes a man is of a quite different order from the one which makes a woman - just as the one of the substance is not like the one of a finite mode.” Orientalization of the Orient is a process intertwined with its feminization. The intertwining of the representation of cultural and sexual difference is secured by matching the discourse of Orientalism with the discourse of phallocentric femininity. As a result, most texts about the Orient can consistently contain sections devoted to women, harem and veil, but also various areas of Oriental life understood by female iconographies. Thus, in the symbolic economy of Orientalism, it can be easily seen that the typography of the mysterious woman hiding a secret behind the veil is reflected in the iconography of the Orient. The horror and threat of what is supposed to be hidden behind the oriental / feminine veil is revealed in these representations and through these representations. The desire to penetrate the mysteries of the Orient and thereby reveal hidden secrets (often expressed in the desire to lift the curtain and enter the forbidden space of the harem) is one of the founding metaphors of Orientalist discourse. An obsession with a secret Eastern life and the woman behind the veil and in the harem led to the over-representation of Eastern women in an effort to overcome the lack of a closed interior. However, despite this over-representation, the Orientalist’s desire always remains unsatisfied. It is the closed house space that Westerners cannot enter, which motivates the Western’s irresistible urge to enter this forbidden area. In order to fully grasp the Orient, it must see this area to reveal its truth. The mysteries of this inaccessible “inner space” can only be solved with the help of Western women (Yeğenoğlu, 1998: 73-74). Orientalists live on the imaginary woman who is suppressed and forbidden in themselves. The other is subconsciously identified with the other, and the person thus imagines what is forbidden or impossible in their life is experienced by this other. Then he punishes the person for himself whom he imagines to commit the act prohibited to him. In German Nazi propaganda, Jewish women are envisioned to live in constant sexual pleasure. Jewish boys are thought to seduce German girls. Therefore, the reason for the destruction of the Jewish community emerges. Because the German Volkskörper (the structure of public) needs to be cleaned of Jews. The puritanist Western man, who suppresses the emotions of the body, uses an entire region of the world as the screen of his projections. Thus, the East turns into a region condemned to the exploited West. Then the masculine logic starts to work: if the place where there is glamor, debauchery and sexuality that do not exist in the West is underdeveloped, then the source of that underdevelopment is femininity (Kontny, 2002: 129-130). Similar themes are seen in the transition from orientalist painting to cinema. Kömeçoğlu (2002: 45-46) mentions that more than 200 films were made in North Africa, where another European saved 184

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a European who fell into the harem of a sheikh. In fact, movies about these sheikhs are so popular that the word sheikh in slang means a sexual man. As Kömeçoğlu emphasizes the harem of a cruel sultan or sheikh in these films, it enables the European men to escape the constraints of European puritanism and Christian monogamy and plunge into the fantasies of sexual domination and perversion. The sheikh, who has become a sex idol in these films - whose religious aspect is forgotten - the West literally reveals his sexual fantasies.

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WOMEN IN OTTOMAN We see the change in the Turks with Islam mostly in inheritance law and polygamy. The inheritance is shared among the boys of the family. The older man is the head of the family and other relatives in the family. The right to divorce also belongs to the man, and in some cases the woman can make this request. Religious marriage, which is a tradition, is performed instead of official marriage. The testimony of two women can replace a man (İnan, 1982: 59-61; Altındal, 1977: 55-75, Ortaylı, 2006a: 36-37). It is impossible for this patriarchal structure of the Ottoman Empire not to be reflected in the family order. This structure divides the family into two as harem and selamlık (the part of a house reserved for men) (İnan, 1982: 63). There are various edicts regarding the dressing of Ottoman women. While Ahmed III prohibited women from walking around like non-Muslims fancyly, Mustafa III ordered them to wear dark colors. Abdulhamid II, on the other hand, banned the chador because the women wearing the chador resembled the mourning Christian women. In addition, making various frauds by hiding in the chadors was also effective in taking this decision (Kurnaz, 1991: 33). If we look at the dress bans imposed at various times in the Ottoman period, it will be seen that there are prohibitions against the sale of silk and glazed fabrics, dressing clearly in public areas, wearing a colored abaya with a thin fabric and an open collar, anybody other than women wearing gold, silver and glazed dresses, men and women wearing overly fancy and valuable clothes, women not being inappropriate and immoral (Tuğlacı, 1984: 17-22). The urban woman of the Ottoman Empire wears a hijab while going out and covers her head and face. It is rumored that the veil, that is, the face cover, passed through the Ottoman Empire from Iran and Byzantium. In addition, such attention to the covering of the urban woman comes from the woman’s desire to hide. In other words, veiling edicts without religious foundations were given to prevent the women of the aristocrat from meeting the public. From time to time, there was freedom in the 18th century during the Tulip Period (İnan, 1982: 63). It is seen that the veil was used by the women of the palace and the elite as a security shield for them. In time, women’s freedom movements would begin. Demirdirek (1993: 105) gives an example of the work of Müdafaa-i Hukuk-i Nisvan Association on this subject. This association, which offers requests that can be regarded as highly courageous initiatives according to the period, emphasizes that the veiling of women is in captivity that does not even fit what Islam wants. It is understood from Saz (n.d.: 228) that the young people, thin headscarves and the old people wear plain clothes, wander around the villages of Istanbul, where the freedom of women increases as they move away from the center of the city, the aristocracy and the palace. The changes that took place with Tanzimat in the 19th century also affected the position of women. In this period when the Ottoman Empire started reforms, the first steps of westernization were taken. Tanzimat was declared in 1839. The Tanzimat period now started. A period was started in which some

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arrangements in education, military, social life should be made and the institutions of the West should be taken as an example while doing these. The place of women in society began to be discussed with the Tanzimat (1839). In this period, changes were made in civil law as in education, and the right to property was given to women through inheritance (Altındal, 1977: 125; Kurnaz, 1991: 33). In this period, conservative-Islamist and Western views emerged. Westernist and modern group women who supported the Tanzimat saw the Tanzimat as the cornerstone of modernization and Westernization. For example, Göle (2001: 50) states that discussions are made through women. Those who drew attention to the universality of Western civilization defended women’s freedom of education and romantic love, while criticizing polygamy and gender discrimination. Those who perceived these reforms inspired by the West as a threat emphasized the necessity of preserving the position of women. During the reign of Abdulhamid II, it was decided to open idadi (a high school) for girls. Also during this period, girls got the right for conservatory education. Developments in this period took place before many countries of the West (Kurnaz, 1991: 51-54: Yaraman, 2001: 33-35). Consequently, female teachers were required for these schools. Furthermore, the life of these female teachers was reflected in literature as in Reşat Nuri Güntekin’s novel “Çalıkuşu”. The hero of the novel, Feride, is an idealist teacher devoting herself to Anatolian schools as a person who feels love resentment. As a matter of fact, in 1910, at a time when the Ottoman Empire was experiencing Westernization with all its intensity, Seniha Sultan rebelliously recounted how the West envisioned the conditions of Turkish women in a letter she wrote to a French friend. Seniha Sultan says that the West thought that the Turkish women were captive, were locked up in rooms, lived in a cage, lived in numerous female groups, and each Turkish husband had eight or ten wives (cited in Göle, 2001: 43). Ortaylı (2006a: 37) says that women could go to the market and visit the shrines. Of course, more is expected, in other words, for the woman to be in the public space as an individual. However, this would happen over time. In the World War I, women began to take part in public life with the men at the front, most women returned back to their home when men returned from the war; however, some of the women who enjoyed economic freedom and the outdoors would not want to go back and stay at home(Demirdirek, 1993: 112-113).

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HAREM IN OTTOMAN Harem, which comes from the word haram, meaning forbidden in Arabic, is not an institution specific to Eastern Muslims. In Ortaylı’s words, it is universal because all sovereigns actually have a harem; the difference of the East is that it institutionalized it. Thus, the institutionalization of the harem means that the harem is not a place of pleasure and delight, but a place where the sovereign’s family and himself stay. Ortaylı also emphasized that nations and sovereigns where harem was not seen could not be said to be more respectful to women, and informed that citing Louis XIV as an example that he had a life with plenty of women and money that made his contemporary Mustafa II and Ahmed III Ahmed jealous. Today, it should be known that the continuation of the harem in some oil-rich countries is a deviation that has nothing to do with the old harem tradition (Ortaylı, 2006b: 73-74). Harem is not a Turkish invention. It started in the XV. century in Turkish-Ottoman society. Harem existed in Umayyads, Abbasids, Iran and Byzantium before the Ottomans (Altındal, 1977: 106). In ad-

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dition, Ortaylı (2006b: 74) adds Ancient China, Indian and Florence to these. In the Ottoman Empire, it started to be applied in the houses of the pashas and viziers around the palace in time. Lewis says that “Rampant sexuality, is an old accusation leveled by Europeans against their Eastern neighbors” and describes the harem perception of the west as follows (Lewis, 1993: 82-83):

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“What chiefly aroused, in varying degree, the astonishment, reprobation, and envy of Western visitors were the institutions of polygamy and concubinage, and the processes by which the personnel of the harem were The Ottoman Obsession recruited and replenished. Western travelers dwelled in loving detail— much of it imaginary—on the staff of the seraglio, the odalisques, eunuchs, dwarfs, deaf mutes, and other exotic figures. It is revealing that in most European languages the word saray—which in Turkish and Persian simply means palace—came to connote only that part of the palace reserved for the women, presumably because that was the only part in which European travelers were interested. The more correct term is ‘harem,’ from the Arabic hamm, meaning forbidden in the sense of off limits or out of bounds. Although the law allowed a man four wives and as many slave concubines as he could afford, in fact such indulgence was limited to a small upper class”. In the Ottoman Empire, harem, also known as Harım-i Hümayun or dar’üssaade, became an organization when Sultan Mehmet the Conqueror founded Enderun. During this period, harem was run with a system similar to the devşirme (spolia) method. Those in the harem were able to rise like spolia. Respectively, there is an ascension line leading to kalfa (journeyman), usta (master), gözde (favorite), ikbal (lady), kadınefendi (lady whit child) and valide sultan (mother of sultan) (Uluçay, 1992: 116). Hürrem Sultan and Kösem Sultan, who arose from female slave to, are the first examples that come to mind (Kurnaz, 1991: 30). It is seen that Enderun and Harem are thus the two institutions that created the ruling class. However, even the highest possible position of women in government cannot give them the right to intervene in the affairs of the state, they will have authority limited to court affairs. Concubine (cariye) and gholam (gulam)are prisoners bought from the market or captured in war, as in Western society. The concubine, who has a child from her master, does not get rid of her captive status and becomes free after her master dies. Concubine is not obliged to cover up like a Muslim woman (İnalcık, 2001: 8). If the Sultan had childrenfrom the concubines who were taken or raised as special chamber, they were called ikbal. These were graded as the head ikbal, the second ikbal, and the third ikbal. İkbals were called as lady. The wives of the sultan were generally called the woman master, so they were separated from the ikbals (Uluçay, 1992: 38-41). In the harem, women read books and newspapers, play the piano, spend time playing traditional games like dominoes, napkins, backgammon and visiting and talking to each other. It can be said that harem is a women’s school (Saz, n.d .: 96). The palace has the highest literacy rate. Some of the women have very proper spelling. Thus, these educated women are set free from the palace, that is, when they get married and go out of the palace, they become ladies of the palace who keep the language and music of the Ottoman culture alive(Ortaylı, 2005a). Not all girls are allowed into the harem. It is observed that some girls fell into the harem from prison market and some were sent to the harem by their families. The concubines who came to the palace were either the captives gathered from the plains of the Crimean Khanate and brought from the plains of Ukraine and Poland, or are the beauties that officials such as Azov and Kefe starboard bought and gifted or captured by Algerian pirates in the Mediterranean. Safiye Sultan, the daughter of the Venetian noble Bafo family, is an example for this. Apart from these, girls from poor families in the Caucasus 187

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or Mediterranean islands and in the Balkan mountains were sent to the palace. The situation changed a lot in the 19th century. With a sense of loyalty to the dynasty and the caliph, Circassian or Dagestan families, as well as the nobility, sent their daughters to the palace as if they were giving a bride to the dynasty (Ortaylı 2006b: 74). After concubines, the other important group in the bath is eunuchs. The Harem Aghas, children brought from Abyssinia are castrated by priests in Egypt (Ortaylı, 2006b: 77). These children, most of whom were brought from Africa by being castrated at an early age, undergo a special education; they cannot be promoted, they only have ranks within themselves (Saz, n.d.:70). Historian Halil İnalcık (2001: 8) says that we have to disappoint the Westerners who think that the sultan has achieved what he wants by imprisoning hundreds of young and beautiful women in his harem. Harem system is a requirement of a conscious dynastic policy. In other words, harem system is closely linked to the Ottoman political structure and dynastic politics. The sultan’s relationship with many concubines stems from a political concern, his desire to have many sons for the continuation of the dynasty For this, the Valide Sultan chooses and presents beautiful concubines to their sons. Rude girls could not accompany the artful sultans who took literature lessons from the most distinguished teachers in their principality period. The crowded concubine community of the palace grew up in an unbending discipline and hierarchy like içoğlan (child servant). Harem is similar to the women’s monastery. If she had the chance, the concubine could be presented to the sultan after a long training under strict discipline. They would receive a salary according to their rank and pass certain degrees to become the head woman. In Ottoman society, the concubine was not seen only as a sexual object. It is understood from the women’s heritage lists that every well-to-do had one or more concubines. Concubines worked extensively, especially in the textile industry. Due to the nature of Islamic law, the prisoners gained their freedom quite easily, and every year thousands of concubines were imported from Africa, especially from the North Slav nations, the Caucasus and Black Sea coasts (İnalcık, 2001: 8-9). Valide Sultan, of course, had to make some political alliances with the dignitaries of the state within the army in order to retain sovereignty. The groupings in the harem against each other mainly reveal which son of the sultan will take the throne; outside, the viziers in the council, the Janissary Corps, the high scholars became inevitably partners in the games among these groups. The struggle was a life-or-death problem for everyone, as it was legal for the enthroned sultan to kill his brothers. Thus, in the 17th century, harem became the focal point of the power struggle in the capital. The reign of the mother of sultans, starting with the wife of Kanuni Hürrem Sultan, lasted for a century during the sultans of Nurbanu, Safiye, Kösem and Turhan. During this period, to understand the history of the harem who dominate the state, it is important to understand the side hidden in the history of the Ottoman state, and this has been a source of inspiration in France and Turkey for novelists and playwrights since the 17th century (Inalcik, 2001: 12).

ORIENTALIST PICTURES AND HAREM SUARE Harem Suare is a film about the impossible love between the Italian concubine Safiye who fell into the Ottoman harem during the 2nd Constitutional Monarchy (1908) and the black eunuch Nadir, shot by Turkish director Ferzan Özpetek living in Italy in 1999. While watching the film, we see many elements of Özpetek cinema (homosexual relationships, status of women, etc.). After the Hamam (1997) shot before this movie, Özpetek’s focus on a subject specific to the East brought about the debate whether he was an Orientalist director. Harem Suare takes place in a mysterious atmosphere in the palace. Clothes, 188

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fairy tales, magics, horoscopes, intrigues, homosexual relationships, baths, teaching the art of lust, etc. all heighten the orientalist mystery. However, Özpetek argues that he does not see harem as Orientalists, based on his research, and says that when the European audience heard Harem, they thought they would see naked women and sultan but could not find the sensual love they expected (see Taşcıyan, 1999). While giving the face of Safiye disguised with veil on the movie posters in Turkey, on the posters of the film used abroad, the nude photograph of Safiye in the bath and writing the word “An Erotic Tale of Sexual Freedom” on the poster reveals the Orientalist expectation of the film in the West. Although not as much as the people of Enderun, the education of Harem people is undeniable that the Palace is already a place where literacy is high. Apart from reading and writing, women who are taught music, sewing and adaptation receive an education that shows that they are courtiers when they are set free (Ortaylı, 2006b: 78). Özpetek did not reflect this much in the film. While Safiye Sultan wrote something for opera, it was understood that the sultan gave importance to culture; however, these scenes are not enough to reflect the cultural dimension of the harem. Generally, in the scenes that go through the events, women are shown in bath, entertainment, fairy tale scenes. Another issue that comes to mind when talking about palace is intrigue. However, Ortaylı (2006b: 78) is skeptical about the issue of intrigue. He does not find it logical that harem is a place where politics and intrigue are constantly discussed. Uluçay (1992: 45-49) also touches on similar issues while talking about the unlikely occurrence of the intrigue other than being in a century-old period between Hürrem Sultan and Kösem Sultan and that it cannot be more political than any other place. However, it is a natural situation for an intrigue to turn around in a place like harem. The reason for this is that in woman’s life framed by the male property, it has given her the ability to live in a limited area and to establish social relations (Berger, 1972: 46). The scenes in the harem where women listen to fairy tales are reminiscent of One Thousand and One Nights. We often hear fairy tale words, anyway. Şehrazat, the protagonist of One Thousand and One Nights, has to tell Şehriyar a story every night to save herself and the other girls of his country from death. It is as if the storyteller in the harem has to find fairy tales to the girls every night, and when he cannot find one day, he gives the task of telling the tale to one of the employees of the harem (Safiye’s friend) for that night, and thus, Safiye’s tale actually begins. At the end of the film, one of the apples is left to the audience, and we are reminded that we listen to a love story. Italian cinema magazines have drawn attention to the closeness between the paintings of famous Orientalist painters Dominique Ingres and Jean-Leon Gerome who lived in the 19th century and some scenes of the movie Harem Suare (Hürriyet, 1999). The bath and harem scenes are almost like the paintings of orientalist painters. A new holistic composition has been created by rearranging the elements in the paintings by combining lines, colors, lights, contrast, drawings and visuals. There is a hidden orientalism that does not construct the East passively but involves an unconscious and unconscious positivity (Uluç & Soydan, 2007: 49). In the harem and the bath, women pose as if to remind Berger (1972: 47): “Men act and women appear. Men look at women. Women watch themselves being looked at. This determines not only most relations between men and women but also the relation of women to themselves. The surveyor of woman in herself is male: the surveyed is female. Thus she turns herself into an object –and most particularly an onject of vision: a sight.”

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It is seen that the use of color and space in the paintings is similar in the film. On the other hand, women are predominant in the film, as well as in the harem and bath paintings. Dark skinned male and female servants serve the sultan’s women in the harem. In the paintings, there is usually a dark-skinned maid in addition to the white-skinned woman for contrast. Similarly, dark-skinned servants are seen alongside the women in the film. On the other hand, sexuality has an important emphasis in Orientalist paintings. Women walk or lie in the hamam or harem, either completely or half-naked. We also see a similar sexuality in the movie. In addition to the rapprochement between Safiye and Nadir, Safiye experiences a sensual intimacy with her maid while bathing in a bath scene. In terms of time, when we consider the paintings, it is possible to see the similar of the still life in the East in the film. Life is calm, still and serene. Figure 1. The Terrace of the Seraglio, 1886, Jean-Léon Gérôme (Dickinson, 2019)

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CONCLUSION The West is trying to explain the East with its own eyes, or in other words, the West evaluates the East from a history and development line formed on the way it created with its own internal dynamics. Therefore, an East that is very different from itself and built itself against this difference has emerged. In the Orientalist discourse, art has a great place in this construction process. One of the most used subjects in Orientalist art has been the harem. Harem is an organization taken as an example from the palace by the elite, although it has formed the family institution of the dynasty since the 15th century in the Ottoman Empire. For this reason, it is important to evaluate this family institution, which is in accordance with the requirements of the period and the state structure, in the relationship of time and background.

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Figure 2. Moorish Bath, 1870, Jean-Léon Gérôme, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston

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Figure 3. Massage at the Hammam, Édouard Debat-Ponsan, 1883, Musée des Augustins, Toulouse

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Figure 4. The Great Bath at Bursa, 1885, Jean-Léon Gérôme

(Dickinson, 2019)

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Figure 5. Harem Suare

In this study, the construction of orientalist images is examined through an intertextual reading while moving from orientalist painting to cinema. Orientalist images still attract attention in the media. When we look at the film examined, the director tried to look at the subject “harem” through the eyes of the women in the harem. Even in the movie, we see women who are left helplessly as a result of the closure of the harem. In this sense, even if the director avoids an image that we would describe as the sultan and the women around him, he cannot get rid of some stereotypes. From the images of women to homosexual relationships, there are cliché visuals and themes that the West wants to see in Eastern art. In this context, scenes similar to the animated versions of orientalist paintings attract attention. The animated versions of the elements such as odalisque figures extending in orientalist paintings, women bathing in baths, black-skinned female servants serving women in the harem, black-skinned male servants

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(eunuchs) etc. are seen in the movie. Generally speaking, the scenes in the film attract attention as if they came from the brushes of orientalist painters. This may not be the conscious choice of the director, but the unconscious and memorable orientalist images inevitably reproduce themselves.

Figure 6. Harem Suare

Figure 7. Harem Suare

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Figure 8. Harem Suare

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Images similar to those of Jean-Léon Gérôme, Édouard Debat-Ponsan and Ernst Rudolph’s paintings attention in the film. It is possible to see the dim lighting, women lying down, naked women, women bathing in the hammam, etc. in the film. Of course, we should not ignore the desire of the director for an artistic use. This is generally what is meant to be done in orientalism today. In other words, instead of giving a negative representation, the creation of an image in accordance with the consumption ideology of the media draws attention. Visual richness is tried to be realized by inspiring from old artworks.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS Orientalist art is still reproduced in the media. There is an intertextual transition from painting to cinema. However, today this field has expanded with digital media. For this reason, this issue should be examined, from painting to cinema, from cinema to digital media.

REFERENCES Altındal, A. (1977). Türkiye’de Kadın. Havas Publishing. Bal, A. A. (2010). Oryantalist Resimde Bedenin Kolonileştirilmesi Bağlamında ‘Türk Hamamı’ İmgesi. Acta Turcica Çevrimiçi Tematik Türkoloji Dergisi, II(2), 13–23. Benjamin, R. (1997). Orientalism: Delacroix to Klee. Art Gallery of New South Wales. Benjamin, R. (2003). Orientalist Aesthetics: Art, Colonialism, And French North Africa, 1880 – 1930. University of California Press. doi:10.1525/9780520924406 Berger, J. (1972). Ways of Seeing. Penguin Books. Bulut, Y. (2002). Oryantalizmin Eleştirel Kısa Tarihi. Yöneliş. Demirdirek, A. (1993). Osmanlı Kadınlarının Hayat Hakkı Arayışının Bir Hikayesi. İmge. Dickinson, S. (2019). Four Orientalist Masterpieces by Jean-Léon Gérôme (1824 – 1904). https://www. simondickinson.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/Gerome-4-Orientalist-Masterpieces.pdf

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Fanon, F. (1965). A Dying Colonialism (H. Chevalier, Trans.). Grove Press. Germaner, S. (2007). Oryantalizm ve Osmanlı Modernleşmesi. In Uluslararası Oryantalizm Sempozyumu 9-10 Aralık 2006. İstanbul: İstanbul Büyükşehir Belediyesi Kültürel ve Sosyal işler Daire Başkanlığı Kültür Müdürlüğü Publishing. Göle, N. (2001). Modern Mahrem. Metis. Grosrichard, A. (1998). The Sultan’s Court: European Fantasies of the East (L. H. London, Trans.). Verso. Hürriyet. (1999). Cannes, Harem Filmini Bekliyor. Academic Press. İnalcık, H. (2001). Harem Bir Fuhuş Yuvası Değil, Bir Okuldu. In Osmanlı Sultanlarına Aşk Mektupları. İstanbul: Ufuk Kitapları.

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İnan, A. A. (1982). Tarih Boyunca Türk Kadınının Hak ve Görevleri. MEB Publishing. Kömeçoğlu, U. (2002). Oryantalizm, Belirsizlik, Tahayyül, 11 Eylül. Doğu Batı, 20. Kontny, O. (2002). Üçgenin Tabanını Yok Sayan Pythagoras: Oryantalizm ve Ataerkillik Üzerine. Doğu Batı, (20), 117–132. Kurnaz, Ş. (1991). Cumhuriyet Öncesinde Türk Kadını. Başbakanlık Aile ve Araştırma Başkanlığı Publishing. Lemaires, G.-G. (2001). The Orient in the Western Art. Könerman. Lewis, B. (1993). Islam and The West. Oxford University Press. Lewis, R. (2004). Rethinking Orientalism: Women, Travel and The Ottoman Harem. I.B. Tauris. doi:10.5040/9780755611744 Ortaylı, İ. (2005). Harem Üzerine II. Milliyet. Ortaylı, İ. (2006a). Osmanlı’yı Yeniden Keşfetmek. Timaş Yay. Ortaylı, İ. (2006b). Son İmparatorluk Osmanlı(Osmanlı’yı Yeniden Keşfetmek 2). Timaş. Said, E. (1979). Orientalism. Vintage Books. Saz, L. (n.d.). Haremin İçyüzü. Milliyet Publishing. Taşcıyan, A., (1999). Son haremde bir trajedi. Milliyet. Tuğlacı, P., (1984). Osmanlı Döneminde İstanbul Kadınları. İstanbul: Cem. Uluç, G., & Soydan, M. (2007). Said, Oryantalizm, Resim ve Sinemanın Kesişme Noktasında Harem Suare. Bilig, (42), 35–53. Uluçay, Ç. (1992). Harem II. TTK Publishing. Yaraman, A. (2001). Resmi Tarihten Kadın Tarihine. Bağlam. Yeğenoğlu, M. (1998). Colonial Fantasies: Towards a Feminist Reading of Orientalism Cambridge. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511583445

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ADDITIONAL READING Almond, I. (2007). The New Orientalists: Postmodern Representations of Islam from Foucault to Baudrillard. Front Cover. I.B. Tauris. doi:10.5040/9780755696154 MacKenzie, J., & MacKenzie, J. M. (1995). Orientalism: History, theory and the arts. Manchester University Press. Mohanty, C. (1988). Under Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and Colonial Discourses. Feminist Review, 30(Autumn), 65–88.

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Penzer, N. M. (1936). The Harem: An Account of the Institution as it Existed in the Palace of the Turkish Sultans With a History of the Grand Seraglio from its Foundations to Modern Time. London: Spring Books. Rose, G. (1993). Feminism and Geography: The Limits of Geographical Knowledge Cambridge. Polity. Spivak, G. C. (1985). Three Women’s Texts and a Critique of Imperialism. Critical Enquiry, 12(Autumn), 243–261. doi:10.1086/448328 Zuckerwise, L. K. (2015). Postcolonial Feminism. John Wiley & Sons.

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

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Gender: The definition of sexuality in the social process. Harem: Section dedicated to women in the palace in Eastern culture. Harem Suare: It is a film shot by Ferzan Özpetek in 1999. Intertextuality: It is the shaping of the meaning of the texts by other texts. Orient: The definations related to Eastern civilization. Orientalism: It is a critical theory, which is reconsidered by E. Said and which describes the way the “West” discursively constructs and represents the “East.” Orientalist Painting: Western painters’ paintings depicting the East, especially in the 18th and 19th centuries. Ottoman: Turkish and Islamic State that existed between 1299-1922.

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Chapter 12

Techno Fantasies of East and West: Ghost in the Shell Onur O. Akşit Ege University, Turkey Azra K. Nazlı Ege University, Turkey

ABSTRACT In this chapter, the science fction anime that takes its source from Masamune Shirow’s manga with the same name, Kōkaku Kidōtai (攻殻機動隊, Ghost in the Shell), is examined and compared with the U.S. adaptation flm Ghost in the Shell (2017) within the framework of techno-orientalism. The study aims a comparative critique through anime and flm, which both allow explaining the transformative potential-efects of technology in a socio-cultural context in the east-west axis, through dissociations, convergences, and integration. It is to review the representations of traditional Western-centered thought that is deconstructed with the narrative which maintains focus on technology axis; it is aimed to reveal with the analysis that takes the 2017 flm to the center. In this way, Ghost in the Shell ofers possibilities of representation in the axis of futuristic Eastern culture with the female-cyborg character that presents the cyber-society environment, the deconstruction of the idea that puts focus on anthropocentrism, especially the ‘Western man’.

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INTRODUCTION: SHORT HISTORY OF ANIME ‘Anime’ is the name given to Japanese short or feature animated films or television productions. Animes are mostly producing from adaptations of Japanese comics named manga. They are one of the most popular cultural products of Japan that survived a massive trauma and transformed in terms of modernization after World War II. Anime cinema has significant differences in terms of aesthetic form when compared with the examples of western-style animation. First of all, animes are customarily made DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch012

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 Techno Fantasies of East and West

by the traditional hand drawing method, make use of less computer technology compared to western animation. Anime directors create realistic character and space designs rather than based on movement and use various camera movements, angles, shooting scales by the classical cinema scene perception. Animes also have distinct aesthetic preferences. The history of animation in Japan dates back to the second half of the 1910s. The experimental short animations made on and after, animation examples of the World War II propaganda made in the ‘40s are the first significant examples of Japanese animation cinema. It takes the 1960s for Japanese animation to separate from Western examples and create a unique language, in other words, to turn into “anime”. Animations of the manga artist and animator Osamu Tezuka and especially Tetsuwan Atomu (鉄腕ア トム, Astro Boy; 1963) television series popularized the anime nationally and internationally. With the success of Walt Disney’s Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (David Hand) feature-length animation in 1937, Tezuka simplified Disney’s animation techniques and adapted them to anime, shortening the production process and contributing to the industrialization of the anime starting from the 1960s. Big eyes, which is the most striking feature of anime productions, is a style that Tezuka has brought to the anime genre, inspired by Disney characters. In the 1970s, many television productions of anime began to be produced in Japan and, the popularity of anime increased. Since the end of the 80’s, important anime films have been made that depict the psychological and physical damage (through the eyes of civilians, especially children) caused by the Second World War and especially the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, which ended the war in 1945. Hadashi no Gen (はだしのゲン, Barefoot Gen; Keiji Nakazawa, 1983) stands out as a self-critical production, blaming the Japanese army that started the war rather than the US army. Hotaru no haka (火垂るの墓, Grave of Fireflies; Isao Takahata, 1988), by Ghibli, was again a powerful anti-war film. Anime is a large industry today with hundreds of production studios creating for both television and cinema. Production I.G., Toei, Madhouse and Ghibli, of which famously known anime director Hayao Miyazaki is one of the founders, are some of the major production studios. The most recognized, critically acclaimed films in anime cinema and awarded at major international film festivals are generally produced by Ghibli Studio. Sen to Chihiro no Kamikakushi (千と千尋の神隠し, Spirited Away; Hayao Miyazaki, 2002), as the winner of the Goldener Bär at the Berlin Film Festival as well as an Oscar for Best Feature-Length Animated Film at the Academy Awards and holding the record of being the mostwatched anime film is one of the most significant examples of anime cinema as a Ghibli production. Miyazaki’s Gake no ue no Ponyo (崖の上のポニョ, Ponyo; 2008) won two awards at the Venice Film Festival, Hauru no Ugoku Shiro (ハウルの動く城, Howl’s Moving Castle; 2004) and Kaze Tachinu ( 風立ちぬ, The Wind Rises; 2013) films nominated for Best Animated Feature at the Academy Awards. Besides, Inosensu (イノセンス, Ghost in the Shell 2: Innocence; Mamoru Oshii, 2004) competed for the Palme d’Or being the first and only anime in history to compete for the Palme d’Or at the Cannes Film Festival. If the anime cinema, which is very mattering in artistic and industrial terms and offers rich content by containing codes specific to the Japanese society is examined, the social trauma in Japan as a traditional society’s rapid modernization can be read with the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The prominent themes of animes are environment, gender, youth, technology, faith, war, political corruption, etc. The criticism of post-war modernity in Japanese society and the fear of technology created by nuclear bombs are reflected in the animes in a favorable but generally compromising way in the context of urbanization/modernity and nature dichotomy. Science fiction anime, on the other hand, is ironic, at 198

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times pessimistic in the same context, but clearly conveys the forms of Japanese culture and beliefs to any possibility of the relationship between the human and technology.

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SCIENCE FICTION GENRE IN ANIME In Japan, the only country in the world to suffer from nuclear weapons, the trauma caused by this hightech weapon shows its effects in science fiction animes. The restructuring process that followed the massive destruction and the progress with the development of high technology distinguishes science fiction anime from typical western examples with technophobia. Science fiction anime left their mark in the history of cinema; with inquiries on science, technology and belief, and functions as a notable theme in the discussion of where the human and post-human / machine / other distinction begins and ends. Science fiction anime is generally about humanity’s integration with technology. It allows science fiction animes to deal with questions profoundly, sometimes using extremism as a style such as: what directions humans go with technology, how they should establish relationships with other species, and how human can maintain their humanity that has changed with technology. Akira (アキラ; Katsuhiro Otomo, 1988), Shin Seiki Evangelion (新世紀エヴァンゲリオン, Neon Genesis Evangelion; Hideaki Anno, 1995), Metoroporisu (メトロポリス, Metropolis; Katsuhiro Otomo, 2001) and Appurushīdo ( アップルシード, Appleseed; Shinji Aramaki, 2001) are some relevant examples. In science-fiction animes, we first come across characters who are right in their actions but are in opposite positions instead of distinctly good and completely evil characters. It is a thought stemming from Eastern beliefs where good and bad are blend in together. A view that is neither blindly attached to technology nor technophobic that respects nature in the face of developing technology are generally prevalent themes of animes. The difference in the science-fiction genre in the East from the West is due to the difference between the relationship between nature and culture. In the Eastern belief, nature is not something to be struggled with and that humanity positions against (Brüll, 1995: xı). Nature in traditional Japanese thought; is a regulating force, a part of which one feels included. Therefore, it is far from the Western view that objectifies nature and positions it outside of humanity. Hayao Miyazaki’s 1984 dystopian anime Kaze no Tani no Naushika (風の谷のナウシカ, Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind) can be cited as a clear and helpful example. According to Susan Napier, the apocalyptic theme arising from the political and environmental catastrophe of civilization in the anime is closely related to the nuclear destruction in World War II. Characters who try to survive and establish a civilization after a disaster can be thought to represent Japanese society that “born from the ashes” (Napier, 2005: 47, 273). The success of this anime paved the way for higher-budget and experimental ones. Although commercially unsuccessful, the science fiction Akira (アキラ,1988, Katsuhiro Otomo), which later became a legend and has been critically awarded today, is one of the most significant feature-length animations in the 80s. Made for television in 1995, Shin Seiki Evangelion (新世紀エヴァンゲリオ, Neon Genesis Evangelion; Hideaki Anno) brought a new dimension to the anime industry, which began to decline as a bold step with themes involving faith and technology, and then the feature-length Kōkaku Kidōtai (攻殻 機動隊,Ghost in the Shell; Mamoru Oshii, 1995) has been critically successful which was released the same year with similar themes. Kōkaku Kidōtai is also a massive inspiration for the series The Matrix (1999-2003, The Wachowskis), which, as its producers admit, guided the post-2000 science fiction genre. For that, the producers wanted to pay homage to the anime with The Animatrix (2003), which consists of 9 short animations made by famous anime directors. 199

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Science fiction anime producers’ obsession with the relationship between human and technology has led to an interest in the science fiction subgenre called cyberpunk. In the 1980s, the cyberpunk genre, which gained momentum with authors such as William Gibson, Bruce Sterling, Neal Stephenson, developed as a reaction to the modern utopian science fiction, which perceived technology as a tool of progress. Cyberpunk narratives depict dystopian worlds in which technology does not bring about final progress but is associated with a totalitarian order. In the apocalyptic cyberpunk world dominated by chaos and disorder, destruction has turned into an aesthetic style and, the domain of social life has gradually moved to cyberspace. Human-machine coexistence, artificial intelligence, artificial memories, virtual reality, and conscious machines are some of the main elements of cyberpunk narratives of a future imagination in which the individual is positioned in a universe full of excessive stimulus. Cyberpunk films, Blade Runner (1982, Ridley Scott), Terminator (1984, James Cameron), Johnny Mnemonic (1995, Robert Longo) as leading examples, are far from fetishizing technology as well as exhibiting a technophobic attitude. Although replicants are shown to be more real than human beings, concerns about the use of technology in science fiction universes hold an indispensable position. In narratives where the search for origins of human beings activates the protagonist, it is important that being a replicant or a machine is fundamentally intertwined with resistance. The issue of fluidity of identities, one of the main features of postmodernity, also determines the struggles of heroes. The integration of the struggle with the skill demonstrated in the use of technology makes many films in the cyberpunk genre differentiate from the conservative and technophobic science fiction films. Concerns about the social lifestyle determined by global capitalism, information density and virtual experiences; reflects on the anxious vision of a future dominated by totalitarian governments, based on class or ethnic distinctions are some of the many themes. In Ghost in the Shell, an anime that reflects traditional animes and is a cyberpunk masterpiece, the view of the relationship between human and technology is also based on the Japanese traditional Shinto and Buddha beliefs. Judeo-Christian religions of the West has an anthropocentric notion that has a certain hierarchy between human and other. In monotheist beliefs, only God can create life. So, man-made ‘robots’ can be just workers as Czech playwright Karel Čapek writes in R.U.R. (Rossumovi Univerzální Roboti, Rossum’s Universal Robots,1920) which is about a rebellion of robots leads to the extinction of the human race. However, beliefs like Shinto and Buddhism are more conducive to have faith in the peaceful coexistence of human and technology. Because Eastern beliefs have animistic roots that objects, places, and all creatures have a spiritual essence. Hence, artificial devices can also have spirits. Anime pioneer Osamu Tezuka says that: Japanese don’t make a distinction between man, the superior creature, and the world about him. Everything is fused together, and we accept robots easily along with the wide world about us, the insects, the rocks—it’s all one. We have none of the doubting attitude toward robots, as pseudohumans, that you find in the West. So here you find no resistance, simply quiet acceptance (as cited in Ito, 2010). We can understand Japanese culture’s distinct relationship with technology by the techno-animist thought. Robots, cyborgs, artificial intellgences are living things and spiritual entities in Japan society and popular culture. This de-centralization of human can be found in philosophical approaches towards post-humanist notion. As Rosi Braidotti puts it “The posthumanist perspective rests on the assumption of the historical decline of Humanism but goes further in exploring alternatives, without sinking into the rhetoric of the crisis of Man” (2013, p. 37). So, Japan science fiction animes easily embrace posthumanist 200

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positions and human-technology connections which western audience can find bizarre. Techno-orientalist look towards East is definitive for this context.

ISSUES OF TECHNO-ORIENTALISM

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A year here and he still dreamed of cyberspace, hope fading nightly. All the speed he took, all the turns he’d taken and the corners he cut in Night City, and he’d still see the matrix in his dreams, bright lattices of logic unfolding across that colourless void... The Sprawl was a long, strange way home now over the Pacific, and he was no Console Man, no cyberspace cowboy. Just another hustler, trying to make it through. But the dreams came on in the Japanese night like livewire voodoo, and he’d cry for it, cry in his sleep, and wake alone in the dark, curled in his capsule in some coffin hotel, hands clawed into the bedslab, temper foam bunched between his fingers, trying to reach the console that wasn’t there. William Gibson Traditional Western thought is founded on its basis Cartesian logocentric perspective built on dualities: the qualities are explained by opposites. The structure in which the main duality is based on nature and culture, culture is built over the opposition of self and the other. It is possible to say that upon that, the West sees the East as the “other” via putting the West in the center of the Western thought. Orientalism is the generic term that Edward Said has been employing to describe the Western approach to the Orient; “Orientalism is the discipline by which the Orient was (and is) approached systematically, as a topic of learning, discovery, and practice” (Said, 1977, p. 74). Kontny states that orientalism in the broadest sense is based on the duality of “us and the other” or “us and them”. According to him, “In the origin of such a dualism, it is necessary to seek the fact that Europe, can develop politically only on the plane of contradiction with the East, that is, as the antagonism of the East”. (Kontny 2002, p. 117). Techno-orientalism forms its main pillars from Edward Said’s conceptualization of orientalism. Technoorientalism is likewise a system of thoughts aimed at guiding East Asian countries for their interests due to the political and economic concerns of the West. In techno-orientalism, the technological progress of East Asia and especially Japan is emphasizing as a source of evil. While orientalism attempts to depict a practice of relations between Europe and the East with its general lines, techno-orientalism expresses the conflict between the United States and East Asian countries. (Becerikli, 2020, p. 1058,1060). Technoorientalism is the ideology and discourse that was formed as a result of Europe and America’s concern to keep modernity in the hands of West as a result of the technological advancement in the Far East, especially in Japan after the Second World War, and which can also be expressed with the concept of Japan Panic (Morley and Robins, 1997, p. 199). Identity definitions, both individually and in the eyes of society, are generally constructed over the other. If the other image construct with an ideological purpose, it usually appears in a lower position than the us. At this point, while Europe is placed at the center and idealized in the traditional Western thought, Eastern cultures positioned at a point where they can reach civilization as they get closer to it and, if they fail to approach given standart, Eastern cultures are doomed to remain barbarians. A recent we-other dichotomy has been built since the 1980s, with the technological breakthroughs of Japan, in a direction shifting from Europe to America. However, the integration of technology with Japan’s closed culture equipped with its mysticisms seems to deconstruct traditional orientalist dualities at some point. The reason for this is Japan’s technological superiority, which has risen to a post-modern position and 201

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 Techno Fantasies of East and West

re-defies the rules for the whole world, rather than the following modernization as in the traditional orientalist view. At this point, in the classical orientalist discourse we (the West) “civilized” and they (the East) “barbarian” conflict, while in techno-orientalism we (the West) “human” and they (East) “robot” contrast stands out (Morley ve Robins, 1997, p. 231). With the focus of technological progress shifting from America to Japan, a belief that the future is Japan is becoming widespread (Ueno, 1999, p. 98). As Japan becomes associated with the carrier of the technological development and questions Western modernity, this stimulates the West to shift into a kind of a defensive position (Morley & Robins, 1997, p. 202). While orientalism has fulfilled the function of creating the identity of the West, techno-orientalism has been established to protect Western identity from future risks (Ueno, 1999, p. 95). However, this type of defensive and othering is at the point of not being accepted in the postmodern world we are in, and according to Reich, this is cultural chauvinism and techno-nationalism. According to Reich, in the context of rapid globalization, the “who are we?” question becomes more and more problematic and irrelevant (Reich, 1987; 1990). One point where the same problem becomes meaningless as well as blurred is the techno-cultural habitus that emerged in societies integrated with technology in the post-modern era and the situation of individuals trying to make sense of themselves in it. As a result of the cultural, scientific, and industrial transformations brought by technological advances, the ontological boundaries of the individual are also consequential with expansion and obscurity. The new-frontiers brought by digitalization and biotechnology transform the definition of what a person is and the space in which defines by. Techno-culture, in this context, undertakes the carrier of a setting that makes it necessary to open up for discussing the areas where the dualities stuck in modernity such as human-machine, real-virtual, West-Eastern. Instead, it seems possible to hope that post-modernity would unite the dualities like a rhizome and open the gateway to new forms of existence. The cyborg, defined by Donna Haraway (1991, 2006, p.2) is a conceptualized form of such integration and hybridization. On the other hand, when it comes to the subject of representation, the orientalist approach to the Far-East based on techno-culture inevitably shows itself in many examples. Although it appears as the geography where many examples of posthuman existence such as artificial intelligence, autonomous machines, and humanoid robots are born, Asia is often stuck in the grip of ideological marginalization. In many examples of the techno-orientalist discourses and narratives, Asians are generally depicted in inhuman-humanism (Sohn, 2008: 8). The 1980s was a period when anti-Japanese (Japanophobic) thought was on the rise, and this is closely linked with techno-orientalism (Rivera, 2014, p.70). This historical period also has meaningful parallelism with the comprehensive existence of the cyber-punk genre in literature and cinema of techno-orientalist elements. The isolation and alienation of individuals in everyday life dominated by technology are associated with the concepts of high tech-low life, which constitutes a robot-like human silhouette. On the opposite side of this, autonomous machines with artificial intelligence also seek for their existence, questioning what makes them less than humans. In such narratives, there is almost a displacement between humanity and the machines. At this point, Philip K. Dick’s work on the determinant of the species, Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?(1968,2019) and The Blade Runner film (1982) adapted by Ridley Scott from his book is exemplary. The theme of the book and the film similarly reveals a depiction of a world that is the uncertainty of the blurring line between who is a robot and who is a human. At this point, the feature that separates the human from the machine is not intelligence or consciousness but empathy. There is an empathy test used to detect robots in both the film and the book. While the dominant theme in the book and film seems to be looking for what separates the human from the machine, it captures a twist with the debate on what it is to actu202

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ally be a human. Another point that stands out in the book and film, but also generally the cyber-punk genre, is the reflection of the dominant projections about Japanese culture on the general atmosphere. Nihonjinron, the Japanese ontological endless search for identity, is seen in examples of the dominant but equally latent aspects of culture. Nihonjinron constructs the traces of Japanese culture in both the individual and the way the living space is represented through a hybrid atmosphere that can defined with techno-mysticism. Besides, cybernetic networks create a kind of punk-alike existence, the elements encountered in the form of representation of techno-cultural structures. These punk-figures are seen in body representations, discourse, and space itself. The cybernetic networks that take over the body also turn the city itself into a kind of web, and there is no trace of nature in this techno-city environment. The city is gloomy, threatening, and alien. With a techno-orientalist point of view, the person who feels uncanny (unheimlich) in this foreign environment as in The Matrix (1999-2003) universe is the Westerner. The Western is marginalized and otherized in this environment. Yet again, this techno-habitat is almost natural for a Far Easterner. It is the case that the city digitized with hyper-reality and simulations and or existing in the cyber-space environment becomes a second-nature. This dark atmosphere of the cyber-punk genre, which also envelops the city with neon lights, often evokes and reminds of Japan. This fiction-future that Japan has not yet reached also contains a sense of nostalgia. In this space where beyond history and geography, this familiar feeling of nostalgia for Japanese posthuman individuals that depend on the web at the techno-otaku level is perhaps due to a lack of familiarity with a distant culture. This mystical culture is incomprehensible and alien to the Westerner in all ages. The representation of the future to the habitants of this culture that evokes an unconventional feeling is not that so extraordinary for this geography. East is the land of the unknown for the Westerner both now and in the past. The element that limits this portrayal of the future from belonging to the West, in which all kinds of pleasure and consumption are linked to technology, is its structure that allows for co-existence beyond the boundaries of modernity. According to David S. Roh, Betsy Huang, and Greta A. Niu, writers and editors of the book “TechnoOrientalism: Imagining Asia in Speculative Fiction, History, and Media”, a fictional world of Asiandominated future is terrifying for West and this fear appears in sci-fi works like William Gibson’s Neuromancer, Ridley Scott’s Blade Runner and the Wachowskis’ The Matrix. The U.S. adaptation of Ghost in the Shell, is heavily influenced by these works, has the equivalent techno-orientalist themes. Besides, the adaptation tunes down the most popular sci-fi anime themes and ideas on human and machine unity and existential question of being human through technology. By doing this, the matter becomes more suitable for the Western audience. In this chapter, we question techno-orientalism concept through analysing 2017 U.S. film: Ghost in the Shell by comparing with the anime through Japanese cultural elements.

GHOST IN THE SHELL: COMPARISON OF THE ANIME AND THE FILM The general perspective of this part is shaped by the interaction of human with technology in philosophical and cultural contexts and the state of orientalism in this interaction. At this point, the sample of the study is Ghost in the Shell (2017), which deconstructs traditional Western thought from some points. The general limitations that make up the analysis repertoire of the study are shaped within the scope of post-human thought. The post-human approach has been found worthy of addressing with technoorientalism at the point of breaking down the logocentric view, founded its continuum with the Ancient

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Age that centered human reached its peak with the Enlightenment. From this point on, the main objectives of the study are as follows: • •

To anatomize the concept of techno-orientalism in a post-human context To create the basis for the dissolution of traditional structural dichotomies on a human-machine basis

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Kōkaku Kidōtai (攻殻機動隊, Ghost in the Shell, 1995) is originally a manga series written and illustrated by Masamune Shirow consist of 3 volumes: Original manga (1989), Ghost in the Shell 1.5: Human-Error Processor (1991), Ghost in the Shell 2: Man-Machine Interface (1997). The original manga sets in 2029 in a fictional Japanese city called New Port City and follows the adventures of members of Public Security Section 9 consists of former military officers and police detectives. In this universe, computer technology has advanced to the point that people can have cyberbrains that allows them to interface their biological brain with digital networks. The heroine of the story, Major-Motoko Kusanagi, is a cyborg who use a full-body prosthesis to hold her cyberbrain after a terrible accident. She is the one and only of her kind and has ultimate skills of combat and hacking. Most of the stories are about ‘ghost-hack’ which is a criminal activity caused by hyper cyberization. Any highly skilled hacker can ghost-hack someone’s cyberbrain and use them as a ‘puppet’ or implant false memories. The manga’s writer and illustrator Shirow insisted the title should be ‘ghost in the shell’ because it is based on the book Ghost in the Machine written by Arthur Koestler in 1967. According to Koestler, the consciousness/spirit (can also be called the mind) of the person; is not an immaterial substance that flows independently of the body but is evolved, and integrated with it. The creators of Ghost in the Shell manga and anime embraced the idea that a computer program can also have free will, based on Koestler’s secular view of human beings. To Shirow and director Oshii, machines or machine parts can attain a consciousness/soul. In other words, inanimate/unconscious components can create a living/conscious structure. However, Koestler’s concept of “soul in the machine” has an ironic sense: Actually, there is no consciousness/soul in the machine; the machine (i.e. the body) is equal to consciousness/soul. Cartesian thought based on the separation of body and consciousness/soul/mind is criticized here. Whereas anime; marks this matter in the path of sacred and approaches the human soul/consciousness being able to transfer from bodies and exist without the need for one. The unity of the Puppet Master and Motoko in the same body is almost a spiritual experience with an angel image that appears for a second in the finale. Here the unification of the human and technology is blessed and, in a sense, celebrated. Ghost in the Shell becomes a big franchise after the success of the original manga. The media franchise (except video games) are: • • • • • • • 204

Ghost in the Shell, 1995 anime feature, Ghost in the Shell 2: Innocence, a 2004 (partly) sequel to the 1995 anime, Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex, a 2002-2006 2 season anime television series that tell a parallel story to the original manga (the second season is known as 2nd Gig), Ghost in the Shell: Solid State Society, a 2006 TV movie after the Stand Alone Complex television series, Ghost in the Shell: Arise, a 2013-2015 anime television series which is a prequel to original story, Ghost in the Shell: The New Movie, a 2015 anime feature after the Arise television series, Ghost in the Shell (2017), U.S. live-action adaptation of 1995 anime feature and 2nd GIG,

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•

Ghost in the Shell: SAC 2045, a 2020 anime Netfix series follows Stand Alone Complex.

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Figure 1. Kōkaku Kidōtai Original Manga Cover

Mamoru Oshii’s 1995 anime feature adapted from Shirow’s manga did not gain a great commercial success in Japan but evoked admiration for science fiction enthusiasts, film critics, and filmmakers for its philosophical background and visual elements. Director Mamoru Oshii’s darker and seriously taken interpretation of the plot of the manga’s human/technology relationship in the film is one reason for the anime’s prestige. The film has its original discoveries for the science-fiction genre with its visual style that combines traditional animation with CGI (computer-generated image) method and is on realistic movements. The plot as follows: In 2029, the future-world is connected with a massive digital network and, people can join the network with their consciousness also transfer it to the artificial bodies. Major Motoko Kusanagi, is an Section 9 agent and appears as a young woman who exists with an artificial body that gives superior physical features, is tasked with finding a hacker named Puppet Master. Capturing or hacking the bodies of others, it turns out that the Puppet Master is not a human being, but a program

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produced by the government but subsequently declaring freedom. In the finale of the anime, Motoko catches the Puppet Master in a body, and she enters the body to be able to speak to the Puppet Master. Motoko, whose own body is destroyed, awakens in the artificial body of a girl, united with the Puppet Master. When the moment they unite Motoko sees a spirit for a second. At last, Motoko will continue as half-human, half-machine, half program, who has become a whole with the Puppet Master. The wedding song, composed by Kenji Kawai, that plays in the beginning of the anime finds meaning with this finale. Table 1. General information of Ghost in the Shell (1995)

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Ghost in the Shell (1995) Kōkaku Kidōtai (攻殻機動隊) Director: Mamoru Oshii Screenplay: Kazunori Itō (Based on Ghost in the Shell by Masamune Shirow) Starring: Atsuko Tanaka, Akio Ōtsuka, Iemasa Kayumi Music: Kenji Kawai Cinematography: Hisao Shirai Editor: Shūichi Kakesu, Shigeyuki Yamamori Producers: Yoshimasa Mizuo, Ken Matsumoto, Ken Iyadomi, Mitsuhisa Ishikawa Production companies: Production I.G, Bandai Visual, Manga Entertainment Running time: 82 mins. Country: Japan

Oshii also written and directed Ghost in the Shell 2: Innocence which is partly a sequel. In this anime; after a series of murders due to malfunctioning ‘sex robots’, Section 9 agents Batou and Togusa find out that a gynoid company kidnapped young girls and duplicated their consciousnesses into the sex robots. Therefore these doll-like sex robots have human ‘ghosts’ and human-like performances. In this universe, the brains of all people are transformed into “cyberbrains” and their consciousness is connected to a digital information network that covers the whole city. Thus, the interface has disappeared and the cyberbrain can directly decode of the data stream. The word “dive” is used in this universe instead of “surf” which is used to surfing the internet in everyday slang. In both uses, a sea of information is pointed out, but there is no longer a structure on its surface that is navigated by a vehicle, but directly entered into it, diving to the bottom. Besides, people have the opportunity to enhance their bodies through technological interventions. Motoko replaced his entire body with a cyborg “shell”, leaving only her brain authenthic. What distinguishes Motoko from AI programs and robots is that she has a human-specific “ghost”. Human memories, thoughts, emotional backgrounds, briefly mind constitute the concept of ghost. But; ghosts that point to the human soul can be controlled by highly advanced users. This gives the information network a mystical meaning. This situation can be considered in parallel with the concept of the “force” in the Star Wars series. However, while the mystical is materialized in Star Wars, technology is mystified here. Arthur C. Clarke’s precept, “A sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguishable from magic” seems to have worked in this vision of the future. “Wireless” technology that spreads everywhere and is invisible; has a magical structure by being the subject of control. At the beginning of the anime, Motoko’s jump from a tall building and disappearing into the city landscape can be read in this context. Thus, Motoko is not plugged to the network like in The Matrix series, but is a wireless existence. The anime addresses future Japan at a depressive point: people are frustrated and miserable. The city consists of giant skyscrapers and wasted, dirty slums at their feet. Besides, the struggle of many authority

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hubs has brought political corruption. In this atmosphere, Motoko feels like a prisoner inside the semimachine body and is in an identity-questioner. As such, the film carries a cynical view and criticism of Japan’s postmodern era. Motoko/semi-machine existence as representing the individual living in the postmodern period finds peace when united with the spirit of the machine-Puppet Master, meaning and order are found within technology. Here, the gods and robots as binary entities that are not imperfect and deserve perfection be interpreted in two alternatives: First, the deification or mystification of technique and technology; second, the materialization of God, nature. Both of these aspects have resulted in the acculturation of nature or the construction of second nature. In the film, this phenomenon becomes concrete as the city is a massive network. In Ghost in the Shell anime, Motoko, who gives up her cyborg body and chooses to be a ghost who freely wanders in the information network by being integrated with the Puppet Master, an artificial intelligence developed enough to form her self, appears as an angel substitute in Innocence. In the finale of the Innocence, Motoko enters one of the androids to help Batou, that is, she becomes like a god or avatar that is religiously embodied, and she acts as a kind of guardian angel for Batou, telling Batou that she will always be with him even though she is not visible. In the series, the relationship between robot and human discussed in two directions as “what makes humanity’s essence?” and “what separates the other from the human?” In the first anime, the artificial enters the human body, that is to be humanized, whereas in Innocence, what belongs to the human being is made an artificial by copying the ghosts of young girls into sex robots. In Ghost in the Shell (1995), Puppet Master searches for a body for himself and finds Motoko, who is completely artificial except for her brain, and persuades her to join him. The two become one to co-exist. The unification of Motoko’s “ghost” (that is the spirit that still makes her human), blended with Puppet Master’s ability to navigate through the web of knowledge and the fluidity to enter the body from the body has emerged an almost divine being. The animistic elements of Shinto belief mentioned before can be clearly seen in the context of human and technology relations. The U.S. live-action adaptation of the 1995 anime released in 2017 starring Scarlett Johansson as Major Mira Killian / Motoko Kusanagi. Like the original feature, film sets in the near future when the line between the human and the technology blurs. The story of the film is a combination of the the original source and television series Stand Alone Complex 2nd Gig. It also has some elements from the sequel Innocence. The plot as follows: In the near future, human organs are enhanced by the cybernetics technology developed by the Hanka Robotics Corporation which is also responsible for the development of a secret project called 2571 of a full mechanical body to be connected to a human brain. Hanka uses the brain of a young woman that lost her parents in an attack as subject of a prototype. One year later, the woman, Major Mira Killian (Scarlett Johansson), has joined Section 9, an anti-terrorist department. She needs to use a medicine to help the integration of her brain with the mechanical body and has no recollections of her previous life. When Section 9 seeks for a criminal known as Kuze (Michael Carmen Pitt), Major learns the secrets about Hanka Robotics’ experiment she was subjected to and finds her real name: Motoko and her mother. Then she tries to find Kuze, who has managed to hack into the cyberbrains to control them. It reveals that Kuze’s real name is Hideo and he was kidnapped and used for the project 2571 together with Motoko. It appears Kuze and Motoko both are the victims of the Hanka Robotics Corporation.

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Table 2. General information of Ghost in the Shell (2017)

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Ghost in the Shell (2017) Director: Rupert Sanders Screenplay: Jamie Moss, William Wheeler, Ehren Kruger (Based on Ghost in the Shell by Masamune Shirow) Starring: Scarlett Johansson, Michael Carmen Pitt, Pilou Asbæk, Chin Han, Juliette Binoche, Takeshi Kitano Music: Clint Mansell, Lorne Balfe Cinematography: Jess Hall Editor: Neil Smith, Billy Rich Producers: Avi Arad, Steven Paul, Michael Costigan Production companies: DreamWorks Pictures, Reliance Entertainment, Arad Productions Running time: 106 mins Country: United States

Kuze has taken from television series Stand Alone Complex 2nd Gig. In the film, as in the 2nd Gig, Kuze is a leader figure for the refugees and he tries to create a network from refugees’ cyberbrains. However, unlike the film, Kuze promises to refugees that they can leave their bodies and continue to live in the network he created in 2nd Gig. Because; after the wars, about three million Asians became refugees and were invited into Japan as a source of cheap labor. Then, they become unemployed in the period and their social unrest turns into a conflict. It turns out that head of the Cabinet Intelligence Service is behind all that conflict. Motoko and Batou kill him before he can defect to the American Empire. As it clearly be seen that both original anime and 2nd Gig have a subplot includes a political corruption. One of the screenwriters of 2nd Gig states that he wanted to “express irresponsibility of the Japanese when they voted for the politicians that planned to send Japanese troops to Iraq and Afghanistan” (Scally, Drummond-Mathews & Hairston, 2007, p.330) in the time of Iraq War. This self-criticising attitude is similar to Barefoot Gen (1983) which blames the Japanese army in World War II as the plot of 2nd Gig follows the situation after fictional 3rd and 4th World Wars. The U.S. version completely skip this kind of political subplots and only shows that the corruption comes from an evil corporation Hanka Robotics and its head Cutter. In science fiction animes like Akira, Nausicaä or Metropolis there is a catastrophic event similar to nuclear bombs exploded in Hiroshima and Nagazaki. The salvation comes from humble individualistic and social efforts in these narratives resembles a solidarity feeling. We can find traces of this solidarity feeling in Miyazaki’s animes, too. Kuze says to Motoko that “Salvation is possible when all the minds be together as a spiritual being” in the finale of 2nd Gig. However; in popular Hollywood narratives, salvation is always invidualistic and when hero defeats the villain the conflict dissolves. We can follow this individualistic pattern in U.S. version in context of human and technology relation. In the original anime, Motoko and Puppet Master become one and they create a new entity from themselves. But in live-action film Mira/Motoko doesn’t want to enter Kuze’s network to live with him without an autonomous body. We can find the ideological roots of this decision of screenwriters in the religious and cultural difference between Judeo-Christianism and Shintoism again. Susan Napier points out that: While the American films seem to privilege a kind of individual humanism as a last resort against the encroaching forces of technology and capitalism, Ghost in the Shell simply repudiates the constraints of the contemporary industrialized world to suggest that a union of technology and the spirit can ultimately succeed (2005, p. 114).

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Thus, artificial devices can possess spirits in Japanese culture but it is assumed this tought is hard for Western audience to comprehend. However; it’s interesting that in 2nd Gig (director of the original anime Oshii participated as a supervisor) Motoko makes the same decision with the U.S. adaptation. So we can assume that this decision also works with the dramatical continuity of a possible sequel. In Innocence, ghosts of kidnapped young girls are duplicated to doll-like sex robots. These ‘geisha robots’ can also be seen in U.S. adaptation as well. These robots have a traditional style by their gentle behaviours, traditional make up and costumes at first look. But when they hacked they can be deadly and they remove the beauty mask to reveal their ‘automata skeleton’. These skeletons have a unique design that resembles automatas of Victorian Age. In this age, Europeans were fascinated by these human-like, self moving automatas. We, as audience, encounter with a similar image in an episode of Netflix animation series Love, Death & Robots (2019). In this episode named Good Hunting (Oliver Thomas) sets in early 20th century colonized China, a shapeshifting fox-like spirit Yan begins to lose her shapeshifting magic because of modernisation process of China. Then she forcibly subjected to a surgery that transformed her organic body into a machine and turns into a cyborg sex toy. Then, she looks like a beautiful Victorian automata. In this apperreance, she seems like a symbol of Western techno-orientalist look towards Eastern women. But Yan’s old friend replaces and upgrades her mechanical body with a flexible chrome body and she can transform into a robotic shapeshifting fox-like spirit again to hunt down European man. Beautiful Yan can beat the techno-orientalist look towards her by an upper level technology and own a posthumanist position. Motoko and Yan look like they resemble technofeminist ideals, as well. The casting of Caucasian actors, especially Scarlett Johansson, is another issue of orientalism about Ghost in the Shell. The producers of the live-action film faced accusations of racism and “whitewashing” especially in the United States. However, Japanese director Mamoru Oshii of the original anime tells about this situation in an interview (2017) that there is no basis for saying that an Asian actress must portray Major and artistic expression must be free from politics since a political motive is in charge for people opposing it in United States. In addition to this, it seems that Japanese culture has no such concerns because in mangas and animes the characters don’t look like “Asian” since Osamu Tezuka’s Disney style big eyed characters became dominant in animes since 60’s. Therefore, the American adaptation became a box office success in Japan. In addition Japan critics and otakus (manga and anime fans) praised the live-action film rather than the original anime. Some critics said that (Sun, 2017), the reason for the film’s success is the dominant Western beauty standards in Japan. The famous actress Scarlet Johansson’s role is important for this issue because she has a strong sci-fi persona by the films such as The Island (Michael Bay, 2005; portrayed a clone), Her (Spike Jones, 2013; dubbed an A.I.), Under the Skin (Jonathan Glazer, 2013; portrayed an alien), Lucy (Luc Besson, 2014; portrayed a ordinary woman transformes into a super-human) and Natasha Romanoff / Black Widow in Marvel Cinematic Universe which was a Russian agent and later joined The Avengers. The 35 years old New Yorker actress is also an international beauty icon. Producers of the film tried to backlash the whitewashing accusations by a little screenwriting trick: In the final of the film it’s revealed that Mira is actually the brain of a Japanese runaway called Motoko Kusanagi with her memories wiped by Hanka Robotics.

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Table 3. Ghost in the Shell (2017) beyond Westernistic dualities

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FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS The animes, which are one of the most important cultural export object of Japan, a country outside the West but under the influence of the West; important research objects for understanding where social and cultural change coincides, and can come in the Zeitgeist. Anime series and films requires further academic analysis, especially as it provides a rich frame of reference for discussing the concepts of politics, technology and science, belief and gender.

CONCLUSION Gender, ideologies, color of our skin, the geography we were born in, our social status, the education we received: what defines us as humans? Or what makes it even more complicated: why do we need any definition? We as a human, objectify ourselves and attempt to build identity by looking through the eyes of the other, in order to be me. However, as we define what makes us by the limitations of any language or any signifier, we are trapped in a pattern. The more we look through the eyes of the other, the more we become alienated from ourselves. The truths standardized by the other, or society in its plural form, begin to define us, thus marginalizing us. While the subject of all kinds of utopias includes individuals who are purged of otherness, the basis of dystopias is human exile. We do not know where technology will take us in the future and where it will overcome the limitations of our mind and body. But the thing is, ever since we took the first piece of bone in our hands and used it as a tool, we have created a second nature for ourselves. We evolved through technology as much as we developed technology. The vision of a future where technology will turn humanity into the other and exclude is perhaps the greatest dystopia of human beings. The questions here perhaps should be about why we are in schizophrenia that fear the possible future we will create. Isn’t it possible that we choose to substitute a techno-phobic dystopia for the imagination of the posthuman future as selffulfilling prophecy? Since this is an academical work, there must be a conclusion. But, as the writers of this book chapter we are not sure there must be any. When all the issues about techno-orientalism are related to stereotyping and generalization, we want to leave an open gate for vagueness, like our analysis material Ghost in the Shell (1995). Maybe it’s better to not know where to go from here when “the net is vast and infinite” as Motoko Kusanagi says in the final of the anime.

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REFERENCES Becerikli, R. (2020). Wolverine (2013) Filminin Tekno-Oryantalizm Bağlamında İncelenmesi. Erciyes İletişim, 7(2), 1055–1076. Braidotti, R. (2013). The Posthuman. Poity. Brüll, L. (1997). Japon Felsefesi: Bir Giriş, (Tra. M. Tüzel). Kabalcı Yayınevi. Dick, P. K. (2019). Androidler Elektrikli Koyun Düşler Mi? (Tra. N. Yener). Alfa. Gibson, W. (2016). Neuromancer, (Tra. S. Oğur). Altıkırkbeş.

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Haraway, D. (2006). Siborg Manifestosu, (Tra. O. Akınhay). Agora. Ito, J. (2010). Why Westerners Fear Robots and the Japanese Do Not. Wired. https://www.wired.com/ story/ideas-joi-ito-robot-overlords Koestler, A. (1967). The Ghost in the Machine. Macmillan. Kontny, O. (2002). Üçgenin Tabanını Yok Sayan Pythagoras: Oryantalizm ve Ataerkillik Üzerine. Doğu Batı, 20, 117–135. Morley, D., & Robins, K. (1997). Kimlik Mekanları Küresel Medya, Elektronik Ortamlar ve Kültürel Sınırlar. Ayrıntı. Napier, S. J. (2005). Anime from Akira to Howl’s Moving Castle, Updated Edition: Experiencing Contemporary Japanese Animation. St. Martin’s Press. Osborn, A. (2017). Original Ghost in the Shell Director Mamoru Oshii Has No Problem with Live-Action Remake. IGN. https://www.ign.com/articles/2017/03/21/original-ghost-in-the-shell-director-mamoruoshii-has-no-problem-with-live-action-remake Reich, R. (1987). The Rise of techno-nationalism. Atlantic Monthly, 63(9). Reich, R. (1990). Who is us? Harvard Business Review, (January-February), 53–65. Rivera, T. (2014). Do Asians Dream of Electric Shrieks? Techno-Orientalism and Erotohistoriographic Masochism in Eidos Montreal’s Deus Ex: Human Revolution. Amerasia Journal, 40(2), 67–86. doi:10.17953/amer.40.2.j012284wu6230604 Roh, D. S., Huang, B., & Niu, G. A. (2015). Techno-Orientalism: Imagining Asia in Speculative Fiction, History, and Media. Rutgers University Press. doi:10.36019/9780813570655 Said, E. (1977). Orientalism. Penguin Books. Scally, D., Drummond-Mathews, A., & Hairston, M. (3 September 2007). Interview with Murase Shūkō and Satō Dai. In Mechademia 4: War/Time (pp. 330–333). University of Minnesota Press. Sohn, S. H. (2008). Introduction:Alien/Asian:Imagining the Racialized Future. Melus, 33(4), 5–22. doi:10.1093/melus/33.4.5

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Sun, R. (2017, Mar. 21). ‘Ghost in the Shell’: 4 Japanese Actresses Dissect the Movie and Its Whitewashing Twist. The Hollywood Reporter. Ueno, T. (1999). Techno-Orientalism and Media-Tribalism: On Japanese Animation and Rave Culture. Third Text, 13(47), 95–106. doi:10.1080/09528829908576801

ADDITIONAL READING Akşit, O. O. (2017). Japon Anime Sinemasında Modernite Eleştirisi: Fantezi ve Bilim Kurgu Animeleri Üzerine Bir İnceleme. Akademik Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi. Year, 5(55), 120–133.

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De Mul, J. (2010). Cyberspace Odyssey: Towards a Virtual Ontology and Anthropology. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Favaro, A., & Akşit, O. O. (2014). Zihinsel Haritaların Ve Deneyimin Dönüşümü: Total Recall. Humanities Sciences, 9(2), 11–26. Kitano, N. (2007). Animism, Rinri, Modernization; the Base of Japanese Robotics. http://www.roboethics.org/icra2007/contributions/KITANO%20Animism%20Rinri%20Modernization%20the%20Base%20 of%20Japanese%20Robo.pdf. Access Date: 03.12.20. Oktan, A. (2019). Sibernetik Kabuk: Ghost in the Shell Filmlerinde Bedenin İnşası. Journal of History School (JOHS) February 2019. Year, 12(XXXVIII), 270–303. Robins, K., & Morley, D. (1991). Japan Panic. Marxism Today, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282816826_Japan_Panic. Access Date: 20.11.20.

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

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Cyborg: Hybrid term to describe hybrid entities, which is a combination of the words cybernetics and organism. Deconstructivism: A project to reveal the otherness that lies behind the dominant meanings of the Western category within the text. Hyper-Reality: The postmodern condition covers all of the distractions that detain from reality. Japan Panic: Westernistic dread of Japanese ascension, economically and technologically. Logocentric Bias: Centering Western reasoning in thought and discourse. Nihonjinron: A genre of text that raises the culturally and historically unalterable uniqueness of the Japanese nation. Post-History and Geography: Virtual dimension where time and space dissolved. Rhizome: Multiplicity and coexistence rather than singular, linear and hierarchical ones. Second Nature: Cultural habitat, human-made nature. Techno-Animism: Belief in the existence of spiritual vitality within technological entities.

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Chapter 13

Orientalism Revisited: Orientalism as Fashion

Elvan Ozkavruk Adanir Faculty of Fine Arts and Design, Izmir University of Economics, Turkey Berna Ileri Faculty of Fine Arts, Canakkale 18 Mart University, Turkey

ABSTRACT Orientalism is a Western and Western-centric broad feld of research that studies the social structures, cultures, languages, histories, religions, and geographies of countries to the east of Europe. The term took on a secondary, detrimental association in the 20th century which looks down on the East. However, this chapter will not dwell on the defnition of Orientalism that is debated the most; instead, it will discuss the positive contribution of Orientalism to Western culture. Even though the West otherizes the East in daily life, when it comes to desire, vanity, luxury, and famboyance without hesitating a moment it adopts these very elements from the Eastern culture. It could be said that this adaptation brings these societies closer in one way or another. The highly admired fashion of Orientalism in the West starting from the 17th century until the 21st century will be the focus of this study.

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INTRODUCTION Orientalism or Oriental Studies is a Western and Western-centric, broad field of research that studies the social structures, cultures, languages, histories, religions, and geographies of countries to the east of Europe, including the whole of Africa and Asia, and the Near East, Middle East, and Far East (Yildirim, 2003, p.19). It can be said, however, that the term Orientalism took on a secondary, detrimental association in the twentieth century. A prominent scholar who used the term in a derogatory manner was the Palestinian writer Edward Said. Whilst not the best of his work, Orientalism is probably his best-known book (Lazarus, 2007, p.160). Lewis (2007) talks about how the term “Orientalist” has been so tarnished as to become unusable ever again. He mentions that in 1973, the 29th International Congress of Orientalists which met in Paris DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch013

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officially abandoned the term “Orientalism” and changed their name to the “International Congress of Asian and North African Studies” (p.223). Orientalism continues to be the subject of debate even today. However, this study will not dwell on the definition of Orientalism that is debated the most, which looks down on the East as Lewis states, and which is the most widely recognized definition of the term. What will be discussed is the fear, hatred, and subsequent enchantment that the West feels towards the East; in short, the Orientalism that is a type of fashion in which the East influences the West, particularly exemplified in the case of the Ottoman Empire and the lands within its boundaries. Europeans’ interest in Eastern culture became regular, or permanent, starting from the fifteenthsixteenth centuries, owing to the diplomatic, commercial, and artistic relations between the two regions. Merchants who returned to Europe with wares they acquired in the East, such as silk, carpets, and jewels, told tales of the mysterious East that piqued Europeans’ interest. Merchants who published books describing their adventures in the East include Chevalier, Chardin, Jean Baptise, Tavernier, Olearius, and Cornelius de Bruyn. Their books allowed the art and culture of Eastern civilizations to become better known by wider circles of aristocratic audiences, and they increased Western interest in Eastern art and philosophy (Day, 2003, p.92). Over time, this interest in the East continued to develop and grow. In the late eighteenth century, the political environment, financial relations between countries, influence of archeological discoveries, and Romanticism movement allowed Orientalist fashion to assume a permanent place of residence in Europe. Even though Orientalism acquired a negative connotation in the twentieth century, it continued to have a positive influence to fashion designers. It could be said that Orientalist style reached its zenith in the first half of the twentieth century (Steele, 2005c, p.5). French designer Paul Poiret (1879-1944) was the most well-known couturier who was inspired by the East. Between 1910 and 1924 he spearheaded the first phase of art deco fashion. This phase blossomed out of neoclassical, Oriental, and peasant stylings while the second was more minimalist in style (Steele, 2005a, p.76). The West otherizes the East in daily life, viewing the Eastern “other” as decadent and full of intrigue, but when it comes to desire, vanity, luxury, and flamboyance, without hesitating a moment, the West adopts these very elements that criticizes in Eastern culture. It could be argued that this adaptation brings these societies closer in a sense. In brief, this study intends to discuss the highly admired fashion of Orientalism in the West, in other words, the cultural and stylistic side of the movement starting from the seventeenth century until the twenty-first century.

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BACKGROUND Edward Said admits that there are “different types of orientalism” and this “cultural phenomenon” will continue to be discussed owing to its “variability and unpredictability” (Keller, 2013, p.7). Rosenthal quotes Said’s definition, “Orientalism in Western literature is a mode of thought for defining, classifying, and expressing the presumed cultural inferiority of the Islamic Orient: In short, it is a part of the vast control mechanism of colonialism, designed to justify and perpetuate European dominance,” and explains that he is not going to use this analysis in his study. He says that, “French Orientalist painting will be discussed in terms of its aesthetic quality and historical interest, and no attempt will be made at a re-evaluation of its political uses” (Rosenthal, 1982, p.9). After Edward Said’s inspiring work Orientalism in 1978, Linda Nochlin was one of the first art historians who related Orientalist theory to art history. She criticizes Rosenthal for, not attempting to 215

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re-evaluate Oriental theory in his study and says, “Having raised the two crucial issues of political domination and ideology, Rosenthal drops them like hot potatoes” (Nochlin, 1989, p.34). She asks, “How then should we deal with this art?”, then continues to discuss different perspectives of art historians regarding Orientalist paintings of the nineteenth century. Nochlin concludes, “As a fresh visual territory to be investigated by scholars armed with historical and political awareness and analytic sophistication, Orientalism-or rather its deconstruction-offers a challenge to art historians, as do many other similarly obfuscated of our discipline” (Nochlin, 1989, p.57). Ziauddin Sardar’s Orientalism defies Said’s homonymous work in terms of its content as well as the criticism it wields. In the foreword to this work, he states that Orientalism is understood and expressed in disparate ways, leading to mutual misunderstandings. Therefore, those who wish to discuss Orientalism should strive to go beyond these misunderstandings and uncover what cannot be seen, and the picture that has been distorted through centuries of myopic study should be viewed from another angle (Türer, 2002, p.150). Lowe’s seminal book Critical Terrains: French and British Orientalism “treats orientalism as a tradition of representation that is crossed, intersected, and engaged by other representations” (2018, p.ix). It was argued that her study “works against the historical desire to view the occidental conception of the oriental Other as an unchanging topos, the origin of which is European man’s curiosity about nonEuropean world” (Lowe, 2018, p.6). Its aim was “to challenge and resist the binary logic of otherness by historicizing the critical strategy of identifying otherness as a discursive mode of production itself” (Lowe, 2018, p.29). “The Orient” has been used to refer to different geographies throughout the centuries. In most eighteenth-century texts “the Orient” signifies Turkey, the Levant, and the Arabian Peninsula occupied by the Ottoman Empire. In the nineteenth century North Africa was added to the Orient’s definition, and finally in the twentieth century “the Orient” came to signify mostly Central and Southeast Asia (Lowe, 2018, p.7). Martin and Koda (1994) believe that, “The rich textiles and traditions of dress of the East transcend language barriers” and “Eastern ideas of textile, design, construction, and utility have been realized again and again as a positive contribution to the culture of the West” (pp.10-11). They say, “The West has tested Eastern materials and ideas in dress and has approved and immediately assimilated them, often faddishly” (Martin&Koda, 1994, p.11). According to them, dress has always been political, portable and “as one of the art forms most susceptible to new knowledge and expanded horizons, it has accommodated a changing world” (Martin & Koda, 1994, p.12).

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ORIENTAL CARPETS IN EUROPE Many goods have been traded between the East and West for centuries. Textiles, apparel, and carpets have been the most remarkable ones. Exports of Anatolian and other Oriental carpets to North and West Europe are documented from the eleventh century, but the decisive evidence about their influence on Europe is about 1450’s (Schoeser, 2003, p.116). Turkish rugs played a large part in acquainting Europeans with Ottoman and Eastern culture. In medieval Britain, piled carpets were laid in front of the altars in churches during ceremonies; they were not used as floor coverings. Until the middle of the seventeenth century the floors of British palaces, aristocratic or burgher houses were covered with layers of rush, grass, or straw. German traveler Paul Hentzner wrote in Travels in England that the audience 216

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hall’s floor in the palace at Greenwich was covered with straw in 1598 (Galea-Blanc, 1996, p.278). The British became familiar with Turkish carpets only after they were imported from Anatolia. The British geographer and historian Richard Hakluyt gave important information about the British travelers who traveled to East in his book called Voyages and Discoveries. According to him, in the years 1511 and 1512 until the year 1534 the ships of London, namely, The Christopher Campion, with certain other ships from Southampton and Bristow, had ordinary and regular trade with Sicilia, Candia, Chios, Cyprus, Tripoli and Beirut. The commodities which they brought with them were fine kerseys of different colors, course kerseys, and various cotton cloths; the commodities with which they returned were silks, camlets, wines, olive oil, cotton, pepper, cinnamon, various other spices, and Turkish carpets (Hakluyt, 1887, p.175). In 1518, after long talks between Cardinal Thomas Wolsey and the Lord Chancellor and Venetian merchants that were initiated by Henry VIII, eight Damascus rugs were purchased, followed by 60 more rugs in 1520. These are most likely akin to the rugs depicted in the portraits of Henry VIII and his family that were painted by Holbein (Galea-Blanc, 1996, p.279). Nearly 500 rugs were included in a 1547 inventory of Henry VIII’s belongings, most of which were Turkish carpets purchased from Venice (Mack, 2005, p.134). During the mid-sixteenth century, the Muscovy Company and English Turkey Company imported carpets from Turkey and Persia. The East India Company, which was chartered by Queen Elizabeth I in 1601, imported many carpets from Turkey, Persia, and Moghul India during the second half of seventeenth century (Galea-Blanc, 1996, p.279). Richard Hakluyt dispatched Morgan Hubblethorne, who was a dyer, to Persia in 1579 to learn everything about dying; he also gave him orders to bring a good workman in the art of Turkish carpet weaving. He quotes “You should bring the art into this realm, and also there by increase work to your company” (Hakluyt, 1886, p.126). Turkish and other oriental carpets were used as rare and luxury items by kings, queens, and aristocrats until the middle of the seventeenth century in Britain (Schoeser, 2003, p.116).

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REVELATION OF ORIENTALISM IN FASHION The chronicles of European merchants who traversed the Ottoman Empire sowed the seeds of an imaginary East in the minds of their readers. There had been European aristocrats dressing in the same manner as Turks since the sixteenth century. Sources state that during the reign of Henry VIII, the Count of Essex attended a Sunday feast prior to Lent dressed in the Turkish fashion. Turkish fashions eventually moved from being a personal choice to a more widespread occurrence in palace festivities at the courts of the Habsburgs and other reigning families. Ottoman outfits were also used in Eastern-themed plays, ballets, and operas. The Ottoman theme was used in 1662 at a dressage tournament to celebrate the birth of the French prince Louis (Le Grand), the first son of King Louis XIV; and in 1745 at a masquerade to celebrate the French heir apparent Louis’s marriage to Princess Maria Teresa of Spain (Williams, 2015, p.63). The Ottoman theme was not limited solely to court festivities in France. Similar entertainments held at the Saxony palace in Dresden also shared the same theme. A watercolor painting depicting a parade in February 1607 depicts the Saxonian elector Christian II and other royals dressed in the Turkish fashion. It is thought that one of the many watercolor painting albums depicting life in the Ottoman Empire that were published towards the end of the sixteenth century inspired these clothing choices (Williams, 2015, p.66).

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References to the Ottoman world at palace celebrations in Dresden became more common towards the end of the seventeenth century, during the reign of Elector Friedrich Augustus I (Augustus the Strong), who first assumed the Polish throne under the moniker Augustus II in 1697 (Williams, 2015, p.67). Starting from the reign of Stefan Batory (1576-86), Polish kings used Turkish fashions and armament styles as status symbols. In the same vein, certain Polish aristocrats commissioned paintings of themselves wearing clothes resembling kaftans, and holding Turkish-style ceremonial weapons, the gürz and the şeşper (Williams, 2015, p.68). Johann George Spiegel, who travelled across the Ottoman Empire as part of a Saxonian-Polish committee, was sent to Istanbul by Augustus in the spring of 1713 to buy various wares, and the purchase list included a large number of tents, weapons, rugs, cushions, and clothes (Williams, 2015, p.70). Shortly after the One Thousand and One Nights was translated into French by Antoine Galland (17041717), Montesquieu published the book Lettres Persanes, a fairytale that takes place in the Iranian court. Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, wife of the British ambassador in Istanbul and the first European woman to be invited into the harem, wrote letters about the lifestyles, ideas, and mannerisms of the women of the Ottoman court. These letters were published posthumously in 1763 (Day, 2003, p.92). Lady Mary Wortley Montagu described her Turkish style clothes in every detail in the letter she wrote in 1717:

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I am now in my Turkish habit, though I believe you would be of my opinion, that ‘tis admirably becoming.— I intend to send you my picture; in the meantime accept of it here. The first part of my dress is a pair of drawers, very full that reach to my shoes, and conceal the legs more modestly than your petticoats. They are of a thin rose-coloured damask, brocaded with silver flowers. My shoes are of white kid leather, embroidered with gold. Over this hangs my smock, of a fine white silk gauze, edged with embroidery. This smock has wide sleeves hanging half way down the arm, and is closed at the neck with a diamond button; but the shape and colour of the bosom is very well to be distinguished through it.—The antery (entari) is a waistcoat, made close to the shape, of white and gold damask, with very long sleeves falling back, and fringed with deep gold fringe, and should have diamond or pearl buttons. My caftan, of the same stuff with my drawers, is a robe exactly fitted to my shape, and reaching to my feet, with very long strait falling sleeves. Over this is my girdle, of about four fingers broad, which, all that can afford it, have entirely of diamonds or other precious stones; those who will not be at that expense, have it of exquisite embroidery on satin (sic); but it must be fastened before with a clasp of diamonds.—The curdee is a loose robe they throw off, or put on, according to the weather, being of a rich brocade (mine is green and gold) either lined with ermine or sables; the sleeves reach very little below the shoulders. The head dress is composed of a cap, called talpock, which is, in winter, of fine velvet embroidered with pearls or diamonds, and in summer, of a light shining silver stuff. This is fixed on one side of the head, hanging a little way down with a gold tassel, and bound on, either with a circle of diamonds (as I have seen several) or a rich embroidered handkerchief. On the other side of the head, the hair is laid flat; and here the ladies are at liberty to shew their fancies; some putting flowers, others a plume of heron’s feathers, and, in short, what they please; but the most general fashion is a large bouquet of jewels, made like natural flowers; that is, the buds, of pearl; the roses, of different coloured rubies: the jessamines, of diamonds; the jonquils, of topazes, &c. so well set and enameled, ‘tis hard to imagine anything of that kind so beautiful. The hair hangs at its full length behind, divided into tresses braided with pearl or ribbon, which is always in great quantity. I never saw in my life so many

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fine heads of hair. In one lady’s, I have counted a hundred and ten of the tresses, all natural; but it must be owned, that every kind of beauty is more common here than with us. ‘Tis surprising to see a young woman that is not very handsome. They have naturally the most beautiful complexion in the world, and generally large black eyes. I can assure you with great truth, that the court of England (though I believe it the fairest in Christendom) does not contain so many beauties as are under our protection here. They generally shape their eye-brows, and both Greeks and Turks have the custom of putting round their eyes a black tincture, that, at a distance, or by candle-light, adds very much to the blackness of them. I fancy many of our ladies would be overjoyed to know this secret, but ‘tis too visible by day. They dye their nails a rose colour; but, I own, I cannot enough accustom myself to this fashion, to find any beauty in it. (Letter XXIX, para 2) In the same letter, Lady Montagu mentioned that how veils effectively disguise Turkish women, and she said, “This perpetual masquerade gives them entire liberty of following their inclinations, without danger of discovery” (Letter XXIX, para 3). According to Lowe (2018), “For Montagu to call the Turkish woman’s veil a masquerade is to transfer these specifically English associations to Turkish women’s society, to interpret the Turkish context by means of an ideologically charged English classification, and to attribute to Turkish women a powerful ability to subvert the traditional cultural systems of sexuality and class relations” (pp. 44-45).

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ORIENTALISM IN EIGHTEENTH CENTURY FASHION Wearing masks and celebrating festivals has been a tradition in Europe for centuries. In the eighteenth century, the masquerade as an open-air event became very popular. It was introduced as a form of public entertainment in London in 1710, and in Paris in 1715. People from all different classes could attend the masquerades for feasting and dancing. The participants usually wore masks and dominos over fashionable evening dresses while others wore all different kinds of costumes such as those of commedia dell’arte characters (Harlequin, Columbine, Punchinello, and Pantalone), nuns, monks, sailors, and savages. Turkish outfits that fascinated both women and men were often seen at masquerades with elements of turquerie, which was a popular cultural phenomenon in France between the 1660s and 1780s (Steele, 2005b, p. 3, 393, Landweber, 2005, p. 175). Louis XIV’s foreign affairs minister, Hughes de Lionne was the first known French person to disguise himself accurately rather than allegorically as the “grand vizier” of France for an audience with the Turkish diplomat Suleyman Aga in 1669. In 1670 Moliére immortalized Lionne’s act, in the scene of the Turkish ceremony in his play Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme. After the publication of Recueil de cent Estampes Représentant Différentes Nations du Levant by Comte de Ferriol in 1712, which consisted of one hundred different portrait types of people in the Ottoman Empire in a hierarchical order starting from sultan, the proto-ethnographical interest in the Ottoman Empire accelerated. The costume plates of the Recueil Ferriol were drawn by the painter Jean-Baptiste Vanmour, who was working for the French embassy in Istanbul. The drawings were done with great ethnographic accuracy. The Recueil Ferriol had comprehensive explanations of the costumes beside the detailed illustrations. The book turned out to be an invaluable guide for those who wanted to participate in masked balls in Turkish disguise. Seamstresses and artisans used the book as a reference to design Turkish costumes for their clientele of masqueraders. The illustrations were printed in color in the 1715 edition of the book, which further 219

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helped the costume designers. Sometimes the owners of the books added samples of actual fabrics and metals to show the dressmakers how should the costume look when it was finished. The Recueil Ferriol and subsequent similar publications were the visual guides for the dressmakers, and cultural guides for the masquerades of the period. Anyone interested in turquerie owned a copy of the book to get more information regarding Ottoman clothing. Turkish-themed masquerades became more common and more popular in France (Landweber, 2005, pp.181-182). In the preface of the Recueil Ferriol, the publisher Le Hay wrote that the best way of understanding another culture was to examine its clothing (Vanmour, 1712, preface). Before the publication of the Recueil Ferriol, Hughes de Lionne and other masqueraders who took the event seriously had to rely on a few private experts to guide them. Thereafter, following the publication of the book, it was possible for a larger group of masqueraders to have authentic-looking Turkish dress without seeking advice from the experts (Landweber, 2005, p.183). The marriage of the Dauphin of France to the Infanta of Spain was celebrated with a masquerade ball held by Louis XV in February 1745 at Versailles. In his large-scale drawing, Charles-Nicolas Cochin, depicted the crowd in painstaking detail. Cochin concentrated on a Turkish couple in the left foreground of the engraving (Landweber, 2005, p.183). Landweber (2005) describes the couple:

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The man is dressed in genuine-looking Turkish clothing, although a pucker at the back of his headgear suggests that it is a cinched bag, not a real turban. He also emphasizes that his costume is a disguise by wearing a half-mask with a moustache and a large nose… Her dressmaker has paid very close attention to costume guides such as the Recueil Ferriol, for her outer robe and underdress are both slender, in true Turkish style and in contradistinction to the sea of wide-paniered French dresses which otherwise fill the gallery. Her dress is belted low at the hip, and her robe is fur-trimmed, also authentic Turkish details. Nonetheless, her real identity is given away by the high-heeled French slippers that show beneath her skirts, and, like her partner, she proclaims her masquerader status by wearing a mask below her turban. (p.184) The masquerade that serves as a particularly good example of turquerie was the one organized in February 1748, during the Carnival season in Rome. French students of the Academy of France in Rome dressed like Turkish courtiers, the Ottoman Sultan, and courtiers on a pilgrimage to Mecca. The cheerful imagery of Turks presented in this and other masquerades was helping early modern France to form personal and national identities. Turkish references became evermore ingrained into French culture, and the French practice of Turkish masquerades in the seventeenth century evolved from allegorical to ethnographic during the eighteenth century (Landweber, 2005, p.176). The eighteenth-century embassies of the Ottoman Empire to France comparatively changed the old stereotypes of Turkish men as brutal despots, and of Turkish women as desperately sensuous harem residents. The presence of these real Turks in France also stimulated Turkish style masquerades to be organized in a more realistic way. People who would never have a chance to visit Turkey in person, had the opportunity to see the appearance and the habits of these foreigners. Turkish masquerades were everywhere in France: it was possible to see a Harlequin posing as a sultan on a street theatre stage and upper-class women wearing Turkish style clothes (Landweber, 2005, p.176). The Gentleman’s Magazine published the following comment regarding the masquerade held by the Danish King Christian VII in London in October 1768:

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It is true there were some exceptions, his Grace the D. of Northumberland was in Persian habit with the fine turban richly ornamented with diamonds; Ld Grosvenor was in a splendid suit of the Turkish fashion. The Duchess of Ancaster in a character of a sultana was universally admired; her robe was purple satin bordered with ermine, and fluttered on the ground so much in the style of eastern magnificence, that we were transported in fancy to the palaces of Constantinople from the borders of the Thames. (p.448) The most elegant costumes worn during the eighteenth century at masquerades in London were the Oriental ones (Steele, 2005b, p.394). Eastern fashions and costumes resembling Sultan’s clothes were available to rent for the purpose of masquerades from vendors such as the Eccard Warehouse. Certain aspects of these costumes were also embraced in daily fashions. In September 1777, the Magazine À la Mode published the following comment: “Ever since fashion as a source of entertainment was embraced thanks to the pleasure of the masked ball, our ladies’ attires hanker after Iranian and Turkish fashions exceedingly”. The fashion for masquerade outfits was not only limited to adults. In a portrait (circa 1765) by Johan Zoffany depicting Queen Charlotte with her eldest two sons, the young Duke of York wears a costume resembling a Sultan’s outfit (Williams, 2015, p.76). The Abduction From the Seraglio, an opera by Mozart which premiered in Vienna in 1782 was highly popular in all German-speaking countries; the work attempted to convey a Turkish musical style by using cymbals and the triangle to the accompaniment of a repeatedly beating, severe-sounding drum. The presentation of the work is in line with audiences’ perception of the Ottoman Empire, depicting an imaginary East formed through limited knowledge and stern prejudice: a magical, incomprehensible, and at times terrifying place (Williams, 2015, p.86).

ORIENTALISM IN NINETEENTH CENTURY FASHION

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All of this also led to a strong current of admiration of the East in the literature of the nineteenth century. In 1802 The Costume of Turkey was published for William Miller in London, which consists of 60 plates showing the elitist fashion vogue for turquerie styles. The colored illustrations were drawn by French artist Octavian Dalvimart who travelled in Turkey for four years starting from 1796. He created the drawings on the spot in about 1798. The texts were written, in both English and French, originating from works by B. De Tott, J. Dallaway, G.A. Olivier, M. Montague, J. Pitton de Tournefort, Μ. d’Ohsson and others (Bensley, 1802). In the preface of the book T. Bensley (1802) describes the work: Nothing, says the Chevalier D’Ohsson in his valuable inquiry concerning the Ottoman Empire, ought to be considered as more interesting than an acquaintance with different nations. Their religion, their history, their manners, and their customs, are worthy of the attention of everyone. The more considerable a nation is in itself, the more connections it has with others, the more important its political situation, the more it deserves to be known, both by its neighbors, and those countries connected with its government or commerce. We admire, and with reason, the rapid progress which that part of Europe, over which Christianity has spread her benign influence, has made in every department of science. It has thrown a Ray of light over the most distant periods of antiquity, dissipated the clouds which obscured with the origin of ancient nations, investigated the concerns of those which have risen from their ashes, while the spirit of inquiry

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has hitherto scarcely reached a nation, which sprang up on the borders of the Caspian Sea in the thirteenth century, and has, for near 400 years, acquired the possession of, and still reigns over, the most beautiful part of Europe, while its forces have often thrown terror into the most powerful of its neighbors. It is, indeed as Monsieur D’Ohsson justly observes, very difficult to penetrate the thick clouds, which surround this uncommunicative nation. The prejudices of religion have raised a barrier, which has been still farther strengthened by physical, moral, and political causes. The present work, then, has at least the merit of being both interesting and valuable as to its objects; and these objects are, to delineate with fidelity the various modes of dress and peculiarity of customs now existing among this singular nation, and its various dependencies; and to accompany such portraits with appropriate and accurate descriptions. With respect to the latter division, much is not to be expected from the very narrow limits, to which it was necessary to confine the descriptive part of this work. But it was impossible to enter more in detail upon the subject, without writing almost a volume instead of a page. The merits of this work depend upon the accuracy and beauty of the drawings and the truth of the coloring; and for other inquiries we must have recourse to the laborious and curious researches of D’Ohsson, D’Herbelot, Dallaway, Oliver, Tott, Montague, Tournefort, and various other writers. (para 1-4) The masquerades had gone out of fashion by the 1820’s; however, fancy balls given in private houses or organized as large-scale civic fund-raising events became fashionable during the nineteenth century. The outfits for these events were inspired by either historical characters, peasant dress or Turkish and Greek dress. The lists and detailed information of these costumes were published in periodicals. The World of Fashion and Continental Feuilletons, published between 1824-1851, was one such magazine that included plates of historical or foreign garments for inspiration (Steele, 2005b, p.3). In the October 1831 issue of the magazine Turkish costume was described as follows:

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White silk trousers, figured in bias stripes of lilac, over which is a caftan of blue moire, trimmed up the front, and round the border, in bright and dead gold. The loose robe worn over the caftan, and much shorter than it, is a rose-colored satin, bordered to correspond. Mameluke sleeves, lined with white satin, and terminating in a deep point; it is bordered, but in a lighter manner, with gold to correspond. The corsage is attached to the trousers, which is of plain white satin, cut rather low, and lightly bordered with gold. Headdress, a turban of white and gold tissue, ornamented with a bird of paradise and gold fringe; gold gauze veil; rose-colored satin slippers; necklace of large pearls. This dress is the usual costume of the favorite Sultana of Hussein, Ex-Dey of Algiers. (p.225) Orientalism was an influence on various aspects of daily life and art, including painting. The Orientalist art movement began in 1798 with Napoleon’s campaign in Egypt and developed considerably in the nineteenth century. It can be said that this movement came to an end when World War I started in 1914 (Eczacıbaşı Sanat Ansiklopedisi 3, 1997, p.1389). Orientalism was also an influence on many of the applied arts, such as architecture and furniture design. In the mid-nineteenth century, with the publication of writings by the French author Theophile Gautier, the term Orientalism began to be used to refer to paintings that depicted the East (Bal, 2010, p.13). According to Rosenthal (1982) “Orientalist

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art should not be confused with Oriental art: It represents the European artist’s view of an unfamiliar culture, rather than a view of that culture from within” (p. 8). For the most part, the first Orientalist painters did not visit the Orient themselves; they did their paintings based only on the impressions they gained from books. Although these first paintings were imaginative, later works started to become more realistic when the artists began visiting the Orient (Ozkavruk Adanır&İleri, 2013, p. 71). Some of the Orientalist painters spent a significant amount of time in the Orient. This Orient of the nineteenth century covered the Islamic world, especially the places within the boundaries of the Ottoman Empire and the Arab countries of North Africa. If these latter paintings are considered to be documentary records of the Near East, it should be taken into consideration that it shows the Islamic world from a Western point of view (Rosenthal,1982 pp.8-9). In 1829, Victor Hugo published his work Les Orientales, indicating that the Islamic world was a widespread obsession for thoughts and dreams alike, and stating in the book’s prologue that the era of Louis XIV had been Hellenistic, whilst the present era was Orientalist (Germaner&İnankur, 2008, p.36; Day, 2003, p.92). Throughout the nineteenth century, Orientalist paintings were sought after in Europe, the United States, and the Near East thanks to exhibitions and albums funded by public and private art galleries in Paris and London. They were especially popular amongst wealthy bankers and capitalists in the postIndustrial Revolution period (Eczacıbaşı Sanat Ansiklopedisi 3, 1997, p.1389). In his book Turkey and the Crimean War: A Narrative of Historical Events, Adolphus Slade (1867) states that the influence of Turkish fashions in Europe in this century went beyond clothing to include many aspects of life, going as far as to impact battle tactics and equipment (p.194). Although historic and exotic influences were dominant throughout the nineteenth century, starting from the 1850s Japanese-inspired styles became much more popular than Indian, Chinese, and Ottomaninspired ones. Loosely draped home wear garments inspired by the kimono were fashionable among both men and women (Cole&Deihl, 2015, pp.40-41). In short, the fashionable oriental objects of the nineteenth century were cashmere shawls, fez caps, kimonos, and silk fabrics (Steele, 2005b, p.102). Universal expositions and the colonial exchange made all these goods more available to the people in the West. The July 20, 1867 issue of the French journal L’Illustration mentions the Paris Universal Exposition, noting that, “Dreamers of travels, those who are attached by the short chain of their jobs and who dream of excursions on the banks of Nile or Bosphorus… now have no reason to complain. If they cannot go to the Orient, the Orient has come to them” (Martin&Koda, 1994, p.12).

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ORIENTALISM IN TWENTIETH CENTURY FASHION Despite the negative connotation that it took on in the twentieth century, Orientalism continued to positively impact Western fashion designers, reaching an apex in the first half of the century (Steele, 2005c, p.5.) Even though there were signs of modernization, Orientalism remained one of the most inspirational styles of the 1910s. This time the influence was not coming only from the Ottoman Empire: rather, it comprised a broader geography such as Turkey, North Africa, Egypt, Persia, and the Far East. Léon Bakst (1866-1924), who was the costume and set designer for the dance company Ballet Russes, directly associated with Orientalism. The company’s productions included ballets such as Cleopatra (1909), Scheherazade (1910), a rewriting of One Thousand One Nights, and The Blue God (1912), which 223

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 Orientalism Revisited

had Eastern and Orientalist themes (Fogg, 2013, p.215). After the performance of Scheherazade at the Paris Opera in June 1910, Bakst’s designs had an immediate effect on fashion and the arts. The year 1910 is considered by many to be the milestone for Orientalism in Western fashion (Steele, 2005c, p.45). French designer Paul Poiret (1879-1944) was the most well-known couturier who was inspired by the East. He was known as the King of Fashion in the United States and Le Magnifique in Paris. In 1898 he started to work as a junior assistant for the couturier Jacques Doucet. After he completed his military service, he continued his career at the House of Worth. Even though the House of Worth was sometimes criticized in the press regarding its conservativeness, it was still the main source of sophisticated design at the time (Polan&Tredre, 2009, p.21, Cole&Deihl, 2015, p.87). The first signals of Poiret’s great interest in Orientalism revealed themselves when he designed an Orientalist style coat for the Russian Princess Bariatinsky. The Princess was very upset with the piece, and Poiret was forced to leave the House of Worth. In 1903, with the support of his mother, Poiret responded to this situation by opening his own fashion house. Between 1910 and 1924, Poiret led the first phase of art deco fashion. This phase was largely based on a mélange of neoclassical, Oriental, and peasant origins whereas minimalism was at the forefront of the second phase (Steele, vol:1, 2005, p.76). Steele (2005a) refers to “Paul Poiret’s use of the tunic shape and updating old-fashioned styles with exotic harem pants and veils wrapped around the body in the 1920s” (p.338) in describing the essence of this movement. Chinese influences were also visible in his designs. One of the most common and well-known symbols of China in the West was the architectural style of “the pagoda”, which was adapted to garment design. “In the teens, dress emulated the tiered form, as the shifting silhouette moved away from the body and became an abstracted tube or cone comparable to axioms of Cubism and Futurism” (Martin&Koda, 1994, 25). China’s image in Europe was always more dreamlike than real (Martin&Koda, 1994, 18). Poiret was inspired by the Ballet Russes and designed costumes based on Middle Eastern and Asian patterns, usually with the use of turbans (Steele, 2005b, p.102). He also preferred to use turbans wound in a variety of styles as a women’s accessory (Fogg, 2013:215). In June 1911, he organized ‘The Thousand and Second Night’ party where all his guests and fashion mannequins wore Oriental costumes. The party served as a particularly a perfect example of Orientalism of the time (Polan&Tredre, 2009, p.22; Gueneli, 2017, p. 450). In the wake of Paul Poiret, the considerable influence of Orientalism continued to make itself evident in the creations of fashion designers such as Joseph Abboud, Kaffe Fasset, John Galliano, Rifat Ozbek, and Valentino. (Steele, 2005a, p.338). Moreover, the shoe designer Salvatore Ferragamo was also inspired by Orientalism in some of his designs. Italian shoe designer Salvatore Ferragamo (1898-1960) was one of the most innovative shoe designers in the world. He designed all types of shoes for every occasion such as, ankle boots, moccasins, laced shoes, Oxford brogues, stilettoes, and Oriental mules. He created upwards of 20,000 styles over the course of his professional career. During the war years when he could not find enough leather, he used the materials that were at hand, such as cork, crocheted cellophane, plaited raffia, rubber, fish skins, felt and hemp instead. He was inspired by past fashions, cultures, Hollywood, Oriental clothing, and classical styling. (Benbow-Pfalzgraf&Martin, 2002, pp.226-27; Cole&Deihl, 2015, p.200). In 1938 when the Oriental theme was in vogue, he created a unique pointed toe shoe which he called the Oriental mule. He had 350 patents, including shoes with heels fabricated in steel and the Oriental mule (Benbow-Pfalzgraf&Martin, 2002, pp.226-27; Steele, 2005b, 79). The inspirations for American knitwear designer Kaffe Fasset (born 1937), come from Oriental sources such as Turkish kilims, Islamic tiles, Chinese pots, and Indian miniatures. In his early designs 224

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he used small geometric motifs which were inspired by Oriental carpets (Benbow-Pfalzgraf&Martin, 2002; pp.215-16, Steele, 2005b, 310). During the 1980s Italian fashion designer Valentino (born 1932) developed a signature set of styles, including “the body-sculpting complex pleating, the oriental inspired embroideries and art deco appliqué work, his beloved animal prints and his sophisticated colour combinations” (Polan&Tredre, 2009, p.131). His suit of beige silk chiffon embroidered with red-and-gold sequins, from his fall-winter collection of 1990-91, has embroidered pagodas and palms inspired by Chinese and Japanese lacquers. Valentino is quoted as saying, “All manner of things may attract me: Hungary, Bavaria in Ludwig’s day, China, or some kitschy show I happened to see in a far land” (Martin&Koda, 1994, 25), confirming the role of Orientalism in his work. American fashion designer Joseph Abboud (born 1950) has been collecting Turkish flatwoven rugs (kilim) since the 1960s. From time to time the influence of the stylized geometric motifs of these kilims with their soft earth tones become apparent in his collections (Benbow-Pfalzgraf&Martin, 2002, pp.1-2). Nick Remsen (2019) describes Abboud’s 2019 fall menswear collection in Vogue magazine:

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The clothes, too, had a sense of historical homage apparent. Layered tailoring, well-worn-in tweeds, mismatched button embellishments, capes, raw edges, and rough washes were all notable, though a more condensed edit would have made for a stronger impression. Kilim-rug patches stood out, as did nostalgic prints of flowers—there was plenty of artisanal, nonindustrial charm. (para 3) Fashion designer Rifat Ozbek was born in 1953 in Istanbul, Turkey. He says, “My collections always have an element of ethnic and modern feeling” (as cited in Benbow-Pfalzgraf &Martin, 2002, p.524). According to Benbow-Pfalzgraf and Martin (2002), “One of Britain’s few truly international designers, Rifat Ozbek draws on London street style and his own Turkish origins to produce sophisticated clothes that successfully amalgamate diverse sources and keep him at the forefront of new developments in style” (p.524). After graduating from Central Saint Martin’s School of Art, he worked for Monsoon, known for its production of garments made from Indian fabrics and creating styles inspired by non-Western origins (Kelloog, et al, 2002, p.237). Ozbek was known in the mid-1980s for combining unusual fabrics, motifs, and shapes from various cultures. His floral women’s fragrance “Ozbek” was launched in 1995 in a bottle shaped like a Turkish minaret. He said, “I wanted something traditional yet modern… I wanted it to be quite floral, but not too strong. It is supposed to be very feminine and sensual” (Benbow-Pfalzgraf &Martin, 2002, p.524). In the 1994 “Orientalism Visions of the East in Western Dress” exhibition held at The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rıfat Ozbeks’s fur-trimmed gray satin and pink silk taffeta evening ensemble was also among the exhibited garments. Fur trim is an authentic Turkish dress detail which can be clearly seen in Charles-Nicholas Cochin’s large scale drawing, from 1745. The curator Richard Martin and the associate curator Harold Koda (1994) described the dress: Ozbek creates a dramatic, bandstand Turquerie. The narrow top is based on a Turkish military overvest, and the bubble skirt evokes the ballooning legs of Zouave pants. By the 1990s, some inhibitions haunt such hyperbolic Orientalism, associated by some with the politics of imperialism. Ozbek born in Turkey and living in England, accepts the possibilities an interpretive challenge of an overt exotism without the onus of political judgment. (p.71)

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Oriental influences are always obvious in British designer John Galliano’s (born 1960) collections as well. Colin McDowell mentions Galliano’s enthusiasm for historicism and Orientalism in his 1997 biography (Polan&Tredre, 2009, pp.211-212). Moreover, in Galliano’s spring/summer 1997 collection, it is prominently noted that “Galliano took classic Dior themes and spun them together with exotic African Masai tribal forms to create silk evening dresses accented with colorful beaded choker necklaces” (Benbow-Pfalzgraf &Martin, 2002, p.256). In an April 2015 interview, Andrew Bolton asked, “You have found China to be a recurrent source of inspiration in your work. What drew you to China initially?”, to which Galliano replied, I was fascinated with the culture. In retrospect, I think it was because I knew very little about it. Before I visited China, it was the fantasy that drew me to it, the sense of danger and mystery conveyed through Hollywood. Much later, I learned more about the real China through research—paintings, literature, architecture. My design process involves in-depth research, and I make a scrapbook for every collection with images that show my current thinking. But, yes, my initial interest in China was fueled by movies, by their fantasized and romanticized portrayals. (Guiducci, 2015) Galliano interprets exotic and historical looks, inspired by his travels, museum exhibitions, research in libraries, and archives. Steele (2005b) says, “His approach has been described variously as magpielike, history-book plundering, romantic escapism, and postmodern pastiche.” (p.125)

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS Orientalism, which has been influencing the West for centuries in literature, fashion, music, photography, and painting, is a broad field of research that includes social structures, cultures, languages, histories, religions, and geographies of countries to the east of Europe, including the whole of Africa and Asia, and the Near East, Middle East, and Far East. Orientalism can be studied with an integration of different disciplines regarding this huge research field. In this study, Orientalism as fashion is analyzed and interpreted from a point of view outside of the mainstream. Considering that Orientalism is still influencing twenty-first century designers, it is reasonable to conclude that researchers will continue to have ample opportunity to study this evolving phenomenon.

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CONCLUSION The rich textiles, traditions of attire, design ideas, and construction of Eastern garments have been taken into notice repeatedly as a positive contribution to Western culture. According to Martin and Koda (1994), textiles and garments were “a part of the economic system that adventuring created and colonialism sustained. – one cannot exculpate clothing from these cultural and economic destinies and defilements. But one can realize that clothing has served to consolidate more than to segregate” (p.11). The Oriental world was described in an erotic and sexist way in most of seventeenth and eighteenthcentury travelogues. Lady Montagu criticized the representation of the Oriental women by Western men and challenged the received representation of Turkish society provided by seventeenth- and eighteenthcentury travel literature. This dichotomy can be seen in Orientalist paintings as well. In most nineteenth 226

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century Orientalist paintings, Western artists created an Orientalist culture based on exotism and Orientalist sex symbols. Gueneli (2017) argues that, “Orientalist paintings often depict women sitting/lying on exotic cushions, or other fabrics such as silk and velvet, decorated with what are assumed to be oriental designs and patterns” (p.446). Ingres’s picture, the so-called ‘La Grande Odalisque’ (1814), where he depicted a harem girl, stands as a typical example of the imaginary and visual eroticism in Orientalist paintings. According to Rosenthal (1982), “The artist transformed the nude into a specifically Oriental subject by the addition of a few accessories: a multicolored headdress, a peacock feather fan, a nargile, and a Turkish incense burner” (p.52). These details imply an eroticized context for Oriental women fantasied by Western men. To conclude, Orientalism has been influencing the West, or the West has been inspired by Orientalism, for centuries whether the subject is literature, painting, or fashion. It could be said that the rich textiles and attire traditions of the East/Oriental have reshaped Western dress. There have been so many conflicts, arguments and even wars among these two cultures for centuries, but the influence of textiles and garments has always been a positive aspect of the two regions’ complex relationship. The East will continue to change Western dress; in other words, fashion designers of today and tomorrow will continue to be inspired by Orientalism. At the same time, reciprocally, the West has been influencing and will continue to influence the East as well. Starting from the beginning of the eighteenth century in Russia and nineteenth century in Turkey, the “westernization” of traditional dress, in other words formal transformation, has had a major impact on these Eastern cultures. During the foundation period of the Turkish Republic in the 1920’s, instead of an East-West dichotomy, the creation of a concept of “contemporary society” was adopted as an official ideology. Illustrations and stylish clothing secrets from the latest Paris fashion trends, explained in minute detail in the magazines of the era, influenced the modern Turkish women’s attire. Fashion articles translated from foreign journals described the new styles and materials used in Western clothing to their readers. When Recueil Ferriol (1714) and The Costume of Turkey (1802) were published in Europe, created a similar effect on the Western aristocratic society. The magazines of eighteenth-century Europe, such as The World of Fashion and Continental Feuilletons and The Gentleman’s Magazine and Historical Chronicle, played an identical role in the West as the magazines published during the 1930s, 40s and 50s did in Turkey. Martin and Koda said that, “Orientalism is not a picture of the East or the Easts. It represents longing, option, and faraway perfection. It is like utopia, a picture everywhere and nowhere, save in the imagination” (1994, p.11). However, this influence will continue to be in a bilateral way and bring the East and the West closer in the context of fashion.

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REFERENCES Anonymous. (1831). Newest London and Paris Fashions for October 1831. The World of Fashion and Continental Feuilletons. https://books.google.com.tr/books?id=i89eAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA217&lpg=P A217&dq=The+World+of+Fashion+and+Continental+Feuilletons,++No+90+London,+October+ 1,+1831&source=bl&ots=L-NffqhlvW&sig=ACfU3U0K-G_JxmSWEFFkZlOubUqtB0pXmQ&hl= tr&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiNirnx0JDtAhVoMewKHQWfAAUQ6AEwAHoECAEQAg#v=onepage& q=Turkish&f=false

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Bal, A. A. (2010). Oryantalist Resimde Bedenin Kolonileştirilmesi Bağlamında Türk Hamamı İmgesi [Colonization of the Body in Orientalist Paintings in the Context of Turkish Hamam Image]. Acta Turcica, 2(2), 13–23. Benbow-Pfalzgraf, T., & Martin, R. (Eds.). (2002). Contemporary Fashion. St. James Press. Bensley, T. (1802). The Costume of Turkey. Howlett and Brimmer. Cole, D. J., & Deihl, N. (2015). The History of Modern Fashion: From 1850. Laurence King Publishing. Day, S. (2003). The Artist Eye: Carpet and Textile Collections of the Orientalists. Halı, 126, 92–104. Fogg, M. (Ed.). (2013). Fashion the Whole Story. Thames & Hudson. Foundation of Nejat F. Eczacıbaşı (Ed). (1997). Eczacıbaşı Sanat Ansiklopedisi 3 [Eczacıbaşı Art Encyclopedia]. Yem Yayınları. Galea-Blanc, C. (1996). The Carpet in Great Britain. In S. Day (Ed.), Great Carpets of the World. Thames & Hudson. Germaner, S., & Inankur, Z. (2008). Oryantalistlerin İstanbul’u [Orientalists’ Istanbul]. Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları. Gueneli, B. (2017). Orientalist Fashion, Photography, and Fantasies: Baron Max von Oppenheim’s Arabian Nights in Context. The German Quarterly, 90(Fall), 439–458. doi:10.1111/gequ.12049 Guiducci, M. (2015). John Galliano on Why He Loves Chinese Motifs. Vogue. https://www.vogue.com/ article/met-china-catalog-costume-exhibit-john-galliano-interview Hakluyt, R. (1886). The Principal Navigations Voyages, Traffiques and Discoveries of the English Nation, North Eastern Europe, and Adjacent Countries. http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/7769 Hakluyt, R. (1887). The Principal Navigations Voyages, Traffiques and Discoveries of the English Nation, Central and Southern Europe. http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/7900 Keller, M. (2013). The Turk of Early Modern France. L’Esprit Créateur, 53(4), 1–8. doi:10.1353/ esp.2013.0045

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Kellogg, A. T., Peterson, A. T., Bay, S., & Swindell, N. (2002). In an Influential Fashion: An Encyclopedia of Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Fashion Designers and Retailers Who Transformed Dress. Greenwood Press. Landweber, J. (2005). Celebrating Identity: Charting the History of Turkish Masquerade in Early Modern France. Romance Studies, 23(3), 175-189. Lazarus, N. (2007). Entelektüelin Temsilleri’nde Entelektüel Temsilleri [Representations of the Intellectual in Representations of the Intellectual]. Oryantalizm Tartışma Metinleri [Discussions on Orientalism], 159-176. Lewis, B. (2007). Oryantalizm Sorunu [The Question of Orientalism]. Oryantalizm Tartışma Metinleri, [Discussions on Orientalism], 217-245.

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Lowe, L. (2018). Critical Terrains: British and French Orientalisms. Cornell University Press. Mack, R. E. (2005). Doğu Malı Batı Sanatı [Bazaar to Piazza: Islamic Trade and Italian Art]. Kitap Yayınevi. Martin, R., & Koda, H. (1994). Orientalism: Visions of the East in Western Dress. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Montagu, M. W. (1766). Letters of the Right Honourable Lady M--y W-----y M------e. Sarah Goddard and Company. https://quod.lib.umich.edu/e/evans/N31507.0001.001/1:33?rgn=div1;view=fulltext Nochlin, L. (1989). The Politics of Vision: Essays on Nineteenth Century Art and Society. Harper & Row Publishers. Ozkavruk Adanır, E., & İleri, B. (2013). Oryantalist Resimlerde Türk Halıları [Illustrations of Turkish Carpets in Orientalist Paintings]. Yedi, 10, 71–80. Polan, B., & Tredre, R. (2009). The Great Fashion Designers. Berg. Remsen Nick. (2019). Joseph Abboud Fall 2019 Menswear. Vogue. https://www.vogue.com/fashionshows/fall-2019-menswear/joseph-abboud Rosenthal, D. A. (1982). Orientalism, the Near East in French Painting 1800-1880. Memorial Art Gallery of the University of Rochester. Schoeser, M. (2003). World Textiles: A Concise History. Thames & Hudson. Slade, A. (1867). Turkey and the Crimean War. Smith, Elder and Co. Steele, V. (2005). Encyclopedia of Clothing and Fashion (vols. 1-3). Thomson Gale. Türer, C. (2002). Ralph Waldo Emerson’un Oryantalizmi [Ralph Waldo Emerson’s Orientalism]. Oryantalizm-II [Orientalism II], 20, 150–168. Urban, S. (1768). The Gentleman’s Magazine and Historical Chronicle, 38. Vanmour, J.B. (1714). Recueil de cent Estampes Représentant Différentes Nations du Levant [Collection of 100 Prints Representing Different Nations of the Levant]. Academic Press. Williams, H. (2015). Turquerie-18. Yüzyılda Avrupa’da Türk Modası [Turquerie: An Eighteenth-Century European Fantasy]. Yapı Kredi Yayınları.

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Yıldırım, S. (2003). Oryantalistlerin Yanılgıları [The Misconceptions of the Orientalists]. Ufuk Yayınları.

ADDITIONAL READING Avcıoğlu, N. (2011). Turquerie and the Politics of Representation 1728-1876. Ashgate Publishing. Coleridge, N. (1988). The Fashion Conspiracy: A Remarkable Journey Through the Empires of Fashion. Harper & Row.

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Grothaus, M. G. (2005). At the Crossing of Orient and Occident: The Turquerie of Ptuj. Image of the Turks in the 17th Century Europe. Sakıp Sabancı Museum. Inal, O. (2011). Women’s Fashion in Transition: Ottoman Borderlands and the Anglo-Ottoman Exchange of Costumes. Journal of World History, 22(2), 243–272. doi:10.1353/jwh.2011.0058 PMID:22073435 Jasienski, A. (2014). A Savage Magnificence: Ottomanizing Fashion and the Politics of Display in Early Modern East-Central Europe. Muqarnas: An Annual on the Visual Culture of the Islamic World, 31(1), 173–205. doi:10.1163/22118993-00311P08 McDowell, C. (1997). Galliano. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. Renda, G. (2005). The Ottoman Empire and Europe in the 17th Century: Changing Images. Image of the Turks in the 17th Century Europe. Sakıp Sabancı Museum. Ribeiro, A. (1979). Turquerie: Turkish Dress and English Fashion in the Eighteenth Centuruy. Conoisseur, 201, 16–23.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Lady Mary Wortley Montagu: An English aristocrat, writer, poet, and wife (1689-1762) of the British ambassador who lived in Edirne and Istanbul during her husband’s official duty in the Ottoman Empire, known for the letters she wrote during her stay. Orient: The geographic region that signifies Turkey, the Levant, and the Arabian Peninsula occupied by the Ottoman Empire in the eighteenth century which expands to North Africa and Central, Southeast Asia and Far East in the nineteenth and the twentieth century respectively. Oriental Carpet: Hand-woven carpets mostly woven in Turkey and Iran. Oriental Painting: Paintings mostly done by Western artists depicting the Orient during the nineteenth century. Orientalism: A Western-centric, field of research that studies the social structures, cultures, languages, histories, religions, and geographies of countries to the east of Europe, including Africa, Asia, the Near East, Middle East, and Far East. Paul Poiret: (1879-1944) the most well-known twentieth century couturier who was inspired by Orientalism. Turquierie: Popular cultural phenomenon which influenced Europe’s art, music, painting, architecture, and fashion especially between sixteenth and eighteenth centuries. West: The western part of the world that differentiates itself historically and culturally from the East or Orient; in other words, the Occident.

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The Others of Babel in the Context of Orientalism Gülşah Sarı https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6590-6530 Bolu Abant Izzet Baysal University, Turkey Gökhan Gültekin Aksaray University, Turkey

ABSTRACT Cinema is a branch of art that uses images. In this context, cinema can take Orientalism to a diferent dimension with images by using its own narrative language. In this study, the 2006 flm Babel by Mexican director Alejandro G. Iñárritu is analyzed in order to show how the orientalist elements were constructed in the West’s (Occident) otherization of the East (Orient). As a result of the analysis, it is seen that Babel put forward everything that is related to the East since its frst scene, mostly with an orientalist point of view, in a way that alienates the East. The flm is based on the fact that the language of the marginalized can never be understood, and therefore, there is always a diference between the West and the East.

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INTRODUCTION “Orientalism”, which is used as “Oriental science” in the Turkish dictionary, can be considered as the point of view of Westerners against Eastern societies and their cultural practices. For Said (1978: 9-10), who is effective in the acceptance of the concept in the literature, Orientalism is a way of thinking based on the ontological and epistemological distinction between East (Orient) and West (Occident). In this aspect, according to Said, the East is almost a European invention and has been seen as a place of romance, exotic beings, unforgettable memories, landscapes and extraordinary experiences since ancient times. Çırakman, who thinks that Said’s starting point stems from a philosophical or socio-psychological problem, namely the problem of perceiving and understanding the other, states that Said actually made a serious claim (2002: 182): Throughout the ages, all knowledge of Westerners about Easterners and the representation of this knowledge is based on distorted, incomplete and inaccurate perceptions. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch014

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 The Others of Babel in the Context of Orientalism

While Westerners are presented as completely rational and effective people in the East-West comparison; from an orientalist point of view, the Orientals are people who have negative characteristics that are not likely to be corrected (Yıldırım and Hira, 2016: 45). In this respect, they are marginalized in terms of their cultural practices. In this marginalization, the West first saves the East from its traditional structure and re-establishes it. Yıldırım (2002: 137) emphasizes that the Westerner who claims to be a subject actually owes their existence, knowledge and truth to the Easterner whom they reproduce, only in this way the West can become a temporal and historical norm. Until the 18th century, it is understood that the main occupation of Orientalism was to form the other against the West and to learn the culture of the other. However, Boztemur (2002: 135) stated that the West assumed a civilizing mission against the other at the end of the 18th century, and that the orientalist orientation started to change; he emphasizes that the East has taken a form in which it is revealed and studied with its differences, in order to emphasize the superiority of the West and make the rest of the world believe that it has such a superiority. Over time, this new orientation has become the ideology of obtaining the riches of the East. As Çırakman (2002: 191) put it, the idea of the East, which was continued in a uniform and consistent manner towards the end of the 18th century, actually has a quite contradictory and diverse structure. According to the author, the main reasons for this are the changing political and cultural relations between East and West over the ages, and it does not seem possible to say that the West was in the dominant position in these relations until the end of the 18th century. Therefore, as the West reflects itself in different ways in the historical process, it has also made some changes in its way of understanding the East. The end of the 18th century actually marks the post - “Age of Enlightenment”. According to Said, just as this period was left behind, European culture formed its own strength and identity by positioning it against the identity it defined as the East. In this respect, Orientalism is a point of view that the West marginalizes the East by establishing the East at a discursive level and coding it as an anti-Western traditional identity (cited in Keyman, 2002: 21). The aim here is for the West to impose its hegemony to the world and to marginalize the societies other than the West, especially the East. Established as an integral part of Europe’s material civilization and culture, the West presents itself under features such as modern, developmental, democratic and individualist, while loading the other with codes such as traditional, fanatic, underdeveloped, communalist, authoritarian. Therefore, what is different is made the other of the West. According to Said, the codes attributed to the East by the West in such a power relationship are not acceptable. According to Çırakman (2002: 182), Said states that the main reason for the East to make such moves is actually to reinforce the West’s desire to dominate the East. In the struggle for power, the West has constructed a kind of “Eastern image” by making use of social sciences such as anthropology, history and philology; started an intense propaganda covering literature, painting, cinema and other art fields (Mora, 2009: 418). Moreover, those produced by the West are not just images circulating in the global world; all individuals of the Islamic world have become part of a large diaspora in the West. Quite large Muslim communities live in every major European and North American capital. These immigrant communities are trying to implement the separate living space model in their new homelands. But the children of Muslim immigrants are caught between two worlds; they are wobbled between two worlds as they enter the world of new freedom from the authoritarian and patriarchal family structures they grew up under the influence of educational institutions or mass culture (Benhabib, 2002: 63). As a matter of fact, the relationship between orientalism and cinema, which is a field of cultural practice and functions effectively in the creation of mass culture, is striking.

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In this study, in the context of the relationship between cinema and orientalism, the 2006 film Babel by Mexican director Alejandro G. Iñárritu has been analyzed. The representation of the other in the film is analyzed from an orientalist point of view.

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Cinema and Orientalism Examples of how the West expresses the east with both language and images are encountered in the media. “Although the way Westerners see Orientals technically changed, it basically preserved its content. The idea that Easterners are despised, incapable of managing themselves and they could not develop themselves in the fields of art, literature, etc. still maintains its characteristic of being a “central thought” today. This way of thinking is produced and supported by the media” (Dursun, 2014: 25). Cinema is one of the tools that the West uses to position itself against the East. “While describing the Eastern, they give clues about how the Western should be and how it should be perceived; they build the western image on this. Cinema, which is a Western art in its origin, is mostly encountered with an orientalist perspective when telling its storie” (Aslan, 2018: 69). Looking at the relationship between cinema and Orientalism, it is understood that cinema is a narrative technique based on visuality. Although the relationship between cinema and Orientalism can be established through linguistic elements, it can be said that images in cinema place Orientalism in a different context. Even the orientalist elements in the cinema narratives can construct the reality at one point. As a substitute for reality, cinema narratives reproduce the orientalist view and thinking by constructing them. Therefore, there is a strong relationship between cinema as an art form and orientalism (Satır and Özer, 2018: 767). Especially in films that contain orientalist elements intensely, the idea of the East is placed on a legitimate ground by showing the West’s point of view towards the East (Yiğit, 2008: 237). The influence of cinema and especially Hollywood in the West’s marginalization of the East through Orientalism should not be overlooked. On the other hand, according to the conditions brought by the time, Hollywood has brought Some innovations, different codes, people etc. to the Orientalist point of view. For example, as Yücel and Sürmeli (2019: 116) put forward, the Arab terrorist, who was seen as a major threat to the USA in the 1990s, was added to the Eastern characters who are presented as barbarian, lazy and ignorant in Hollywood movies. An example of this is the 2005 American film Crash. In the film shot after the terrorist attack on September 11, 2001, the East is represented as a criminal. What has been accomplished with this new identity, which is characterized by the West in its other position, is actually to replace the role of the enemy that has become vacant after the Cold War. Oriental’s excessive sexual addiction, tendency to steer and sadistic are in the foreground. In the cinema, the East is presented as a place where there are always crowds, yet there is no individuality and uncontrolledness prevails. Accordingly, codes such as mass anger, misery, and irrationality are evoked through the East (Said, 2016. as cited in Yücel and Sürmeli, 2019: 113). As a matter of fact, as can be observed in Babel, which was examined in this study, Yusuf was sexually motivated enough to be attracted from his sister and dream of her, even though he was a child. Similarly, in the film, both Morocco and Mexico are represented and marginalized as places where there is only a large crowd but no individuality. In this sense, the Eastern male model coded through Yusuf is just one of the orientalist elements in the film. Therefore, it is necessary to evaluate the film Babel in detail in terms of revealing the relationship between cinema and Orientalism and using the orientalist elements as much as possible.

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 The Others of Babel in the Context of Orientalism

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Film Analysis Babel (2006, Alejandro G. Iñárritu) is a film that melts different cultures in the same pot. Japanese, Moroccan, Mexican, American ... Different cultures are sometimes given in convention as well as conflict. Like the title of the movie, the subject is based on the legend of the Tower of Babel. In the legend of the Tower of Babel, which is a story based on the Torah, it is told that God negated these purposes by making a high tower by mixing the languages of the people who were aiming to reach himself and thus measure his size with him (Buran, 2008; as cited in Yalçın, 2008: 666). “The word meaning of Babel is the door to the sky. However, the bbl root is also related to the verb to ‘confuse’. God then confused their language, and when they awoke to the new day, each person spoke a different language and could no longer understand each other. Therefore, they disperse and migrate to different places and establish different tribes in the world. Man is given this punishment for exceeding the limits, not being content with what he has, defying God, not living in harmony with nature, and aspiring to the skies and eternity” (Antakyalıoğlu, 2007: 31). Actually, this is the main issue in the movie. The film shows that people living in different parts of the world with different cultures, religions and languages cannot understand the intersections and what each other wants to tell. From the opening scene of Babel, cultural differences between East and West begin to unfold. The poverty of the family living in a mountain house in Morocco is clearly revealed in the first scene of the film. The undeveloped aspects of such a life are clearly shown as opposed to urban life. Women’s washing clothes by their hands especially strengthens this depiction. Another situation in this scene is that death is free from fear. Because gun is used as an element of fear in the West. As a matter of fact, when the gun is shown, everyone will flee, and this situation is reinforced as much as possible in a genre like Western movies. At the beginning of the film Babel, the reactions of both children and women against the gun are just laughter and fun. Therefore, in this first scene, it is also possible to see a representation of the Americans’ view of Muslims and the East after the September 11 attack. On one side, there are American kids (Mike and Debbie) playing with their toys in their safe homes; on the other side, there are Moroccan children (Yusuf and Ahmed) shooting the bus. Differences in innocence, fun, and fear between the children of the East and the West are represented by this first scene. Iñárritu makes use of matched cuts to demonstrate this contrast. The cut from the image of Yusuf and Ahmed, who started fleeing after shooting the bus, to the image of Mike and Debbie playing games in their home under the supervision of their caregivers, Amelia, refers to the cultural difference between East and West through children. Susan, who asked Richard why they were in Morocco at the beginning of the film, serves to squeeze the people of the East into certain patterns through the disgusting look she directs to the locals. Asking for a coke with Richard in the place where they sit, Susan says that Richard must throw the ice from his glass, they do not even know what kind of water it is made of. Therefore, Western coke is “healthy”, and the Eastern ice that is used to cool the coke is harmful. With a more concise meaning, the West is healthy and the East is unhealthy. To reinforce this meaning, the camera focuses on people eating by their hands in the rest of the scene; after Susan gives the menu back to the waiter, she disinfects her hands and cleans the fork and spoon she uses. Susan will probably never do this kind of action in a restaurant in America, in the West. Indicators of the negation of the Eastern lifestyle and culture in a sense gain meaning in the scene where the detail of the moment Susan is shot is shown. As Susan and Richard are travelling on the bus, what the audience sees, positioned in Susan’s point of view, is the women in black veils who are walking along the roadside. Just in this image, the views of Yeğenoğlu (1996: 114), who said that the 234

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representation of Eastern women by the West is again a reflection of the view towards the East will be remembered. The music in the background accompanying the image is in a tone aimed at increasing the anxiety of the East and the lifestyle. Therefore, the scene, which is based on the anxiety of the East both visually and audibly, has reached its real meaning by showing the moment of Susan’s shooting, and thus the anxiety of the East is proven. When Richard takes his injured wife Susan to a village close to their location, the gaze of the people on the tourist bus becomes synonymous with the look of the audience. The East is revealed in all its backwardness. The fear of tourists is based on the fact that these lands are unsafe and will bring death or disease. Even, the fact that one of the tourists told Richard that 30 German tourists were killed by cutting their throats in a place similar to their village in Egypt, clearly reveals how Westerners perceive the Easterner. However, the images seen in the fiction parallel to this statement are people trying to carry the injured Susan with their own means. On the contrary, the West seems selfish and less insensitive. Because the tourists only think of their own lives and are in a hurry to go. Therefore, while the West does not think of another Westerner; the Eastern thinks of the Western. In the film, the object that connects people who are both geographically and culturally distant from each other is the rifle. American Susan is shot with a rifle in the Moroccan boy’s hand. The Moroccan man who caused the rifle to fall into the hands of the children actually bought it from a Japanese. Thus, although the three cultures may never understand each other, they intersect in one event. In this case, the Japanese who gave the rifle to the Moroccan boy and the Moroccan who used it are criminals; the American who was shot is the victim. From the broader perspective, the East is guilty while the West is the victim. The image of the East in the eyes of the West is also seen in the statements of Moroccan parents: Father: I think the terrorists shot an American tourist. Mother: Well, there are no terrorists here. Father: Who knows. In another dialogue between Richard and the Moroccan man who helped him, the codes of the culture of the East are again revealed: Moroccan: Do you have a child?

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Richard: Yes. He takes photos from his wallet and shows them. Moroccan: Only 2? You have to have more. In this dialogue, having a large number of children in a family in the eastern society is emphasized. The West otherizes not only the East, but all societies, people, etc. that it considers apart from its own values. In the film, the images that provide the clearest observation of this situation are conveyed through American children Mike and Debbie’s Mexican babysitter, Amelia. Amelia, who wants to go to her son’s wedding in Mexico, is not allowed by Richard, as Susan has been shot and their return to America will be delayed. In return, Amelia goes to Mexico with the children, as she cannot find another 235

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babysitter. During the journey, the audience observes the Mexican people, positioning the astonished gaze of Mike and Debbie. Mike’s saying “My mother said Mexico is a very dangerous place.” is added to these images. With the images accompanying this discourse and the discourse itself, Mexico is reduced to a marginalized and unsafe country just like Morocco. By mingling with Mexican kids, Mike and Debbie share their play language. But the beheading of the chicken in front of Mike and Debbie strengthens Mexico’s link with violence, blood and danger. Babel not only reflects how the West perceives the East, but emphasizes that those who are marginalized are actually human beings and that their language is not intended to be understood by Westerners. Perhaps this lack of understanding or disagreement has been the greatest punishment of people since the Tower of Babel legend. As a matter of fact, Babel places some of its scenes on the lack of understanding or disagreement with the marginalized in some way. Therefore, in one of the scenes with Chieko, who is deaf and dumb, the voice is suddenly cut off and the audience becomes identified with her, and the audience will not hear others. Once again, Amelia is stopped by the police, subjected to criminal treatment and eventually deported when she sets off to take the children home on the way home from a wedding. In the film, Susan is treated by a Moroccan veterinarian in the home of a Moroccan with no hygiene conditions, where the Moroccan Government does not allow a US helicopter to enter their country. At the first encounter between Richard and the vet, Richard’s distrust of himself is evident from his gaze. As Susan’s treatment continues, a radio news is heard. The report included the statement “While the authorities were dealing with the possibility of robbery, the American government claimed that it was an act of terrorism.” The game in which two Moroccan children play with guns becomes an act of terror. While this news is being given, Moroccan men are featured in the images. Thus, the terrorist act in the news and Moroccan men in the image are matched. Yusuf and Ahmed, who played a game with a rifle at the beginning of the film, are now terrorists because they fired at the police. As a matter of fact, Ahmed dies in the conflict. Thus, the last person who is marginalized in a sense and perceived that he should be punished for making Westerners live some things is also punished. The Moroccan who sold the rifle is caught, Amelia is deported and Ahmed dies. “The Americans have reached a happy ending,” says the announcer on Japanese television, who witnessed the footage of Richard and Susan returning home by helicopter at the end of the film. The West has prevailed over the East, and the East has realized that with the funeral in hand, it must be more careful now.

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FUTURE RESEARCH AND DIRECTION There are many works of art or mass products prepared with an orientalist point of view, and as a matter of fact, whether they are seen as an art work or as a mass product, they are highly influenced by orientalism. In this sense, although there are films that can be witnessed how the West depicts the East, there are also films belonging to the East in which the orientalist perspective of the East can be seen. Therefore, it will be important to work on films in which the East negates its own culture in some way. Likewise, the representation of techno-orientalism in films in the context of the representation of East Asian societies, one of the cultures in the film, in the western eye is another subject to be examined.

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CONCLUSION From its first scene, Babel reveals everything that is related to the East, mostly from an orientalist perspective, in a way that alienates the East. In doing so, it benefits from life practices. Life in mountain houses, eating by hand, washing by hand, wearing a sheet or baggy trousers, using a gun at a young age, and the lust that starts during childhood… These are all portrayed as the negative aspects of the East and the Orientals. Of course, good people can be met in the East, “even if only a few”; just as bad people can be met in the West. In this sense, the Moroccan who helps Richard is presented as the basic person who is kind-hearted, helpful, caring for people and does not care about money. Similarly, the tourist who confronts Richard and tells them that they should go is one of the selfish people who can be encountered in the West. Otherization does not only work through Moroccans and Japanese in the East, Mexicans are the others that should be avoided for America and Americans who are the representatives of the West. Being Mexican himself, Iñárritu, in a sense, by painting his own geography, actually reflects his otherness as an other rather than the Western view of the Eastern. His portrayal of Mexico as such a dangerous place as a Mexican is striking in this aspect. Although Iñárritu tries to create the image that the people there are “good people”, the space, the appearance of the characters in it, and the reactions of American children do not allow this. Moreover, Iñárritu attributed his view of his otherness to his Moroccan father and designed a scene where he thought this person might be a terrorist in his own land. “In Orientalist films, Arabs are lascivious, terrorist, lethargic, foolish, weak. On the one hand, it represents rottenness and backwardness. Westerners, on the other hand, have a democratic, sane, reliable, virtuous and strong character” (Ekinci, 2014: 55). In fact, this judgment, although it reveals the general lines of the Westerner’s view towards the Easterner, also dominates the film Babel. In the eyes of the West, Moroccans are terrorists and have remained far from civilization. Lust is presented as a negativity found in Easterners from an early age. As a matter of fact, Moroccan Yusuf breaks a taboo that is considered forbidden for him by having kinky feelings for his sister (Ingram, 2014). The Japanese in the film can be evaluated in the context of techno-orientalism. In the context of techno-orientalism, East Asian societies are the people who are feared in the eyes of the West over their armed power (Said, 1998. as cited in Becerikli, 2020: 1058). The rifle that the Japanese sold to Moroccan causes the American to be shot. This situation causes fear in the West. Although the most intense armament is in America, they are the victims of the firing of the guns, as conveyed in the film through Richard and Susan. Babel is positioned on the fact that the language of the marginalized can never be learned, and therefore there is always a difference between West and East. Since the legend of the Tower of Babel, human beings, who do not understand each other, have been given the mission of understanding only one place in the modern age when marginalization has reached the highest level. According to this new curse, there is only one place in which one should be understood, whose language should be known and all life should be planned according to them: the West and its pioneer America. Especially as a result of the terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center, also known as the Twin Towers, on September 11, 2001, all Muslims and the East had to face a situation where they could be marginalized much more. In a sense, it turned into something like God’s curse on humans in the Tower of Babel legend; The Tower of Babel was replaced by Twin Towers. The only difference to this modern legend is that it is no longer God but America that will curse people. As a matter of fact, after September 11, societies outside the West and especially America turned into societies that were much more incomprehensible or marginal237

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ized. In support of this kind of ideology, Americans are represented as victims and others as criminals in Babel, in line with the general structure of Hollywood movies.

REFERENCES Antakyalıoğlu, Z. (2007). Brugel Haklıydı. Artist Modern. Aslan, M. (2018). Türk Sinemasında Öteki Karakter: Üçüncü Sayfa Filminde Ötekilik. Adnan Menderes Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 5(2), 65–76. doi:10.30803/adusobed.443358 Becerikli, R. (2020). Wolverine (2013) Filminin Tekno-Oryantalizm Bağlamında İncelenmesi. Erciyes İletişim Dergisi, 7(2), 1055–1076. doi:10.17680/erciyesiletisim.724560 Benhabib, S. (2002). Kutsal Olmayan Savaşlar. Doğu Batı, 20, 51-65. Boztemur, R. (2002). Marx, Doğu Sorunu ve Oryantalizm. Doğu Batı, 20, 135-150. Çırakman, A. (2002). Oryantalizmin Varsayımsal Temelleri: Fikri Sabit İmgelem ve Düşünce Tarihi. Doğu Batı, 20, 181-197. Dursun, O. (2014). Batı’nın Egemen ‘Kötü-Öteki-Doğu’ Düşüncesinin Pekiştirildiği Bir Alan: Dünya Basın Fotoğrafları Kuruluşu, Yılın Fotoğrafı Kategorisi Üzerine Bir Analiz. University Faculty of Communication Journal/Istanbul Üniversitesi Iletisim Fakültesi Hakemli Dergisi, (47), 19-50. Ekinci, B. T. (2014). Argo Filmi Bağlamında Hollywood Sinemasında Söylem ve Yeni Oryantalizm. Atatürk İletişim Dergisi, (6), 51–66. Ingram, P. (2014). Framing the Mother in Alejandro Gonzalez Inarritu’s Babel. Mothering and Psychoanalysis: Clinical, Sociological and Feminist Perspectives. Demeter Press. Keyman, E. F. (2002). Globalleşme, oryantalizm ve öteki Sorunu: 11 Eylül sonrası dünya ve adalet. Doğu Batı, 20, 11-32. Mora, N. (2009). Orientalist discourse in media texts. Journal of Human Sciences, 6(2), 418–428. Said, E. (1978). Orientalism. Routledge & Kegan Paul. Satır, M. E., & Özer, N. P. (2018). Oryantalist Bakış Açısının Sinemaya Yansıması: The Physcıan (2013) Filmi Örneği. Gümüşhane Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Elektronik Dergisi, 6(1), 759–778. Copyright © 2021. IGI Global. All rights reserved.

Türkçe sözlük. (n.d.). https://sozluk.gov.tr/ Yalçın, S. K. (2008). Rusya’da Yaşayan Türklerin Konuşma Dillerinin Yazı Diline Dönüştürülme Süreci ve Ötekileştirme Ekseninde İzlenen Dil Politikaları. Turkish Studies, 3(7), 662–678. Yeğenoğlu, M. (1996). Peçeli Fantaziler: Oryantalist Söylemde Kültürel ve Cinsel Fark. In Oryantalizm, hegemonya ve kültürel Fark (Vol. 57). İletişim. Yiğit, Z. (2008). Hollywood Sineması’nın Yeni Oryantalist Söylemi ve 300 Spartalı. Selçuk İletişim, 5(3), 236–249.

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Yıldırım, A. K. (2002). Edward Said’in Şarkiyatçılık Düşüncesine Eleştirel Bir Bakış. Doğu Batı, 20, 135-148. Yıldırım, E., & Hira, İ. (2016). Türk Televizyon Dizilerinde Oryantalist Yansımalar: Muhteşem Yüzyıl Örneği. PESA Uluslararası Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, 2(2), 43–53. Yücel, A., & Sürmeli, Z. (2019). Sinemada Oryantalist ve Oksidentalist Söylem: “Duvara Karşı” Filmi Örneği. İdil, 8(54), 111-125.

ADDITIONAL READING Park, J., & Wilkins, K. (2005). Re-orienting the orientalist gaze. Global Media Journal, 4(6). Prakash, G. (1995). Orientalism now. History and Theory, 34(3), 199–212. doi:10.2307/2505621 Roh, D. S., Huang, B., & Niu, G. A. (2015). Techno-Orientalism: Imagining Asia in Speculative Fiction, History, and Media. Rutgers University Press. doi:10.36019/9780813570655 Said, E. W. (1985). Orientalism reconsidered. Race & Class, 27(2), 1–15. doi:10.1177/030639688502700201 Sardar, Z. (1999). Orientalism. McGraw-Hill Education. Sim, L. (2012). “Ensemble Film, Postmodernity and Moral Mapping”, Screening the Past. http://www. screeningthepast.com/2012/12/ensemble-film-postmodernity-and-moral-mapping/

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Ueno, T. (1999). Techno‐Orientalism and media‐tribalism: On Japanese animation and rave culture. Third Text, 13(47), 95–106. doi:10.1080/09528829908576801

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Chapter 15

Orientalism and Hollywood:

Reflection of India on Western Cinema Subir Sinha Dum Dum Motijheel College, India

ABSTRACT Orientalism is a broad concept of cultural studies which is nurtured with the fabricated stereotypical images of the Middle East and the Eastern world that were developed or imagined by the West. Edward. W. Said strengthens the concept of the ‘Orientalism’ by his wide explanation and discussion about the Orient. However, Hollywood cinema shows an imprint of Orientalism while depicting the Indian scenario. Hollywood cinema with Indian set up shows several fabricated stereotypical concepts related to India and Indian society. The stereotypical concepts are mainly related to the Indian tradition, customs, rituals, poverty, illiteracy, etc. Even they use various beautiful landscape and Indian music in their own ways to give mystic charms to their cinema. Recently it was recognised that the stereotypical concepts about India and Indian society are changing rapidly in Hollywood cinemas which try to justify that the concept of Orientalism is changing with the passage of time or with the arrival of modernity.

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INTRODUCTION The Orientalism is a broad concept or the study of the orient or the eastern world. It is a branch of cultural studies that is based on western fantasy or the style of thought about the east. It reflects how the western world views the East. The wide concept of Orientalism was developed by the early western world that depicts about the Middle East and the East. The concept mainly encircled with various fabricated stereotypical idea about the Middle East and the East. Edward Said enrich the field of Orientalism with his critical thoughts and explanations about the Orient and the Occident. Edward. W. Said in the Introduction of his book ‘Orientalism’ opined about the Orientalism as: Orientalism is a style of thought based upon an ontological and epistemological distinction made between “the Orient” and (most of the time) “the Occident”. Thus a very large mass of writers, among whom are poets, novelists, philosophers, political theorists, economists and imperial administrators have accepted DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch015

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 Orientalism and Hollywood

the basic distinction between East and West as the starting point for elaborate theories, epics, novels, social description and political accounts concerning the Orient, its people, customs, “mind”, destiny and so on- (Said, E. 1979; pg 2-3) The statement of the Said reflects his thoughts which are based upon ontological and epistemological distinction made between the orient and the occident. In the lower section of the Introduction he also described Orientalism in short as: “Orientalism as a Western style for dominating, restructuring and having authority over the Orient”. The statement reflects western dominating styles of thought about the East. The concept of Orientalism was wide and discussed by various scholars in various way. Srinivas Aravamudan in his book ‘Enlightenment Orientalism’ compared and contrasts Orientalism with Enlightenment. In the initial introductory part he compared Edward Said’s Orientalism with Immanuel Kant’s Enlightenment. Ziauddin Sardar in his book ‘Concepts in the social science: Orientalism’ mentioned Orientalism as:

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As a scholarly tradition, Orientalism was concerned with the study of Asian civilization, identifying, editing and interpreting the fundamental texts of these civilizations and the transmission of this scholarly tradition from one generation to another through an established chain of teacher and students. It was largely focused on Islam; and Islamic studies became a major branch of Orientalism. Orientalism thus studied Islam and other civilization with European ideas of God, man, nature, society, science and history and consistently found non- Western cultures and civilizations to be inferior and backward. (Sardar1999; pg 4) Ziauddin Sardar focused on Islamic study related to Orientalism, however Orientalism was not only confined or encircled within Islamic studies rather its existence reflected from various western point of views associated with various fields or study related to the Middle East and the Eastern nation .The concepts of Orientalism are also traced while analysing several Hollywood cinemas with Indian set up. The term Hollywood is most synonymous with the American film industry from the early 1990’s. It becomes a wide source of entertainment not only for the United State of America but also for the entire globe in the modern era. Since the early 1990’s, the mesmerizing charms of the Hollywood spread worldwide and took the audience into the world of love, romance and action. Hollywood produces a wide variety of cinema based on action, spying, love, romance, tragedy, comic, scientific fiction etc. Recently the work of graphic and animation are also playing a significant role in creation of fictional and delusive character, atmosphere, surrounding, background, etc which take the audience into the world of fantasy. Along with all this variety, Hollywood cinemas often focus on the Middle East and the East to give a fictional oriental charm. The atmosphere and background of the Middle East and the East become vital for several Hollywood cinemas. They focus on their society, traditions, customs, food habits, dress codes etc to put an oriental effect on the cinema. Hollywood cinemas use the oriental backgrounds of the Middle East and the East mainly to give a dramatic effect to the cinemas that provides audience the fabricated magical beauty of the East. The touch of the Middle East are mainly represented and reflected by the Arabic world. The Hollywood cinema like ‘The Thief of Bagdad’ (1940), ‘The 7th Voyage of Sinbad’ (1958), ‘Prince of Persia: The Sand of Time’ (2010), ‘Aladdin’ (2019), etc reflect the charms of the Middle East Arabic world and put the light on the oriental views. However among the eastern nation, India plays a significant role in the Hollywood cinema. India becomes the centre of attraction for the Hollywood cinema from the very beginning. Hollywood cinemas 241

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with Indian plots mainly focus on India and highlight Indian society, its tradition, customs, dress code etc to enrich cinematic charms. In various occasions Hollywood film industries even collaborated with the Indian cinema industries for various cinematic projects. Hollywood as well as Indian cinema industries are well recognised and accepted by a huge majority from across the globe. Both the industries present a wide variety of cinema for the global audience. However both the industries present the views of orient in their own way. Indian film industries mainly present India with its traditions, customs and development in a glorious way which reflects the beauty of real India but most of the Hollywood cinema reflects the India with fabricated oriental views which affect the image of real India. It is hiding the glory of real India and exposing the negative sides which are mostly fabricated and stereotypical in nature. The glorious past of the ancient civilization, its traditions, customs and high culture are all getting covered under the debris of fictional stereotypical images. Most of the Hollywood cinemas with Indian plots or background set up are mainly focus on the fabricated oriental stereotypical concept like poverty of India, illiteracy, magical power, dirty slams etc, which are actually very low in percentage and small in section that exist in the modern India. The fabricated concepts are projecting a negative image of India in front of the global audience. The real India is actually highly literate, scientific and optimistic in nature which is totally different from the oriental stereotypical negative images that are projected through Hollywood cinemas. However with the passage of time the concept about the India in Hollywood cinema is changing rapidly. The recent trends of Hollywood cinemas with Indian background set up mainly focusing on Indian culture, customs, tradition, love, romance, religious harmony, peaceful non violence attitude, developed infrastructure etc, in a glorious way.

CASE STUDIES OF HOLLYWOOD CINEMAS WITH INDIAN SET UP AND IT’S ANALYSIS: The article “The Orientalism and the Hollywood: The Reflection of India on Western Cinema” analysed four western Hollywood cinema –‘Octopussy’(1983), ‘Indiana Jones and the Temple of the Dooms’(1984), ‘Bride and Prejudice’(2004), and ‘SlamDog Millionaire’(2008) as a case study which reflects the existence of Orientalism in western Hollywood cinema with Indian set up. The case studies focus on the backgrounds, traditions, rituals, food habits and dress code used in the cinema.

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Case Study 1: Octopussy (1983) ‘Octopussy’, the famous western cinema from 007 James Bond series directed by John Glen was released in the year 1983.The film was taken from Ian Fleming’s ‘Octopussy and the Living Daylights’. The plot of the cinema begin with a replica of soviet precious gift item ‘Faberge Egg’ called “The Property of lady” and the mischief personal conspiracy of a soviet general named ‘Orlov’ who was secretly conspiring and stealing the soviet precious items. Bond was assigned to investigate and to overlook the soviet general and his connection with a wealthy afghan prince Kamal Khan and the lady Octopussy. In this connection Bond arrived in India and investigates and foiled the conspiracy against NATO. However a major section of the cinema reflects an oriental stereotypical image of India. The scene when Bond arrived in India shows grand Taj Mahal, old civilization near the crowded river bank, fruits and vegetable vendors selling their items on the river bank, snake charming, narrow crowded road where 242

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cows and camel are roaming, etc. The palace and hotel scene are also full of Orientals views. These pictorial set up of the background related to India are highly oriental and stereotypical, which are actually fictional and fabricated in nature used to enhance the charm of the cinematic background.

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Case Study 2: Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom (1984) ‘Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom’ is a block buster action adventure Hollywood cinema based on the replicated Indian background set up. The cinema was directed by one of the greatest Hollywood film director Steven Spielberg. ‘Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom’ is the second cinema of the Indiana Jones series that released in the year 1984.Unlike the previous cinema of the Indiana Jones series, Indiana Jones does not deal with the German Nazi force rather the story shows Indiana Jones accidentally arrived in British India and started to find a mystical stone or a ‘Shiva Linga’ that was stolen from the Indian village in which he and his companions arrived. The cinema was bit controversial in India but achieved a great success globally. The controversy rises as it shows several oriental stereotypical concept of the west related to India which Indian government were not allowed. Producer Frank Marshall explained that “originally the scenes were going to be shot in India at a fantastic palace. They required us to give them a script, so we sent it over and we didn’t think it was going to be a problem. But because of the voodoo element with Mola Ram and the Thuggees, the Indian government was a little bit hesitant to give us permission. They wanted us to do things like not use the term Maharajah, and they didn’t want us to shoot in a particular temple that we had picked. The Indian government wanted changes to the script and final cut privilege.”- (Wikipedia). As a result, location work went to Kandy, Sri Lanka, with matte paintings and scale models applied for the village, temple, and Pankot Palace. The plot of the cinema shows Indiana Jones who is a famous archaeologist came to India after a crash landing along with his companions to an Indian village, where the resident claim a dark evil power has stolen the precious mystical stone or the Shiva Linga of the village along with their children. Indiana was asked to search the children and the mystical stone by the villager. Indiana Jones assures to help them and started his journey. The next day prime minister of Pankot, Chatter Lal offered them to stay the night in palace. That night Indiana Jones discovered a secret passage within the palace that goes directly to the catacomb of the Thuggee. Indiana discovered the Thuggee cult is behind all this evil deeds, he fight and stopped them and finally he rescued the stone and the children. However the cinema highlights various stereotypical fabricated concepts about Indian. The arrival scene of the Indiana Jones in the India village was very creepy as the village that were shown were very poor, rustic and mystical in nature. The people of the Indian village are reflected as helpless and fearful. The dinner scene of Pankot Palace was also very strange as it shows foods like roasted python, roasted bugs and chilled monkey brain which are totally fictional and fabricated. But the most stereotypical concept arise when the cinema shows the Thuggee worshipping and giving human sacrifice in front of the Hindu goddess Kali. According to the Hinduism the images of goddess Kali reflects as a holy power which destroy all the evils, instead of that the cinema reflects goddess Kali as negative power and worshipped by the evil Thuggees. The cinema also reflects the illegal and forceful child slavery scene. These all scene are stereotypical, fabricated and highly fictional in nature which reflects the oriental concepts. Through these oriental stereotypical concepts the cinema tries to create a wonderful atmosphere of fear and mystical charms which make the cinema a block buster hit.

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Case Study 3: Bride and Prejudice (2004) Bride and Prejudice’ is a wonderful romantic Hollywood as well as Bollywood cinema which released in 2004 in United Kingdom and in India but in United State of America it was released in the year 2005. It was filmed primarily in English with few Hindi and Punjabi dialogues. The cinema was based on Jane Austin’s famous novel ‘Pride and Prejudice’ which glorify 18th Century love and romance. However the cinema Bride and Prejudice replicated the novel and gave an Indian touch where the theme of love and romance were same but the name of the character changed. The cinema Bride and Prejudice mainly focused on the cross cultural marriage between the hero ‘William Darcy’ who was a wealthy American gentleman and the heroine ‘Lalita Bakshi’ a beautiful charming Indian girl from Amritsar. The role of William Darcy was played by Hollywood actor Martin Henderson where as the role of Lalita Bakshi was played by Indian Bollywood actress Aishwarya Rai. The cinema highlights Indian society, various Indian traditions, and the dress codes. The director Gurinder Chadha presents the story in a splendid Indian way. The plot of the cinema was colourful and energetic adaptation of Austen’s classic but the names of the characters were changed. The plot begin with Balraj, a London barrister of Indian origin visits Amritsar in a friend’s wedding ceremony, he brings along with his sister Kiran and his William Darcy an American gentleman, where they meet Mr. And Mrs. Bakshi and their four daughters- Jaya, Lalita, Maya and Lakhi(Lucky). Balraj was attracted to Jaya and fall in love with her. Lalita feels offended initially on William Darcy for his attitude towards India and Indian but later they also fall in love with each other. The opening scene begins with rural farm lands, crowded Indian road and an Indian marriage ceremony where Indian dresses like salwar suit, sharwani, and turban headed men were displayed which are highly oriental and stereotypical in nature. In various scenes Indian foods were also come under the focus of the camera. However the overall cinema gives an oriental stereotypical concept with a cross cultural comparison between the Indian society and the society of United State but the central theme of love and romance dominate throughout the cinema. ‘

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Case Study 4: Slamdog Millionaire (2008) ‘Slamdog Millionaire’ is a remarkable Hollywood cinema directed by Danny Boyle and Loveleen Tandan which get released in the year of 2008. The prime focus of the cinema is on the vision of poverty but the cinema manages to reflect the image of a perfect balance between poverty and economically developed India. The plot of the cinema is extremely heart touching and romantic which depict the story of a young poor boy Jamal Mallick from the slam of Mumbai. Jamal Mallick a young teenage boy become contestant for the television show “Who wants to be a Millionaire”, while reaching the final question of the quiz, host of the show Prem surprised and suspicious. When the teenage boy Jamal Mallick was interrogated under suspicion of cheating, he recalls his past and revealed how he answers each question correctly. ‘Slamdog Millionaire’ is a story of struggle of few poor children, it narrate how they grew up in the presence of extreme hard struggle of life. The cinema ‘Slamdog Millionaire’ reflects various oriental stereotypical images related to India. The cinema highlights extreme poverty, hard struggle for survival of life, the dingy slam area and the narrow crowded roads of India. All these pictorial representation represent the oriental stereotypical concept of the west. However along with these oriental stereotypical images, love and romance remain the central theme of the cinema ‘Slamdog Millionaire’. The cinema also gives a beautiful song ‘Jai Ho’ of A. R.

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Rahman which means ‘be victorious’. The song glorifies the singer by providing with Academy award. The song is a beautiful fusion of Indian and western music.

FACTS AND DISCUSSIONS The field of Orientalism has become a topic of discussion for the cinema and media studies from the early days of its arrival. However the case studies of few Hollywood cinemas analysed in this article gives a wide comparison between the culture of the east and the west and put the light on the oriental views that get reflected through the plot of the cinemas. The cinemas reflect the Indian scenario from a wide angle but all of them are projected from western point of view. Most of the cinemas instead of glorifying the Indian culture and traditions tried to put a dominating hegemonic effect based on the oriental views. The cinemas try to dominate the Indian culture and tradition through the fictitious and stereotypical images. While depicting the Indian scenario in Hollywood cinema the concept of Orientalism are used in various ways. The concept of Orientalism are reflects through the use of various fictitious or fabricated stereotypical images related to traditions, customs, cultures, beautiful landscapes and Indian music. While on the other the western culture were presented as superior, flawless, free from superstitious and glorious in nature which helps to highlight and to terminate the flaws exist in Indian cultures. The Oriental cinematic pictorial presentations reflected through Hollywood cinemas are promoting fabricated images about India which adversely affects the Indian traditional and cultural developments.

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Reflection of Hegemony in Hollywood Cinemas The reflection of Orientalism through Hollywood cinemas with Indian plot is also promoting an immense effect of hegemony over the Indian cultures and traditions. Most of the cinemas are dominating the Indian cultures and projecting fabricated conception about Indian society, customs, traditions and rituals. These fabricated cinematic projections developing a negative image about India and its culture in front of the entire globe. Several scenes of the cinemas that we have discussed denounced Indian traditions, culture, ritual, foods, dress codes etc in a dominating manner. The hegemonic attitude was reflected from various scene of the cinema ‘Indiana Jones and the Temple of Dooms’. The cinema wrongfully projected the worship of Hindu goddess Kali in negative sense for the cinematic charms. In the cinema ‘Bride and Prejudice’ the character William Darcy also shows negative attitude towards India and Indian customs in the initial part of cinema. These cinematic presentations are reflecting a dominating approach over Indian traditions and customs. The effect of these hegemonic cinematic presentations is immense which act as an obstacle or barrier in the development and propagation of Indian cultures and traditions. In the global perspective, the propagation of fabricated cinematic presentation will support to develop false assumptions among the nations or states that are unaware of Indian cultures and traditions which adversely affect on the image of the great nation India. However the hegemonic cultural dominance was not effective fully as the motives of the cinemas was not to produce the cultural dominance rather they are presented for the sake of entertainment and amusement.

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Reflection of Stereotypical Concept Hollywood cinemas with the Indian plot or with the Indian set up are mostly encircled with various fabricated oriental stereotype concepts which in reality have hardly any truth in it. The concepts mainly present India with poverty, illiteracy, chaotic atmosphere, dirty environment, etc. These fabricated negative concepts are mainly used to create a mystic charms and cinematic effects but circuitously they promote a negative image about the great nation, which have a past glories history from the days of Vedic age. The fabricated scene with poor villagers, rural and rustic atmospheric set up, kingly palace, monuments provide the audience an effect of India of pre independence era whereas slams, narrow lane, dusty roads are used to create an atmosphere of third world nation or a developing nation. Several cinematic presentations of Hollywood cinemas like ‘Octopussy’ (1983), ‘Indiana Jones and the Temple of Dooms’ (1984), ‘Bride and Prejudice’ (2004), ‘Slamdog Millionaire’(2008), etc present the Indian scenario as a land of poor, magic, superstition and snake charmers. They classified Indian society and its people mainly into two categories, the royal or the maharaja class and the common people. The portrayal of the royal or the maharaja class are as the kingly class of India who rule over the natives. They are highly luxurious and passive in nature who have no touch with the common man where as the portrayal of common man were highlighted as poor, rural, rustic and illiterate in nature. In modern India these portrayal have hardly any truth in it, they are absolutely false and fabricated concept. In the post independence era, Indian education system widely disseminates primary, secondary and higher education throughout the nation. Modern India also has a close focus on industrialization, business and beautification of the nation. In modern India, developments of every sector are given high priority as development, prosperity and success are the ultimate goal of the nation. However in the recent days the stereotypical fabricated concept of Hollywood cinemas about India is rapidly changing. Hollywood cinemas are presenting India and its society in a new way. They depicting and glorifying India’s age old tradition and customs, significance of joint family, significant of middle class, newly develop modern infrastructure, delicious Indian foods etc. The new style of presenting India is a combination of glorious age old Indian tradition with the modern outlook of India which tries to make a perfect balance between past and the present. The concepts are no longer hampering the image of the Indian society rather they glorifying Indian theme in a beautiful cinematic ways.

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Reflection of Cross Cultural Effect in Hollywood Cinema Orientalism and Cross Cultural study are the two different types of studies which Hollywood cinemas bring close to each other. Cross cultural study is dealing with or comparing between two or more different culture. However Hollywood cinemas with Indian set up use in several occasion the cross cultural scenario and present the global audience the beautiful mystic essence of India. The mystic charms are not always negative in nature rather sometime they mesmerise the audience with the fantasy of India which help to give block buster hit. Hollywood cinema with Indian set up has shown various cross cultural plot and theme. They explore various Indian tradition and customs and beautifully present them in cinema. The cross cultural effects compare, contrast and mixed western culture with the east. Through cinematic presentation they highlight the combination of diverse cultures of two nations to give a cross cultural effect. Several Hollywood cinemas focus Indian traditional marriage, tradition, customs, dress codes, food habits etc. They contrast and blend the Indian tradition with the western one; it is a fusion of two cultures. In Hollywood cinematic presentation Indian marriage style are mainly 246

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presents as holy ritual performed for a happy prosperous married life. The style of presenting Indian marriage ceremony is now becoming highly popular in various Hollywood cinemas. The age old traditional style of Indian salutation ‘Namaskar’ by joining two hands is also popular among various Hollywood cinemas. The cultural symbolisms were also expressed through the use of Indian dress codes and food habits. The popular Indian dress like Kurta, Pajama, Saree, Salwar, Turban etc are highly used by Indian as well as western actors actress of various Hollywood cinemas. These images which reflected through the cross cultural comparison are mainly oriental in nature.

Reflection of Indian Location in Hollywood Cinema Location plays a significant role in every cinema. Locations of the cinema are the place where the story is set up. Most of the modern cinema use combination of multiple locations to give an illusion of real effect or originality. Orientalism also creates fantasy among the western viewer about various Middle East and eastern landscape. Hollywood cinemas are also running behind such fantasy and try to find such charming landscape for their movie set up. They use various Indian locations for their cinema set up to give various realistic and charming effect. Several Hollywood cinema use Indian location to give an effect of third world nation or better we can say to give the scenario of a developing nation while few use the Indian location to give a mystic charm. Indian locations for shooting Hollywood cinemas are reflecting several oriental conceptions. Shooting location like Slam areas, narrow lanes, and rural village are used to create an image of poor developing nation where as mystic charms are create with the help of beautiful location with natural beauty like forest, hills, caves etc. Rivers and lakes are mainly use to symbolise peace and serenity but river side with saddhus or monk are mainly use to create an image of religious, spiritual, mystery, superstitions, moksha etc. The Old monuments, archaeological structure and kingly palace are commonly used to create an image of ancient civilization. Indian locations are unique for the Hollywood cinemas as they use them for wide variety of set up. In the recent Hollywood cinemas, the scenario of Indian modern cities are also getting place which symbolise developing infrastructure. Through the Hollywood cinemas the modern Indian cities are giving an exposure to the global audience about the modern Indian outlook. The modern cities mainly symbolise developing modern India.

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Reflection of Indian Music in Hollywood Cinema Martin Clayton and Bennett Zon in the introduction of their book entitle ‘Music and Orientalism in the British Empire, 1780s -1940s’ express: “The relationship between music and Orientalism is widely acknowledge to be an important one, particularly so in the long nineteenth century, and yet the literature on this topic remains under researched and modest in scope” – (Clayton & Zon 2016; pg 1). They signify the relation between music and Orientalism as an important one. Sounds, music, and SFX are all important part of every talkies cinema. Hollywood cinema uses a wide variety of music and SFX to support various visuals images. The sound effects enrich the feeling of love, action, horror, thrill etc and fill the heart of the audience with excitements and joy. The oriental effect is also finding its way into the world of sound and music. Hollywood cinemas are using various Indian sound and music whereas several Indian music composers are composing music based on Indian theme for the western Hollywood cinemas. Indian music is mainly tries to produce musical harmony and charming effect which took the audience into the world of musical fantasy. Indian music composer mainly use Indian musical instrument 247

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like Sitar, Tanpura, Sarangi, Sarod, Tablas, Flute, Binn, Drams, Dholaka, Harmonium etc for various musical effect. The Indian music support the visual set up based on Indian theme. For instance the music of Binn use by the snake charmer mainly flourished the scene of snake charming. Whereas the sound of sitar are mainly use when India and Indian traditions are display. The instruments like Tablas, flute, harmonium are mainly used during any song or dancing programme. During 1950’s Indian cinematic music played a dominant role throughout the globe. Its effect not only resides within Bollywood or Hollywood rather it moves Middle East, Europe and America along with the entire Asia. Indian icons like Pandit. Ravi Sankar, Zakir Hossain, A.R. Rahman etc played significant roles in composing Indian music. Their influence on western cinema is enormous. However Indian music composer A.R. Rahaman took the Indian music to a new global level. His work was highly appreciated by western world. His work reached zenith in 2008 with Danny Boyle’s Hollywood cinema ‘Slamdog Millionaire’. The cinema received prestigious Oscar award, a BAFTA, a Golden Globe Award and two Grammy Awards.

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CONCLUSION Hollywood is manly known for the English cinemas which are mainly deal with western cultures and traditions but often they deal with India and Indian society. The concept of Orientalism is clearly visible in various Hollywood cinemas with Indian setup. The reflection of oriental effects in Hollywood cinema with Indian plots and background set up is prominent through the projection of various stereotypical images about India, and its traditions and customs, reflection of cross cultural comparison, giving the panoramic view of Indian location for various plot and scene along with the use of Indian music. All are presented in a western dominating hegemonic style. The imprint of Orientalism is prominent in Hollywood cinema with Indian plots and in most cases they are contradictory. The famous Hollywood cinema like ‘Octopussy’, ‘Indiana Jones and the Temple of Dooms’, ‘Bride and Prejudice’, ‘Slamdog Millionaire’, etc show several fabricated fictional stereotypical images about India and Indian customs. These stereotypical images reflects oriental concept from various dimensions. The fabrication of stereotypical image about India and Indian rituals in the famous cinema ‘Indiana Jones and the Temple of the Doom’ put the cinema under wide criticism in India. The cinema was criticizes by several Indian film critics for the fictional stereotypical images but the mystical images give the cinema a magical charms which help to achieve a great success. The recent Hollywood cinema Slamdog Millionaire of director Danny Boyle also reflects several stereotypical images. The cinema focused on Indian poverty and the slam of Mumbai with a central theme of love and romance. However the cinema Slamdog Millionaire shows a contrast between Indian poverty and the development. Hollywood cinema also reflects the concept of Orientalism through the use of cross cultural comparisons. Through the use of cross cultural comparison they highlight Indian tradition, customs and rituals in their own oriental ways. The cinema like Bride and Prejudice reflect a balance between Indian and American culture and highlighted several stereotypical images of Indian traditions and customs. In Hollywood cinema various Indian spot and location were also used in an oriental stereotypical manner to reflect the oriental view. In most of the Hollywood cinema with Indian set up shows India a crowded place with cows and buffalo are roaming on the streets and bazaars. Along with this view the old cities and river banks are mostly presented with monks and sadhus to give a mystic spiritual charm. These images are mostly fabricated and fictional in nature. The grand old Indian musical systems are also used 248

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in various Hollywood cinemas to reflect the oriental charms. Orientalism reflects in Hollywood cinema with Indian set up from various dimensions. Their views and conceptions about India are mostly static and stereotypical. India has developed a lot but the reflections of India in Hollywood cinemas are mostly fictional, fabricated and stereotypical in nature. The oriental view of India through the Hollywood cinema is hiding the real India from not only the west but also from the entire globe. They are hiding the panoramic beauty, ancient scientific knowledge, and the beautiful architectural works of real India. The oriental view is not focusing properly on the glorious past of the ancient Indian civilization which is rich in science, literature and architectural works rather constructing a hypothetical concept which is fabricated and fictional in nature. However in the recent days the oriental view about India is changing and most of the Hollywood cinemas are focusing on the Indian glorious past, ancient knowledge and architecture, Indian tradition and customs along with modern Indian outlooks. This signifies the changing pattern of Orientalism concept which is beneficial for both the East as well as for the West.

REFERENCES Aravamudan, S. (2012). Enlightenment Orientalism. The University of Chicago Press. Bauer, P. (2017). Slumdog Millionaire. Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Slumdog-Millionaire Berardinelli, J. (2004). Bride and Prejudice. REELVIEWS. https://www.reelviews.net/reelviews/brideand-prejudice Clayton, M & Zon, B. (2016). Music and Orientalism in the British Empire, 1780s -1940s. Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. Craine, A. G. (2020). A. R. Rahman Indian Composer. Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/ biography/A-R-Rahman#ref1070030 Fandom. (n.d.). Octopussy (film). https://jamesbond.fandom.com/wiki/Octopussy_(film) IMDB. (n.d.). Award (Slamdog Millionaire). https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1010048/awards Ramnath, N. (2016). ‘Temple of Dooms’ is the Indiana Jones movie that Indian won’t forget in a hurry. Scroll.in. https://scroll.in/reel/805944/temple-of-doom-is-the-indiana-jones-movie-that-indians-wontforget-in-a-hurry

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Said, E. W. (1979). Orientalism. Vintage Books. Sardar, Z. (1999). Concepts in the Social science Orientalism. Open University Press. Wikipedia. (2020). Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiana_Jones_ and_the_Temple_of_Doom

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

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Cinema: Motion picture or a movie. Cross Culture: Dealing or comparing two or more culture. Hollywood: An area in Los Angeles but its name associated with American or western film industries. Moksha: According to Hindu philosophy the ultimate liberation from the cycle of death and rebirth. Namaskar: A traditional Indian way of greeting someone by joining two hands. Orientalism: The study of the history, Language, culture and tradition of the Middle East and Eastern nations. SFX: Sound mixing for musical or sound effect. Spiritual: Holy or divine feeling or belief related to spirit or god. Stereotypical: A fixed set of idea that may be false.

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Chapter 16

Eastern Male Image in Contemporary Oriental Media:

The Novel and Movie of The Lustful Turk Günseli Gümüşel Atılım University, Turkey

ABSTRACT When the Ottoman Empire in the 17th century was at the peak of its power, British and French merchants who came to Istanbul were writing so-called memories of harems to their homeland, and these letters composed the image of Eastern male in Orientalism and details of Muslim male image, which was one of the most important prototypes. The details which were written by non-Muslims who had no chance to even come near to Sultan’s private life, recounted a period of literature to politics. Moreover, Muslim males who were called “not lustful Turk” in the past also have to face some kind of vexatious accusations today because of this created identity. In the same year, the producers proposed that The Lustful Turk movie had a big budget and an ambitious project; they were trying to afect potential audience. In this study, The Lustful Turk’s novel segments and the movie are analyzed in detail to understand toplevel racist accusations to Eastern male image, especially the Turkish one. Also, contemporary media approaches will be evaluated from Edward Said’s point of view.

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INTRODUCTION When the Ottoman Empire in the 17th century was on peak of power, British and French merchants who came to Istanbul were writing so called memories of Harem to their homeland and these letters composed the image of Eastern male in Orientalism and details of Muslim(or Turkish) male image which was one of the most important prototypes. The details which were written by Non Muslims who had no chance to even come near to Sultan’s private life, harem recounted a period of literature to politics. Moreover, as Muslim males who were called “not lustful Turk” in the past also have to face some kind of vexatious accusations (hypermasculine, macho, aggressive, unausterity, harsh, cruel, barbarous...) today because of this created identity. The basic characteristics of these falses were prepared literary by an anonymous DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch016

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 Eastern Male Image in Contemporary Oriental Media

novel, “The Lustful Turk” which was written in 1828. In spite of the fact that the novel had been forbidden because of its obscure content, new editions could be done in the categories of “Classic English Victorian Erotica” and “Vintage Erotica” (1967). This novel consisted of letters to England which were written by a young and beautiful English girl who was kidnapped and sent to Algerian Protector’s Harem. The English girl, Emily Barlow was a slave in Harem and she was raped by Algerian Ali but then she felt in love with him just like the other women in Harem. This book was also adapted a movie by American producers in 1968. In the fragment of the movie, they tried to create a malicious perception of reality. For example, the characters of the movie were praising (to thank) Mohammed (Hz) just after they raped a suffering woman; so this was not only a defamation to Turks but also Islam. Both Turkish males and Muslims encountered accusation of barbarism enigmatically. Interestingly, the novel was too busy to recreate Turkish male image with pornographic and obscene details in letters, they ignored the truth: the man who was called as “Algerian Dayı (Ali)” in fact was not even a Turkish Sultan. Because the key point was focusing on an idea, “forcible Turkish entry of European territories” at the background. In the same year, the producers proposed that “The Lustful Turk” movie had a big budget and an ambitious project; they were trying to affect potential audience. There were behind-the-scenes pages in the magazine: artists to joke with scourges, a naked actor who was reading a Geology book. Also, the artists were expressing again and again that in the scenes of barbaric Turk behaviours it was very difficult to act even they were not real. In this study, The Lustful Turk’s novel segments and the movie will be analyzed in details with discourse analysis to understand top level racist accusations to Eastern male image, especially the Turkish one. Also, contemporary media approaches will be evaluated from Edward Said’s and point of view.

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The Eastern Myth The developmental history of humanity is a history of civilizations. Lasting for generations, the successive emergence of the civilizations that follow each other has created various identities for humanity. According to these identities, there are differences which cannot be ignored, between primitive societies and civilized societies: being civilized is “good”, being uncivilized is “bad”. The concept of civilization functions as a standard in the evaluation of civilizations (Huntington: 2019: 46). The most decisive contact between different civilizations is the destruction or subjugation of a people from one civilization by another civilization. These formations not only bring violence with them, but they also pave way for cultural interactions. The culture and social formation of one civilization, inescapably, draws more attention and interest from the other side. Just like how Eastern culture and society always fascinated the West. Both during premodern and modern times, the Western World has reinvented the Eastern World by way of fictionalizing it, especially in the context of colonialism activities. This orientalist doctrine bases all the terms related to the East such as “Eastern character”, “Eastern dictatorship”, “Eastern Lust”. The related orientalist doctrine is the work of Europeans who almost agree on everything that belongs to the east. Edward Said also supports this proposed idea with the following words: Orientalism is the collective institution which deals with the Orient; that is, it makes judgments about the Orient, passes convictions about the orient through its own approval, it depicts, teaches, civilizes

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and rules the Orient. In short, “Dominating the east is a way found by the West in order to re-establish and rule it. (Demiroğlu, 1997: 46-47). The Eastern Myth, which has been created and adapted to the ages as it has been reshaped, in actuality is a quest in the world of the Other, which is sometimes frightful and sometimes exciting. The historical work presented by the Orientalist archive show us that the information, in general about the East and the Easterners and in particular, about Muslims and Turks, is not always distorted or subjected to an incomplete assessment in order to make them look bad and not necessarily used to provoke the Westerners. There is no single Orient/Oriental image. There are various forms which take shape in different conditions and times (Bulut, 2012: vii-xx). Ralph Waldo Emerson, the father of American transcendentalism, portrays the “Asian destiny” in his writings. According to him, the East means a fatalistic philosophy that admires abstractions yet does not care about praxis, it lacks development and believes in the power of the doctrine. Life in the East is fierce, dangerous and in extremes. Its elements are few and simple... The essence of East is, “all or nothing. (Emerson, 1983:34).

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According to Lisa Rowe, who is the professor of ethnicity, race and migration at Yale University, there can also be “good” orientalists. So an Orientalism that speaks positively about the Easterners or produces scientific knowledge is possible. Yet still, the East is an object and positive orientalism still owes its terminology still to the west, the follower of the scientific method (Yıldırım, 2002: 145). For example, Claude Farrere has written his article entitled “The Spiritual Forces of Turkey” about the Turks, which is often used as a synonym for Islam, in a positive orientalist attitude in parallel with the changing zeitgeist. The Turks of the 20th century are no longer the Turks of the 12th or 13th century. Having already done with nomadism, they became civilized. They do not live in the steppes, nor dwell within their old yurts anymore. For more or less than five hundered years, they have been living in friendly, fertile soil of Anatolia where all kinds of fruits can be grown. They do not chase herds on horseback anymore. Turks of these times plough fields and tend to gardens. But still, they possess their old minimalistic and faithful character. But, him too, along with the entire environment, falls into lethargy. His old seriousness is being replaced by naivete. It is no longer possible to make these people Barbarians again, if they are the descendants of Timur and Cengiz, indeed, should not they be barbarians? The Turkish people are not a people to be despised. Maybe I am acting a little sentimental when I am mentioning the Turks. Just like Pierre Loti, I am deeply in love with this honest, faithful, minimalistic and noble nation. Let’s say that I have a special love for Turks. Then, what are we to say about what Rene Grosset, a great authority, wrote about wonderful body of work entitled “Asian History”. This honest person, who does not have sympathy towards muslims at all, writes that Turks were a race created to rule and talks about the successes they had accumulated throughout history in awe. The Turks, who have established a civilized life after coming from Asia, have the right for a long and good life. Europeans despised them for countless times. Europeans, by that I mean us, maybe have guaranteed the unity of the Ottoman Empire at least 20 times and during each of these guaranteees, this giant empire was pruned, injured, hurt. Of course, they will hold a grudge against us. No matter what, Turks still resemble their ancestors. Heroic, good, honest... Yet still, they shed a lot of blood, this is true. But, let’s not forget the fact that they have also

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shed their own blood without hesitation. One way or another, I like the Turks, because they are worthy of so. (Farrere, 2004: 140-144). Although a use in this sense develops a relatively positive discourse, it is actually not so common, it is considered an exception. The general themes used in Western discourse and Orientalism are fictionalised by a Western subject by way of journeys to the Orient, memories, anecdotage, correspondences and harem life and are negative (Demiroğlu, 1997: 55). For example, in his memoir called “Modern Egypt” the British soldier and diplomat Lord Cromer talks about how foolish and unassertive the Easterners are while also emphasizing their excessive flattery. According to him, the Easterners are inveterate liars and lethargic fools who always scheme and torment animals. And with all these characteristics, they are the polar opposite of what Westerners are. Lord Arthur James Balfour, referred to as “Balfour the Bloody” by Irish nationalists for his harsh methods against the Irish, also agrees with Cromer. Europeans are the “normal” ones and it is the Easterners who are irrational, immoral, childish, in short, “different”. Balfour, while making these comparisons, establishes his fictions within the dichotomy of strong-weak (Said, 2017: 48-49).

Image of Ottomans

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If the first event to form the main lines of the separation between East and West is the destruction and plunder of the Roman Empire by the “barbarians”, the second is the conquest of Constantinople by Ottomans. Giovanni Maria Angiolello, who is known as the first Italian Turkologist, mentions Sultan Mehmet, the conqueror of the historical city, as follows: This Emperor Mehmet, as I said before was also known as the Great Turk (Gran Turco) was a fleshy man of medium height. He had a wide forehead, large eyes and long eyelashes. He had a hooked nose and a small mouth, with a curly, reddish beard. His neck was short and his nape was thick, he had yellow skin and broad shoulders with a melodic voice, but he was also troubled by the gout in his foot. He had three sons but no daughters. The first was Bajazet, the middle name was Mustafa, and the third was Cem (...) Sultan Mehmet the second, the seventh Ottoman Sultan, was twenty-one years old when he took the throne after the death of his father Murat. The year when his fortune was clear as 1450, and as I mentioned, he did more work than any of his predecessors. He remained seated on the throne from 1450 to 3 March 1481, which corresponds to 31 years. He was an intelligent person fond of talent, and there was also people around him who read him books. As will be described later, he was very cruel. He dabbled in gardening and liked painting, for this, he wrote a letter to Venice and asked them to send a painter to him. Gentile Bellini, who had a great desire for art and who was happy to come was sent to him. He was commissioned to make a painting of Venice which the sultan liked, and various persons. Whenever the Sultan wanted to see someone who was famed for their beauty, he had Gentili Bellini made a painting of them and then gazed at it (...) Many beautiful paintings, especially paintings with a lustful content were made by Gentili who we have mentioned, the Sultan held a lot of these in his palace. When his son Bajazet took the throne, he sold them all in the market and many of them were bought by our merchants. The abovementioned Bajazet said that his father the sultan, did not believe in Muhammed. It really is so because everyone says that this Mehmed believes in no religion (Soykut, 2002: 49-50).

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While Angiolello claims that Mehmed being a non-muslim is relayed through the witnessing of his own son, in fact, the abovementioned lines were a direct reflection of the hostility towards Islam in the Christian Europe during the Early Modern Period. While the West is yet unable to process the trauma of the historical destruction of the Roman Empire, the capture of the lands where Christianity was born, by the Muslims, has deepened the hostility towards Islam. The history of the Crusades is also an indication of this deepened hostility. Europeans have always referred to this most frightening element of Eastern nations and Muslims by a common name which is “Turks”. Ethnicity and race have never been taken into account. During the years when Christianity was thought to be under attack, the words Turkish and Muslim were considered synonymous. And even, in 16th century the traditional Wednesday and Friday prayer of the Bishop of Salisbury was one of the important proofs of this:

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O’ Almighty and Everlasting God, our Heavenly Father, we thy disobedient and rebellious children, now by thy just judgment sore afflicted, and iin great danger to be oppressed, by thine and our sworn and most deadly enemies, the Turks, Infidels and Heathens and we hide beneath your forgiveness against our sworn enemeies and pray for your help. Even if we professed the name of your only son, Jesus, we have deserved your rage and wrath because of the sins and evils we have committed. O’ Lord, educate us not with anger but with forgiveness. We would rather fall into thine hands than fall into the hands of other people, especially the Turks and infidels, who are thine sworn enemies. We know by our hearts that you are our saviour and confess with our mouths. The Turk, instead of your beloved son Jesus Christ, is trying to prais and glorify a cursed, cruel monster named Muhammad” (Maclean, 2009: 1-2). This use of synonyms was considered problematic not only in terms of origin, but also in terms of the language of the geography which was pointed towards. The equivalent of the word “Turkey”, which Europeans used for the Ottoman Empire in the sense of “where the Turks lived”, did not find a place in the language of any of the subjects of the Ottoman Empire. This word is also not found in Ottoman language. In fact, the result that is tried to be obtained with this nomenclature is very clear. In the synonymous words dictionary prepared by the author Joshua Poole, intended for reading in schools, the word Turk referred to words “Godless, heathen, frugal, thrifty, cruel, merciless, unforgiving, unyielding, tough, warlike, circumsicised, superstitious, bloodthirsty, abstains-from-wine, turban-headed, greedy, ambitious and mad”. The word Turk, drew the line between the Eastern and Western identity with all of its opaqueness. Turk meant “instability”. So much so that the word “Turk” was used even for British people who behaved inappropriately. (Maclean, 2009: 9). For the British, the incongruity of the Turkish word and its existence was not limited to this. The Turks were described in an animalistic depravity. Animalistic forms of sexual intercourse were identified with the Turks. John Speed, who probably never actually traveled to the Ottoman country and who was influenced by what was passed down or read from generation to generation in England, writes with self-confidence of a racial etnograph, instead of witnessing something by himself: The majority here, that is, the Turks born and raised, still praise their barbaric ancestors and bear the marks of the Scythians and Tatars on their foreheads and muscles. Typically, they are wide-faced, strong-boned, properly proportioned, thick, slow-witted, lazy, but also with a taste for wealth, wasteful in eating, animalistic and lustful without distinguishing between kin or gender. (Maclean, 2009: 186).

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Because of all these characteristics, the fantasy that Britain should rule the “incompetent” Turks, that is, the Ottomans, was created with identity formations such as these, which are not covered by this research, since it lies within the framework of colonialism, which is a completely different dimension of the subject at hand. However, being an Ottoman was far beyond these fictions, because interestingly, the Ottomans themselves did not keep themselves equal with the Turks, although they accepted that the lineage of their dynasty was based on the Turks and spoke the language, Ottoman Turkish. Evliya Çelebi, who was considered an important traveler by the Ottoman Empire, was able to talk about the Turks as “filthy Turks” in his work describing a trip to Bitlis. He also saw them as “rabble”, just like the “Kurdish herds”, in his own words. This is one of the most striking examples of this fact we have mentioned. According to the Traveler, The Empire was in trouble with them (Makdisi, 2007: 281-282). In summary, the Turkish image or myth was established by narratives that displayed evil desires, sexual fantasies, and sometimes even homosexuality, all disguised as an Oriental. As the Ottoman Empire lost power and fell, its attempt to adopt Western modernization would also discredit the Turkish myth (Ahıska, 2010: 201).

Image of Turk Marriage ties established with distant or neighboring countries in states that existed during the Middle Ages and/or early years of the Modern era, or rather, marriage agreements, were considered the main source of diplomacy and were quite commonplace. The princesses who came from a dynastic family, waited to marry the princes of foreign rulers. The marriage of Orhan, Sultan of the Ottoman Turks, to the daughter of the Byzantine Emperor VI. Ioannes Kantakuzenos who was named Theodosia, is a fantastic example for us the understand the Turkish image in the Byzantine sources. Although the history books focus on diplomacy and peace, Doukas’ Historiae tells us a lot about the Turkish-Ottoman/ Eastern image at the beginning of the 11th century.

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When Orhan heard the ambassadors making this offer, he was like a bull, burnt by the scorching heat of the summer sun, unable to quench his thirst even if he drank from a calabash filled to the brim with cold water: his barbarous lack of willpower made him like this. This nation is more raucous and sensual than any other nation; more insatiably depraved than all nations. They are ignited with such a passion that their unscrupulous passions for having natural and unnatural sexual relations with women, men and animals never cease. The people of this shameless and savage nations does the following: if they take a captive woman from Greece, Italy or another nation illegally, they will embrace her like Aphrodite or Semele; but they will hate a woman of their own nation as if they hate a bear or a hyena. (Hopwood, 2002: 150). Doukas, who can be considered one of the first-period Orientalist writers, associates sexual intercourse and lust with Muslims and therefore primarily with Turks, which is an almost classical approach in Orientalist literature. This can even be seen in the accusations of William of Adam, Bishop of Sultaniyah, who goes further with a readily available link in minds that Islam praises sexuality. Although it is accepted that this is an idea that creates uproar, the prejudices formed by this idea are not minimal. The identity of Turks consisted of images which consist of negative attributes such as “barbarian, predatory, lecherous, non-religious, intolerant, illiterate, big-bodied but small minded” until the end of the 256

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17th century. Barbarian, on the other hand, means “wild, cruel, rude, mindless” in particular. Despite all the negative definitions, the success of the Ottoman Empire is sought after behind a regime based on violence. For whatever reason, in the eyes of Europeans, this is not a success, but an act that should be underestimated in a world where the Barbarians will never understand its dynamics. In the second scene of William Shakespeare’s Hamlet, the phrase “Turn Turk “is used in a meaning “to deteriorate and behave badly”. And in the fifth act and the second scene of Othello, we hear the following wish: ...we must bring such a son to the world that he will go all the way to Constantinople and catch the Turk by his beard. (Uluç, 2009: 272-273).

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However, a word that evokes savagery like “Barbarian” was nothing more than the foundation of Eurocentric Historical Studies which tells us that humanity evolved from primitive social relations to a complex civilization. These words would also be one of the most radical expressions of the evolutionaryprogressivist understanding of history during the 19th century. These basic terms, which were considered a category, would also form the basis for ideological currents and political formations that became widespread in the West: any intervention against Barbarians was legitimate. It was inevitable that the civil-barbaric distinction would also be reflected in the products of culture. This, in turn, would bring with itself, a huge “ontological shift”. Because the tools that had become an extension, as McLuhan described, had actually changed the meaning of the original, the primal and the authentic in a world defined by the media from the beginning, and the symbol had defeated what it symbolized, replacing the original (Kalın, 2018: 13) . It is emphasized that the area covered in Edward Said’s work “Orientalism” is a discipline specific to men and is perceived through “sexist horse blinders”. A masculine imagination is describing a boundless lust. Just as Africans and North American Indians were bestowed upon a boundless appetite and presented as a sexual threat to Western women, the Ottomans and Turks are approached with “fascination and fear” evoked by a designated sexuality. The so-called forms of sexuality created by the West commute around the axes of desire and disgust. In his Essay on Lay Analysis, Freud clarifies the issue as follows: The image of sexuality connects the apparent relationship between the sexuality attributed to the self of the blacks and the woman intertwines the visible relationship between the exoticism and pathology of the “Other”. The Westerners who instutitionalize “free” sexuality due to a number of obligations with increasing bourgeoisization, define the East as a place where sexual experiences that cannot be attained in the West could be pursued (Uluç, 2008: 246-247) and they can find no other way to project their own fantasies into this space and even sometimes believe in those fantasies they create. This is how the image of “Woeste Turk/Wild Turk” came into being and that image is still valid today.

The Lustful Turk (Harem) Novel For travelers who make journeys to the East, what they see here is interesting and full of contrasts. All the conditions necessary for creating a myth seem to be in order. A traveler’s imagination is also added to these conditions. The combination of these generally inspires written texts. Losing their power at the end of 18th century and the beginning of 19th century, the Eastern Barbarians are no longer a force that inspires fear. Now it is time for the romanticization of the East, which

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will lay the foundations for a new form of writing. At this point, similiar Eastern stereotypes are going to come into being as if they were seen through the eyes of those who created them. Now, the East and specifically Eastern males, are going to be regarded as the center of strangeness, immorality and egotism (Erkan, 2009: 84). Scenes that are too erotic, wild and strange are now going to come as normal. Because they take place in the East. The East is an area of excitement where unlimited sexual pleasure is realized. Rape, castration, sexual decadence, excess, and homosexuality are going to be considered as the routine of Eastern men. In fact, according to the authors, this is an experience of sexuality with severe sensory perceptions and lawlessness. The Westerners can only experience such an erotic place only in their fantasies. In this context, Flaubert, who often includes dangerous, powerful and sensual women in his works, reduces the East to a place where sexual experiences that cannot be acquired in Europe can be sought. This is an imaginary escape and an area where a different kind of sexuality can be tasted “without the feelings of guilt” (Erkan. 2009: 115). The corresponding field is created under the name “Harem”. While the Harem was previously seen as a symbol of the persecution of slave women and the sexual yoke presented to them, it is reproduced in literature, especially in novels with a style dipped in obscenity. This remake shows itself in the novel “The Lustful Turk”, which describes the image of an Eastern man. Translated into Turkish as “Harem of an Eastern Ruler”, the novel made its first edition in 1828 written by an anonymous author, while in later years it was simultaneously reprinted within the boundaries of classifications of “Erotica, Classical British-Victorian Erotica and Nostalgic Erotica”. But still we can say that the novel has a hybrid genre because, while the book takes some of its characteristics from the genre of gothic novel, it also creates the sentiment unique to erotic-romantic novels while it is being read. In addition, the novel, fictionalized through letters and diaries, bears epistolary features. The novel, which involves violence and eroticism at the same time, seems to be exaggerated but created in accordance with the demand of the reader. The original edition of the book was presented as follows:

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...the letters of a young and beautiful English lady who was kidnapped and delivered to the lustful desires of the Turkish sovereign, written to her friend in Britain, illustrated with loyalty and vitality. As a whole, it is a beautiful and minimalistic book which can always be read with a sentiment of certain authenticity. The subject of the novel is the life of Emily Barlow, an English girl who, in the beginning of the 19th century, becames a concubine in the Harem of Ali, the Protector of Algiers, after being captured. It is no coincidence that Ali, one of the main characters of the book is a Protector of Algiers. The previous image of Algeria with its slave market and port, which was redesigned in a new image with the destruction of the madrasa and the mosques after being captured by the French in 1830 was almost like a magnet especially for Western orientalists and artists (Benjamin, 2007: 255). Emily was sailing from England to India in June 1814, when her ship was attacked by Moorish Pirates. The young English girl is presented to the harem of Algerian Protector Ali, as a gift. There are many girls of different nationalities in the harem, and all of them are in love with Ali. Emily is surprised by this situation, and one day Ali rapes her, using various methods of torture. But in the next process, he tries to surface Emily’s sexual passions. When Ali insists on anal sex, Emily’s letters to her friend Sylvia begin. Emily writes to Sylvia what she experienced during this process. In her detailed letters,

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we see the processes of sexuality which “begin with pain and continue with pleasure”, her emotional ambivalences and her changing sentiments about what is being done to her. Ali is aware of the letters and some derogatory statements in the letters and decides to play a game with Emily. Disguising himself as a French gentleman, he first lures Sylvia into a slave market and saves her afterwards in a chain of events he starts. Sylvia believed that Ali married to her and was her saviour. Although they think that Ali has married to Sylvia, “showing great Christian virtue”, Sylvia only has sex with Ali after a process of convincing and experiences all the sexual processes that her friend Emily experienced. At the end of the plot, Ali brings the girls together and explains his true identity. After experiencing the initial bewilderment, it becomes clear that both of the girls are happy with their situation. This sexual love triangle ends with a Greek girl who was forced to anal sex by Ali cutting off his genitalia. All the girls in the harem are very upset that they can no longer have sex with Ali, but the Protector of Algiers has a brilliant idea: he keeps his penis and testicles in glass bottles and presents these bottles to the girls just before sending them to their country. Girls returning to their country will always be looking for a husband like the Protector of Algiers, Ali because of the experience they have gained. Such fantasies are important in terms of demonstrating how the unconscious mind of humanity is shaped. The novel contains phrases that can be considered as quite interesting. For example, the expression of “penis” does not appear in the book, instead it is called, “the terrible device, the evil engine, the deadly enemy of virginity, the device that causes my martyrdom.” In addition, the book also mentions a “play room” which evokes the book and film series called “Fifty Shades of Grey” which recently acquired worldwide fame. The Beg of Tunus describes the room and what he experienced with his newly “tamed” slave to Ali as such:

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Within a few days, my face had healed, during which I ordered her to be treated with all forms of respect in order to surprise her. One morning, the eunuchs brought him to my play room, without telling her what it was, and she was pulled on a pulley hanging on the wall with her hands tied tightly above her head. I ordered her to be stretched in a way that her feet would not be cut off from the ground and she would not be able to swing herself to any direction. When I entered the room, I removed the eunuchs from there. She was shaking with fear, but it wasn’t going to help her. I sat in front of her, pushing a couch towards her, I wrapped one of my arms around her waist, and I was about to lift his dress with my other hand... (Anonymous, 2001: 81-82) The book, which consists of a series of rapes and sadistic sexual entertainment, has some sentences that prevent us from seeing the book as just an Orientalist, tongue-in-cheek text. For example, when the slaves who are owned by the master of Harem, who is Ali, uses the phrases “I have sacrificed your virginity at the feast of our Holy Prophet, thank Mohammed, for the love of Mohammed, how beautiful shapes they have, for the love of Mohammed, you are a virgin! By Mohammed’s beard, this is horrible, another thrust and she was finished... By Mohammed, for the love of Mohammed, how wild was that!” (Anonymous, 2001: 13,30,44,47,81,147) but the same Ali does not hesitate to curse the prophet of Islam as well: ...The reason he had to leave me in such a hurry was because a eunuch came and informed him that the region under his rule had been unexpectedly invaded by a group of Arabs. He had to rally his troops

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without losing anytime but he cursed his own prophet for he was disturbed in such a delicious moment of pleasure, thus giving a break to my annihiliation and shame. (Anonymous, 2001: 31). Religious expressions contained in this erotic book are not limited to those. In the chapter in which the story of the Greek slave Adianti is told, the derogatory expressions used by the Muslims referred as Turks are featured widely. Adianti, who was forcibly taken from her fiancee’s and father’s hands just when she was about to marry in order to be gifted to Ali, relays what she heard during the brawl as follows: “Is your daughter beautiful, you Christian dog? Stop, you dog! Stop barking or else I’ll know how to shut you up! Oh, what is this? Do I smell wine? You are having a bender, huh? You swine... you were getting drunk on this disgusting drink which is hated by Allah and forbidden by our Prophet? Enough! Take the virgin and trample those who defy us to the dust with your feet! Take the virgin, she will be very happy when we take her away from these blasphemous, drunkard swine, she will be honoured. He attacked a muslim, defied the law of our prophet, soiled the honour of the person who was the representative of commander of the believers, tear him apart! Tear him to pieces! Let his scattered meat become dirt on the ground! Let dogs feast on Christian reptiles!” (Anonymous 2001: 67-69)

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The above phrases are considered an interesting and meaningful subtext for such a novel. Because since the Middle Ages, the West’s view of Islam and, in particular, the Islamic Prophet Muhammad has been as negative as possible. According to the West, Islam is a “perverse religion” that emerged from Christianity. John, on the other hand, sees the Prophet Muhammad as a false prophet, and the religion of Islam as a “harbinger of the Antichrist”. Therefore, the idea that Islam is a “Religion built on a Sword “is being emphasized. According to this, the hand to hand stance of Islam and violence should have been adopted by the whole West (Kara, 2005:148). In this context, Mohammed who forcibly converted people to islam and killed those who did not become muslims was also criticized about his marriage with more than one woman and this became an element which made it easier to claim that Islam was a perverted religion which contains violence and sexuality (Kalın, 2006: 42). According to them, Muhammad was a magician. He was an impostor, a hypocrite, a false prophet. He destroyed churches in Africa and the East by the use of magic. His success in the world was due to his declaration of sexual liberation. They envisioned Islam as a religion full of sex, lust, and the violent savagery of animal instincts. Besides sexuality, another issue that was much focused on in the Medieval West was aggression, force and destructiveness, which was shown as one of the main characteristics of the Islam. (Bulut, 2010:38). Given the religious accusations and reasons, the Greek girl, who is undoubtedly going to take away Ali’s masculinity, has more reason than any other girl to hate this “barbaric Turk”. This castration is like a symbolic allusion on political grounds regarding the Ottoman Empire, which was still seen as a 260

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strong empire during the end of 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century It is noteworthy that the Greeks, who rebelled against the Empire in the years when the book was written, were also the first nation to secede from the Ottoman Empire by gaining territory. This is an outright loss of potency for Europeans, just like what happened to Ali, who wanted to have anal sex: It took weeks... until a terrible destruction put an end to our pleasures. The Protector took a Greek girl from one of his captains. She passively embraced him, and had no complaints until he launched the attack against her second virginity; she seemed inspired by his Herculean force. She immediately grabbed the knife she had hidden under his pillow, wounded his tool with her knife using all her might and in an interval quicker than a thought, stabbed herself through the heart and finished her work... The soulstirring liquid of his depot, was also signalling that life would be hell for him since it meant both the loss of his power and desire. (Anonymous 2001: 152) The extreme sexual, exotic and mysterious chain of events happening in the seemingly morally undeveloped East became an important tool for the West to fictionalize it as “the Other”. Rape, flogging, anal intercourse, and other sado-masochistic acts are often mentioned in the book, but still the themes brought to the fore are not enough to say that the book does not make religious and political emphasis. Since it can be seen from the fact that there is no consensus in European literature on the Turks, Ali is both a villain and a hero, since the “unjust occupation” of Europe by the Ottomans is transferred to the character of Ali in the book. He did what Europeans couldn’t. In summary, the novel “The Lustful Turk” has the potential to be a significant source of Orientalist work in terms of reflecting clues from the religious, moral, cultural and political life of the period.

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The Lustful Turk Movie Although today the assumption that each society has a different understanding of cinema is accepted, the West, as with many other matters, is considered the heart of cinema. In Western productions, fiction created from an Orientalist point of view is transmitted to the viewer. The themes of despotic rule, lust and deviant religion, especially used in films with an Eastern facade, seem to never get old. These films portray an East which is erotic as well as magical and exotic. And the West is the savior of this world. This is explained by Hegel’s master-slave dialectic in a very clear way. Throughout history, the East is the other of the west, and all negative features must be attributed to the East. Although the tools used differ, the Orientalist scenes in which the messages are conveyed with are always up to date. The portrayals, depictions of lust and violence reach a to wider audience through the use of visual media. Because cinema is always an art branch that has managed to reach more and more people. In addition, again, cinema is a very easy way to internalize any message given to the audience: One of the characteristics of the electronicized, postmodern world is that in this world the stereotypes that are the means of looking at the Orient become reinforced. All the possibilities of television, movies, and media forced information to enter into patterns that were slowly becoming more and more monotonous. In the case of the Orient, cultural stereotypes, via monotony, intensified the influence of academic and imaginative ‘mysterious Orient’ superstition of the nineteenth century. In Orientalism, there is a West that has changed history and an East that has not changed constantly hand in hand with the West, always staying the same. This thought puts the West in the center and Huntington’s West and Rest sen-

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tence pushes other societies outside the West, especially Orient out of history, power and potency. With these academic, intellectual ideas, the West retains its power against the East. (Albayrak, 2002: 197). While the Western hegemony was achieved through literature, history and art during the course of history, these have been recently replaced by a relatively faster and more efficient tool which is cinema. The process for the Eastern People to accept and adopt the ideas of the Western People proceeds thanks to the same tool. In cinema, especially the representation of the differences of the Eastern male is realized without any pressure by Western males who also embody the hegemonic masculinity with him. In films, the reflection of an Eastern male as a wild, cruel, stupid, non-intelligent, unrealistic person is nothing more than a Western males emphasizing their positive characteristics over the “Other” created by them. In short, the “master” who holds the visual media shows the “slave” his place yet again with fantasies, without any biological effort:

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If we look directly at something, we see it as it really is. But a look dominated by desire, anxiety, and the idea of domination will present a trapezoidal, distorted, and blurred image. When we gaze at anything from a straight point of view, we see nothing but a form, object, or subject that is shapeless, without any ideological meaning. But if we gaze at it from a specific and desire-supported angle, our personal, and subjective characteristics will change our perception. (Zizek, 2008:27). The West has approached the East via the lens of sexuality. According to the West, the East is barbaric, cruel and fond of sexuality. Because that’s what the West desires for the East. The most comfortable platform to express this view is cinema. One of the important titles of this work, The Lustful Turk movie, is one of the most striking examples of the West’s approach to the East, although it is not the best example that has found its place in the current media. The Lustful Turk was first adapted for cinema by Americans in the category of “erotic/pornographic” in the year of 1968 (The Lustful Turk movie: 2020). The most important feature of the adaptation is that all the adventure elements of the book were removed and it focused only on close-up interiors and sex scenes. Right before the beginning of the film which was directed by Byron Mabe under the pseudonym of B. Ron Elliott, we see the introduction of sex and drug themed movies such as “Curious Dr Hummp, Smell of Honey, Striporama, She Mob, Monster Of Camp Sunshine, Scum of the World, Bad Girls Go To Hell, She Freak, Something Weird, 73 Agent Double, Blood Feast and Wizard of Gone” The soundtrack of the film was composed by Billy Allen. The script which is the same of that in the book was written by David F. Friedman. When the film begins, the sentence “The Lustful Turk: Lascivious Scenes in Harem” is shown on the screen. Just like in the Hollywood production of “Ali Baba and Forty Thieves” and “Alaaden’s Magic Lamp”, the film begins with an Oriental song and we see a naked woman dancing as its animated introduction. We catch a glimpse of domes. This is an Orientalistic visual design. In front of the domed structures there stands Eastern man in a turban and a shalwar, gazing at the woman. The film begins with the London letter of 1814, just as in the book. Sylvia reads Emily’s letter to her sometimes in shock and sometimes in sadness. We hear what is written via Emily’s voice. Already, throughout the film, there are very few character dialogues. Since we hear a narrative voice through the most of the film, a sense of storytelling rather than realism is evoked. When we see the Protector of Algiers, Ali in the first sequence, he is surrounded by girls who are almost naked, reading a letter with a facial expression that can be defined as pleasant. The subject of the 262

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text is firstly war and secondly, sex. At this time, a remarkable detail is noticed: Ali’s sword is on his bedside, and when one of the officials informs him of an emergency, he immediately takes his sword and takes off with his furry hat, smiling. He is always ready to fight and to make love. In the film, which is mostly filled with small rooms and scenes of beds that are adorned with contrasting colours, Ali is always depicted with an evil grin. He is gazing at the women before he has sex with them. He becomes grateful to God because of their beauty. He refers to their virginity as a “gift”. During this time, the following words are heard from his mouth:

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“It is nature, not love.” In every sequence of the movie, the women are almost naked. During the excess-filled close-up scenes, the focus is shifted on Ali’s facial expressions, his face which is wanted to be shown as sensual and his eyes which are opened with a bad acting and his laughter. The use of close-up in movies is one of the shooting techniques which aims at giving a specific message. In this way, a closer relationship is established with the close-up figure of Ali, and the environment is taken out of focus, which is a good way to avoid showing the amateurly prepared narrow spaces of the film. Unlike many details of sadism in the book, the film focuses only on one method of torture: flogging. In one of the scenes, Ali is seen beating a naked woman. Ali, who then goes near the sleeping women, rapes them in laughter. After a short time we also see the women stop resisting, it seems like they are also deriving pleasure from the act. Ali, who doesn’t fit the Turkish prototype in a physiological way, is mostly seen dressed in flashy and colourful clothes. He often chooses women for his harem among the slaves brought to him. During this choosing in question the women are seen crying, tied to each other from their wrists. While Ali is constantly laughing, threatening them, mocking their tears. He degrades the girls in every opportunity he finds. But in some scenes, on the other hand, he also approaches slave girls as a teacher would. He introduces himself to the girls as “a commander who takes his power from religion.” Ali is sometimes very kind and sometimes very crude. Every time he shows his crude face, he is seen raping one of the girls. The rape scenes are quite interesting for in these scenes in question, Ali kisses the women excessively on their lips, necks and belly, even though his loincloth is fully present. During this, the genitals are not visible, there is a constant state of tumbling and displacement. However at this time the narrative voice makes much more erotic depictions. This can be explained by the fact that violent porn images have not yet become legal in America. The rape scenes are shown in numerous close-ups from different angles. But especially when virgin girls were raped a different narrative was taken. Particularly in the scenes regarding the loss of virginity which is conveyed as a taboo for Westerners, a mise-en-scene which depicts the tearing of a bud from a branch for every raped woman. This mise-en-scene is very similar to the Turkish cinema adaptations of the same subject. Throughout the set of the movie, swords often catch our eye. An unsuccessful representation of the Turkish bath was attempted, but these places could not create more than the appearance of foam-play in a large tub. Another indispensable ornament of the set is belly dancing. Ali watches the erotically dressed belly dancers as he constantly strokes his beard. Finally we also see the whips which are used on every possible occasion very often. For example, during the selection of harem women in a scene, women’s skirts are removed and their genitals are 263

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checked. In order to see whether they are worthy of Ali or not. First things first, Ali punishes the women chosen and during this, the attendants hold the women, separating their arms and legs, in order to help the Protector of Algiers. Then, Ali takes a whip in his hand and punishes them. As the women cry, Ali laughs frantically and increases the severity of his impacts. But no matter how severe the impacts are, no marks on their bodies are to be seen. Also, at the end of every scene of rape or sex, women seem happy from the condition that they are in. We also notice that a lot of events in the book is not shown in the film. There is a constant focus on erotic and ideological scenes. Because cinema is a powerful ideological weapon and what is meant by the use of this weapon is the creation of a mirror. It is expected from the one who gazes at this mirror to internalise the Muslim-Turk identification created by the film and the creation of a reality where lustful eastern men are present. The tools used for this were physical and sexual violence, cruelty, erotic nakedness and subconsicous motives. The pornography created by this is oppressive. It has a single direction. The target is the “Other” of the West; it is the desire of how the Other is to be depicted and the presentation of what should be accepted. In this sense, it would not be wrong to state that it is oppressive. Because the success of the image which is created lies in this singularity (Kahraman, 2005:209). In this way, the imposition of culture, ideology and belief in the thought that needs to be transmitted is carried out. However, manipulation is a phenomenon that we do not focus enough while watching movies and “having fun” (Tatlı, 2015:7) however, in the Orientalist sense, the sexuality that is structurally contained in the image of cinema reaches a conclusion that those reflected on the screen are sometimes more effective than real images (Dorsay, 2000: 97-98). The Lustful Turk film is a meaningful example in this context. The finale of the film is just like the finale of the novel, but at this point Ali gives more vivid messages. When Ali, castrated by a strong Greek girl, screams, we see that the party which is most saddened by this event are the girls in the Harem. After a short break from the scene, Ali is seen among eunuchs and the women. He utters a single sentence to them: “I’m one of you!”

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The farewell scene after this striking sentence is also noteworthy. Ali has decided to send the girls to their country, and all the captives in the harem are crying. None of them want to go back to their country. Because they think they would not be able to find someone like Ali. Ali, on the other hand, has prepared that famous gift in order to comfort them and distributes the bottles to the girls. Girls are now happy. The film ends with the depiction of the same animation in the intro.

CONCLUSION From the moment Western societies familiarized themselves with Eastern societies, they began to create a negative perception of the East, which almost always remains valid in their perception. Eastern men, in particular are depicted as filthy, barbaric, lustful and violent. This condescending gaze becomes even more prominent at the 19th century. The printed and the visual media, on the other hand, make these ideas ready to be consumed as Orientalist and ideological messages. The Eastern male characteristics of Orientalism that emerge during the historical process find their own universe through literary characters and actors. In this way, the reader and the viewer are in a posi264

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tion to internalise this constructed reality which the hegemonic power desires for the masses to adopt. The Lustful Turk book and the movie is analyzed within this framework as a remarkable and meaningful example. Especially the anti-turkish, anti-muslim and mostly racist sentiment becomes incarnated via Ali, the Protector of Algiers and actions realized by him. Although the book and film do not have an original content, they offer clues that have a political, cultural and moral importance regarding the era. The image of the Eastern man is transformed in these works and becomes ready and able to pave way for the cultural imperialism of the media of the 20th century.

FUTURE RESEARCH AND DIRECTIONS This study has potential limitations. The Lustful Turk book is only published once in Turkish. In addition the full movie is only can be found in porn sites. Thus future research should focus on literature and media part of issues on sources.

REFERENCES Ahıska, M. (2010). Şarkiyatçılık/Garbiyatçılık: Modernliğin Çıkmazı, Edward W. Said Anısına Barbarları Beklerken [In memoriam of Edward W. Said, Waiting for Barbarians]. İstanbul: Metis Publishing. Albayrak, İ. (2002). Oryantalizmi Yeniden Okumak: Batı’da İslam Çalışmaları [Re-reading Orientalism: Islamic Studies in the West]. Sakarya University Faculty of Teology Journal, 191-213. Anonymous. (2001). Harem, Doğulu Bir Hükümdarın Haremi [The Harem of an Eastern Ruler (The Lustful Turk)] (B. Ercan, Ed.). Çiviyazıları Publishing. Benjamin, R. (2007). Cezayir Limanı [Algerian Port]. In International Symposium on Orientalism. Istanbul: Cultural Directorate Publishing. Bulut, Y. (2010). Oryantalizmin Kısa Tarihi [A Short History of Orientalism]. İstanbul: Küre Publishing. Bulut, Y (2012). Journal Of Sociology Of Istanbul University Faculty Of Letters, 3(24), vii-xx Demiroğlu, C. (1997, May). Oryantalizm ve Edebiyat İlişkisinde İki Metin: Aziyade ve Miss Chalfrin’in Albümünden [Two Texts in Relationship of Orientalism and Literature: From Albums of Aziyade and Miss Chalfrin]. Adam Art, (138), 46–55.

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Dorsay, A. (2000). Sinema ve Kadın [Cinema and Women]. İstanbul: Remzi Publishing. Emerson, R. W. (1983). Essays and Lectures: Nature: Addresses and Lectures / Essays: First and Second Series / Representative Men / English Traits / The Conduct of Life. The Library of America Press. Erkan, H. (2009). Hollywood Sinemasında Oryantalizm [Orientalism in Hollywood Cinema]. İstanbul: Kırmızı Kedi Publishing. Farrere, C. (2004). Türklerin Manevi Gücü [The Spiritual Forces of Turks]. Ankara: Elips Publishing.

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Hopwood, K. (2002). Bizans Prensesleri ve Şehvetli Türkler [Byzantium Princesses and The Lustful Turks. Kebikeç, Files of Sexuality, 13, 145-156. Huntington, S. P. (2019). Medeniyetlerin Çatışması ve Dünya Düzeninin Tekrar Kurulması [The Clash of Civilizations and the re-establishment of the World Order]. İstanbul: Okuyan Us Publishing. Kahraman, H. B. (2005). Cinsellik Görsellik Pornograf [Sexuality, Visuality, Pornography]. İstanbul: Agora Publishing. Kalın, İ. (2006). İslam ve Batı [Islam and the West]. Ankara: İSAM Press. Kalın, İ. (2018). Barbar Modern Medeni, Medeniyet Üzerine Notlar [Barbaric, Modern, Civilized: Notes on Civilization]. İstanbul: İnsan Yayınları. Kara, S. (2005). Hz Peygambere Karşı Oryantalist Bakış ve Bu Bakışın Kırılmasında Metodolojik Yaklaşımın Önemi [Orientalist View against the Prophet and the Importance of Methodological Approach in Breaking This View]. Erzurum: Atatürk Üniversitesi Faculty of Teology Journal, 23, 145-169. MacLean, G. (2009). Doğu’ya Bakış 1800 Öncesi Dönem İngiliz Yazmaları ve Osmanlı İmparatorluğu [A view of the East: British Writings of the Period Before 1800 and the Ottoman Empire]. Ankara: METU Press. Makdisi, U. (2007). Osmanlı Oryantalizmi, Oryantalizm Tartışma Metinleri [Ottoman Orientalism, Discussion Texts of Orientalism] (A. Yıldız, Ed.). Doğu Batı Publishing. Soykut, M (2002). Tarihi Perspektiften İtalyan Şarkiyatçı ve Türkologları [Italian Orientalists and Turcologists from the Historical Point of View]. Doğubatı Thought Magazine, Orientalism II, 4(20), 41-82. Tatlı, O. (2015). Türkiye Sineması ve Sinemada Algı [Turkish Cinema and Perception in Cinema]. İstanbul: Akis Publishing. The Lustful Turk. (2020). https://www.new-flix.com/en/movie/282916/the-lustful-turk Uluç, G. (2009). Medya ve Oryantalizm Yabancı, Farklı ve Garip…Öteki [Media and Orientalism: Foreign, different and Strange; The Other]. Anahtar Books. Zizek, S. (2008). Yamuk Bakmak, Popüler Kültürden Lacan’a Giriş [Introduction to Lacan by Means of Popular Culture]. İstanbul: Metis Publishing.

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ADDITIONAL READING Alloula, M. (1986). Colonial Harem. University of Minnesota Press. doi:10.5749/j.ctttth83 Baudet, H. (1965). Paradise on Earth: Some thoughts on European Images of non-European Man. Yale University Press. Bernstein, R. (2009). The East, The West and Sex: A History of Erotic Encounters. Alfred A Knopf. Durant, W. (1954). The Story of Civilization. Simon and Schuster.

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Irwin, R. (2006). Dangerous Knowledge: Orientalism and Its Discontents. Overlook. Matheson, D. (2005). Media Discourses. Open University Press. Said, E. (1994). Culture and Imperialism. Vintage. Spivak, G. C. (1988). In Other Worlds: Essays in Cultural Politics. Routledge. Stuart, H. (1997). Representation: Cultural Representations and Signifying Practices. Sage Publications.

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

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East: The eastern part of the world or of a specified country, region, or town. Harem: Especially in the past in some Muslim societies, the wives or other female sexual partners of a man, or the part of a house in which they live. Lustful: Having or showing strong feelings of sexual desire. Muslims: People who follow or practice Islam, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion. Myth: A traditional story, especially one concerning the early history of a people or explaining a natural or social phenomenon, and typically involving supernatural beings or events. Orientalism: In art history, literature and cultural studies, Orientalism is the imitation or depiction of aspects in the Eastern world. Ottomans: A member of a Turkish dynasty founded by Osman I that ruled the Ottoman Empire. Turk: A native or inhabitant of Turkey.

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Chapter 17

Orientalist Museum Exhibitions in UK as a New Media at the Turn of the 21st Century: Re-Orientalism of Orientalism Meltem Yaşdağ https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2634-6136 The Ministry of Culture and Tourism, Turkey

ABSTRACT In this chapter, the author examined the orientalist themed museum exhibitions totally held in Britain after 2000 to understand the real intention behind their thematic artifact selection and their efect on people as becoming media tool. These were “Turks: A Journey of a Thousand Years, 600-1600” in 2005, “The Lure of the East: British Orientalist Painting” in 2008, and recent “Inspired by the East: How the Islamic World Infuenced Western Art” in 2019, respectively. The author analyzed the criticisms in newspapers and magazines as well as curators’ interviews and catalogs for the museum exhibitions organized in United Kingdom. In this way, the author also discussed the efects of the exhibition created with the media.

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INTRODUCTION Orientalism is a word that describes how Europeans represented unexplored territories in regions of the Eastern or Islamic World. Places like Turkey, Greece, the Middle East and North Africa are framed in orientalism by the Western countries as exoticized and fictionalized places. In fact, orientalism is a kind of imaginative world of the West. The people who concerned about the term question the creation of these imaginative geographies. Most of the authors like Marino define orientalism “both as a field of knowledge attempting to map the East into a Western understanding and as a political strategy of control sustaining imperialism” (2014, p. 185). DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch017

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 Orientalist Museum Exhibitions in UK as a New Media at the Turn of the 21st Century

In general, orientalism is one of the most important tools of the West that it uses to dominate the East. However, establishing a direct relationship between orientalism and Western colonialism, although it is a correct detection, has actually become commonplace.1 Undoubtedly, Said’s work is a milestone among the studies on this subject. The feature that sets him apart from the others is that his work refines Europe’s cultural, political, and economic interests connected with the East and a writing tradition dating back to ancient times (Said, 2003). In fact, Said’s work is not the first book written on the subject. However, it is the most influential work that deals with this term widely, from general culture to political ideology for the first time. The main goal and theme of Said’s work is based on the idea of representation of the Near East, accompanied by political and aesthetic concerns. The author explains how the region called the East was constructed and produced by European culture in the post-Enlightenment period. On the basis of the distinction between East and West, the Eastern ‘other’ is constructed by the West as an integral part of the European material civilization and culture. Ever since Said’s argument, the confrontation or tension between Eastern and Western civilizations has been attempted to be defined by the scholars in many fields through this term. It is still very popular even in the 21st century. It is possible to observe this trend from literature to music, from plastic arts to cinema. In fact, orientalism which was about the people and their living areas that were geographically western Middle East, Turkey and North Africa, has relied heavily on productions on European (Western) travelers / painters since the 19th century. Perhaps this is why painting still takes the lead among other fields. Although Said expresses his astonishment at the practice of orientalism in painting,2 while making his determinations and evaluations on the subject; historically many researches/scholars discuss this field mostly in painting practice. Orientalist painters and travelers could be thousands in number. Their paintings are still so popular on a scale that Said could not have imagined. The most powerful representations of the East are present in intensely orientalist paintings which again define Eastern societies. For this reason, one of the most important fields in the West, where eastern knowledge is built, is painting. One can see in these pictures that the West defines its social difference and identity through its relationship with the East. Thus, it both defines itself and creates its own other. In terms of art history, scholars/academicians consider the French Occupation of Egypt as the beginning of orientalist painting. Napoleon’s campaigns in Egypt and his successes are proof of the power relations that have turned in favor of the West. In this direction, palace painters covered Napoleon’s expedition to Egypt extensively in their paintings (Lamaire, 2005, p. 95). On the other hand, the painters who did not go to the East depicted the riches of the East, the nature, the palace and the harem, the daily life of the sultan in accordance with their own perceptions, based on Eastern expressions produced by travelers who traveled to the East. Over time, orientalist painting3 has become a trend in the West. In this period, among European societies acting with a colonial understanding in line with their national interests, one sees that especially the British have an endless interest in the “East”, especially in the Middle East. However, the mid-19th century has witnessed a great increase in the number of artists traveling to this region with British diplomats and adventurers. As a result of these travels, visual materials that are included in various personal and / or museum collections today have been formed by the artists. While orientalist paintings have become tangible cultural artifacts of the “other” in a sense, they have also been used as a rich visual resource for interdisciplinary studies on the field by the people in the field. But most of all, they have been the most precious pieces for museum collections which are the cultural memory of societies. Especially in the early 1980s, based on Said’s ‘Orientalism’, exhibitions on orientalist painting were held in various venues led by some galleries and museums in America and Europe. 269

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These exhibitions; while making a solid start with “The Orientalists: Delacroix to Matisse, The Allure of North Africa and the Near East” opened at the National Gallery of Art in 1984, it becomes official by being presented to the audience again with another exhibition opened in Tate Britain, in 2008. The exhibition opened under the name of “The Lure of the East: British Orientalist Painting” aimed to answer the questions of British painters about the people of the Middle East, cities and landscapes between the 17th and 20th centuries with an artistic dimension. On the other hand, the perception created by the exhibition about orientalism showed not only art history writing but also how a painting exhibition could become an effective media tool. So what was the main target with these exhibitions? Why is the orientalist painting still so effective in the 21st century despite all the criticism and debate? What kind of public opinion is formed with these exhibitions and how does each exhibition turn into media? One should seek the starting point for the answers to these questions in the importance of orientalist painting in terms of museum collections. These paintings thought to describe the ‘other’ world have become the most discussed objects of museums and the most precious artifacts of their collections. Many museums today boast the breadth and richness of their extensive orientalist-themed exhibits. This wealth also constitutes the source of various symposiums, congresses and exhibitions. Moreover, these events are mostly organized by the western museums with the aim of creating an awareness of “what orientalism should not be” and terminological misuse. Orientalist paintings have become a powerful media not only for museums but also for fields such as literature, cinema and theater. However, as it is stated before, the orientalist movement is still the best known for its production of impressive oil paintings and works on paper. Therefore, in a sense, in many fields painting shapes the equivalent of “orientalism” in the modern world in many fields. And the way of perceiving ‘orientalism’ of these different fields is not different from the 19th and 20th centuries. In the 21st century, museums/galleries exhibit especially orientalist paintings that are rare pieces of museum collections as the product of the competition and struggle between the West and the East. Therefore, the author will give priority to the activity and history of these exhibitions in United Kingdom in the part that follows. These are three museum exhibitions that were held in the UK called “Turks: A Journey of a Thousand Years, 600-1600” to follow possible connections of orientalism emerging in its concept, “The Lure of the East: British Orientalist Painting” in 2008 and “Inspired by the East: How the Islamic World Influenced Western Art” in 2019.

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ORIENTALIST-THEMED MUSEUM EXHIBITIONS According to an opinion, “museums are the sites where objects are fixed into sedimented categories reflecting the former’s institutional values linked to dominant ideologies and foundational legacies of imperial power” (Bryce and Carnegie, 2013, p. 3). However O’Neill determined that ‘modern museums are formed as part of a general trajectory of British government policy over the past 200 years, a trajectory of reform, based on increased government intervention, democratization’ (2008, p. 293). The reason of these criticisms is that a large part of the collection of national and local museums in the UK, which are crushed under the weight of a burden from the colonial past by itself. Of course, this legacy inevitably brings political evaluations with it. It wouldn’t be wrong that museums and their collections, in particular those located within nationally funded and endorsed ones in the UK, reflect the political aims and values of contemporary society. They have supported their colonial heritage with exhibitions and the activities accompanying these exhibitions in various museums like British Museum for years. 270

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 Orientalist Museum Exhibitions in UK as a New Media at the Turn of the 21st Century

But what is new about these museums is that they have become institutions that are much more active and involved in daily developments in the last two decades than in previous years. In this process, while museums undertook the patronage of cultural heritage, curators began to use exhibitions as a means to ‘better’ perceive of this heritage. Thus, cultural heritage has somehow started to develop in parallel with developments in different fields of daily life. Museums, like other institutions serving the society, have undergone various changes in the course of time. Museum exhibitions in the United Kingdom also emerged towards this need and tried to be a cultural response to the country’s political stance. Orientalist paintings, which dominate the UK museum collection, have been the best artifacts used in this direction. The truth is that, from the nineteenth century, the British have already proved to be good customers for orientalist painting, which at that time had the virtue of being ‘contemporary art’. However, it took some time for this collection to meet its visitors. An orientalist-themed exhibition found a place for the first time in a festival held in 1976. “Great Britain organized a cultural event to introduce the British public to Islamic civilization in all its facets, mobilizing the support of 32 Muslim countries. The World of Islam Festival of 1976 combined exhibitions—of a total of 6000 objects, ranging from Islamic crafts to up-to-the-minute contemporary painting” (Volait, 2014, p. 256). After this, the first major orientalist painting exhibition was held under the title of ‘Eastern encounters: Orientalist painters of the nineteenth century’ in London in July 1978 by The Fine Art Society (Volait, 2014, p. 256). Museums soon developed this new method discovered and the first orientalist themed museum exhibition was held. The famous exhibition in this field was ‘The Orientalists: Delacroix to Matisse: European painters in North Africa and the Near East’ in 1984. The Royal Academy of Art opened the exhibition in London in 1984. The exhibition then went to Washington DC’s National Gallery of Art. In a sense, this exhibition was the beginning of a long series of cultural events. Europe began to explore the effect of orientalism through museum exhibitions under the UK leadership. In 1998, ‘Orientalism: From Delacroix to Klee’ was opened by Art Gallery of New South Wales in Sydney and the exhibition made a tremendous impression with its artifacts and exhibition catalog. After a certain time ‘Delacroix à Kandinsky: l’orientalisme en Europe’ met its visitors in Brussels in 2010 and, in 2011, it toured different parts of Europe. The impact and interest created by the exhibitions were quite high.4 This situation has brought two issues to mind: The purpose of these exhibitions may show the truths of traditional history that have been misunderstood so far, in other words, to face. Another option may be to continue to benefit by bringing colonial history back to the agenda with a 21st century mentality and in doing so, using these artifacts as a media tool, just like in the 19th century. Considering how these exhibitions are generally perceived, the following results stand out: There is almost nothing to argue with their telling points about the spectacularization of Orient heritage in museum exhibitions. And again, these exhibitions have resulted in the public offering of certain images, once shaped under the auspices of British colonialism, with ‘outstanding’ presentation techniques. Of course, its effects can also be watched with pleasure. In fact, the Orient-themed exhibitions of museums, which are mostly mobile, have had much different meanings in the UK museums, although they continue their adventure in Europe with this effect. So much so that no matter how large the collections are, an exhibition that stands out with its theme and in motion has been much more effective than a fixed exhibition in an enclosed space. The UK museum exhibitions, which are already thought to be the purpose of exhibiting the orientalist painting as a whole by the academicians, used their exhibitions that directly target this heritage with their historical infrastructure to support different fields.5 In the UK at the beginning of the 21st century, three different museums/institutions opened exhibitions of orientalism with common goals in the same theme. The first of these exhibitions was ‘Turks: 271

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a Journey of a Thousand Years, 600-1600’. The second one was ‘The Lure of the East’ and the other was ‘Inspired by the East: How the Islamic World Influenced Western Art’. Including The Lure of the East that the author will analyze under the following subtitles, most of the British exhibitions had a tendency to emphasize the national spirit. In the exhibitions, the interlocutor in the descriptions of the East created with the paintings was again Western. And the East was again told to the West through its own production. For this reason, one could say that, based on these exhibitions, Orientalism was based on externality and described the East outside of the East (again in the West). Beyond being an aesthetically focused event, these exhibitions carried the European orientalism of the 19th century to another dimension in Europe in the 21st century. That’s why the author selected three exhibitions in the United Kingdom museums for this study, which presented the material culture of the Orient during a period, when a general anxiety about Islam, specific regimes in the Middle East and debate over the related politics. The first of these exhibitions was the Turks: A Journey of a Thousand Years, 600-1600 opened in 2005. Under the next heading, the author placed information on the exhibition and suggestions on how the exhibition could be handled in terms of orientalism.

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TURKS: A JOURNEY OF A THOUSAND YEARS, 600 1600 (22ND JANUARY - 12ND APRIL 2005) The Royal Academy organized an exhibition called Turks: A Journey of a Thousand Years, 600-1600 in London between 22nd January and 12nd April 2005. There were 376 items such as plates, helmets, shields, miniature paintings, caftans, even door of a pavilion on display from 53 lending institutions. The main aim was to unravel the cultural origins of the Ottomans. The exhibition set the arts of the Ottoman Empire within the broader context of early Turkic tribal cultures. The exhibition was a quite informative event. In fact, the exhibition tried to take a distant attitude towards orientalism and focused on the artistic and cultural wealth of Turks that spread from Central Asia to Istanbul and beyond. But the effect of it was quite different. First of all, the catalogue of the exhibition emphasized the politics of art and the contributing essays defined power relations among competing tribes, houses as well as their achievements as art at work in politics. While The New York Times used the headline “Turkey Knocks on Europe’s Door With a Thousand Years of Culture” (Riding, 2005), the title of Caareviews pointed out: “This exhibition was a sociocultural barometer of real politics. The question about Turkey’s membership in the European Union hangs over the exhibition space” (Avcıoğlu, 2005). British media’s two major liberal and conservative papers, The Guardian and The Times, generally recognized Turkey as a non-European region and culture. The Guardian showed that the perception of the exhibition in the media was still dealing with orient: ‘Full of eastern promise’ (Guardian, 2005). However, the Royal Academy, another institution of the same country, seemed to have changed this understanding with a very effective exhibition. Exhibition, of course, contributed to the political and economic aspects of Turkey’s EU membership process. The planning of the exhibition and accompanying events were prepared by the organizers in this direction. However, something was forgotten by them: After a long time in the UK, for the first time the museums presented oriental artifacts to the visitors. And the interest was extraordinary. During the exhibition 262.582 people visited.6 In other words, the East was still in the focus of the British society. An exhibition with an Eastern theme was inevitable to be prepared in the United Kingdom museums after this exhibition’s effect because the UK museums had not been able to exhibit the orient-themed 272

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works already in their collections for a long time. Although the Turks exhibition was a common activity during Turkey’s EU membership process, it brought orientalism to the agenda again. And Turkey was always a part of orientalism geographically. For this reason, although the artefacts were prepared by the curators in accordance with the theme of the exhibition, their influence in the media was mostly related to the East. This created a strong foundation for the main exhibition -The Lure of the East- which clearly targeted orientalism from its title to its content just after three years from this experience.

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LURE OF THE EAST: BRITISH ORIENTALIST PAINTING (4TH JUNE-31ST AUGUST 2008) As stated before, this study draws on three cases of exhibitions on the ‘East’ countries of Orientalist painting in nationally funded or endorsed museums in the United Kingdom. All of the museum exhibitions that are the subject of this study took place after 2000 under the influence of cultural and political discourses. The second exhibition in this sense was ‘Lure of the East: British Orientalist Painting’. Tate Britain organized this exhibition between 4th June and 31st August 2008. At the center of the exhibition, there was British imperialism and its product ‘orientalist painting’ that dominated much of the world during the 18th-19th centuries. The exhibition was organized by Tate Britain in association with the Yale Center of British Art in Connecticut. Thus it was first displayed in February-April in Tate Britain in 2008. Following its run at Tate Britain, the exhibition moved to Pera Museum in İstanbul (Turkey) in partnership with British Council and then Sharjah Art Museum in United Arab Emirates. The exhibition contained almost 120 hundred pieces of artwork. These were paintings, prints and drawings of bazaars, public baths, domestic interiors and religious sites. And it explored the responses of the Near and Middle East between 1780 and 1930, offering vital historical and cultural perspectives on the challenging questions of the Orient and its representation in British art. On a wider scale, the exhibition was about the role of the painted image in forming the visual component of orientalism in British culture, hence, the pictures were about Britain as much as they were about the Middle East. In the statement made by the curators of this exhibition and the administrators of the host museums, they emphasized that “one of the stimuli for organizing the event was Said’s apparent disregard for the visual image since his specific interest lay in textuality” (Marino, 2014, p. 1). On the other hand, another effective reason for organizing this exhibition was to prove the British artist’s different attitude unlike from French artists. One point made by the organizers was that there were marked differences between British Oriental artists and those of certain other countries, in particular of France. For all his numerous paintings of harem scenes, John Frederick Lewis, unlike some of his counterparts never painted rude. That was why John Frederick Lewis’ 32 works dominated the exhibition. In fact, from the beginning, debates on Orientalism in art surrounded the exhibition. The first thing about the critics was the exhibition catalogue. Although the exhibition organizers tried to ensure that the issues were explored from both Western and Middle Eastern perspectives, the printed media said just the opposite. Publications such as The Telegraph that was closely followed by the public criticized exhibition catalog writer Rana Kabbani for seeing British artists as superficial (Dorment, 2008). Among all the criticisms about the exhibition, the curator Nicholas Tromans said “The patterns of strong sunlight falling through these screens into an interior became a favorite motif of British painters”.7 Apparently he wanted to emphasize the artistic side of the exhibition but, on the other hand, the media preferred to focus on policy which was an underlying element of the exhibition. 273

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Although the exhibition provoked critical comments on the political correctness of showing these paintings, some of the media representatives like The Guardian neutralized these responses, recalling the historical and aesthetic importance of the painting: Of all the attempts by Britain’s museums to take on the divisive issues of world culture, this is the best, because it is the least platitudinous. It provokes a complex response to a complex history… yet the exhibition is full of great art… A familiar view of power relationships in art - the idea that representing the “other” is necessarily oppressive - becomes unrecognizable here. (Jones, 2008) The Art Tribune did not hide that the exhibition was an answer to political problems. It believed that the exhibition would strengthen the dialogue between civilizations, arguing that Said and his ideas were no longer sufficient in the 21st century: …By limiting itself to English painting and at the same time paying tribute to Said, The Lure of the East has succeeded in pulling off a tricky feat, reconciling a concern for historical fact and the contradictory truths present in these images. Over one hundred paintings and drawings, among them some rarely seen marvels, have been assembled in London to remind us that art is never the direct and docile expression of a single context, no matter how insistent, or ideology, no matter how oppressing. Regardless of what today is considered politically correct, colonialism cannot be reduced to simply a relationship of domination by the occupier and to a universally uniform phenomenon. It is one thing to condemn Western imperialism for its most nefarious effects, and quite another to explain its causes and manifold consequences… The Lure of the East helps the visitor to grasp a fundamental fact: after dominating an important part of the world, from Vienna to Algeria, Turkey was forced to withdraw and reform itself. Instead of the complacent mirror denounced by Said, the visitor will discover a much more subtle dialogue between civilizations. (Guégan, 2008).

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One of the most important media of the UK, The Telegraph stated that political correctness overshadows a fine collection of 19th century paintings of the Middle East and followed like this: …unlike French counterparts, the British did not generally impose their lurid fantasies on Eastern subject matter… However, the measured, nuanced, respectful approach of most British Orientalists to their subject matter is precisely what the political correct curators who organized this woefully misguide exhibition can’t stand. The very fact that a British artist was inspired to paint a Middle Eastern subject automatically makes him a target for their suspicion and scorn… I see these pictures as perfect examples of the West’s curiosity about the east. The Organizers present them as by-products of colonial oppression… but if you are tempted to fall for its specious arguments, get hold of a copy of Defending the West, Ibn Warraq’s demolition of Said’s misinterpretations of Western attitudes toward the Middle east- a distortion of historical truth all too faithfully reflected at Tate Britain. (Dorment, 2008). Unlike The Telegraph, Socialist Review claimed that many of the paintings in the exhibition support Said’s argument. It also supported the idea that many artifacts from the exhibition were typical of the orientalist cliché.8 Although the exhibition presented an overview of mainly 19th century art, the content and the message of it seemed more relevant to today. But most of all, after the exhibition experience

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of the UK museums for years like ‘Turks’, it was discovered that a focused exhibition could become a culturally and politically powerful media tool in any century.

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INSPIRED BY THE EAST: HOW THE ISLAMIC WORLD INFLUENCED WESTERN ART (10TH OCTOBER 2019-26TH JANUARY 2020) British Museum organized this exhibition between 10th October 2019 and 26th January 2020. British Museum, like the previous ones, organized the exhibition with the cooperation of an institution from East: Islamic Arts Museum of Malaysia. The main interest of this exhibition was a large number of loans from the extensive collection of Islamic and again Orientalist art, alongside with the objects from the British Museum. Exhibition focused on an artistic exchange between East and West, while Inspired by the East took a look at the volume of artifacts produced, as well as the wide range of artist’s nationalities. The diverse selection of objects included ceramics, jewelry, glass, clothing, photography and also contemporary, which showed artistic exchange, influenced a variety of visual and decorative arts. In general terms, the exhibition examined how the Islamic world inspired European and North American visual arts for centuries. In fact, there was no mention of orientalism in the title, unlike The Lure of the East. It is a still “a highly charged and contested term” as one caption at the exhibition noted. Inspired by the East, which had been accepted as the first orientalism event in the UK since 2008, casted it was further than art, referencing ceramics, photography, architecture and even theatre. In fact, the exhibition catalogue that accompanied the event went even further in reclaiming the true meaning of orientalism with essays by leading authorities in different areas of this field. This was almost the best publication to explore the full breadth of orientalist art. The curator of this event Olivia Threlkeld explained that “Orientalism was one of the defining elements of the 19th and 20th centuries, comparable to other ‘isms’ like surrealism and impressionism. This exhibition provided a rare opportunity in the UK to see these important artworks from South-East Asia’s largest museum, the Islamic Arts Museum in Malaysia, and to think about Orientalism’s impact on the history of art and its legacy” (Dabrowska, 2019). The exhibition’s co-curator Juia Tugwell continued that it was an East-West exchange and they wanted to talk about the influences of Islamic art, not just art but from the Islamic World or Islamic culture on the West. She also pointed out that the subject of the Orientalism was generally thought of as 19th century paintings like Osman Hamdi Bey’s ‘Young Woman Reading’ but she acclaimed that with this exhibition it was wider than that.” (Cornwell, 2019). The British Museum, with its collection, was at the center of colonial debates for years, especially located in the colonial metropolis. Therefore, whatever the approach of the curators, it was inevitable that they would face prejudice on this issue. That was why there were political circumstances surrounding the exhibit. However, in 2019, the British Museum’s orientation towards the east again and again instead of planning an exhibition that contained the world history better was an indicator of an attempt to re-orientate orientalism. One of the first criticisms in media for the exhibition came from one of the most important the UK’s journalist and art critic Tim Cornwell. He said that the main focus of this exhibition was to revisit Orientalism in art and artifacts, a cultural exchange that went far beyond the European and American male artists who delivered florid images of Turkey, Palestine and North African for Western audiences (Cornwell, 2019). The New English Review criticized the definition for the exhibition in its website: 275

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But as explained above, the exhibition omits any influence from Islam as expressed in Asia or the Indian sub-continent or beyond to Malaysia and Indonesia. That definition of the Orient is the one of North Africa, the Middle East and Asia Minor, not as I was brought up to include, the Far East as far as Japan. But never mind.(Weatherwax, 2019). The Guardian Review praised the goals of the exhibition and made an assessment in light of daily political developments. However, on the other hand, it questioned the whether it was true to use as a source orientalism for this event: …it attempts to present orientalist art as not only one where western artists traded in cliché, but also to show how portrayals of the east in the west were more than just racist pastiches. It attempts to present orientalist art as a sort of cultural exchange, rather than plunder, more of a long-term interaction between east and west that influenced not just paintings but also ceramics, travel books and watercolor illustrations of Ottoman fashion. It also presents orientalism as an effort to understand other cultures at a time when there was not much travel, Prayer is a common theme in orientalist art, as common as the trope of the harem. The exhibition’s selections also tease out another element of prayer that perhaps appealed to a certain nostalgia among western artists – the exclusively male nature of it. Whether it is in individual or group prayer, men are portrayed in a sort of windswept nobility . . . This is the most striking aspect of the exhibition – that there was a time when images of Muslims and Islam were not toxic, when Islam was seen as exotic and religious observance something to long for. It is a sad observation that the west has gone backwards in its respect for and appreciation of Muslim culture and faith. If the orientalism of the past was patronizing fetishization, it is still a far more respectful perspective than the fearful one that predominates today. Overall – and this is made clear in the introductory notes to the exhibition – this is an attempt to reclaim orientalist art from its sinister connotations and strip it back to what the exhibition nudges you towards thinking it was: curiosity and interest in a different culture when the west was beginning to pass from one era to the next.

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In the current political climate, where prejudice against and suspicion of Muslims is commonplace, this is a refreshing initiative. But should we really be grateful to the orientalists for depicting Muslims as just a little bit more human than how they are often portrayed today?.. (Malik, 2019). Much deeper and stronger criticism of the content about this exhibition was from The Telegraph: …the pool of works from which Inspired by the East is drawn is disappointingly small… What the exhibition failed to mention is that many of the scenes and people shown in art were not necessarily Islamic, just because they lived under Islamic domination… I found the exhibition interesting in parts, simplistic in others, misleading in places. (Smart, 2019).

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It was understood from the artifacts in the exhibition and the criticisms made that although there was no mention of orientalism, the visitors examined the idea of orientalism, offering another look at these cultural and decorative arts, not just painting, as was often assumed. With this exhibition, the British Museum spoke on behalf of the “eastern-other” and brought the East to the agenda again in the media. It tried to show why and how the Easterner was Eastern not only to the Westerners, but also to the Easterners by the partnership of The Islamic Arts Museum of Malaysia. Thus, the history, geography, religion, language, culture of the East was once again fictionalized by these exhibitions in the museum outside the academy and political arena. As stated, this exhibition deployed the visual and material culture of the East, in the spectrum of public event, using all the visual material as a media tool.

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CONCLUSION Orientalist paintings are still very effective as an event, whose circulation and exhibition continued with all its vitality at the first twenty years of 21st century, although its production stopped at the beginning of the 20th century. In fact, the scholars included orientalist paintings as a subcategory at museum collections of nineteenth-century European art. However, today, most regional, national or modern museums have an “orientalism” section in the UK. For this reason, the most visited museum exhibitions in the UK in the 21st century were the orientalist painting exhibitions. These exhibitions had an important place in the encounters and conflicts of Eastern and Western civilizations because orientalism generally consisted of images that represent the relations of two civilizations in the history of western art. These images undoubtedly showed their strongest expression in painting. And when one examined the data in this chapter, it was seen especially by the visitors that whether it was historical studies, performing arts or visual arts, orientalism’s most powerful media tool had not changed since the 19th century: Paintings and exhibitions. The exhibits were clearly re-orienting orientalism in the 21st century. Because the role of “news source”, which was assumed by traveling painters in the 19th century and by historians in the 20th century, transferred even partially to museums thanks to their exhibitions in the 21st century, together with academic studies. Of course, the fact that these exhibitions were held by the auspices of institutions with a high national mission, such as the British Museum or the Royal Academy, actually also supported the political purposes in the hypotheses of this chapter. Namely the main line that needed to be determined in orientalist studies was the fact that the historical relationship and conflict between the West and the East still exist. The differentiation in power balances between the West and the East and the variability seen in parallel with the political developments in both worlds was mentioned at the beginning of the chapter. With the influence of museum collections and curators, one saw that these political developments were supported by these painting exhibitions from a different perspective. Just like organizing the “Turks” exhibition and using this exhibition as an effective media tool, in a time of the rise of Turkey’s EU accession agenda. These exhibitions were of specific associated importance in terms of their content and the political discourses circulating in the period in which they were mounted. Looking at the overall exhibition, one might think that the positive images and approaches regarding the East were tried to be raised by the orientalist artefacts from the exhibitions. However, it would not be wrong to say that this proposition developed depending on the periodic interests of the host country. The perception of the countries that were accepted as belonging to the “East” from the “western” point of view, or whether they had changed in modern times, depended on the current political developments. 277

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Considering the timing of the exhibitions, newspaper criticisms especially supported this. Media criticism of the exhibitions also seemed to re-orientalize the dynamic between the two sides. The content of the exhibition was to present the existing, traditional idea, this time with modern museology and exhibition techniques, rather than redefining the “orient” perception. In fact, it continued to support the underlying idea. The exhibitions showed that the West’s view of the East and the definition of identity still continued in a different format as an extension of the orientalist thought. Painting had always been one of the most powerful tools of orientalism. In a sense, it was the main medium of the message intended to be given to the public as much as cinema, literature, historical studies and so on. Is this tool still functional in the contemporary world? This chapter definitely demonstrates that it is. Orientalist-themed paintings, which came together almost systematically with the society since the 19th century, took on a new format in the hands of the UK, one of the leaders of the colonial movement. While these exhibitions built knowledge of the East through art and effective media promotion activities, it reconstructed the power and power relations with the 21st century dynamics. At the beginning of the study, it was claimed by the author that these exhibitions showed what orientalism should not be. And it had a purpose that highlights “political dimensions”. Especially when the exhibitions and events held in the UK were evaluated, it was revealed by this chapter that these exhibitions did not end orientalism, but served a regenerative function that allowed them to adapt to new conditions and the needs of the time. These exhibitions revealed the ongoing ideas of the West, which once approached “eastern” countries with “the same mentality”. Because the only feature of these exhibitions was that they were still used as an effective propaganda material. One of the most important features of Orientalist paintings was that the European, who did not appear physically around, was included in the painting sensually and produced with his/her gaze. In fact, looking at the exhibits examined, one could say that the same spirit was one of the driving forces. The products of the Eastern symbol were presented to the visitors as the West wishes. In the 21st century, exhibitions with orientalist themes did not bring about an “absolute” independence in the decolonization process, but a different kind of dependence of the colonial countries in accordance with the new conditions. In the new century, an “unnamed and invisible” neo-colonial system continued. These exhibitions still caused the colonial countries to be more romanticized. Orientalist-themed museum exhibitions, however laden with the problematic history and ideology of its institutional conception, might position itself as a space for performance of critical citizenship articulated in politics and media. This also might be the big picture of East-West relations as expressed through visual media. These exhibitions reconstructed and changed the classical orientalist approaches with new tools and methods. Thus, these cultural events developed a new orientalist approach. The strength and validity of orientalism was that it still maintained this superiority that had taken over by the West, with its military, economic and academic institutions, rather than the fact that the knowledge it produced as an academic discipline was objective. Even if the erroneous information contained in the concept was tried to be corrected by doing as many academic studies as desired, today, this term was constructed by the media in many fields. This media power seemed to have transferred its role in the field of culture to museums. The study showed that the Orientalist-themed museum exhibitions organized in Britain in the 21st century were not merely an art activity. At the same time, it was considered as a field where the orientalist identity was reproduced on the plane of valid concepts accepted both in the past and today. These exhibitions also demonstrated that there was still an East vs. West mentality. The basis of this situation did not change throughout history: sociocultural values and religious identity. The impact of

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the exhibitions on the media helped to re-shape the separation between East and West and also modernday thought on the Orient. Orientalism in the 21st century evolved to be dispersed via mass media, and the role of media in orientalism was quite large. Thanks to museum exhibitions mostly prepared by the UK, which were generally travelling, western society, came to view the Middle East through an orientalist perspective again and again. With these exhibitions, the exotic and mystical otherness of the East that prevailed in Western societies still continues. In this state, the Other still stands against the West as a field that needs clarification and enlightenment. And clearly they have attained a new function as political spaces. After all, the presentation of all these exhibitions emerges as a correction of history, a way of ‘re-naturalizing’ exotic scenes. The culture is tried to be caught and presented again.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS It is thought by the author that future researches can be done on the effects of orientalist painting exhibitions on history and art / media studies. The connection of exhibitions not only with art history but also with museum and curatorial activities should be an important pillar of the work. Thus, it is evaluated that the theme, goal and effect can be planned correctly in the future orientalist exhibitions. Additionally the media play a role in helping to create the negative image of the East in the perspective of Europe through various cartoons, TV shows and movies as well. In the midst of all this, what can an ordinary painting exhibition change? Can it create a new concept discussion in art historiography? It’s believed that the answers of these questions will shape the future researches in this field.

REFERENCES Abdülmelik, E. (1998). Krizdeki Oryantalizm [Lexical characteristics of Turkish language]. Yöneliş Yayınları. Arı, M. (2008). Foreign Movable Cultural Property Exhibitions in Turkey’s Publicity: Comparative Analysis of 2005-2007 (Unpublished spatiality thesis). Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism, Ankara.

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Avcıoğlu, N. (2005). Turks: A Journey of a Thousand Years, 600–1600. http://www.caareviews.org/ reviews/749#.X5KTmlgzbIU Bryce, D., & Carnegie, E. (2013). Exhibiting the ‘Orient’: Historicising Theory and Curatorial Practice in the UK Museums and Galleries. Environment & Planning A, 45(7), 1734–1752. doi:10.1068/a45359 Bulut, Y. (2006). II. Savaş Sonrası Oryantalist Çalışmalar. Sosyoloji Dergisi, 3(12), 81-111. Cornwell, T. (2019). Inspired By The East: Casting an eye over Orientalism. https://www.middleeasteye. net/discover/inspired-by-the-east-british-museum-review-orientalism Dabrowska, K. (2019). Orientalist art legacy on display in rare exhibition at British Museum. https:// thearabweekly.com/orientalist-art-legacy-display-rare-exhibition-british-museum

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Dorment, R. (2008). The Lure of the East: Exquisite art ruined by cant. https://www.telegraph.co.theUK/ culture/art/3554052/The-Lure-of-the-East-Exquisite-art-ruined-by-cant.html Edward, S. (2003). Orientalism. Penguin Books. Germaner, S. & İnankur Z. (2008). Oryantalistlerin İstanbul’u [Lexical characteristics of Turkish language]. Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları. Guégan, S. (2008). The Lure of the East: British Orientalist Painting. http://www.thearttribune.com/ The-Lure-of-the-East-British.html Hairsine, K. (2010). Munich exhibition uncovers Europe’s historical fascination with the Orient. https:// www.dw.com/en/munich-exhibition-uncovers-europes-historical-fascination-with-the-orient/a-6424448 Jones, J. (2008). The Lure of the East: British Orientalist Painting. https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2008/jun/04/art.tatebritain Lamaire, G. G. (2005). The Orient in Western Art. Könemann. Malik, N. (2019). Inspired By the East: fertile fascination – or racist pastiche? https://www.theguardian. com/artanddesign/2019/oct/11/inspired-by-the-east-british-museum-exhibition Marino, A. (2014). Orientalism and the Politics of Contemporary Art Exhibitions. In I. Chambers, A. De Angelis, C. Ianniciello, M. Quadraro, & M. Orabona (Eds.), The Postcolonial Museum. The Arts of Memory and the Pressures of History (pp. 185–194). Ashgate. Mitchell, W. J. T., & Said, E. W. (1998). The Panic of the Visual: A Conversation with Edward W. Said. Boundary 2, 25(2), 11–33. doi:10.2307/303612 O’Neill, M. (2004). Enlightenment Museums: Universal or merely global? Museum and Society. Vol, 2(3), 190–202. O’Neill, M. (2008). Museums, Professionalism and Democracy. Cultural Trends, 17(4), 289–307. doi:10.1080/09548960802615422 Qantara. (2008). The Lure of the East. https://en.qantara.de/content/british-orientalist-painting-at-thetate-gallery-the-lure-of-the-east

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Roxburgh, D. (2005). Turks: A Journey of a Thousand Years. London Royal Academy of Arts. Smart, A. (2019). Inspired by the East review, British Museum: a colorful but disorienting return to Orientalism. https://www.telegraph.co.theUK/art/what-to-see/inspired-east-review-british-museumcolourful-disorienting-return/ The Guardian. (2005). Full of Eastern Promise. https://www.theguardian.com/arts/features/story/0,11710,1392855,00.html Van Nimmen, J. (2010). De Delacroix a Kandinsky: L’Orientalisme en Europe. https://www.19thcartworldwide.org/autumn11/review-of-de-delacroix-a-kandinsky-lorientalisme-en-europe

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Volait, M. (2014). Middle Eastern Collections of Orientalist Painting at the turn of the 21st Century: Paradoxical Reversal or Persistent Misunderstanding? In After Orientalism: Critical Perspectives on Western Agency and Eastern Re-appropriations (pp. 251-272). Academic Press. Weatherwax, E. (2019). British Museum:Inspired by the east - how the Islamic world influenced western art. https://www.newenglishreview.org/blog_direct_link.cfm?blog_id=69067&British%2DMuseumIns pired%2Dby%2Dthe%2Deast%2D%2D%2Dhow%2Dthe%2DIslamic%2Dworld%2Dinfluenced%2Dwe stern%2Dart Wilson, C. (2008). The Lure of the East. http://socialistreview.org.theUK/327/lure-east

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS 19th Century: It is considered the period between 1801 and 31 December 1900. It is the century that important artistic movements such as Romanticism and Realism began, as well as important political events such as the collapse of the Portuguese, Ottoman and Chinese Empires. British Art: British Art refers to all forms of visual art like painting, sculpture etc. in the UK or associated with it since the creation of the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707. East: It is the name given to all of the Eastern, Near and Far East regions. While the West mostly refers to the European countries and North America, ‘East’ describes the surrounding countries including India, especially East North Africa region. Exhibition: It is the event of public exhibit of artifacts in a certain order in institutions such as a museum or an art gallery. Orientalism: Orientalism is a term that describes how Europeans represented unexplored territories in regions of the eastern or Islamic World. Places like Turkey, Greece, the Middle East and North Africa were framed as exoticized, fictionalized places. Media: It is a common name that covers all media organs such as radio, television, newspapers, and magazines that provide communication with the society. Museum: A museum is a non-profit cultural institution. It is open to the public, and conserves, researches and exhibits the tangible and intangible heritage of humanity. West: Throughout history, it has been used to describe European and North American countries.

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ENDNOTES 1



2



19th century orientalism has long been criticized for its ideological and western-centered view. However, criticisms of 19th century orientalism were already sufficiently made after the 2nd World War. After the war, prominent representatives of European orientalism, especially British and French orientalists, organized a series of meetings and conferences on the state of studies in their country. In these studies, it was stated that the methods and evaluations used in orientalist studies were inadequate. For detailed information on the subject, see Abdülmelik (1998) and Bulut (2006). Said said in an interview that “my language is a little hesitant about visual arts ... when I think about visual arts, I panic.” (Mitchell, 1998, pp. 11-12).

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3



6 4 5

7



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8

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According to Germaner and İnankur; orientalist painting is a field formed by the subject commonality of the subjects chosen by the creators rather than a technical or stylistic unity (2008, p. 36). For news and criticism about these exhibitions, see Hairsine (2010) and Van Nimmen (2010). Within the scope of the section, information on these fields will be given in the next subtitles. The numerical information of the exhibition was taken from the specialty thesis for Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. It was titled “Foreign Movable Cultural Property Exhibitions in Turkey’s Publicity: Comparative Analysis of 2005-2007”, which the author of this chapter also prepared (Arı, 2008, p .83). For the full declaration of the exhibition curator Nicholas Tromans, see Qantara (2008). For the full critique of Socialist Review, see Wilson (2008).

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Chapter 18

Spatial and Architectural Representations of the East in Selected Western Films and Games Meltem Ozkan Altinoz Ankara University, Turkey

ABSTRACT Aspects of Eastern culture have long been featured in Western cinema but seem to be less popular today. We see less use of spatial and architectural features attributed to the East and a worrying nihilistic trend, particularly in the gaming sector. Such distortions would seem to signify Western preferences, albeit ones shaped by real stakeholders, shape everyday perceptions of the East and its representation. This study traces oriental approaches through the use of space and architecture in several popular flms and games and tries to understand the logic behind their visualization.

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INTRODUCTION Computer gaming is now a mainstream part of the entertainment industry and attracts significant investment with a promising future assured by growth in use of smart phones, consoles and cloud applications. Technological innovations in the entertainment field stretches mental horizons and continue to upset traditional boundaries in the sector. Today most movie producers earn less than game designers and popular film stars now perform their roles on the game screen. Demand for gaming now influences the design of computers, mobile phones and television sets. Some think the sector may go on to play an increasingly important albeit dystopian role in our lives in the near future as depicted in the film Ready Player One. Released in 2018, this American science fiction-action adventure depicts a world in which daily life is determined by the availability of gaming opportunities. It is based on Ernest Cline’s bestseller of the same name and set in the year 2044 during the height of an environmental and energy crisis. The success of the film in turn inspired the production of a computer game where human beings DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch018

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 Spatial and Architectural Representations of the East in Selected Western Films and Games

are presented as willingly choosing to cut their physical connection to the world and become immersed instead in a three dimensional virtual reality. The game takes players to the Oasis where they compete with others to rescue people from a dystopian world. Cultural representations are known to demonstrate power politics and the cultural acknowledgments of living groups in distinct geographies. Evidence of encounters between eastern and western cultures are clearly seen in the economic, social, political and intellectual life of both. We are reminded that eastern cultures were particularly popular in the 19th century imperial world. Travel writers and artists generated an oriental interest in the West as evidenced by Caleb Cushing’s Reminiscences of Spain, The Country, Its People, History, and Monuments in 1833, Washington Irving’s Legends of Alhambra written as a collection of essays in 1832, and Walter Scott’s Chronicle of the Conquest of Granada published in 1829 (Özkan Altınöz, 2014). Painter John Frederick Lewis published his sketches and drawings of the Alhambra: made during a residence in Granada, in the years 1833-4. Owen Jones spent almost half a year in Alhambra in 1834 and published details about its plans, elevations and sections. Richard Ford’s Handbook for Travelers in Spain produced photographic sketches of Alhambra taken between 1830-33; Thereafter Jennings Landscape Annuals, Tourist in Spain Granada was published in 1835 and illustrated with drawings by David Roberts A century later there was renewed interest as evidenced by Girault de Prangey’s publication of detailed observations and sketches in his work Souvenirs de Grenade et de l’Alhambra in 1937. This summary of authoritative sources on Alhambra could be accepted as early popular approaches to the East which became source to oriental interest. Orientalism became a core study topic after Edward Said’s 1978 study of the political, social and economic facets of this encounter. Said drew our attention to certain negative features such as the violence usually associated with Arabs and Islam whose adherents were presented as regressive. He warned researchers about this intentional negative charging of the eastern, particularly anti-Islamic perception. Up until then orientalism was considered as a source of inspiration to artists and architects who were searching for new styles and found they could use oriental forms as an antidote to a distorted culture of industrialization. Literature on oriental architecture includes Oriental Obsession by John Sweetman who explores how western designers sought to replicate the eastern way of design. He mentions the example of Christopher Wren who was charged with major works after the great fire of London in 1666 and had a special admiration for the domes used in Muslim architecture. Sweetman suggests that Wren’s famous domes could be seen as a reflection of oriental appetite (Sweetman, 1988:53). Patric Conner’s, Oriental Architecture in the West, Oriental Exoticism of the East mainly discusses Indian and Chinese architectural influence on western buildings. Case studies such as Brighton Palace provide evidence of Indian influences (Conner, 1979: 112). MacKenzie, in his work Orientalism: History, Theory and the Arts sees the East as a positive source of creativeness to the West. In this regard he challenges the Saidian orientalist discussion (MacKenzie, 1995). French Romanesque and Islam by Katherine Watson examines Andalusian material evidences in French architecture wherein she mentions Andalusian elements used decoratively in French architecture in the period c.1030-1180 (Watson, 1989). Zeynep Çelik in her work Displaying the Orient: Architecture of Islam at Nineteenth-Century World’s Fairs show how these fairs produced an interaction of cultures. The western point of view and colonial discourses blended in a single space (Çelik, 1992: 178, 179). Mark Crinson in his work, Empire Building: Orientalism and Victorian Architecture mentions the interpretation of Islamic and Byzantium forms in the Victorian Era. (Crinson, 1996: 37-94) Marginalization of Muslims is studied in the work of Richardson, (Mis)representing Islam: The Racism and Rhetoric of British Broadsheet Newspapers wherein he identified the role of the media in advancing 284

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and reinforcing ideological stereotypical perspectives on Islam (Richardson, 2004). Such influences may color today’s representation of the East in digital games and be just as misleading despite the digital availability of media and information that would contradict the harsh generalizations we see in the spatial stereotypes game designers have tended to attribute to Muslim culture. Game designers use space and architecture to create oriental scenes such as those used in the game Military Shooter. This example was studied by Johan Höglund who identified misleading concepts that he describes as the emergence of a neo-orientalism in the West. He then sought to conducted further research to establish if the tenets of this bias were being followed by the designers of other games (Höglund, 2008). In this study, it is claimed that orientalism and its concept of space has close connections with power relations both in films and games. Attaching features of terrorism to the East orients the spectator and their preferences to watch or play, in other words marketing opportunities evolve around these intentional orientations. In parallel with the military and economical contexts of the theme, representation of the East has recently started to decrease particularly on the big screen. This may be due in part to earlier releases of oriental misinterpretations. This study traces oriental approaches in films and games and tries, using selected case studies, to understand the logic that underpins the spatial and architectural misrepresentations or un-representations encountered.

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ORIENTAL INFLUENCES IN SPACE AND ARCHITECTURE OF WEST Approaches to the orient and its architectural and spatial representations has changed throughout history. In earlier times, there are several case studies that show how western patronage acknowledged the eastern way of design and did not find any clue to use it. Cultural encounters which were formed sometimes by force during wars did not cease these cultural transmissions between the East and West. The first example comes from the Iberian Peninsula when Arabic commander Tarık ibn Ziyad crossed to the Iberian Peninsula from the North Africa in 711. His conquest was followed by the development of the Amirid architecture of Andalusia and the Taifa Period/Petty Kings architecture which feature extensive usage of repetitive and interlaced arch systems. These repetitive form of arches was admired by Western patronage, as seen in the design of Durham Cathedral which was built in 12th century in Britain. The nave section of the building has a similar type of arch to the forms that were used in rhythmic manner (www.durhamworldheritagesite.com). The intersecting arches along the aisles of Durham Cathedral finds its resource in Islamic Iberia. The entrance gates of the Cordoba Great Mosque and Medina Azahara’s decoration program near to Cordoba which were built in 10thcentury express usages of this rich interlaced arch form. Similarly, another example from the Taifa period is the gates of Aljefaria in Zaragoza Spain that were erected in the 11th century (see figures 1-3). Architectural reminiscences in Sicily which were constructed after the Norman conquest of the island in 1061 show us the new rulers greatly admired the Muslim architecture they encountered. Traveler accounts relate that the Norman kings even adopted the appearance of previous Muslim kings. Their clothing and architectural decorations with Arabic influences was very much possessed of the eastern particularly the North African cultural environment of the Fatimids. Cappella Palatina, Palatine Chapel in Palermo, Sicily was built in the 12th century and expresses both Christian Iconography along with Islamic techniques and stylistic approaches. The Byzantine and Islamic stylistic tie makes the building unique. The usages of muqarnas decorations which were made of stone or stucco attracts the viewer. Painted carpentry of Islamic art can be seen in the nave of the Capella Palatina, revealing the multicultural 285

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perception of the Norman King Roger II (Agnello, 2010: 407)(see figure 4). Clear evidence that Muslim craftsmen were commissioned to build a cathedral by a Christian king. The co-existence of different social and cultural products in the same space is usually explained in terms of the comprehension of the Norman Kings of the period (Hillenbrand, 2005: 73,74). In addition to Capella Palatina, Sicily has other examples such as the Zisa, the Cuba, and the Scibene buildings which were completed during the Norman period using Islamic architectural vocabulary. Figure 1. Cordoba Greate Mosque, Cordoba

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Source: taken by the author

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Figure 2. Aljafeira Palace, Zaragoza Source: taken by the author

Figure 3. Durham Cathedral

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Source: taken by David Wood (durhamcathedral.wordpress.com)

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Figure 4. Cappella Palatina,12th century, Palermo, Sicily

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Source: taken by Ziya Kenan Bilici

Another case study from the Iberian Peninsula shed lights on the re-conquest ideology of the Christian Kingdoms who aimed to retake it from the Muslim invaders who ruled over large portions of the peninsula between 711 and 1492. The political shift brought by the reconquest movement did not totally diminish the cultural atmosphere. In art and architecture we see clear evidence that an appreciation of decoration with Islamic tones had taken root in local culture. In Seville, Pedro de Cruel (1334-1369) wanted to retain the spatial appearance of the Muslim period and commissioned Muslim craftsmen to replicate the same stylistic features in his Alcázar palace (see figure 5). Under Christian patronage Muslim taste continued to be produced which was called as Mudéjar architecture. This architecture emerged between the 11th century and 17th century on the Iberian Peninsula as a common architectural language of Muslims, Christians and Jews, who were repeatedly forced to acculturate to changing cultural, religious and political environments. Thus, Mudejar forms came into being in areas with a Muslim population dominated by Christians and developed as a blend of Islamic and Christian art forms. Mudejar architecture therefore consists of a spectrum of hybridizations (Altınöz, 2020) (see figure 6). Interactions between the East and West as a cultural phenomenon became denser in the 19th century. Through different types of medias this interaction could be followed. Literature, paintings and architecture supplies valuable examples. Industrialization gave impetus to technological inventions as when Niepce achieved 8 hours of exposure of a single image. The invention of photography was revolutionary for art and the entertainment industry. The photograph he took captured a street from his room in 1793. Photography inspired painting style impressionism whose aim was to catch instant appearances of the nature concords with features of photographic images. Travelers with their cameras serviced important Eastern cultural components to the West and they contributed to oriental fashion in the West.

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Figure 5. Patio de las Doncellas courtyard (Court of the Maidens) 14th century, Seville

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Source: taken by Nusret Çam

The emergence of new technologies inspired new romantic approaches such as orientalism with its exotic architectural features. Orientalism was also can be seen a result of colonial behaviors and trading opportunities and interactions with the East in the 19th century. On the other hand some designers found orientalism also served as impetus for new designs and interest in eastern architectural examples such as the Alhambra Palace in Spain (Sweetman, 1987:119) (see figure) . The Alhambra Palace owes its elegant atmosphere to its structural proportion and columns and usage of materials. The resulting harmony projects a heavenly vision, an effect that was supported by the construction of special pools and a water system to feed them. This rich representation of lyric architecture was fascinating for 19th century designers who were looking to meet the demand for new stylistic solutions. In this sense the Iberian Peninsula, particularly Alhambra served as a reference for cultural rejuvenation. Owen Jones(1808–74) as an architect and designer traveled in Turkey, Sicily, Greece and Spain. His cultural expedition produced colorful images of distinct cultures among them sketches of the Alhambra that were published in Grammar of Ornament (Jones, 1856) by which he introduced Alhambra’s architectural details to many European designers and inspired a much broader interest in the East. Even before the Owen Jones book the interest of oriental forms were high. For example, the spire tower was built in the 19th century of Norwich Cathedral of Middle Ages in Britain has the same intersecting repetitive arches, additionally from engraving of John Sell Cotman it can be seen that the north aisle of the choir has a multilobed arch decoration which is identical to Islamic Iberian cultural assets. Church of St. Jacquest at Dieppe as well once had appearance of multilobed arch forms as it can be seen from the drawings of Cotman (see figures 8-9).

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Figure 6. Santa Maria Blanca Synagogue, 13th century, Toledo Source: taken by the author

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REPRESENTATION OF EASTERN SPACE AND ARCHITECTURE IN WESTERN MEDIA “Arabs are living in a land which is very distant and they move with camels in flat and immense geography to which accompanied a sun almost roasting” are the infamous lyrics of an Aladdin cartoon released in 1992. The lyric, later revised, gives harsh attributions even barbaric and crude features to Arabic people that is strictly critiqued by Walter Denny who says that “The lyrics in the Disney movie Aladdin are basically very prejudicial they create a very very false and very very prejudicial view of the Islamic world “. Falsification of Islamic culture is not limited to only the cultural and characteristic features of people, it also needs to be evaluated in regard to spatial representation and architecture. In order to see what has changed in western perceptions of the East it is necessary to view and compare with another Aladdin film released in 2019 (see figure 10). In so doing it can be seen that between 1992 and 2019, producers had shifted their preferences in regard to cultural representation but architecturally the Indian formation of architecture was retained. Traditional preferences regarding Aladdin’s character and cultural environment were changed. The Arabic context was converted into an Indian one. The 2019

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production reflects a fictional space and architecture that has a hybrid formation including Egyptian and more Indian architectural components. Indian characters and Indian cultural themes were imposed Figure 7. Alhambra Palace, 13th century Source: taken by the author

Figure 8. Norwich Cathedral spire tower, Britain

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Source: https://www.medart.pitt.edu/ (Adapted From Britton)

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Figure 9. East End of the Church of St Jacques at Dieppe,1822 Source: https://sublimesites.co (Yale Center For British Art)

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Figure 10. Aladdin Cartoon and film posters

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including mime and dances. Usage of traditional Indians motifs rather than Arabic ones is an obvious distortion of Aladdin’s spatial setting and its culture. From a cultural perspective we can only see a canonic approach that misleads the viewer ever further away from authentic representations of cultural narrations. Here we may question why Hollywood wants to convey Aladdin’s cultural environment as Indian; we can also analyze the colors, dances and dress to reveal the possible marketing prerogatives of the film and the audience it was made for. We can also assess the extent to which the more recent representation of the story either promotes or demotes previously oriented desires in the viewer to face with less Middle Eastern imagery and culture (see figure 11)

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Figure 11. Screen shot from Aladdin film, One of the dancing scenes with built environment

British cultural imaginary of Arabia can be followed in its literature and films produced in the 1960’s that featured stories and events took place towards the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century when it’s empire was at its height. These resources give us a detailed impression of British acknowledgement of the Orient and is socio-political connotations. Long considers this as “oriental fantasy” and relates it to the “marketing of the British Empire and its colonies” (Long, 2014: 1-2). Films such as Lawrence of Arabia, released in 1962, are typical of the genre, depicting well known epic historical dramas that accorded with a triumphalist view of empire. The film is centered on the figure of Thomas Edward Lawrence and his experiences in the Middle East. The way it was depicted was nourished by British cultural imagination of eastern spatial reality. The producers preferred to feature huge trackless wastes of Arabian desert rather than images of the many towns and cities Thomas encountered during his adventures. The impression on the audience of such a harsh and barbarous spatial environments is dramatic. The few architectural images used were actually recorded in Andalusian parts of Spain, particularly Seville. So it was that a scene depicting Lawrence’s visit to the British army headquarters in Cairo was filmed in the Plaza de Espana in Seville (see figures 12-13). Another scene supposedly set in Damascus turns out to be the Plaza de América in Seville (see figures 14-15). Though Andalusian culture on the Iberian Peninsula shows Islamic influences, its architecture is radically different from Cairo and Damascus and many other parts of the Islamic world. Spatially and architecturally Arabia was misrepresented, probably because eastern architecture was evaluated from a totalistic perception.

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Figure 12. Plaza de España, Seville.

Source: http://two-turtles-ontheway.blogspot.com/2013/09/seville-plaza-de-espana.html

Figure 13. Screen shot from the film as if location is the British army headquarters in Cairo.

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Source. http://movie-tourist.blogspot.com/2016/05/lawrence-of-arabia-1962.html

In reality, Mudéjar architecture is a product of the lingering influence of Islamic culture in Spain and it should be seen as an amalgamation of Christian components as well. Another marketing effort of the British Empire appears in the form of the film Khartoum released in 1966. It seems to employ similar spatial and cultural adaptations to those in Lawrence of Arabia. This time the epic is set in Sudan during the colonial invasion of 1884-1885. Popularly known by the name Chinese Gordon, actually General Charles Gordon, who commanded a British force in China in the 1860’s, he became a hero of the British Empire when he was killed in action by the Mahdi forces in Khartoum. The sensation of his death saw him projected at the time as a martyr who had died for Queen and country. This event was indeed of sensational interest at the height of the Victorian Period. Today a statue of Gordon still stands in Trafalgar Square, which is a public square that glorifies Nelson’s victory in the West End of London. The original motion picture soundtrack for the film was composed

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and conducted by Frank Cordell (see figure 16). On the cover of the album is a drawing supposedly of Khartoum that features a mosque that looks more like the Masjid-i Jahān-Numā in Delhi, India (see figure 17). Such architecture is not seen in Sudan and suggests that the project was less about depicting the real and bloody colonial conquest of one of Africa’s largest countries than a pastiche to glorify what in reality was a humiliating setback for the empire, thereafter requiring a considerable force to be sent to Egypt in an effort to invade and occupy the capital for a second time. Figure 14. Plaza de América, Seville

Source. https://richedwardsimagery.wordpress.com/2015/07/23/historic-sevilla-spain/

Figure 15. Screen shot from the film if location is Damascus.

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Source. http://movie-tourist.blogspot.com/2016/05/lawrence-of-arabia-1962.html

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Figure 16. Khartoum, Picture of Soundrack

Figure 17. Masjid-i Jahān-Numā, Delhi

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Source: taken by Sebastian Schülter, https://www.sebastian-schlueter.com/jama-masjid-delhi

It is important to mention that space was used in early films as a decorative part of the scenes. It was an unavoidable choice to assure the spectator about the accurate representation of the orient or oriental characters. However this device is hardly used in recent films that usually do not prefer usage of oriental space. In this way one of the strongest representational elements - space - is simply swept away from the screens. In representation of the East in gaming, oriental space sometimes appears in games such Indiana Jones, Raiders of the Lost Ark which was released in 1981. The game features the technological

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superiority of the gun wielding white adventurers who progress by mowing down attackers who expire clutching their green flags with a moon symbol that has obvious religious connotations to Muslim culture. Elsewhere in the game a striped white dome signals to North African material cultural assets. The notion of a world battling against hordes of Islamic killers is what Edward Said puts forward as one of the most significant negative features that have shaped the contemporary public image of Islam, (Said, 1978). Thereafter it was common to see Arabs linked with war and terrorism in the films and games that further extended the cultural bestowal of terrorist traits to other cultures in the East. Such extension is seen in games such as Metal Slug, Call of Duty, and Assassin Creed where terrorism and the exotic are attributed to the East. An example in the Assassin Creed series which mixes violence and sexually exotic scenes featuring female figures dressed as if they were characters in the tale of the 1001 Nights. In terms of its spatial and architectural representations Damascus is depicted as a slum presided over by the Great Damascus mosque (see figure 18). Figure 18. Screenshot from Assassin’s Creed: Revelations

Figure 19. Court of the Myrtles, Alhambra Palace, Granada

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Source: taken by the author

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Figure 20. Screen shot from Assassins Creed revelations Brotherhood, Court of the Myrtles, Alhambra Palace

Source: https://assassinscreed.fandom.com/wiki/Alhambra

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Figure 21. Screen shot from Kuma war

Assassin’s Creed II: Discovery was a game produced for use with the Nintendo 3ds console. Here an Alhambra image introduces an oriental spatial and architectural representation of the year1492 when the last Islamic dynasty, the Nasirids were about to be defeated by the Crowns of Castile and Aragon. In the game, Muhammad the Nasirid ruler was captured by the knights Templars who wanted to prevent his surrender so that they could prevent Columbus from securing funds to raise a fleet and reach the New World. This is of course a fabrication of the real history of the demise of the Nasirids but no matter, the same is true of the spatial representation of the Alhambra. When the image below is analyzed it appears as a palace structure of architectural complexes and gives the sensation that one is looking from the Comares Hall into the Court of the Myrtles, the courtyard design with rectangular pool and specific water

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supply systems are all references could be connected to the Court of the Myrtles. which is not possible. Assassin’s Creed II Discovery presents the space as if it was still being constructed when in reality the palace had been completed decades prior. The game in fact features a host of other spatial distortions of an Alhambra that simply does not exist such appearances f towers at the vintage points. In the spatial construct, designers in order to give strong Alhambra image prefered distortion of images which even though do not exist. The palace continues to be a subject of Assassin Creed game playing. Assassins Creed revelations Brotherhood uses the lion court, albeit this time with a more accurate representation (see figures 19-20).

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Figure 22. Screen shot from Kuma war

Kuma War is among those games that use Islamic architectural images in a pejorative way. Here the Bush era war on terror is the main subject of the game which features scenes in Iraq, Iran and Afghanistan. In order to give sense of an Islamic space a mosque image was used, albeit one that seems to have no connection with Iraq, Afghanistan nor Iran’s architectural history. A careful look at the image reveals that the black dome resembles Mescid-i Aksa by its color however the form differs and the exterior elevation of the building reminds of Kubbetüs Sahara. Another example for the black dome could be seen as the Zahir Mosque in Malaysia but its distant from the context. The minaret of the mosque in the game resembles Indian examples, with a baldachin formation or kiosk minaret similar to those we see in the Jama Masjid, India. The black domed mosque in the game is a mere invention, an unreal spatial and architectural abomination whose purpose seems to be little more than to visually demonize Muslims for the sake of entertainment and to profit from sales of an otherwise boring shoot up game (see figures 21-22). Among recent games, one of the few example which gives place to the East is Call of Duty-Black Ops Cold War. This first-person shooter video game was programmed and released recently in 2020 (see figure 23). One of the scenes takes place in a northern city of Turkey, Trabzon, located on the Black Sea coast. Here Trabzon airport which was only recently constructed is represented by the game makers as if it is located near mountains, which is true, and surrounded by a jungle which is not. In reality Trabzon

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airport is a very small one somehow built on an embankment that falls away to the Black Sea (see figure 24). The airport is very close to the city but is portrayed in the game as if it is in a remote and deserted jungle location. This intentional distortion seems at first to be an oddity, given extensive use of real actors and real time effects designed to enhance the gaming experience. While games like this appear to be the more authentic and realistic begs the question why places like Trabzon Airport are so misrepresented. Maybe this distortion is merely a continuum of the fictional trend of eastern representation or it may be due to other explanations. It may also be that the game makers know that consumers of their product have been so accustomed to negative and inaccurate portrayal of the oriental that to suddenly present them with a more modern airport facility than is available in most European or American cities would be shocking. Another explanation may be that media producers now face significant hurdles if they wish to make eastern cultures matter as much as others. Those that desire such change may nevertheless find that portraying a more representative view of the East requires them to engage with a gradual process, knowing that contemporary politics is hostage to powerful lobbies that strive to maintain the status quo. Figure 23. Call of Duty-Black Ops Cold War

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Figure 24. Call of Duty-Black Ops Cold War, Trabzon Airport

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CONCLUSION

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Throughout much of the last century, western film makers occupied a dominant position, choosing in each frame what to represent and how, essentially selecting to project only those aspects of traditional cultures that were thought helpful to their pursuit of box office success. Over time, barbaric and exotic features were attached to Muslim-Eastern components along with the presentation of misinterpreted spatial culture for the same. Until recently, 20th century misrepresentation of the East along with its peculiar spatial and architectural connotations was commonly encountered in the output of Hollywood studios. Today however, few western producers find themselves needing to portray a fabricated the East. The trend away from things eastern in the western cultural domain speaks volumes about the cultural and political power relations that seem to absolutely dictate what films and related cultural fabrications are produced and when. While early representations of the East concerned popular stories from the age of European imperialism, recent depictions are so minimized that there is seldom opportunity for any meaningful spatial representation of the East. Computer gaming took hold during a time when films were the mainstay of the entertainment industry. Game producers strive to represent the physical world in a virtual reality. Inevitably we see historical monuments in these games making it possible to decipher how the producer and designers approach these cultural environments. Their intentions and representation methods draw on real politic and economic social issues. Recently, both in films and games it would appear as if the player has no interest in seeing the East as it used to be. This trend accelerated in the aftermath of the 9/11 attacks to the extent that eastern cultural assets have been so marginalized that they can hardly be perceived in the gaming environment. Movie type misrepresentation of East was replaced with un-representation of eastern culture and the disorientation of consumers continues in the few demonstrations they encounter. Therefore, it can be said that the western screen and gaming media approach to the orient and its representation has evolved in time to become of virtually no significance to the industry. The Call of Duty type misrepresentation of Trabzon and little interest in portraying its spatial culture for anything but annihilation reflects a prevalent desire not to attach any value to eastern culture. Instead the gaming public has preferred to immerse itself in exploring exotic forests and mythological sites. Consequently, it can be said that in the past representation of the East was not of a pejorative characters as there are many examples for this in the architectural record. Sadly, admiration of the East and its cultural representation changed drastically in the 20th century which produced a prejudiced perception of the East. Rigid reproduction of this image trivialized eastern culture, leaving it as little more than an occasional source for designers in the eyes of the West. Stakeholders in the western cultural sphere appear to retain the ability to intentionally influence western cultural perceptions of the East and use this power to project the images they want people to see, even when they are gaming.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS In this study, the researcher aimed to show how the film and game sector evolved over time and how their approaches to representation of the East evolved from being visible albeit prejudiced to intentionally misleading. Misrepresentation has now reached the point that the combined cultures of a global majority have become almost invisible and unknown in the West. Only a handful of films and games were selected for this study. The entertainment sector continues to evolve but it is also seemingly paralyzed by ongoing 301

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socio cultural conflict driven by the power politics of the times. In the future newly released films and games should be analyzed for cultural bias. Music related media and advertisements also contain cultural messages that need to be understood in terms of their role and reach. Serious effort is also necessary to counter the current nihilism of eastern life in the West and the emerging concept of re-orientalism.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-forprofit sectors.

REFERENCES Altınöz, Ö. (2014). 19.yy Osmanli Mimarisi’ndeki Oryantalizmin Endülüs Kaynağı ve Sirkeci Gari’nin Değerlendirilmesi [Evaluation of Orientalism’s Andalusian Source for 19th Century Ottoman Architecture]. Turkish Studies, 9/10(Fall), 837–853. Altınöz, Ö. M. (2020). Tracing Problems of Spanish Art and Architectural Histories on Mudéjar. Diálogo ártistico durante la Edad Media. Arte islámico - Arte mudéjar. In Dialogo artístico durante la Edad Media Arte islámico - arte mudejar. Árabe Editorial. Çelik, Z. (1992). Displaying the Orient: Architecture of Islam at Nineteenth-Century World’s Fairs. University of California Press. Conner, P. (1979). Oriental Architecture in the West. Thames and Hudson. Crinson. (1996). Empire Building: Orientalism and Victorian Architecture. Academic Press. Fabrizio. (2010). The Painted Ceiling Of The Nave Of The Cappella Palatina In Palermo: An Essay On Its Geometric And Constructive Features. Muqarnas, 27, 407-447. Hillenbrand, R. (2005). İslam Sanatı ve Mimarlığı (Ç. Kafesçioğlu, Trans.). Homer Kitabevi. Johan, H. (2008). Electronic Empire: Orientalism Revisited in the Military Shooter. The International Journal of Computer Game Research, 8(1).

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Jones, O. (1856). Grammar of Ornament. Princeton University Press. Katherine, W. (1989) French Romanesk. Bar International Series 488. https://www.medart.pitt.edu/image/england/Norwich/Cathedral/Plans/norwich-Cath-Plans.html Long, A. C. (2014). Reading Arabia: British Orientalism in the Age of Mass Publication. Syracuse University Press. MacKenzie, J. M. (1995). Orientalism: History, Theory, and the Arts. Manchester University Press. Richardson, J. (2004). (Mis)representing Islam: The Racism and Rhetoric of British Broadsheet Newspapers. John Benjamins Publishing. doi:10.1075/dapsac.9

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Saïd, E. (1978). Orientalism. Vintage Books. Sweetman, J. (1987). Oriental Obsession: Islamic Inspiration in British and American Art and Architecture. Cambridge University Press.

ADDITIONAL READING Benjamin, R. (2003). Orientalist Aesthetics: Art, Colonialism, and French North Africa 1880–1930. University of California Press. doi:10.1525/9780520924406 Bogost, I. (2006). Unit Operations: An Approach to Videogame Criticism. MIT Press. doi:10.7551/ mitpress/6997.001.0001 Chan, D. (2005). Playing with Race: The Ethics of Racialized Representations in E-Games. The Ethics of E-Games. International Journal of Information Ethics, 4(12), 24–30. Irwin, R. (2006). Dangerous Knowledge: Orientalism and its Discontents. Overlook Press. Leonard, D. (2006). Not a Hater, Just Keepin’ It Real: The Importance of Race- and Gender-Based Game Studies. Games and Culture, 1(1), 83–88. doi:10.1177/1555412005281910 Marashı, I. (2001) The Depiction of Arabs in Combat Video Games. Paper presented at Beirut Institute of Media Arts, Lebanese American University. Nochlin, L. (1983). The Imaginary Orient. Art in America, IXXI(5), 118–131.

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Stephen, V., & Abouseif, D. B. (2006). Islamic Art in the Nineteenth Century: Tradition, Innovation, and Eclecticism. Brill Publishers.

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Chapter 19

Orientalism, Colonialism, and Bouchareb’s Indigènes İbrahim Beyazoğlu Eastern Mediterranean University, Cyprus

ABSTRACT Rachid Bouchareb’s movie Indigènes (aka Days of Glory, 2006) constitutes a powerful critique of the discourse of orientalism in signifcant ways that requires consideration. The chapter presents a descriptive and critical analysis of ambivalent positions during colonial encounters in the Second World War and analyses the totalizing and monist nature of the logocentric regime of meaning in the construction of a colonial orientalist discourse where knowledge and power enter into an agreement of sorts. The chapter throws light on ways in which Eurocentric history writing undermines the colonial soldiers’ struggle for recognition and opens up a vista onto the critical role of post-colonial cinema in giving the invisible subjects’ their due in history and popular media.

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INTRODUCTION This paper assesses the significance of Rachid Bouchareb’s film Indigènes (2006) in the broader context of orientalism and its function of othering. The paper presents a descriptive and critical analysis of ambivalent positions that take place in colonial encounters along with the construction of the colonial regime of meaning in a dialogue with the knowledge-power equation in the film. Edward Said observes that, “to say simply that modern Orientalism has been an aspect of both imperialism and colonialism is not to say anything very disputable” (2003, p. 123). While providing insight into the colonial discourse of orientalism, the article analyses how this self-serving discourse incorporates colonial myths into popular cinema, particularly films connected to the Second World War. In one respect this paper is a theoretical attempt to articulate the underlying rationale of the injustice implicit in hegemonic/Eurocentric history writing, determining the other as subordinate to the history of technological and scientific advances, which, in effect, is the essence of orientalist practices. Such histories are “universalized”, with the particular histories of other peoples being erased and written over in the “white mythology”, rendering the colonized as ‘otherwise’ in the process. This will be discussed extensively in the following sections of DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch019

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 Orientalism, Colonialism, and Bouchareb’s Indigènes

this chapter. To further emphasize this point, one may recall Hegel’s ‘exemplary’ orientalism, which has now become a watchword, where he claims that Africa has no history:

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At this point we leave Africa, not to mention it again. For it is no historical part of the World; it has no movement or development to exhibit […] What we properly understand by Africa, is the Unhistorical, Undeveloped Spirit, still involved in the conditions of mere nature, and which had to be presented here only as on the threshold of the World’s History. (Hegel, 2001, p. 117) As Camara (2005) notes, the “very Hegelian dialectic […] excludes Africa from the universal history” (p. 83). Racism-based injustices in modern colonial representations are a logical consequence of a persistent orientalist texture. Bryan Turner points out that “the point of Orientalism, according to Said, was to Orientalise the Orient and it did so in the context of fundamental colonial inequalities” (1983, p. 31). In the film, racist language extensively shows up with the pejorative term, ‘wog’. From the point of view of historicity as represented in the film, the colonizer feels entitled to use leverage in the colonial framework in order to commit injustices, keeping the advantage of the system in mind. One of the underlying hypotheses guiding this paper is that Indigènes responds as a counterexample to the orientalist narrative of Hollywood films. This paper is exploratory and interpretative in nature and offers textual and theoretical evidence to open up the possibility of critical interpretation and interruption, not only of the hegemonic orientalist mould in war films but as a contribution to our understanding of the palimpsestic makeup of orientalism and associated colonial narratives. Indigènes, which enlists significant representatives of postcolonial thought, does not attempt to reverse the orientalist worldview. A reverse orientalism is doomed to produce what it opposes: “binary oppositional makeup means that it cannot be opposed by a binary opposition, which rather sustains it” (İlter, 2011, p. 637). Alternatively, one of the purposes of this study, therefore, is to unravel the contradictory, ambivalent and contested textuality in a tangled web of orientalism in contrast to the assumptions of unity and cohesion made by authors and researchers. Of course, this then leads to the laying bare of the recurring logocentric textual fabric which is “nothing but the most original and powerful ethnocentrism, in the process of imposing itself upon the world” permeating the self-serving modernist orientalist histories in the representation of the colonial period (Derrida, 1997, p.3). Trying to do justice to the complex web of relations of the colonial situation and the associated ideologies, this work draws largely upon postcolonial and poststructuralist theorists such as Jacques Rancière, Hélène Cixous and especially Jacques Derrida, whose critique of the metaphysical rationale of orientalist ethnocentrism informs postcolonial theory (İlter, 2011, p. 637). Given the complex and ever-changing orientalist leitmotivs of the movie Days of Glory, both political theory and the “scientificism” of realpolitik or the “vigour” of IR theories fall short in adequately handling such a rich tapestry of emerging arguments, undercutting the protean characteristic of the colonial discourse at play. Previous work in this area has tended to take a somewhat cursory view of Indigènes when the immediate concern was in fact the orientalist texture of French colonialism. Indeed, all the way through the film, protagonists alternate between the sense that they are the victims of empire, whose lives have been destroyed, and the belief that they must cherish the motherland France, embodied in their cries of ‘Vive la France!’ In the vast majority of cases, the protagonists grow more and more divided against themselves, thus bringing the film into a creative conflict with the ways in which the mainstream colonial cinema fails to deal with subtleties and the irreducible polysemy of the colonial situation. Just like their cinematic counterparts, these theoretical works—despite their “objective vigour”—do not consider orientalism as a narrative that whitewashes the colonial logocentric worldview, so failing and to raise 305

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discursive questions regarding the nature and extent of the intricacies of the orientalist colonial seam in such works. The view of orientalist ideology (as far as one can read it) that these studies draw on is a caricature, but one for whom, as Edward Said puts it, “what matters is how efficient and resourceful it sounds, and who might go for it, as it were” (2003, p. xvi). To be brief, the following pages will firstly outline the orientalist fabric of the film using the scholarship on the postcolonial theory. Secondly, two major themes to which the movie owes its effect—constituting ambivalences of the colonial texture and white mythologies which undercut the recognition of the so-called forgotten natives—that have not been adequately explained, will be discussed.

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BACKGROUND So far, several pieces of research on Indigenes have been conducted. Hargreaves (2008) brilliantly attempts to articulate the intertextual understanding between the fate of the forgotten North African recruits and the 2005 riots in the banlieues of postcolonial France. Cheref (2006) shows us how the stories of the so-called natives and contemporary politics never cease to mediate one another. Cheref treats his subject with an intertextual understanding of the history insofar he examines Pontecorvo’s La Bataille d’Alger at the same time. Adler (2013) presents a nuanced work on the relationship between memory and the so-called natives in the colonial army, contrary to the conventional belief that they were purged from the French public memory, Adler demonstrates that natives were at times on various occasions at least included in the official memory. Norindr (2009) criticizes Indigenes for promising but not delivering when it comes to the issues of veracity and remembrance. Norindr is of the opinion that the director fails to connect the film to the Setif Massacre of May 1944 and the then future Algerian War of independence. Cooper (2007) reminds the reader of the galvanizing effect of the film in shaping public opinion in England. Cooper masterfully brings to the fore the importance of memory activism and the way in which Indigenes’ “British release has been instrumental in highlighting the injustices suffered by the Gurkhas” as well (p. 91). However, none of the aforesaid works directly engages with the regime of meaning which makes the colonial actors and subjects invisible in western-centric history. Rather than discussing the historical veracity of the film, this study explores the way colonial narrative trajectories attempt to underpin the ‘regime of truth’ in a dialogue with the film itself. The central problematic of the film is implicit in the meaning of the titles devised for the different audiences. The French title of the film is Indigenes. The title chosen for English distribution was Days of Glory. Turkishspeaking audiences watched a film called, İsimsiz Kahramanlar, which can be translated into English as The Forgotten Heroes or The Nameless Heroes. As well as referring to natives, Indigenes in the French version has pejorative connotations from the perspective of the orientalising colonial subject. As regards the English translation, a halo of legend tends to surround the title. The title Days of Glory is reminiscent of the myth of popular heroes, recalling epic war films. In certain aspects—such as its action and combat scenes—Indigènes is reminiscent of military war films such as David Ayer’s Fury (2014) and Steven Spielberg’s Saving Private Ryan (1998). In this vein, Randall Wallace’s We Were Soldiers (2002) and Carl Franklin & David Nutter’s The Pacific (2010) also come to mind. The Turkish translation merits pause and further elaboration because it indicates a host of issues with regard to colonial orientalist discourse. Unlike the English translation which is invested with an alleged platform for the African colonial soldiers to make their presence felt, the Turkish translation captures the spirit of the orientalist discourse in the colonial relationship. The English translation of the film title is different from the TRT-2 version 306

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in that it points to the alleged visibility of the heroes and creates an epoch still marked by romanticism. However, the spoiler script of the TRT-2, which reads as “the “invisible heroes forgotten by the history”, portrays a different picture and focuses more on the problem of the willed anonymity, a representation of the thousands of unknown and neglected heroes who were cogs in the imperial machine. Thus, “the forgotten/nameless heroes” points to the regulating kernel of orientalist history which is the story of the colonizer. To put it succinctly, this is a discourse rigged in favour of the colonizer to obscure and silence the colonial subject. As Turner powerfully argues, the audacity of the western Subject (with capital S) towards the ‘oriental’ subject comes from the purported timid acquiescence (and therefore, penetrable nature) of the East: “Orientalism was based on the fact that we know or talk about the Orientals, whereas they neither know themselves adequately nor talk about us” (1983, p. 31). As stated previously, among other associations, the French translation of the title brings to the fore the projected supremacy of the ‘advanced and modern’ colonizer over the ethnic or “biological” “inferiority” of the native. Moreover, this binary ideology brings us slightly closer to the colonizer’s orientalist fear of ‘going native’; that is to say, the constant fear of coming under the influence of indigenous epistemology. Hence the struggle to remain untouched by it. For the purposes of terminological clarity, the ‘wog’ is a pejorative umbrella term for ‘a dark-skinned foreigner and especially for one from the Middle East or Far East’ (Merriam-Webster, 2020). Partially unlike the concept of ‘the native’ or ‘indigeneity’ which connote simplicity and unsophistication, in this article, ‘wog’ is a generic orientalist term referring to the west and white-centric discourse by which the colonizer designates the Africans and Arabic speaking ‘eastern’ people.

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MAIN FOCUS OF THE CHAPTER The film opens up in an Algerian village, 1943, where a local elder-Crier is pledging men to the French First Army of the Free French Forces. He shouts loudly, “we must rid France of the German occupation! We must wash the French flag with our blood! We must liberate France!” The newly-recruited North African soldiers then turn up in Seif, where military drills take place in preparation for an attack on the Germans in Sicily. The captain, in his evident arrogance and contempt, reveals an orientalist attitude towards the North African soldiers as soon as he meets them. As if it were something of real doubt, he calls for ‘civilized’ attitudes from the North Africans, whom he implicitly takes to be potential ‘savages’. The Captain’s disparaging attitude sustains the requirements of orientalist worldview: “I know you Aït Tserouchen, the mountain man [...] Listen carefully now. We permit raids in enemy territory for food. But hands off the woman or you’ll be shot! In France, no raids at all. We show discipline! It is our home, it is our motherland!” In Italy, 1944, French troops make final preparations to launch an attack on the ‘Bosch-Kraut’ lines, a fortified German position high up a mountain. It is here that the 7th RTA (Régiment de Tirailleurs Algériens) campfire is the place where pathways of the four colonized (pejoratively referred to as goumiers in colonial language) protagonists of the movie intersect: three Algerians—Messaoud Souni (Roschdy Zem), Saïd Otmari (Jamel Debbouze), Corporal Abdelkader (Sami Bouajila); and two brothers from Morocco—Yassir (Samy Naceri) and Larbi (Assaad Bouab). All being illiterate, apart from Corporal Abdelkader, these daring and enterprising men have turned up in the army for different but somewhat predictable reasons. Saïd, an impecunious and pint-sized goat herder, to use his words, comes from ‘total poverty’ and is determined to raise money to improve his situation. He joins the army against his mother’s warnings. Corporal Abdelkader, being of an idealistic 307

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and resilient spirit, channels his energies through the French army in order to move up in society. He comes ultimately to be disillusioned with his prospects. Unlike Abdelkader, an ardent critic of orientalist clichés and injustices, Saïd is at times complicit in orientalism, whether he realises this or not. Even though most of the time he shows himself to be aware of colonial orientalist power structures and racial policies, Saïd reflexively denies the prospect of an Arab standing on his two own feet, his disbelief in the capability of Arab promotion offered by the French army a clear example of self-orientalism. Saïd’s stolid obstinacy in his refusal to acquire literacy and promotion as a result of his inferiority complex is a further example of his auto-orientalism. Moreover, Saïd despises any struggle for promotion. Messaoud Souni, a proficient marksman with a pas de chance (unlucky) tattoo on his chest, vows to turn his luck around finally by taking refuge in France and, predictably enough, to marrying a French woman. The two poverty stricken brothers from Morocco, Yassir and Larbi, apprehend that the army is the direct route to making money for Larbi’s prospective marriage and, to this end, do not hesitate to rob the dead bodies of the fallen enemies. But ambivalently, Larbi is respectful towards Christianity at the same time. The cast also involves the over-bearing veteran pied-noir, Sergeant Roger Martinez. Martinez is in fact half Maghreb from his mother’s side. However, he disavows his Maghrebian roots and gives priority of place to his French pied-noir identity. Martinez lives an insular life and is not very communicative. He has no friend but his gofer, Saïd. His concealment of ethnic his ‘stigma’ is, as will be seen in the following pages, symptomatic of what is called the fear of ‘going native’. The events of that first battle against the Germans fully confirm the colonial attitude of the French staff officers. The 7th RTA is used as decoy to expose German emplacements as targets for French howitzers. Soldiers pushed their way towards ‘Bosch-Kraut’ positions in the face of exploding shells and heavy machine gun fire from enemy lines. But victory comes at a heavy price. The official war correspondent asks the Colonel about the number of casualties while he takes photos of dead soldiers in their shrouds. But the Colonel doesn’t answer the embedded correspondent’s question, instead proclaiming, “It is a magnificent victory. For the first time since the 1940 defeat, our army has defeated the Germans. France has regained glory and the Allies’ trust”. As the Colonel leaves the scene of the Pyrrhic victory scene behind, he poses for the correspondent and haughtily commands: “write what I said”. The next assignment is Operation Dragoon in mainland France, 1944, the liberation of Provence from the Nazi yoke in the August. After the Italy expedition, the 7th RTA returns ‘home’ to a heroes’ welcome as liberators. But as events unfold in the scenes of the ‘homecoming’, it is clear that the fear of ‘going native’ informs the film, demonstrating the fragility of the colonial subject. In Marseille, the public welcome soldiers with open arms. Messaoud overcomes, seemingly, his ill luck and falls in love with a young French woman, Irene. Irene promises Messaoud they will marry after the war. However, they cannot receive letters from each other because of the army censors who would frown on such an exchange. Messaoud Souni is an example of an unmitigated self-orientalist who perceives his ‘eastern’ self-hood in terms of the binary structures of white colonial narratives, unsurprisingly giving priority to French colonialism over his own native ways. Soon after the meeting of Messaoud Irene, there is a straightforward and frank sexual encounter. However, when Irene seeks to get closer to Messaoud in her private chamber, a perplexed Messaoud begins to fret, telling her “in my country we do not go with French women”. In the same way, at the French end of the orientalist spectrum, it becomes clear how orientalism is at work in the bureaucratic machinations of French officialdom, with a male official making fun of and then censoring Messaoud’s letters to Irene. Just like Messaoud the Algerian, the French could not imagine and approve that a French woman would be intimate with an African Arab. After getting close to Irene, Messaoud tells Corporal Abdelkader that Marseilles is a paradise and that people do not 308

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undervalue him. He no longer feels like a wog, he declares: “I swear I will make my life in France”, he says in awe. Saïd, though, responds to Messaoud’s self-orientalism with his own self-orientalism: “you will always be a wog”. A later scene, when Saïd threatens to kill Messaoud, is quite the epitome of self-orientalism. Upon Abdelkader breaking up the fight between the two, Saïd wreaks his anger on his comrades and Corporal Abdelkader. An outraged Saïd shouts at Abdelkader, “Learn your book by heart to become a Colonel”, then pointing his index finger at the North African soldiers, he starts bellowing an orientalist humiliation at them: “Who’s becoming a colonel? This donkey? This mule?” The fact of receiving no letter from Irene casts an increasingly long shadow over Messaoud. This being so, he comes up with a desperate escape plan to go to Marseille to see Irene, but all his endeavours prove unsuccessful, and he is indicted and incarcerated for his undisciplined behaviour. As days go by, the protagonists are deployed on a crucial mission in the winter of 1945, holding a village in Alsace, a bridgehead, until such times as more expansive general attack takes place. Under attack in Alsace, the 37th US Division is desperate for reinforcements and ammunition. A squad of the 7th Algerian Infantry Regiment volunteers for this very dangerous mission. The Colonel, before dispatching the squad to Alsace, honours those who will participate in this battle, adding with relish: “The rewards for yourself and all the brave men who contribute to this exploit will be worthy of the feat. You will be the first to reach Alsace. All of France will watch and remember you”. The squad sets out to be the first of the French army to arrive in Alsace in the hope of holding the American positions and “getting what they deserve”, which is being greeted, appreciated and welcomed. However, on the way, things go awry and more than half of the squad is killed by a booby-trap explosion, including Yassir. Martinez is injured very badly. Messaoud, Saïd, and Larbi have doubts about their mission following the explosion, questioning it and squabbling, with Corporal Abdelkader, however, encouraging them at the prospect of recognition: “they will recognize us for it”. They undertake to hold the village even though, initially, Saïd, Messaoud and Larbi are reluctant to do so. Heroic battle scenes against the Germans in Alsace unfold similar cinematically to final battle scene in the Saving Private Ryan. The only difference in this movie is that there are village folks in Alsace. After a ferocious battle with the Germans, only Corporal Abdelkader survives and is rescued in the nick of time thanks to the French army coming to the aid of Alsace, only for his endeavour to be thoroughly dismissed by the very same Colonel who had promised them recognition. Abdelkader’s eagerness for recognition does not bear fruit as in the end the French army takes the credit for the Alsace victory. And white mythology, as will be observed in the subsequent argument, is not comprehensible without the Alsace village case, for the wholesale misappropriation of the hard-won victory comes into effect by excluding the real heroes of the battle for the Alsace village from the visibility of history. It is relevant to say that the older colonial pattern re-establishes itself when Corporal Abdelkader tries to approach the Colonel but is stopped by the Colonel’s aide-de-camp. Meanwhile, the Colonel leaves Abdelkader in an incommunicable, emotional and psychological state of shock when he doesn’t bother to recognize Corporal Abdelkader and treats him as just another nameless soldier or cog in the machine of Empire. Having learnt that Corporal Abdelkader is the sole survivor of his unit, the aide-de-camp tells the sergeant beside him, “You needed a corporal? Here’s one”. But it goes without saying that the remaining 7th Algerian Infantry Regiment rescued the villagers. At the end of the film, the aged vétéran de la guerre Abdelkader appears again. He can barely make ends meet under excruciatingly difficult living conditions in France. As an old man, 60 years on, he visits his comrades’ graves in Alsace and prays for them. The film closes with a script that gives the audience the message that in 1959 a law was passed to freeze the pensions of infantrymen from former French colonies about to become indepen309

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dent. In 2002, after endless hearings, the French government was ordered to pay the pensions in full. But successive governments have pushed back on this payment. It transpires that the late Chirac’s wife, Bernadette Chirac, was so moved by the plight of the African veterans that she sought to do justice to them. As soon as Chirac “graced with his presence” the first showing of the movie, he had suffered pangs of conscience and decided to reinstate the pensions of the surviving ‘indigènes’ veterans; though not to the point of making a ‘post facto’ compensation” (Cheref, 2016, p. 12). In Indigènes, one can see a painful example of the kind of historic reality that can be constructed by means of white-mythology narratives. What French official history conjures up is representative of something more than the unmet rights of the true heroes of Alsace or the image of the autochthonous soldiers portrayed as no better than the bits and bobs of the empire; this leads to question, “Why are the abuses of memory directly abuses of forgetting as well” (Ricoeur, 2006, p. 448). The next section will deal with these injustices in recognition as the context of colonial scholarship.

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Issues, Controversies, Problems I: Orientalism and Recognition This section, by analysing orientalist situations, attempts to provide an insight into the Borromean knot of orientalism, white mythology and colonialism at play. In this respect, what makes the orientalist worlding possible is predominantly the relation that the worldview shares with racist notions of superiority associated with ‘white mythology’, a concept proposed by Jacques Derrida, which can be described as “European culture”— “the unquestioned and dominant centre of the world” (Young, 2004, p. 51). In this very context of the orientalist way of knowing, the non-self, Derrida’s (1982) metaphor of palimpsest, articulates another layer of understanding implicit the concept of ‘white mythology’ and its sine qua non of epistemic violence. Because, recognizing the different others “in terms of a relation between similar beings—of being itself emerging and manifesting itself in its own state, or its own mirror” (Mbembe, p.1) is the homogenizing raison d’etre of the white mythology that works either by means of writing of different others out of existence with white ink; “White mythology—metaphysics has erased within itself the fabulous scene that has produced it, the scene that nevertheless remains active and stirring, inscribed in white ink, an invisible design covered over in the palimpsest” (Derrida, 1982, p. 213). Derrida’s metaphor of the palimpsest refers to the otherness of the other in orientalism as an othered other, as the product of a writing, whose scene of writing has been erased and made transparent—like in a palimpsest. Spivak herself is a useful source here because her concept of “worlding” serves to provide a similar critique of the unilateral violence of the colonizer: “the very same imperial worlding is performed at the same time without leaving any trace of colonial evidence of white universal history writing” (1985: p. 243). In orientalism, the other is known as the other of the Self, in its proper, subordinate, subservient position vis-a-vis the Self. With the assumption of transparency on the part of the sovereign Subject as the colonizer, the other is seen as, allegedly, an objective and value free fact, rather than as an orientalist projection, or as an othered other, the product of an epistemic violence. The colonizing history of white mythology is written with white ink which not only de-writes or de-historicizes the intertextual tapestry of the native knowledge but also attempts to mask violent discursive power right at the scene of colonization. The notion of ‘white mythology’ may be traced back to the concept of the fear of going native in the face of native. Not going native here assumes “the uncontaminated purity” of the colonizer Subject. Here, not knowing or resisting to know and recognize the native world life is the way of not allowing the “purity” to be “profaned” by native influence. As going native is anathema to the colonial unknowing, 310

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such colonial unknowing1 is coded to erase the memory or knowledge to invisibilize2 the native texture and thus to open up space for the colonial inscription of the white history. At the same time, the colonialist renders himself invisible in this process of enacting the violence that invisibilizes the native context. The ‘western’ orientalist colonizer’s constant disregard of indigenous people constitutes a significant version of the positivist trick which “pretends authorlessness in order to author a world” (Agger, 1989, p.18). Just like the positivist who allegedly ‘avoids’ involvement in — and is therefore ‘invisible’ and ‘transparent’— subjectivity to ‘gain’ a ‘value-free’ and ‘objective’ knowledge, the sovereign orientalist Subject undertakes to wipe native stories ‘out’ of the palimpsest of ‘white mythology’ at the colonial moment. In the course of getting rid of the autochthonous presence from the ‘white mythology’, the purported authorlessness functions as a colonial alibi and helps disguise epistemic violence, thus avoiding ethical responsibilities so as to not get caught red handed. Put differently, the colonizer is now a “concealed subject [that] pretends it has no geo-political determinations” (Spivak, 1988, pp. 271-272). As long as orientalism prevails, the violent epistemology takes on another colonial disposition. Instead of discarding what Bauman calls the “unlicensed difference”, that is to say, “the real enemy: the grey area of ambivalence, indeterminacy and undecidability”, the “truth-regime” attempts to assimilate and “universalize” the unlicensed difference as an interior by licensing or turning the unlicensed difference into a licensed difference (Bauman, p. xvi). Cixous makes a nuanced point about the “benevolent” trait of the colonial incorporation by means of the aforesaid Hegelian dialectic: “Thanks to some annihilating dialectical magic [whereby] noble, ‘advanced’ countries established themselves by expelling what was ‘strange’; excluding it but not dismissing it; enslaving it” (Italics mine Cixous, cited in Young, 2004, p. 32). Before further elaborating on the relationship between orientalism and white mythology here, it may be more useful to take a look at Jacques Rancière’s (2004) concept of the distribution of the sensible. For Rancière, the visibility of the agents in the political struggle is existential and “politics revolves around what is seen and what can be said about it, around who has the ability to see and the talent to speak, around the properties of spaces and the possibilities of time” (Rancière, p. 13). Colonial memory is inseparable from what Derrida calls “white mythology”. It is also a key characteristic of our argument, given that the struggle for recognition of the subaltern is no less a matter than “to be or not to be”. However, even though the theme of recognition is already a part of the fabric of the colonialism that is perpetuated in the film, previous works on it have treated the problematic of recognition in isolation from the Borromean ring that has already been mentioned. In the film, the struggles of the natives gain recognition in the eyes of the colonizer for their valour, prowess and fidelity. That those very natives are caught in a tug-of-war for recognition is equivalent to the colonial soldiers’ need to find a larger meaning for their plight. The degree of visibility for the colonial soldier in the struggle for recognition before the significant Other is likely to depend on what Rancière calls “configurations of experience that create new modes of sense perception” (p.9). The more visibility the subjects gets, the more the acknowledgment; consequently, a greater realization of their significance takes place as they gain entrance into the political sphere. In the light of Rancière’s views, the distribution of the sensible also makes it possible to understand why the natives in the film invoke the need for recognition. The division (partage) Rancière is talking about is a line that delineates the one who is unknown and neglected, thereby rendering the person invisible. The prospective recognition of the subaltern’s exploits is likely to delimit the colonial confines and open the means of visibility so that they may fulfil their right to be heard. Thus, to be appreciated requires to be visible first and foremost. Put in other words, the entire struggle is about being on the ‘correct’ side of the partage. Just as the modes of sense perception define, govern and enable the visibility of the communities, so the white mythology derives its own ‘superiority’ by keeping the fear of going native 311

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at bay and using regimes of control that involve the subjugation of power with the aid of knowledge. The white mythology is the fundamental mode of being of orientalism connected in the sense that, as pointed out by David Hawkes, “knowledge is constructed in the service of powerful interests” (personal communication, November 14, 2020). Saïd’s conversation with Abdelkader, right before the final battle in the village, during the watch on the bridge, serves as an example of Saïd’s somewhat stoic endurance of the ubiquitous impact of white mythology and realization that natives are denied recognition and a role in “universal” history. Saïd’s rustic simplicity does not preclude him from giving the audience the outline of the ‘white mythology’. Abdelkader says to Saïd, “when the war is over, you’ll stay in the army. You will rise up through the ranks to sergeant”. Sad and sullen, Saïd stands aloof from Abdelkader’s enthusiasm about the unattainable future and gloomily replies: “I don’t want to be a sergeant. Some have the right to and others don’t. God has forgotten me for now”. Also, as mentioned earlier, the camera records and photo frames of the Alsace liberators were not fraternal and inclusive. Only white French soldiers, in accordance with the hierarchy of civilization, are shown as liberators alongside the village folk, and the official narrative of the French memory in this particular case is constructed by the white French hero. Possibly no part of French WW II history demonstrates the “white mythology” more than the celebrations of the liberation of Paris. Because of the end of four years of Nazi occupation ended on 19 August 1944, an official parade was held to celebrate the liberation of Paris. However, the military parade “was composed mainly of white soldiers. For it was inconceivable that Paris should be liberated by soldiers of color” (Wieviorka, 2008, p. 314). In this light, Gadjigo (2010) provides one instance of how “white mythology” and “deliberate forgetfulness” invisiblized the “non-white” soldiers in order that the France could hold the unsullied and unsurpassed purity of the Self in the highest regard at home: “But there was something more scandalous than this deliberate forgetfulness: at the time of the fall and reconquista [sic] of German-occupied Paris, General Philippe de Hauteclocque Leclerc, once at the gates of the cities, asked Eisenhower to let his Deuxième Division Blindée (Second Armored Division) enter first so that white soldiers could go down in history as the liberators of Paris. Black fighters, hidden away in Fontainebleau, were eventually denied the honor of parading on the Champs Elysées” (p. 69). Excluding “the non-white” liberators of the Alsace mise-en-scène is predicated on the universalizing tendency of the white mythology in its selective use of popular myth: “the oneness of a name, the assembled unity of Western metaphysics” ever perpetuates “the desire [...] for a proper name, for a single, unique name and a thinkable genealogy” (Derrida, 1989, p. 67). As the horizontally constructed binary division is used to justify the orientalist “truth-regimes”, so the hierarchized/vertical binary opposition is the core mechanism of white mythology. In the case of the white mythology, the first term is centred as the “positive/superior” pole of the binary, and it is discursively prioritized in relation to the “negative/inferior” pole of the binary opposition such as men vs. women, west vs. east, and colonizer vs. indigenous, white vs. black. As Spivak convincingly remarks, in the pursuit of such a monistic history, “it is this longing for a center, an authorizing pressure, that spawns hierarchized oppositions” (1977, p. ixix). The criterion of being on the “correct” side of this mono History—just like being on the correct side of the partage—depends on making the right choice between the modernity (because there is expected to be only “one valid” modernity) and backwardness divide. The former is about being modern in the present and the latter is associated with being stuck in the past or falling behind what is the present. The basis for the contemporary or the so-called present is a linear understanding of history—to use İlter’s words, “the modernist imaginary of a teleological History” (2002, p. 97)—which is in fact a metaphysical scale on which the degree of progress could be “measured”. The most important factor in the measurement of 312

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the level of progress in the modernist timeline is through a projection mechanism where “a logocentric metaphysics of presence, which, in trying to banish its own difference or otherness inside, projects it onto a binary oppositional outside” (İlter, 2011, p. 637). Inclusion and exclusion processes are nothing other than the projection of ideas onto the imagined future or the past “in the image of the European Enlightenment ideals of progress and modernity”, as formulated by İlter (2002, p. 97). Derrida’s critique of white mythology helps us understand how monist perception and imagination cut into everything in the west-centric colonial memory in a paradoxical way as well; either the different ones (here indigenes) are disregarded, so they have no place in this narrative or they might be incorporated into the white mythological narrative but on colonial orientalist terms; that is to say, recognition that happens only through assimilation. Being qualitatively different, the native shall be with the colonizer but never a colonizer. The orientalist colonial discourse believes that at once everyone should be a part of white mythological discourse; yet not everyone can be white or is allowed to be so without actually being white in an ontological sense. The indigene should seem to wear the shoes of the colonizer, but should not be one of them or at least never quite the same. The following section discusses the ambivalences at play with a view to addressing intricate colonial moments.

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Issues, Controversies, Problems II: Saïd, Martinez and Ambivalences at Play The factor that makes the film convincing is the presence of ambivalent strands tightly interwoven with dominant colonial narratives. It is now known in postcolonial studies that the fleeting and paradoxical points of struggle, which are the warp and weft of the colonial tapestry, contain within them conjunctions and disjunctions for the colonized, colonizer and the researcher. Add to this triangle the hybrid positions and temporalities of the actors and agents of change, such an intricate cobweb often problematizes any singular attempt to arrive at simplistic conclusions by drawing a clear dividing line separating the self from the other in colonial settings. Thus, as these ambiguities spin the thread of everyday life, there comes a time when the moment also betrays the actors of colonial situations trying to come up with definite propositions because a fleeting instant is far from mathematically precise for one to pin anything on with absolute confidence. Even so, one can assume that positions, encounters and intentions bear the indomitable sign of ambivalence. In the process of recollection that is vital for any study there comes a point when the researcher finds him or herself face to face with the convoluted task of looking through kaleidoscopic inter-subjectivities. Nothing about the colonial discourse unravels in a way that affords being uncomplicated and transparent. Therefore, what one needs to bear in mind is that the struggle for the recognition cannot be separated from these equivocal contexts. If the ambivalent mode of relating to one another is a dominant feature of colonial relations, various characters, especially Saïd and Martinez are contextual personifications of it. Saïd’s relation with Martinez is laden with apparently inexplicable contradictions and ambivalences. Working as Martinez’s assistant is not without some advantages and little comforts for Saïd. In the eyes of his comrades, Saïd is not essentially violent. But being a gofer is humiliating and Messaoud calls him Aicha in jest, thus implying Saïd’s effeminacy and submissive behaviour. This gendered embarrassment at the same time insinuates that Saïd is a renegade. And although the movie doesn’t show this manifestly, Saïd’s dependence on Martinez makes him look like a collaborator and weak in his comrades’ eyes. One can easily remember that Saïd fetches coffee and tea for Martinez, gives him a shirt and helps him shave. When Abdelkader insists on Saïd’s need for literacy, Martinez tells Abdelkader that Saïd is better off without education and Saïd supports Martinez on this occasion to the disapproval and vexation of Abdelkader. 313

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When Messaoud refers to Saïd as Aicha in front of the North African soldiers and gropes Saïd’s buttock for fun, Saïd puts a knife to Messaud’s throat, yelling “I am not a child”, making him apologize at knife point. Cooper’s analysis does not give sufficient consideration to Said’s despondency. It would be an overstatement to say that Saïd is content with his proximity to Martinez and does not feel uneasy. On the contrary, he feels like a ping-pong ball bouncing between his comrades and his ‘duty’ for Martinez. But being referred to as Aicha is the last straw and he does not mind saying that no one bothers him except the sergeant. However, Saïd is deeply anti-colonial and secretly bears a grudge against Martinez as he bows to him strategically. From time to time Martinez gets on his nerves and it suffices to say that Saïd has enough reason to hate Martinez. Dealing with Martinez’s chores every now and then depresses Saïd, particularly when Martinez summons him and prevents him from chatting with his friends. Saïd complains saying, “He is wearing me out. I have to go”. Therefore, contrary to the image of a happy and complacent native who accepts colonialism without raising questions, “the ‘native’ underling plays up to the pukka sahib in the expected way while planning the day on which all white throats will be cut” (p. 135). As a matter of fact, after Martinez gets badly wounded on the way to Alsace and is bedridden, Saïd no longer displays tactical niceties or a suppliant posture and telling him, “I hope you are going to die Staff sergeant.” However, in the end, Saïd dies along with Martinez as he tries to rescue the latter from a German Panzerschreck rocket attack. Despite its sobering qualities and worth, Cooper’s (2007) work partially suffers from another drawback. Cooper describes Saïd as “the film’s happy yet ignorant subordinate” (p. 98). Moreover, he suggests that the picture of Saïd in the film “conceals colonial violence by domesticating him into a non-threatening image of a happy subordinate in the colonial order” (p. 98). Nothing, in fact, could be further from the truth and what comes through Cooper’s analysis is the failure to take into account the effect of the ambivalence on the characters which recurs throughout the film. One of the central ambivalences in the movie is Saïd’s swing between his passive aggressiveness and explosions of anger. At times, Saïd has a child-like innocence; yet, no one is certain what he is capable of doing. Though he appears to be cumbersome at the beginning of the army drills, in the attack on Bosch he shows courage and destroys the German defences with the use of grenades. There is no reason to suppose that Saïd is happy in the army; at times, Saïd looks melancholic and introverted. Even if he remains at the bottom of the orientalist ladder in the colonial army, Saïd is aggressive and he can’t stand an insult. What is interesting about Saïd’s portrayal in the film is that he is not one thing or the other. While he occupies an unhappy and inferior position because of colonial subjugation, he shines in his true colour when he is able to see red. In this context it is important to remember Fanon’s point that the “The Algerian suffering from melancholia does not commit suicide. He kills” (p. 224). Interestingly, Saïd has the capacity for both suicide and murder at one and the same time. In the same way, Martinez, with his complex multiple identity, occupies an ambiguous position when he grapples with colonial encounters. The attitudes of sergeant Martinez towards the natives are filled with ambivalent idiosyncrasies peculiar to the colonial discourse. Moreover, Martinez avoids the orientalist language of his French superiors. He is as righteous towards Africans as he is contemptuous of them. At times Martinez puts the natives above criticism when the concern is the honour and fidelity of North African recruits. At one time, Martinez, sensitive to the promotional injustices in the army, expresses his discontent about Abdelkader’s belated promotion. At another instant, on the way to France, when an African soldier is denied a tomato by the cook because of racial discrimination, a commotion on the ship is created by the daring Abdelkader. Abdelkader steps on tomatoes and rejects the authority of Martinez. The officials who are hardly able to contain the possible unrest allow every colonial soldier 314

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to have tomatoes equally. This is a telling moment because the row offers an example of the ideological history of the colonial attitude and it proleptically foretells the Algerian War of Independence. Martinez complains to the captain that a ‘simple’ tomato-related injustice runs the risk of mutiny. Upon the captain’s use of colonial language, “you know the natives”, Martinez kindly asks him to “avoid that term”. Perplexed by the answer, the captain offers the term “the Muslims”. But Martinez further corrects the captain saying, “That’s just as bad.” The captain, this time at the end of his patience asks, “So what do I call them?” Martinez replies, “the man sir, the man!” The failure of the captain to find a correct term is more than selective ignorance and it is clearly colonial education at work: the rabid fear of going native. Such fear in fact throws light on the imperial path that the other colonial administrators follow as well. The tomato row is best seen as yet another sign of pervasive and far-flung insecurity in the face of the encounter with the colonized and is also the essence of what is possibly the single most important textual moment of the entire movie. Martinez, as is seen before, is not ‘completely’ French pied noir due to the fact that his mother is Algerian. For reasons resting on colonialist discourse, Martinez never mentions his Algerian mother and he melancholically cherishes his childhood photo with his mother in 1903; it is close to his heart in his pocket as if he suffers from “a nostalgia for lost unity” (Deleuze, p. 17). On other occasions, though, Martinez does not hesitate to insult the natives as long as his secret is safe. However, all the way through the film, he is torn between his nativity and his French roots. At times, he acts more French than a white French person and exerts his authority on the African foot soldiers and pied noir infantry. His dominance over the natives he derives mainly from the military hierarchy, but before anything else his Frenchness, so to speak, is the very essence of his white identity. On the other hand, he feels as a ‘native’ in relation to the French subjects in the film. His pied noir identity makes him ‘defective’ among the people who are native to France. For this reason, Martinez avoids any move which reveals the fact that he belongs to colonial Algeria either by birth or ethnicity. Thus, failing to act French might run the risk of possible humiliation or loss of authority and power in the army. To put it differently, in his relations with the natives, Martinez acts as if he were afraid of going native and he distances himself from ‘them’. As he deals with the French from the mainland, Martinez opts to remain incognito and he disowns his African or Arabic roots that he desperately tries to hide. In one sense, his nativity is overridden by his need for Frenchness. An indirect example of Martinez’s fear of going native is his reflexive sensitivity to Saïd when he speaks to Martinez in Arabic. Upon Saïd’s address to him in Arabic, Martinez gets annoyed and reprimands him inconspicuously: “why speak Arabic”? Martinez’s answer is ostensibly natural, but upon close examination, his reaction reveals more than it conceals. It is not clear as to whether he could speak Arabic like a native, but Martinez, living more than four decades in Algeria, is likely to understand Arabic. Even if he cannot speak or understand Arabic, being addressed in Arabic runs the risk of exposing his native side to the French in the Army. When Saïd speaks to him, Martinez’s immediate reaction is one of shock. His bodily response to Said is a combination of resentment and resistance to going native. The film offers other direct examples of Martinez’s ambivalence towards his native side, one being when Saïd tells him that they are the same because Saïd is the only person who knows Martinez’s secret. Saïd discovers his secret when he chances upon Martinez’s childhood photo with his Arabic mother from 1903. Upon Martinez’s inviting Saïd to celebrate his promotion to the rank of sergeant major over a cigar and whisky in an amicable atmosphere, Saïd finally discloses the secret, touching upon the taboo subject with Martinez. The following dialogue between the two is crucial to the narrative: Saïd: I know you’re like us too. An Arab.

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Martinez: What did you just say? Saïd: I see the photo of your mother in the shirt. It’s incredible. Put the photo of your mother next to the photo of my mother, they look like two sisters.

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Martinez: You searched my things, bastard! Shit stirrer! Scum! Never talk about that again or I’ll kill you. Get lost! Martinez, predictably enough, comes unhinged and grabs Saïd’s by the neck and threatening to defenestrate him if he ever mentions his secret to anyone. Martinez detests the suggestion of racial equality. Following Operation Dragoon, a related issue surfaces. The moment when Martinez throttles a local French soldier provides an important case study about the humiliation of the colonized in the orientalist colonial discourse and sets a more manifest example of resentment towards the orientalisation of the natives. After Operation Dragoon, French soldiers are given leave to go to their homes, which upsets Martinez because pied noir and African soldiers are not granted leave. As French soldiers in the military truck are about to depart for vacation, Martinez finds this decision hard to accept and intrudes, remarking that “only you French guys get leave?” Martinez’s men have been fighting since Italy and they are now battle worn. One of the soldiers in the truck insults Martinez telling him, “We’re off to Paris. You need to get back to wog land”. Feeling the insult deeply and seeing red, Martinez takes the soldier by the scruff of his neck and swears at him: “The wog fucks you”. In this example, Martinez not only desires the vacation and is resentful of the injustice of not being permitted to take one, he also responds aggressively to the scornful reproach of the French soldier towards his African belonging. In the regiment, if there is something “worse” than being native, it is being a pied noir and the French soldier has touched Martinez’s open wound. However, the pied noir ambivalently cultivates hostile feelings towards the metropolis, because he knows that the colonizer at home deems the pied noir as an inferior. The possible reason for this is that even though many pied noirs remained pro-colonial to varying degrees, they were called “lesser whites” (Foucault, p. 17). Colonial discourse, in this respect, rests heavily on the orientalist ethos that the self is superior over the other because home is a presence uncontaminated by the ‘external’ oriental other. The being the case, being pied noir, in this mode of thinking, connotes going native. Being ‘infected’ by the ‘inferior’ other is the point where the purity of the self is in danger. Martinez denies a part of himself which is still native but he is envious of and angry at the significant Other, France. In fact, what the modern colonial formation tried to do in its early stages was to reject the idea that they had borrowed from other places in an effort to retain the idea of a ‘pure’ presence, which ironically is the essence of colonialism in more ways than one. In one of the scenes, Abdelkader goes to Martinez with a book in his hand. While Martinez shaves, Saïd holds the mirror to him. Abdelkader looks at Martinez and points to the Infantry NCO’s Book in his hand: “Are you going to be a colonel?” he mocks. Abdelkader continues, “Sergeant first, sir.” Then he reads the handbook to Martinez. Martinez continues to listen to Abdelkader. Abdelkader reads: “in theory, no soldier should return home illiterate from the army. Classes are obligatory for all men on their enlistment”. Abdelkader finishes reading, turns around and points to the African soldiers and complains to Martinez: “Yet none of these African troops (Tirailleurs) can read or write”. Actually, Abdelkader’s main aim is to encourage Saïd to learn to read while he is with Martinez. But Abdelkader’s plan does not work. Martinez, sure as ever, with a sarcastic facial expression on his face, asks Said, a question to which he already knows the answer, if he wants to become literate. Before he can even reply, Saïd is 316

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already caught between the two forces assailing him; on the one hand, Abdelkader’s candid attempts to speak and make his point; on the other hand, the power of Martinez’s overwhelming presence. Saïd knows that the most important thing at play is Martinez’s decision on this issue, and he is well aware that Martinez would not be happy with Abdelkader’s military literacy project. Predictably enough, the terrified Saïd, trying to choose the correct words so as not to vex Martinez, replies, “It is too late, Sir. And to read what?” The dialogue presented here is a relevant and necessary case study of Saïd’s ambivalent position, whose body is a battleground between micro power struggles for and against colonialism. Saïd is somewhat wily and is capable of making a tacit alliance with Martinez to protect himself from Martinez and other natives. Martinez rejects the proposal and thereby eclipses, with the latter simply walking away, while Martinez orders Saïd to give him a clean shirt. On another revealing occasion, Martinez comes to blows with Abdelkader. Like Abdelkader, Martinez finds the pecking order in the French army unjust because, as he personally tells the captain, “the French get promotion before anyone from North Africa”. One should remember that, right before this row, Martinez has just been promoted to the rank of staff sergeant. What is more, another pied noir, Corporal Leroux, whom Abdelkader is well acquainted with, has also been promoted to the rank of sergeant. Witnessing these recent promotions outrages and frustrates Abdelkader. However, when a critique of the injustice in the army is raised by Abdelkader, Martinez snaps at Abdelkader with orientalist and racist remarks. Abdelkader, in that particular shot of the movie, addresses colonial soldiers with a provocative speech about the failed ideals of the tricolour. In this scenario, drained and exhausted native soldiers want to go on leave, but French officers force the war-weary soldiers to go to a ballet performance instead. Entrancingly, even the newly promoted French North African Leroux and Martinez sit in the front row with the ‘white’ French officers watching the ballet, while the confused and baffled native soldiers sit there with no understanding at all or the performance unfolding on the stage. Abdelkader sits with ‘the non-whites’ at the back. The ballet scene explains the hypocrisy of the hierarchized orientalist binary, as is often seen in similar colonial texts. This is because, despite being described as uncultured in orientalist literature, natives who have cultivated different tastes and inhabited a different habitus are now obliged to watch the kind of performance that requires a-priori knowledge. However, such a thing is unconceivable in normal times. The fait accompli ballet performance makes an already sensitive situation, teetering on the edge, much worse, and Abdelkader starts addressing a ‘seditious’ speech to the North and West African soldiers: “I thought the war would give us the rights of our French brothers. We are all fighting against Hitler, for liberty, equality and fraternity. We are changing the destiny of France. Things must change for us too”. Upon Abdelkader’s stirring address to the other natives, Martinez intervenes to thwart a possible uprising, lambasting Abdelkader for “stirring up shit all time”. Abdelkader shouts back at Martinez: “The French reward themselves, then you French North Africans, and the Africans are forgotten”. Martinez tells him that the quota system precluded Africans from promotion and adds, “You cannot understand. Shut up and step down”. Abdelkader, now seeing red, further confronts Martinez: “Why can’t I understand? A wog has a less brain than you?” Martinez then has recourse to the racist and orientalist clichés from the colonial stock: “Wogs are not cut out to lead men!” This is a critical moment right before the fight because it lays bare Martinez’s ambivalence-ridden orientalism. Martinez is as unhappy as Abdelkader about the injustice but the encounter with Abdelkader brings out the orientalist racism in Martinez because he looks down on Abdelkader as a wog and it is unacceptable for Martinez that the two are equals in the military pecking order when it comes to merit. Martinez actually subscribes to the view that French and pied noir qualities are essential for promotion.

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SOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS This article has focused on the North African soldiers in the movie. Only certain parameters of orientalism woven around the lives of the soldiers has been carefully examined. While considering the vaguely discursive nature and intersectional points in colonialism, other factors pertaining to human relations should also be taken into account. One who engages with such a formidable task must remember that there is always “more, less, or something other” to the colonial analysis than meets the eye (Derrida, 1997, pp. 157-8). Before anything else—if this is possible—the researcher must honestly acknowledge the limits and fault lines of the project embarked upon, which open up possibilities and avenues for an interpretative criticism. The Foucauldian genealogy and archaeology can allow eye-opening experiences in this context. In other words, understanding that subjects and positions aren’t absolutely identical to themselves in colonial narratives is an ethical approach that recognizes the fluid nature of power relations, with such an awareness shielding the research from the illusions and dangers of idealism or homogeneity.

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FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS Derek Walcott’s (1978) metaphor of the sea as “history”, in his poem The Sea is History, is a striking image for an understanding of the complexities of colonialism, which involves countless interpretations laying equal claims for validity, as far as the direction of the thought is concerned but without any one clear end in view. When he uses the metaphor of “the sea” as history, he suggests that the colonial discourse is structured as a language with its constitutive omissions and gaps and absences and losses that cannot be reduced to any one simple formula or theoretical position. In this sense, two propositions could be decisive for subsequent research. One is archival practice, provided that the archive, like a memory, is not a thing in the past but a living entity working through a dialogue with the present postcolonial moment. Of course the past has a double meaning here; one sense is that the past is always already a part of the present. Another is that the past isn’t yet past because the future is yet to enter the door of the present in order to then become the past. In this respect, postcolonial intricacies and the fundamental need to respond responsibly and hospitably towards the otherness of the other are matters far too grave to be left to the Procrustean reductionism of international relations (IR) specialists and realists. If doing “justice to the complexity of the ideas and ideologies” (Mazower, 2009, p. 9) is binding, then how can IR3 realists engage with the following question about the relation between the ethnocentric ways of knowing the other and colonialism which is existential in the fact that it reduces the being of a human being to a category of subservience. In other words, how is it that “Western philosophy coincides with the disclosure of the other where the other, in manifesting itself as a being, loses its alterity” (Emmanuel Levinas cited in Young, White Mythologies, p. 44). The second, of course, is about extending the scope of the textuality that connects the self with the other in more egalitarian terms into a more communicable process. If the fact of the matter is about making an authentic postcolonial cinema, more needs to be done and definitely the locals,—be it colonizer or colonized—artists and directors must not be singled out in the search of an inclusive authenticity because “The main actors, all of North African descent, did not know of France’s discrimination towards foreign soldiers serving in the French army during World War 2 until filming began” (imdb, 2020).

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CONCLUSION This paper had two objectives which to varying degrees overlap. The first was to show how the logocentrism of orientalist interpretation of colonial moments appears in diverse forms— especially as a mechanism which undermines the subalterns rendering them voiceless—in the colonial discourse especially through the orientalizing aspects in cinema. The second one was the success of Indigènes in inviting us to realize the inevitable ambivalences of orientalism in the colonial worlding of orientalism in the medium of film and generally avoid being trapped into seeing things in binary terms. However, to conclude without specifying a point which depends on these two purposes would do an injustice to the arguments surrounding the film. Discussing and reminding postcolonial Europe, by speaking in the terms that Benjamin talks about, is to understand and accept the fact that those who live in the present “owe their existence [to] the efforts of [...] the anonymous toil of their contemporaries” (Benjamin, 2007, p. 256); and that this understanding is no less important than the natives’ ongoing struggle for recognition. Even though the exact number of the native North African soldiers in the French armed forces is not known, in the campaigns from late 1942 to 1945, the figure of 330,000 is generally accepted, of whom about 250,000 were from North Africa (Adler, p. 465). However, though the colonial soldiers were used as a battering ram against Nazism, the contribution of the North Africans in confronting fascism didn’t get the attention and commemoration it deserved in popular media. Similarly, the degree of the presence of these colonial soldiers in official memory and the official narrative of the war is far from being uniform. When it comes to restoration of the dignity and reputation of the declined, othered and invisible victims who were “dishonorably discharged from the army of order and progress” (Bauman, 1992, p. xiv), Robert Young’s words are fitting. Because, after all, what is postcolonial work if it isn’t intervention, as Robert Young says? (2003, p. 7). If Caesar’s right will be given to Caesar by means of “forc[ing] [...] alternative knowledges into the power structures”, the fertile ground for this intellectual-practical task is postcolonial cinema (2003, p. 7). Prominent Senegalese director Ousmane Sembène has addressed the vehemence of injustices that colonial influence have plagued on the elapsed African heroes of the WWII, resenting that “Africans have never been in a position to say that they were betrayed, as France made it clear very early on that it would not loosen its tight clutch on the colonies” (Gadjigo, 2010, p. 69). For the recognition to be justly restored, from a Foucauldian point of view, the “subjugated knowledges” must be emancipated from the “the inhibiting effect of global, totalitarian theories” disguised as chill objectivity (1994, p. 41). Previous inscriptions and manuscripts might have been erased and re-written. However, hidden and repressed layers within the postcolonial palimpsest are not non-existent texts and could be recovered for perception, and more, for the restoration of honour. Above all things, as someone has well said, manuscripts don’t burn (Bulgakov, 1995, p. 245). And indeed, from this perspective, postcolonial cinema is a very valuable and communicative take on in the untold humiliation and racial stereotypes heaped on victims of colonialism because among other things it “offers a new way of reading and films” and “unlocks silent doors and repressed histories” (Ponzanesi, 2014: p. 113). And needless to say that the Sovereign Self must come off its secure and privileged position of the self and unknow the self-justifying logic in face of the other. Because privileged position is an obstacle in the way to give the others’ their due, while it is valuable to remember that “unlearning one’s privileges by considering it as one’s loss contributes a double recognition” (Landry & Maclean, 1996, p.4). Without the North African martial presence in the Allied Forces, not only the fate of France but the future of Europe in the face of Nazism could have been otherwise.

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REFERENCES Adler, K. H. (2013). Indigènes after Indigènes: post-war France and its North African troops. European Review of History: Revue européenne d’histoire, 20(3), 463-478. Agger, B. (1989). Socio(onto)logy: A Disciplinary Reading. University of Chicago Press. Bauman, Z. (1992). Intimations of Postmodernity. Routledge. Benjamin, W. (2007). Illuminations (H. Zohn, Trans.). Schocken Books. Berger, P. L. (1963). Invitation to Sociology: A Humanistic Perspective. Anchor Books. Bouchareb, R. (2006). Days of Glory. Jean Bréhat & Jacques-Henri Bronckart. Breckenridge, C. A., & van der Veer, P. (1993). Orientalism and the Postcolonial Predicament. In C. A. Breckenridge & P. van der Veer (Eds.), Orientalism and the Postcolonial Predicament: Perspectives on South Asia (pp. 1–19). University of Pennsylvania Press. Bulgakov, M. (1996). The Master and Margarita (D. Burgin & T. O’Connor, Trans.). Vintage. Camara, B. (2005). The Falsity of Hegel’s Thesis on Africa. Journal of Black Studies, 36(1), 82-96. doi:10.1177/0021934704268296 Cheref, A. (2017). Films Effecting/Affecting Politics: La Bataille d’Alger (1966) and Indigènes (2006). Quarterly Review of Film and Video, 34(5), 395–409. doi:10.1080/10509208.2016.1144040 Cooper, N. (2007). Days of Glory? Veterans, reparation and national Bernadette Chirac to memory. Journal of War & Culture Studies, 1(1), 91–106. doi:10.1386/jwcs.1.1.91_1 Days of Glory (2006). (n.d.). IMDB. https://m.imdb.com/title/tt0444182/trivia Deleuze, G. (2006). Nietzsche and Philosophy (H. Tomlinson, Trans.). Columbia University Press. Derrida, J. (1982). Margins of Philosophy (A. Bass, Trans.). The Harvester Press. Derrida, J. (1989). Interpreting Signatures (Nietzsche/Heidegger): Two Questions. In D. P. Michelfelder & R. E. Palmer (Eds.), Dialogue and Deconstruction: The Gadamer-Derrida Encounter (MichelfelderD. P.PalmerR. E., Trans.; pp. 58–71). State University of New York Press. Derrida, J. (1997). Of Grammatology (G. C. Spivak, Trans.). John Hopkins University Press.

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Fanon, F. (2004). The Wretched of the Earth (R. Philcox, Trans.). Grove Press. Foucault, M. (1980). Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings, 1972-1977 (C. Gordon, Trans.). Pantheon Books. Foucault, M. (1994). Genealogy and Social Criticism. In S. Seidman (Ed.), The Postmodern Turn (pp. 39–45). doi:10.1017/CBO9780511570940.004 Gadjigo, S. (2010). Ousmane Sembène: The Making of a Militant Artist (M. Diop, Trans.). Indiana University Press.

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Hargreaves, A. G. (2007). Indigènes: A Sign of the Times. Research in African Literatures, 38(4), 204–216. doi:10.2979/RAL.2007.38.4.204 Hegel, G. W. F. (2001). The Philosophy of History (M. A. J. Sibree, Trans.). Batoche Books. İlter, T. (2002). Turkey: Modern or Postmodern? The Genealogy and Ecology of Kemalist Modernization and Democracy to Come. Kültür ve İletişim, 5(2), 97–133. İlter, T. (2011). The Otherness of Cyberspace, Virtual Reality and Hypertext vis-avis ‘the Traditional’. Open House International, 32(1), 86–91. Landry, D., & Maclean, G. (1996). The Spivak Reader. Sage (Atlanta, Ga.). Mazower, M. (2009). No Enchanted Palace: The End of Empire and the Ideological Origins of the United Nations. Princeton University Press. doi:10.1515/9781400831661 Mbembe, A. (2017). Critique of Black Reason (L. Dubois, Trans.). Duke University Press. doi:10.1215/9780822373230 Merriam-Webster. (2020). Wog. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. https://www.merriam-webster. com/dictionary/wog Norindr, P. (2009). Incorporating Indigenous Soldiers in the Space of the French Nation: Rachid Bouchareb’s Indigènes. Yale French Studies, (115), 126–140. Ponzanesi, S., & Waller, M. (2012). Introduction to Part I. In S. Ponzanesi & M. Waller (Eds.), Postcolonial Cinema Studies (pp. 1–16). Routledge. Rancière, J. (2004). The Politics of Aesthetics: The Distribution of the Sensible (G. Rockhill, Trans.). Continuum. Ricoeur, P. (2006). Memory, History, Forgetting (K. Blamey & D. Pellauer, Trans.). The University of Chicago Press. Said, E. W. (2003). Orientalism. Penguin. Spivak, G. C. (1977). Translator’s Preface. In J. Derrida, Of Grammatology (pp. ix-lxxxvii). Johns Hopkins University Press.

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Spivak, G. C. (1985). Three Women’s Texts and a Critique of Imperialism. Critical Inquiry, 12(1), 243–261. doi:10.1086/448328 Spivak, G. C. (1988). Can the Subaltern Speak? In C. Nelson & L. Grossberg (Eds.), Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture (pp. 271-313). University of Illinois Press. doi:10.1007/978-1-349-19059-1_20 Turner, B. S. (1983). Religion and Social Theory. Heinemann Educational Books. Walcott, D. (1978). The sea is history. The Paris Review, 74. https://www.theparisreview.org/poetry/7020/ the-sea-is-history-derek-walcott Wieviorka, O. (2008). Normandy: The Landings of the Liberation of Paris (M. B. DeBevoise, Trans.). The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.

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ADDITIONAL READING Ahluwalia, P. (2000). Politics and Post-colonial Theory: African Inflections. Routledge. Bhabha, H. K. (2005). The Location of Culture. Routledge. Gershovich, M. (2016). Colonial Soldiers in Europe, 1914–1945: “Aliens in Uniform” in Wartime Societies. In E. Storm & A. Al Tuma (Eds.), Memory and Representation of War and Violence: Moroccan Combatants in French Uniforms during the Second World War (pp. 77–94). Routledge. Hargreaves, A. (2005). A neglected precursor: Roland Barthes and the origins of postcolonialism. In H. A. Murdoch. and A. G. Donadey (Eds.), Postcolonial Theory and Francophone Literary Studies (pp. 55-64). Florida University Press. Huggan, G. (Ed.). (2013). The Oxford Handbook of Postcolonial Studies. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199588251.001.0001 Huggan, G., & Law, I. (Eds.). (2009). Racism Postcolonialism Europe (Postcolonialism Across the Disciplines): 6 (2nd ed.). Liverpool University Press. doi:10.5949/UPO9781846315626 İlter, T. (1992). The White Mythology of Discovery. In L. Bary & ... (Eds.), Rediscovering America 1492-1992: National, Cultural, and Disciplinary Boundaries Re-examined (pp. 132–144). Louisiana State University. Kona, P. (2011). The Victim that Speaks is not a Victim. In Babilónia Número Especial. 10(11), 219 - 234. Minh-ha, T. T. (1989). The Language of Nativism: Anthropology as a Scientific Conversation of Man with Man. In L. Barry (Ed.), Woman, Native, other: Writing, Postcoloniality and Feminism (pp. 46-76). Indiana University Press. Mitchell, T. (1988). Colonising Egypt. Cambridge University Press.

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Moore-Gilbert, B., Stanton, G., & Maley, W. (2013). Postcolonial Criticism. Routledge. Spivak, G. C. (1988). Can the Subaltern Speak? In C. Nelson & L. Grossberg (Eds.), Marxismand the Interpretation of Culture (pp. 271-313). University of Illinois Press. doi:10.1007/978-1-349-19059-1_20 Young, R. (1995). Colonial Desire: Hybridity in Theory, Culture and Race. Routledge.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Contamination: The state of having been influenced by local or native ways of life. Essentialism: A belief in the unchanging property of a thing or the essence. Logocentrism: The illusion of a direct or immediate communication with the meaning outside the parameters of spatio-temporality. Monist: Here, a belief in one language, one interpretation and a single truth. Subaltern: Community or class who are silenced and rendered invisible by the practices of the hegemonic mode of history writing. White Mythology: The exculpatory history of the colonial west. A dominant narrative which puts the west before and above the non-west. White Washing: Hiding the violence in colonial history writing. Worlding: A pattern in white history writing that de-historicizes non-Europeans in order to assimilate their difference into white universal history.

ENDNOTES

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For a contextually different but related analysis of the colonial unknowing, see Vimalassery, M., Hu Pegues J., Goldstein, A. (2016). On Colonial Unknowing. Theory & Event, 19(4), 1-12. Colonial conquest provides an example of the similar violent de/writing. Unconquered territories were described as a ‘Terra Incognita’ on the map which means ‘Unknown Territory’ or produced ‘extratextuality’ in the colonial cartography. Beyond the border of the known world, the ‘unknown’, therefore ‘unintelligible’ world would begin in the colonial and explorer imaginary. And at this point the cartographers would insert sea monsters and dragon figures – which means “there are dragons here” to connote ‘extraterritoriality’ and perils ‘unknown’ to the western episteme.. Mazower reflects on the relative incompetence and refusal of the intertextual approach by scholars of international relations engaging with protean texts: “Perhaps, at the most fundamental methodological level, this has stemmed from their anxiety to demonstrate that theirs is a self-contained discipline, capable of generating general theories about world politics. Science envy—for that was what it has amounted to—has led them to idealize the abstractions of game theory and rational choice, and depreciate the role of ideology. This is not the place to explore the impoverished intellectual consequences. What does need to be borne in mind is the way such approaches eliminated the possibility of taking contests of ideas and philosophies seriously in world affairs” (Mazower, 2009: p. 9).

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Chapter 20

Fantasies of Returning to Nature as an Escape From Culture: The Case of The Beach (2000) Elif Güntürkün Anadolu University, Turkey İlknur Gürses Köse https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2638-3997 Ege University, Turkey

ABSTRACT

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Modernism and its institutions have begun to be questioned by postmodern thinkers in almost every feld. Nature was afrmed as an ideal on the path to liberation from culture. According to Camille Paglia, culture, which was seen as a way to the main obstacle to freedom, and the hierarchical position of the contrasts such as East-West, nature-culture, etc., has become the focus of discussions in the world of art and thought as fctions that need to be questioned and overcome on the way to liberation. While the view of nature as a liberating potential fnds its place in consumer culture and popular culture as an extension of the opposing perspective originating from the counterculture, the return to nature has been fetishized by authenticating Eastern cultures with an Orientalist perspective. The beach, which is one of the representations of this common interests in the East in the art of cinema, will be examined in the light of the concepts of counter culture, postmodern subject, consumer culture, in the axis of natureculture and East-West dichotomies.

INTRODUCTION There are various definitions of culture in various disciplines, but the use of culture in critical theory points to civilization. “Culture or civilization is a complex whole that includes the knowledge, art, tradition, DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch020

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 Fantasies of Returning to Nature as an Escape From Culture

customs and similar skills, skills and habits that human beings learn (gain) as a member of a society” (akt. Güvenç, 2018, s. 129). In this context, Culture refers to all material or spiritual / intellectual structures built by humanity. Especially with Modernism, the process in which the West takes rational knowledge as a guide and leaves subjective experiences aside has been experienced as a process that infiltrates all areas of Western culture and determines the basic paradigms in life with very clear boundaries. With this process in which fixed categories are formed and objective approach is dominant, many approaches and categories have become established in the world of thought, art and social order, in other words, institutionalized. Therefore, Enlightenment thought, which seriously affected the Western world in all respects, formed the central field of inquiry due to the fundamental breaks it brought in discussions about the criticism of given categories, social life, philosophy, art, and science. Especially when considered as a process in which many dichotomies were institutionalized, many factors such as the Enlightenment taking its philosophical foundations from Ancient Greece bring up the Enlightenment philosophy and its intellectual reference sources when it comes to Culture today (Jameson, Lyotard, & Habermas, 1994, s. 38). The main factors that brought Enlightenment philosophy and Modernism to the center of criticism were the linear and one-sided progress understanding, the fact that even the high-educated masses came under the control of despotic governments and the tendency to racist policies increased (Adorno & Horkheimer, 2014, s. 13). The optimism created by the project of modernity began to disappear due to the destructions of wars in the 20th century, the tendency of the peoples to fascist governments, and the use of science against humanity. In addition, Modernism’s construction of certain contradictions and fixed categories functioned as a control mechanism excluding “differences” in the social order. As a result of a process in which segments such as homosexuality, alternative ideologies, and minorities were marginalized through their differences, the Modernism project failed to realize the potential it promised, and all meta-narratives began to be questioned in a stronger and radical manner since the 1960’s. A process called postmodernism, in which pluralism and polyphony came to the fore, started when all these dynamics triggered a process where their freedoms were restricted, their differences were shaken up, and they reject fixed definitions. While postmodern thought’s rejection of all fixed and centralized approaches raised some emancipatory promises, the authenticity and transparency of these ideals of freedom were questioned by writers like David Harvey. Harvey expresses this ambivalent situation as follows; (Postmodernism) “His opposition to all forms of meta-narratives (including Marxism, Freudianism, and all forms of Enlightenment thought), his close attention to ‘other voices’ and ‘other worlds’ (women, gays, blacks, colonized peoples with their own histories) that have always been silenced therefore does it have a revolutionary potential? Or is it a commercialized and domesticated version of modernism (...) ” (Harvey, 2014, s. 57). In “The Rebel Sell”, Joseph Heath and Andrew Potter evaluated the Counterculture movement that embraced the rebellious attitude of the 1960s and the reflections of this movement’s opposing attitude to the present in the context of ‘bargaining’ in which postmodernity and postmodernity entered into various dimensions (Heath & Potter, 2012).

COUNTER CULTURE, POSTMODERN SUBJECT AND CONSUMPTION Considering the Counterculture movement together with a peaceful and egalitarian image on the path opened by the hippies, as an oppositional attitude, has increasingly caused socialism to be seen as a ‘harmless’ alternative to the dominant ideology (Heath & Potter, 2012, s. 26). Before addressing the 325

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 Fantasies of Returning to Nature as an Escape From Culture

arguments of the Countercultural theory, it will be useful to briefly mention the past of this movement. The Counterculture movement, which was first founded by a group of writers (Allen Ginsberg, Jack Kerouac, William Burroughs, and Gregory Corso) called the Beat Generation in the West, became known in the intellectual community in San Francisco, as a sign of despair brought about by the postwar destruction in the 1950s. However, it was in the 1960s that the Beat Generation found itself and became a ‘movement’ with certain arguments and was recognized all over the world (Rexroth, 2016, s. 4-7). The importance of the Counterculture movement for us within the scope of this article is their interest in the East and Nature as part of their opposing attitude. The first example of this interest was the Beat Generation’s interest in Zen Buddhism. The effect of post-war destruction and despair mixed with nihilism and melancholy, the point where the members of this generation, consisting of academics and writers, intersected with Indian and Chinese poetry, religious writing and meditations (Rexroth, 2016, s. 9-11), which have an important place in Eastern philosophies, also affected the basic tendencies that the Counterculture movement embraced. On the other hand, the beginning of this movement’s interest in the East was the intellectual bohemian environment that these writers and they inspired in San Francisco. In the passionate atmosphere of the 1960s, the Counter Culture youth was the embodiment of an attitude that wanted not only the liberation of marginalized sections, but also to get rid of everything that could be qualified as the pressure of Culture. However, this movement was a disobedience symbolized in many aspects of life such as suburban life of the 1950s, safe but ordinary jobs that required a certain amount of time, common and acceptable dress codes, repressed sexuality and social conformism (Ryan & Kellner, 2010, s. 45). The reflections of this attitude in the cinema have also manifested itself in films that diverge from the mainstream Hollywood narrative in the eyes of the opposition and anti-culture. In the first examples of the Counterculture movement such as Easy Rider (1969), Graduate (1967), Bonnie and Clyde (1967), it is possible to see the objections and quests of the rebellious Counterculture youth of the 60s towards the system. On the other hand, another point that makes these films important in terms of cinema history is that while reversing the traditional narration and representation codes of Hollywood, new styles in the use of cameras at an aesthetic level are tried and the fiction is used in a way that interrupts the narrative continuity, and it adopts a new language in which it moves away from the traditional with other aesthetic uses (Ryan & Kellner, 2010, s. 43-44). Thus, they aimed to make the audience ‘active’ by moving them away from the identification strategies compatible with the dominant values of the mainstream and to make them question, which constitutes the most directly observable features of the political attitude of the Counter Culture movement in cinema (Ryan & Kellner, 2010, s. 43-44). In addition to narratives such as Graduate that are at the center of young people who object and seek the life ascribed to them, who oppose the adult world and the system, as in Easy Rider, which is a road movie, some of the main indicators of the Counter Culture movement in the cinema have been themes such as drug use, travel to the East, and escape to nature. While the American Dream is reversed in such films where the Counterculture attitude is dominant, the frequent use of Nature and East travel as an escape is closely related to the meaning of the Counterculture movement to the East and the crisis it feels in. Beyond revolting against conservative policies affecting only a certain process, the Counterculture theory targeted all the patterns and ways of thinking that the Culture built. This included many objections such as the practices of relations determined by the patriarchal system, the deadlocks of capitalism, income injustice, sexual liberation. On the other hand, the core of the Countercultural opposition was the infiltration of rationalism into every sphere of life and its domination of uniformity (Kabaş, 2012, s. 135-136). For the Counter Culture youth, prioritizing the enjoyment of life was part of their opposition to Culture. Among the subcultural 326

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youth, who advocate an alternative life style with their political attitudes, tendencies such as drug use, irregular sex life and life in a communal state have been idealized as a revolt against traditional institutions such as marriage and family (Kabaş, 2012, s. 135-136). The Counter Culture, which adopts Freud’s perspective that points to Culture as the factor that suppresses the Id, sees Culture as the most obvious obstacle to the happiness of the individual, suppressing and controlling the individual (Heath & Potter, 2012, s. 47). In the dichotomy of Nature-Culture, which is one of the dichotomies institutionalized by modernism, Nature, which is constructed as the opposite of Culture, has started to be seen as a liberating ideal for Counter-Culturalists. However, the fact that “sexuality is not a monster to be suppressed, it is a living space with rich possibilities, capitalism is not a land of freedom, but a form of enslavement” (Ryan & Kellner, 2010, s. 45) clearly demonstrated the fantasies of this movement towards Nature. It is understandable in this respect that in a political and social setting they cannot interfere, affirmation of alternatives such as drugs or travel to the East to reject culture. As an oppositional attitude, the ideals of the Counterculture’s escape to Nature will be examined by focusing on Camille Paglia’s perspective, the dichotomy of Nature-Culture and the East Travel theme in orientalist thought.

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THE NATURE-CULTURE DICHOTOMY Starting from the 18th century, the Enlightenment project’s strategies for designing and analyzing the universe based on certain antagonisms included an ideologically guided ideal, with clear boundaries, leaving no room for mystery or mistake. Decartes’ Cartesian dualism in particular included a proposal that analyzed the world through dualities and could be considered the basis of the Enlightenment project. Cartesian dualism, which can be summarized as the design of a process in which no data belonging to the domain of belief or personal experience are considered valid and the objective is accepted as the only valid data, has created a sharp distinction between the subjective field and the objective field. “When this distinction is added to the anthropocentric ontological conception of the individual, which gives enlightenment the power to transform nature unlimitedly, science has created its own sacred space” (Demir, 1992, s. 102). In fact, the intellectual foundations of these oppositions were based on the oppositions created by Pythagoras in Ancient Greece. In the contrasts of Pythagoras, the concepts on the left in terms such as Male-Female, Straight-Curved, Light-Darkness, in such a way that the concepts on the left are superior to the concepts on the right and imply gender-specific features show a hierarchical relationship between these concepts (Lloyd, 2015, s. 24). While it has masculine connotations that are known in Ancient Greece, which are predictable, the female is positioned side by side with associations such as uncanny, unpredictable, under the male and in the same cluster with Nature. Pythagoras’s schema of contrasts became a reference for the West that built Modernity in the following centuries, and built a universe of contrasts in the West close to Pythagoras’s table. The priority given to rational knowledge in the Enlightenment philosophy has constructed the Culture as superior to the Human who acquires and uses this knowledge against Nature as an element that should be ‘regulated’ for human welfare through experiment and observation (Lloyd, 2015, s. 36). This approach, whose foundations were laid with the Enlightenment philosophy, became institutionalized with Modernism and dominated the entire Western world. The dualist thought prevailing in all areas of the Western world brought with it many preconceptions that were not questionable. These oppositions, which became established in the West with the Enlighten327

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 Fantasies of Returning to Nature as an Escape From Culture

ment and Modernism, imposed the assumption of a universe based on given facts and which ideologically made the sublimity of certain values valid and impossible to change. In this direction, dichotomies have built an order that privileges the position of white, heterosexual, Western men and accepts women, queer people and Orientals as the other, in line with the ideology of Modernism. Nature-Culture dichotomy, which is one of the poles of Modernism, has an important place in terms of explaining the basic codes of Modernism very clearly. Just as in the scheme of contrasts that Pythagoras created in the 6th century BC, mind and anthropocentric thinking form the basis of Enlightenment philosophy. Bacon, one of the leading thinkers who drew attention to the power relations between the Nature-Culture dichotomy, saw rational knowledge as a necessary tool to establish control over Nature (Lloyd, 2015, s. 36). In this direction, Modernism, in other words, Culture has built itself on the control of Nature. Modernism has internalized the assumption that humanity will always progress and prosper to the extent that Nature is organized with knowledge. In this direction, women, with their unpredictability, physical and emotional weakness, are also positioned in the same cluster with Nature. Because there is no place for irrationality in the project of modernism, and the Woman, like Nature, was seen as irrational against reason. Culture has realized the domination it has established on Nature for all segments of social life that it is located in the same cluster with Nature. Ecofeminists, based on the foundations of patriarchal capitalism that constitute the character of Modernism, argue that Women and Nature must fight on the same side against the same dynamics in the struggle for liberation. Because the groups exploited by the patriarchal capitalist system; As well as animals, women, queer people, they are the Eastern peoples that the West regards itself as hierarchically superior, and these groups pose a danger to the bounded system of Culture (Plumwood, 2017, s. 13). Therefore, just like Nature, these groups have always been marked as a danger that must be kept under control through disciplines such as medicine and law, and have been colonized in line with the requirements of the capitalist system. Efforts of Culture to dominate Nature are, according to Camille Paglia, a reminder of our ancient, prehistoric fears (Paglia, 2004, s. 110). In her book entitled Sexual Personae (1990), Paglia explains how the interaction between Nature and Culture in ancient times was determinant in shaping the Western world today. Based on Fredrich Nietzsche’s The Birth of Tragedy (1872), two gods, Apollo and Dionysus, which he considers as two fundamental oppositions in art and life, Paglia states that the intellectual roots symbolized by these gods can be observed clearly today. While Apollo was identified with the sense of seeing and knowing, aesthetics and beauty, borders, Dionysos, the god of wine, was associated with nature and feminine (Bayladı, 2017, s. 118). Apollo is about order with the rational, the known, while Dionysos is about the irrational, the unpredictable. According to Paglia, Nature was at the beginning of everything and man built Culture to protect himself from Nature’s dangers and unknowns (Paglia, 2004, s. 13-302). Because culture has created a safe space for humans by eliminating the mysteries of nature with knowledge, setting rules, building borders and structures. According to Paglia, Culture is Apollonic in this sense and the foundations that created the West are inherently Apollo, who wants to know and define Nature by seeing, knowing. Thus, Culture or the West tried to protect itself from the dark and terrible side of Nature, which Paglia refers to as “chthonian” (Paglia, 2004, s. 155). According to Paglia, just as knowledge is a tool used by Culture to protect from the uncanny of nature, the West’s strategy against Nature has been science and aesthetics. Paglia’s approach to Nature and Culture can also be read as a criticism of the thoughts that affirm and idealize Nature. Paglia is distant to the romanticization of Nature in Sexual Identities, but this does not mean that Culture is should not questioned. 328

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After the rough years in which humanity created Culture throughout history, Modernism and its institutional structures started to be seen as a restrictive chain, and culture was given a negative meaning by those who wanted freedom. As mentioned before, Counter-Culturalists have affirmed Nature in order to get rid of Culture, which they see as the enemy of all marginalization and pleasure from life. However, this romantic perception of nature is far from reality when viewed from Camille Paglia’s perspective. Considering this romantic perception towards Nature, in other words, the dynamics that make up the fantasy in the Counter Culture movement, it is possible to say that consumption culture and capitalism have a serious role. What represents the spirit of the counterculture is that in practice they are against the ‘mainstream’ and try to isolate themselves from everything mainstream (Desmond, McDonagh, & O’Donohoe, 2011, s. 245). And the belief that this can only be achieved through the acquisition of selfawareness, the individual separates themself from mass culture (Desmond, McDonagh, & O’Donohoe, 2011, s. 246). A common interest has developed for certain brands and consumer goods among the sub-cultures that can be characterized as groups that express the counterculture in different ways. The orientation of these groups to such common goods served as an indicator of a certain belonging, partnership and most importantly their ‘identity’ (Canniford, 2011, s. 593). Therefore, just as the authors of “The Rebel Sell” (Heath & Potter, 2012) criticize, the Counterculture movement, known as the anti-system identity, could not escape from becoming a part of the mass culture that they criticized at some point by showing interest in certain consumer goods or consumption ideals as an indication of their authenticity. In this sense, along with the interest in primitivism, the theme of East Travel can be read as one of the playful moves that capitalism has marketed to imply “anti-systemism”. For bohemians who value experience, exploration and self-expression, reject compatibility with mass culture, identify as hedonistic, individualistic (Heath & Potter, 2012, s. 204), and have a Countercultural spirit, the most valuable thing in this life is personal experience and discovery. This approach has also influenced today’s interest in travels from the West to the East to discover authentic cultures (Heath & Potter, 2012, s. 259). This touristic interest of the West towards the East is fed from the same source as the Counterculture movement’s interest in Nature: Escape from culture, experience and exploration. Just like Nature, Eastern lands and cultures promise a “world of discovery” that is far from the gloom and monotony of metropolitan life and impossible to experience in modern life. Despite all its technological superiority and comfortable life, Western people have romanticized the natives or the ‘primitive’ in terms of their relationship with nature, with ‘primitive’ cultures, natives, trips to exotic forests, safaris etc (Stasch, 2014, s. 195). Which has become a trend in the west and touristic travels marketed as “‘tribal tourism’, ‘indigenous cultural tourism’, ‘indigenous tourism’, ‘Aboriginal cultural tourism’, ‘Aboriginal tourism’, ‘indigenous ecotourism’, ‘native tourism’, ‘First Nations tourism’, or tourism to ‘minority nationalities (,..)“ can also be evaluated under titles such as “ethnic tourism”, “ethno-tourism”, or “adventure tourism” (Akt. Stasch, 2014, s. 196). This view towards the East constitutes one of the ‘other’ constructs of the West within the Orientalist approach. America’s perception of the primitive and savage nature of the Indians, the mixture of human and animal, ambiguous image, includes a colonial strategy (Davidov, 2012, s. 2). From a colonial perspective, “exoticization” towards non-Western peoples was first applied to the Native Americans in the history of colonialism, and its exotic expression is a definition built by Culture with implications of immaturity, savagery and primitiveness (Davidov, 2012, s. 2).

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METHOD AND ANALYSIS Using targeted sampling, we decide to choose The beach movie for the analysis. We focused on the theory and used Qualitative Film Analysis in order to arrange some terms within the context of Nature and Culture Dichotomy for the analysis.

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EXOTIC EAST AND ORIENTALISM The perception of “Exotic East” has been created with the West’s perspective towards the East and includes certain labels. This perception, loaded with implications such as primitiveness and savagery, started with colonialism. Westerners such as Colomb and Vespucci, who first discovered ‘foreign’ lands, either emphasized their physical strength or glorified them with their sensitivity, nudity and freedom without any rule that dominated the social life of Culture, and were the first to marginalize them by labeling them primitive. The ‘East’ has become a fantasy object full of prejudices for westerners, considered together with supernatural events and creatures (Said, 1998, s. 11). This includes judgments serving the West’s ideological / colonial view of the East. In this context, according to Edward Said, the East-West distinction is not a geographical definition but rather the ideological construct of the West towards non-Western societies (Said, 1998, s. 85). The West, which already has a certain knowledge and power over the East, has used this knowledge and power to scrutinize and redefine the Easterners since the 19th century. In other words, it is an East created by the West as well as the East itself (Said, 1998, s. 64-66). Orientalism is not only a field of academic research, but also has a serious impact on Western popular culture, popular ideas and even foreign policy (Rosenblatt, 2009, s. 52). According to Said, the East-West dichotomy is a strategy for the West that not only defines the East but also gives itself an identity (Akt. Rosenblatt, 2009, s. 52). According to Said, Westerners’ interest in the East has also been reflected in the mystical subjects of the East in Western literatures. Framing its superiority and knowledge regarding the East, emphasizing the primitiveness and immaturity of the East, the West has created the distinction between “us” and “them”. According to this fiction, the Orientals who are described as ‘them’; are other, strangers, barbarians (Said, 1998, s. 84-85). According to Said, orientalism is divided into two as explicit and implicit. While open orientalism covers various fields of research and topics related to the East, implicit orientalism “reflects the unconscious space where dreams, images, desires, fantasy and fears take place” (Keyman, Mutman, & Yeğenoğlu, 1996, s. 111). Although Said is not detailed enough, the Western Subject’s attitude towards the Eastern Other is sexist in the implicit description of orientalism, which refers to unconscious desires and fantasies (Keyman, Mutman, & Yeğenoğlu, 1996, s. 111-112). This sexist attitude can be observed in representations in many films such as Sheltering Sky (1990), where Eastern women are eroticized. However, within the scope of this study, the importance of the orientalist view that Said describes as implicit is that it points to unconscious desires, fears and fantasies. The idea of counterculturalists to turn to Nature in order to escape from the alienating effects of culture has left its place to exotic travels to the East with the marketing strategies of Postmodernity that blend consumption, identity and experience (Heath & Potter, 2012, s. 274). This conception of life, which attributes a special privilege to experience, is intimately related to capitalist relations that promise that postmodern people can shape their concerns about identity through certain images and consumer goods or values. This network of relationships, metaphorized by Bauman as a postmodern tourist, emphasizes the 330

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relationship between the ‘needs’ of postmodern people and the industry, which markets touristic tours to exotic lands, impossible experiences in the metropolis and the promise of limitless ‘freedom’ (Bauman, Postmodern Etik, 2016, s. 326). Postmodern people go to the region where they go as a tourist to escape from the culture for a while, in exchange for money, and everything about the daily life of local cultures becomes a spectacle, an exotic experience for her/him. The postmodern tourist, for a while, becomes a spectator in the difficult lives of local communities and their lives far from comfort. She/He lives this as a show, with the comfort of knowing that he will return to culture (Bauman, 2016, s. 326). Since children sold for prostitution and various moral issues like this put the tourist in the category of ‘customer’ as a service they buy, postmodern people easily abstinence themselves from the moral responsibility of such ‘sins’ (Bauman, 2016, s. 327). Somehow these ‘sins’ or ‘liberating experiences’ are restricted to a certain criminal sanction and moral obligation in the sphere of culture. Postmodern people no longer have such a conscientious burden after moving into the realm of Nature, in other words, the East, which is located in the same field with Nature. It is already there, in the exotic East, to fully realize her/him fantasies that she does not have the chance to live in the realm of Culture or that she/he has to take a certain risk.

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TO DISCOVER THE BEACH Directed by Danny Boyle, the 2000 film The Beach focuses on the experiences of a young American traveler traveling from the metropolis to Thailand and two European teenagers they meets while traveling. With the theme of escape to the East, which is affirmed by the spirit of Counter Culture and postmodernism as a liberating ideal against culture, the film has a narrative that allows it to be read in the axis of Nature-Culture and East-West dichotomy. In this direction, the mysterious and adventurous travel of these three Western young people opens up for discussion the liberating potential attributed to Nature / East by the orientalist representation at the distinction of We-Them, in the axis of Nature-Culture opposition. The movie begins with Richard, the main character played by Leonardo Di Caprio, introducing himself. While giving information about himself to the audience at the beginning of the movie, Richard ignores the information about his family, his birth place, etc., saying that these are not important and starts talking directly about the way he traveled to Thailand and his motivation to go on this journey. Summarizing this motivation as ‘experiencing something more exciting’, The fact that Richard did not inform the audience on subjects such as the purpose of traveling and the “tourist” position, family belonging can be read as a choice that points to his rootlessness as a postmodern subject and supports his identity as a “tourist” metaphorically. At this point, it is useful to recall Bauman’s conceptual approach that explains the postmodern subject with the metaphors of the vagrant and the tourist. It is a process in which the postmodern subject, like tourists and vagrants, travels to experience certain pleasurable, fun experiences and knows that she/he is not permanent where she/he goes (Bauman, 2016, s. 325-326). Postmodernity emphasizes mobility and superficiality rather than fixed, which validates transience rather than permanence. A safe, stable life is not possible for postmodern people in a globalized economy. Jobs, status, relationships ... Everything comes and goes, relationships are fragile. In such an insecure and uncertain world, it is more important for the postmodern subject to be on the move rather than the ‘present’ rather than the past or the future, the expectation of stability (Bauman, 2015, s. 206-208). With the appreciation of the Now, experience and pleasure-orientedness determine the postmodern subject’s perception of life as complementary elements. As one of these experiences, the theme of “trav331

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 Fantasies of Returning to Nature as an Escape From Culture

eling to exotic lands”, mentioned earlier, is embodied in one of the suggestions of the indigenous man who insistently accompanied Richard while walking through the streets of Bangkok at the first moments. The native, who has been marketing his various offers and trying to get Richard’s attention, is aware that the purpose of these Western tourists to come to their land is to experience something different and impossible things to live in where they come from, and ultimately makes an offer that he cannot refuse: “Have you ever had snake blood?” Although Richard did not lean towards this idea at first, when the native man criticized him for choosing a comfortable life over his Western identity, his postmodern subject’s passion for experience under the motto “do not approach anything with certainty, be open to innovations even if it is dangerous!”, Richard decides to live this different and dangerous experience. In the scenes where Richard has just arrived in Thailand, the environment is introduced to the audience in the film, Bangkok and the locals are presented with the view of the Western tourist. In this direction, it is possible to say that there are some orientalist and problematic representations. The public is shown dangerous and prone to crime, with a depiction of a Bangkok where crime is easily perpetrated and dominated by crowd, poverty, and irregularity. In line with the marginalizing perception of the West towards the East, Bangkok is a dangerous and foreign place for Western tourists. The story begins to change when he learns from a man named Duffy, whom he met at the hotel where Richard was staying in Bangkok, of the existence of a beach that has not yet been discovered by anyone, where drugs are grown, distant from everyone and described as heaven on earth. Although he does not believe this man, whose mental health does not seem very sane at first, Richard finds the map of the secret beach hanging on the door of his room and then finds Duffy dead in his room. Ultimately, deciding to follow the map to reach the secret beach, Richard opens up the idea to a young French couple he met at the hotel, and then the three teens embark on a long and difficult journey. The first contact of the three young people, who made a transition from the perspective of Paglia from the Apollonic area to the Dionysian area, with the dangerous face of the Dionysian Nature (with the Chthonian Nature in Paglia’s expression), is experienced when they have to swim from one island to another at one point of their journey. The panic moments experienced by Françoise and Etienne seeing shark fin, although later turned out to be a joke, is the first place where Nature’s dark and dangerous face is emphasized and it is kind of a harbinger of the next dangers that may be experienced in Nature. Reaching the island by swimming, young people are fascinated by this paradise-like Nature. The representation of the island is truly flawless, too perfect to be true. In the shooting of the film on Phi Phi islands, extra palm trees were planted (Cohen, 2005, s. 3), to create the “tropical island stereotype” in accordance with the fantasy of the Orientalist view, the shooting techniques were made the best use of the shooting techniques and the film cost a large budget (Tzanelli, 2006, s. 132). This approach brings to mind Baudrillard’s concepts of hyperreal and simulation (Tzanelli, 2006, s. 134). As Baudrillard suggests, hyper truth and simulations produce images that remove the boundaries of truth and lie, and replace truth (Baudrillard, 2014, s. 40-41). In this direction, the perfect beauty of the beach and the island can be read as an ‘apollonic’ strategy. In other words, building a “more beautiful than the real” image of Nature appears as a strategy that fits with the view of Culture towards Nature and the West towards the East. According to Paglia, the strategy chosen by Culture to overcome its fear against Nature is science and aesthetics olmuştur (Paglia, 2004, s. 18). In this direction, the paradise representation of Nature, which Western young people encounter when they first arrive on the island in the film, reflects their idealization of Nature, and as the story unfolds, the movie will turn this Western Apollonic ideal of nature and the East upside down.

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 Fantasies of Returning to Nature as an Escape From Culture

The Beach as Nature: After reaching the beach, the three young people explore this paradise on earth and encounter the vast lands where drugs grow right behind the beach. The assumption that the beach is an undiscovered piece of land, is also broken in these scenes. Among the armed locals, who seem to be responsible for the lands, the young people who manage to hide, albeit with difficulty, manage to get to the other side of the island and encounter a more interesting surprise. In this ‘safer’ part of the island, three young people come across a group of young people, mostly from the West, who have come here before. Together with this community living in a commune, they start to live by consenting to some ‘rules’, especially keeping the island’s existence secret. After joining the commune, young people who enjoy living together on an exotic island, away from the pressure and limits of Culture, together with Nature, gradually begin to recognize the functioning and order on the island. For young people who initially thought that they had reached a perfect life idealized by the Counter Culture, Nature and commune life gradually began to move away from its idealized state. With reference to Bakhtin’s carnivalesque conceptualization in his work Rableais and His World World (Bahtin, 2005), which represents the rejection of official values, rigid hierarchy, and dogmas eden (Lachmann, Eshelman, & Davis, 1988-1999, s. 118), based on folk traditions in the Middle Ages, it is possible to read the experiences of young people in the early times of communal life in The Beach as carnivalesque. Based on the carnivalesque approach that rejects all hierarchical rules and taboos, it is seen that the carnivalesque features are valid only in the first place. As young people start to adapt to the order in the commune, they learn that there is a strict hierarchy, rules and punishments, contrary to what they think before. The point that differs from culture is that the ruler here is woman. However, when looking at the rules, functioning and order, it does not seem possible to call this power matriarchal because some codes of the masculine identity of the Culture are also present here. Culture as a Fact to Escape: This belief of those in the community who believe that they meet their needs by growing marijuana and farming is actually an illusion. As seen in the scene where Keaty, one of the members of the Commune, thanked the god for Christianity, which he described as the pillar of civilization, Culture is something that they could not escape even if they went to Nature. Even if they go to Nature, it is seen that they have not developed a value system such as respecting Nature. Not hesitating to hunt in line with their needs, they continue their efforts to order and control Nature. The domination of Nature as a thought that became institutionalized in the Western world with Enlightenment philosophy and Modernism, while forming the center in the philosophy of Counter Culture and in postmodern objections against Culture, In The Beache, on the contrary, the commune community established an anthropocentric order as in Culture and positioned themselves hierarchically above Nature, just like the Culture they criticize. However, what is worse is that they are unaware of them and cannot even see the conflict. As it is known, dirt is one of the things that were excluded in the foundation of civilization. As Mary Douglas has examined in her book Purity and Danger, pollution is excluded because it indicates disorder, and for this reason Culture has given special attention to cleanliness (Douglas, 2017, s. 24-25). The chef’s obsession with cleanliness is one of the basic dynamics that belongs entirely to Culture and even creates Culture. The orders such as batteries, condoms, and toothbrushes that other members of the community give to someone they send to the city for shopping indicate that their interest in consumer goods and their interaction with culture continue strongly. On the other hand, it is important that the patriarchal practices of culture are not abandoned. The tension between Etienne and Richard, with Richard’s coming closer to François, who has a relationship with Etienne, negates the belief that the established association practices of Culture in Nature will disappear. Richard, who went to the city with Sal who the 333

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leader of the commune, François left Richard after learned about his one-night stand relationship with Sal, which can be read as another indicator that proves the continuation of the established relationship practices of the Culture. Punishment, as one of the practices that constitute the social exclusion system of culture, is also present in communal life. It is the most important law not to inform anyone about the existence of the beach. Two people from the Commune were injured by a shark and the request to call for help was rejected on the grounds that it would violate privacy and one was left to die, which points to the Apollonic aspect of the order established in Nature. Apollo is concerned with borders, norms and prohibitions. In this direction, the commune members, who was injured and died while trying to hunt the shark, encountered the chthonian side of Dionysiac Nature. The cross at the funeral to the deceased member and the presentation of the items and food he loved while alive, accompanied by a guitar in this ceremony, resemble a modern interpretation of the religious rules of Culture in Nature. The Dichotomy Itself: The Beach is presented as a country that is restricted and needs to be protected from the ‘other’, just like the country borders built by Culture. This approach, which brings to mind the lands colonized by the West, can be read as a reflection of the classical Western attitude. This approach, which can be expressed as a claim on Nature by a group of Westerners who discovered the exotic Eastern island, manifests itself in keeping all kinds of ‘foreigners’ away from this region and the punishment imposed on individuals who do not keep the beach secret. The punishment of Richard by being excluded from the community by learning that he gave the secret map of the beach to others, corresponds to the fact of treason in the concept of nation. As a result of the violation of privacy, Richard is sent away from his commune to look out for strangers who may come, and his lonely days cause delusions by disrupting his psychology. The dionysiac field’s disregard for the mind associated with the Apollonic is represented by these delusions and blurring of memory. Paglia sees Apollo as the foundation of the West because of notions such as categorization, order, objectification symbolized by Apollo (Paglia, 2004, s. 104-105). The fact that the member wounded by the shark was left to die by the commune and their continued party while the man was in pain can be read as an expression of the individualism of Western civilization. The scene where the locals’ desire to send commune members because they caused too many people to come to the island was rejected by the commune leader Sal, which can be read as an allegory of the hierarchical superiority established by the West over the Eastern lands colonized and the natives living there.

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FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS Based on this study, other films with orientalist discourse can also be analyzed in the context of the east-west dichotomy. Thus, it can be discussed whether the art of cinema, especially mainstream cinema art, has a dualistic point of view or not. On the other hand, not only American cinema but also European and Asian cinemas can be examined within this context. In addition, one can look at how the west is represented in the movies produced by the east, which is represented with an orientalist perspective in the western cinema. Another future research direction may be the comparative analysis of films produced within different cinematic insights in the east and west. the research could be extended to severel movies to make the results more powerful and effective.

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CONCLUSION The Beach deals with the point at which the anti-cultural perspective of the Counterculture philosophy intersects with the romanticization of Nature in Orientalist thought. The Counter Culture’s view of communal life and Nature as a liberating potential has a common ideal of Nature and the East with Orientalist thought. Although The Beach initially offers an Orientalist representation of the East through the eyes of the Western tourist, in the continuation of the narrative, it reverses both the counterculture’s ideal of Nature and the Orientalist representation of the East, and opens the romantic ideal of Nature to discussion. In the film, which can also be read within the framework of the Nature-Culture dichotomy, more realistic depictions of Nature and Culture can be seen from the perspective of Camille Paglia. Paglia, who opposes the romanticization of nature, points to the comfort that Culture creates for people (Paglia, 2004, s. 15-16). In The Beach, it is seen that the Culture reconstructed in Nature is constructed in a way that points to the concepts of Western individualism and nationalism and that the practices of Culture are maintained in the order in Nature. The movie that prompts you to reflect on questions like, “Is it possible to leave the culture?” “Can a life be established where nature and culture can reconcile?”, while exhibiting a more realistic approach to nature, it also reverses the exotic and romantic image in the Orientalist approach, created by the West regarding the East. Community members who opposed Sal, the leader of the Commune, whose power was questioned in the final, under the leadership of Richard, leave the beach and return to their homes, to culture. In the face of the Apollonic Culture internalized by the Western, the power of the Dionysian nature is indisputable. The film, which is based on the idea of controlling Nature, accepts the weakness of the Western culture against Nature and ends with the return of the commune to Culture, the film offers a striking criticism of the ideals that make the West in this sense. Emphasizing that escaping to Nature in order to be liberated from the pressure of culture does not mean return to Nature, the film stands out with a critical and realistic understanding among the films in which the orientalist representation of the East takes place and the West is glorified. When Richard returns home, in other words, to culture, he says, “Although it was hard to forget what happened there, we overcame it”. It reminds the West’s Orientalist image of the East, as in Bauman’s postmodern concept of tourist (Bauman, 2016). It is left in the East, which is living in the East, which was fantasized with the perspective of the paradise of sin and pleasure.

REFERENCES

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Adorno, T. W., & Horkheimer, M. (2014). Aydınlanmanın Diyalektiği (N. Ülner, & E. Ö. Karadoğan, Çev.). İstanbul: Kabalcı Yayıncılık. Bahtin, M. (2005). Rabelais ve Dünyası (Ç. Öztek, Çev.). İstanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınları. Baudrillard, J. (2014). Simülakrlar ve Simülasyon (O. Adanır, Çev.). Ankara: Doğu Batı Yayınları. Bauman, Z. (2015). Bireyselleşmiş Toplum (Y. Alagon, Çev.). İstanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınları. Bauman, Z. (2016). Postmodern Etik (A. Türker, Çev.). İstanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınları. Bayladı, D. (2017). Tanrıların Öyküsü. Say Yayınları. Canniford, R. (2011). How to manage consumer tribes. Journal of Strategic, 19(7), 591–606.

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Cohen, E. (2005). The Beach of ‘The Beach’—The Politics of Environmental Damage in Thailand. The Politics of Environmental Damage in Thailand. Tourism Recreation Research, 30(1), 1–17. doi:10.108 0/02508281.2005.11081229 Davidov, V. (2012). From Colonial Primitivism to Ecoprimitivism:Constructing the Indigenous “Savage” in South America. Arcadia, 46(2), 467–487. doi:10.1515/arcadia-2011-0030 Demir, Ö. (1992). Bilim Felsefesi. Ağaç Yayıncılık. Desmond, J., McDonagh, P., & O’Donohoe, S. (2011). Counter‐culture and consumer society. Consumption Markets & Culture, 4(3), 241–279. doi:10.1080/10253866.2000.9670358 Douglas, M. (2017). Saflık ve Tehlike. Metis Yayınları. Güvenç, B. (2018). İnsan ve Kültür. Boyut Yayıncılık. Harvey, D. (2014). Postmodernliğin Durumu (S. Savran, Çev.). İstanbul: Metis Yayınları. Heath, J., & Potter, A. (2012). İsyan Pazarlanıyor (T. Tosun, Çev.). İstanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınları. Jameson, Lyotard, & Habermas. (1994). Postmodernizm (G. Naliş, D. Sabuncuoğlu, & D. Erksan, Çev.). İstanbul: Kıyı Yayınları. Kabaş, B. (2012). Karşı Kültürlerin Popülerleşmesi Sürecinde Gençlik Altkültürlerinin Rolü. Yayımlanmış Doktora Tezi. Marmara Üniversitesi. Keyman, F., Mutman, M., & Yeğenoğlu, M. (1996). Oryantalizm, Hegemonya ve Kültürel Fark. İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları. Lachmann, R., Eshelman, R., & Davis, M. (1999). Bakhtin and Carnival: Culture as Counter-Culture. Cultural Critique, 115–152. Lloyd, G. (2015). Erkek Akıl Batı Felsefesinde Erkek ve Kadın (M. Özcan, Çev.). İstanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınları. Paglia, C. (2004). Cinsel Kimlikler (A. Hazaryan, & F. Demirci, Çev.). Ankara: Epos Yayınları. Plumwood, V. (2017). Feminizm ve Doğaya Hükmetmek (B. Ertür, Çev.). İstanbul: Metis Yayınları. Rexroth, K. (2016). Karşı Kültürün Temelleri (S. Kaymaz, Çev.). İstanbul: SUB Yayımları. Rosenblatt, N. (2009). Orientalism in American Popular Culture. Penn History Review, 16(2). Copyright © 2021. IGI Global. All rights reserved.

Ryan, M., & Kellner, D. (2010). Politik Kamera (E. Özsayar, Çev.). İstanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınları. Said, E. (1998). Oryantalizm (Doğubilim) (N. Uzel, Çev.). İstanbul: İrfan Yayımcılık. Stasch, R. (2014). Primitivist tourism and romantic individualism: On the values in exotic stereotypy about cultural. Anthropological Theory, 14(2), 191–214. doi:10.1177/1463499614534114 Tzanelli, R. (2006). Reel Western Fantasies: Portrait of a Tourist Imagination in The Beach (2000). Mobilities, 1(1), 121–142. doi:10.1080/17450100500489296

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

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Consumer Society: A globalized consumption network with increasing capital and images that have become widespread with the influence of media, advertisements, and popular culture with the advancing technology since 1960. Counter Culture: A peaceful and oppositional movement that emerged in the 1950s and opposed the homogenizing and fixed definitions of Modernism and Culture that influenced the whole world in the 1960s and the values represented by this movement. Dichotomy: Duality, conflict. It refers to certain categories that are institutionalized by modernism and that are constructed in opposition to each other. East Travel: It is a touristic travel that has become a part of the consumption culture as a result of the exoticization of Eastern lands and cultures with an orientalist perspective. East-West or Nature-Culture Dualism: These are the Cartesian dichotomies to emphasize the relationship between those are contradictive but still be not seperated from each other. Postmodern Subject: The individual who internalizes the values of postmodernity such as consumption culture, individualism, pleasure and experience-orientedness and perceives life according to these values. Postmodernism: In the 1960s, as a result of the failure of Modernism to provide the welfare and peace it promised, the process in which all the structures institutionalized with Modernism were opened to discussion, and tendencies that opened up space for polyphony by rejecting fixed definitions. Primitivism: It is a nostalgic trend towards Nature and the absence of Culture in Art and life philosophy, with the 1960s, when all the values and structures of Culture began to be seen as the main obstacle to liberation.

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Chapter 21

Representations of Masculinities in Gaya Jiji’s Film Named My Favorite Fabric Baran Barış Dokuz Eylül University, Turkey

ABSTRACT Masculinity refers to the roles expected of men by gender ideology. Masculinity studies after 1990 revealed that masculinity cannot be taken as a universal subject. Another important concept in this study is orientalism. Orientalism generally refers to the West’s point of view regarding the East. In Western narratives, Eastern women are generally depicted as oppressed heroes, and men as heroes who are always strong. However, alternative narratives reveal that diferent forms of femininity and masculinity can be seen in Eastern societies. In this study, a Syrian director’s flm named My Favorite Fabric is analyzed with a semiotic method within the framework of these concepts. When the representations of masculinity in the flm are examined, it is seen that diferent forms of masculinity are constructed, and an alternative to the orientalist discourse is presented accordingly. It has been revealed that diferent variables are efective in the construction of masculinities.

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INTRODUCTION The concept of sex refers to biological sex. Patriarchal societies based on the biological structure determine certain roles and behaviors they expect from men and women, depending on their sex. These expectations, defended with essentialist approach, are presented as norms that cannot be changed. The essentialist approach bases the roles and behaviors that shape social norms on the human nature. Even though the rules of these roles and behaviors of patriarchal societies, which have survived since the Early Neolithic Age, differ according to time and societies, the subjects of male domination, which make biology its basis, maintain the inequality between women and men and expect that women to be dependent on patriarchal authority. It can be argued that before the nineteenth century, individual struggle pioneers such as Olympe de Gouges and Mary Wollstonecraft laid the groundwork for struggles in the following DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch021

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 Representations of Masculinities in Gaya Jiji’s Film Named My Favorite Fabric

centuries. From the second half of the nineteenth century, individual struggles began to turn into social struggles. The Victorian era, in which women were restricted through concepts such as chastity, honor and morality, went down in history as the period when the first steps were taken against increasing domination. In the Victorian era, when patriarchal norms surrounded women, rebellion against all norms was seen as the only solution and the struggle in this direction has begun to liberate not only women but also men. Described by Millett as a “sexual revolution”, this movement aims to abolish all institutions of patriarchy along with patriarchal ideology, to align polarized women and men on the basis of rights, and to upset the norms of the roles assigned to women and men. In this period, which is called the first wave of the feminist movement in the literature, some rights were obtained. However, the reactionary period that followed this period served to strengthen the patriarchy again (Millett, 2000: 62). The acceleration of left movements in the world towards the end of the 1960s brought the issue of women’s rights back to the agenda and this time focused on the specific problems of women. Feminists realized the necessity of a struggle independent of their leftist groups. This is also the period when feminism began to be studied in academia. In the first half of the twentieth century, both the feminist movement and the developing literature helped the academy with a strict patriarchal structure to gain new perspectives. In this period, the argument of the essentialist approach that gender roles stem from the nature of human beings was opened for discussion and it was determined that gender roles were a social construction. Stoller uses a concept that first appeared in his book Sex and Gender. The concept of gender, which is also in the title of the book, is a concept that reveals that gender is socially, culturally and psychologically constructed. Stoller states that the process of learning gender identity begins with learning that a person belongs to a gender. Gender roles determine the social position of women and men (1968: 9, 10). Contrary to the essentialist approach, the constructivist approach reveals that with the concept of gender, gender roles cannot be explained by the nature of human beings, that they are built and changed by societies in line with expectations and are also imposed. Oakley argues that gender is defined by the social situation and is the sum of many qualities such as attitude, way of speaking, dress, topic choice in conversation (1985: 161). In the first phase of gender studies, the construction of female identity has been analyzed and femininity has been described as a universal identity, based on the qualities that Oakley mentioned and the male domination of women in patriarchal societies. The acceptance of femininity as a universal subject was criticized after 1990 with a postcolonial and poststructuralist approach. It was pointed out that while examining femininity in the studies in the first period, variables such as race, class, religion were ignored (Kandiyoti, 2011: 44, 45). Butler, author of Gender Trouble, a revolutionary book in gender studies, problematized the scope of the concepts of women and women. The concept of woman as the singular reduces femininity to a restricted identity by ignoring many personal characteristics. The concept of women, who are supposed to express an identity with common characteristics, is politically problematic. This concept cannot represent all women as claimed; because gender is discursively established under the influence of different variables in different dates and societies (Butler, 1999: 6). It has been determined that there are similarities as well as differences in the formation of female identity and the experiences of women in patriarchal societies. This determination also affected the studies of masculinity that developed in the period following the publication of Butler’s work in 1990. Studies on the construction of masculinity began after 1970. However, these studies have described a general masculinity by focusing on the difference between women and men. In addition, it has been found that the criteria determined by gender policies for men also put pressure on men (Hartley, 1974: 7-13). Masculinity is generally an identity that is expected to be built on the basis of physical, emotional, economic power, competition, conflict, success and gain. The roles 339

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assigned to men determine men’s relationships with both women and other men. These relationships are built on the basis of authority, inequality and conflict. In the second period of masculinity studies that determined the basic problems of men as a universal subject in the 1970s, different masculinities began to be examined. As in the construction of female identity, male identity is also constructed in different ways according to different societies, times and variables. Shire who studies the construction of masculinity according to the use of language and space, makes the following determinations. (2005: 146):

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Masculinities are negotiated and constructed in different areas through specific language usage. Spaces designated as male, such as the dare (traditional meeting place of men) and the beerhall, are places in which men can show their prowess through the skilful use of language and embellish particular masculinities. In these domains, definitions and descriptions of murume create ideals of autonomy. In proverbial self-definition, the ‘Shona’ say ‘murume murume, anoti chamuka inyama’. A free translation would read ‘a man is a man, he asserts that anything that arouses is fair game’, meaning that it is a prerogative of men in their own spaces to take whatever is placed before them. The use of metaphor to define maleness in this sense alludes to various ideals. The use of the word nyama (game, meat) not only defines men as masculine subjects in terms of their hunting prowess, but alludes also to anything discursive as fair game. The use of language in these domains marks out a space in which men contest and confirm particular masculinities through shows of verbal versatility, competence in the ‘language of men’ and the use of particular forms of discourse. Gender policies categorize men according to age, status or kinship status. It excludes men who are positioned as subordinates by identifying out groups through discourse. These differences seen between men determine their positions, roles and relationships with each other (2005: 150). On the other hand, these determinations led to the development of other concepts related to masculinity. The most important of these is the concept of “hegemonic masculinity”. This concept which developed by Connell, is based on Gramsci’s concept of hegemony. There is an interaction between groups that have different powers in the social system. As a result, hegemony is a concept that expresses that these groups are positioned at different levels of the hierarchy (Williams, 2020: 92). Connell’s concept of “hegemonic masculinity” refers to the form of masculinity that dominates and manages both women and men who are coded as out of the norm. Connell states that this concept includes socially obtained superiority and that the superiority established over a group by force or threat is not hegemony. Hegemonic masculinity does not abolish subordinate groups, it pushes them to the subordinate position. According to Connell, hegemonic masculinity appears in images of masculinity described as heroized, glorified or inaccessible, and in fictional texts such as movies and novels. Hegemonic masculinity is the masculinity presented as ideal. On the other hand, it is seen that hegemonic masculinity is not a fixed identity. Different variables can be determined in different hegemonic representations of masculinity (Connell, 1987: 184; Connell, 2005: 76; Howson, 2006: 2, 3). The differentiation of the factors that play a role in the construction of hegemonic masculinity and other masculinities causes all masculinities to change depending on time. This change can be seen and analyzed in fictional texts that include representations of gender identities as well as in daily life. The database of this study, which examines the representations of masculinity with a semiotic method, consists of the Syrian director Gaya Jiji’s movie My Favorite Fabric, which premiered in the Cannes Film Festival in 2018. This film tells the story of a twenty five years old woman named Nahla, in the days of the civil war in Syria in 2011. As Nahla begins to recognize her body and sexuality, she is confronted 340

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with a world surrounded by patriarchal norms. The movie My Favorite Fabric was chosen because of the parallel approach of a Syrian director to the civil war in the country and the process of the construction of a woman’s femininity, the relationship of these issues with masculinity, which is the research object of this study, and in this context, the possibility of narration as an alternative. Accordingly, the research questions of this study are: (i) What masculinities do the men in the narrative represent? (ii) What is the relationship between the construction of masculinities in the narrative and the political developments in Syria and the factors in the private lives of narrative figures? (iii What is the relationship between the construction of masculinities in the narrative and Nahla? (iv) As a Syrian director, does Gaya Jiji offer an alternative perspective in the construction of the male characters in the film? Or are orientalist codes reproduced in a Syrian director’s film? In the next parts of the study, the concept of orientalism and its relationship with gender studies, the semiologist Barthes’ opposition to the meaning / connotation are discussed and the film named My Favorite Fabric is analyzed within the framework of the concepts and methods explained.

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ORIENTALISM AND GENDER Orientalism, one of the basic concepts of this study, expresses the prejudiced ideology developed by the West in order to dominate the East. According to Said, who explains this concept, which generally describes the West’s approach to the East, orientalism, which is the name of the discipline that accepts the East as an object of systematic learning, exploration and practice, includes the imagination, image and vocabulary of those who speak about those who are in the east of the center (1979: 73). Western thought negates the other against one and positions them as a subordinate group in its ideological system based on dualities. These dualities form the basis of forms of othering and domination. The position of the other causes the domination of the center and thus the group in the center makes the other dependent on itself. The relationship type seen in the establishment of dualities is directly related to the concept of hegemony explained in the previous section. The West codes the other as illogical, immoral, childish and different as a result of the superiority it has gained over the East. The West is rational, virtuous, mature and normal. The East is made intelligible not as a result of its own efforts, but as a result of the West’s complex epistemological manipulation attempts that define the East. Accordingly, the East has a reality built in the discourse of the West. This ideology is exemplified, analyzed and presented as a cultural power practice in studies that examine the construction of the orientalist discourse. The West, which having the cultural power, develops an epistemology with a judgmental point of view regarding the East (1979: 40, 41). This epistemology, which positions and defines the other, can be summarized over five different approaches. Accordingly, the East (Other) is an empirical object for the researcher. The aim of the researcher is to reach a comprehensive knowledge about the East through empirical data. In other words, it is to describe the East. In the second approach, the East is studied as a cultural object. In these studies, the West in the center is identified with rationality and positioned as a subject. But the East represents the non-modern. The third approach seen in the literature deals with the East as an entity. According to this approach, the East is a tool for defining modern identity. While the researcher examines her/his own cultural and historical construction as a subject, the East is described within the framework of the “I / Other” contrast. The other approach to the East examines the other as a discursive structure. Studies that analyze the orientalist discourse reveal the Western thought that shaped this discourse and make visible the West’s hegemony over the East with a critical approach. Finally, the fifth approach takes 341

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 Representations of Masculinities in Gaya Jiji’s Film Named My Favorite Fabric

the East as difference. Studies after Said reveal that the identity of the other should be problematized. Said’s integrative approach to the Eastern other is criticized and, accordingly, the differences in the other are emphasized (Keyman, 1996: 76-78). According to studies that consider orientalism as a discourse, orientalism is a tool by which the West can dominate and reproduce the East with political, sociological, military, ideological, scientific and imagination (Dawson, 1967). In order to examine this power of the West in different areas, the Orientalist discourse needs to be analyzed. Said’s work on orientalism is based on Foucault, who claims that all forms of knowledge are produced by the power and examines the relationship between discourse and ideology. The discourse is structured by the West, which is positioned as the superior group, while the East represents the other side of the duality as a different and inferior group. Orientalist discourse is the reflection of prejudices regarding the East and does not reflect reality. However, it is a set of established images that have been taken for granted by the group in power (Said, 1979; Lewis, 2003). The dualist thought system, which forms the basis of Orientalism, is built on the oppositions such as West / East, master / slave, culture / nature. While one of these parties is affirmed, the other is negated. In the context of gender identities examined in this study, it is seen that the dualist system also creates an opposition between men and women. For example, in studies that deal with this opposition with an ecofeminist approach, it is revealed that the West, which identifies itself with reason, presents everything that it positions against the mind as negative representations (Plumwood, 1993: 19, 20). Since the hegemony over inferior groups is reproduced in different forms of relationship, it is necessary to analyze the construction of various positionalities such as race, class, and gender together with orientalism. In this study, depending on the examination of masculinity, which is a gender identity, the interaction between power, discourses and representations is discussed in order to understand the relationship between gender and orientalism. The main questions in the researches are: (i) How are categories such as barbarian, oppressed, civilized and free about the East formed?, (ii) How are power relations structured in other dichotomies based on the “us / them” opposition? In the analyzes made with the inclusion of the gender variable depending on the general orientalist discourse, the West once again affirms itself as civilized and free. However, in the discourse of the West, the East is barbaric; Eastern women are only coded as oppressed. In contrasts between men and women, stereotypes that emphasize the power of men and the passivity of women are reconstructed (Khalid, 2017: 4). The discourse of the West on gender identities in Eastern societies is summarized as follows under the umbrella of “feminist orientalism” in the literature (Marandi and Tari, 2012: 7): According to Parvin Paydar feminist Orientalism has three characteristics. First the assumption of an oppositional binary between the West and the East in which Muslim women are oppressed while their Western counterparts enjoy full freedom in their society. The second characteristic is the conception that the Oriental women are only victims of a male chauvinistic society and have no agency or resistant role in their social transformations. This approach tends to marginalize the so called Oriental women and therefore, Muslim women need saviors, i.e., the Westerns, to emancipate them from Muslim men. The third aspect of feminist Orientalism is the construction of a monolithic entity of Muslims and therefore the belief that all Muslim women are living under the same condition and have no unique aspect or identity for themselves. Making the above summary under the title of “feminist orientalism” is open to discussion. Because gender studies conducted after 1990 have started to examine femininity and masculinity by considering race, ethnicity, region, age and many other variables, and the findings of previous studies have been updated. Therefore, works that describe Eastern women and men with stereotypes reflect a general ori342

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entalist perspective. Studies conducted with feminist methods in different disciplines reveal that different identity constructions are observed in the male identity as well as in the female identity depending on the variables. These studies make it possible to question the reality of gender stereotypes associated with the East. However, different representations are seen not only in academic studies but also in fictional texts. Thus, it is observed that narratives offering alternatives to orientalist codes are formed. In the section where the film named My Favorite Fabric is analyzed, the findings are interpreted around the discussions mentioned here.

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SEMIOTICS AND ROLAND BATHES’ METHOD Studies on signs date back to Ancient Greece. Studies based on scholastic philosophy texts in the Middle Ages are generally done by philosophers and logicians. At the beginning of the twentieth century, Saussure drew attention to the necessity of a branch of science to examine non-linguistic signs in his texts collected in the book Course in General Linguistics and called this branch of science “semiotics”. (1998: 46). Semiotics aims to reveal how meaning is structured in narratives. Saussure developed the dual concept of “language / parole” depending on the complexity and complexity of nature of language. Language is a systematic structure used for communication purposes and requires social consensus. Parole, on the other hand, covers only the individual segment of the nature of language, such as addressing, application of rules, and possible combinations of signs. Therefore, language is a system of values as well as being a social institution. The characteristic of language as a social institution is related to its necessity for social consensus. Language, as a system of values, is a unit that has the relative validity of each unit and is part of the wider relations whole. Language is constituted as socially. However, the parole is an act of individual selection and realization. This duality developed by Saussure formed the basis for many disciplines. One of them is semiotics. This duality shows some changes when transferred to different disciplines. Barthes gives fashion as an example. The elements that make up the clothing language are: (i) Contrasts or changes between parts shape meaning. (ii) The rules governing the combination of parts include irregular construction facts or individual dressing. The semiotic equivalent of the language / parole duality is related to a relationship that can be established between language and parole. However, in semiotics, apart from Saussure’s concepts of language and speech, a third concept such as matter or substance is required. Because there is a need for a third element that will convey the preliminary meaning and constitute the necessary basis for meaning. Accordingly, there are three levels in non-linguistic signs: levels of matter, language and usage. In the light of this information, when the concept of Saussure’s sign is examined, two terms are seen, signifier and signified, in relation to this concept. These are the constituents of the sign. The plane of signifiers constitutes the plane of narrative and the plane of signified constitutes the plane of content (Barthes, 1979). In the period following Saussure, many theorists developed different semiotic methods to examine various texts. One of these methods was created by Barthes, a representative of the French school. Barthes suggests that all objects in the world can be analyzed using the semiotic method. Semiotics, which aims to explain the formation of meaning, deals with all objects of daily life, myths, narratives established at different times, literary texts, and signs in cinema that reflect culture. In Barthes’ works in the 1950s and 1960s, it was aimed to analyze the meaning in fashion clothes. The semantic system is examined using semiotic methods and the findings of different disciplines such as psychology and sociology (Barthes, 1993). In the following periods, it is seen that many objects belonging to popular culture were dealt with 343

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in Barthes’ works. The syntactic relations seen in natural languages and non-linguistic signs are also found in the presentation of food, the arrangement of furniture and architecture, as well as in fashion. These analyzes lead to the emergence of cultural codes (Barthes, 1979). An example of Barthes’ analysis of various objects with the semiotic method can be given the following study in which he deals with a rose bunch and a black stone (1972: 111, 112):

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Let me therefore restate that any semiology postulates a relation between two terms, a signifier and a signified. This relation concerns objects which belong to different categories, and this is why it is not one of equality but one of equivalence. We must here be on our guard for despite common parlance which simply says that the signifier expresses the signified, we are dealing, in any semiological system, not with two, but with three different terms. For what we grasp is not at all one term after the other, but the correlation which unites them: there are, therefore, the signifier, the signified and the sign, which is the associative total of the first two terms. Take a bunch of roses: I use it to signify my passion. Do we have here, then, only a signifier and a signified, the roses and my passion? Not even that: to put it accurately, there are here only ‘passionified’ roses. But on the plane of analysis, we do have three terms; for these roses weighted with passion perfectly and correctly allow themselves to be decomposed into roses and passion: the former and the latter existed before uniting and forming this third object, which is the sign. It is as true to say that on the plane of experience I cannot dissociate the roses from the message they carry, as to say that on the plane of analysis I cannot confuse the roses as signifier and the roses as sign: the signifier is empty, the sign is full, it is a meaning. Or take a black pebble: I can make it signify in several ways, it is a mere signifier; but if I weigh it with a definite signified (a death sentence, for instance, in an anonymous vote), it will become a sign. Naturally, there are between the signifier, the signified and the sign, functional implications (such as that of the part to the whole) which are so close that to analyse them may seem futile; but we shall see in a moment that this distinction has a capital importance for the study of myth as semiological schema. The analysis of the signs reveals how the meaning of myths is formed and which cultural codes they contain. At the same time, these myths are reproduced in many art branches such as cinema, literature, and painting. Different meanings occur in the rewriting of myths. The dominant codes of cultural elements are reproduced through these different meanings or the culture is approached critically. Cinema also constructs narratives containing various cultural codes. Barthes’ semiotic method allows the decoding of the codes in cinema. Barthes states that the sign is the product of signification. In the process of signification, the sign of the signifier is visualized as signified. Barthes developed two orders of significiation ideas that address the relationship between the signs in the text and the cultural and personal experiences of the users. The signification systems consist of a narrative plane (signifier) and a content plane (signified). The signification equals the relation between these two planes. If this system becomes the element of a second system that will cover it, two signification systems that show deviation, shift occur. In the first case, the first system becomes the narrative plane or signifier of the second system. Developing the concepts of Hjelmslev, Barthes defines the first system as “denotation” and the second system covering the first system as “connotation” plane. The denotation defines what the sign represents, and the connotation defines how the sign is represented. These two concepts can be explained through the photograph of a room. The word “room” refers to a living space that contains furniture. The same room can be photographed in many different ways. Color film can be used or this space can be reflected in black and white. Positive or negative meanings can be attributed to people and things in the room. The 344

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denotation of the objects in the photograph are the same; however, their connotations will be different. The connotation refers to the interaction that occurs when the sign meets the emotions and cultural values of the user. On this plane, meaning moves towards the subjective or intersubjective. The connotations can be social or personal. Scale, for example, represents justice. The connotation of the scale is socially collective. However, the connotation of an object in a fictional text may differ in the meaning process (Fiske, 2002: 85-87). The connotation is defined in ten different ways in Barthes’ work (1974: 8, 9):

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Definitionally, it is a detennination, a relation, an anaphora, a feature which has the power to relate itself to anterior, ulterior, or exterior mentions, to other sites of the text (or of another text): we must in no way restrain this relating, which can be given various names (function or index, for example), except that we must not confuse connotation with association of ideas: the latter refers to the system of a subject; connotation is a correlation immanent in the text, in the texts; or again, one may say that it is an association made by the text-as- subject within its own system. Topically, connotations are meanings which are neither in the dictionary nor in the grammar of the language in which a text is written (this is, of course, a shaky definition: the dictionary can be expanded, the grammar can be modified). Analytically, connotation is determined by two spaces: a sequential space, a series of orders, a space subject to the successivity of sentences, in which meaning proliferates by layering; and an agglomerative space, certain areas of the text correlating other meanings outside the material text and, with them, fonning “nebulae” of signifieds. Topologically, connotation makes possible a (limited) dissemination of meanings, spread like gold dust on the apparent surface of the text (meaning is golden). Semiologically, each connotation is the starting point of a code (which will never be reconstituted), the articulation of a voice which is woven into the text. Dynamically, it is a subjugation which the text must undergo, it is the possibility of this subjugation (meaning is a force). Historically, by inducing meanings that are apparently recoverable (even if they are not lexical), connotation establishes a (dated) Literature of the Signified. Functionally, connotation, releasing the double meaning on principle, corrupts the purity of communication: it is a deliberate “static,” painstakingly elaborated, introduced” into the fictive dialogue between author and reader, in short, a countercommunication (Literature is an intentional cacography). Structurally, the existence of two supposedly different systemsdenotation and connotation-enables the text to operate like a game, each system referring to the other according to the requirements of a certain illusion. Ideologically, finally, this game has the advantage of affording the classic text a certain innocence: of the two systems, denotative and connotative, one turns back on itself and indicates its own existence: the system of denotation; denotation is not the first meaning, but pretends to be so; under this illusion, it is ultimately no more than the last of the connotations (the one which seems both to establish and to close the reading), the superior myth by which the text pretends to return to the nature of language, to language as nature. Emphasizing that my meaning has not been studied in a systematic way except Hjelmslev, Barthes claims that connotation will gain importance in linguistic research as society develops second systems of meaning based on the first system provided by human language. The system of connotation includes signifiers, signified, and a being (signification) that connects them. These connotative signifiers, called connotatives, consist of the signs of the denotation system. What is signified of connotation is associated with culture, knowledge and history. In the connotative sign system, the signs of the second system consist of the signs of the first system. The opposite happens in the metalanguages. Consisting of the signs of the first system, they are the signified of the second system. Metalanguage is an operation, as stated 345

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by Hjelmslev. The connotative sign system is not a procedure. Barthes gives semiotics as an example. Semiotics is a metalanguage; because it assumes the first language, which is the system under study, as a second system (Barthes, 1993: 37 – 72). Barthes’ two orders of signification are summarized in figure 1. As seen in this figure, the sign system of the first is inserted in the value system of the culture on the second order (Fiske, 2002: 88). Barthes’s concepts of denotation and connotation constitute the basis for visual semiotics studies. Barthes argues that the association of visual elements creates denotation and connotation. Two planes are used for this formation. The first plane is the paradigmatic (denotation) dimension. Objects are selected in this plane. The other plane is used to create a whole by signigication of the syntagmatic selected elements In the next part of this work, the representations of masculinities in Gaya Jiji’s film named My Favorite Fabric are analyzed within the framework of Barthes’ denotation / connotation duality. Figure 1.

Table 1. Representations of masculinities in My Favorite Fabric (Denotation)

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Denotation Signifiers

Signified of Denotation

Samir

The man who Nahla will marry by arranged

Salim

The customer who comes to Madam Jiji’s bawdyhouse

Father

Nahla’s dead father

Dream Man

Nahla’s lover who exists in her dream world

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Table 2. Representations of masculinities in My Favorite Fabric (Connotation) Connotation Signifiers

Signified of Connotation

Samir

Representation of a form of masculinity other than hegemonic masculinity

Salim

Representation of hegemonic masculinity

Father

Lack of paternal authority in the private sphere

Dream Man

Representation of masculinity which idealized by Nahla

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A SEMIOTIC ANALYSIS OF THE FILM NAMED MY FAVORITE FABRIC As seen in Table 1 and 2, there are four men in Nahla’s life in the narrative: Her father, Samir, Salim and Dream Man. Two of these men are characters who actually exist and live in the narrative universe. Samir is the man her family wanted to marry Nahla by arranged. They left Syria when he was children by the decision of his family. He lives in America. Samir is an opportunity for Nahla’s mother to escape from Syria, where the civil war continues and live a comfortable life in America. Nahla says that she may not like this man, whose face she has not even seen yet, and she gives hints that she will object to the decisions of her mother. Samir is an uncertainty for Nahla. The domination of her mother, who is the implementer of patriarchal norms in the private sphere, continues in a process where she begins to recognize herself, her body and sexuality and before meeting, there is a possibility that Samir will inherit this power from Nahla’s mother and establish hegemony over Nahla. After meeting with Samir, Nahla was faced with a man who did not fit the definition of hegemonic masculinity. Samir starts to tell Nahla about himself. He has a full time job in America., Samir, who separate his weekends for his family fulfills some of the roles that the gender regime expects of men. He does not have authority over any group in his life. However, he has gained a certain economic power by working even under difficult conditions. Samir also attaches importance to the family unity which sublimated by the patriarchal ideology and organizes his life according to these priorities. When Nahla says that Samir’s routine is too boring, Samir falters. His system, which he thinks to be ideal, has been criticized. Since his childhood, his family has always made decisions about Samir’s life. In this context, he represents a passive masculinity. He accepted the life deemed suitable for him without question. He knows nothing about Nahla, whom he will marry, other than her name. He does not object to this decision either. However, there is a woman who questions the decisions made by her mother. Nahla begins to question her own gender identity, desires and feelings in the face of Samir’s passivity. She goes from passive to active and builds a world for herself. In this context, Samir is a tool for Nahla in this process. Nahla is liberated by rejecting the life in America that her mother ideally conceived, and Samir is one of the passive persons who sustain the system in this rejected world. In other words, he belongs to the subordinate group that adopts the norms of the system. After a while, Samir’s family sends news to Nahla’s family. They declare that they want that Samir marry with Meryem. Nahla does not fulfill the gender roles that Samir’s family expects. However, Nahla’s sister, Meryem, is the ideal one for them. Samir adapted to his family’s decision. Nahla’s mother also accepted the decision of Samir’s family on the previous grounds. Because her only aim is to escape from Syria and live a peaceful life in America by taking advantage of the opportunities Samir will offer them. At this stage, Samir faces a dilemma for the first time. He remains unstable between Nahla and Meryem. This indecision affects his relationship with Nahla. During their meeting, Nahla confronts Samir with

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his fears while telling his fortune. Samir says he is afraid of staying in Syria. However, his real anxiety is related to the possibility of taking a step that would go against the decision of his family. Their rapprochement with Nahla frightened Samir. Samir is looking for someone to understand him. Nahla lives the same dream about Dream Man with Samir in the real world. Nahla asks Samir to say “Stay with me”. In response, Samir replies, “You are what I want.”. Nahla and Samir have sex for the first and last time. After these few hours, when Samir can act independently of his family’s approval, he continues to fulfill the gender roles expected of him. At the end of the narrative, he reinforces the passive image of masculinity approved by his family by marrying with Meryem. The second of the male characters living in the narrative universe is Salim. He comes to Madam Jiji’s bawdyhouse as a customer, who moved to the apartment where Nahla and his family lived. Salim is the representation of hegemonic masculinity that dominates women. Sex workers in the bawdyhouse consider being selected by Salim as a measure of value. Salim, a soldier who fought in the civil war in Syria, achieved a social superiority thanks to his physical power and status. These possibilities position Salim in an ideal place by the gender ideology. It represents the masculinity that is intended to be attained for women who are positioned as a inferior group by patriarchal society. Samir asks the women, who he has sex with in the bawdyhouse but does not remember their names to tell a story. The story tells of a young man who is wanted to be killed by his eleven brothers. In the story, the master’s wife is in love with this young man and she wants to have sex with him. The young man refuses this request. Salim identifies himself with the young man in the story. In this context, the film examines the background of hegemonic masculinity and reveals the fears and internal conflicts behind the powerful image of masculinity. The story is based on the power struggle between men. The conflicts between the brothers in the story are related to one of them being in a strong position. The other brothers are afraid of the man who has power, even the dreams he had. The young man sees in a dream the sun and the moon prostrating to him. With this dream, the power of the young man, and therefore power of Salim, is once again reinforced. However, this power can also cause life-threatening consequences. The young man’s brothers think that they can only defeat him by killing him. Death basically means losing all possibilities that a person has in life. When death is considered as a metaphor, it symbolizes Salim’s anxiety about losing the social superiority he has achieved. Sex workers in the bawdyhouse tell the story the way Salim wanted it. In My Favorite Fabric, which establishes intertextual relations with Buñuel’s film named Belle de Jour (1987), Nahla, like Séverine Serizy, goes to have sex with Salim, who comes to Madam Jiji’s house. Nahla brings the fabric pieces from her dowry to Salim in a suitcase. Salim ties Nahla with these pieces of fabric and asks her to tell the same story. Nahla begins telling the story saying “There was a handsome young man”. At the beginning of the narrative established by Nahla, ideal images of hegemonic masculinity are repeated. There is a strong bond between the father, who is positioned at the top of the hierarchy by the patriarchal society and the young man. His brothers are jealous of the young man because of his superiority. At the beginning of the story, solidarity is emphasized between the father, who represents the authority, and the other man, who is expected to reach that position after a while. On the other hand, the conflict between men who aspire to the father’s status is also noteworthy. In the continuation of the story, his brothers threw the young man into the well to die. However, the young man survived. The travelers who find him sell the young man to the king of a distant country. The master’s wife falls in love with the young man and she wants to have sex with him. The young man first rejected the woman, saying, “Everything in this house belongs to me except you”. This answer of the young man shows that he is still maintaining his power in the far away country he went to. The young man reproduces his power through discourse. However, 348

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Nahla changes the ending of the story. The young man accepts the woman’s request. The acceptance of the woman’s request by the man in the story and the change of the story by a female narrator causes Salim’s authority to be shaken. This situation causes him to anger and make an effort to rebuild his strength. He begins to repeat, “The woman begged, the young man rejected her.” He tries to gain the social superiority that he lost, again through discourse. At the end of the story, Nahla won the power struggle between Nahla and Salim and became free. Salim loses his social superiority to Nahla. Two of the men in Nahla’s life are characters who do not live in the narrative universe. His father, who is only mentioned and never seen throughout the film, is dead. The invisibility of the father in the narrative universe indicates the lack of paternal authority in a patriarchal family. As it is known, the patriarchal system keeps women away from the public sphere. On the other hand, it expects that the women, whom it restricted to private sphere, to continue their lives under male domination. The subject of male domination in the private sphere is family members such as father, husband and brother. The male subject enforces patriarchal laws in the private sphere, and if family members under his hegemony violate these laws, the male subject has sanction. In addition to sociological studies in the private sphere, psychological studies examine the relationship between mother-father-child. This relationship is explained as follows in Lacan’s studies (Tura, 1996: 122):

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The symbol system provides a point of departure for the human to develop her/his cultural identity as much as it allows to express herself/himself with a symbol, the signifier “I”. Because “I” signifier is established by structuring with “you” and “she/he” in the language. Here, it should be reminded that the first “I” was acquired within the family structure. In other words, it is the specific to the cultural system of family’s discourse that presents this first “I” as an opportunity. The child places the first “I” in this discourse. However, it is impossible to distinguish between “you” and “I” only. Because only in a two-person relationship, “I” and “you” are not possible to transitions with straps. In other words, there is no need for “I” and “you” in the world consisting of two people. This need arises only when a third “he” comes into play. “He” is the “Father’s Name”, that is, the symbol of the father. It is the third and mediating symbol that enters the mother-child relationship. The symbolic father practices the castration of language and is positioned as the guardian of the law. In the literature, the term “symbolic father” has been used to express the lack of the father in return for the father’s name. Father’s name / lack of father is used to describe the prohibition function in the symbolic system (Wright, 2002: 76). There is no mediating symbol involved in Nahla and her mother’s relationship. The lack of father causes conflicts between Nahla and her mother. Nahla’s mother is not happy with their neighborhood and she blames her husband for causing them to move into that house. The fact that she blames her husband for everything is one of the main reasons for Nahla’s conflict with her mother. In this narrative, the mother takes on the task of the symbolic father who enforces patriarchal laws. She makes decisions about her daughters. She tries to establish an authority over them. Her assumption of the gender roles that the gender regime expects of men has also affected the construction of her femininity. One day while they are arguing, Nahla asks her mother that ” I have never seen you cry. Is there a woman who doesn’t cry?”. Nahla also reproduced gender codes that identify women with emotionality in this discourse. Her mother, on the other hand, does not reflect her feelings and tries to solve the problems through reason and implements the roles that patriarchal societies attribute to men. This situation caused that she constructs a motherhood that drifted away from fixed maternal identity. The choice of the mother shows that there may be different variables in the construction of motherhood 349

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as a gender role. Among these variables, the main factor is the lack of the father. The lack of paternal authority in the private sphere is one of the basic elements that shape Nahla’s mother’s identity. Irigaray, who states that the mother-daughter relationship is subject to double exclusion in patriarchal societies, draws attention to the mother’s anxiety of giving her daughters an identity that reinforces their gender roles. However, girls who are more conscious about the problems of freedom of women can share their experiences with their mothers, and this relationship established between mother and daughter can lay the groundwork for the transformation or even the disappearance of patriarchal culture (2006: 49, 52). However, it is seen that such a connection cannot be established in the relationship between Nahla and her mother. Nahla’s mother created a livable space for her family by marrying her other daughter. She is not concerned about her or her daughters’ freedom. The patriarchal system dictated to her that her priorities as a mother should be different. Nahla, on the other hand, managed to liberate by refusing to enter under the authority of a man at the end of this process in which she recognized herself, her body and sexuality. The other male character who does not live in the universe of narrative is the Dream Man. Dream Man is a man created by Nahla in her dreams. He is not idealized by the patriarchal system. He is idealized by Nahla. Therefore, he is an image that does not exist in the outside world. He exists in the process when Nahla starts to recognize her own body and sexuality. The patriarchal system describes the norm bodies for women through the media and many other institutions. These descriptions value women by the system and can also cause conflict and competition among women., Nahla who compares herself with Meryem, thinks that she is not beautiful. After watching her naked body in the mirror, she meets withthe Dream Man in her dream. She tells him that her legs are not smooth and that hair is growing on her body. Nahla negates her body based on the criteria determined by the patriarchal system. However, Dream Man kisses Nahla’s legs and tries to change Nahla’s perception towards his body. Dream Man is a representation of masculinity that meets the need for love apart from Nahla’s sexual desires. Nahla asks the Dream Man to say “Stay with me, don’t go” and makes him repeat these sentences. In a scene where she meets with him, Nahla cuts off her finger while peeling fruit. Dream Man kisses the cut area. This scene shows Nahla’s visible and invisible hurts were treated by Dream Man. Dream Man does not attempt to establish hegemony over Nahla. He acts against the norms of the gender regime, which expects men to hide their emotions and create an authoritarian image. He approaches Nahla compassionately. Nahla, who says to Dream Man “I’m tired of everyone else but I will never get tired of you”, identified him with a sheltered area where she can be liberated and not dominated, even though he is in a dream world. However, at the end of the narrative, the lack of Dream Man in real life leads her to a different exit. Nahla becomes free by breaking her ties with all the men in her life.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS In this study, the representations of masculinity in a Syrian director’s film were analyzed with a semiotic method. It seems that Gaya Jiji offers an alternative to patriarchal and orientalist discourse. In future studies, films different from Eastern cinema can be examined in the context of the perspectives of male and female directors and in the light of the findings of this study, comparisons can be made to discuss the possibility of offering an alternative to patriarchal and orientalist discourse. At the same time, the narratives produced by the directors of different societies today can be examined in the context of Ori-

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entalist discourse and it can be investigated whether there is a change in the views of different societies about the East.

CONCLUSION

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Gender studies after 1990 have revealed that femininity and masculinity cannot be accepted as a universal subject. Different femininities and masculinities are constructed depending on variables such as race, class, and ethnicity. Gender politics define masculinity with features such as power, competition and success. However, the differences seen in the construction of masculinities led to the examination of different forms of masculinity. The forms of masculinity other than hegemonic masculinity, which refers to masculinity that attains social superiority, are seen both in daily life and in narratives as in this work. Gaya Jiji’s film named My Favorite Fabric takes a woman’s story at its center. She is twenty five yers old and Syrian woman. She began to discover her own body and sexuality. As a woman in a patriarchal society, the civil war continues in Syria in this period when she takes steps on her freedom. In the narrative, social struggle and Nahla’s individual struggle are handled in parallel. When Nahla’s story is taken as a basis, her relationship with the other people in the narrative is also remarkable. The narrative is based on a woman’s story. However, male characters who have a relationship with women both provide data on Nahla’s story and allow an analysis of the position of men and representations of masculinities in a woman’s story. Accordingly, when the research questions are answered, the following results are obtained: 1. Four men in Nahla’s life represent four different masculinities. When these representations of masculinity are examined within the framework of Barthes’ denotation / connotation duality, the following data are obtained: Samir, whom he will marry by arranged, has a certain economic power. He Works full time in America. However, the decisions regarding Samir’s life are made by his family. He does not have a say in matters related to his own life. He accepts his family’s decisions without question. In this context, Samir represents a passive masculinity. Salim, who comes to Madam Jiji’s brothel as a customer, is the representation of hegemonic masculinity. He is one of the soldiers who fought in the Syrian civil war. The social superiority achieved by Salim causes it to dominate women as well. Salim is a character that supports Connell, who claims that there are also differences in the construction of hegemonic masculinity. The story of the man who represents hegemonic masculinity in Gaya Jiji’s narrative does not result in victory. The meeting of Nahla who struggle for liberation, with Salim, affect the stories of the two characters differently. The story that Nahla told does not end the way Salim wanted it. At the end of the story, Nahla describes a young man who surrenders to the woman. Her choice causes that Salim’s authority was bruised and lose his power struggle. Samir and Salim are characters living in the narrative universe. Father, one of the other two male characters, represents Nahla’s lack of father in her life. The lack of the father caused that Nahla’s mother takes the duty of enforcing patriarchal norms. As a result of the conflict between them, Nahla escaped from falling under the yoke of patriarchal laws by resisting. Nahla’s mother managed to save her family from the civil war in Syria by going to America with her other children. The Dream Man in Nahla’s dream world, on the other hand, represents masculinity, ideally conceived by a woman who started to discover herself. The Dream Man, who has completely different characteristics from Salim and Samir, who live in the narrative universe, corresponds to 351

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 Representations of Masculinities in Gaya Jiji’s Film Named My Favorite Fabric

an image of masculinity that is affirmed when the contrasts between these two characters are taken into consideration. 2. Political developments in Syria affect the lives of men in the narrative differently. Samir has lived in America since childhood and he is afraid to stay in Syria when he returns to marry. Continuing Samir’s life in Syria may push him into an active struggle. Because the civil war affects the lives of the people living in that country. However, although Samir works under difficult conditions, he feels safe in America. The implementation of the decisions made by his family for him caused him to continue his life without damage. Accordingly, his return to America after marrying Mary is the ideal solution for him. There is a direct relationship between the construction of Salim’s masculinity and political developments in Syria. Hegemonic masculinity is a masculinity based on physical strength, conflict, ambition, anger and competition. At the beginning of the narrative, Salim fully fulfills the gender roles that the patriarchal society expects of him. However, the power he obtained is a burden he is not aware of, even though he carries him to a higher position in society. Salim feels that he has to constantly reproduce his hegemony over the people who he dominates. Salim’s internal conflicts and the power struggle between them and Nahla ended in defeat. In this context, the narrative shows that men, who are the representations of hegemonic masculinity, cannot always remain strong and can lose. 3. The three male characters in the narrative influence Nahla’s decisions during a process in which she discovers herself through different experiences. With his passivity identity, Samir enabled Nahla to speak louder the questions that she asked about her own freedom and her transition from passive to active. Nahla was the one who encouraged Samir, albeit briefly, and made him ask what he wanted. In this context, it can be argued that Nahla had an influence on Samir. The power struggle seen in the relationship between Salim and Nahla increases Nahla’s resistance. Salim also aimed to dominate Nahla. Nahla, who resists among his hegemony, rewrote a patriarchal narrative to overturn the subject of patriarchy and show him that he could eventually be defeated. The Dream Man, which exists in the fantasy world in the narrative universe, has opposite features with Salim. This situation ensured the establishment of an equality-based relationship with Nahla. The relationship between Nahla and Dream Man also offers an alternative form of relationship based on love, affection, desire and kindness. 4. When the narrative is examined within the framework of orientalist ideology, it is seen that a narrative is structured in contrast to the orientalist narratives in which the woman is coded as the victim and the man as the hero who never loses his power. The male characters in Gaya Jiji’s narrative support the studies of masculinity that argue that masculinity cannot be considered as a universal subject. This preference of the director causes the orientalist stereotypes of Eastern women and men not to be reproduced. In this context, the film examines all forms of masculinity, including hegemonic masculinity, and shows that there are different variables under each of them. Contrary to the image of “losers” of orientalism, Gaya Jiji focuses on a female character who attains the goal of freedom at the end of the narrative, and the men in the narrative are tool in Nahla’s liberation. The scene in which Nahla blows pieces of fabric to the sky is a sign of her liberation from male domination completely. Therefore, narrative offers an alternative to the orientalist perspective.

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REFERENCES Barthes, R. (1972). Mythologies. The Noonday Press. Barthes, R. (1974). S/Z. Blackwell Publishing. Barthes, R. (1979). Göstergebilim İlkeleri. Kültür Bakanlığı Yayınları. Barthes, R. (1993). Göstergebilimsel Serüven. Yapı Kredi Yayınları. Butler, J. (1999). Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. Routledge. Connell, R. W. (1987). Gender and Power: Society, the Person and Sexual Politics. Polity Press. Connell, R. W. (2005). Masculinities. Routledge. Dawson, R. (1967). The Chinese Chamelon: An Analysis of European Conceptions of Chinese Civilization. Oxford University Press. de Saussure, F. (1998). Genel Dilbilim Dersleri. Multilingual. Fiske, J. (2002). Introduction to Communication Studies. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203134313 Hartley, R. R. (1974). Sex-Role Pressures and the Socialization of the Male Child. In Men and Masculinity (pp. 7-13). Prentice-Hall. Howson, R. (2006). Challenging Hegemonic Masculinity. Rutledge. doi:10.4324/9780203698921 Irigaray, L. (2006). Ben Sen Biz: Farklılık Kültürüne Doğru. İmge Kitabevi Yayınları. Kandiyoti, D. (2011). Türkiye’de Toplumsal Cinsiyet ve Kadın Çalışmaları: Gelecek İçin Geçmişe Bakış. In Birkaç Arpa Boyu…: 21. Yüzyıla Girerken Feminist Çalışmalar, Prof. Dr. Nermin Abadan Unat’a Armağan, Birinci Cilt (pp. 41-60). Koç Üniversitesi Yayınları. Keyman, F. (1996). Farklılığa Direnmek: Uluslararası İlişkiler Kuramında ‘Öteki’ Sorunu. In Oryantalizm, Hegemonya ve Kültürel Fark (pp. 71-106). İletişim Yayınları. Khalid, M. (2017). Gender, Orientalism and the ‘War on Terror’: Representation, Discourse, and Intervention in Global Politics. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781315514055 Lewis, R. (2003). Gendering Orientalism: Race, Femininity and Representation. Routledge.

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Marandi, S. M., & Tari, Z. G. (2012). Orientalist Feminism; Representation of Muslim Women in Two American Novels: Terrorist and Falling Man. International Journal of Women’s Research, 1(2), 5–20. Millett, K. (2000). Sexual Politics. University of Illinois Press. Oakley, A. (1985). Sex, Gender and Society. Gower Publishing Company Limited. Plumwood, V. (1993). Feminism and the Mastery of Nature. Routledge. Said, E. (1979). Orientalism. Vintage Books.

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Shire, C. (2005). Men don’t go to the moon: language, space and masculinities in Zimbabwe. In Dislocating Masculinity: Comparative Ethnographies (pp. 146-157). Routledge. Stoller, R. J. (1968). Sex and Gender. Karnac Books. Tura, S. M. (1996). Freud’dan Lacan’a Psikanaliz. Ayrıntı Yayınları. Williams, A. (2020). Political Hegemony and Social Complexity: Mechanisms of Power After Gramsci. Palgrave Macmillan. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-19795-7

ADDITIONAL READING Chandler, D. (2007). Semiotics: The Basics (2nd ed.). Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203014936 de Beauvoir, S. (1980). İkinci Cins – Kadın: Genç Kızlık Çağı (B. Onaran, Trans.). Payel Yayınevi. Elmarsafy, Z., Bernard, A., & Attwell, D. (Eds.). (2013). Debating Orientalism. The Palgrave Macmillan. doi:10.1057/9781137341112 Labov, W. (1973). Language. In The Inner City: Studies In The Black English Vernacular. University of Pennsylvania Press. Lotman, J. (2019). Culture, Memory and History: Essays in Cultural Semiotics (B. J. Baer, Trans.). Palgrave Macmillan. Pleck, J. H. & Sawyer, J. (1974). Men and Masculinity. Prentice-Hall. Sancar, S. (2009). Erkeklik: İmkânsız İktidar Ailede, Piyasada ve Sokakta Erkekler. Metis Yayınları. Segal, L. (1992). Ağır Çekim: Değişen Erkeklikler / Değişen Erkekler (V. Ersoy, Trans.). Ayrıntı Yayınları. Sontag, S. (Ed.). (1983). A Barthes Reader. Hill and Weng. Watts, P. (Ed.). (2016). Roland Barthes’ Cinema. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:o so/9780190277543.001.0001

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Gender: It expresses the gender roles that societies expect from men and women. Hegemony: It is the social superiority that a group gains over other groups. Ideology: It is a set of thoughts and beliefs developed by societies over time. Masculinity: It defines the gender roles that societies assign to men. Orientalism: It describes the prejudiced view of the West towards the East. Patriarchy: It refers to the social system in which men dominate women. Semiotics: It is a science that aims to reveal how the meaning is formed.

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Neo-Orientalist Approaches in XR (Extended Reality) Applications Barış Atiker https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4622-7409 Bahcesehir University, Turkey

ABSTRACT Being one of the most prominent refections of intercultural interaction, orientalism is the West’s description of the East according to its own beliefs and understanding. This concept also includes the alienation and isolation of the human while trying to defne ‘the others’. The digital culture has searched for alternative realities and identities visible through virtual worlds controlled by the individual. This search for identity has led to the transformation of a fctional and shallow imagination into a cultural commodity through various stereotypes, just like in orientalism. Extended reality is one of the new oases of neo-orientalism as a research subject that combines the concepts of virtual and augmented reality. The increasing fusion between the human mind and machines radically changes the way people are born, live, learn, work, produce, dream, discuss, or die. This research aims to interpret the efects of transformation of information in XR technologies within the axis of neo-orientalism perspective through new individual experiences.

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INTRODUCTION Orientalism always stands out as an approach that expresses situations in which separation between post-colonial societies and cultures becomes clear in a general sense. Boehmer describes colonialism as ‘the settlement of territory, the exploitation and development of resources, and the attemp to govern the indigenous inhabitants of occupied lands often by force’ (Boehmer, 2005:2). Fanon (1961) was one of the first thinkers to argue that colonialism is inherently destructive due to its oppression of the identity of the colonized countries and the dehumanization of its people. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch022

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 Neo-Orientalist Approaches in XR (Extended Reality) Applications

Orientalism is the form of information that authorizes and justifies the assertion of western power over the east. Although the meaning of the Latin word ‘’oriens’’ is the place where the sun rises, it has been used by politicians, clergy, and especially the media to depict darkness, mystery, and danger. As the creator of orientalism, Said (1978) defines the orient as at the bottom something either to be feared (the Yellow Peril, the Mongol hordes, the brown dominions) or to be controlled by pacification, research, and development, outright occupation whenever possible. Orientalism is therefore, according to Said’s perspective, ‘a set of discursive practices, the forms of power-knowledge that Western cultures used to produce (and hence control) a region of the globe known as the Orient’ (Klages, 2006: 153). According to MacKenzie (1995) ‘Orientalism’ came under critical attack from the 1870s, as Impressionism superseded Realism, but it had a remarkable power of survival: in the 1880s and 1890s it re-established itself as an exceptionally popular form, surviving until the inter-war years. Orientalism has also been not only the West’s view of the East but also the view of itself. While the idea of orientalism became visible in literature and art under the auspices of the 19th-century colonialist British and French states, it is now undisputed how the post-colonial social changes that underpin Said’s ideas are explicitly or covertly reflected in today’s creative industries such as film, video games, and literature. In fact, the biggest consumers of this ideology are not only the western societies that created a virtual world but also the eastern societies that have adopted the orientalist perspective. ‘In a sense, the limitations of Orientalism are, as I said earlier, the limitations that follow upon a disregarding, essentializing, denuding, the humanity of another culture, people, or geographical region’ (Said, 1978). As James Thompson has argued, the East was a major preoccupation of nineteenth-century painting, an East which was, in turn, ‘Imagined, Experienced, Remembered’ (MacKenzie, 1995). Snake Charmer (1879) is an orientalist painting by the French painter Jean-Léon Gérôme. The inclusion of this picture on the cover of Said’s book has made it one of the symbols of orientalism. According to Lee (2012), it brought together quite different and even incompatible elements. Snake playing is a kind of entertainment that was not part of Ottoman culture and was practiced in Egypt in the nineteenth century. The artist realized this installation in a mixed, fictional space derived from Egyptian as well as Turkish sources. Nochlin (1983) discusses the idea of Orientalist images implying timelessness, the absence of history, and the western man that represents western superiority. Gérôme suggests that this Oriental world is a world without a change, a world of timeless, atemporal customs and rituals, untouched by the historical processes that were ‘afflicting’ or ‘improving’ but, at any rate, drastically altering Western societies at the time. The ‘orient’, according to Said, is a discursive construction and not an expression of an inert truth of nature or a description of the essential and real ‘orient’. The Orient, Said contends, ‘was Orientalized not only because it was discovered to be ‘Oriental’ in all the ways considered commonplace by an average nineteenth-century European, but also because it could be – that is, submitted to being – made Oriental’ (1978: 5). Orientalism essentially preserves real information, replaces it with its dogmas, and defends it by all means of narrative. Today, in an information age where most communication tools and social media have access to almost all kinds of information, the truth is still underestimated, manipulated, and distorted. The information that people can reach according to their own values, environment, and resources is limited. And the individual is in comfort in a spiral of similar thoughts with those who resemble himself. It stems

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from the uncontrolled distribution of information, devoid of empathy, from the most radical thinking to the most humanistic approach.

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Figure 1. The Snake Charmer (1879) by Jean-Léon Gérôme.

Postcolonialism, along with Orientalism, is an area that tries to understand the effects of the West’s distorted view of the East. In particular, the media and post-colonialism examine the political and economic legacies systematically imposed by western nations against Eastern societies through cultural elements. Postcolonial critics challenge the idea that the western perspective is the universal experience of the world and show the limitations of western colonial literature, particularly in empathizing with other cultures. They examine ideas of cultural difference and diversity in a vast amount of literary works while celebrating multiculturalism and cultural pluralism, in which many ethnic groups enter into a dialogue with each other and collaborate without any group subjugating to the other or sacrificing their cultural identity. Globalized societies and cultures that resemble over time have tended to exclude, suppress and destroy what is different with common judgments. This distinction has become much more pronounced in modern and digital society through anonymous identities. Social media polarization has turned into a problem that requires urgent intervention. Discourses targeting minorities or opposing views easily spread on social media and attract supporters. Of course, the sharpening of power discourses by more authoritarian politicians and the application of the “us vs. them” distinction is again one of the serious problems inherent in neo-orientalism. Venugopal (2012) quotes from Singh for Neo- orientalism that stands for the ‘discourse about Orient by the people of the Orient located in the West, or shuttling between two’...or the ‘discursive practices about the Orient by the people from the Orient...located in the non-Orient for the people of the non-Orient.

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THE POWER

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‘Knowledge linked to power, not only assumes the authority of ‘the truth’ but has the power to make itself true’ (Foucault 1977: 27) Foucault’s thoughts, which describe the information and power relationship, can guide us in analyzing the contexts between societies, technology, and post-colonialism. The individual’s thoughts and discourses, whose all behaviors are kept under control by physical and psychological factors, can be easily managed by limiting access to information. For Foucault, identity and individuality are the sum of subjective experiences, and there is no doubt that humans are historically the subjects of these experiences. Subjectivity, on the other hand, is a consciousness relation that has been established with ourselves, that is, the way to represent ourselves with our consciousness. (Strozier, 2002) Foucault particularly emphasizes the interrelationship between power and information. Because the continuity of the power is the result of the information produced and structured for the purpose. Its continuity is provided by its validity. “The operation of power constantly creates knowledge and on the contrary, knowledge also causes power effects” (Rasche, 2003). According to Erdem (2019), in a Foucauldian understanding of society, the relationship between power and knowledge essentially constitutes the basis of society. Discourse is the most important tool that contributes to the formation of this foundation since it is a tool for power to create and distribute itself, to create and control discussions over society. Hall defines two key features of the discourse of ‘the Other’ (Hall, 2007:205). The first is stereotyping where several characteristics are collapsed into one simplified figure to represent the essence of the people and the second feature describes how the discursive formation of the Other divides the stereotype into two halves such as good and bad, which is referred to as dualism. In his words ‘’’the world is first divided, symbolically, into good-bad, us-them, attractive-disgusting, civilised -uncivilised, the West-the Rest. All the other, many differences between and within these two halves are collapsed, simplified – i.e. stereotyped’ (Hall, 2007: 216). Idea, cultures, and histories cannot seriously be understood or studied without their force, or more precisely their configurations of power, also being studied (Said, 1978). Simply put, this is a suggestion that if a certain group within a society has more political or economic power they will also have unfair power in framing or deciding what the culture of that society in which both they and the most disempowered groups within that society live. In particular, he suggests that what happened that the West essentially took away the instability to represent or define itself and that instead, the west came to define the East in a manner that was useful in his own terms. Therefore, in his own words: ‘The imaginative examination of thing oriental was based more or less exclusively upon a sovereign western consciousness out of whose unchallenged centrality an oriental world emerged’ (Said, 1978). Sardar states that under postmodernism, Orientalism continues its conventional role of caricaturing and ideologically silencing the civilizations of Asia. (1999:108) This is a dominant and hegemonic paradigm which refers to ‘the process of making, maintaining and reproducing … authoritative sets of meanings and practices’ through media representations (Barker 2000: 262). Sardar continues to explain the effects of globalization as one of the main features of postmodernism. The postmodern world is a world of shrinking boundaries, instant communication, and popular culture that straddles the globe. It is a mass-market where Western entertainment consciously creates its products 358

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for a global audience, diminishing both the West and the rest. It is also a world dominated by a single superpower; a world where the old European colonialism has been replaced by neo-imperialist superpower politics of a single superpower. In such a world, Orientalism is transformed into an expression of globalized power and becomes both an instrument for exercising that power and containing perceived threats to that power. (Sardar, 1999:110)

Isolation and Virtual Reality Western consciousness glorifies the individual-oriented features of the life it idealizes. This means that the individual is isolated from ‘others’ and lives his/her own reality only with those who are similar to himself/herself. The concept of isolation is perhaps the most prominent feature of the orientalist approach. Isolation bilaterally imprisons both the audience and the meaning within their concepts. Interestingly, extended reality applications also isolate the user from the real life. However, this isolation is not conceptual as in orientalism, but also physical and psychological. Physical loneliness is experienced not only by the user using XR equipment, but also by isolating from the real world and slipping into an alternative reality. Ready Player One (2018), which begins with the sentence ‘The limit of reality is as much as you can imagine’, is a film about the struggle of individuals transforming into different avatar identities in a dystopian virtual reality world (Oasis). This struggle represents the awakening and destruction of the links between the virtual and real world (Figure 2).

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Figure 2. Ready Player One (2018) film directed by Steven Spielberg

Our age has been described as the information age for a long time. Especially in the last 50 years, the rapid transformation of mass media from radio to television and from video to the internet has resulted in a faster, effective, and efficient distribution of information. Despite the supposed capacity of information technology to increase the availability of information, the finite capacity of such ‘edutainment’

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tools makes selection paramount. Thus, Orientalism finds a contemporary voice both in the process of selection as well as in the actual content. (Sardar, 1999:108) It can be seen that human perception is still very narrow and shallow when approached from an orientalist point of view, especially under the dominance of the relationship between human-machine and technology. Dystopic images of the future (techno-orientalism) are replicas of an orientalist imagination, responding to the demand for consumption of popular culture and causing us to forget how limited our perspective is. The mystery of the unknown and the fact that the imagination is fed by the most basic instincts such as fear, and pleasure always keeps this approach at the focus of popular culture. Of course, although digitalizing society and cultural globalization seem to be a factor that eliminates this obscurity, they have the opposite function. The ‘new’ media tools that reconstruct the information as vivid images and almost redesign reality continue to reap all the fruits of a dark and exotic eastern culture. As defined by Nakamura, Techno-orientalism is a combination of images from the Exotic East (especially Japan) with a futuristic high-tech science fiction narrative’ (Nakamura 2002). Ridley Scott’s 1982 film Blade Runner is one of the most prominent examples of techno orientalism (Figure 3). The 2019 depiction of the city of Los Angeles is embellished with high-rise skyscrapers, flying cars, and Japanese Geisha images.

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Figure 3. Blade Runner (1982) film directed by Ridley Scott.

Sardar (1999) explains that Japan also faces a similar process of Orientalism. Just as Christendom saw Islam as a ‘problem’ at the beginning of the millennium, America now confronts ‘the problem of Japan’ at the end of the millennium. It has conventionally been seen, like the rest of the Orient, as an exotic culture, the land of geisha. Japan has been admired for its aesthetics (exquisite gardens, curious architecture, strange kabuki theatre, and funny tea ceremonies) and feared for its inhuman martial traditions (samurai, bushido, ninja, kamikaze) It is necessary to approach the extended reality phenomenon from both the technology and consumption perspectives. Countries such as Japan, Korea, Singapore, and China, which threaten the sovereignty of western nations in terms of economic power, are also the biggest consumers of XR technology. Storchi (2018) states, according to IDC the XR market size will be $209.2 billion in the year 2022. Asian hi-tech companies such as Sony and HTC are brands that develop XR technology at an advanced level. Kenneth Research company predicts the Asian pacific XR world to reach 288 billion dollars in 2026, where the distinction between West and East is now made on the axis of technology and content

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production. However, it is a striking fact that the world’s largest XR content producers are still western societies.

Orientalism and XR (Extended Realities) The phenomenon that affects the relationship of humanity with the future to the greatest extent is technology. XR technology is actually the end product of a quest that came from almost hundreds of years ago. This search is alternative reality. Just like the reason why fairy tales, songs and movies are loved, the idea of ​​keeping the ordinary person away from their ordinary life makes this alternative reality always more saturated, more exciting and more desirable. Perhaps the most revolutionary of these forms of expression is the immersive technologies in which the physical and virtual worlds meet or so-called augmented reality. This virtual is a world of alternative experiences connected with images, texts, and animations of the virtual and the real. Visual elements in augmented reality are superimposed on the real-world image. In other words, virtual images change their position, size, color according to your point of view through mobile phones or AR glasses, and they do this with speed and accuracy that you cannot notice. With a technology demo by Niantic (2018) the virtual image is not only superimposed on the real image, but it can also appear behind real objects as layers of depth as occlusion (Figure 4). Applications such as PokemonGo and Snapchat open the doors to a world where humans cannot see the limits yet.

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Figure 4. Pokemon Go AR Game (2018) Occlusion Technology Demo by Niantic

According Tang, Pokemon GO’s success is explained firstly because it induces nostalgia (invoking people’s memory of Pokemon in the past); and secondly, the immersive location based storytelling takes the users outside and walk through the real-world, which is often a rewarding experience in itself (Tang, 2017). Unlike augmented reality, virtual reality, which has a much older history, has a digital structure that completely separates the viewer from its real-world through a head-mounted headset. In this respect, one of the biggest problems in front of virtual reality, which can be defined as a dream world, is the conflict between these two worlds. In other words, when there is conflict between the virtual and physical world

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experienced by the audience, the brain and body react to nausea, loss of balance, and vomiting. Therefore, ways of deceiving the brain and body are the main research topics of extended reality. Technologies that physically trigger the brain are being developed to correct these obstacles especially with new experiences where senses such as touch and smell are at the forefront. XR offers a much more immersive experience that creates not only audio-visual but also physical interaction through more senses, making it possible to perfectly isolate reality or surreal. Therefore, applications of augmented reality should be evaluated as a phenomenon that can change the perceptual paradigm rather than a technological tool. The great potential of XR applications to change, modify, and even distort reality which is a sign that should be approached much more carefully. The fact that XR applications are being used in more areas such as education, military, health and games also reveals that it is necessary to question what purposes these applications are designed for. First VR designed by Ivan Sutherland in 1968 set is to be called The Sword of Democles, which reminds everyone as humanity have so much responsibility with the tools they have, and use them to achieve the best human possible. Called the 360-degree experience, the XR gives the user new perspectives from their focus, in contrast to the limited transmission of the two-dimensional frame of photos and videos that are used to until today. For this reason, the critical approaches that have been made especially towards media tools so far should be reconstructed according to changing paradigms. Kirby (2009:1) proposes that the new paradigm is digimodernism. It owes its emergence and preeminence to the computerization of text, which yields a new for of textuality characterized in its purest instances by onwardness, haphazardness, evanescence, and anonymous, social and multiple authorship. XR creates the perfect environment for the West, which created its own ‘virtual’ reality about eastern societies for more than a century, to continue this habit today. This representation is much more pronounced not only in literary works but also in visual works of art. Today, when trying to analyze any cultural content, 4 basic elements can be addressed, as Peter Barry has stated in his book Beginning Theory. This assessment can naturally also be adapted to XR content.

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1. 2. 3. 4.

An awareness of representations of the non-european as exotic or immoral ‘other’ An interest in the role of of language in upporting or subversing that power dynamic. An emphasis on identity as doubled, hybrid or unstable A stress on ‘Cross-Cultural’ interactions (Barry, 1995:193-195)

‘Another Dream’ is a hybrid animated documentary and VR game directed by Tamara Shogaolu (2018). It tells the story of an Egyptian lesbian couple who faced difficulties due to the oppressive regime after the 2011 revolution and therefore had to migrate to the Netherlands. In the film, the couple describes how they were ostracized by Europeans not just because they are from the Middle East but also they are gay. However, they do this in English, not in their own language. Their identity is doubled as being both Egyptian and lesbian which is beyond any stereotypes and the whole film is about the cross-cultural interactions within LGBT communities. The installation offers and allows audiences to reflect on what they have seen, heard, and felt in VR as individual experiences (Figure 5).

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Figure 5. Another Dream (2018) VR film directed by Tamara Shogaolu

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THE IMMERSION The concept of immersion refers to “the level of physical or psychological submergence of a user within a virtual space relative to that user’s consciousness of the real-world environment” (Emma-Ogbangwo, 2014). The biggest difference of XR from other media tools is primarily on these individual experiences. An important difference is the relationship of the user with his new body. When you wear XR devices, not only your outside world, but also the image of your body changes. But in fact, what matters here is not the look of your new environment or your body, but the rapid acceptance of this change by the brain. Regardless of his role in the virtual world, the person’s body movements and the movement matching of the virtual character are quickly accepted by the brain. Already XR is developing gloves and body suites that contain not only goggles but also sensors and motors to reinforce this feeling. This situation provides a light for us to look at the fact of accepting someone else’s body experience in a deeper perspective. Virtual reality images are still as close to reality as possible, but the processing capabilities do not yet allow us to achieve fully realistic results. The fact that they are not real does not prevent it from evoking realistic feelings. In other words, there is no direct link between realistic images and emotions. But when logic comes into play, the real appearance appears as a limit. In a FPS (First Person Shooter) VR game called Battlefield 3, the player can experience the destruction of war through the eyes of an American soldier without the risk of losing his life (Figure 6). However, in this experience, it is not questioned why the player is an American soldier or even why he is in Iraq. His only mission is to ‘neutralize’ the terrorists. Of course, Battlefield 3 is not the only one of its kind, just as the destroyed portrayal of the Middle East is not abandoned, especially in terror and war games. However the immersion of this experience, which makes a difference in that the spatial and concrete interaction played with many players at the same time, is part of the story.

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Figure 6. Battlefield 3 (2011) VR FPS Game

XR is a bridge between abstract ideas and the real world. Information is transformed into knowledge that can be transferred and experienced instead of being learned. Although mistakes and experiences are a part and result of long learning processes, they now turn into commodities in the changing paradigm. Information transfer continues not only cognitively but also in an operational manner. XR experience is a situation where the mind, subconscious, and body are questioned simultaneously. Computer simulations have recently succeeded in producing ultra-realistic images and used them in a pre-rendered form in fields such as cinema and video games. But when it came to rendering simultaneously, the reality of the image started to be questioned. Soon, when the real-time visualization problem is overcome, another problem will arise. Affecting our emotions, XR will begin to affect our understanding of reality. At this point, the capabilities that new mindsets can bring and the impact of these new technologies on our ongoing evolutionary process must be questioned.

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Simulation and Simulacra In ancient times, there was a definite distinction between reality and imagination. This distinction began to weaken as tools such as photography and film representing reality developed with the Industrial Revolution. In post-modern times, this distinction has completely disappeared with the existence of simulations instead of reality. Invented by Charles Wheatstone, the Stereoscope (Figure 7) is one of the first passages to the XR world as a device that allows 3-D detection by combining two images of the same scene taken from different angles.

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Figure 7. Stereoscope (1938)

Simulacra and simulation was written by Baudrillard in 1981 and it is a valuable resource in the critical approach to the concept of XR. First of all, it describes the role that images play in contemporary society and how these images mediate reality. Baudrillard introduces the concept of “hyperreal”, referring to a wide range of cultural products, from advertising and architecture to cinema. According to Baudrillard (1994) simulation is a false representation of reality. In our world reality and fiction intertwine seamlessly. Baudrillard defined simulation as the artificial reproduction of a tool, a machine, a system, a case-specific way of functioning by means of a model or a computer program for the purpose of examining, demonstrating, or explaining. Digitalization of images in turn leads to a disappearance of “the entire symbolic articulation of language and thought”: Soon there will no longer be any thought-sensitive surface of confrontation, any suspension of thought between illusion and reality. There will be no blanks anymore, no silences, no contradiction - just a single continuous flow, a single integrated circuit (Baudrillard, 2009). Hyperreal is a very realistic representation that cannot be distinguished as a representation, but is treated as reality to show the difficulty of determining the truth from the simulated one. Virtual Reality in itself is a rather miserable idea: that of imitating reality, of reproducing its experience in an artificial medium. The reality of the virtual, on the other hand, stands for the reality of the virtual as such, for its real effects and consequences (Žižek, 2004:3) Could Baudrillard’s definition of hyperreal be the equivalent of the new reality promised by XR applications? This raises the possibility that reality and truth can be limited to a single point of view in an environment, where the virtual and real worlds are unquestionably intermingled. This experience of truth and reality is emotional as well as audiovisual and tactile. Holographic reproduction, like all fantasies of the exact synthesis or resurrection of the real (this also goes for scientific experimentation), is already no longer real, is already hyperreal. Not an exact, but a transgressive truth, that is to say already on the other side of the truth. What happens on the other side of the truth, not in what would be false, but in what is more true than the true, more real than the real? (Baudrillard 1994: 108).

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XR and Emotions Different worlds and experiences are the sources of motivation at the core of humanity’s quest for adventure. Especially fear and pleasure, which are the most basic instincts, have a great effect on the meaning of these new experiences. Fear keeps people away from many dangerous experiences. Behaviors such as humiliation, judgment, exclusion take the people captive before they act. When these fears are removed, whatever their connection with reality, not only thoughts but also actions change. The XR’s being a ‘safe’ environment makes it easier for the images created to appeal to the most basic emotions. In particular, games with horror and action are actually harmless, just like in the orientalist understanding. Here, the control is in the ‘superior’ human, allowing him to go on an adventure with monsters, zombies, and terrorists without being harmed in real terms. Tesla Suit is a complementary outfit that enables the synchronization of mind and body by sending electrical signals to certain parts of the body like a neural network while experiencing XR. This allows the user to continue the experience as ‘superhuman’ without being damaged in the XR environment whether it is a training simulation or a shooting game (Figure 8). Figure 8. TeslaSuit outfit (2019) Image source: teslasuit.io

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Empathy, Artificial Intelligence and 5G While the orientalist point of view is based on both the mental and physical superiority of the West, XR has the power to change thoughts, feelings, and beliefs by reshaping relationships with ‘others’, especially through the concept of empathy. Jameson (1991) presents an image of a postmodern society consisting of four basic elements. 1. The superficiality and the absence of depth that gives postmodern society its character. The cultural products of postmodern society are pleased with surface images and do not delve deep into the underlying meanings. 2. Postmodernism is the diminution of emotion or excitement.

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3. Historicity has been lost. The past can no longer be known. We can only access texts about the past and produce only other texts on that topic. This loss of historicality has led to “taking random pieces from all styles of the past”. The past and the present are somehow intertwined. 4. There is a new technology associated with postmodern society. Instead of generative technologies such as the automobile assembly line, reproduction technologies, especially television and computers, are dominant. The violently inward collapsing, leveling technologies of the postmodern era give rise to cultural products that are far different from those of the booming, expanding technologies of the modern era. One of the most important features of XR is that it can carry the user not only to virtual space but also to a virtual time. From the orientalist point of view, the concept of time is an excellent tool for portraying backwardness or a dystopian future where the West is always ahead of the East in time. Home After War is a VR experience that tells a story from the eyes of an Iraqi family returning home after the war in Fallujah (Figure 9). This documentary VR film, which allows you to walk around the different rooms and gardens of the house makes you think that poverty, booby traps, and bomb sounds do not belong to your own time. Figure 9. Home After War (2018) VR Film directed by Gayatri Parameswaran.

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Image source: Oculus

However, the technology that gives you this experience aims at a digital data transfer rate beyond time for more realistic and simultaneous images. Superfast mobile networks will not only strengthen the use of the XR for entertainment purposes, but further increase the potential for more entry into many different industries such as education, security, health, and more. When the data transfer rate with 5G technology will become 10 times higher than today, cloud networks will have a much more important place than very expensive computers and equipment for XR. This will be a huge improvement that eliminates the spatial limitation of simultaneous experiences where all of our online actions within the network are copied almost simultaneously. So in a sense, thanks to XR, there will be virtual twins anywhere in the world without bodily boundaries.

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THE PRESENCE According to Lombard and Dillon (1997), a number of emerging technologies including virtual reality, simulation rides, video conferencing, home theater, and high definition television are designed to provide media users with an illusion that a mediated experience is not mediated, a perception defined here as presence. One of the most distinctive features of XR is also presence, ie being somewhere. The person wearing the HMD (Head Mounted Device) belongs to another place in his mind. This presence is a visible and measurable phenomenon, even if it is not noticed from the outside. Looking at the factors that allow XR experiences to be separated from real experiences, the body shows reactions such as nausea, vomiting, loss of balance when the relationship between mind and body goes wrong. The most important feature for XR is the continuity of experience. This continuity is that both technological tools and the story are uninterrupted for the audience. It creates an “perceptual illusion of nonmediation” defined by Lombard and Ditton (1997) when a person fails to perceive or acknowledge the existence of a medium in his/her communication environment and responds as he/she would if the medium were not there. The perceptual illusion of non-mediation is gained when the medium provides a high-fidelity reproduction of the psysical reality: it depends on how things look and feel. And the fact that this story experienced in an immersive environment greatly affects the person’s empathy for a life that he has not known or experienced, by getting rid of his own self and ego. The biggest difference between XR from other media tools is that it affects the mind and body at the same time. The user not only experiences the story with his mind and body but also becomes part of the story. All the exotic, dangerous, and passionate experiences depicted in Western orientalist literature are not only depicted but promised at the same time. And this experience is an immersive story that is individual or multi-player and can result differently each time. In Dubbelman’s explorations, examples of engaging story events include “building tension through spatial conflict, evoking empathy through characterization and creating moral dilemmas through player choices” (2016:39). Accoring to Pinchback and Stevens (2005), presence, rather than a state, should be defined as an indicator of the ongoing development of relationships of significance between the user and the perceived environmental stimuli. In XR games, as in other computer games, multi-player platforms also increase the interaction between players at a high intensity. The coexistence and interaction of different players in the same virtual environment are one of the main reasons to focus on the action that is experienced more than the environment itself. The human brain focuses on the flow of the story, not the setting and details. At this point, the basics of the story give clues about the content designer’s perspective. Taking the opportunity to be and feel like someone else, XR experiences offer viewers a choice to change roles and flow in the story, which has never been possible before. Rec Room (2016) is a highly popular VR socializing platform of recent times. Users can play many different games within the platform, organize activities such as watching movies together or even create their own VR games with simple tools. RecRoom demonstrates an alternative life in the virtual world through characters that users create, dress, and develop for themselves (Figure 10). As Sardar (1999) points out, Orientalism is a means of imaginative appropriation; Postmodernism encourages everyone to create their own company by eclectically embracing all human history and cultures.

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Figure 10. RecRoom (2019) VR Game. Image Source: Against Gravity

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THE FLOW To explore the influence of communication modality and environment on the messages (contents) and interactions in a virtual environment created by AR, MR, or VR technologies, practitioners and researchers of digital reality technologies often employ the concept, immersion, to explain the feeling of flow and presence (Kim & Biocca, 2018). Baudrillard (1994) discussed the effect of electronic media on social life practices; He advocated the idea that especially mass media and technological communication forms are almost captured by some images. For, the description of an age dominated by media can be revealed by reflecting the meanings shaped by the flow of images. In a society under the media images, media images are reacted, not real people and places. The user-centricity of extended reality applications results in collecting enormous amounts of information about the audience. Information such as where and how long the user looks, what he touches, and how he focuses provide both the uninterrupted progress of the experience and its interaction with other users. The fact that the same content is shared with other users at the same time in the XR world makes it necessary to evaluate these experiences not only individually but also socially. Togetherness and sharing of challenges have been an element that unites and strengthens people throughout history. The coexistence of XR experiences is also the most effective way for different cultures to come together and get rid of prejudices and fundamental ideas. Chapman states ‘games tend to tell us more about the present self than the collective past’ (Chapman, 2016:203) since inviting players to an incomplete re-enactment of a morally suspicious past through the eyes of a stereotypical colonizer, these games can influence the actors’ cultural, social and aesthetic experience of the ideological and historical phenomena linked to colonialism. The indispensable relationship between information and power defined by Foucault is gaining a new depth thanks to XR technologies. The ‘controllability’ of this information is carried to different dimensions that have never been imagined until today with the access of complex technologies such as AI

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(Artificial Intelligence) and ML (Machine Learning). According to Pettey, recent advances in articificial intelligence and machine learning technologies have prompted many practitioners to claim immersive digital reality technologies will be the next step in many marketing activities (Pettey, 2018). Virtual reality offered by XR is now the ‘new’ reality. Emotions should be fed from knowledge, partnership, and sharing rather than fear, prejudice or gratification. While the XR world promises new realistic experiences to its users in other places, times, and bodies, it actually awakens the feeling of compassion, which is one of the most basic needs. This is the beginning of a change so that ongoing conflicts, wars, and prejudices disappear. This change is an attitude that will change not only the way people solve problems but also the way they view them. A world that is not afraid of the unknown, the different, the experience, the unification, and is not confined to the absolutely isolated self. The applications of immersion in digital reality studies have been extended to the context of education and even neuroscientific research to examine the effect of fear in a virtual environments (Huff, Hernandez, Fecteau, Zielinski, Brady, & LaBar, 2011). 2nd Step is a VR journey through space from Moon to Mars and beyond. It is promoted to be a very intense experience of being in the middle of alien, undiscovered worlds far away from the earth just like the explorers visiting the East centuries ago. The story and the content of the application have a scientific approach from the European Space Agency and it has an unprecedented richness of detail (Figure 11). Figure 11. 2nd Step VR Film (2018) directed by Jörg Courtial.

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Image source: https://faber-courtial.de/projects/vr/2ndstep

Learning by experience provides great advantages in using XR technologies for educational purposes. Especially the refresh rate of XR experiences is much more effective than reading or looking at the screen, which is passive actions, due to factors such as motor reflexes and muscle strength. Similarly, the reaction speed for the learned content increases in the XR environment. This is proof that XR can increase human skills with the combination of mental and physical activities. Similarly, the experiences in the XR applications are very cheap compared to the real experiences. Impossible themes like time travel or being a tourist on Mars are now much more convincing. Experi-

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encing how the same space looks like at different times and witnessing the change over the years reveals how weak it is to look from a single point of view. Eliminating fear is one of XR’s biggest potential promises. For this reason, many psycho-therapy applications are popularly used today. Fear is a feeling that loses its true meaning in XR and is used only for fun and excitement. The main reason for this is that the simulation created by the XR system clears the real-life dangers or damages and gives the user ‘confidence’. It is this feeling of ‘trust’ that will change the future of XR and humanity.

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CONCLUSION When approached with a neo-orientalist perspective, the experiences designed for XR applications are seamless, isolated, like a dream, and focused on pleasure and emotional intensity. The delusion of seeing what cannot be seen, hearing what cannot be heard, and touching what cannot be touched is the greatest weapon of XR applications in creating a superior human illusion. This definition of ‘superior human’ brings both cooperation and competition between application designers and technology developers on the East-West axis. A person who can watch the sunset 360 degrees on top of a mountain thousands of miles away without fatigue, who can access the information he wants in front of his eyes without effort, who can instantly test how the machine he has designed works, will no longer want to leave this world. Of course, XR has a long way to go in achieving empathy and increased human goals - which is not known if it has such a goal. The main reason for this is that these technological products are still priced very high compared to the world income average. These technologies, which have limited accessibility for underdeveloped or developing countries, lead to the lack of an objective perspective in content production. According to Venugopal (2012), we have to put together a set of cross-disciplinary perspectives about the East by the West as a set of ideas, mindful of how people see and confront each other in an increasingly interconnected world; where differences are constantly fudged through contact and acculturation despite the effects of hegemony and orthodoxy, and increasingly mediated by the internet and social media. Also Higgin underlines the idea of ‘game companies must understand the importance of tearing fantasy from its Eurocentric and colonial roots as well as destroying the connotation of humanity with whiteness’ (2008:21) While the fact that augmented reality technologies are becoming cheaper and more accessible has not yet provided a global ‘connection’, many futurists point to the existing potential. In addition, the conflict over new cultural hegemonies between the West, the creator of XR content, and the East, the developer of this technology, constitute the building blocks of neo-orientalism. The main goal should be to facilitate the access of these technologies and tools by underdeveloped and developing countries and to establish a balance between East and West, especially on educational subjects. XR technologies do not yet have enough content for understanding and experience the world of ‘the others’. It is now imperative that content producers and governments provide urgently needed funds and take steps to facilitate entrepreneurship to improve content quality. Facebook’s Ash Jhaveri makes a very important statement (WIRED Brand Lab, 2018, n.p.): Our virtual reality products originally were targeted at consumers, but by addressing the social aspect and presence, VR can remove barriers that transcend distance and time in ways that can benefit the enterprise.

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The criticism of lack of empathy and understanding lies at the heart of the orientalist approach. Considering that the most important skill of humanity is to adapt to the search for new worlds, new technologies and the changes these technologies bring to human life, there is an opportunity for intercultural empathy to become a reality like never before. At its core, XR can help us design and tell better stories based on real emotions and emphaty. All approaches that liberate the experience of knowledge can enable us to fill gaps in intercultural interactions. XR technologies, where creativity and imagination will be seen as a rising economic value, can produce much more valuable, sustainable and distinctive results compared to natural resources like oil and gold that have been products of orientalism perspective until now.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTION XR applications will be much more in contact with artificial intelligence and the IOT (internet of things) in the future within the synthesizing of new technologies. New possibilities and opportunities will emerge within the scope of both the users having new tangible experiences and the transformation of all these experiences into data, which are viewed only superficially today. Especially with the introduction of synthetic touch, smell and taste senses into the XR world, the search for alternative reality will gain speed and turn into new forms of expression in design and arts. At this point, establishing relationships with different cultures and lives based on empathy will reveal as many alternative options as one can imagine on his own identity.

REFERENCES Barker, C. (2000). Cultural Studies: Theory and Practice. Sage. Barry, P. (1995). Beginning Theory, An Introduction to Literary and Cultural Theory. Manchester University Press. Baudrillard, J. (1994). Simulacra and Simulation. The University of Michigan Press. Baudrillard, J. (2009). Why Hasn’t Everything Disappeared. Seagull Books. Boehmer, E. (2005). Colonial and Postcolonial Literature: Migrant Metaphors (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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Chapman, A. (2016). Digital Games as History. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781315732060 Dubbelman, T. (2016). Narrative Game Mechanics. Int. Conference on Interactive Digital Storytelling, 39–50. 10.1007/978-3-319-48279-8_4 Erdem, B. K. (2019). Batý Metafiziðinden Postmodernizme ‘Ötekinin’ Kökleri, 90. Eðitim Yayýnevi. Foucault, M. (1977). Discipline and Punish, 27. Allen Lane. Hall, S. (2007). The West and the Rest: Discourse and Power. In T. Das Gupta (Ed.), Race and Racialization: Essential Readings (pp. 184–227). Canadian Scholar Press.

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Higgin, T. (2008). Blackless Fantasy: The Disappearance of Race in Massively Multiplayer Online RolePlaying Games. Games and Culture, 4(1), 3–26. doi:10.1177/1555412008325477 Huff, N., Hernandez, J. A., Fecteau, M., Zielinski, D., Brady, R., & LaBar, K. S. (2011). Revealing context-specific conditioned fear memories with full immersion virtual reality. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 5(75). Advance online publication. doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2011.00075 PMID:22069384 Jameson, F. (1991). Postmodernism, or, The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism, 38. Duke University Press. Kenneth Research – Asia Pacific Extended Reality (XR) Market Future Scope Opportunities with Strategic Growth and Top Players. (2020). Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic. Marketwatch. https://www. marketwatch.com/press-release/asia-pacific-extended-reality-xr-market-future-scope-opportunities-withstrategic-growth-and-top-players-impact-of-covid-19-pandemic-2020-09-25 Kim, G., & Biocca, F. (2018). Immersion in virtual reality can increase exercise motivation and physical performance. Paper presented at the Virtual, Augmented and Mixed Reality: Applications in Health, Cultural Heritage, and Industry - 10th International Conference, VAMR 2018. 10.1007/978-3-319-91584-5_8 Kirby, A. (2009). Digimodernism: How New Technologies Dismantle the Postmodern and Reconfigure Our Culture, 1. Continuum. Klages, M. (2006). Literary Theory: A Guide for the Perplexed. Continuum. Lee, S. (2012). Nineteenth-Century European Paintings At The Sterling and Francine Clark Art Institute (vol. 1). Academic Press. Lombard, M., & Ditton, T. (1997). At the Heart of It All: The Concept of Presence. Journal of ComputerMediated Communication, 3(2). MacKenzie, J., & MacDonald, J. (1995). Orientalism: History, Theory and the Arts. Manchester University Press. Nochlin, L. (1983). The Imaginary Orient. Art in America, (5), 118–131. Pettey, C. (2018). Immersive technologies are moving closer to the edge of artificial intelligence. Gartner, Inc. Retrieved on November 12, 2019 from https://www.gartner.com/smarterwithgartner/immersivetechnologies-are-movingcloser-to-the-edge-of-artificial-intelligence/ Pinchbeck, D., & Stevens, B. (2005). Presence, Narrative and Schemata. Presence (Cambridge, Mass.), 2005, 221. Copyright © 2021. IGI Global. All rights reserved.

Rasche, A. (2008). The Paradoxical Foundation of Strategic Management. Physica-Verlag. Said, E. (1978). Orientalism. Pantheon Books. Sardar, Z. (1999). Orientalism. Open University Press. Scott, R. (Director). (1982). Blade Runner [Film; Netflix]. Shogaolu, T. (Director). Another Dream [VR Film; Oculus]. Spielberg, S. (Director). (2018). Ready Player One [Film; Netflix].

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Storchi, A. (2018). Extended Realities: Insights from the next generation’s technology. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329181085_Extended_Realities_Insights_from_the_next_generation’s_technology Strozier, R. (2002). Foucault, Subjectivity, and Identity: Historical Constructions of Subject and Self. Wayne State University Press. Tang, A. K. Y. (2017). Key factors in the triumph of Pokemon GO. Business Horizons, 60(5), 725–728. doi:10.1016/j.bushor.2017.05.016 Venugopal, S. (2012). Conclusion. In The Gaze of the West and Framings of the East. Palgrave Macmillan. WIRED Brand Lab. (2018). Digital reality: The focus shifts from technology to opportunity. Wired. Retrieved on November 18, 2019 from https://www.wired.com/brandlab/2018/2002/digital-reality-focusshifts-technology-opportunity/ Žižek, S. (2004). Organs without Bodies: On Deleuze and Consequences. Routledge.

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

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Application: The digital products like games or simulations focusing on XR technology. Artificial Intelligence: The simulation of human intelligence in machines that are programmed to think like humans and mimic their actions. Augmented Reality: Augmented reality is the live, direct or indirect physical view of the real-world environment and its contents, enriched with computer-generated sound, images, graphics and GPS data. This concept is briefly changing and enhancing reality by computer. Cloud Computing: Is the delivery of computing services—including servers, storage, databases, networking, software, analytics, and intelligence—over the Internet or “the cloud.” Extended Reality: It is a reality environment that covers environments such as VR, AR, MR, and it enables new environments to be created by combining the features of other realities. Immersion: The level of experiencing physical and virtual reality. Machine Learning: Is an application of artificial intelligence (AI) that provides systems the ability to automatically learn and improve from experience without being explicitly programmed. Virtual Reality: All of the digital and physical elements that make the user feel as if they are actually in a virtual world.

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Post-Orientalist Comments by Contemporary Women Photographers Işık Sezer Fine Arts Faculty, Dokuz Eylül University, Turkey

ABSTRACT Today, Iran, Morocco, Tunisia, etc. women photographers have made the orientalist visual expression form the focal point of their art: the orientalist painting tradition as a result of the painter Delacroix’s trip to Morocco in 1832, the imagination world and the painting tradition shaped by the economypolitics of the period, from the male-dominated point of view, the harem, the chamber, etc. It is based on fantasies based on the female body in oriental spaces. Although this painting movement maintained its efectiveness between 1832-1914, it is taken as a reference by photographers in today’s postmodern art environment. In today’s photography art, Shirin Neshat, Lalla Essaydi, Shadi Ghadirian, Majida Khattari, Meriem Bouderbala, who have Eastern and Western cultures and mostly live in Western countries, visualize the position of women in their countries with an interdisciplinary interpretation in their photographic visions that they shape with a post-orientalist attitude.

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INTRODUCTION In today’s photography art, five female photographers of “Eastern” origin, Shirin Neshat, Lalla Essaydi, Shadi Ghadirian, Majida Khattari, Meriem Bouderbala, display a post-orientalist attitude by bringing the orientalist painting tradition of the century ago to their visions. In the orientalist painting tradition shaped by a male-dominated perspective, the identity of the woman as a passive, sexual object has turned into political and independent identities, despite the preservation of the formal features of the painting tradition in the photographic visions of the artists. The concept of Orientalism, which dates back to the 1079 Crusades, was reintroduced by Napoleon’s 1798-1799 Egyptian Expedition, the Greek War of Independence of 1821-1829, the French invasion of Algeria and the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869. Geographies, cultures, life rituals etc. of the civiliDOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch023

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 Post-Orientalist Comments by Contemporary Women Photographers

zations defined as “Eastern” by Western countries. Their long-term studies for recognition have turned into an important archive in the field of science and art. In the field of art, the sketches and paintings that the painter Delacroix drew during his Morocco trip in 1832 became the symbol of the eastern lifestyle in the eyes of the West. Inviting female bodies lying on the sofa in the rooms wrapped in colorful shawls, where the warmth of the sun is felt, slaves, naked young girls dancing in tulle, eyes bathing in the bathhouse, etc. The imaginary, commercial fictions that trigger sexual fantasies, shaped by the sense of curiosity evoked by the life styles of the palace and rich group, such as the harem, the chamber, which are defined by clichés, formed the origin of the orientalist painting tradition. While women were veiled conservatively in 19th century Europe in accordance with the Viktorien moral rules, Eastern women who were portrayed / photographed with a western colonial mentality were mostly transformed into erotic, sometimes pornographic images. However, in Eastern culture, the female body is completely closed. The orientalist painting tradition and the fact that photography, which was invented shortly after, began to repeat this tradition for commercial purposes, caused sexuality to become an object of social consumption. Therefore, the female body has always been positioned as an object of dominated pleasure, presented to male-dominated gazes. Art critic John Berger explains this situation: “Men watch women. Women watch them being watched. This situation determines not only the relations between men and women, but also the relations of women with themselves. The observer inside the woman is the male, the one observed is the woman. Thus the woman transforms herself into an object - a particularly visual object - something for spectacle. ” (Berger, 2011; 47). If we interpret Berger’s views from a different perspective in the context of orientalist painting and photographic fictions, women will accept being marginalized as both men and their own preferences. Contemporary artists have consciously carried the changing perception of reality as a result of the voluntary cooperation between these women and men of orientalism. In the artist’s visions defined as post-orientalist, women, Shirin Neshat and Shadi Ghadirian have reinterpreted their positions and identities in social transformation in the context of today’s realities. In the visions of Lalla Essaydi, Majida Khattari and Meriem Bouderbala, women preserve their independent identities with a conscious alienation, despite visualizing them as objects of spectacle. Despite the technological, economic, social, cultural developments and transformations of societies, the permanence of orientalist visual images can be explained by the undeniable power of painting and especially photography in the formation of social and cultural memory. The reinterpretation of postorientalist fictions with contemporary visual image production methods and the creation of alternative layers of meaning in today’s art environment is the proof that the phenomenon of orientalism will continue its existence by transforming.

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DEFINITIONS OF ORIENTALISM Orientalism; It is a field of study, which is examined, discussed and criticized by Western scientists in the beginning and Eastern scientists today, and regularly held congresses. Orientalism etc. has been constantly transformed in content and meaning by being influenced by the facts. Oriental as encyclopedic knowledge; It is a French origin word that belongs to the east or reminds it of the east. Orientalist is the name given to people who are experts in the east (Meydan Larousse 9, 1979: 65). “Some general antecedents of approaches to the Middle East and specifically to the Arab world can be defined as the way they handle language, religion and historical changes” (Halliday, 2007: 88-89). The most controversial work on it is Edward Said’s book titled “Orientalism”. James Clifford 376

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evaluates Said’s definitions of orientalism in his article titled “On Orientalism” as follows. Said never defines Orientalism directly, but rather characterizes and points out various points of view that are different and not always compatible with each other. First, orientalism is what orientalists do and do. An orientalist is a person who teaches, writes about, or researches in an oriental or general way. This group includes academics, government experts: philologists, sociologists, historians, anthropologists; Second, orientalism is a way of thinking based on an ontological and epistemological distinction between “East” and (most of the time) “West”. His people, traditions, mind and destiny of the East etc. The article that makes essentialist expressions about is orientalist. Finally, orientalism is a common institution dealing with the east, and in this colonial age that came roughly following the late 18th century, it retains the power that reconstructs the east that dominates the east and is authoritarian over it. (2007: 139) When Clifford’s assessment is associated with the first two meanings of orientalism, it points to the fact that the collected resources can also enable political reading. In his article titled “The Problem of Orientalism”, in which Said criticizes the book Orientalism and contradicts the claim that orientalism is an institutional structure in the service of imperialism that is active today, Bernard Lewis points out that orientalism has been used in two meanings in the past, opposing the use of the word orientalism today and its different interpretation, which is often distorted. The first is the artist’s school: a group of mostly Western European painters who visited the Middle East and North Africa, depicting a sometimes romantic and sometimes extremely pornographic style that they saw or imagined there. The second, and more common meaning, had nothing to do with the first, and so far referred to a branch of research. The academic discipline expressed by word and word goes back to the great advancement of research in Western Europe from the Renaissance. There were Hellenists who studied Greeks, Latins who studied Latins, Hebrews who studied Hebrews; the first two groups were sometimes called the classicalists and the third orientalists. Naturally, these have turned their attention to other languages (2007: ​​ 220).

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HISTORICAL PROCESS OF ORIENTALISM In the Battle of Malazgirt on 26 August 1071, the Byzantine emperor IV. As a result of the defeat of Roman Diogenes to the ruler of the Great Seljuk State, Alp Aslan, the gates of Anatolia were opened for the Turks and the Turks established the Anatolian Seljuk State in Iznik. Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Kommeros Pope III. The Pope and the European states, who asked for help from Urbanis and were disturbed by the fact that Jerusalem and the lands important for Christians were in the hands of Muslims, gathered in Clermont, France in 1079 - the Council of Clermont - decided to war. The First Crusade (1096-1099) in 1096 was successful and the Kingdom of Jerusalem was established in Jerusalem. Although 8 voyages were made in the three hundred years following the first voyage, they were not successful. The Muslim states that gained strength in the Middle East took back the occupied places, and Selahattin Ayyubi’s conquest of Jerusalem in 1187 was a turning point. In the 13th century, the power of the Crusaders in the Middle East ended (Hassan, 1990: 179-200). According to Enver Abdülmelik in his article titled “Orientalism in Crisis”, “The decision to establish orientalism was established at the Vienna Council in 1245 and the first Oriental Languages ​​chair was established in the Universitas Magistrarum et Scolarium Parisensum” (2007: 40). The campaigns and conquests made by the Ottomans to the interior of Europe led to the establishment of alliances in Europe, under the title of “Eastern Question”, and therefore to the development of military and philosophical projects to protect the future of European States. As Onur Bilge Kula emphasized in 377

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the foreword of his book “Orientalism and the Turkish Image in Western Philosophy”.”Enlightenment, on the one hand, made a permanent contribution to the development of not only Europe, but all people, by preparing the environment for the liberation and autonomy of science, reason and the individual. On the other hand, thanks to the technological superiority brought by the Enlightenment, it caused the West to colonize the East, causing this region of the world to fall behind and largely break away from the scientific and technological race”. (2010: XVII). Orientalism in Western thought and philosophy, Christian-Muslim, anti-West-East opposition that came to the fore with the crusades - which expanded its boundaries over time and included Asia - was sequenced by well-known philosophers such as Leibniz, Voltaire, Kant and Hegel. In orientalism constructed by the aforementioned thinkers, the East has been used as “barbarism, lack of education, ignorance, laziness, self-control, indecision, dependence, unwillingness, lust since the Middle Ages.” Western-Europe, which is perceived as “positivity”, is placed against all these negativities. All this attitude is the most distinctive feature of orientalism”(Kula, 2010: 475). The superiority of European countries in the maritime field and the acquisition of new colonies has paved the way for many technological / scientific discoveries. Especially the plans of Britain and France for the Middle East increased the interest in these regions and caused the Ottoman Empire, which dominated these regions, to be scrutinized from all aspects. Events such as Napoléon’s Egyptian Expedition of 1798-1799, the Greek War of Independence of 1821-1829, the French invasion of Algeria in 1830, the Crimean War of 1854-1856, and the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 caused the concept of orientalism to come to the fore by re-strengthening and expanding its scope (Kunt, 1990: 47-68). “For Orientalists, to study the history, current, literature, and political institutionalization of the East meant studying an uncivilized culture that deserves to be subordinated to” us, “which is” our opponent or even our enemy. “Here, the orientalists’ patronizing view is seen as much as the theoretical curiosity. Orientalists comfortably researched areas occupied, often with colonialist armies. (Kunt, 1990;133.) When the concept of orientalism was most effective in scientific and aesthetic fields, “between 18151914, that is, in a century-long period, Europe increased its colonial geography from 35 percent to 85 percent” (Çetinkaya, 2009: 19). With the beginning of the 20th century, the wars that shook the world - national independence, world wars, oil wars - changing political and social structures - the rise and fall of socialism, new countries and alliances - required the renewal of the orientalist approaches of the old Europe and the USA. For this renewal, “The Middle East Institute” established in Washington in 1946, the “Council for the Middle East Problems” established in New York in 1949 and the “Scarborough Commission” established in England in 1947 followed the pioneering studies of “Neo-Orientalism” (Abdülmelik, 2007: 51-61).

THE BIRTH OF THE ORIENTALIST PAINTING TRADITION Although orientalism is first and foremost a movement of French painting, first the British and then other Europeans have turned to this subject. Few orientalist painters were trained in Germany and Italy, which did not have large colonial empires such as France and England. The orientalist painting movement, whose historical life began with Napoleon’s expedition to Egypt in 1789 and ended with the First World War in 1914, does not constitute a certain school. Because these paintings are connected to each other in terms of style rather than thematic (Eczacıbaşı, 1997:1389-1390). While orientalist paintings were based entirely on imaginary and fantasies such as “Tales of One Thousand and One Nights”, as a result of the 378

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increase of expeditions to the east with technological developments, they started to show topographic features such as landscapes and architecture, ethnographic features such as daily life and clothes. Germaner and İnankur’s form from 18th century French researcher Gregoire. Turkish styles, examples of which can be found in a wide range of areas from accessories to accessories, are “a fashion that repeats itself and always uses the same elements” (2002: 18). Although they had never seen the Ottoman Empire lands, Jean Antoine Watteau (1684-1721), Etienne Jeurat (1697-1789), Nicolas Lanciet (1690-1743), Jean-Marc Nattier (1685-1766), François Boucher (1703-1770), Nicholas Cochin (1715-1790), Jean Babtiste Leprince (1734-1781), and many famous French painters painted Turkish themes in which the sultan, sultan, pasha and favorites played the leading roles. The works of these painters are mostly commercial and fantastic paintings. In the pictures, the pasha and the gentlemen with turbans and caftan are usually found sitting on soft cushions on the sofa, either inside a hookah or a rod. Rahle, carpet, coffee tray and rosary are an integral part of the compositions. Painters learn about Turks and Ottoman culture, travelers, merchants and painters working within the embassies opened in Istanbul since the 1700s, the sights of Istanbul, daily life, Ottoman palace ceremonies, etc. showing patterns and pictures. Orientalist painters depicted not only Istanbul, but also the cities of Damascus, Jerusalem and the Middle East on their canvases Interesting objects for Western culture, sights, market places, mosques, tiles, local clothes, etc. they are portrayed in vivid colors. Examples of these are David Roberts, (1796-1864), Jerusalem, from the South, 1860, Gustav Bauernfeind (1848-1904), The Gate of the Great Umayyad Mosque, Damascus, 1890, Rudolf Ernst (1854-1932), In the Mosque, works can be given. It is the notes and sketches of Delacroix’s encounters during his 1832 Moroccan trip that gave birth to the orientalist style in Western painting. Delacroix’s Grand Odalisque (1814) painting, like most of his works, is an iconic work that has become the most well-known, copied and thus a symbol of the orientalist view, although it is completely imaginary. In the Orientalist painting tradition, the focus is on the female body. The female body, which is portrayed in a beautiful and passive manner with a male point of view, is always an object of desire with different decors.

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DISCOVERING THE EAST WITH PHOTOGRAPHY On August 19, 1839, in the halls of the French Academy of Sciences, the Daguerreotype image recording method developed by Louis-Jacques Mandé Daguerre (1787-1851), French scientist astrologer François Aragon’s “dear gentlemen, nature was passed over a surface by light” (Çizgen, 1992: 7), with the emphasis on his ability to “make millions of copies of hieroglyphs” (Thomson, 1987: 54), he determined the power and importance of photography. Thanks to Daguerreotype, which gave very quick and sharp results compared to painting, it became easier to respond to the visual records of scientific studies and people’s requests to know the world. Development of railways, widespread use of steamboats, telegraph, etc. With Daguerreotype, developed simultaneously with inventions, adventurous travelers, archaeologists, geographers, anthropologists, etc. they began to visually reinvent the world. The people of Europe, whose economic power has increased, are curious about the Holy Land, the Ottoman Empire, China, Japan, etc. They were curious about everything from the architecture, nature and daily life of countries and showed great interest in photo albums. Because “collecting photography means collecting the world and photographing something means owning it. This is the establishment of a certain relationship between oneself and the world, which is felt as knowledge and therefore power” (Sontag,1993:18). Photographers traveling around the 379

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world carried their Daguerreotype with horse and donkey caravans, took and stored photographs with the help of their assistants. Images of distant geographies produced under very difficult conditions were published in some magazines and special albums published weekly and monthly. However, because printing techniques were not yet developed at that time and Daguerreotypes were recorded as the only positive, they were copied by painters or engravers and transferred to magazines, books and albums by woodcut or lithography. The first photo album prepared with this method was published by N.P Lerebours in Paris under the name Excursions Daguerriennes: Vues et Monuments Les Plus Remarqables du Globbe (1840-1844) (Thomson, 1987: 55). The album included illustrated drawings of 114 of the photographs taken by Fesquet, Pierre, Gustave Jolly de Lotbinière, Girault de Prangey. It is known that the first photographs of Istanbul and Izmir were also taken during this trip (Çizgen, 1992: 26). Henry Fox Talbot (1800-1877), who continued his studies to determine the image on the surface simultaneously with Daguerre, solved the problem of image sharpness and in June 1840 Talbotype, known as the Calotype method, announced to the world (London,2005: 370). Calotype fixes the image negatively on the paper surface, a positive image was obtained with a repeat shot from here. Although not as sharp as Daguerreotype, Calotype attracted great attention due to its ease of production, storage and reproduction. The pioneer in the use of Calotype was Reverend George Bridges, and between 1846-52 he captured more than 1500 images of Italy, Egypt and the Mediterranean coast. As part of the Mission Heliographigue, which was established in 1851 for visual recording of French architectural heritage in the Middle East and for archaeological research, Felix Teynard shot 160 Calotypes of Egypt in 1852. 200 Calotype Le Nile: Monuments Paysages Photographies, shot by archaeologist John B. Grene, released by Blanquart-Evrard. 1856 Auguste Salzman Jerusalem (Calotype 174), 1859-60 Louis de Clercq was the last comprehensive Calotype albums published in Voyage’s Orient (Marbot, 1987: 25). Francis Frit (1822-1899) on his first voyage was taking a view of the same landscape or archaeological monument from three different angles. He was first shooting stereographs with a dual-lens stereo camera, and then using two different sized cameras to shoot glass negatives with the colodion method. Despite shooting under very difficult conditions, the success of his photographs in England in 1857 led him back to the East. He worked in Jerusalem, Damascus and Baalbek in 1857. He published the album Egypt and Palestine Photographed and Described in 1858-59 (Öztuncay, 2003: 54). As can be understood from the album titles in general, these photographs are images whose topographic features are predominant in archeology, landscapes and architecture and form the basis of photographic expression forms. As the photographs taken are used for scientific purposes, they have also shaped our views on “what is worth looking at and what we have the right to observe” in the visual memory of the public, in the editing of images belonging to the East, thanks to the published albums (Sontag, 1993: 17). An orientalist vision can be found in some commercial photographs produced in the same period. The photographs representing the life of the harem and the secret world of women are generally described as “Oriental Beauty” (Beaute Oriental). Example Pascal Sebah (1823-1886), as in the photographs of Bogos Tarkulyan. This orientalist approach is sometimes caused unreal compositions. The images of two women and two men sitting on the cushions in front of the coffeehouse in the photo of Abdullah Brothers’ “Turkish Women and Fans”(1865) are incompatible with daily life and only appeal to the imagination of foreigners visiting Istanbul.

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PHOTOGRAPHY BECOMES A MODEL FOR ORIENTALIST PAINTERS The most well-known orientalist painters of the 19th century are the romantic Ferdinand Victor Eugène Delacroix (1798-1863), the realistic Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres (1780-1867), and Jean-Léon Gérôme (1824-1904). Among these painters, only Gerome visited Istanbul in 1853 and went to Egypt in 1856. Delacroix visited Egypt and Morocco for a short time in 1834. As a result of his local life drawings and impressions, ‘Woman of Algier in their Apartments’ (180x220) was completed in 1834 (Hagen and Hagen,2003:360). Other than that, his other paintings -harem, chamber-themed- are based on imaginary and literary texts. The inspiration for Delacroix’s Odalisque (493x338cm) painting, which he made in 1857, is the Nude Study (Figure.1) photographs (Figure.2) he took in Eugéné Durieu (18531854) (Frizot, 1998:71).

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Figure 1. Delacroix, Odalisque, 1857

Another name known to benefit from photography in his orientalist paintings is Jean Leon Gerome (1824-1904). In the Terrace of the Palace (121.99x81.99 cm) painting, (Figure3) he used the photograph

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of the inner courtyard of Topkapı Palace belonging to Abdullah Brothers to create the space and drew a completely imaginary harem painting (Germaner and İnankur, 2002: 151). Although Delacroix and Gerome bear the traces of reality, vivid color tones are dominant in the paintings shaped by the perception of fantasy east. Women are in a sensual, obedient manner presenting all their beauty to men. As stated by Richard Leppert “19. For Gerome, color means the other as well as dozens of orientalist painters of the century. Color defines difference, bellows the desire, stimulates the appetite for goods and bodies ... “The eastern other” is at hand as something that feasts on the eyes “(2002: 260-261) brings a different perspective to the subject.

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Figure 2. Durieu, Nu Study,1854

ORIENTALIST VISIONS OF CONTEMPORARY WOMEN PHOTOGRAPHERS Visual symbols of the concept of orientalism, documentary or fictional photography that interprets the informative contemporary reality, along with the past-based eastern image - Ottoman and Islamic geography, harem, chamber, etc. Fantasy and sexual cliché images shaped by an interest in mysteries - still being repeated and consumed by some photographers today.Today’s photographers consciously choose

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the orientalist expression, the place of women in society, identity etc. within the framework of political and cultural contexts. They concentrate on themes. Thus, the classical orientalist style, which sees / shows women only as an element of pleasure from the male eye, is transformed, and the true identity of women is investigated through the eyes of women.

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Figure 3. Gerome, Terrace of thePalace

Lalla Essaydi (1956, Morocco) lived in Saudi Arabia for years and graduated from TUFTS Fine Arts Museum school in 2003. The works of the artist living in New York are represented by Schineider Gallery in Chicago, Bostan, Howard Yezerski Gallery and N.Y Edwyn Hook Gallery. In the photographs of Essaydi, who opened many exhibitions in important art centers and museums of America and Europe, there are images based on Essaydi’s personal experiences, related to the identities of Arab World women, integrated with the Arabic alphabet. She uses painting, video, film, installation and analog photography techniques in his works. The photographic images that make up the series take their formal and intellectual foundations from the orientalist mythology settled in the western world. Essaydi says that the calligraphic Arabic inscriptions in his photographs are used to refer to the fact that the speechless world of women can be overcome by education and literacy. The photographs of women in indoor spaces symbolize the perceptions and expectations of the concept of “Woman” in male-dominated societies and from the eyes of men, and are shaped by the visual data of a wide geography where Arab-Islamic culture is effective. Evaluating her photographs as partially autobiographical, Essaydi describes her as a woman as a result of her western and oriental identity, past and present experiences (http: //www.brooklynmuseum.org.p). The series Converging Territories (2005) was produced in the artist’s studio in Boston (Figure 4). Especially, all of the models are chosen from Arab women. The fact that some photographs consist of three and four parts symbolizes the stages of women’s life. In this series, visual clichés of orientalism are used, but the way women look directly at the camera and therefore at the viewer is a revolt against this prejudice. The formation process of the texts covering Essaydi’s photographs, as handwriting, later added to the photograph or digital addition or pre-printed fabrics, etc. information is not provided. At

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the same time, we do not have information about the content in these articles. Although these texts using the Arabic alphabet are a calligraphic ornament and an orientalist image for the western audience, they have different meanings for the audience reading this alphabet (http://www.troutgallery.org).

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Figure 4. Converging Territories (2005)

The second series, Les Femmes du Maroc (2009), was shot in the large house of the artist’s family in Morocco (Figure.5). The clothes on the models and the wall tiles that decorate the space are integrated. Such a transition strengthens the perception of timelessness and indicates that the story continues unchanged from past to present. Essaydi’s models only pose and exhibit a neutral attitude. Photos of the venue, clothing, etc. Although it fits with the orientalist movement with the elements, it opposes it with the stance of the models. This opposition creates a mysterious air and strengthens the emphasis on alienation-other. Another indicator that increases this emphasis is that Essaydi included the large format movie cliches he used in the shootings in printing (https://www.powerhousebooks.com). Contemporary artist Shirin Neshat (1957, Iran), (http://www.artnet.com) who uses orientalist images in her photographs, lives in New York due to the 1979 Iranian revolution. Known for her film, video

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and photography works, Neshat interprets the position / identity of women in Muslim countries with a strong critical point of view and a political and cultural dimension. In Neshat’s photographs, the Iranian identity is expressed with the black chador, veil, weapon and the lines of the forbidden poets, representing Iran, which has been reshaped with Islamic teachings and Sharia rules. In the artist’s “Women Of Allah” (1993-97) series, sections of the female body are emphasized with arms, veils and tattoo details. The inscriptions in the photographs belong to the Iranian feminist poet Forough Farrokhza and some prayers. Although the viewer does not understand what is written in the Persian alphabet, the calligraphic aesthetics of the writing and the mystery it adds to the photographs, combined with the orientalist prejudices and knowledge, deeply affect the viewer. (Figure 6,7) Her writings in the “Allégiance with Wakefullness”(Figure8) series are poet Tahereh Saffarzadeh’s verses of martyrdom and doomsday. These lines are written on the photographs by Neshat herself with his own handwriting after the photographs are printed (mujeresartistasfemaleartists.wordpress).

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Figure 5. Essaydi, Les Femmes Du Maroc, Harem Beauty, 2008

Neshat conveys the facts of her own country to her photographs with a simple and symbolic quotations from the flow of daily life with the synthesis of east and west. In his photographs, Neshat interprets the changing Iranian identity through the bodies of women, men and children. Because Islamic pressures primarily interfered with their body identities. In her portraits, one of her last series, Neshat wrote the poems of Ferdowsi, the famous poet who lived in the 10th century and transferred the Persian national identity to her lines. Thus, past and present, literature, photography and art disciplines have been brought together.

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Figure 6. Neshat, Women of Allah, I Am Its Secret, 1993

Iranian-born photographer Shadi Ghadirian (1974 Tehran), as a woman who grew up with the Iranian revolution, conveys the place, identity and lives of Iranian women in society to her vision. Ghadirian completed her photography and art education at Tehran Azad University with a master’s degree and has carried out nine art projects to date (https://www.silkroadartgallery.com). The first of a series of photographs that question the relationship between women and society Qajar (1998), she visualized the social responsibilities of women in the environment of the early studio setting, using her friends and women in her family as models. It connects photographs with contemporary details such as vacuum cleaner, radio, can of coke, newspaper, sunglasses used with clothes representing the Qajar period. Thanks to these details, it also emphasizes that there is nothing changing in the place of women in society. (Figure 9) In the “Be colorfull” (https://www.waterhousedodd.com) series that she realized in 2002, the orientalist mysterious women with their colored head covers behind the sooty-painted glass surfaces symbolize the place of women in Iranian society. (Figure 10) In the “Like Every Day” series he exhibited in 2014, he

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matched the place of women in society with kitchen tools. (Figure 11). In Iranian society, the identity of the woman behind the chador, which is the daily dress of the woman, is not / is invisible, just like the position of the woman in society. Ghadirian’s women, wrapped in silk shawls or veiled, are not the seductive sexual objects in orientalist fictions, but the other half of Iranian society. In the “West by East” series, photographs of an Iranian woman in western clothes, arms, legs etc. exposed by the clothing. Body organs are presented in black. Because, according to the Islamic laws of Iran, the female body must be completely closed and invisible.

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Figure 7. ­

French-Moroccan artist Majida Khattari (1966 Morocco) graduated from the Academy of Fine Arts in Morocco and France and has been living in Paris since 1988. She works in the field of photography and fashion. Khattari consciously applies the fantasy patterns of the orientalist painting tradition to her photographs. Silk, tulle etc. in the “Lux desordre et volupté” series. Naked female bodies hidden under the drapes of transparent fabrics are extremely mysterious and inviting (Figure12). In the “Corps Ornés” series, (Figure13). Moroccan wall decorations, tiles and so on. and the splendor of traditional weavings are superimposed and the torso, leg and so on of the female body. Elements complement the oriental atmosphere of the photography. In the series “The Parisiean Women”, (Figure14). oriental clichés were photographed in a “pictorialist” style by “staging”, “re-enacting” or referring to the history of photography. The women in the photographs present themselves directly to the viewer with a passive and inviting look (https://majidakhattari.com/). Tunisian artist, Meriem Bouderbala (1960) graduated from the Fine-arts school of Aix-en-Provence in France, and studied painting at the London Chelsea School of Art. In hers vision, which is a synthesis of Arab, West and North African cultures, Bouderbala offers multiple printing, (Figure 15) long exposure, (Figure 16) etc. thanks to digital technology. It reconstructs the female body and the way she looks to it

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by using techniques. These transformed photographs are linked to Futurism, one of the Avandgarde art movements. The multiple printing photographs evoke Artemis of Ephesus, goddess of abundance, fertility and fertility. Moving female bodies symbolize awakening and transformation in Bauderbala’s long exposure photographs. The fact that the accessories used by Bouderbala belong to Arab and African culture supports the orientalist attitude. (http://www.galerielmarsa.com/artists/item/meriem-bouderbala.htm)

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Figure 8. Neshat, Allegiance with Wakefulness,1994

In addition to female artists, male artists have adopted the Orientalist attitude in their works. Stephane Lallemand (1958), the Belgian artist, reinterpreted a series of paintings with orientalist themes, Delacroix’s Grand Odalisque (Figure 17). In Lallemand’s photographs, the tattooed, bikini-scarred bodies of today’s women have taken the place of the spectacular female bodies that represent the perfect beauty based on Delacroix in his photographs, Lalemand referred to the source of the work by using formal features such as the model’s posture and some accessories, and acted freely in his use of color. Ukrainian-born French photographer Anton Solomoukha (1945-2015) (artsper.com) is known for his “photo painting” technique and editing photographs that he developed after 2000. Among the series he created, he produced photographs with reference to Ingres’s Turkish bath and Delaxroix’s Odalik.

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(Figure 18) In his photographs, although the composition of the picture is adhered to, women’s bodies, socks, heels, etc. They stand out from traditional female identity with up-to-date items and individual styles. Pedro Bonatto (www.pedrobonatto.com), a commercial photographer at Tornto in Canada, uses clichés that appeal to the imaginary world of the orientalist vision. Apart from the artists mentioned above, the cliché images of the orientalist painting tradition are sometimes used / consumed in advertising and fashion photography depending on the context.

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Figure 9. Ghadirian, Qatar,1998

FUTURE RESEARCH AND DIRECTIONS In the context of the article, the 21st century the layers of meaning created by the content and technical relations between orientalism and photography in its art have become the reference point in the visual expression forms of photography. For this reason, in the future, post-orientalist photography and painting, literature, fashion, advertising and so on. These photographic images will guide the narratives. On the 389

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other hand, in the article, post-orientalist approaches in the visions of female photographers of eastern origin are discussed and how the perspectives of men and women are put forward on their works. In this context, interdisciplinary research and comparison of orientalist interpretations in the works of western male and female artists will be a pioneer in the emergence of new perspectives and visual images in all art disciplines. The continuity of such approaches means the preservation of the orientalist tradition by updating it in technical and aesthetic dimensions.

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Figure 10. Ghadirian, Be Colorfull, 2002

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Figure 11. Ghadirian, Like Every Day, 2014

Figure 12. Khattari, Corps Ornés

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CONCLUSION The visual traces of the orientalist movement can be divided into two in the light of the many pictures, photographs and examples discussed above as part of the study. The first is the creation of a visual inventory that introduces different geographies and cultures by determining the reality through painting and photography, they show features. Secondly, visual traces are primarily in painting and then in photography, with the prejudiced texts of western culture towards the east and the imagination world, and they are mostly commercial visual fictions for sexual fantasies, shaped over the female body. The best examples in the field of painting are the works of Delacroix and Gerome. Delacroix’s Grand Odalisque

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painting has become a recurring icon in today’s photography. These fictional visual images, which are shaped by the guiding point of view of Western thought and assumed to belong to Eastern societies, are permanent despite their lack of reality and have taken place in the visual memory of societies as the equivalent of orientalism. One of the most important factors in the fact that the pictures and photographs based on fantasies replace reality is that written and visual records of harem life have not come to light in the eastern culture. The power of photography to reproduce visual record has ensured that these pictures and photographs are permanent and carried to the present day despite the historical facts.

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Figure 13. Khattari, Lux

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Figure 14. Khattari, The Parisiean Women

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Figure 15. Bouderbala, Bédouine, 2008

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Figure 16. Bouderbala, Etoffes cutanées 1, 2008

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Figure 17. Lallemand, La Grande Odalisque, 2010

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Figure 18. Solomoukha, Bain Turc, Ingres’, 2007

The orientalist art movement has been consciously based on their vision by today’s photographers. Shirin Neshat, who lives in New York, has interpreted the changing identity of her country Iran, male and female body sections with literary texts in an interdisciplinary synthesis in her photographs. Shadi Ghadirian, one of the young generation Iranian artists, has brought the women’s reality of his country to his vision with his social and cultural identity shaped in the Islamic revolution. Both artists have reflected in their works, combining the first informative feature of orientalism with today’s conditions and critical perspectives. Lalla Essaydi, Majida Khattari and Meriem Bouderbala have based the fantasy aspect of Orientalism on their photography series. They have created different layers of meaning with stage setting and digital interventions. It is a remarkable detail that five contemporary female artists of Moroccan, Iranian and Tunisian descent, educated in both eastern and western cultures, and who continue their lives in western countries apart from Ghadirian, also take the orientalist point of view in their visions. Despite the female body interpreted by the view of male artists in the Orientalist painting-photography tradition of the century ago, today women photographers redefine the female body from the female perspective, although they use the orientalist tradition. The questioning of female identity by reinterpreting an artistic tradition shaped by both the qualities of artists and prejudices such as orientalism is a rebellion as a whole. In the works designed for commercial purposes in the fashion and advertising world, the orientalist perspective and objects, shawls, tulles, bright vivid colors, etc. towards women are systematically repeated. The few contemporary male artists who include the orientalist attitude in their photographs, on the other hand, are repeating the orientalist tradition, while maintaining their original look.

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The vision shaped as a result of the adaptation of the concept of orientalism, which is examined within the scope of the article, from painting to photography, the original interpretations of today’s female artists determined by digital technology and postmodern aesthetics, and the dimension that defines today’s female identity, created new reference points for the future of the movements.

REFERENCES Abdülmelik, E. (2007). Krizdeki Oryantalizm. Ankara: Doğu-Batı. Çetinkaya, B. A. (2009). Batı’daki ‘Sürgün’ Doğulu/Yabancı Edward Said’in Gözüyle Oryantalizm: ‘Öteki’nin Tanımlanması. Şarkiyat İlmi Araştırmalar Dergisi, (1), 3-23. Çizgen, E. (1992). Türkiye’de Fotoğraf. İletişim. Clifford, J. (2007). Oryantalizm Üzerine. Oryantalizm Tartışma. Freund, G. (2006). Fotoğraf ve Toplum. İstanbul: Sel. Frizot, M. (Ed.). (1998). A New History of Photography. Könemann. Germaner, S., & İnankur, Z. (2002). Oryantalistlerin İstanbul’u. İstanbul: İş Bankası. Hagen, M. R. & Hagen, R. (2003). What Great Paintings Say. Köln: Taschen. Halliday, F. (2007). Oryantalizm ve Eleştirisi. Ankara: Doğu-Batı. Hassan, Ü. (1990). Siyasal Tarih, Açıklamalı Bir Kronoloji. İstanbul: Cem. Kula, O. B. (2010). Batı Felsefesinde Oryantalizm ve Türk İmgesi. Türkiye İş Ban. Kunt, M. (1990). Siyasal Tarih. İstanbul: Cem. Leppert, R. (2002). Sanatta Anlamın Görüntüsü, Çev. İsmail Türkmen. Ayrıntı. Lewis, B. (2007). Oryantalizm Sorunu. Ankara: Doğu-Batı. London, B., Upton, J., Stone, J., Kobre, K., & Brill, B. (2005). Photography. New York: Pearson Edu. Lab Management Today.

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Marbot, B. (1987). Towards the Discovery. In A History of Photography; Social and Culturel Perspectives (pp. 11–25). Cambridge Press. Merkezi, A. S. (2012). Batılının Fırçasından Egenin Bu Yakası. Sergi Katalogu. Öztuncay, B. (2003). Dersaadetin Fotoğrafçıları, cilt 1-2. Koç Kültür Sanat. Sontag, S. (1993). Fotoğraf Üzerine, çev. Reha Akçakaya. Altıkırkbeş. Thomson, J. (1987). Exploring the world by Photography in the Nineteenh Century. In A Histor of Photography; Social and Culturel Perspectives (pp. 54–59). Cambridge Press.

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ADDITIONAL READING Said, E. (1978). Orientalism. Pantheon Books.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Daguerreotype: The daguerreotype was the first commercially successful photographic process (1839-1860) in the history of photography. Named after the inventor, Louis Jacques Mandé Daguerre, each daguerreotype is a unique image on a silvered copper plate. Delacroix (Ferdinand Victor Eugène): (April 26, 1798 - August 13, 1863) He was one of France’s most important Romantic painters. The painter’s expression, powerful brushstrokes, and his work on the optical effects of colors influenced Impressionists, and his passion for the exotic influenced Symbolists. ‘Odalik’ has become an icon in painting and photography. Odalisque: In the Ottoman period, the sultans and princes selected the women who were bought into the palace or imprisoned in the war, and chosen as a favorite among the women whose owner had a full right to use. Orientalism: ‘Orient’ etymologically means ‘east, orient’. Its origin is based on the word ‘oriens’ (sunrise). According to Western societies, languages, cultures, histories, geographies etc. of Eastern societies. It covers researches about. Orientalist: It qualifies the scientists and studies that carry out all kinds of research related to the East. Orientalist Painting: 18th century it is the painting trend that develops in Europe. 1-Painters transfer their observations of the East to the canvas as close to reality. 2- They are imaginary, multi-colored commercial images based on prejudices and fantasies of Eastern culture. Major painters of the movement are Eugène Delacroix (1798-1863), Alexandre-Gabriel Decamps (1803-1860) and Jean-Léon Gérôme (1824-1904). Orientalist Photo: 1- With the invention of photography in 1839, anthropology, archeology, geography, etc. taken during Eastern expeditions. All photos. 2- 19th century in today’s photography art. Photographs produced with reference to orientalist paintings and photographs. Postmodern Art: In modern art, originality, individuality, and the modernist style of the work of art are important. Postmodern art, on the other hand, does not depend on original styles and qualities, such as kitch, pastiche, parody, eclecticism, ahistorical, self-appropriation, changing context, interdisciplinarity, intertextuality, etc. using methods expands the aesthetic dimension. Postmodern art rejects a single truth and constructs the truth with discourses. Postmodern Photo: They are works that take the history of the art of photography as reference or combine the production criteria of art and science disciplines with Postmodernist aesthetics. Pioneers Cindy Sherman, Sherri Levine, Yasumasa Morimura, Richard Prince, Lucas Samaras. Postmodernism: The prefix ‘post’ means beyond / after, beyond / after Modernism. It aims to define the transformation process that started in Western societies in the 1960s and started to be experienced in social life, cultural field and art environment with the effect of communication and technological development. Postmodernism has been influential in architecture, philosophy, literature, and fine arts. Lyotard, Habermas, Jameson, Harvey, Boudrillard et al. They are thinkers and critics.

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Chapter 24

French Orientalism Representations of Ottoman in Caricatures in Le Petit Journal Mehtap Anaz Université de Tunis-El Manar, Tunisia Necati Anaz Istanbul University, Turkey

ABSTRACT This study attempts to answer a number of questions inspired by popular geopolitics literature on how the French newspaper, Le Petit Journal, depicted the Ottoman Empire (including the Sultan Abdulhamid II and the Turkish parliament) and refected their views to their readers in their publications. And how the Ottoman ‘other’ was constructed by the journal in relation to France’s political position during the Balkan Wars. The examination of the newspaper from 1908 to 1913 suggests that the journal’s understanding of the Ottoman subject rests parallel to that of France, especially during the years of the Balkan Wars in Europe. This study also expresses that war-time knowledge production via quotidian channels inform the geographical imaginations of the masses in particular ways. In the end, the authors re-emphasize that knowledge production on the orient involves a whole set of image constructions as introduced in orientalism studies.

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INTRODUCTION On September 30, 2005, Jyllands-Posten, a Danish daily broadcast newspaper, published twelve editorial images mocking the Prophet Mohammed. In one image by the cartoonist Flemming Rose, he was depicted with a bomb in his turban. Another one showed the Prophet in heaven dissuading other jihadists in line for suicide bombing to “stop, stop, we ran out of virgins” (Cotte, 2016). Soon after the images were published in Denmark, Islamic community leaders and many Muslim state ambassadors in the country condemned the images and asked the government to punish those responsible for them (Cotte, 2016), DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch024

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 French Orientalism Representations of Ottoman in Caricatures in Le Petit Journal

but the real outrage over the images came a year later (Hervik, 2012). The cartoons, considered demeaning and abusive toward Muslims and Islam, have reappeared in the French satirical newspaper, Charlie Hebdo. The response to reappearance of the images of the Prophet was beyond the usual condemnation and violence. The internationalization of ridiculing images of the Prophet lit a fuse of violent protests worldwide from Nigeria to Indonesia. On January 2015, two gunmen who seemed to have some level of military experience ambushed the Charlie Hebdo office, killing total of twelve people, including five caricaturists. The next day millions around the world aligned themselves with the newspaper holding signs that expressed Je suis Charlie (I am Charlie). The cartoon crisis did not end there, on the day of culprits’ trial, the insolent images of the Prophet Mohammad were projected on government buildings in Paris in 2020. In fifteen years since the caricature crisis began, the debate on freedom of speech versus blasphemy has continued to split ordinary peoples’ opinions, as well as those of academicians, journalist, and politicians all around the world. The differences in opinion have not reached any kind of compromise. Kaisa Murawska-Muthesius argues that the publications of images of the Prophet was sort of encouraging the prevalent notion that Muslims are incompatible with contemporary democracy and freedom of speech. Muthesius states that Rose’s cartoon intifada was a part of a confrontation in which “the growing reluctance of Danish artists, who were fearful of breaking the taboo against idolatry, to present the Prophet or to criticize Islam in any way” (Murawska-Muthesius, 2009). This aggressive way of expressing freedom of speech rhetoric and confronting Islamic narrowness of understanding satire reveals important clues about the centuries long influence of French orientalism. Although this paper does not attempt to shed light on the current cartoon crisis, we find a good reason focus on a similar debate on the cultural, ethical, and legal boundaries of freedom of speech versus how Muslims digest satire and criticism in western media outlets. For this purpose, this paper travels back to the heyday of satire and aims to decode its common rhetoric of freedom of speech and its validity to be a source of information by utilizing exaggerated drawings and mocking images of Ottoman subjects in French cartoons. To do this, we examine the French Newspaper Le Petit Journal’s editorial cartoons from 1909 to 1913 archived by Bibliothèque nationale de France’s online data source, Gallica.bnf.fr. The attempt is thus to understand and conceptualize how French satiric discourse is constructed around the notion of freedom of speech and as valid source of information, while at the same time ridiculing the Ottoman Turkish. This paper also asks the question of how, as a perception factory, Le Petit Journal imagined and presented the Ottoman subject, especially during the war times. The rationale of this study is two-fold. First, there seems to be only a few studies on Le Petit Journal’s perception of Ottoman society. Second, there are a particularly small number of scholars who have paid attention to French caricatures as a meaning-making tool in respect to their geographic imaginations and symbolic articulations toward Turkish political life in Istanbul. Although literature on media perception of peoples, places, and events are extensively available, Le Petit Journal’s construction of the Ottoman image during the Balkan Wars is not studied in this perspective. Satirical discourse in French society and in professional media circles has been well established (Chupin, Hube, & Kaciaf, 2009), therefore depicting Ottoman subjects in a ludicrous way has aroused very little concern. Furthermore, this paper alternatively connects the journal’s depictions of Ottoman subjects to modern orientalist discourse within which images play a constructive role.

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EARLY STUDIES ON CARICATURES AS POLITICAL SATIRE Graphical texts such as cartoons and caricatures from various media outlets have been an important form of message dissemination for scholars, but sufficient attention to caricatures’ orientalist approach and geo-cultural projections have fallen short, until recently (Murawska-Muthesius, 2009) (Coupe, 1969) (Goldstein, 2009). Theories on caricatures (Streicher, 1967) and analytical applications of the art form of satire (Watson, 2011), on the other hand, have attracted new scholars from different disciplines and regions, mainly due to the subject’s interdisciplinary nature and exaggerated interpretations of everyday politics (Bal, Pitt, Berthon, & DesAutels, 2009) (Alousque, 2013) (Turan, 2012) (Stoner, 2009). On the theoretical development of political caricature, W. A. Coupe argues that there is still lack of empirical studies on which such a theory might be based (Coupe, 1969, p. 79). He continues by saying “even in the age of mass-produced Ph.D., the academic study of caricature and political cartooning has suffered from considerable neglect, partly no doubt because it lies in a peculiar no-man’s-land where several disciplines meet, and so tends to be scorned by the purists” (Coupe, 1969, p.79). However, since the time of Coupe’s publication (1967 and 1969) on the theory of political caricatures, caricatures and its sister form of art cartoons, have gained the needed attention of many scholars from various disciplines (Stoner, 2009) (Gottschalk & Greenberg, 2011) (Bal, Pitt, Berthon, & DesAutels, 2009). Not only that, different characteristics and particularities of graphic satire have been studied. For instance, scholars from different sections of social science investigated caricatures that were published not only in 2000s (Bal, Pitt, Berthon, & DesAutels, 2009) (Cotte, 2016), but also caricatures that were in the circulation as early as 1830s (Boime, 1992) (Coupe, 1967) (Goldstein, 2009) (Jones, 2011). These relatively recent publications focused on caricatures’ impact on social matters of the time in the course of power relations, censorship, and political discourses. Helen Chenut, for example, investigated French political caricatures’ representations of feminists during the height of the women’s suffrage campaign (Chenut, 2012). In her study, she stated that by the very nature of their art, “caricaturists exaggerated their subjects as so to provoke ridicule, and express powerful masculinist sentiments” (Chenut, 2012, p.441). She also found that chauvinist nationalism and religious intolerance were embedded in the works of artists, which ultimately foreshadowed the emotions and violent propaganda of the Great War. Chenut summed it up by stating that artists of the early French republic from 1890 to 1914 “exploited the fears and anxieties of conservative men who believed that women’s suffrage would lead to a further expansion of women’s rights, and ultimately to changes in the Civil Code” (Chenut, 2012, p.450). Similarly, by examining Thomas Nast’s portrayal of Mexicans in the pages of Harper’s Weekly in the 1880s, Paul Rich and Guillermo De Los Reyes state that Mexicans, as the people of the south, are depicted as poor, backward, lazy, unresourceful, and dishonest in American drawings and other forms of popular publications (Rich & Reyes, 1996). Nast’s drawings, as one of Harper’s Weekly’s influential cartoonist, certainly enforced the negative image of Mexicans in the eyes of the US citizens in the 1880s (Rich & Reyes, 1996, p.135). Rich and Reyes note that Nast’s portrayal of Mexican in the pages of Harper’s Weekly was vicious and dangerous. Their study indicates that due to negative perception of the south, Thomas Nast too often slipped into stereotypes of Mexicans in his drawings. However, according to John Adler, it was the same Thomas Nast, through his pictorial criticism in Harper’s Weekly, who brought down one of New York City’s famous political bosses, William Tweed, in 1871 (Adler, 2008). In response to Nast’s vicious drawings, Tweed famously noted: “I don’t care so much what the papers write about me - my constituents can’t read, but they can see them damned 400

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pictures” (Adler, 2008, p.12). Considering that Thomas Nast’s readership reached about a half million people (estimated) at that time, the political impact of such drawings were no surprise to anyone. For this very reason, Adler adds that Harper’s Weekly “played a significant role in shaping and reflecting public opinion from the start of the Civil War to the end of the century” (Adler, 2008, p.6). Adler’s research also points out that the political illustrations in Harper’s Weekly influenced other important social and political issues of the time in the US, including slavery and gender equality. David C. Jones investigates the l’Affaire Dreyfus through the proliferation of animal imagery used to represent anti-Semitism in La Libre Parole Illustrée in France. Jones examines the Dreyfus Affair through the drawings of the politically marginal Edouard Drumont, in the late 1890s, and claims that the pictorial constellation of the event helped to change the course of history. He states that particularly through Drumont’s drawings, Alfred Dreyfus, who once was a captain in the French army and then a prisoner in a famous prison (Devil’s Island) for being a traitor of the nation in 1894, became instrumental and a symbol in the construction of the iconography of the caricatured Jew (Jones, 2011, p. 40). To emphasize the power of satirical depiction of political figures, especially in animalistic caricatures in France, Jones claims, the weekly satirical Musée des Horreurs postcards were banned by the Ministry of the Interior (Jones, 2011, p.39). These examples indicate that as the pictorial language of satire as an art form, caricatures were part of the perception factory and aimed to affect political culture and public contestation, especially in France. As Amy W. Forbes states, the satire phenomenon is not new, their political significance was known as early as 1789 in France. She further claims that “satire has played a crucial part in France’s transition from divine right, absolutist monarchy to becoming a liberal and democratic polity. From 1789 through the 1830s, a succession of governments tried to meet satire’s challenges” (Forbes, 2008, p. 19). Since caricatures play a greater role in challenging authority and social order through stigmatizing cultural differences in France and elsewhere, the historical development of caricatures is worth further examination.

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POLITICAL CARTOONS IN EUROPE Fatma Muge Gocek, referencing Alice Sheppard, tells us that early publications of allegorical drawings appeared as early as medieval times in Europe to describe personified virtues, vices, emotions, and other abstract concepts (Gocek, 1998, p. 3). Later, these metaphorical dark and light works were translated into French, German, Dutch, English, and Spanish. In this way, sets of shared images and concepts became familiar throughout Europe (Gocek, 1998). According to Gocek, the early form of caricatures developed when drawings of humans in the shape of animals begun to appear in sixteenth century Rome. To her, “during the same time period, such images of fellow citizens turned out in abundance by Annibale and Agostino Caraci led to the formulation of the word caricatura” (Gocek, 1998, p. 3). Although distinguishing a portraiture from a caricature in medieval Europe remains difficult, characteristics of caricatures have since included ‘distortion’, ‘exaggeration’, and ‘hybridity’ leading to a consensus within which caricature is understood to be an exaggerated portraiture (Holbo, 2016, p. 371). To Coupe, caricature is more live and definitely negative compared other forms of drawings (Coupe, 1969). The literature also tells us that as an art form, caricatures disseminated from Rome to other European cities (Holbo, 2016) (Goldstein, 2009) but it became the site of resistance and the voice of the opposition to the crown in France, particularly (Goldstein, 2009) (Chenut, 2012) (Gocek, 1998). To Gocek, caricatures “gave political dissidents the chance both to delegitimize the king through ridicule and to 401

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generate a new shared set of political symbols” (Gocek, 1998, p. 4). Therefore, caricatures naturally tend to be revolutionary and dissident. Caricatures, at that time, were considered to be an art form to control thoughts. For this reason, caricatures were banned in France until the Third Republic, during which the ease on public press became visible once again (Gocek, 1998) (Boime, 1992). Similarly, Albert Boime also wrote that the French king, Louis XIV, once banned caricatures when their criticism became intolerable. In response to the kings’ censorship on the medium, French caricaturists took their work to Holland, where there was still freedom to criticize and ridicule political figures (Boime, 1992). Because caricaturists were free to draw and ridicule however they wished, they were admonished with series of political sanctions through censorship in Europe in 1830s. For instance, the French caricaturist, Charles Philipon, was among one of the names condemned by king Louis-Philippe for his portrayal of the king in the form of an animal and vegetables (Forbes, 2008) (Coupe, 1969) (Gocek, 1998). After a trial, Philipon was sentenced to six months in prison and a 2,000-franc fine for a ‘grave offence to the person of the king’ (Forbes, 2008, p. 33). This ban led to the use of vegetables and/or animals to demonstrate the resistance of state control censorship in Europe particularly (Gocek, 1998). During his trial, Philipon did not only seek acquittal, but also defended the caricatures for speaking the truth, as Forbes states they “embodied justice; they carried the citizen’s right to political debate, and prosecuting satirists only made officials look foolish” (Forbes, 2008, p. 31). As the above discussion indicates, caricatures’ extraordinary role in public and political life is well established. Although, ridiculing the monarchy in Europe was censored and fined on many occasions, political caricaturists continued to challenge the ‘order’ in the name of free speech and responsibility to tell the truth. As early as the 1830s, satirists knew their real political power in satire. The notion to speak the truth and to support the citizen’s right to know, has helped caricaturists’ drawings to possess tremendous power. Belgian cartoonist, Georges Remi’s, Les Aventures de Tintin’s main character, Tintin, for instance, embodies the power of weighted satiric discourse in his roles as journalist, detective, traveler, humorist, and fearless challenger. In what way as a generic character Tintin relates to European everyman, Oliver Dunnett (Dunnett, 2009) summarizes his thoughts below: [H]ere we have a character that is essentially iconic in its form, a facet which allows some readers to relate to Tintin as a generic “everyman” figure, albeit clearly a young, male, European everyman. … This basic depiction of Tintin contrasts effectively with the surrounding landscapes and settings of the stories, and Hergé went to a great deal of effort to research into the minutiae of real objects such as automobiles and buildings. (p. 586)

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WHAT IS A CARICATURE AND HOW DOES IT WORK? Caricatures are set apart from cartoons1 by the general concept of satire, which means to lampoon something or someone by the use of ridicule, irony, or sarcasm (Bal, Pitt, Berthon, & DesAutels, 2009, p. 231). Then as a subset of satire, “a caricature is a picture or description ludicrously exaggerating peculiarities or defects in persons or things” (Bal, Pitt, Berthon & DesAutels, 2009, p.231). Thus, pictures and words, in either captions or conversation bubbles, become subsidiary part of caricatures. By their very nature, caricatures similar to cartoons are intertextual and operational in respect to their characters, carrying a form of language within which meanings are understood and communicated. Although, caricatures focus on physical traits of a person or a thing, they only convey meanings when they are constructed around 402

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 French Orientalism Representations of Ottoman in Caricatures in Le Petit Journal

verbal and pictorial texts. Since their purpose is to represent part of social, cultural, or political life, they need to operate within the parameters of both factual knowledge and metaphoric image production. In other words, they rely on an existing knowledge structure, socio-cultural dispositions, and metaphorical processes of transferring meaning from imaginary to the real world (Alousque, 2013). Looking at the body of work on political cartooning in which arguments for caricatures can be neatly situated as well, Isabel Negro Alousque gives six definitive features of political cartoons: (1) They are characterized by allusion to a socio-political situation, event, or person, (2) factual knowledge is essential for their correct interpretation, (3) cartoons act as a bridge between fact and fiction, (4) cartoons have a satirical nature, they are characterized by caricature, which parodies the individual, (5) cartoons exemplify critical perspectives on recent events, and (6) metaphor is a recurrent device used in political cartooning, and editorial cartoons are a metaphor-rich communicative arena (Alousque, 2013, p.370). From these features, we understand that caricatures are also a form of persuasive communication and part of the production of graphic discourse. Thus, Medhurst and Desousa direct the focus of attention to the culture that produces the caricature, and the potential meaning of the symbology within which specific socio-political contexts play a large role (Medhurst & Desousa, 1981, p. 198). Regarding the question of how cartoons work, Bal et al. give us three necessary conditions that should be present; sympathy, gap, and differentiation (Bal, Pitt, Berthon, & DesAutels, 2009). Sympathy (or empathy) is a necessary condition in order for the audience to be able to relate to, or identify with, the object of satire, so that one will understand the cartoon’s point. The fundamental point here becomes that there needs to an affective bond with the object (love, hate, derision, etc.) (Bal, Pitt, Berthon, & DesAutels, 2009). For a cartoon to work, “there must also be a perceived gap, disparity or dissonance between image and reality” (p.232). For Coupe, the undifferentiated cannot be caricatured (Coupe, 1969). Then for différentiation to work, there needs to be a solid -either physical or ideological- difference at play so that a caricatured object can be differentiated from other objects in a given context. Bal et al. identify physical components, such as color, size, shape, and physical talents like strength, speed etc.; ideological components and intangible talents, which include intelligence, wisdom, luck, inspiration, ideals, values, and beliefs (Bal, Pitt, Berthon, & DesAutels, 2009, p. 232) are some areas where differentiation can occur. When Bal et al. talk about the necessary mechanism for a satire to work, they also emphasize the word exaggeration. Then, in order to caricature someone or something, all these articulations become fundamental because they allow caricaturists to magnify a person or a thing through which the audience sees the differentiation, feels the sympathy, and notices the gap. This magnification can be executed through either physical and/or ideological traits of the subject. In this sense, the Turkish mustache, beard, or a fez, for example, become the differentiated physical part of the ‘other’. Due to caricatures’ heavy use of cultural and physical differentiations, French audiences can easily detach themselves from the Ottoman subject and show sympathy with Bulgarians who are depicted as suffering under Ottoman rule. In this formulated mechanism of satire, this study sets the stage for decoding French cartoons published on the topics of Ottoman society and the Turkish ‘other’.

MOVEMENTS OF NEWS AND INFORMATION IN THE BALKAN WARS During the time of the Balkan Wars, thanks to developments in transportation and telecommunication technologies, it was relatively easy to transfer information periodically about the war to headquarters, 403

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through agencies and major newspapers. For various reasons, the western press was closely following the news and diplomatic initiatives in the Balkan region. When looking at those reports published on the Balkans, immediately we noticed that news on Balkan wars were mainly conveyed interpretative and figuratively rather than descriptively. Mehmet Yetisgin explains this notion highlighting that when the west transferred news and information about the Ottomans, they often did this in the context of existing power relations and hegemonic conditions. Western media’s writings on the Ottoman Empire were rarely outside the power relation that was present at that time (Yetisgin, 2010, p. 122). Fikrettin Yavuz confirms the argument stating, “the European press’s attitude towards the Ottoman Empire could never get rid of the traditional European prejudices. Although Turks had acquired a significant portion of territories on the European continent throughout the centuries, they were always seen as ‘the dangerous other’ in Europe, despite their cultural and political influence and dominance in the regions. It is felt that this was perceived as a ‘problem’ in almost all news of the press about the Ottoman Empire” (Yavuz, 2013, p. 150). The French newspaper, Le Petit Journal, was no exception and was the predominant conveyer of information about the orient. The journal closely, but not meticulously, followed what was happening in the Ottoman Empire, including news about military, political, social, cultural, and economic topics. Nevertheless, during the Balkan Wars, the journal succeeded to feed the French public through its reporting on the Empire, thus building a perception of which still effects the fundamental understanding about the Orient in France.

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LE PETIT JOURNAL Le Petit Journal was launched by Moïse Polydore Millaud in Paris on February 2, 1863. It set a record in start-up publishing with 83,000 copies on its first day (Kupferman & Machefer, 1975). The journal became the most circulated journal, selling 200,000 copies in France in 1868. It gained a reputation by being the first daily newspaper that sold for one cent. It reached a million copies by the end of the century and sustained being one of the most circulated newspapers during its publishing life (1863-1944) (Kupferman & Machefer, 1975). The journal’s another success came when it introduced Supplément Illustré as a Sunday addition, in which it presented its colored-drawings for the first time in 1884. In the Gallica.bnf.fr archives, there are 82 years of Le Petit Journal publications with total of 29,518 issues. The Supplément du dimanche addition of the journal is also available on the website with a collection of 1,899 issues from 1884 to 1920. The Bibliothèque nationale de France Catalogue Général (BNF), is the only house with available issues of the journal today. Le Petit Journal’s views tended to be more republican and conservative than other news journals published in France (Chupin, Hubé, & Kaciaf, 2009). Although there are a significant number of images printed in the journal, this study only includes caricatures that were published during the Balkan Wars and those that possessed the fullest symbolic narratives and meanings. For the sake of space, a further sorting was made of images published during this period. Le Petit Journal was selected as the site of the investigation because it is considered to be an influential source of information with its drawings. These drawings, this paper argues, not only formed French people’s opinion about the Orient but also paved the way for lasting knowledge production on oriental geographies.

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ANALYSIS OF THE LE PETIT JOURNAL’S POLITICAL CARTOONS Le Petit Journal was one of the public informers for French people and published a series of editorial cartoons under the title La Semaine Illustrée by the pen name Henriot on the subject of Ottoman political figures and practices. At first glance, these drawings seem isolated from the rest of the documents, however a closer look reveals that the images were often accompanied with or referenced to other news and texts in the journal that articulated the Ottoman subject. Considering the intertextuality of images, we were obligated to pay close attention to what had been published in the journal in that week as well. Otherwise, the interpretations of the caricatures’ messages may not be very meaningful. For this very reason, interpretation of the images necessitates a general understanding of the historical and sociocultural context behind the scene. This of course, gave the French audience an opportunity to understand and interpret images with little or no explanation. In this respect, this paper’s focus of analysis includes cartoons that are relatively comprehensible as stand-alone illustrations. Images are also categorized by their thematic attributions, including Sultan Abdulhamid II, Turkish constitutionalism, and the Balkan Wars. This study acknowledges the fact that the interpretation of images is not obviously the final.

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Figure 1. Le Petit Journal published on 16 August, 1908

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The Sultan Image 1 represents a typical cartoon in the journal on the the subject of the Turkish government and Sultan, Abdulhamid II. The Sultan and one of his closest confidants are looking at the crescent moon, which when on a banner is associated with Islam, from a deck of his palace. The Sultan quietly confesses to himself: Comme le croissant diminue (as the croissant decreases). His confidant replies: Sire, c’est demain la nouvelle lune! (tomorrow is the new moon). Istanbul is witnessing the end of Sultan’s reign. The sultan feels that the end is near. The crescent further lessens -or it is eaten up in the metaphor of French desert ‘croissant’ and reference to the Empire’s rapid loss of territories in Europe- as the time of his sultanate slowly disappears. The twilight merges into darkness. There are minarets in the background as the Sultan confesses that this is a farewell to Istanbul, the capital of Ottoman Empire. However, his confidant assures him that la nouvvelle lune en Constantinople (the new moon in Constantinople) will rise soon.

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Figure 2. Le Petit Journal published on August 23, 1908

On a background of Islamic architecture, two figures, one hunchback and one standing straight, are wearing fez hats and long vests, and both figures have beards (See Image 2). The text starts with, C’est donc fini ! il n’y a plus de monarque absolu en Europe ! (So it’s over! there’s no longer an absolute monarch in Europe). The Sultan2 avows quietly that no monarchy remains in Europe any more, not in Paris not in M. Pataud; The hunchbacked appearance of the character confirms that the absolute monarchy for Ottoman Empire has come to an end. This illustration appears a month after (August 23,

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1908) the Sultanate re-declares the Second Constitutionalism (II. Meşrutiyet) which takes a large part of the Sultan’s power on July 24, 1908. Although, Sultan Abdulhamid II might not be happy about the restoration of the constitution, Le Petit Journal informs its readers that the Sultan printed a medal in memory of the constitution stating on its face Liberté, Justice, Egalité on August 15, 1908. Since the restoration of the constitution in Istanbul, Le Petit Journal published a series of news -often two to three news pieces a day- not only from the capital city, but also from other territories in the empire, particularly from Balkans. Two days after the declaration of the new constitution, Le Petit Journal also reports that le nouveau régime (the new regime) was welcomed in Macedonia, updating the readers that a mufti or Greek metropolitan and a Bulgarian priest hugged each other in the celebration of the new constitution.

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Figure 3. Le Petit Journal published on November 03, 1912

A month before the first Balkan War erupted, Sultan Abdulhamid II returned to Istanbul from exile in Thessalonica. As the Sultan seems weary in his room, tumultuous voice breaks the silence giving the Sultan a moment of panic (See Image 3). He asks Mais il me semble que j’entends des coups de canon? (It seems to me that I’m hearing Canon shots). A man standing next to him responds C’est le people, heureux de votre retour à Stamboul, qui tire des feux d’artifice! (It’s the people, happy of your return to Istanbul, who are shooting fireworks). In this image, the Sultan is illustrated as if he is not sure of what he is hearing, reality or an illusion, indicating that his mental well-being is in question and also referring to the long turbulent years of his reign. Caricaturist Henriot wisely expresses his art of satire by delicately mocking the Sultan, who cannot differentiate the sound of war from the sound of joy. The authors also imply that the Sultan may just be hearing the sounds of the First Balkan War, during which the empire lost almost the entire Balkan region and Thrace.

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Turkish Parliament France had always been an ancillary supporter for constitutionalism in Ottoman Turkey. There were many reasons but one stands out as strikingly obvious and that was France’s long-time desire to remove Abdulhamid II from power. Thus, they supported any movement that could be mobilized against the Sultan. One of the movements was the Jeunes Turcs (Young Turks) of Europe. Another reason France was exceedingly interested in constitutionalism in the Ottoman Empire was because France always felt obliged to be the protector of minorities in Ottoman territories. For France, constitutionalism could provide an alternative way to have minority voices heard in the empire. Supporting this idea, it was understandable that Le Petit Journal published pages and pages of news and developments about Turkish constitutionalism. However, the nature of Turkish constitutionalism did not resemble that of Europe in sense of quality. As the drawings in the journal confirm, what was to come about in Istanbul was no more than a Turkish new style constitutionalism.

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Figure 4. Le Petit Journal published on August 30, 1908

In Image 4, crowds of people gather under two main minarets. Two figures at the top of the minarets are distributing paper to the crowd below. People in the crowd are wearing fez hats and have beards and mustaches. A crescent moon can be seen on the back of a figure wearing a turban. One figure at the top of a minaret is wearing a turban, while the other is wearing a fez. Le Petit Journal tells its readers that finally suffrage has been granted, the election is on the horizon, and places designated for worship have turned into political campaign sites. Instead of muezzins, now candidates use minarets to explain

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advantages of their administration if elected. Again, instead of muezzins calling for prays from minarets, it is the politicians calling out for support. The image skillfully gives the message to readers that only in Turkey can religion and politics be blended easily. That is why the journal accentuates the title of the cartoon as Turquie nouveau style.

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Figure 5. Le Petit Journal published on December 27, 1908

The Image 5 depicts two men standing in front of the Turkish parliament building. Both of them have beards and are wearing long coats over long vests and fezes, one is holding a newspaper (presumed). In the background there is a small crowd of people wearing in fez hats and a slight outline of minarets. Le Petit Journal reports news about the Turkish parliamentarians’ agendas to French readers. The Turkish parliament finally opened for the second time with the remarks of Abdulhamid II. There waits number of urgent reforms to be dealt in the parliament. The caption reads, A propos de France, si nous nous votions 15,000 francs d’indemnite’? (Speaking of France, what if we voted for 15,000 francs of compensation?) The journal implies that Turkish representatives imitate French parliamentarians’ conduct of business by preparing a ‘to do list’. Then, it is the cartoonist speaks, suggesting that Turkish parliamentarians should start by paying 15,000 francs as a compensation because if the parliament was re-opened, it was because of France and its support for the opposition, such as Jeunes Turcs. Therefore, it is France that they are indebted to.

The Balkan Wars News on the Balkan Wars in European media in many ways also concerned the Ottomans. Even when news was about tussles between Serbians, Greeks, Bulgarians, and Montenegrins, Ottomans were pictured as the losing side or in a negative way. The pictorial stories on the conflict in Balkans almost always

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illustrated Ottomans using stereo types of preconceived notions. In other words, no image or news illustrated in the journal portrayed Ottomans in a warmer position. One striking example can be seen in the Image 6 which was published in Le Petit Journal just several days after the first Balkan War began, with the title Les Atrocités Turques (The Turkish Atrocities) on the front cover. In this image there are three men with mustaches wearing fez hats and military uniforms, two of them holding long guns and one with a sword. On the table in front of them, there are three gruesome looking heads. However, the same image was published in other journals decades before, also describing Turkish ruthlessness. For example, La Vie Illustrée published the image on February 27, 1903, L’Illustration on February 28, 1903, Berliener Illustrirte Zeitung on March 15, 1903 and Le Petit Journal on October 20,1912. For more than two decades, the same picture circulated in western media as an example of how perfidious the Ottomans were.

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Figure 6. Le Petit Journal published on October 20, 1912

Ethem Eldem traced the story of the photograph and disclosed important inferences about the image. Eldem found that the same image was also investigated by Ottoman inspectors and reported following: “In [1890-1891] when Faik Pasha was governor and Mehmed Pasha commander of the Gendarmerie, the severed heads of Greek bandits killed at Goritsa were brought to Monastir and their photographs taken in the presence of gendarmes and policemen…” (Eldem, 2015, p. 126). In his interpretation, Eldem concludes that “the massive and almost simultaneous use of these images in the Western illustrated press may have been the result of a chain reaction from one periodical to another, but it seems likely also to have been the result of a concerted effort of Macedonian freedom fighters or their supporters to

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bombard the Western public with hard evidence of atrocities committed in the region.” (Eldem, 2015, p.127) As Eldem highlights, the fabrication of the image’s connection to the events taking place at the time, does not make it less horrible, but its re-circulation significantly changes its political circumstances, especially during the Balkan War (Eldem, 2015, p. 127). Strikingly this example gives an impression of how aggressive the West’s perception factory was against Ottomans.

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Figure 7. Le Petit Journal published on October 20, 1912

In the foreground of Image 7, there is a man with a beard wearing a turban and loose clothing, pointing at the crescent moon from a balcony. Below, there is a crowd of people with mustaches wearing fezes. In the background, there is a faint outline of minarets. The image is slightly shaded, perhaps to indicate night time. In the end of 1912, the Ottoman Empire retreated as the coalition army of Balkan states moved in, capturing territories all the way to Çatalca of Istanbul. The Ottoman military received unprecedented defeat in Balkans to newly emerging former Ottoman subjects. Such rapid and continuing decay of the Empire was mocked in Le Petit Journal drawings on October 20, 1912. The Balkan Wars became another motivation to accelerate the depiction of Ottoman decay in the journal’s illustrations. This image attempts to demonstrate how unreasonable Ottoman imams were, not only because they were fooling themselves, but also for deceiving the public. The text reads, A Constantiople. -- Allah inch’ Allah ! ... les astres sont pour nous ! ... voyez la lune que prend la forme du croissant ! (In Istanbul. - Allah inshallah! ... the stars are for us! ... see the moon shaped like a crescent!) From his pulpit, an imam shows his congregation that every sign in the sky takes the crescent form, Islam in other words. In a creative interpretation, the caricature is perhaps implying that ‘perchance only Allah can save them from the inevitable end’.

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Figure 8. Le Petit Journal published on January 26, 1913

The Image 8 depicts two old men wearing fez hats and long coats, one is hunchback with a beard, standing on shore while looking out over the ocean where a ship is half way sunken into the water. The two old men exclaim: Helas ! notre cuirassé coule ! Par Allah ! nous avons été vainqueurs au combat naval… (What now! Our warship sinks! Thanks to Allah! We were victors in the naval warfare…). This image continues to ridicule the Ottoman military and people’s false optimism about the war. In sight, an Ottoman battleship is sinking in the Marmara Sea. The war is at their door steps, but Ottomans speak of victorious times. It is nothing more than an old man’s illusionary consolation. The image humorously illustrates how far away Turks are from reality. A man wearing a long coat and a fez is holding a piece of paper with his arms stretch forward on a platform above a crowd of people with a minaret in the background in Image 9. Enfin !... une victoire !! Chouette, Allah ! (Finally! A victory! Marvelous, Allah!), the caption reads. But, this is not a victory for Ottomans. What seems to be a military personal in the cartoon is fooling the audience once again. The next line in the text says La flotte europeenne bloque le Montenegro (the European fleet blocks Montenegro). The Ottoman war bureaucracy is so eager to see a victory that seems to be unachievable in the foreseeable time. They are so helpless, in a sense, that they even interpret the European fleets’ blockage of Montenegro to the Ottoman’s advantage. The cartoon again ridicules how the Balkan Wars were misleadingly interpreted in the Ottoman capital.

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Figure 9. Le Petit Journal published on April 13, 1913

The Image 10 shows two men in military uniforms standing in front of a cannon. In the back ground, there are two other men wearing fez hats and light smoke plumes rising in the air. The two soldiers make comments on their numerous defeats by the Bulgarians. However, they seem to find the answer. The reason the Ottomans were losing the Balkan Wars was because of German Krupps. They were too old and useless against the state of art French cannons. Alors, quoi ! les Allemands nous ont encore vendu de la camelote? (Then what! Did the Germans sell us junk again?) Soldiers admit that French weapons are fantastic. Relying on German Krupps, the Ottomans have no chance to defeat French-backed Bulgarians in the Balkan Wars. Indicating that the Ottomans can only fool themselves, once again, in Le Petit Journal’s illustrations.

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FRENCH ORIENTALISM Le Petit Journal showed intense interest in the political developments and territorial crises in the Ottoman Empire by publishing editorial columns and illustrated satire. These news pieces and drawings accelerated when the Ottoman Empire rapidly began losing territory in North Africa and the Balkans. Le Petit Journal’s reporting style did not resemble ordinary news distributions. This reporting style was documented and interpreted with particular perspectives and cultural backgrounds. As we argue in this study, the journal’s documentation of the Ottoman subject can be easily categorized within the discourse of (French) orientalism.

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Figure 10. Le Petit Journal published on November 03, 1912

Le Petit Journal exhibited orientalist documentation in two main ways. First, the journal documented the Ottoman subjects using a colonial perspective, categorizing the subjects in a degrading manner, using the available symbolism, characterization, and exaggeration. Second, the journal documented the Ottoman subject from the French vantage point in the name of informing and educating public through its political illustrations. To elaborate the above claims further, one needs to understand that the Le Petit Journal, as one of the most popular and circulated journals in France, it did not only maintain the fantasized Orient through its cartoons, but also it demarcated cultural and social boundaries of the ‘other’. In this sense, this study argues that orientalism (Said, 2003) is an ongoing discursive practice visible throughout the French press using the language of images. In other words, the journal’s language of images creates a particular narration, identification, and appropriateness that inform the perspectives about others (Sharp, 1993). These perspectives do not create equilibrium and are not innocent or free from cultural implications. In this context, Le Petit Journal successfully thrived by creating presumed-to-be-true images of the ‘Turkish other’ for French readers. Through classification, essentialization, and cataloguing, the journal ultimately became an encyclopedia for French people. This was not only to explore Turkish other in a given context but it was also to construct cultural differentiation, comprising of material characteristics such as their physical appearances (fez, turban, gown, beard, angry and hunched look, etc.), and their abstract characteristics (lack of intelligence, wisdom, and talent). In this respect, Ottoman male and female alike are embodied in this particular perspective and then, their identities are represented, performed, and ridiculed. For instance, Karen Culcasi and Mahmut Gokmen argued that the western print media

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successfully attributed a meaning to beards. They have then been associated with backwardness, Islam, and violence (Culcasi & Gokmen, 2011). Furthermore, especially in the name of satire, Le Petit Journal continuously represented Turks in oversimplified and negative ways. Caricatures on the Balkan Wars often illustrated Turks with personal defects and ludicrously exaggerated peculiarities. This particularity of satire and the practical consequences in constructing perceptions of the other has not been acknowledged. In this regard, Darren Purcell, Melissa S. Brown and Mahmut Gokmen argue that satire works “as an important form of popular culture in the creation of geopolitical worldviews, replete with social contexts that are interwoven in practices of humor” (Purcell, Brown, & Gokmen, 2010, p. 373). In their exploration of the stand-up ventriloquist, Jeff Durham’s show entitled Achmed the Dead Terrorist, they express that the humor in Durham’s stand-up show was simultaneously ridiculing and explaining terrorism to American audiences. The authors claim that the puppet on Durham’s hand looks like a skeleton “with heavily accented features such as a high forehead, black bushy eyebrows, eyeballs that appear to be crazed, a turban and the stereotypical beard often associated with Muslim males” (Purcell, Brown, & Gokmen, 2010, p. 380). Similar to Durham’s ventriloquy, Le Petit Journal cartoons operate within the same realm of orientalist comedy. The second set of thoughts on how the Ottoman subject is documented in Le Petit Journal’s illustrations directs our attention to the journal’s contribution to the knowledge production about the Orient and its imagined geographies. Edward Said, writing on the course of Orientalism, presents several overlapping domains related to this topic. He explains that “the ideological suppositions, images and fantasies about a currently important and politically urgent region of the world called the Orient” (Said, 1998, p. 256) is not outside the realm of an institutional or discursive setting. Thus, for Said, the production of knowledge best serves communal, as oppose to factional, goals. By simplifying and lowering the complexity of the Balkan Wars with the hands and the talent of cartoonists, Le Petit Journal authoritatively attempts to re-write history and build a department of thought for its readers about the silent other. In this way, the journal exhibits imprudent freedom to ridicule its subject, simultaneously boosting its readers’ moral about how fast the colossal Ottoman empire is shrinking in the hands of the Bulgarian advancement in the Balkans. Le Petit Journal’s cartoons both depict Turkishness as subdivisions of the orient, as well as create and manipulate public opinion during the Balkan Wars. As Gocek states “political cartoons were employed on both fronts: at home, they were used to mobilize the population both morally and intellectually for the war, explain setbacks, confirm belief in the superiority of the fatherland, and proclaim the hope of final victory; against the enemy, political cartoons were utilized to put the population in dismay through ridiculing them, and constantly displaying their ineptitude, cowardice, and effeminacy” (Gocek, 1998, p. 5). French political satire in the form of caricatures and cartoons became a significant means for political propaganda, expertise on the orient, and useful venue for disseminating information about the Balkan Wars, while educating the public about the Ottoman Empire. For French society, Le Petit Journal became a national informer, educator, entertainer, and at the same time cartographer and historian about the Turkish other. In the name of free speech, satire, and as a source of information, Le Petit Journal illustrations construct imagined geographies of Turkey. This imagination however is no more than a product of French fantasies about the exotic Orient.

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FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS Orientalism is a systematic way of studying, understanding, representing, and dominating the ‘other’. New studies on orientalism need to focus the cultural production of orientalism and the legitimization of meaning through oriental representations, practices, and performance, as well as address the scientific accumulation of information on the Orient. Research on orientalism can take the mundane production of meaning in things, such as jokes, proverbs, slang expressions etc., as the point of analysis. Another point of interest for orientalism studies is, to what degree are peoples’ everyday lives affected by orientalist practices. For example, in what ways are issues turned into a security matters, could be a point of exploration about how orientalist discourse’s effects can be seen in daily life. The securitization school of thought provides a useful framework to investigate such matters.

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CONCLUSION Caricatures, without a doubt, do much more than just depict a statement. They possess entire sets of meanings and representations. In their various artistic forms, caricatures have always been an important communication medium to convey everything from humor to politics, and from social discontentment to cultural stereotyping and geographical imaginations. This potential has enabled caricatures to be the site of political representations and (geo)graphical articulations from their earliest appearances in Europe. Gillian Rose argues that images are not innocent; they always project something from somewhere and contain someone’s projection. In her understanding, an image is “constructed through various practices, technologies and knowledges” (Rose, 2007, p. 26) and so she states, a critical approach is needed when we think about the agency of an image (Rose, 2007). Similarly, Le Petit Journal, as an agency of image, operated within the discourse of satiric and French liberalism. Surrounded by political culture, the journal’s satirists generously used the aesthetic of double meaning to charge the Balkan Wars and Turkish constitutionalism with double meanings of their own, both informing and mocking at the same time. The journal also utilized its web of sources to provide its readers what they claimed to be authentic information about the Ottoman subject meanwhile imbedding extensive interpretations of the news published in text form. Caricatures in Le Petit Journal embodied authority, carrying the citizen’s right to ‘true’ information and cultural interpretation about the other geographies. However, these interpretations should not be underestimated. In support of this, Forbes claims that “satire worked on the assumption that public consumers would look closely at an image or text and see through subterfuge to a deeper truth,… a political truth about monarchy, and then make political judgments based on what they detected” (Forbes, 2008, p. 43). This was what was understood to be task of a satirist in French society. And no doubt, satire in French history had the potential to even topple governments. This chapter is conceived as an analysis and decoding of satirical representations of Ottoman subjects by the French newspaper, Le Petit Journal, at the height of the Balkan Wars and the Turkish constitutionalist movement. The journal’s work circulated freely in the mass illustrated press and targeted both the Sultanate and its failure to address demands for a constitution and ineptitude in the Balkan Wars. Caricaturists also mocked the Sultan Abdulhamid II for losing his mental well-being and at the same time as losing the Empire’s territories. This paper argues that caricatures in the journal were part of aggressive French orientalism through which they produced knowledge and illustrative interpretations about the Ottoman Empire. This study maintains that caricatures in the journal recognizably depicted 416

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Turks as backward, freedom haters, incapable of fighting, self-deceitful, angry-looking, and above all an Oriental, opposite of the Occident. In the French historical context and through free circulating press illustrations, satire and caricature were the method of choice for perceiving, conceiving, and judging the Ottoman subject.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT Authors show their appreciation to two anonymous referees on their constructive comments. It is also critical to note here that authors acknowledge their expected contributions to the study represented in the order of the authorship since each of their language skills and academic focus are different. They declare that no academic principles are masticated writing this paper. Authors also thank to the Bibliothèque nationale de France for allowing them to use images.

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Said, E. (2003). Orientalism. Penguin. Sharp, J. (1993). Publishing American identity: Popular geopolitics, myth and The Reader’s Digest. Political Geography, 12(6), 491–503. doi:10.1016/0962-6298(93)90001-N Stoner, K. L. (2009, Sept.). The Cuban Caricature and National Identity. The Latin Americanist, 55-78. Streicher, L. H. (1967). On a Theory of Political Caricature. Comparative Studies in Society and History, 9(4), 427–445. doi:10.1017/S001041750000462X Turan, M. O. (2012). Gazetelerde Yayinlanan Siyasi Karikaturlerin Gostergebilimsel Cozumlemesi: 2011 Genel Secimleri Ornegi. Selcuk Iletisim, 7(2), 121–138. Watson, C. (2011). Notes on the Variety and Uses of Satire, Sarcasm and Irony in Social Research, with Some Observations on Vices and Follies in the Academy. Power and Education, 3(2), 139–149. doi:10.2304/power.2011.3.2.139 Yavuz, F. (2013, Aralık). New York Times Gazetesi’nin Gözüyle Balkan Savaşları. Tarih Okulu Dergisi, 147-186. Yetisgin, M. (2010). Batı Basınından Osmanlı Devleti’ne Yaklaşımlar ve Osmanlıların Bu Yaklaşımlara Tepkileri. Ankara Üniversitesi Osmanlı Tarihi Araştırma ve Uygulama Merkezi Dergisi, 119-162.

ADDITIONAL READING Dittmer, J., & Bos, D. (2019). Popular Culture, Geopolitics, and Identity. Rowman & Littlefield. Gregory, D. (2004). The colonial present: Afghanistan, Palestine, and Iraq. Blackwell Pub. Klaus, D. (2010). Popular Geopolitics and Cartoons: Representing Power Relations, repitition and Resistance. Critical African Studies, 2(4), 113–131. doi:10.1080/20407211.2010.10530760 Purcell, D., Heitmeier, B., & Van Wyhe, C. (2017). Critical Geopolitics and the Framing of the Arab Spring Through Late‐Night Humor. Social Science Quarterly, 98(2), 513–531. doi:10.1111squ.12296

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Said, W. E. (1981). Covering Islam: how the media and the experts determine how we see the rest of the world. Pantheon Books.

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Caricature Representation: Exaggerated drawings of a human or a thing in which cultural, political, and geographic production of meanings are attached. For example, Charles Philipon’s depiction of the King Louis-Philippe in the form of an animal or vegetable. Cartoons: Series of drawings that tell particular stories in the form of humor and criticism about various subjects and lives.

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Geographical Imagination: A subjective way of thinking about geographies that do not exist in the physical form but exist in more of an abstract sense. It is, in other words, about ‘their place’ versus ‘our place’ in regard to similarities and differences. Le Petit Journal: A daily circulated newspaper in France from 1863 to 1944, broadcasting news and events not only from inside France but also broadcasting news and events from different territories and countries for French audiences. Orientalism: A particular way of perceiving the Orient. The term is tied to the way in which the colonial West discovered, understood, represented, and subjugated the East as the ‘other’. In the academic circles, orientalism is not an abstract term to be studied but encompasses centuries-long practices of domination of the other. Ottoman Image in France: The French way of representing and the cultural production of the Ottoman subject for French people and Europeans in general. Popular Geopolitics: An integral part of critical geopolitics that takes loose relationships between popular productions and their geopolitical meanings seriously. For instance, popular geopolitics pays extra attention to popular media’s unnoticed formulations of foreign policies and national identities. Turkey: A country at the crossroads of Europe and Asia. The country has mixed meanings especially in the eyes of Western audiences.

ENDNOTES

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1

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Caricatures and cartoons are often used interchangeably in this text. Many forms of editorial cartoons in newspapers are considered to be caricatures. Caricatures are more personified cartoons and often use exaggeration and humor. Although the text attached to the caricature does not mention that the hunchbacked person in the caricature is the Sultan, we infer that the way in which the caricaturist make the person speak resembles to Abdulhamid II.

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Chapter 25

Reconsidering Gender Stereotypes Through Bollywood Cinema:

Reconsidering Bollywood Movie Dangal Ebru Gülbuğ Erol Cummunication Design Faculty, Muş Alparaslan University, Turkey Mustafa Gülsün Muş Alparaslan University, Turkey

ABSTRACT

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The concept of gender determines the biological sex of an individual by birth. However, according to the understanding of gender, there are basic codes for men and women, and people act in accordance with these codes. Orientalism is an imitation or depiction of directions in the Eastern world. In terms of cinema, it is the creation of an Eastern atmosphere with the Eastern representation and images in the flms. Sports, common name for all body movements that are performed by obeying certain rules and techniques, are benefcial to physical development and aim to have fun and are open to everybody regardless of sex. Traditional gender stereotypes posit that women do certain kinds of sports. So, flms that depict this extraordinary contrast are remembered for their subjects. The flm Dangal depicts the father-daughter relationships of an Indian family living in an Eastern cultural tradition and a female wrestler with international status, unlike a family shaped according to oriental codes.

INTRODUCTION There is no doubt that the distinction between men and women is one of the first existential distinctions. In time, the fact that people started to live in groups and started social life revealed the cultural structure and the differences between cultures. Some cultures unite around women and are matriarchal; others have created patriarchal codes by attaching importance to men. Which gender will exist in social life, the DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch025

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distribution of roles, the jobs they will do are listed from the most difficult to the simplest. This ranking is seen in all areas of social life. In this sense, sports and sports activities are differentiated for men and women. Power and violent sports are listed as male-oriented sports associated with power and violence. Not only in sports, but also in some professions, men have been ascribed to men such as truck or truck driver, but exceptions are also seen at this point. While the development of mass media has helped to uniformize these roles, cinema has also served as a common propaganda. While storytelling stereotypes and deviations about gender roles, it has the ability to express and represent what exists and what should be. Cinema existentially connects the audience in a different direction when it treats the ordinary, but when it processes the extraordinary, it both draws attention and is effective in breaking stereotypes. In this context, Dangal, directed by the famous name of Bollywood cinema, Amir Khan, tells the story of a young girl’s success in wrestling in the international arena despite the ridicule, denial and all financial and moral difficulties. Women and wrestling sport are seen and presented as two opposite concepts. The protagonist of the film, the father, hopefully and insistently wants to have a boy because he is a wrestler of his own and wants to have a son with whom he will raise wrestlers just like him. At this point, the study starts with the concepts of culture and gender because being a female wrestler is a cultural problem. It is a part of a cultural identity. In the research part of the study, a reading will be made for the film with the descriptive analysis method, which is among the qualitative research methods, with the keywords of Dangal, culture, gender, female wrestler and the presentation of extraordinary women in Bollywood cinema. How a wrestling woman is regarded within an eastern culture will be watched is the main assumption. The result of the study is that the female character of the film is considered outside the general gender judgments, and a frail child gains a gold medal in a sport which is identified with the men in the international arena over time. In many studies in the literature, it is seen that male and female characters do not act outside of gender roles and do not go beyond stereotypes. In the movie Dangal of Bollywood Cinema, a female character different from gender is represented. This study is also important in defining gender roles since in a man dominated area a little girl gains success.

CULTURE AND SOCIAL GENDER

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Culture: Definition, Origin and Components The concept of culture has been defined so many times up to now and in different ways in different disciplines. The common point of these different definitions is that each discipline has handled culture according to its own framework (Tutuş, 2020: 6). When the origin of the word culture is examined, it is seen that it comes from the word cultura, which contains the meanings of bread and production in Latin and this word is used as an umbrella term in world languages. The word hars, which is originally Arabic and we use in Turkish, is synonymous with the word “ekin” culture, which is also present in our language. It is not enough to treat culture only as cultivation. Culture can be encountered while eating, playing, furnishing the house, choosing the color or even the pattern of the clothes we wear. In addition, culture has the feature of having a very rich content by changing and developing over time. Considered the ancestor of social anthropology, Edward Burnett Tylor was the first scientist to define the concept of culture. According to Tylor, culture is a complex pattern that includes the skills, knowledge, morals, customs, traditions, customs and habits of human beings, who are the building blocks of 422

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societies. With this definition, Tylor emphasized that culture is actually learned and passed down from generation to generation (Sarıgül Yılmaz, 2018: 36). According to another definition, culture is a phenomenon that includes the natural rules, traditions, and customs, trends that shape the dimensions of thought, the devices used, the products consumed, the talents and habits of the human being (Gülmez, 2011: 3). The concept of culture has been handled in two different ways, as concrete and abstract. When we look at the concrete meaning, we come across phenomena such as the cultivation of vegetables, fruits, various plants and animals. In its abstract sense, phenomena such as rites, beliefs and traditions stand out. Although the concrete meaning of culture was used predominantly in the early days, the abstract meaning has found more use with the long periods. There has been a transformation from plant or animal breeding to artistic and mental breeding. In addition to these, as a result of the development of societies and political transformations in the 19th century, culture began to be introduced as the life styles of nations and societies (Erkenekli, 2013: 147-172).The sum of the material and spiritual values ​​of a society creates the culture of that society. When human beings are born, they are ready for culture and everything around them is seen as elements of material and spiritual culture. The human being, who can adapt to the culture of the society while growing up in, reveals the learning dimension of the culture. This situation causes people to be seen as an element of the culture they live in. With the passage of time, changes in general culture and one’s own culture can be observed. This proves that the culture is changeable throughout time. According to Fisher, while listing the characteristics of culture (Fichter, 2002: 45), he says “cultures help us to distinguish societies with the signs or symbols they use”. According to this definition, societies are different from each other in terms of culture, and for centuries, the eastern culture and the western culture coded differently from it are mentioned. Therefore, the value attributed to a subject or object in these different codes is also different. Güvenç, on the other hand, draws attention to the fact that culture is formed together with people and their existence, and emphasizes that a society has characteristics introduced to other groups and this is an important proof that a society can be different from others. The culture, which consists of different components, is closely tied together by historical and functional ties. It is possible to see that the reason for its existence is questioned when it comes to its essence. The basis of these questions lies in the effort to understand the human environment and world. As a result of these mentioned situations, culture has components that reveal it. These components can be collected under seven headings. The seven main items in question determine the culture of a society and show its difference from the others. Language has an important place for societies to preserve their existence and reach the future. In the society we belong to, we fulfill our communication and the exchange of facts such as signs and symbols through language. People who speak a different language are different in culture. Religion has an important place among the cultural components. Although different languages ​​are spoken, communities with the same religion can also share a culture https://www.iienstitu.com/blog/milli-kultur-ogeleri-nesi/ (16.08.2020). Traditions and customs are all or almost all unwritten rules that exist in societies. Such as greeting or hosting guests (https://dygkaya.wordpress.com/toplum-ve-kultur/kulturun-ogeleri/ 17.08.2020). Many cultures and there are countless symbols produced by these cultures. They are clear examples of brand, flag and emblem symbols. Although symbols are unique, their meanings differ from culture to culture. For instance, in Turkey horses are loyal and noble animals, horse meat is not consumed throughout the country but horse meat is consumed in Kyrgyzstan, which is considered is a closed culture. While cow meat is an edible animal in many cultures, it is considered sacred in India and its meat is inedible. 423

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In our desire to determine our goals and habits, the values ​​that show us how much of our work is right and how much is wrong are the strongest social control mechanisms. People determine their duties and roles in the societies they are in, according to the values ​​of that society. It can be said that they have various functions such as being a means of pressure, creating social mechanisms, and acting as a means of solidarity. In the context of gender, values ​​are one of the most prominent codes. Displayed as a roadmap of values, norms show what kind of behavior will be exhibited in certain situations. For example, while this attitude of a person who loves his homeland is considered within the framework of values, the love and respect he shows to his flag is evaluated within the framework of the norm. https:// www.neoldu.com/kulturun-ogeleri-2441h.htm/ (18.08.2020). Technology creates the material dimension of culture that can be seen and handled. Technology shapes the living environment physically, psychologically and socially. In people, they determine their relationships and behaviors according to their surroundings (Şişman, 2014: 5). Culture defines the way we live in. Both concrete and abstract values come together and shape our living.

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Eastern Culture vs. Western Culture Throughout history, the first thing that comes to mind when it comes to cultural differences is the differences between eastern and western cultures. If we question the reason, we can reach the effect of these two cultures on other cultures in the world. This has led to much research on the two cultures. In fact, although it is the eastern culture that influences the western culture and helps its formation, this reality has always been ignored by the world, and the source of all existing cultures has been tried to be presented as the western culture, in other words, the European culture. Every good work done according to Western culture, every good invention found is the work of their own culture. According to this mentality, all other cultures have been ignored and underestimated. However, eastern culture, especially with the inventions and discoveries of Muslim scientists, has guided them by constantly enlightening the western culture (Okuyan, 2011: 99-122).Considering the fundamental differences between eastern and western cultures, it is claimed that philosophical thinking, behavioral patterns and scientific structure are in the first place. This claim, which is constantly discussed in crowded settings, requires the acceptance of the idea that there is a different identity structure with it. With the 21st century, it has become public to discuss this distinction or these differences between two cultures. Especially Samuel Huntington’s War of Civilizations? His article called, had great repercussions around the world (Karagöz Yerdelen, 2016: 254-267).Although the level of economic development, social life and political thoughts show the difference between these two cultures to a great extent, the factor that produces and maintains this difference is cultural genetics. Cultural genetics has a direct influence on the formation of a biological or social personality. While the identity of societies occurs with the facts they have, such as tradition, belief, morality, education, and social life, individuals are deeply affected by these phenomena (Aslan, Koçal, 2018: 1-32). Orientalism is as old as human history, in the sense that Western countries perceive Eastern countries as the other, exclude, despise and exploit them. Putting the East in the other position by the West has also enabled the East to be shown as “different”, “mysterious”, “strange” “dangerous” and “irrational” from the West; creating the image of the “other” from an economic, social and cultural point of view, one of the most important strategies can be to direct the east under surveillance. This other image has been described with different attributes in different time periods according to Western interests. Eastern countries, which were previously shown as “exotic” and “mysterious”, “must-learn” places, were described 424

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as “barbarian” and “dangerous” places after the Western strategy changed, and thus the West’s intervention in the East was shown legitimate. The western centrist image of the “other” has been reinforced and gained reality by transferring it from one text to another. According to Said, the East cannot be defined as just a neighboring country in the eyes of the West, in other words, the place of the oldest and richest colonies of the West, the homeland of their civilizations and languages, the most valuable rival, it is one of the symbols that repeats itself widely and continuously (Said, 2004: 11).

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A REFLECTION OF CULTURE: SOCIAL GENDER Gender is the meanings that a society attributes to being a man and a woman. It makes references to the psychological and biological characteristics of the individual within a cultural framework (Dökmen 2009: 20). “Gender roles molded in the dough of cultural characteristics take an important form. Features that are considered to be universal for men and women are not necessarily of biological origin. There may be cultural factors that make up these features. For example, in almost all of the cultures around the world, the main duty of women is to feed and raise their children, and they spend almost their entire lives in this way. Therefore, their participation in business life occurs at very low rates. When women and men learn about their identity socially, in other words, when they adopt femininity and masculinity, differences in their behavior occur spontaneously (Basow, 1992; Dökmen, 2014; Lindsey, 1990).” Gender is a cultural concept; it defines the roles assigned to women and men in a society and shows changes from culture to culture and even from individual to individual (Dökmen 2009: 24-25). “Our biological differences from our genes are interpreted and evaluated in a cultural context. This situation is the same in all societies. As a result of the evaluations made, expectations such as which behaviors are appropriate and who will have the power to what extent for women and men begin to appear in the society. These expectations may vary from society to society, as well as within the same society (Savaş, 2018: 115). Gender is the sum of the sexual reproductive characteristics acquired by a living thing. Depending on the context, or the range of traits that differ between sex, masculinity and femininity, these traits may include biological sex (i.e., male, female, or female status) or gender identity. “The concept of gender divides individuals into two genders, male and female, as a physical and biological feature that people are born with” (Vatandaş, 2007: 29).Along with this, the individual grows up by seeing and recognizing the gender roles in the society he / she lives in since childhood period and begins to collect information about his gender. As a result, he becomes an adult who has adopted the roles accepted in society and behaves in accordance with these roles. In other words, the woman starts to live in a way suitable for the woman and the man according to the man; what is meant by conformity is the codes in the cultural structure of the society. As Bingöl (2010) stated, Social relations and social systems, with a more general definition, contain many contradictions in the integrity of the social structure, especially gender discrimination and within this pattern, because values, roles or patterns that are generally seen as appropriate for men and women refer to the superiority of the man can be seen as a parser. Due to these stereotypes, women are socially marginalized and separated from men. Biological theory suggests that behavioral differences occur in early childhood. Families with boys and girls state that although they do not discriminate between their children and treat them equally, they witness their children’s interests and behaviors evolving in different directions. While boys are interested in toys that can be described as hard such as cars and guns, girls are interested in toys such as dolls, cats 425

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 Reconsidering Gender Stereotypes Through Bollywood Cinema

and dogs, which we can describe as softer. Girls reflect kissing, sniffing, hugging, compassion to their actions, while Men reflect jumping, jumping, fighting, to their actions. While boys form a hierarchical order as a show of power when they come together, this type of behavior is not observed clearly in girls (Eşel, 2005: 138-139). Wood and Eagly also explain that men are responsible for struggling with the external environment, while women are responsible for home affairs since human beings began to live as a community (Wood and Eagly, 2002: 721). Eagly and Wood stated the inability of men to bear children like women as another defense of the biological theory of the causes of differences between men and women. (1999: 409). Biologists accept this reason as the basis of gender differences (Udry, 1994: 562). While the physiological and biological characteristics of a person determine his / her gender, the roles, duties and responsibilities ascribed to him / her in the society he / she belongs to determine the gender of the person. Social and cultural differences between men and women underlie gender. In societies, the expectations from men and women are not the same. These expectations actually create identity. In addition to the view that these expectations are determined according to cultural gender, there is also an opinion that they are determined according to biological sex. In the light of these two views, it is not known exactly whether the difference between men and women is biological or cultural. In fact, most of the differences are caused by the effects of both (Dökmen, 2014: 20). Individuals create their own selves by internalizing the characteristics they acquire with gender in the stages of socialization. With this self, they learn what society wants from them as men and women. If they cannot fulfill these duties assigned to them, they know that they will be held responsible for this situation in the future (Kurt Topuz, Erkanlı, 2016: 300-321). Gender puts men and women in certain patterns. Individuals who break these stereotypes find themselves in a difficult situation in their society. Sometimes these patterns can become a tradition over time. Bhasin mentions that every society adopts the roles of women and men as a package and states that every society adopts different behavioral models, roles, responsibilities, rights and expectations (2003: 8). “Ann Oakley was the first to use the concept of gender. While Oakley explains the distinction between men and women from a biological perspective with the concept of gender, she explains an unequal division with the concept of social gender in parallel with the biological separation from a social perspective (Marshall 1998, 98). “Emphasizing the above thoughts in sex, gender and Society, which she published in 1972, she tries to adapt these thoughts to sociology (Vatandaş 31)”. In 1955, John Money applied to the concept of gender in order to define people whose gender could not be determined biologically, despite having a certain sexual identity. When the concepts of patriarchal men and women are examined, we witness that the term biological difference, which does not mean an inequality by itself, although it exists between the two species, is differentiated unequally and hierarchically, and these differences are conceptualized as gender (Berktay, 2004: 2).The roles of women and men in social relations are one of the most frequently discussed issues of our day and their representation in the media is decisive in the production phase. When viewed in the context of Feminist Theory, it is an ideological approach that includes studies on women in general, is concerned with the critical point of view and the interpretative school method, and in which insider view is important (Ersoy Çak, 2010: 102). The phenomenon of feminism emerged in the 19th century with the combination of the struggle for equality of women with the enlightenment. According to Drude Dahlerup, feminism is a system that aims to put an end to the male hegemony and to eliminate the discriminatory acts against women, by including all actions, politics and ideologies. (Schroeder, 2007: 46). According to feminist researchers, examining the roles of women and gender, which are the subject of social research, as a theoretical cat426

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egory rather than as a variable, leads to an accurate and detailed approach to social reality. (Ersoy Çak, 2010: 102-103). It is seen that the characteristics of the scientific world, such as separation, distance, control mechanism, and autonomy, which are accepted as male values, are used by the feminist method to reveal the relationship between gender and science. Men exhibit masculine behaviors with the effect of these features. For this reason, participatory research evaluates the transformative power of knowledge as an important element (Schroeder, 2007: 58). The focus of feminism is to create a field of study in order to explain the oppression and the process of occurrence of women living in different cultures, races, religions, classes and societies and to show the reasons behind them on various platforms (Ersoy Çak, 2010: 105) “Woman is the main object of feminism. At the top of the discussion topics related to women are the position they have achieved in society, their roles in home or business life, exploitation or persecution, gender discrimination, patriarchal social structure, and hegemony pressures of men on women (Taş, 2016: 164). According to Lynne Segal, the feminism understanding of the nineties and the feminism of the seventies are different from each other. Instead of naively exploring the social causes of oppression of women, he substitutes abstract studies of a discursively produced, hierarchical set of basic concepts: especially sexual difference, binary oppositions in general, and the heterosexualized map of the body as a whole (Schroeder, Popular Feminism, p. 63). Feminist theory has been divided into subbranches over time as liberal, socialist and radical feminism (Ersoy Çak, 2010: 103). Liberal feminists talk about democracy, equality and freedom; socialist feminists socialist, internationalist, anti-racist and anti-heterosexist discourses; On the other hand, radical feminists preferred to use a discourse that sees opposition to all standard gender roles and male hegemony. Fenster (1999) criticizes the male-dominated structure as a threat to the existence of women.

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Being a Woman and a Woman Athlete in Eastern and Western Culture When we talk about woman, we come across a discursive field where people constantly comment on and explain about her. This area is extremely different from each other in eastern and western cultures (Elçi, 2011: 1-28). It is difficult to be a female athlete as it is difficult to be a woman in every period of the world. From a chronological point of view, it can be seen that being a woman is extremely difficult either in the east or in the west. This situation can be supported by many examples. In ancient Greece, women could not participate in competitions, not even as an audience, but as actors. In the 1900’s, women could enter the Olympic games in tennis and golf. Looking at ancient societies, it can be seen that women were always subjected to unhuman treatment. For example, in ancient China, a woman who was not a human being was not even given a name (Ağçoban, 2016: 14-24). In ancient India, women were defined as catastrophic, constantly tormented and humiliated (Can, 2008: 18). In some societies, even further discussions were made about whether women were human or not, as in the ancient Roman and Persian empires. Considering the history, women have always been deprived of sports, sometimes because of their bodily nature and sometimes because of the obstacles in their culture. According to the rumor, women were not even allowed to participate as spectators in the ancient Olympics, which were the first sports competitions in the world. This understanding continued in the early 20th century, Coubert, the creator of today’s Olympic Games, advocated the idea that only men should participate in the Olympics, and with this thought, it has laid the groundwork for the continuation of male hegemony in sports (Özsoy, 2008: 201-219). On the other hand, some ancient civilizations have partially enabled women to engage in sports. For example, in Ancient Aegean and Greek civilizations, girls were able to compete in some sports branches such as their male peers, ceremonies were held in their names when 427

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they reached adolescence, but when the same girls reached the status of women, all these rights were taken away and they were banned from all sports competitions. Later, they were banned from watching the Olympic Games, and the price of breaking the ban was being thrown off the cliff (Yaşar, 2019: 5). In their daily prayer rituals, the Jews thanked God for being created male rather than female. In this society, the woman would do the housework and the man would support the house. Women were not allowed to participate in religious rituals unless they were obliged, they were seated in separate places, usually in the farthest corners of the rite (Ağçoban, 2016: 14-24). The reason why women are pushed to the second plan is their genetic makeup. This prejudice on their bodies caused them to be isolated from society and they could only engage in recreational sports. Although the Renaissance was considered a period of enlightenment for human history, these enlightenment women were tangled. They could only participate in sports activities in certain branches (Albayrak, 2019: 4). With the rising values ​​of capitalism, the industrializing world, the change in the socio-cultural structure and the reflection of this change on the identities, the woman who could sit at home and do light sports due to her delicate structure until the end of the 1900s became competing with men at the end of the 1900s. Today, women are not criticized as brutally as in the past, but it is observed that they cannot live the life they deserve in both eastern and western culture. Especially in some areas, the number of people who think that women cannot be successful is not few. Perhaps the first of these areas is sport. As in many areas of society, it is one of the areas where gender inequality in sports is at the highest level. It is a field that traditionally men can perform and show maximum performance while doing, and it is accepted at the same level with masculinity (Akkaya, Kaplan, 2014: 177-182). Açıkada and Ergen, explaining the biological difference of men and women in terms of fat ratio, notes that the biological balance of women with low fat ratio is also low, so they are less successful in sports that require strength and endurance (Açıkada&Ergen, 1990). When the traditional social structure’s view of women is added to this situation, it is predicted that not every woman can do every sport, and if she does, she will face various problems. Since the possibility of women to lead sports at local or national level creates discomfort in some segments, they are prevented for different reasons. As a result, the importance and value of women’s sports is negligible compared to men’s sports. In the sports media, women’s sports are generally not included because they are seen as unimportant. When it takes place, sexuality is tried to be brought to the fore rather than the success of female athletes. According to a study, 12.9% of the women’s news in the sports media was presented with an emphasis on gender, while 24.19 of them had nothing to do with the news (Arslan, Koca, 2006: 1-10). When we look at the present, we see that there is a diversification in the sports branches that female athletes have chosen according to the past. While they used to perform more feminine sports activities, nowadays they are also heavily involved in masculine sports activities. In the past, female athletes who preferred feminine sports such as gymnastics, figure skating, athletics, swimming and handball have now turned to masculine sports such as boxing, judo, karate, skiing and football and have achieved extremely successful results (Haşıl Korkmaz, et al., 2019: 14-24). Whereas, for men or women “throughout history, sports have been carried out for the purpose of gaining, overcoming, achieving, having certain rules and techniques, giving pleasure to the person when performed and competing with other people. It is called. Besides all these features, it has such a feature that it connects human beings to life. This feature is to remain healthy” (Karapınar, 2019: 1).

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 Reconsidering Gender Stereotypes Through Bollywood Cinema

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BOLLYWOOD CINEMA AND THE FILM DANGAL Cinema is a means of documenting the events of the period, which is defined as the mirror of the period in which it was made, and conveying the views, values ​​and technological developments of the period in question. As the inheritor of all arts, we can say that cinema is an art. Through the use of image technology, unique feelings and thoughts are conveyed to the audience. The audience receives the desired message to be given by this method. A philosopher compiles his thoughts into a book. The filmmaker creates cinema by using stories, events, sources and people. With these actions, the filmmaker assumes the role of the philosopher of cinema (Dumlu Sağır, 2013: 6). Kellner argues that radio, television, cinema, and other means of communication play a major role in shaping our identity, our race-nation, and our thoughts of being male or female. Said speaks of the effect of mass media on the development of people’s thinking and perspective and the formation of their attitudes towards “I” and “other”. Cinema has served the purpose of propaganda since its inception. Cinema films have the power to show or impose the superiority of one race over another, the power of one breed over another, or the richness of the west compared to the east. Hollywood cinema and its rival Bollywood play a role in the spread of orientalism discourses in many fields, from the marginalization of the east to the presentation of women through the eyes of men. Cinema, which is seen as a great entertainment all over the world, followed by millions of people and whose effects take months and sometimes years, plays an active role in the molding of some thoughts, attitudes and behaviors as the art of our age. When we evaluate the popularity, effects and power of cinema in the east-west axis, we can easily see its different sides. While Hollywood is the first thing that comes to mind when it comes to western cinema, when it comes to eastern cinema, Bollywood comes to mind especially in recent years. Bollywood is a concept used for the Indian cinema industry and represents a cultural and textual art form born and developed in the process of colonialism and postcolonialism. Bollywood is a term inspired by Hollywood and Mumbai used for the Indian film production center in Mumbai. In India, which is the country that produces the most movies in the world, almost a quarter of the movies are produced in Bollywood. The word Bollywood started to be used in the 1970s and with the development and widespread use of the world in the 1990s, Bollywood cinema is understood as a rival sector to Hollywood cinema, which has become a sector today. From its inception, Indian cinema has made a unique contribution to the development of a new popular culture by reconstructing traditional themes, using Western narrative forms, and showing many modern subjects, sometimes implicitly. This sector, which we call Bollywood, has provided a sincere synthesis of Indian identity (Raj 2004: 798). Dhundiraj Govind Phalke, who saw that large, Indian stories would attract a lot of attention when retelled in the cinema, made a note that in 1912 he shot his first feature King Harischandra and the film achieved a tremendous success at the box office, thus reaching the peak of Bollywood cinema in the 2000s (Iri: 24). Indian cinema can be divided into two periods: the formative (1931–1948) and the classical (1949–1965) periods. During these two periods, Bollywood built its cinematic narrative around the concept of enlightenment, formed a well-informed discourse on humanity’s connection with metaphysics, and brought little criticism of the orthodox worldview, centuries-old social hierarchy and social tensions. It fulfilled an important social function by translating the main agenda of Indian society of the time; He interpreted the human suffering experienced in an unfair society and made efforts to recover and restore cultural traditions from the effects of their colonial past. The basic emotional structure of 429

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 Reconsidering Gender Stereotypes Through Bollywood Cinema

the films of these two periods is rooted in the medieval Bhakti and Sufi traditions, but the feeling of the films is based on a naive love feeling (Raj 2004: 798). Many national cinemas reflect their inherent values ​​on films. In this context, films that talk about their traditions introduce their culture to the world. From the very beginning, Indian Cinema has actually tackled the stiffness of the caste system, its immunity, the dowry and sati system, superstitions, child marriage and other conservative beliefs. While focusing on different aspects of Indian society, Bollywood has played a crucial role in changing society’s collective perception of the most sensitive social issues such as inter-caste marriages, honor killings, family planning and widow remarriage. In the modern era, cinema has served as a weapon to fight social problems such as population growth, AIDS and other health problems, unemployment, duel culture, death of women, corruption, and farmer suicide. Movies that deal with gender in Bollywood cinema address the weak position of women in society, and it is seen that this weak and weak situation corrects to a small extent (Sharma, 2018). On the other hand, the benefit of filming in India for tourism, local film production, job creation, and economy, technological and cultural gains is also great. Accordingly, the top five in the world in film production; it is listed as India, USA, France, England and Japan. In India, 79% of this contribution comes from the box office, 15% from side income and 6% from home videos. The earnings in India are 89% and outside India 11% (From international blocbusters to national hits: Analyzes of the 2010, cited from Unesco Institute for Statistics survey on feature film statistics 2012. Iri: 30). When we look at the economic dimension of the Bollywood movie industry, we come across an important figure of approximately 1.8 billion dollars. In addition to approximately nine hundred short films, nearly a thousand feature films are produced in a year. In the country with a population of one billion, there are ten thousand movie theaters and fifteen million people go to the movies a day. If we look at the characteristics of Bollywood cinema, it is possible to see rhythmic music and dance accompanying it. In Bollywood cinema, dialogue is more prominent than images. In addition, the gestures and mimics used are used to enrich the dialogues. Films in four different genres are presented to the audience. These are works produced in psychological drama, melodrama, detective film and mythological epic genres (Sim, 2010: 107). In general, it is possible to see traditional Indian values ​​in our western part of Bollywood cinema. Dress, religious beliefs, music and songs, dance, traditions and customs are shown in almost every movie. Dwyer stated that social roles are also shown in movies (2019: 141-161), while in Bollywood cinema, it is seen that people dress in a way depending on their socio-economic status and live in houses according to him. The stamp affixed to the foreheads of married women, which is a cultural tradition, draws attention. Among Asian societies, using their mother tongue, explaining the Indian family life to younger generations and making the audience feel their cultural ties has an important place. Therefore, movies are not presented to the audience only for entertainment purposes (Dural, 2018: 5). Like many examples, Bollywood cinema has undertaken the function of being the bearer of Indian culture, material and spiritual cultural values.

DANGAL FILM ANALYSIS: DISCUSSION AND FINDINGS Gender and patriarchal structure are two related concepts and directly interact with the cultural structure. Baran states that gender norms emerge from cultural codes (2010: 328). In this context, the differences between men and women become clear within the patriarchal structure.

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• • •

Men dominate women It is the woman who is made and exploited (cited in Walby 2014 39: 62) Father dominance over women is seen (Bahasin 2003: cited in 23, Koçak 63)

Society determines the roles attributed to men and women through culture. Movies like a soft power contribute to the adoption of these roles. Bollywood cinema, representing the Eastern culture, also adopts and spreads these roles. In this context, the study is to investigate the presentation of gender through Dangal as an example of a Bollywood movie with the example of a female wrestler with a medal. In the research, descriptive analysis was used primarily and semiological analysis was used together. Altunışık et al. Define the classification, summarization and conclusion of data as descriptive analysis as a method (2007: 267). For descriptive analysis, headings or themes are determined first, and then the findings are summarized and interpreted (Altunışık et al. 2007: 268). Altunışık et al., It guides for descriptive analysis with 4 items: (2007: 268) Frame is created, Data is processed according to the Framework, Findings are defined, and Findings are interpreted. While analyzing the Dangal film within the framework of this method: • • • • • • •

Society’s view of girls What is the family structure in traditional and modern societies? Traditional and modern societies associating girls with sports How Hollywood and Bollywood represent female athletes How traditional and modern societies encode women and female athletes visually In general, with which codes traditional and modern societies show men and women And answers will be sought for the questions of which discourses and characters / personalities are specifed.

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Results Dangal depicts a true story about the hard lives of wrestling sisters Geeta and Babita, leading up to the gold medal. Father Phogat, who is also a wrestler, prepares his daughters for international championships despite all external pressure. During this process, the father both tries to make his daughters accepted as wrestlers, deals with his daughters who do not want to be a wrestler, and also deals with the trainer who wants to take his daughters to the arena with different techniques. As a result, both girls become international wrestlers who win gold medals and fight for India with national feelings. The characters in the film are father Phogat, his wife, two sisters Geeta and Babita, their cousins ​​and coaches. Conflict can be listed as one of the characters from time to time as Geeta and her father, father and trainer, father’s desire to raise his daughters as wrestlers and negative perspective of society. The premise of the movie is that one can overcome any difficulty if he wishes. In the first scenes of the film, we meet a family trying to fix the roof antennas in a dusty stony place in a dim atmosphere, and at the same time before 1990 when roof antennas were used. Simultaneously, wrestling scenes take place in the home and office environment; this situation gives a clue that the hero of the movie is a wrestler. It is then shown that wrestling is a male sport by showing men who work with weights and barbell and bodybuilding. Again, by using the male theme, it is shown that the father does not have international success and the father says “what I cannot do is my son. At this point, the phrase “our flag will fly at the top” is used in the film that appeals to nationalist sentiments. However, 431

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 Reconsidering Gender Stereotypes Through Bollywood Cinema

the father’s children are girls; Even if he tries superstitions, he cannot have a boy to live his ideal. The father puts the photographs and the medals into a chest. In this scene, it is shown that the father raised his dreams and hopes to the ballot box, and the wall remained empty; the father has no expectations anymore. Baba sits sadly on an armchair in the courtyard and reads his newspaper; looks sadly at her girls jumping rope in the courtyard. The audience understands that the father has given up and jumping rope is a simple game, this simple game is played by girls. Until this scene of the film, it is seen that the father only wanted a boy with the dream of receiving an international medal. In this sense, wrestling is a sport attributed to men. The fact that Eastern societies are remembered with superstition is shown with the talismans made to have a boy. Village people associated with this action; since the father accepts the talisman, it shows that he is superstitious, wants a boy, and adopts the value of superstition. One day, when the father comes home, he encounters a strange event. Their feeble girls beat two boys and families of the children who were beaten complained. Although the father is a little surprised, he realizes the equality of girls and boys and decides that his daughters will fight in the international platform. After all, girls carry the genes of their fathers and have an innate fighting ability. At this point, the point of view of society towards women and girls is clearly seen. It is emphasized that wrestling sport, which is based on combat, is specific to men and mocks girls, but the father emphasizes that by going beyond traditional codes, the girl can also compete for her country and bring success to her country. In Eastern societies, the inner and outer world of the person is shaped by environmental pressure, while the father does not care about the environment and makes shorts from his cousins’ trousers to his daughters. It makes them work. The father becomes both a father and a coach for his children. The expressions of “despotic father” are used as a linguistic sign because the father in the film wakes up his daughters at 5 o’clock in the morning makes them run, make them eat healthy things and force them. When girls start thinking and acting like girls, they get their hair cut. In a sense, this is to oppose the eastern tradition, because from birth, girls exist with skirts and long hair, men with trousers and short hair. The father, who ruthlessly applies this hard work tempo, shows his love for his daughters by stroking their feet at night. As a result, girls are denied wrestling in the local arena for the first time. This situation is described as sin and shame by the authorities, but underhanded, the girls start to fight. That way they earn praise and money instead of medals. It is shown to the audience that the father wrestling his daughters is not a financial gain; he keeps the money they earned in a photo album. As the film progresses, established roles change hands. Eastern traditional society says women cook, but the father cooks food for his daughters. Village shopkeepers laugh at the girls in shorts and short hair, but the girls achieve international success. In the film, the frames are preferred as a general plan to explain the sociological situation. Close-up is used when it comes to drawing attention to time, place, or any of the characters. Close-up is also chosen to create a sense of intimacy. The director preferred the dim atmosphere for lighting. Generally, daylight is used. This situation, less use of light, has been used as an indicator of poverty. Although the film was shot in color, black and white colors prevail and pastel colors were preferred throughout the film. Indicators are often the objects and actions depicted in the movie. For example, when the last child was a girl, the father’s photos and medals were put in a box and closed. Geeta’s departure from wrestling and her main purpose, under the influence of her trainer and friends. Using dance and song to reinforce the narrative in the moment of difficulties as a typical Bollywood movie example. Director NiteshTiwari tells the story of an extraordinary success.

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 Reconsidering Gender Stereotypes Through Bollywood Cinema

The last scenes are interesting in the movie where chronological fiction is preferred. In Geeta’s last wrestling moments, she flashes back and remembers the advice given by her father during a training session with her father. This remembrance earns him the gold medal. Throughout the film, the feeling of “nationalism” is emphasized and reinforced. The main female character, Geeta, embraces her new trainer more than her father, who was her former trainer, when she starts classes at the sports academy after winning a medal. This creates a breaking point in his life. In this period, which we can define as her new life, the female athlete lengthens her hair, wears nail polish and chooses her clothes. This is equivalent to her emphasizing her female identity. But with their defeat, her father’s coaching starts again. Geeta cuts her hair again and starts training at a tight pace. On the other hand, his brother Babita always appears to be an athlete who goes in his father’s way. As a housewife whose mothers cleans the house and cooks the food, she also plays the traditional female role in the film. Women athletes struggle for their mothers and children for success. In this context, from a professional perspective, the sisters are athletes; their mother is a housewife. Throughout the film, there is no professional knowledge of female characters, and there is no image of their education, knowledge and skills, or hobbies. Eastern societies and small towns are represented by undeveloped venues, crowds, and women closing home. However, the girls who submit to the father’s authority eventually become successful wrestlers and at the same time become patriotic women equipped with national feelings. The movie tells the real time; as the venue, a poor family house living in a small village in India is shown. The family does not have enough resources for girls to be able to eat healthily as athletes. The family does not have the financial means to raise their daughters as athletes. At the beginning of the process, the people of the village criticize the father, saying “When there is no food left on your plate, will you eat your medals”. Throughout the movie, the girls struggle to wrestle at a higher weight. Sometime the father quits his job and employs his daughters. When the girls reach adulthood, they go to a sports academy in the center, but when Geeta is defeated in competitions one after another due to the faulty technique of the coach, Baba goes to the city with his nephew and keeps a house close to the academy. Therefore, the movie continues in India, first in a village and then in the city as the situation develops. Baba rents a one-bedroom apartment in a bad neighborhood of the city due to his poor financial situation. Mattress board, furniture is old. The house in the village is a resident house. Children’s rooms, courtyards, and used items are indicators of their financial situation. At the end of the film, we learn that the father was proud of his daughters’ gold medal after 10 years of struggle, and this is revealed at the end of a 2010 competition. The village, which was shown in India in the 2000s, is quite primitive from the outside. In the center where the academy is located, there is a wooden mattress in the flat rented by the father, let alone see the base, bed or bed base of 2010. The kitchen counter where the food is made, the pots and pans used for cooking, and the table where the food is eaten is also indicators of poverty. In the Western tradition, when the child turns 18, he breaks away from the family and starts living alone. The West is individual. There is no interest or pressure of parents on the child. In addition, the child is freed to find his own unique way. The oriental tradition is the opposite. The mother and father bend over the child and the relationships do not break until the moment of death. Generally, Western female characters have a personality that stands on their own feet, while in the east; women have duties such as cooking and cleaning in the house. As Eastern women have described, Anne is portrayed as a passive, unjust person. The village and town that was the setting for the movie is shown as a colorless and reactionary place full of very primitive buildings. There is no sidewalk or street culture. Very old-fashioned cars and motorcycles and even

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bicycles were used as evidence of the inadequacy of financial means. Compared to Hollywood movies, this situation represents the underdeveloped oriental culture with economic problems. Ritzer, fast food restaurants McDonaldization; Disney also defines theme parks as one of the basic conditions for establishing a consumer society, but like most Bollywood movies, Dangal does not exist in the village where fast food kids spent their childhood; When children go to the academy in the city center, they meet the consumer society and popular culture. They go to shopping malls, play bowling… In a sense, they go west. The movements, walking, and speaking styles of the characters are unique to Bollywoo, or oriental. They dress in a traditional way, their home furnishing style is unique. In the film, inequality towards women, violation of women’s rights, belittling them, ignoring them, evaluating women as powerless, and seeing trying to be strong as a crime are exaggerated. These visual images, which are assumed to belong to Eastern societies, have taken a place in people’s visual memories as the equivalent of “orientalism” and to make it more visual with a painting: Table 1. Orientalism codes in the film Woman

Man

The hair is long; With age, hair can wear covered

Traditional clothing

can wear nail polish, so she can imitate a woman in the western sense

-

There is a marriage age and can be early marriage

The family decides the age for marriage

- not opposed to the father

It is preferred not to have conflict with the father.

İf there is a problem, the mother is asked for help

solves the problem with the father

Cannot do strength-based sports; even if he does, he cannot be successful; Can’t fight men

Do strength sports

Cooking

Do not cook

Looks after children

Do not look after children

Cleaning

Do not clean

Obeys the father and husband

Give orders

Has and demonstrates religious belief

Has and demonstrates religious belief

If he does not heed he will be punished by and by the society

If he does not obey, divine justice will be manifested

İn the second place in the family

Always in the first place won’t be beaten by girls

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Stays home

Earns money

CONCLUSION Cinema is an influential art and media space showing the interaction between propaganda and ideological reproduction. Social role theory suggests that gender stereotypes provide essential role knowledge. For example, a person’s professional work life reveals what that character does for a living; his personal life reflects his romantic relationships and friendships. With the animation of these roles, the movie ensures the normalization of the roles and functions as a kind of propaganda. Bollywood cinema, while fulfill-

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 Reconsidering Gender Stereotypes Through Bollywood Cinema

ing its social responsibility towards the Indian right, also promotes India with a different style. The film that is the subject of the study tells the real life story of two medal sisters. Undoubtedly, the difficulties they face in real life are reflected in the film with wit and the difficulties they face in real life are more unbearable. However, regardless of belonging, time and place, children have become international athletes and won medals with their own efforts. Said said that the East is shown in crowds in the media, people do not have individuality and personal characteristics, in most of the paintings they express mass anger and negative characteristics, and in cinema, Easterners are generally represented in bad or illegal works; While the East is shown as inferior, primitive, perverse, the West is identified with superiority, development, and rationality, which is its direct opposite (Said, 2003: 300). From Said’s teachings, it is possible to see typical village houses, the furnishing and dressing styles of the houses, superstitions, appreciation and obedience of the ancestor in the film, which reflects the atmosphere of a typical Indian town and village. Most of the people who study orientalism think that the media scorn the East; He points out that there are writers who describe the West with its abundance but with its abundance (Keymen et al, 1996: 10). In this respect, the story, which takes place in a dark atmosphere, tells about girls who leave the village and receive an international medal. However, Orientalism is the name of the multifaceted scientific studies carried out by “Western” researchers in order to know and understand the “East”. Orientalism can be defined as a term describing the eastern discourse of the west, but it has reached today as a style for architecture especially since the 18th century (Kula, 2010). “The orientalist approach represents the eastern world as static and homogeneous, and eastern people as the same everywhere. In addition, prejudices and fantasies regarding the east have been reproduced with the orientalist thought (Şenyurt 2020: 457). In the Indian culture, as in the rest of the world, women have to overcome many obstacles and difficulties in order to be able to exercise. Women’s sports and athletes often face second-class treatment. Since gender roles are expressions of femininity and masculinity in a society, gender role is the result of cultural expectation (Dökmen, 2009: 31); Some of his actions are just masculine for some businesses such as logging, gun making, boat building and mining, Oakley said; He also sees some jobs such as carrying water and milling grain as feminine (1985: 128). The media has always emphasized the differences between the West and the East, ignoring the common aspects of common values and cultures, showing the East as a very different, far and strange other from the West.

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Yağbasan, M., & Arğin, E. (2019). Eğitim Düzeyi Ve Medya İle Futbol Fanatizmi Arasındaki Kolerasyonun Analizine Yönelik Bir Alan Çalışması (Elazığ İli Örneği) [A Field Study For The Correlation Analysis Among Education Level And Media Along With Football Fanatıcısm (Elazığ Province Case)]. Zeitschrift Für Die Welt Der Türken, 11(1).

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Chapter 26

Representing and Othering Oriental Women After 9/11: An Analysis of Body of Lies Aslı Telseren Dogus University, Turkey & University of Paris, France

ABSTRACT This chapter aims to analyze the reconstruction of the otherness of oriental women in the post-9/11 era via an analysis of the representations of the oriental women in Body of Lies (2008). To examine this subject, the shifts in orientalist discourse in this period, the neo-orientalist context, and ideological functions of Hollywood are considered from a postcolonial feminist approach. Considering the specifc position attributed to oriental women in the post-9/11 era, this chapter examines how Hollywood conveys gender and race relations through the construction and reconstruction of oriental women images and attempt to show how these images have participated in the reconstruction of the otherness of oriental women after the 9/11 attacks through the analysis of Body of Lies.

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INTRODUCTION Following the 9/11 attacks, images of veiled Oriental and (so-called) Muslim women diffused through media in the United States and Europe. The “war on terror” had been launched in the pretext of saving and liberating these women, who are considered as the victims of patriarchal domination that has its origins in Islam (Abu-Lughod, 2013:95). These political and military concerns, along with these images, have participated in the reproduction of gender and race relations. In this article, I consider these concepts as social constructions. Thus, gender and race are not considered as independent realities, but they are considered as the results of the social relations that generate them and as the essential elements that configure the categories of perception and judgment. I consider race as the concept referring to a social group bases on the existence of a real or imagined origin (Bereni et al., 2012); and gender as social roles attributed to women and men by the society it also refers to the cultural, social, political and even economical distinction between social roles. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch026

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 Representing and Othering Oriental Women After 9/11

In the post-9/11 era, Hollywood displayed newly reconstructed gender and race relations throughout the world. The Pentagon organized a meeting with filmmakers, screenwriters, and producers to rethink cinema’s role in the aftermath of the 9/11 terrorist attacks and to use the cinema for patriotic ends (Brodesser, 2001). White House had also met Hollywood directors and screenwriters to discern common interests in promoting shared ideological values ​​in the post 9/11 world (Miller, 2007). In this regard, it was not only a question of justifying the “war on terror” but also of explaining it to the public. In this respect, Hollywood played an ideological role in the reproduction and reconstruction of Oriental (so-called) Muslim women’s images and their otherness in the post-9/11 era. As a huge cinema industry, Hollywood reaches an audience of millions of people all over the world. The importance of Hollywood movies derives from their impact on the perceptions of their audience. According to bell hooks, the cinema is a powerful instrument in the construction of otherness; it even plays a central role in this process (hooks, 1992:5). In this sense, Hollywood has a special place in the production of a new racial epistemology. Thereafter, the race is not defined by origin and genealogy, but by appearance (Staszak, 2011:3). In a sense, Hollywood renders “race” visible. Considering these and having a postcolonial feminist approach, in this article, I will attempt to show how Hollywood movies have participated in the reconstruction of the otherness of Oriental women after the 9/11 attacks through the analysis of Body of Lies. Noting that it is one of the few movies which had a commercial success among the movies dealing with Islamic terrorism, Body of Lies is critically acclaimed for its relevance to the consequences of the “war on terror” (Cettl, 2009: 51). The director of the movie (Ridley Scott) and the two famous leading actors (Leonardo DiCaprio and Russel Crowe) participated in this success. It is also interesting for the analysis of Oriental (so-called) Muslim women for introducing novelties to their representations. In this article, “(so-called) Muslim women” is used as a term to underline the perception of Oriental women by Neo-Orientalist representations. Even though, anyone does not ask them if they are Muslim or not, these women are considered Muslim because of the geography in which they live. This shows the reductive point of view of Neo-Orientalism. For this analysis, my theoretical grounding is in postcolonial feminist theory. As a form of feminism, postcolonial feminism has developed as a response to the postcolonial movement, which fails to address gender inequalities, and to the second-wave feminist movement, which focuses only on women’s experiences in the Occident. Here, it is important to clarify that the term postcolonial is not considered as a temporal period that refers to the end of colonialism because taking it thus denies the current influence of neo/colonialism (McClintock, 1995:295). I use this term rather to refer to the current of thought, which criticizes the modes of perception and representation of colonized/subalterns. In this regard, post-colonialism offers an ontological opening for sociologists through a plurality of perspectives. Colonial oppression sometimes engenders the glorification of pre-colonial culture, where the structures of domination relationships disadvantaged for women. However, this can lead to unequal power relations between the sexes. In order to avoid such a problem, it is important to introduce gender into the postcolonial discourse. In this context, to answer this question first, I will examine the impact of orientalism and NeoOrientalism on the representations of Oriental women; secondly, I will examine the images of Oriental women as they are represented in Body of Lies and lastly, I will analyze how the reconstruction of the otherness of Muslim women is defined through Orientalist and Neo-Orientalist discourses in this movie.

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FROM ORIENTALISM TO NEO-ORIENTALISM: CONTINUITIES AND TRANSFORMATIONS Orientalism emerged in the 18th century as Europe increased its political, military, and economic power. The political and social events that consolidate Europe’s power, such as the Renaissance, the age of discovery, the Enlightenment, and the Reformation, also reinforced the patriarchal condition, more precisely, privileged the patriarchy in both political and daily life. In this regard, Orientalism is seen as an occidental and masculine construction. If we take Edward Said’s definition as a starting point, Orientalism is an academic field and a way of thinking based on the ontological and epistemological distinction between Orient and Occident (Said, 1980:15). However, it is not only a theoretical concept that influences only academics, but also a way of seeing the world with far-reaching implications. Here, it is noteworthy to underline that in this article, I consider Orient (and also Occident) as imaginary geography (Hentsch, 1987), constructed and reconstructed by Occidentals during the centuries in which colonial domination was formed. Although Orientalism had emerged before colonization, it reached its peak during the colonial era. Colonization nourishes Orientalism through colonial discourses. The concept of gender was often considered secondary in Orientalist discourse. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak is the first scholar to use gender as a category of analysis to question Orientalism in 1985 and orient postcolonial studies in a feminist context. According to her, the subaltern women are subjected to a more specific economic, political, and cultural discrimination and marginalization than the subaltern men (Spivak 2009). Although the representations of Oriental women vary in time, they cannot be easily unveiled or discovered as signifiers of otherness and as mysterious figures. They become exotic and erotic researches objects. Representing an imagination of difference, exoticism has a considerable impact on reconstructing the images of Oriental women. In the context of orientalism and colonialism, it also implies a comparison of at least two spaces. One of these spaces constitutes a world of reference, which is identified with the norm. This is the world of the author, artist, director, or audience. However, the conditions of the domination and the representations constructed in the classical colonial period of the 18th and 19th centuries have changed (Samiei, 2010; Halliday, 2003). While most of Said’s ideas are still valid, his arguments are needed to be updated and reconfigured for the 9/11 attacks and the period that follows. Today, globalized forms of capitalism and occidental cultural hegemony complicate geographic determinations. Under the influence of deterritorialization and economic interdependence, the lands, one of the fundamental elements of civilization according to Orientalism, no longer constitutes the whole of the social space in which the human activity takes place (Eisenstein, 2004:1). However, Orientalism is not an ideology belonging to a bygone historical period. Although the preconditions responsible for the crystallization of Orientalist discourse are no longer in place, the old patterns of history that maintained the dichotomy between Orient and Occident have been reconstructed and redeployed in the context of globalization. In this new context, there is not only a distant Other; he/ she is both within and outside of the national borders. As Muhammed Samiei (2010:1148) points out, orientalism’s new characteristics constitute a new paradigm: Neo-Orientalism. This term is used as a paradigm by Dag Tuastad (2003) for the first time. Tuastad shows that the violence caused by Muslims, Arabs, Middle Easterners are presented in the occidental media as the new barbarism. According to this view, violence is the result of the characteristics rooted in local cultures. According to Tuastad, the new barbarism has intertwined with the Neo-Orientalist imagination, highlighting a deep cultural dichotomy between Islam and the Occident. According to Christina Hellmich (2008), the most important feature of Neo-Orientalism is that it neglects the local 440

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and specific aspects of regional movements and describes/reconstructs a homogeneous Islamist terrorist enemy. On this model, Al Qaeda is not very different from Hamas, Hezbollah, and recently Daesh: they are, first and foremost, the enemies of the civilized world. Therefore, in the post-9/11 era, migrants and Muslims are not seen only as criminals but also as potential terrorists. The depoliticization of classism, racism, and sexism has been the main effect of the “war on terror” (Sharma, 2006:128). The depoliticized use of gender, class, and race reflects a refusal to recognize and question the power mechanisms that produce and perpetuate multiple inequalities, whether between men and women, class, or race. 9/11 attacks and the “war on terror” have reinforced dichotomist divisions. As seen in mediatic representations and political treatment of 9/11, Orientalism exists in a new way. In Hollywood’s case after 9/11, the terrorist attacks, fundamentalism, and daily life in the Orient/ Middle East are interpreted through certain pre-existing Orientalist images and ideas, to which NeoOrientalism adds new ones. Orientalist stereotypes have often been used in movies. In this sense, the representation of Oriental men and women in cinema seems to follow the Neo-Orientalist construction of otherness, which says more about “us” than “them”. Body of Lies (2008) is an example of this type of construction. Now, I will analyze how the interactions of different social relationships influence the reconstruction of the otherness of Oriental women via this movie. For this aim, I will present the Oriental women typologies as portrayed in the film, and then I will reveal how these portrayals reflect both old and new images of Oriental women.

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BODY OF LIES: RECONSTRUCTING THE IMAGES OF ORIENTAL WOMEN Based on David Ignatius (2007) novel and directed by Ridley Scott, the movie is critically acclaimed regarding its commitment to the consequences of the “war on terror”. In the movie, CIA agent Roger Ferris (played by Leonardo DiCaprio), who works in the Middle East, and his head Ed Hoffman (played by Russell Crowe), who is based in the United States, trace Islamist terrorists. They use a combination of technology and local know-how to trap its leader Al-Saleem (Alon Abutbul). The movie addresses the practical and ethical concerns of the “war on terror” waged by the administration of George W. Bush. In the movie, Ferris is on the trail of a terrorist group presumably operating from Jordan. Jordanian secret service chief Hani Pasha (played by Mark Strong) helps him on his mission. In Jordan, Ferris flirts with Aisha (Golshifteh Farahani), a Jordanian nurse of Iranian origin. When she is placed under surveillance because of her relationship with an Occidental man, Ferris realizes the consequences of his actions and must, therefore protect her in addition to finding the terrorist cell. Although this movie is interesting for analyzing the power relations between American and Middle Eastern masculinities, I will focus only on the reconstructions of the images of Oriental/Middle Eastern women as they are presented in the movie. Body of Lies introduces three typologies of Oriental women to Hollywood. The first typology is an example of a “subaltern woman”, which is rooted in Orientalist discourse. It is represented by veiled women, women wearing the chador, and are used for authenticity. The second is a modernized, occidentalized, and economically independent Muslim woman in love with an Occidental man: Aisha. And the third, a Muslim woman who is veiled, mother, traditional and politically conscious.

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Orientalist Representations of Middle Eastern Women: The Subalterns The representations of Middle Eastern Women as subalterns are in the continuity of the Orientalist reproductions of images of the (so-called) Muslim woman as a veiled, oppressed, and miserable women. These women are seen in crowds. They are not silent figures. They are first seen in the Palestinian refugee camp, where they wait for the doctors. They are caricatured like gossipers and laugh at Ferris. Even though this scene is based on one of the stereotypes of Orientalist painting and literature, which represents harem women as spending their time by gossiping (Yeğenoğlu 2003), Body of Lies introduces a novelty by showing laughing. These women, therefore, speak their native language, and they laugh. In this regard, this scene can be read as a challenge to Orientalist stereotypes and as a considerable change within Orientalist representations. Nevertheless, these women are shown as decorative and authentic objects to make the movie more realistic despite this novelty. Figure 1. Typology 1 – Subalterns

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(Body of Lies, 2008).

The appearances of these women in public space and the characteristics attributed to them correspond to audience’s expectations. Thusly, the movie provides authenticity via their images. As Stuart Hall points out, authenticity is a technique for conveying a sense of reality and offering reassuring stereotypes (Hall, 2003:254-56). In Body of Lies, this technique is also utilized to represent outdoor and indoor spaces, decorations, and inhabitants of this geography. For example, the representation of the desert is cinematically privileged in the film, and it participates in the definition of the otherness of the Middle Easterns. As one of the most common images to represent the Middle East, the desert symbolizes a clash between the “barbaric” and the “civilized” (Khatib, 2006:22). In this sense, the desert serves the narrative as a classic symbol of dichotomy (“barbarism” vs. “civilization”). Besides, the desert is ideologically charged and resonates with fear. This fear is transposed to people who live in the desert. In Body of Lies, the Iraqi and Jordanian lands are not seen as the bearers of the people’s pain but rather as the source of that pain. Although the movie criticizes the decisions of the Bush administration regarding the “war on terror”, it uses monolithic and exotic images to describe the Middle East and its people. Thus, the different camera angles construct the Other space in various forms: as an object, a target, a desert, an urban jungle, and a frontier. The region is being reconstructed as the space of violence, which is rooted in traditional culture as opposed to civilization and democracy. The contrasts between the representations of oriental and occidental spaces also reconstruct the difference between the inhabit-

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ants, often ignoring the plurality of their experiences in these spaces. The movie highlights the contrast between different lifestyles and perspectives by shifting the scenes between the United States and different Middle Eastern countries. For example, in the U.S. scenes, there are big houses with gardens, the technological CIA offices, or schools where caring parents are seen, whereas, in Middle Eastern scenes, the spaces, the people, especially the women in public spaces all look alike. The study of the reproduction of images of Oriental women and their otherness is integrated into the movie to reproduce stereotypical traits allegedly common to Oriental women. The narrative order of the movie implies that Middle Eastern women living in chaos. It thus establishes a sense of authenticity and exoticism to seduce the audience with stereotypical representations. As rare, vivid, memorable, easy-to-grasp clues of recognizable characteristics about a person or group, stereotypes reduce everything about them to those traits and fix them eternally (Hall, 2003:258). In the context of the representations of Oriental women, stereotypes are used to convince the audience to believe the authenticity of the cinematic representations of these women and their culture. Thusly, Orientalists myths are reconsolidated. These representations show that the “oriental woman” is a semiotic subject produced according to the audience’s demands to serve various ideological and political goals (Zayzafoon, 2005: 2). In this regard, the first typology seen in this movie underlines the otherness of the Oriental women and is based on the Orientalist myth. This figure resembles the images of Muslim women, which are instrumentalized to justify the “war on terror”. The representations of these women as needing help in the refugee camp, their lives in chaos, and their veil are to be compared to the media representations of “Oriental women” in the post-9/11 period. Jasmin Zine (2006:34) notes that the archetypal image of the Muslim woman, socially devalued and deprived of any form of freedom, was reconstructed after 9/11 in order to mark the difference between “Occidentals” and Muslims, associated with barbarism, antimodernism and the repression of women. Moreover, these images of Muslim women are instrumentalized to justify the military intervention of the U.S. To this end, Afghan women’s burqas and veils have been exaggeratedly publicized and associated with Oriental women (Peters, 2002:121). During this period, images of women as the victims of “barbaric” fundamentalists are utilized to mask the motivations behind the war and the effects of this war on the lives of individuals (Kian, 2010:224) and participated in the reconstruction of the rhetoric of good and evil. After the fall of the Taliban, these images would be replaced by smiling, unveiled women images (Fahmy, 2004: 106). The Orientalist desire to unveil Muslim women is an integral part of the Orientalist discourse during colonialism. In the post 9/11 era, this desire is reproduced through a neocolonial gaze, as the veil constitutes an obstacle to the neo-imperial gaze. As Shohat points out, this process of exposing the Other women meets the allegories of Occidental masculinist power and the possession of woman, who is available to the penetration of occidental knowledge, as a metaphor for her country (Zine, 2006:32). In Body of Lies, this typology appears in continuity with Orientalist myths, but it is reconstructed in a new context.

Reconstruction of the Difference Between Oriental Women: “Modern” Aisha vs. Traditional Cala Body of Lies introduces completely new images of Middle Eastern women through the characters of Aisha and Cala (played by Lubna Azabal). These characters represent two new figures of the Middle Eastern woman in mainstream American cinema. Aisha is a young Jordanian woman of Iranian origin. 443

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The first name of this character shows us the reductive approach that the movie’s narration proceeds towards the inhabitants of the Middle East since the use of this first name is unlikely in the case of a Persian character. Aisha is not a common first name in Iran, a predominantly Shiite country, due to the conflict between Aisha, one of Mohammed’s wives, and Ali, the fourth caliph of Muslims (Shaikh, 2004). This error has not been rectified in the production process of the film. Aisha is presented simply as Middle Eastern. Aisha is a nurse (and not a doctor) in a clinic in Jordan; she belongs a priori to the middle class. She represents an economically independent and occidentalized woman. As for Cala, she is veiled and represented as traditional. She does not work, and the audience does not have any information about her social class, but they know she is politicized. The remarkable lunch scene at Cala’s home shows the difference between “modern” and “traditional” Muslim women. What is interesting about this scene is the absence of the patriarchal order, more precisely, the absence of local patriarchs. In a way, Ferris takes the place of a local patriarch through his romantic relationship with Aisha. Figure 2. Aisha, Cala and Ferris

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(Body of Lies, 2008)

Cala is presented as less attractive than Aisha, and she dresses more traditionally than her sister Aisha. When Ferris arrives at her home, Cala is preparing the meal in the kitchen. A priori, she is a housewife, in compliance with the Orientalist myth produced since the 18th century that constructs and reconstructs Oriental women as incapable of having a profession (Kahf, 2006; Lewis 1996). The construction of otherness also belongs to the process of construction of the “self”. In Orientalist discourse, Occident is constructed as the binary opposite of the Orient (Said, 1980). When considered from this aspect, these representations imply that in Occident, all jobs are equally accessible to all men and women; thusly, the differences between the dependent “housewife” and the “Occidental” career woman are fixed and naturalized. Although this binary division is visible in Body of Lies, the film introduces a novelty in reconstructing this character. According to Orientalist myths, the Oriental woman is represented as ignorant, but this is not Cala’s case. She is politically conscious; therefore, unlike the women presented as subalterns (the first typology), she is aggressive towards Ferris. According to Cala, Ferris embodies the American presence in the Middle East. Thusly, it seems that political consciousness is the distinguishing characteristic of this character. Cala does not have a sense of humor, and she cooks traditional dishes, while her children like burgers and spaghetti. So her meals do not appeal to her children. Ferris gets along very well with Aisha’s nephews (Cala’s sons), aged six and eight, who speak English at a good

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level, as does Cala. During lunch, she sits across from Ferris at the table. Here, Ferris not only represents the presence of the U.S. in the Middle East, but he also has a relation with Aisha, so he constitutes a double danger for her family. Cala’s attitudes towards Ferris place her in the position of the guardian of tradition, emphasizing her traditionalism once again. During the meal, Aisha does not speak much, while Cala questions Ferris. Aisha intervenes to reconcile them. Cala does not accept Ferris’s euphemisms regarding the conflict in the Middle East, especially in Iraq. By asking him questions and sometimes taking him to task, she makes him recognize his political position considering the war in Iraq. She considers the U.S. responsible for this war and openly accuses Ferris rigorously, taking him as a representative of his country. When the tension increases, Aisha tries to calm Cala down. Aisha and Cala show two versions of the Middle Eastern women as represented in Hollywood in the post 9/11 era. Cala is the old-fashioned guardian of the domestic space. She is not desirable, but she is politically conscious and challenges the rhetoric of war evoked by Ferris; Aisha is attractive, desirable, occidentalized, and apolitical or unwilling to talk about politics and therefore unwilling to expose the frontiers and differences between the two cultures. Her desire for occidentalization makes her easier to understand for Hollywood audience since the beginning of the movie. The audience later learns about the story of Cala as well. She suffered from the Gulf War. She wants to move to the U.S., which suggests that deep down, despite her traditionality and coldness towards Ferris, she too wants to be “occidentalized”. The audience, thusly, can sympathize with her for the first time. Although there is a difference between Aisha and Cala regarding their class and social status, this remarkable differentiation is not represented explicitly in the movie. Even though Aisha is a nurse, and therefore has economic power, the audience does not have any information about her spare times, her life except her work or her family. This contributes to the othering process of Aisha and marks her different from her Occidental counterparts as portrayed in other Hollywood movies (Telseren 2016). Even if Aisha belongs a priori to the middle class, we have no material benchmark on her class, apart from her profession and clothes. However, the difference between Aisha, Cala, and the subaltern women might derive from a class difference. But it is not clear in the movie. On the other hand, the American characters are presented by showing their moments of entertainment, their family life, their home. Their lives correspond entirely to their social class. The audience cannot tell whether Aisha and Cala’s social class and way of life are similar or not without any reference to their social life. In such a context, the dimension of class and social status of Oriental women is ambiguous in the film. In this regard, it seems that the reproduction of social class differences between oriental characters depend, on the one hand, on their culture, and on the other hand, on their knowledge of a foreign language and political consciousness, but ignores their social and economic capitals. Therefore, the movie’s Americano-centric gaze fails to represent the social class in the Orient for Aisha and Cala. It seems that these Oriental women must firstly be delocalized from a particular historical context that overdetermines their identity (Fayad, 2000: 86-87). This shows that the representation of Oriental women cannot exist without the references to the discourses and the knowledge propagated about Orient or Muslims in a Neo-Orientalist context. As Ella Shohat and Robert Stam explain, after 9/11, most Hollywood movies use a certain type of narration that is determined and set in a Neo-Orientalist context regarding the reproduction of stereotypes about the Orient (Khatib, 2006:203). Even though the character Aisha is reconstructed as “modern” and “occidentalized” in comparison to her “traditional” sister, she is not as “modern” as and as Occidental as “Occidental” women as her independence is subjected to conditions. We will now see how her social condition and femininity influence her characterization.

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Representing Interracial Relations and Social Pressure Ferris attracts Aisha’s attention when he notices her Persian accent at the clinic. This scene implies that he knows the region well and does not have a reductive view of its people. They meet for the first time after a dog has bitten him; she cures him. The second time they see each other at the clinic, Ferris is flirty with Aisha. After some tense moments because of the wedding ring he wore when they first met, the two went to the Palestinian refugee camp. Aisha’s attitude is important in this scene; she is described as empowered and strong in her relationship with Ferris. In the Palestinian refugee camp, the oriental subaltern women are presented to the audience. The difference between Aisha and the other “oriental” women is underlined in this scene. On one side, there is an occidentalized, emancipated woman, a serious nurse helping the refugees in the camp; on the other, the veiled women who need help and caricatured as gossipers. In a way, this difference gives Aisha permission to have an interracial romantic relationship with Ferris. So when she has finished her work at the camp, they can have tea and have a talk. They get along well; they make jokes together. When they leave, Marwan (the Jordanian intelligence chief Hani’s agent) arrives and takes a brutal and cruel attitude towards Ferris. Aisha is scared, as she believes Marwan’s brutal attitude derives from her friendship with Ferris. She thinks that Marwan wants to protect her from Ferris. She then loses her image as an emancipated woman by explaining that Ferris is her patient and her friend, thus reporting to a man compatriot, whom she does not know at all. This act reveals her otherness in relation to the audience. Even though she is described as modern and occidentalized, this scene shows that she is not able to live her own life. So instead of telling Marwan, “it is none of your business,” she agrees to subordinate to him just because he is a part of the local patriarchy. It seems that her freedom depends on others. It is therefore not a question of definitive freedom and emancipation, but conditionality. Thusly, Aisha remains subjected to the local patriarchy. After that conflict, Ferris is exiled from Jordan, and during his exile, a dialogue between Ferris and Hoffman reveals how Hoffman sees the relation of Aisha and Ferris. He tells Ferris not to worry and that he will return to Jordan soon with the following line: “… you will come back to Jordan quickly, with your little Jordanian poontang that you think I ignore…”. With this line, Hoffman explicitly reduces Aisha to a sexual object. This remark is in continuity with the Orientalist stereotypes used in Orientalist paintings in the 18th and 19th centuries and in Hollywood Orientalist cinema, which eroticize Oriental women (Kabbani 2008; Shohat 1997:681). In Orientalist and Neo-Orientalist literature, the construction of the Oriental woman as an object of desire is quite common. In these representations, the social construction of the desire and the nudity of “Others” sustains the following fantasy: women’s lascivious invitation by their libido (Taraud, 2003:209). In this movie, the character of Aisha is constructed as an object of desire. She becomes the main figure in a romantic relationship with Ferris. Her description by Hoffman is in continuity with representations of the women of the harem. Concerning these representations, there are two different reactions in the Occident: fascination and disgust. The harem transgresses the taboos of European (Lewis, 1996; Kahf, 2006; Shohat, 1997; MacKenzie, 1995; Peltre, 1997) and American culture (Bordat 1987:3). Harem is identified with sexual pleasure, polygamy, and the absolute domination of men over women’s lives. Some were fascinated by this idea, while others disapproved the harem and the culture it represented, a culture of misguided women living in a space like a brothel (Graham-Brown, 2003:503). Based on the fantasies of the Orientalist painters and writers, the harem has come to represent a sexual paradise full of naked, vulnerable, always available women, who are perfectly happy with their captivity in Orientalist imagination 446

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(Mernissi, 1975:21). Certainly, Aisha is not captive in a harem, but this character is still reconstructed in a similar way as the Oriental women represented by Orientalists, especially regarding her sexuality. This is why Hoffman thinks Ferris and Aisha have already had a sexual affair. According to him, Aisha cannot refuse the love of Ferris. In this regard, the film exhibits a certain hetero-normativity and interracial, heterosexual desire, which it reintroduces to the audience through the Orientalist stereotype of the Oriental woman who desires the white man. Here it is noteworthy to underline that the representation of the sexuality of Oriental women often includes a negative attitude towards them because the “ideal woman” of the 18th, 19th, and beginning of the 20th century was almost “frigid” (Shohat, 1997:681). Figure 3. Aisha and Ferris are looking at the women who watch them

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(Body of Lies, 2008)

However, since May 1968, women’s sexual freedom is no longer seen as specifically negative. But in Body of Lies, all Middle Eastern women are presented as deprived of this freedom because of the omnipresence of social pressure and traditions. Even though Aisha flirts with Ferris, she is under social pressure from her community and family, which prevents her from being completely free. For example, when Ferris returns to Jordan on their third meeting, Aisha reminds him of the traditions and tells him that her older sister, Cala, wants to meet him. The audience understands that she must ask for permission. Thusly, Aisha’s image as a free woman is then once again destroyed. This is based on one of the Orientalist stereotypes: the submission of oriental (so-called) Muslim women to men, their families, to traditions. Here, her sister is the representative of the family and the traditions. These women always do what they are told to do and are never disrespectful of the rules of patriarchal society or traditions. Besides, these images tend to concretize the notions of naturalization of established differences and othering, through a binary opposition between Orientalism and Occidento-centrism. Stuart Hall defines naturalization as a representational strategy to fix the difference and guarantee it for eternity (Hall, 2003:245). Thusly, the knowledge produced by orientalism is normalized, and any questioning on this subject is precluded. In the aftermath of 9/11, Hollywood representations of Oriental women revitalized and update Orientalist constructions in a new context. In this period, Oriental women are represented through pre-existing images and ideas, to which Neo-Orientalism added new ones. In the case of Aisha, the Oriental woman is again represented as submissive, this time to her sister’s will, and therefore of her family. This brings us to our final point of analysis on social pressure: whether this is an emancipated woman or not when discussing the social pressure on Aisha. When Ferris leaves Cala’s place, Aisha accompanies him as the neighbors watching them. Several women are looking at them from windows with a curiosity “specific” to “Orientals”, according to Ori-

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entalist stereotypes, especially on the harem (Kabbani, 2008; Benjamin 2003; Germaner & Inankur, 1989). In this situation, Aisha cannot even shake Ferris’ hand. The movie here highlights the social rules that regulate the behavior of couples in public. These women remind them of the cultural conventions regulating physical contact. After Ferris leaves, a close-up shows Aisha looking longingly in his direction, alluding to her regret at being so limited by her neighbors. These women refer to “bundles in black” (Shaheen, 2006), women wearing the chador represented in groups in Hollywood films, submissive or sinister, and often silent. This points to a difference between Orientals and Occidentals regarding individualism. In movies, one of the fundamental characteristics of Oriental women is their communitarianism, compared to “occidental” individualism. Communitarianism is the coercion exerted on a group member by outside forces, while individualism (along with other ideals such as equality, democracy, and freedom) is one of the main elements of occidental values (Khatib, 2006:178). This contrast implies that women are not seen as individuals but as bundles. Later in the movie, Ferris learns that Aisha has been kidnapped to punish him. While looking for her, he too is kidnapped by Al-Saleem and tortured. So she is being used to punish her boyfriend. Finally, he finds her and decides to stay in Jordan. But we do not know if they are going to end up together or not ... Following the Hollywood rules, yet another interethnic relationship that does not have a happy ending.

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CONCLUSION In this article, I examined the Orientalist continuities and Neo-Orientalist modifications in the representations of “Oriental women” by an analysis of the reconstruction of the otherness of Oriental women after the 9/11 attacks in Body of Lies. For this analysis, I first discussed the concepts of Orientalism and Neo-Orientalism. I argued that the 9/11 attacks and the “war on terror” had a considerable impact on Orientalist discourse as well as representations in Hollywood cinema, used as an ideological tool. Then I showed the roles of Orientalist and Neo-Orientalist discourse in the reconstruction of gender and race relations as well as othering of Oriental women in Body of Lies and engendered the reconstruction of the different typologies of women in Hollywood cinema. In this movie, there are three types of “oriental” (so-called) Muslim women. The first one corresponds to “bundles in black” if we use Shaheen’s terms. This is a reconstruction of subaltern Muslim women and finds its origin in Orientalist literature, painting, and cinema. However, Body of Lies introduces a novelty by making them talk to each other. The second is the modernized, occidentalized, and (almost) emancipated middle-class Middle Eastern woman. As new construction, this woman is more positively represented than Orientalist representations of the Oriental woman, but she is trapped in a world of representations that only gives her conditional emancipation. The third type is the politically conscious “traditional” woman. For a very long time, she is represented as a negative character, whereas in the current circumstances, having a political conscience would be a positive asset. Within the framework of the Neo-Orientalist discourse, which fixes these women into “traditionalism” while bereaving their political awareness, this character remains ambiguous. Political consciousness, however, was not a characteristic of “Oriental women” in Orientalist discourse. In our analysis, the reconstruction of the difference between these three types of women constructed through the Neo-Orientalist discourse, with examples of continuities and discontinuities between Orientalism and Neo-Orientalism. We have also

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shown how interracial relations are treated by Neo-Orientalist discourse and how the representation of interracial relations follows Hollywood rules. Although Body of Lies is one of the few films where oriental female characters are featured prominently, and it is critical against American foreign policy in the Middle East, the othering of Oriental women persists as a crucial element, at the crossroads of the myths on the “Oriental woman” and that of Islam reconstructed in the post 9/11 era. Thus, this film clearly shows that the question of the semiotic subject of the Oriental woman cannot be analyzed without considering the dimensions of class, gender, sexuality, and ethnicity, as well as the discourses and knowledge propagated about them.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTION The representations of Oriental women in movies directed by female directors worth analyzing to understand how the difference of gender influences the reconstruction and reproduction of the images of Oriental women.

REFERENCES Abu-Lughod, L. (2013). Les Femmes musulmanes ont-elles réellement besoin d’être sauvées? In M. E. Sanna & M. Bouyahia (Eds.), La polysémie du voile: Politiques et mobilisations postcoloniales (pp. 91-116). Archives contemporaines. Benjamin, R. (2003). Orientalism: Delacroix to Klee. The Art Gallery of New South Wales. Bereni, L., Chauvin, S., Jaunait, A., & Revillard, A. (2012). Introduction aux études sur le genre. De Boeck. Bordat, F. (1987). Le code Hays. L’autocensure du cinéma américain. Vingtième Siècle, revue d’histoire, 15(1), 3-16. Brodesser, C. (2001). Feds Seek H’wood’s Help. Available at https://variety.com/2001/biz/news/fedsseek-h-wood-s-help-1117853841/ Eisenstein, Z. R. (2004). Against Empire: Feminisms, Racism, and the West. Zed Books.

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Fahmy, S. (2004). Picturing Afghan Women: A Content Analysis of AP Wire Photographs During the Taliban Regime and after the Fall of the Taliban Regime. The International Communication Gazette, 66(2), 91–112. doi:10.1177/0016549204041472 Fayad, M. (2009). Cartographies of Identity: Writing Maghribi Women as Postcolonial Subjects. In A. A. Ahmida (Ed.), Beyond colonialism and nationalism in the Maghrib: history, culture, and politics (pp. 85–108). Palgrave Macmillan. doi:10.1057/9780230623019_6 Germaner, S., & Inankur, Z. (1989). Oryantalizm ve Türkiye. Türk Kültürüne Hizmet Vakfı Yayınları. Graham-Brown, S. (2003). The Seen, the Unseen and the Imagined: Private and Public Lives. In R. Lewis & S. Mills (Eds.), Feminist Postcolonial Theory: A Reader (pp. 502–519). Edinburgh University Press.

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Hall, S. (2003). Representation: Cultural representations and signifying practices. Sage (Atlanta, Ga.). Halliday, F. (2003). Islam and the Myth of Confrontation: Religion and Politics in the Middle East. I.B. Tauris. Hellmich, C. (2008). Creating the Ideology of Al Qaeda: From Hypocrites to Salafi-Jihadists. Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, 31(2), 111–124. doi:10.1080/10576100701812852 Hentsch, T. (1987). L’Orient imaginaire: la vision politique occidentale de l’Est méditerranéen. Éditions de Minuit. hooks, b. (1992). Black Looks: Race and Representation. South End Press. Ignatius, D. (2007). Body of Lies. W.W. Norton & Company. Kabbani, R. (2008). Imperial Fictions: Europe’s Myths of Orient. Saqi Books. Kahf, M. (2006). Batı Edebiyatında Müslüman Kadın İmajı. Küre Yayınları. Khatib, L. H. (2006). Filming the Modern Middle East: Politics in the Cinemas of Hollywood and the Arab World. I.B. Tauris & Co. Ltd. Kian, A. (2010). Mondialisation, ‘guerre antiterroriste’, néo-Orientalisme, renouveau des nationalismes et redéploiement de violence de genre. In A. Ndiaye & D. Ferrand-Bechmann (Eds.), Violences et société. Regards sociologiques (pp. 215–232). Editions Desclée de Brouwer. Lewis, R. (1996). Gendering Orientalism: Race, Feminity and Representation. Routledge. MacKenzie, J. (1995). Orientalism: History, Theory and the Arts. Manchester University Press. Mernissi, F. (1975). Le harem et l’Occident. A. Michel. Miller, T. (2010). Global Hollywood 2010. International Journal of Communication, 1, 1–4. Peltre, C. (1997). Les Orientalistes. Hazan. Peters, C. (2002). What Does Feminism Have to Say? In S. Hawthorne & B. Winter (Eds.), September 11, 2001: Feminist Perspectives (pp. 120-126). Spinifex Press. Said, E. W. (1980). L’Orientalisme: l’Orient créé par l’Occident. Seuil.

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Samiei, M. (2010). Neo-Orientalism? The Relationship Between the West and Islam in Our Globalised World. Third World Quarterly, 31(7), 1145–1160. doi:10.1080/01436597.2010.518749 Shaheen, J. (2001). Reel Bad Arabs: How Hollywood Vilifies a People. Olive Branch Press. Shaikh, S. (2004). A’isha (614 -678 C.E.). In R. C. Martin (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World (pp. 32–34). Macmillan. Sharma, N. (2006). White Nationalism, Illegality, and Imperialism: Border Controls as Ideology. In K. Hunt & K. Rygiel (Eds.), (En)gendering the War on Terror: War Stories and Camouflaged Politics (pp. 121-144). Ashgate.

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Shohat, E. (1997). Gender and Culture of Empire: Toward a Feminist Ethnography of the Cinema. In M. Bernstein & G. Studlar (Eds.), Visions of the East: Orientalism in Film (pp. 669–696). Rutgers University Press. Shohat, E., & Stam, R. (1994). Unthinking Eurocentrism: Multiculturalism and the Media. Routledge. Spivak, G. C. (2012). Other Worlds: Essays In Cultural Politics. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203441114 Staszak, J. F. (2011). La fabrique cinématographique de l’altérité. Les personnages de « Chinoises » dans le cinéma occidental. Annales de Géographie, 682(6), 577–603. doi:10.3917/ag.682.0577 Taraud, C. (2003). La prostitution coloniale: Algérie, Tunisie, Maroc (1830-1962). Payot. Telseren, A. (2016). Reproduction et reconstruction des rapports sociaux de sexe et de « race » après le 11 septembre 2001: le cas des films hollywoodiens (2001-2011). Thèse de doctorat en sociologie. Université Sorbonne Paris-Cité Paris 7. Tuastad, D. (2003). Neo-Orientalism and the New Barbarism Thesis: Aspects of Symbolic Violence in the Middle East Conflict(s). Third World Quarterly, 24(4), 591-599. Yeğenoğlu, M. (2003). Sömürgeci Fanteziler: Oryantalist Söylemde Cinsel ve Kültürel Fark. Metis Yayınları. Zayzafoon, L. B. Y. (2005). The Production of the Muslim Woman: Negotiating Text, History, and Ideology. Lexington Books. Zine, J. (2006). Between Orientalism and Fundamentalism: The Politics of Muslim Women’s Feminist Engagement. In K. Hunt & K. Rygiel (Eds.), (En)gendering the War on Terror: War Stories and Camouflaged Politics (pp. 27-50). Ashgate.

ADDITIONAL READING Bachetta, P. (2015).Décoloniser le féminisme: Intersectionnalité, assemblages, coformations, co-productions. Les cahiers du CEDREF: Centre d’enseignement, d’études et de recherches pour les études féministes, 125-138.

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Goffman, E. (1975). Stigmate. Editions de Minuit. Graham-Brown, S. (1988). Images of Women: The Portrayal of Women in Photography of the Middle East 1860-1950. Columbia University Press. Hall, S. (2008). Identités et cultures: politiques des cultural studies. Editions Amsterdam. Little, D. (2008). American Orientalism: The United States and the Middle East since 1945. University of North Carolina Press. Mohanty, C. T. (2009). Sous le Regard de l’Occident: Recherche Féministe et Discours Colonial. In E. Dorlin (Ed.), Sexe, race, classe, pour une épistémologie de la domination (pp. 149–182). Presses Universitaires de France.

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Nagel, J., & Feitz, J. (2007). Deploying Race, Gender, Class, and Sexuality in the Iraq War. Race, Gender, & Class, 14(3/4), 28–47. Nkrumah, K. (1965). Neo-colonialism: The Last Stage of Imperialism, Nelson. Nochlin, L. (1994). Women, Art, and Power: And Other Essays. Thames and Hudson Ltd. Ong, A. (1988). Colonialism and Modernity: Feminist Re-presentations of Women in Non-Western Societies, Inscriptions. Special Issue in Feminism and the Critique of Colonial Discourse, 3(4), 79–93. Pollard, T. (2009). Hollywood 9/11: Time of Crises. In M. J. Morgan (Ed.), The Impact of 9/11 on the Media, Arts, and Entertainment (pp. 195-207). Palgrave Macmillan. Rosenblatt, N. (2009). Orientalism in American Popular Culture. Penn History Review, 16(2), 51–63.

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITION

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9/11 Attacks: The terrorist attacks by Al-Qaeda against the United States on September 11, 2001. Body of Lies: A Hollywood movie directed by Ridley Scott. Gender: The term is defined in the Istanbul Convention as the socially constructed roles, behaviors, activities and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for women and men. Hollywood: The term refers to the U.S. cinema industry and mainstream American cinema. Neo-Orientalism: A way of thinking and a mode of representations based on the shifts of classical Orientalism after the 9/11 terrorist attacks. Orientalism: A way of thinking and a mode of representation based on the ontological and epistemological distinction between Orient and Occident. Othering: Marking a person or a group as different from the “self” and placing them at society’s margins. Postcolonial Feminism: A form of feminism that introduces gender relations in postcolonial theory, and it is a part of third-wave feminism.

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Chapter 27

Tracing Orientalism in the Image of the Country Reflected by the Media Selin Bitirim Okmeydan https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7996-2178 Ege University, Turkey

ABSTRACT This chapter focuses on the relationship between Orientalism and country image, and the efect of the orientalist approach refected in the media on the country image. The image of a country is especially afected by the representations refected in the media. Therefore, media, where discourses and images are produced and shared, play major roles in the formation and consolidation of the country’s image. A country that is generally featured in the media with negative images appears as a result of the orientalist approach towards countries marginalized by the West. Turkey is seen as the other by the West. This study features the authentic refections of the orientalist view of Turkey in the media and the efect of these refections on the country’s image with contemporary examples. Thus, this study based on literature review and case study method is aimed to reveal traces of Orientalism in Turkey’s image in the Western media.

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INTRODUCTION The image of a country comes from the past to the present day and this image also determines its reflection in the international arena. In this respect, the country image represents the way in which a country is perceived by other countries, as well as its existing images and thoughts. The image of a country is generally formed and strengthened according to the forms of representation in the mass media. In fact, perceptions, views, and thoughts of a country about other countries are formed with the news and images reflected in the media rather than scientific data and rational facts. Mass communication functions as an effective image producer and carrier and today countries are also the subjects of image studies in traditional and social media just like institutions. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch027

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 Tracing Orientalism in the Image of the Country Reflected by the Media

Today, the existing perceptions and created images for a country have completely replaced reality. In the postmodern age when the image becomes important, perceptions and images have become more valuable than truths. Believing in an image seen in the media has become easier and more attractive than investigating the real one and revealing the truth. This point also feeds Orientalism and the orientalist approach because Orientalism is based on images and perceptions placed in minds rather than existing truths. Definitions, news, depictions and images about the East in the eyes of the West gain content with the power of perception management based on Orientalism and are presented and distributed as if they were real by the West, despite they are not real. The orientalist contents shared on media shape the image of Eastern countries according to the perception of the West and locks them down in the patterns set by the West. This study aims to explain how the orientalist approach constructs the image of the country by drawing attention to the relationship between country image and Orientalism. Although it is seen that there are numerous studies in the literature addressing the Orientalism and the country image as separate issues, the number of studies investigating these concepts together and in a holistic way is quite limited. In addition, the number of studies on Orientalism in news presentations in the Western media is quite few. Therefore, this study, which is based on literature review and case study method, carries value in terms of presenting an original contribution to the literature with current examples. In accordance with Edward Said’s opinions about Orientalism, this study examines how Turkey is represented in the Western media and the reflection of this representation on the country’s image. In order to form a theoretical context for the subject, a wide literature review is firstly involved and the determinant effects of Orientalism on the country’s image are discussed in line with fundamental discussions. After this framework, how Orientalism is used in the media to form the country’s image is examined through various current examples for Turkey. Thus, when comparing with the West’s “us and them” approach, the role of Orientalism in determining the country’s image is evaluated in terms of Turkey.

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CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR COUNTRY IMAGE Image refers to the perceptions, associations, impressions, feelings and attitudes in the minds for an object. The image, which is composed of positive and negative evaluations of perceptions in our mind toward a subject or object, defines the image, picture or symbolic meaning that comes to mind first (Ateşoğlu and Türker, 2013:115). Individuals’ personal experiences about the object or phenomenon in question or their representations in the media directly affect the image. Robins (2006:21), who sees image as the perception or perception building about reality in this scope, points out that any image can be affected by imagination or mystical thinking. The building of daily life over images ensures every concept, object or phenomenon to be addressed by image studies. According to Fetscherin (2010:468), countries like institutions and individuals have to form, manage and protect their brands. Therefore, it is possible to talk about the image of countries as in any institution or person today. The country image, referring to perceptions, experiences and impressions about a country, has a more complex structure than the image of an institution. The country image signifies every association, image and perception in a wide range including physical characteristics of a country such as geography, natural resources, and demographic characteristics; cultural characteristics such as art, history, customs/ traditions and lifestyle; international relations and its relationships with its own citizens and the citizens of other countries (Jenes and Malota, 2013:3-4). It is seen that countries have different images as well 454

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as every brand in the international arena. According to Hyneset al., (2014:81) country image is built with the primary experiences of tourists and visitors concerning the country and images presented in books, movies, various events, internet and social media, which are the secondary sources rather than existing facts. For this reason, discourses about a country and images accompanying these discourses allow the construction or consolidation of certain images that separate a country from other countries. However, the country image does not always overlap with the existing facts. Since the country image is based on the perceptions acquired about other countries, it is far from being a full expression of the truth and often distorts the facts. Simon Anholt (2010:11) points out that every country has an image, country image should be considered as a priority issue by the states and if the importance is not given to this issue, the image of that country will be formed from the eyes of a stronger country. In fact, the image of a country is built on the views that have come from the past and become stereotyped over time. Therefore; old thoughts, prejudices, stereotyped descriptions, and images in the minds represent areas that should be dealt with in the formation of the country image. This also reveals the relationship between the country image and Orientalism.

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DEFINING AND INTERACTION OF ORIENTALISM WITH THE COUNTRY IMAGE Every country has a perception of “us” that defines for itself and the “other” pattern it uses for other countries and the relationship between “us and other” is based on dialectical approach. The perception of “us and the other” that has been going on between the West and the East for centuries forms the basis of the perspective of two civilizations towards each other. In his work “Orientalism”, Edward Said (1998) argues that the West approaches to the East according to its own perspective and perception and the West consciously creates a false Eastern picture drawn in accordance with the interests and imperialist goals of the West in the media which is a popular culture tool. This approach of Said, who brought the first and most comprehensive criticisms about Orientalism, is still accepted in academic sphere and continues to be a theoretical basis for current discussions. Orientalism, which has an ideological background, builds its own discourse on the marginalization of the East. This approach is based on the perception of “the other” with negative associations against the affirmed “us” subject. According to Bilgin (2007:177), since “the other” has to be against “us”, the “other” should be degraded and considered as negative while “us” is glorified and the idea of connecting with the “other” is rejected. According to this view, the West underestimates and humiliates the East by marginalizing it with its opposite characteristics while building its own identity by glorifying itself. Orientalism has a long history in the historical process. Although the emergence of Orientalism as a science dates back to the Renaissance period, the development of the concept is based on the exaggerated portraying by European artists, the representatives of the West, about what they saw during their Middle East and North Africa vacations and putting their imaginations on paper (Acar and Aydın, 2017:516). From those days to the present, Orientalism has been expressed with exaggerated representations rather than reality but presented as if they were real. In this sense, Orientalism is all kinds of Eastern knowledge that puts the Eastern objects into every place such as classroom, courtroom, jail and everywhere such as handbooks or minds to investigate, criticize, discipline or manage them (Said, 1998:11). In Orientalism debates, this definition of Said reveals the hegemony-based distinction between the West and the East. That is, the undisputed superiority of the West over the East is also accepted by the East and this acceptance not only gives rise to self-Orientalism but also forms a legitimate ground 455

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 Tracing Orientalism in the Image of the Country Reflected by the Media

for all judgments and thoughts of the West about the East. According to Dikici (2014:48), Orientalism is seen as a theory that serves to define the societies excluded and marginalized by the West when it is accepted as a scientific branch that investigates the language, literature, religion, history, geography, and culture of Eastern civilizations. This approach, on the other hand, points out that the East is a knowledge and desire object depicted in the eyes of the West. Thus, Orientalism can be defined as fictionalizing the East according to the West’s own value judgments and creating an imaginary East from the West’s own perspective. The created imaginary East and Eastern representation leaves its place to exaggerated perceptions, associations and images by getting away from reality and continuity is achieved to these images through media channels. At this point, it is necessary to remember that Orientalism, as defined by Said (1998), has developed within its own historical path in the perspective of manifest, implicit, and modern/new Orientalism. According to Kalmar (2012:45), keeping the Eastern heritage alive by translating and interpreting the works belonging to the Eastern civilization which is ahead of the West in positive sciences such as science and philosophy in the Medieval Age expresses manifest Orientalism. This perspective also explains the exact definition of Orientalism. Unlike the manifest Orientalism, implicit Orientalism softens the aggressive attitudes towards the East through static, cliché approaches and certain narrow patterns and the exotic, mysterious, degenerated and strange qualities of the East turn it into a fantasy realm and an attractive enemy (Balcı, 2013:54-60). In the light of these definitions, implicit Orientalism is based on the fear arising from the obscurity, exclusion, and alienation of the East. After the September 11 attacks, Orientalism started to be addressed from a new Orientalism perspective in a different way. According to Mohamedou (2015:122), neo-Orientalism especially focuses on the Middle East, Arab countries, Muslims and North Africa in the 21st century, unlike classical Orientalism, which normally investigate the Eastern culture as a representation. It has transformed into a popular representation form all over the world by means of the Internet and is based on the assumption of moral and cultural superiority on the East. Çırakman (2002:183-184) emphasizes that this assumption overlaps with the modern Orientalism perspective of Said and pointed out that modern Orientalism, explaining the way of representing the East by restructuring, is a consistent and continuous discourse. Therefore, insulting associations and negative images toward the East continue with modern/new Orientalism and spread all over the world with the developments in the information technologies. Today, when you mention about Orientalism, mostly orientalist approaches realized with implicit and new Orientalism patterns are understood. In this context, according to an opinion in the literature, the purpose of the Orientalism has never been to know or understand the East but it served the West to judge and transform the East that is not similar to it. Especially political interests and prejudices have led the West’s policies based on imperialism and colonization to be legitimized (Taşar, 2011:156). Said based this determination on the Michel Foucault’s views of domination between knowledge, power, and subject and the orientalist discourse produced by the West on the Middle East and Muslims was seen as part of the imperialist goals aiming at dominating Islamic societies (Tez, 2015:14). In this respect, the Orientalism perspective is completely based on the domination fight between the West and the East and images develop in accordance with the West’s discourse of the dominant power. While performing the civilization carrier role against the East, the West claims that none of its good features is found in the East and all bad features belong to the East. According to Bulut (2004:13), the orientalist discourse attributed characteristics such as sentimentality, irrationality, ugliness, lustfulness, violence and barbarism to the East in contrast to the characteristics such as rationality, progressiveness, scientificness, virtue, esthetics, democracy, freedom and human rights which are assumed to be found 456

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in the West. These negative characteristics attributed to the East are conveyed and corroborated with images. The East is the representation of exotic music and dances, sensual women, tough men, mystical events, and a life that is completely different from the West and needs to be discovered. “Eastern”, on the other hand, is described with fixed characteristics such as weakness, helplessness, passivity, obedience, invariability, filth, cowardice, laziness, irrationality and need to be governed (Türk and Şahinoğlu, 2018:448). These descriptions gain visibility through the media and the contents added into the social media that is now attached to the traditional media today facilitate the rapid spread of Orientalism. This point also combines Orientalism with the process of image production. The image of the East, created and shared in traditional and social media, has continued from the past to the present and has replaced with reality. Orientalist approaches, which express to consider the Eastern culture as a fantasy field and doubt about it, are based on images of ignoring or underestimating differences. Certain images are produced in all cultural areas and appear in mass media tools (Anadolu, 2018:142). From this point, it can be asserted that mass media and new communication tools are one of the most important sources of the country image based on Orientalism. Thus, the perception of the East in minds continues to be produced within the frame of images reflected in the media. In fact, Islam, Muslims and Arabic literature are the most attractive subjects of orientalist thinking. The West presents the Eastern civilization, which is fictionalized according to Orientalism, through media and popular cultural products such as painting, photographs, and cinema rather than reality in order to describe East from its own perspective (Köse and Küçük, 2015:113). The East, which has been a matter of interest and curiosity for the West for centuries, is marginalized in the Western media and locked up in certain images. For example, many Islamic countries are seen as representatives of underdevelopment, backwardness, terrorism, lack of democracy and violation of human rights from the perspective of the West, it is shown in this way in the media and the negative image of Islamic countries is consolidated (Bitirim, 2011:178). Therefore, the efforts of the countries, the West has excluded and marginalized, to manage their own image in the international arena essentially turns into a struggle to get away from the clamping of Orientalism.

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REPRESENTATION OF THE COUNTRY IMAGE IN THE MEDIA FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF ORIENTALISM The assumption that the East is inadequate and behind the West in every aspect lies on the basis of Orientalism. In the orientalist thought, the West is seen as the superior mind that can overcome the inadequacy of the East. For this reason, the West prepares information, photographs, videos, visual materials, and images that support this idea and distributed them to the whole world through the media and bears the images containing the East perception described from its own perspective into the collective consciousness. Image production, which has become widespread in the media with technological developments, has become a separate industry and one of the main determinants of a country’s representation in the international arena. According to Chaney (1999:146), the attractiveness of the Eastern countries due to their obscurity indicates that reality can be shown to the stage with visually constructed images within the cultural transformation of modern Orientalism. This emphasis also frames the conceptual prediction related to how the country image is represented in the media. Similarly, Carter (1998:349) emphasizes that the Eastern countries are perceived as risky and exotic countries but worth trying although the Western countries are perceived with their image of reliability. The expression “worth trying” here refers to the obscurity and exotic and mystical charm of the East and strengthens the image of the country. 457

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 Tracing Orientalism in the Image of the Country Reflected by the Media

The West reproduces the Eastern geography, which is imagined as an object of fantasy with an orientalist approach, with images that are appropriate to its own perception and distributes them to the world through media. According to Polat and Polat (2016:264), the West, which spreads its attitudes, emotions and opinions on the image of the Eastern countries to wider masses by benefiting from the power of today’s social media, is the producer and distributor of orientalist images. For example, the military interventions of the USA in the Middle East are highlighted in the Western media with discourses such as “establishing democracy” or “maintaining peace” instead of using the word “war” and the USA justifies its interventions while presenting a “protective” image. At this point, Yerdelen (2017:50) states that even the discourses such as democracy, freedom and human rights can turn into images and the images successfully produced can be the justification for international legitimacy. Here, it is emphasized that the country images are distributed through media by the West, which is the dominant power, and it transforms into global hegemony tools that will lead to a new consciousness. This determination emphasizes that wrong images produced consciously by the West may lead to widespread opinions and perceptions through media representation. Mostly Islam and Muslims constitute the focus point of the perception of the “other” presented in the Western media. In the context of Orientalism, Western countries saw Islam and Muslims as the new global threat especially after the September 11 attacks and based this opinion on “Islamic terrorist organizations” in the Middle East. While the West created a collective subconscious through these terrorist organizations and increased the Islamophobia through the instruments such as cinema, social media and press (Büyüktopçuand Gündoğdu, 2019:195). The West-oriented orientalist discourse fills the image of the East created for centuries, with the identity of a Muslim in accordance with the new orientalist perspective. Islamophobia, which was first used as a new term in the US periodical publication ‘Runnymede Trust’ in 1991, is similar to the term “Xenophobia” which means the fear of foreigners and defines the fear, hatred, terror, anxiety and antipathy towards Islam and Muslims (Sheridan, 2006:317). In the Western media, Muslims are included as fanatical religious people, environmentally damaging and the cause of massacres and terrorism. For example, people who speak Arabic with each other are shown in the news in the Western media as if they were “discussing the destruction of America”. However, this representation reflected in the media is not real. In this way, the religion Islam is kept synonymous with the word “terror” and presented as a religion of violence by being demonized (Jhally, 2016:172). Therefore, Islam and Muslims are constantly humiliated and marginalized as if they were the source of evil that needs to be eliminated from the world. Marginalization and corresponding images in the media are mostly based on stereotypes, prejudices, and ethnocentric attitude. The concept of stereotype was first included in the book “Public Opinion” published by Walter Lippmann in 1922 and defined as the positive and negative generalizations, categories and “images in the head” which are constantly highlighted and often exaggerated to describe a nation or culture (1998:25). The stereotypes, which can be seen through positive or negative examples such as “Arabs are dirty”, “Serbs are bellicose”, “Turks are barbarians”, are encountered in many areas from politics to comedy, from literature to visual arts. For example, the Muslim men in movies are typically shown with a “skullcap” on their head and a “rosary” in their hand or portrayed in cartoons in this way (Okmeydan, 2019:104). The discrimination of “us” and “the other” that lies at the basis of Orientalism constitutes the origin of stereotypes. Therefore, various stereotypes produced in the media build and reproduce the orientalist approach. In fact, the media is an effective tool that put the stereotyped images and pictures into the minds. Stereotypes reflected in the media and placed into collective memory play an important role in the formation and settlement of the country’s image. 458

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 Tracing Orientalism in the Image of the Country Reflected by the Media

As a result of the categories that arise within the framework of Western-based representation in the media, stereotypes are made and this also establishes a ground for prejudices. According to Bauman (2009:58), prejudices are expressed as rejecting and interpreting reality by exaggerating the real or imaginary faults of excluded ones who are seen as “enemy”. Prejudices are essentially based on strong emotions such as hatred and fear. The emotions such as obscurity, fear and concern caused by those who do not look like “us” lead to the development of exclusion and marginalizing behavior toward those who do not represent us. Not accepting the other and its constant exclusion are caused by the ethnocentric approach.According to Uluç (2009:92), ethnocentrism, which is defined as a culture seeing itself above other cultures, expresses the idea to determine its own values to be the only criterion for understanding the values of other countries and that the country itself, its race and culture are superior to others. In ethnocentric approach, it seems impossible for a culture, which sees itself as superior to others and wants to maintain this superiority under all conditions, to truly understand and evaluate any other culture as considering it as equal. For this reason, the continuity of orientalist images based on the ethnocentric approach draws attention in the Western media. Since the media is able to manipulate, direct, and influence discourses and images, it plays a determining role on the views and attitudes of the public. Western countries, that are aware of this power of the media, put a special effort to represent the Eastern countries they exclude with negative images in the media. This effort ensures the constant continuity of Orientalism. The Hollywood film industry, where country images are subconsciously put into mind, is one of the most important sources for tracing Orientalism. For example, in many Hollywood movies shot in Istanbul in recent years, many orientalist traces reflecting the perception of Turkey in the eyes of the West and corroborating the country image can be found. These movies show dirty, narrow and complex streets, weak and brunet men with messy clothes, beards, and holding rosary, smoking on the streets or in closed places, very conservative, even mostly veiled women, stray and skinny dogs on the streets, street foods sold in street corners, old cars, and mosques that are necessarily included in the frame and represent the religion of Islam but are matched with Islamophobia. In this way, Turkey is coded as an underdeveloped country having the Middle East geography as well as Muslim and Eastern culture. Figure 1 is important in terms of representing this situation comparatively. The Figure 1 formed by combining frames of two different movies from James Bond series is a striking example in terms of showing the image of Turkey reflected on the frame in the movies. The movie scenes placed on top of Figure 1 belongs to the movie “From Russia with Love” coming out in 1963 and contribute to corroborate the image of Turkey with the orientalist perspective. In fact, in the movie, the mosque visuals showing that Turkey belongs to Islam were used a lot and particularly Hagia Sophia, having an importance for the Christian world, was placed in the frames. Besides, the actress used a headscarf to cover her hair in the scenes shot in Turkey and wore an overcoat that matches with conservative clothing codes that do not reveal body lines and thus stereotype of Turkish women was corroborated. Three frames at the bottom of Figure 1 belong to the “Skyfall” movie coming out in 2012 from the series. In this movie, where chase scenes are seen abundantly in Istanbul, the historical Grand Bazaar was chosen as the location and the orientalist patterns of daily life in Istanbul, such as the products displayed on open stalls and the mobility of the bazaar were spread throughout the film. Thus, the prejudice that the city is open to chaos and confusion is emphasized. Both movie series show that nothing has changed since 1963 to the present and the country image of Turkey is formed and corroborated according to the orientalist codes that reflect the perception of the West.

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Figure 1. Orientalist scenes from the last two different Bond film in Istanbul, Turkey

Source: The Access Blog. (2020, October). 5 iconic Bond filming locations. Retrieved from: http://accessbookings.com/blog/ bond-filming-locations/

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CURRENT EXAMPLES OF THE ORIENTALIST COUNTRY IMAGE REFLECTED IN THE MEDIA News presentations in the media also often attribute to Orientalism. The news stories should be read with the words chosen and images or symbols used and the news frames in the media should be defined. According to Entman (1991:6), news frames are concretized with keywords, metaphors, concepts, symbols and visual images highlighted in a news narration. In fact, news narration is comprehended with words and visual images. The ideological and hegemonic interpretation of the reality revealed by the framing theory has led Herman and Chomsky to define mainstream media as “propaganda tool of the strong ones” (Douai and Lauricella, 2014:10). The words and images selected in the news reflected on media often highlight the orientalist approach that manipulates perceptions. Figure 2 is one of these examples. Figure 2 shows a news presentation, which was reflected in the world media in 2015, drew attention to the unsuccessful attempt of Syrian refugees to seek refuge in “safe countries” and many refugee children drowned and lost their lives in this process. Alan Kurdi from these children has become one of the symbols of refugee children with the image of his lifeless body coming ashore in Bodrum coast in Turkey as a result of the sank of the boat filled with refugees who tried to run to Greece over Turkey in September 2015 (bbc.com, 2019). However, the language used and words and images selected in the news reveal the orientalist frame of the news. In the content of the news, there are words from the father who lost his son stating that he was dissatisfied with the conditions offered to refugees in Turkey and therefore they tried to escape to Greece. These words attribute to the perception stating that Western countries are safe but Turkey is an unsafe country. In the frame given on the left, the news presentation of the Guardian newspaper is given with the title of “The shocking images of the drowned Syrian child show the tragic situation of the refugees”. The caption of the news is presented by stating that “A Turkish police officer is carrying a young boy drowned in a failed attempt to sail to the Greek island of Kos”. This expression and the lifeless body in the arms of a Turkish police officer show the necessity

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of refuging effort to Greece (the West) over Turkey starting with the perception that Turkey is an unsafe country and prepare a legitimate ground to escape attempts. Figure 2. Refugee Crisis and Turkey’s Orientalist Presentation

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Source: The Guardian. (2020, October). Shocking images of drowned Syrian boy show tragic plight of refugees. Retrieved from: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/sep/02/shocking-image-of-drowned-syrian-boy-shows-tragic-plight-of-refugees; Twitter (2015). Retrieved from: https://twitter.com/crampton41; Pinterest (2015). Do something David. Retrieved from: https:// tr.pinterest.com/pin/318348267389207048/

As seen in the Figure 2, the same news was presented in the middle frame in the Free Metro Newspaper with the title “Europe cannot protect the child” and the perception that the refugees should be protected from Eastern countries while the protectionist image of the West is shined was engraved in one’s subconscious. In the frame on the right, the same news was given with the title of “Do something, David” addressing David Cameron, who served as the Prime Minister of the UK between 2010-2016. In this discourse, Cameron, representing the West, was defined as the person who should take action and the “savior” and “hero” role of the West was once again placed in memories. This approach also strengthens the perception that the East and the oriental people need protection in the description of Orientalism made by Said (1998). In addition, while this discourse includes the West’s “active” role of finding cure and producing solution, it also emphasizes the “passive” role of marginalized Turkey being unable to do anything. In the caption of this news, the expressions “while dead children flock to the shores of Europe, England watches in distrust. This is a wake-up call, Britain must act” were used. Framing of this tittle and the image in the news show that the West watches the East. Thus, the passive country image that the East should be watched and managed is refreshed. The Turkish image reflected from the orientalist approach is emphasized once again with the discourse and images framed in the news. In the process of the new type of coronavirus disease (COVID-19), the orientalist approach of the West is seen to continue. According to Zhang and Xu (2020:216), the West declared the marginalized Eastern countries as guilty on grounds of not preventing the spread of the pandemic. In this process, the death rates of COVID-19 are also the subject of heated discussions. There are many accusations in the Western media stating that Eastern countries, especially China, do not give the exact number of deaths. In their study, Chan and Strabucchi (2020) addressed the new type coronavirus disease process in the axis of Orientalism and stated that the virus pandemic caused an unprecedented rise in racism and violence worldwide against China, Asia and the East. In the same study, they criticized the “China/Wuhan Virus” saying used insistently in the Western media and emphasized that China was placed in memory with the stereotypes stating that Chinese people are dirty, unreliable, obedient to authority and eat bat and mice

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thoughtlessly and they pointed out that China was made hostile as a dangerous country. In this context, the marginalization of the East with prejudices continues in the Western media. During the pandemic period, Turkey becomes also a target of orientalist language and images in the Western media. Figure 3 shows that the image of Turkey built on with orientalist approach during the pandemic. Figure 3. Turkey’s Orientalist Image in the COVID-19 Pandemic

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Source: BBC International. (2020, October). Coronavirus: How Turkey took control of Covid-19 emergency? Retrieved from: https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-52831017; BBC International. (2020, October). Turkey feeds stray animals during Covid-19 outbreak. Retrieved from: https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-news-from-elsewhere-52199691

Figure 3 is composed of the combination of two frames used by BBC international site about the virus process in Turkey. In the left frame in the Figure 3, the information of “Turkey has not imposed a full lockdown as in other countries” is given as a caption. The other countries referred in the caption represent the Western countries. In fact, unlike the rational, scientific, virtuous, mature and normal image of the Western countries, Eastern countries are depicted with completely different, illogical, immoral, childish, and ignorant images (Daher, 2007:4). Due to this description, the West is placed in a modern country that knows how to fight with the virus pandemic while Turkey seen as an Eastern country is tagged with the country image that is incapable of doing the necessary. The random distribution of people walking on the street without considering the social distance and the striking and stereotype details on the people’s clothes reflect the image of Turkey through the eyes of the West. In the right frame of Figure 3, the orientalist images are seen, as well and the information of “Istanbul city employees are already checking on stray animals” is given in the related news. This information and the image selected show that there are stray animals in the streets of Istanbul, one of the largest metropolises in the world and it is represented as a different situation, deficiency and weakness that is not present in the West. In fact, in the travel books written throughout history, stray dogs attract the attention of Western travelers and it is stated that these dogs, generally yellow or brown, wander around and sleep lazily in the whole day (Doğan, 2018:222). The color of the dog and the way it lies on the ground confirms the orientalist framework of this knowledge. The term in the news, “army of stray dogs” in Turkey was used and it was expressed that this army is fed by activists, volunteers, and local residents. Wheatcroft (1995:158) states that the tolerance of the Turks toward dogs and animals is associated with their religion, and although this nation shows compassion for animals, the West cannot understand why these people are cruel and ruthless to the other people. It is understood that the news content also supports this perception. It is also seen that a mosque figure is a must in the images to shed a light on the Muslim identity of Turkey while giving news about pandemic in Turkey. Therefore, a mosque image is

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placed in the frame and the underdeveloped Eastern Muslim country image of Turkey is reflected with stray animals. In the orientalist discourse in the news, Islam and Muslims, seen as belonging to the East, are depicted as being behind the West under all circumstances and in very situation and in need of being shaped by the West. Figure 4 shows a similar example involving the West’s perception of “us” and “other”. Figure 4. Media Representation of East and West Image in the COVID-19 Pandemic

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Source: BBC International. (2020, October). Coronavirus: How Turkey took control of Covid-19 emergency? Retrieved from: https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-52831017; BBC International. (2020, October). Coronavirus: How lockdown is being lifted across Europe? Retrieved from: https://www.bbc.com/news/explainers-52575313

Figure 4 involves the combination of news framed by the orientalist approach of the West during pandemic period. On the top left frame, there is a news about how Turkey control the emergency situation. In the caption of the news, “Turkey has a lower recorded death toll than many other countries in Europe” is emphasized and the division with the West and the East is highlighted and a skeptical language implying that mortality rates in Eastern countries are not given correctly is used. In the figure, a mosque image is accompanied by stereotyped images and the Muslim identity of Turkey is highlighted. The strips that prevent sitting on the benches stand out as a remarkable detail in the frame. This detail reveals the emphasis stating that in the Western perception, the people of the East are irrational and can only controlled by rules, they should be kept under constant surveillance and domination with the words of Said (1998). In the top right frame, the news that the quarantine will be lifted throughout Europe is given with the caption of “face masks are an increasingly common sight throughout Europe”. The figure used in the news without any skeptical discourse was concretized with Eiffel Tower, which belongs to Paris, France. The Western media do not use a religious symbol in the news about the countries they see among them. When two frames on the top are compared, it is seen that a mosque is placed instead of a bridge representing Istanbul and connecting the Asian and European continents but the world-famous touristic attraction center Eiffel Tower is used for representing France/Paris. Moreover, there are no prohibitions imposed from outside, such as setting up a yellow tape on benches to ensure that the rules

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are followed. Therefore, it has been determined that this news is reported with images that are suitable for the comparisons of the West’s perception of “us” and “other”. In Figure 4, two frames at the bottom compares the measures taken in worship places for the pandemic in terms of Eastern and Western countries. In the left bottom frame, the caption of “municipal workers disinfect the Fatih mosque in Istanbul as part of measures to limit the spread of COVID-19” is given. With these words, the news frame points to Turkey and stereotyping which is suitable for Turkey’s image that the West wants to see as a Muslim Eastern country is utilized. According to Kerboua (2016:24-25), images and videos triggering Islamophobia are conveyed through certain and previously accepted common stereotypes, for example, the Western-centered paradigm perceives Islam and Muslims from the lens of Orientalism and new Orientalism rather than representing them correctly. Western media reduces the subjective images of Muslim countries, marginalized as a strong prejudice that threatens Western culture, to stereotypes. In the bottom left frame, the fact that people in the mosque do not wear mask or consider the social distance and sit randomly strengthen the “ignorant Eastern” prejudice. In fact, according to Kalın (2016:313), Islam is accepted as the source of common prejudices and negative images such as Muslims acting irrationally in accordance with information, women not being free, underdevelopment stemming from their lazy nature and reflected in the media in this way. Hence, the irrationality, stupidity, lack of order, lack of questioning and laziness of thoughts of the East are emphasized once again and the East continues to be marginalized against the West with ethnocentrism. In the other frame at the bottom right, the news that “French churches were reopened while the coronavirus restrictions were relaxed” is given. In the caption of the news the information that “French churcheshave been cleared to reopen, providedthey take the necessary precautions” is shared. The image framing this discourse shows an image of a modern and civilized country where men and women pray together at certain distances in accordance with the social separation distances, everyone wears their masks and everyone obeys the rules. When both frames at the bottom are compared, it is understood that the Western media consciously uses the discourses and images that are appropriate for the perception of “us” and “other”. Western media frames the image of Islam and Muslim with an ethnocentric view from the perspective of Orientalism, and paves the way for the public discussion, acceptance and continuity of stereotypes and discourses establishing a ground for prejudices.

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FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS In this study, the relationship between the Orientalism and country image has been considered through current news contents reflected from the media. There are many areas determining the country image in orientalist perspective. Art branches such as literature, painting, photography, and cinema and contents in media sector such as series, entertainment programs and programs in information sector such as computer games are among the fields forming and corroborating the international image of countries in the context of Orientalism. Therefore, in future studies, specific researches can be conducted about these areas where the traces of Orientalism can be seen in the image of the country. Again, in this study, the relationship between Orientalism and country image was investigated only over the case of Turkey. Not only Turkey but also other Eastern countries can be included in the future studies and examples can be compared. Besides, multidisciplinary studies are becoming widespread in the world. In order for Orientalism literature to develop in a rich perspective, it is predicted that studies dealing with the con-

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nection of Orientalism with the country image through multidisciplinary studies in multiple fields will contribute to a better understanding of the subject.

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CONCLUSION The history of Orientalism dates back to the distinction of the East and West. The West started the distinction between the East and the West with its consciously exclusionary approach to non-Western countries. As a result, the West presented itself as the opposite of the East and Orientalism gained its present meaning in the historical process. This situation, which is based on the distinction between the East and the West, is corroborated and continued with images that will form desired perceptions. Therefore, Orientalism appears as a reflection of the domination conflict between the West and the East. This conflict between the two civilizations that has been going on for centuries is reflected to the whole world through the media. In fact, the discourses and images transmitted from the media play a major role in the reconstruction of the East by the West by objectification of the Eastern countries by the West. Therefore, the media functions as an effective tool of image production by the West. Traditional and social media enable the meanings built in the historical process to spread to the audience globally. In this respect, the traditional and social media is an important cultural tool that establish certain representations, integrated with the “us” and “other” paradigm, through discourses and indicators and mostly reproduce these representations. The Western media exhibit an orientalist approach toward Turkey which they see as an Eastern country. Therefore, it acts from stereotypes and prejudices stuck between the myths and realities of Turkey. Although the images represented in the Western media show the specific codes of daily lives in Turkey, they do not reflect the truths completely and often distorted by exaggerated expressions. In fact, the Western media follow a conscious effort to legitimize stereotypes and prejudices. Therefore, it frequently produces images and discourses that will prove their claims to show that the thoughts, lives, and actions of marginalized Eastern countries are a threat and danger to them and spreads them to the whole world. When the current examples in this study are evaluated, it is understood that the country image of Turkey is built on through orientalist narrow patterns. Orientalism remains to be popular as one of the most current news frames in the mainstream media of the West. Current examples in the study show that there is no change to the country image of Turkey in traditional and social media which is representative of the West’s orientalist approach. In the historical perspective, the Orientalism, which has developed within a long time period such as centuries, will not change in an instant since it did not emerge in an instant. It is not easy to break stereotypes and prejudices suddenly and accept the “other” that has been excluded for centuries. Therefore, paradigm change is required and the West has to develop a new constructive communication based on real agreement and reconciliation with the “other”.

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Daher, R. F. (2007). Reconceptualizing tourism in the Middle East: Place, heritage,mobility and competitiveness. In R. F. Daher (Ed.), Tourism and cultural change tourism in The Middle East continuity, change and transformations (pp. 1-69). Channel View Publications. Dikici, E. (2014). Doğu-Batı ayrımı ekseninde Oryantalizm ve Emperyalizm. Tarih Kültür ve Sanat Arastirmalari Dergisi, 3(2), 45–59. doi:10.7596/taksad.v3i2.319 Doğan, M. (2018). Batı muhayyilesindeki Doğu ve İstanbul’da bir gezgin: Adelaide Müller. RumeliDE Dil ve Edebiyat Araştırmaları Dergisi, 12, 209–231. doi:10.29000/rumelide.472766 Douai, A., & Lauricella, S. (2014). The ‘terrorism’ frame in ‘neo-Orientalism’: Western news and the Sunni-Shia Muslim sectarian relations after 9/11. International Journal of Media and Cultural Politics, 10(1), 7–24. doi:10.1386/macp.10.1.7_1

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Entman, R. M. (1991). Framing U.S. coverage of international news: Contrasts in narratives of the KAL and Iran Air incidents. Journal of Communication, 41(4), 6–26. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.1991.tb02328.x Fetscherin, M. (2010). The determinants and measurement of a country brand: The country brand strength index. The Marketing Review, 27(4), 466–479. doi:10.1108/02651331011058617 Hynes, N., Caemmerer, B., Martin, E., & Eliot, M. (2014). Use, abuse or contribute!: A framework for classifying how companies engage with country image. International Marketing Review, 31(1), 79–97. doi:10.1108/IMR-12-2012-0206 Jhally, S. (2016). Edward Said ile Oryantalizme dair. A. Köroğlu, (Trans.). Necmettin Erbakan Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, 41, 167–178. Kalın, İ. (2016). Ben, öteki ve ötesi: İslam-Batı ilişkileri tarihine giriş. İnsan Yayınları. Kalmar, I. (2012). Early Orientalism imagined Islam and the notion of sublime power. Routledge. Kerboua, S. (2016). From Orientalism to neo-Orientalism: Early and contemporary constructions of Islam and the Muslim world. Intellectual Discourse, 24(1), 7–34. Köse, M., & Küçük, M. (2015). Oryantalizm ve ‘öteki’ algısı. Sosyal ve Kültürel Araştırmalar Dergisi, 1(1), 107–127. Lippmann, W. (1998). Public opinion. Transaction Publishers. Mohamedou, M. (2015). Neo-Orientalism and the e-revolutionary: Self-representation and the post-Arab Spring. Middle East Law and Governance, 7(1), 120–131. doi:10.1163/18763375-00701006 Okmeydan, S. B. (2019). Kültürlerarası iletişim ve uluslararası halkla ilişkiler. In S. B. Okmeydan & M. Saran (Ed.), Kültürlerarası iletişim; iletişim odaklı güncel yaklaşımlar (pp. 93-124). Eğitim Yayınevi. Polat, S. A., & Polat, S. (2016). Oryantalist imgelemde turizm söylemi. Kastamonu Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 11, 257–268. Robins, K. (2006). İmaj, görmenin kültür ve politikası (N. Türkoğlu, Trans.). Ayrıntı Yayınları. Said, E. (1998). Oryantalizm (4th ed.). İrfan Yayınevi. Sheridan, L. P. (2006). Islamophobia pre- and post- September 11th, 2011. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21(3), 317–336. doi:10.1177/0886260505282885 PMID:16443594

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Taşar, M. M. (2011). Batı’nın kendi kimliğini inşa sürecinde öteki olarak doğulu kadın ve harem. Milli Saraylar Kültür-Sanat-Tarih Dergisi, 8, 153–175. Tez, Z. (2015). Avrupa’da Türk izi. Hayygrup Yayıncılık. Türk, S., & Şahinoğlu, F. (2018). Oryantalist söylem doğrultusunda oluşturulan Türk ve Türkiye imgesinin Amerikan sinemasında sunumu. Uluslararası Medeniyet Çalışmaları Dergisi, 3(1), 444–471. Uluç, G. (2009). Medya ve Oryantalizm. Anahtar Kitaplar. Wheatcroft, A. (1995). The Ottomans, dissolving images. Penguin.

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ADDITIONAL READING Anderson, B. (2016). Imagined communities: Reflections on the origin and spread of nationalism (Revised Ed.). Verso. Booker, M. K., & Daraiseh, I. (2019). Consumerist Orientalism. The convergence of Arab and American popular culture in the age of global capitalism. I.B. Tauris. Burke, E., & Prochaska, D. (2008). Genealogies of Orientalism. History, theory, politics. University of Nebraska Press. DelPlato, J., & Codell, J. F. (2016). Orientalism, eroticism, and modern visuality in global cultures. Routledge. Germaner, S., & İnankur, Z. (2016). Orientalism and Turkey. The Turkish Cultural Service Foundation. Hallaq, W. B. (2018). Restating Orientalism. A critique of modern knowledge. Columbia University Press. doi:10.7312/hall18762 Keskin, T. (2019). Middle East studies after September 11. Neo-orientalism,American hegemony and academia. Haymarket Books. Lewis, R. (2004). Rethinking Orientalism: Woman, travel, and the Ottoman Harem. Rutgers University Press. doi:10.5040/9780755611744 Said, E. W. (1994). Culture and imperialism. Vintage Books. Said, E. W. (2008). Covering Islam: How the media and the experts determine how we see the rest of the World. Random House.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Edward W. Said: Literature professor with numerous works on orientalism and leading orientalist debates. Ethnocentrism: The view that one’s own culture and race is superior to others. Implicit Orientalism: An aggressive approach towards the East through stereotypes. Islamophobia: Matching Islam and Muslims with the perception of danger and terror by developing hate speech against the religion of Islam and Muslims. Manifest Orientalism: An academic discipline that focuses on Eastern Science and visible culture of East, such as clothes and lifestyles.

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Media Representation: Taking place in the media with positive or negative statements and images. Modern/Neo-Orientalism: Presumption of cultural and moral superiority over the East. Stereotype: Positive or negative judgment developed towards a culture or race.

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Chapter 28

Orientalism in Turkish Political Election Campaigns Cudi Kaan Okmeydan https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6669-0276 Yaşar University, Turkey

ABSTRACT This chapter studies the use of orientalist elements in advertisements of Turkish political parties as a reaction to the orientalist approach of the West, based on examples. It is observed that especially the right-wing parties frequently use orientalist elements in political advertisements during election periods in Turkey. These orientalist elements usually consist of large historical mosque fgures and Ottoman motives. However, these orientalist elements are presented together with Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, Turkish satellites, unmanned aircraft, and modern city views to establish a connection between the past and future and show developed and contemporary aspects of Turkey. Thus, it is hinted to the West that a Muslim country taking pride in its past can also be a contemporary and developed country. The present study is focused on orientalism refections in Turkish political election campaigns and aims to reveal orientalist elements and orientalist perspective that are common in election campaigns.

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INTRODUCTION The concept of orientalism was first used by the French in the beginning of the 19th century to express a style and pattern of painting. In the middle of the 19th century, the concept spread and diversified into many fields such as literature, music, opera, theatre and architecture, and then it included research on societies in the East and Eastern expertise (Coşkun, 2019: 216). Orientalism, which is also known as Oriental science today, generally refers to the research fields that examine the cultural, language and sociological structures of Eastern and Islamic societies. From this point of view, although orientalism emerged as an academic discipline, it moved away from objectivity with the development of imperialism. Thus, the Eastern expression of the West began to be shaped on fictions rather than facts. The criticism towards orientalism gradually increased when the West started marginalizing the East and expressing the East in a negative manner. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch028

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 Orientalism in Turkish Political Election Campaigns

Edward Said (1991) argues that, in orientalism, the West deals with the East based on its own views and assumptions. According to him, the West defines and describes the East according to its own interests and creates a fabricated image of the East. In addition, the Western consciousness in fact looks at itself from the opposite site and expresses itself somehow, whether consciously or unconsciously, while marginalizing the East. Orientalism, which is the imagination of the West, can appear in many areas such as Western art, science, politics and news reporting. Apart from all these, orientalism an ideological concept above anything else. The West draws strength from orientalism in order to legitimize its attacks on the East. This study evaluates the orientalist elements in Turkish political advertisements made during election periods and focuses on explaining the purpose of these elements in Turkish political advertisements. This situation, which is called self-orientalism (auto-orientalism) in the literature, expresses the self-orientation of the individual and societies. In the literature, studies on political advertisements and self-orientalism are almost non-existent. For this reason, this study is original as it consists of literature review and reviews on examples of advertisements. In self-orientalism, individuals or societies tend to explain themselves with the ideas and images of others (Uluç, 2009: 203-204). In this context, self-orientalism can be seen as a dangerous concept that causes societies to marginalize themselves. However, self-orientalism can also emerge in Eastern societies as a reaction to the West. In this study, it has been observed that Turkish political parties that give place to orientalist elements and figures in their advertisements also use elements and figures that symbolize modern Turkey. Thus, the political parties in question go beyond the orientalist approach of the West by giving the message that a Muslim country can be both modern and contemporary.

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OVERVIEW OF POLITICAL COMMUNICATION AND RELATED CONCEPTS Political communication would exist in a society when governors and governed people exist in that society. Therefore, it is possible to trace the history of the concept of political communication back to the emergence of the first ruling class. Although the name “political communication” was not used in Ancient Greece, it is known that those who govern the society used political communication methods and techniques (Aziz, 2011: 3). Forums and people’s assembly attended by citizens in the Ancient Greek; speeches of senators for the public and attempts to establish good relations with the public for getting their support in ancient Rome (Strömbäck and Kiousis, 2011: 2); organization of meetings with the public by Osman and Orhan, first sultans of the Ottoman Empire and effort of sultans in listening to wishes, complaints and recommendations of the public in person (Kazancı, 2006: 6) are deemed political communication activities of the period even though they are not named as such. Political communication concept emerged and started to be used during the Second World War within the meaning that is used today. During that period, political scientist Harold D. Lasswell, sociologist Paul F. Lazarsfeld, social psychologist Kurt Lewin and Carol Hovland conducted empirical studies on political science for the first time (Toker, 2013: 47). Starting from 1950 and in the following years, political communication has been accepted as a scientific discipline (Demir, 2018: 89). The point to be noted here is that the concept and process of political communication are constantly changing. The development and change of societies over time reshapes governance systems, relations between the ruling and the ruled and consequently, the political communication. For this reason, political communication

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practices in the former monarchic systems and the political communication understanding and practices in today’s modern democratic societies are extremely different from each other. The effort to manage masses living in collective form is the reason for the existence of politics. In this context, politics must convince the ruled masses in order to achieve its purpose, and thus, to rule and dominate the masses. In this process, the existence of the government that directs the society depends on the consent of the society which form the ruled segment. Likewise, the political actors who aspire to govern the society have to persuade the society and obtain their consent in order to be elected and come to power. In this process, all kinds of communication tactics and activities applied by political actors are given a common meaning under the definition of political communication. Therefore, when the definitions of political communication in the literature are examined, it is seen that the definitions mostly focus on the relationship between the ruler and the ruled and persuasion efforts. Andrew Lock and Phil Harris (1996) defines political communication as a marketing process aimed as persuasion. Aysel Aziz (2011) defines political communication as the use of various types and techniques of communication for the purpose of making certain groups, masses and countries accept their ideological goals, and Richard M. Perloff (1998) defines it as a negotiation process between political actors and the public. However, there are definitions of political communication that are made by using a macro approach beyond the relationship between the ruling and the ruled. The definitions provided above deal with the political communication beyond the relationship between the ruling and the ruled but within the framework of public information activities of political bodies, consensus with the public and even, relationships between the states. From this point of view, Ithaiel de Sola Pool defines political communication in a broad framework as an international ultimatum or statement of a political candidate or the activities of some organizations established by the government to spread knowledge, ideas and attitudes (Tokgöz, 2010: 519-520). Mahmut Oktay (2002) defines at creating a forum of agreement in the society through discussions and Ferhal Kentel (1991) defines as a type of mutual understanding and expression in the political arena. Based on all these different definitions, it is seen that political communication is not limited to only political actors and voters, and includes all kinds of messages, relationships, information sharing and negotiation processes with a political purpose and content.

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HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF TURKISH POLITICAL LIFE It is necessary to focus on the last years of the Ottoman Empire before addressing the multi-party period in the history of Turkish politics. On 23 December 1876, Abdelhamid II authorized the assembly as legislative body which started the First Constitutional Era in Ottoman history. However, Abdelhamid II released a statement on 14 February 1878 in which he suspended the assembly based on the reasoning that the assembly fails in fulfilling duties and this suspension continued as long as 30 years (Gökbayır, 2012: 71). In 1908, upon emergence of discussions on personal rights and freedoms as a requirement of the modern era’s political approach, Abdelhamid II approved re-opening of the assembly. In this period called the Second Constitutional Era in Ottoman history, two parties -Party of Union and Progress with nationalist view and Liberal Party with liberal view- emerged and elections were held immediately. The party that won the election was the Party of Union and Progress. The party tried to create national consciousness in order to establish the national industry and economy and to combat minorities and foreign investments in the country (Haytoğlu, 1997: 47). However, the multi-party period did not last long due to the internal turmoil and occupations in the country after the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in the 472

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First World War and as a result Sultan Vahdeddin dissolved the assembly on 11 April 1920 (Akandere, 2003: 419). Other elements to be focused on the multi-party era in Turkey is the Republican era. A new era started following the end of the Ottoman Empire and proclamation of the Republic on 20 October 1923 by Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, founder of the Republic of Turkey. The proclamation of the Republic is a part of the Turkish revolution. The proclamation of the Republic of Turkey is the emergence of a form of government based on equality and freedom which gives self-governing opportunity to Turkish people. However, with the proclamation of the Republic, the emergence of the expected multi-party democratic structure did not come easy. After the proclamation of modern Republic of Turkey, two attempts were made for transition into multi-party era but both of them became unsuccessful. In this process, the Progressive Republic Party was founded in 1925 as a rival to the founding party, the CHP (Republican People’s Party), and the Free Republic Party in was founded in 1930; however, both parties were closed after their foundation based on the assumption that the people not ready for the multi-party era due to the social events that took place in the aforementioned periods (Akıncı and Usta, 2015: 41). However, in 1934, women were given the right to vote and be elected in local and general elections. Following the political rights and freedoms granted to women, 35 female parliaments were elected in general elections in 1935 and they took their place next to male parliaments in Grand National Assembly of Turkey (TBMM) (Tokgöz, 2010: 36) . Although Turkey did not participate in the Second World War between 1939-1945, the war years had extremely negative impact on the Turkish economy. This situation had caused an increase in social injustice in the country, the impoverishment of the majority of the people and a decrease in the trust in CHP which was the only party. These factors are considered as factors that accelerated the country’s transition to a multi-party era. All these experiences resulted in the establishment of DP (Democrat Party) on 7 January 1946 by people who were formerly members of CHP. Four years after its establishment, DP came into power in the general elections of 14 May 1950 and the 27-year CHP government came to an end (Temel and Çelebi, 2015: 972). However, in the period after 1957, DP’s pressures against non-governmental organizations and the deteriorating democracy atmosphere in the country, struggle of the unions, universities and the press DP laid foundations of the 1960 military coup. Nevertheless, non-governmental organizations such as unions, associations, universities and the press started to gain strength in this period (Keskin, 2012: 123). 1960 military coup paused multi-party era in Turkey and multi-party era ended temporarily once again. Although the multi-party democratic period emerged again with the developments in political and social rights with the 1961 Constitution, this situation came to an end with the military coup of 12 September 1980 (Özçelik, 2011: 77). This period ended after the preparation of the 1982 Constitution, and the country returned to its albeit controversial democratic position and multi-party structure. Thus democracy was interrupted twice with 1960 and 1980 military coups in the history of the Republic of Turkey.

ELECTION CAMPAIGNS IN TURKEY AND POLITICAL COMMUNICATION MEDIA AS A TOOL Media, which is among the main actors of politics, appears as one of the most important elements of political communication. Although the media is one of the most important elements in every stage of the political communication, it is observed that political parties generally concentrate on the media as 473

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the election time approaches. As a matter of fact, political parties actively use the media for the purpose of announcing their basic promises to existing and potential voters and creating the desired perception among voters during election campaigns. According to Keskin (2014: 271), political election campaigns refer to communication strategies that are mostly prepared through dramatization, having certain themes and covering a period of time in order to create the desired interest in the public. Accordingly, one of the key factors in political communication and election campaigns is based on the determination and use of correct and effective communication methods and techniques that will appeal to voters, and implementation of strategic media planning. In order to talk about political communication activities during the election period in Turkish political life, it is necessary to look at the multi-party period and its aftermath. In Turkey, multi-party era started only after foundation of DP in 1964 as the second party after CHP and participation of DP in 1950 elections. During this period, DP conducted an intense election campaign against CHP, which has been in power as a single party for 27 years, and used all communication facilities of the period in this process. As the only electronic mass election campaign tool of the period, Ankara and Istanbul radios broadcast official election propaganda speeches of the ruling and opposition parties. Apart from the radio, the press and printed materials were used as the most effective mass media of the period. Especially DP effectively used flyers and posters with different visuals and slogans. TRT, the print media and state television in 1980s, had an important place in political campaigns, and politicians of the period conveyed their messages to the voters by taking part in newspaper and television news (Topuz, 1991: 25). In 1990s, the role of electronic media increased in importance in political communication with the commencement of private radio and TV broadcasting in Turkey. Since 2002, the internet and new generation internet technologies have been accepted as important political communication tools by Turkish political parties.

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Use of Printed Materials in Turkish Election Campaigns The use of the printed media for political purposes in Turkish political life started during the multi-party era. In 1950 elections, the DP conducted a political communication campaign targeting the CHP, which was in power for 27 years and spent 23 years in power as a single party. DP frequently advertised in newspapers during this period. The party used a stop sign and the slogans “Enough! The Nation Has a Word to Say”, “I Want Your Support for Great Turkey” both in wall posters and newspaper ads (Aziz, 2011: 155-156). Professional agencies were used in Turkish election campaigns for the first time during 1977 General Elections. In this period, with the participation of professional agencies in the election campaigns, the very classical method of printed press and printed materials started to be used more effectively. In 1983 General Elections, the interest in the printed press increased despite other communication technologies. During this period, the printed press came to the fore with its news function as well as party advertisements. The effort of the political leader and the party to take place in the print press as a part of news coverage was clearly observed in the 1983 General Elections (Topuz, 1991: 25). Thus, in the 1983 elections and afterwards, the printed press started to be used not only as an advertisement and publicity tool but also as a medium where political parties and their leaders could take place as a part of news coverage (1991: 25-26).

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Figure 1. Demokrat Party Election Poster

Source: Jurnal.İst (2018, December). Türkiye’de Siyasal İletişimin Kısa Tarihi: 50-60. Retrieved from: https://www.gzt.com/ jurnalist/turkiyede-siyasal-iletisimin-kisa-tarihi-50-60-3468495

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Use of Electronic Media in Turkish Election Campaigns As a tool for political communication in Turkey, radio was controlled by the single-party CHP until 1946. In this context, radio broadcasts in Turkey were used to strengthen the power of the government and single-party policy of CHP that was the only political party. During the DP period that came to power in 1950, radio broadcasts became more politicized, and CHP and other opposition parties were not given right to speak in radio programs. This situation, combined with other events in the country in 1960, paved the way for the military coup of 27 May 1960 (Aziz, 2011: 62). An important turning point regarding the political use of radio broadcasts is the assurance given to the radio television broadcasts under article 121 of 1961 Constitution. This law enabled the introduction of the principle of equality for radio and television programs intended to be started (Canoruç, 2009: 297). This situation means that political powers and all political actors can benefit from the broadcasts equally. The 1990s are regarded as an important turning point in terms of the use of television in Turkish political campaigns. A period of polyphony started with private channels that became a part of Turkish media starting from the beginning of 1990s (Büyükbaykal, 2013). Private programs are not subject to the same obligation while TRT, a state owned media enterprise, is obliged to give place to all political parties equally in accordance with the law. Private radio and television broadcasts can pursue different practices both in news bulletins and other programs, apart from adhering to general broadcasting principles in political communication activities. Thus, while most private broadcasts do not have direct political

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discourse, some may broadcast directly or indirectly within a political discourse. This practice makes Turkish private television broadcasting similar to the broadcasting activities in the West (Aziz, 2011: 63).

Use of Internet and Social Media in Turkish Election Campaigns

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Today, with the developments in information technologies, the fact that information can easily spread to the entire world without being obstructed by time and space has given political parties and target audiences a relatively fragile structure and made political parties more vulnerable to legitimacy crises that may arise at any moment in the national and international political scene (Okmeydan, 2018: 4223). For this reason, it is observed that in order to keep pace with global changes and reach both current and potential voters easily, political parties tend to focus on political communication activities carried out in social media in addition to conventional media. For the first time in Turkish election campaigns, it was observed, in 2002 General Elections, that political parties created their own web pages or organized their existing web pages in line with the campaign. Detailed information on topics such as party programs and activities was included on these platforms. In addition, parties published their election declarations, the messages of the President and their advertisements on their web pages, and they tried to reach the voters via the internet by sending mass e-mails. Thus, for the first time in Turkish election history, the internet was used as a platform (Karaman, 2008). However, the use of internet in Turkish election campaigns increased in 2007 elections. In this period, apart from political parties, opposing groups also preferred virtual environments in order to make their voices heard and meet with those who share the same opinion. Various websites were published in this period by both the opponents within the party and opponents against the ruling party. Web site designs that allow voter views and participation in a virtual environment emerged only in 2011 elections. During this period, e-mail, forums and various membership systems were put into use in a way that allows taking voter views into account. Social media and its importance in political elections was evident for the first time in the internetsupported election campaign implemented by the AK Party in 2009 local elections. During this period, the party opened various forum sites and blog pages. Thus, social media started to be used for the first time in Turkish political life. In addition, these social media accounts were linked to the official websites of the party and the site visitors were directed to these platforms. During this election period, it was observed that the youth branches of the parties created accounts on behalf of the party on social networking and mayor candidates also addressed the public through the pages they created on Facebook on their behalf. The use of social media in Turkish political life gained importance during the 2011 General Elections, and the interest in Facebook increased during this period.

ORIENTALISM AND TRACES OF ORIENTALIST ELEMENTS IN TURKISH ELECTION CAMPAIGNS Orientalism is defined as a field of study in which cultural and social characteristics of Near Eastern and Far Eastern societies are studied in Western sources. However, in Orientalism by Edward Said, he argues that Westerners act based their own views and assumptions while dealing with the East. In addition to this, a fictitious Eastern profile is created, in line with the interests of the West. Thus, the East

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cannot explain itself (Said, 1991). According to Said (1991), orientalism is an instrument of political imperialism and therefore, orientalism always pretends to see what it does not see. Said argues that the East is perceived in a one-sided way by the West. According to him, everyone and every institution in the West has a uniform perception of the East. This perception refers to a dirty, unreasonable, passive, self-directed, dreamy, ignorant East (Uluç and Soydan, 2007: 37). The perception in question is built on marginalizing, humiliating, discrediting and isolating the East. Thus, any act of exploitation and attack against the East gains legitimacy. As an example of this situation, Said points to the Arab-Israeli wars of 1973. It was astonishing that the Egyptian army was able to cross the channel and fight, while the Western media claimed how cowardly Arabs were during and before the war, they did not know how to fight and they would lose the war because they were not modern (Jhally, 2016: 168). Similarly, bombing of Iraq by coalition forces was internalized with discourses showing Iraq as a backward, ignorant, dirty, dangerous, poor and barbarian desert country in the First and Second Gulf War. The West attempts to describe Turkey also as an underdeveloped Middle East country by using strong media and cinema industry under its control. Therefore, the Western media uses districts in Turkey with lower social and economic level, and old, worn out historical monuments and mosques are used as orientalist figure to serve this fiction to the rest of the world. Thus, an attempt is made to relay a message to the rest of the world that Turkey is all about that fiction. However, images used about Turkey in the Western media are mostly fictional and they do not reflect the reality. Turkey is not different than the developed Western countries with modern cities, night-life, beaches and tourism and historical destinations. Figure 1 provided below is about the news article published by the New York Times about Turkey’s economy and it is observed that a mosque image was used in a manner unrelated with the concept. Figure 2. News Image of the New York Times on the Turkish Economy

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Source: New York Times (2020, August). Turkey Braces for Yet Another Currency Crisis. Retrieved from: https://www.nytimes. com/2020/08/27/business/turkey-currency-crisis.html?searchResultPosition=47

Figure 2 shows that the New York Times uses the photograph of the mosque as a religious motive that is not related to the news article made about the Turkish economy. Here, the image that Turkey is a religious Islamic country is built on symbols. The fact that symbols shown about Turkey in the Western media only consist of mosques, old historical structures and districts with lower social and economic

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level and service of these symbols in a manner irrelevant from the context is a frequently encountered situation. It is observed that in general, stereotypes are used to create Turkey perception in the Western media. Above all, orientalism is based on certain stereotypes (Yavuz, 2014). Thus in the West, marginalized stereotypes such as Far Eastern, Arab, Turkish and Muslim are emerging. However, in some cases, individuals or groups exposed to discrimination internalize the stereotypes attributed to them. This situation may occur as the East accepts the stereotyping created in the eyes of the West and taking pride in these stereotypes. The acceptance of the stereotyping attributed to the East by the West is explained by the concept of auto-orientalism / self-orientalism, which means self-orientalization. This concept means that individuals and societies understand and put meanings to ideas and opinions that do not belong to them. This situation defines the process of marginalization from himself and becoming his own other (Uluç, 2009: 203-204). The acceptance of these stereotypes through self-orientalism can sometimes emerge as a reaction to discriminatory societies. This situation may be observed especially in advertisements of Turkish political parties. In Turkey, it is possible to see elements consistent with the images created for Turkey by the West especially in commercials and posters of right-wing parties. Here, there is actually a reaction against the West. This reaction essentially gives the message that “we are Turks, we are descendent of the Ottomans, we are proud to be loyal to our past and at the same time we are not behind the West in anything”. However, given this response to the West can also lead to internalization of the orientalist figures the West created about Turkey. As an example to the situation in question, Figure 3 shows election posters of candidates from AK Party (Justice and Development Party) that is the ruling party in Turkey. Figure 3 shows the election posters of two AK Party candidates. The outfits of the candidates on the posters in question are similar to the clothes worn by the Ottoman Sultans. Another notable detail in the poster is “Together New Turkey” slogan. The slogan in question refers to Turkey as a stronger and more advanced country. The point emphasized clearly in these posters is taking pride in the past and establishing connection with the past. Similarly, Figure 4 shows AK Party’s commercial with orientalist elements that was used in 2018 General Elections as a message to the West. This commercial with Phoenix theme that was praised a lot in Turkey had record number of views in YouTube. Even though in essence, the commercial told about a country that rises again from its ashes, it also emphasizes historical victories, heroism and values of the developing modern Turkey and makes a reference to the past of Turkey which is the source of pride. In initial scenes of AK Party’s commercial with phoenix theme that is shown in Figure 4, Osman Gazi, founder of the Ottoman Empire, is shown on a horse and he is followed by other prominent sultans such as Fatih Sultan Mehmed and Yavuz Sultan Selim. In the other scenes, Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, founder of the modern Republic of Turkey, is depicted in Bandirma Ferry which has an important place in the Independence War. Last scenes of the commercial shows modern cities, highways, unmanned aircraft and satellites made in Turkey in order to show the progress made by Turkish nation to this date. These commercials are not merely political commercials prepared for elections but they are a response against the Western orientalism. In the commercial, a message is relayed that Turkey which is a Muslim country taking its roots from the Ottomans is also a modern country and that level of development does not only belong to the West. In the commercial, discourses and images implying Turkey’s pride in its rooted past are used as a response to the orientalist approach of the West.

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Figure 3. AK Party Deputy Candidate Posters

Source: Sözcü (2015). Retrieved from: https://www.sozcu.com.tr/2015/gundem/akpli-aday-adayindan-osmanli-borkluafis-754901/

Figure 4. AK Party 2018 General Elections Commercial Film

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Source: YouTube (2018). Retrieved from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4ea0KzGgt3E

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Commercial released by MHP (Nationalist Movement Party) during 2018 General Elections is one of the examples of the political commercials using orientalist elements together with the figures symbolizing modern face of Turkey. The commercial shown in Figure 5 starts with Turkish flag and large monumental mosque figures and continues with children that freely and safely play on streets. Figure 5. MHP 2018 General Elections Commercial Film

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Source: YouTube (2018). Retrieved from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yCMmUNRzW3A

Commercial in Figure 5 uses the mosque as an orientalist element and happy children freely playing on the streets symbolize modern Turkey. Safety and happiness of children are extremely important elements showing development level of a country. In this commercial, modern face of Turkey is depicted with children that symbolize the future of the country and their ability to play safely, happily and peacefully on the streets. In brief, the commercial in question conveys a message that children of Muslim Turkey have a safe, free and happy life in welfare in contrary to the West’s orientalist approach. Another political commercial with orientalist elements is commercial of BBP (Grand Unity Party), another right-wing party in Turkish politics, as shown in Figure 6. The commercial prepared for the 25th anniversary of BBP shows Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, founder of the modern Republic of Turkey, children celebrating the Republic, mosque and people praying in the mosque. The commercial in question is important in terms of harmonizing religious figures with the figures symbolizing the Republic and secularity. The commercial relays the message that a Muslim country can also be a secular country. In the 25th anniversary commercial of BBP that is shown in Figure 6, the slogan “we won together” is shown in the scene with Mustafa Kemal Ataturk and children celebrating the Republic and “we leaned together” in the scene with people praying in the mosque. In this commercial combining symbols of modern and secular Republic with religious symbols, Turkey is embraced with all aspects and a message is given that a country can be both Muslim, and secular and modern. Thus, it is emphasizes that Turkey has a rich, rooted history and cultural heritage that is too great to fit in orientalist moulds of the West. IYI Party is another example that uses orientalist figures in Party’s materials. The party that was founded on 25 October 2017 in order to participate in 2018 General Elections is one of the right-wing parties that frequently uses orientalist elements in posters and commercials. Figure 7 shows orientalist elements of the party. 480

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Figure 6. BBP 25th Anniversary Commercial Film

Source: YouTube (2018). Retrieved from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XuJ9MXIZeZ0

Figure 7. Poster of Meral Akşener and IYI Party Logo

Source: İYİ Parti (2020). Kurumsal Kimlik. Retrieved from: https://iyiparti.org.tr/kurumsal-kimlik

Figure 8. First Introduction Video of IYI Party

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Source: YouTube (2017). Retrieved from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TSjr_RMUwu0

Logo of IYI Party draws attention in Figure 7. Flag of the Kayi Tribe of Oghuz Turks that are con-

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sidered as ancestors of Turkish people has been used for the logo of the party that was founded by Meral Aksener who is one of the most popular female politicians in Turkey. Thus, a message is given that Turkey is pride of its rooted past as a reaction to orientalist approach of the West and emphasis is made to the bond established between the past and the future. Figure 8 depicts a similar situation. An image from the first introduction video of IYI Party is used in Figure 8. Accordingly, mosque appears as an orientalist figure in the centre of the first introduction video of the party. In addition, in the short video that also shows Ataturk statue and a few figures from tourism destinations of Turkey is an attempt to reflect values of the country together. However, it is observed that the orientalist elements are dominant in the video. In the introduction video, Turkey’s Muslim identity is emphasized but it is also shown this Muslim country has a rooted history, various tourism destinations and rich culture. This situation may be considered as a reflection of Turkey, a Muslim Country, taking pride in its past and present. As the examples provided above show, orientalist elements are used especially in advertisements of right-wing political parties in Turkey. However, these orientalist elements are both internalized and used to give message to the West. At this point, Ottoman motives and figures like mosques that are frequently used in Turkey depictions of the West are harmonized with the figures reflecting modern and contemporary face of Turkey in commercials of parties. Thus, it is emphasized that a Muslim country taking its roots from Ottomans can be both modern and secular and moulds created by the West’s orientalist approach are broken.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS

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In the present study, relationship between the orientalist approach of the West and orientalist elements used in commercials and posters of Turkish political parties is evaluated. The West’s orientalist approach towards Turkey is disliked by majority of Turkish people. The predominant opinion among Turkish people is the fact that a negative image is created without reflecting the reality. Even though this situation disturbs also political parties in Turkey, some right-wing political parties still give place to orientalist elements in posters or commercials. Some of the most prominent orientalist elements are large mosque figures and Ottoman motives that are frequently used in the West’s depiction of Turkey. However, orientalist elements used by Turkish political parties are presented with figures reflecting modern face of Turkey and a message is conveyed that Turkey is a Muslim but secular, modern and developed country which is devoted to its history. At this point, Turkish political parties give a reaction to orientalist approach of the West by using orientalist elements. Eastern countries other than Turkey may be included in the future studies and an analysis may be conducted on discourses of political leaders or election statements of parties rather than advertisements of political parties.

CONCLUSION Orientalism that emerged with the studies on Eastern civilizations turned into a tool that serves to imperialism with the development of imperialism. In this context, the West refrained from seeing and understanding the East as it is, instead, they created an image of the East in parallel with their interest. Unfortunately, the image of the East created by the West is based on defaming the East. Thus, the West legitimizes all kinds of imperialist attacks directed at the East. Strong cinema and media industry owned 482

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by the West is used to shape the realities about the East and serve twisted facts to the rest of the world. On the other hand, the East fails in expressing and describing itself. The West does not allow the East express and describe itself. Western new agencies talk in the name of the East and prevent the voice of the East from being heard. This attitude of the West is, of course, disliked by the Eastern societies. In addition, some Eastern societies embrace the image drawn by the West under some certain circumstances. This inclination to embrace appears as a weakness to overcome disinformation of the West or as a reaction to the West. The West mostly draws exaggerated and unreal images about Turkey. The West attempts to stereotype Turkey and describe Turkey as an underdeveloped, anti-democratic Islamic country to the rest of the world creates disturbance and causes reactions among Turkish people. This situation has reflections in Turkish politics which can extend to diplomatic tensions with the West. Some orientalist figures are observed in political posters and commercials of Turkish political campaigns similar to figures used for Turkey by the West. These orientalist figures consist of great mosques and Ottoman motives that are also used by the West while depicting Turkey. Careful review of the contents of Turkish political party commercials and posters show that the figures in question are also used to relay a message to the West. Orientalist elements mostly seen in commercials and posters of the right-wing parties show religious values of the country and its bonds with the past. However, it is also remarkable that the orientalist elements are used together with figures depicting modern and developed face of Turkey. At this point, the message given in commercial in Turkish political election campaigns is that Turkey has strong ties with its past and a Muslim country can also be modern and developed.

REFERENCES Akandere, O. (2003). 11 Nisan 1920 (1336) Tarihli Takvim-i Vekâyi’de Kuva-yı Milliye aleyhinde yayınlanan kararlar. Atatürk Yolu Dergisi, (9), 95–142. Akıncı, A., & Usta, S. (2015). Türkiye’de çok partili hayata geçişte etkili olan iç faktörlerin analizi. KMÜ Sosyal ve Ekonomik Araştırmalar Dergisi, 17(29), 41-52. Aziz, A. (2011). Siyasal iletişim. Nobel Yayın Dağıtım. Büyükbaykal, C. (2013). Günümüzde Türkiye’deki televizyon yayıncılığının genel görünümü. İstanbul Aydın Üniversitesi Dergisi, 3(10), 23-33.

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Canoruç, M. Ş. (2009). Anayasal kurum olan TRT’nin özerkliği. Elektronik Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 8(27), 293–327. Coşkun, Z. (2019). Oryantalizm, Edward Said ve sanat tarihinde değişimler. Stratejik ve Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, 3(3), 215–247. doi:10.30692isad.562611 Demir, İ. M. (2018). Siyasal iletişim: Kavramsal bir derleme. International Journal of Art. Culture & Communication, 1(1), 80–104. Gökbayır, S. (2012). Gizli bir cemiyetten iktidara: Osmanlı ittihat ve terakki cemiyeti’nin 1908 seçimleri siyasi programı. Çankırı Karatekin Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 3(1), 61-96.

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Haytaoğlu, E. (1997). Türkiye’de demokratikleşme süreci ve 1945’te çok partili siyasi hayata geçişin nedenleri. Pamukkale Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, (3), 47–54. Jhally, S. (2016). Edward Said ile oryantalizm’e dair.... Necmettin Erbakan Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, (41), 167–178. Karaman, F. (2008). Türkiye’de 2007 genel seçimleri öncesinde siyasal partilerin internet kullanımları. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Ankara Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Halkla İlişkiler ve Tanıtım Anabilim Dalı. Kazancı, M. (2006). Osmanlı’da halkla ilişkiler. Selçuk İletişim, 4(3), 5–20. Kentel, F. (1991). Demokrasi kamuoyu ve siyasal iletişime dair. Birikim Dergisi, (30), 39–44. Keskin, F. (2014). Politik iletişim sözlüğü. İmge Kitabevi. Keskin, Y. Z. (2012). Demokrat parti iktidarı ve günümüze yansımaları. EÜSBED, 5(1). Lock, A., & Harris, P. (1996). Political marketing – vive la différence! European Journal of Marketing, 10(11), 14–24. doi:10.1108/03090569610149764 Okmeydan, S. B. (2018). Siyasal halkla ilişkiler ve siyasi partilerin sosyal medya kullanımı: 24 haziran 2018 seçimleri üzerine bir araştırma. Journal of Social and Humanities Sciences Research, 5(30), 4222–4240. Oktay, M. (2002). Politikada halkla ilişkiler. Derin Yayınları. Özçelik, P. K. (2011). 12 Eylül’ü anlamak. Ankara Üniversitesi SBF Dergisi, 66(1), 73–93. doi:10.1501/ SBFder_0000002195 Perloff, R. M. (1998). Political communication: Politics, press, and public in America. Lawrence Erlbaum. Said, E. (1991). Oryantalizm sömürgeciliğin keşif kolu. Pınar Yayınları. Strömbäck, J., & Kiousis, S. (2011). Political public relations principles and applications. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203864173 Temel, F., & Çelebi, M. B. (2015). Türkiye’de çok partili siyasal yaşama geçiş dönemi ve basın “Burdur yerel gazeteleri üzerine bir içerik incelemesi”. In I. Tekeköy Yöresi Sempozyumu. Burdur: Mehmet Akif Ersoy Üniversitesi.

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Toker, H. (2013). Ulusal politikanın uluslararasılaşması, siyasal seçimler, uluslararası iletişim ve medya. Orion Kitabevi. Tokgöz, O. (2010). Seçimler siyasal reklamlar ve siyasal iletişim. İmge Kitabevi. Topuz, H. (1991). Siyasal reklamcılık. Dünyadan ve Türkiye’den örneklerle. Cem Yayınevi. Uluç, G. (2009). Medya ve oryantalizm. E Yayınları. Uluç, G., & Soydan, M. (2007). Said, oryantalizm, resim ve sinemanın kesişme noktasında Harem Suare. Bilgi, (42), 35–53.

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Yavuz, M. H. (2014). Orientalism, the ‘Terrible Turk’ and Genocide. Middle East Critique, 23(2), 111–126. doi:10.1080/19436149.2014.905082

ADDITIONAL READING Akman, F. B. (2018). Disinformation. How did the western media see Turkey’s July 15 coup attempt? A discourse analysis: Orientalism, neo-imperialism and ıslamophobia. Kopernik Kitap. Foucault, M. (1988). Power / Knowledge: Selected interviews and other writings. Random House. Helfert, D. L. (2018). Political communication in action: From theory to practice. Lynne Rienner Publishers. Lewis, B. (1982). The question of orientalism. NY Review of Books. McNair, B. (2011). An introduction to political communication. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203828694 Roh, D. S. (2015). Techno-orientalism: Imagining Asia in speculative fiction, history, and media. Rutgers. doi:10.36019/9780813570655 Said, E. W. (1994). Culture and imperialism. Knopf. Zürcher, E. J. (2014). The young Turk legacy and nation building: From the Ottoman Empire to Atatürk’s Turkey. I.B. Tauris.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Edward W. Said: Palestinian American academic, political activist, and literary critic who examined literature in light of social and cultural politics. Imperialism: A modern colonialism and colonization understanding. Orientalism: An academic discipline that exploring the East as well as a disinformative approach to the East. Othering: To glorify your own values by denigrating others. Political Advertising: Paid promotional tools used by the political party or political actor to convey the political message and persuade the voters. Political Communication: It is the interaction of government, political parties, and political actors with voters for various political purposes. Political Poster: Print media consisting of a catchy slogan or text with a striking visual designed to convey a political message. Politics and Media: It refers to the use and types of media as a political communication tool. Self-Orientalism: It is that citizens in a country evaluate and understand themselves through the eyes of the West and judge themselves with the views of the West. Stereotyping: A group of people who stigmatizing and generalizing to another group of people. Turkish Political Life: Includes a brief history and development of Turkish politics.

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Chapter 29

Diversity or Uniformity:

Existing Demands and Representation Problems in Emoji as a Visual Language Selin Süar Oral https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7928-8948 Istanbul Aydın University, Turkey

ABSTRACT Emoji is a Japanese term that reminds users in the digital world about history, community, attitudes, appearances, economics, and politics while texting. This study aims to address identity representations that are focused on the demands of distinction in the postmodern era and ofered by emoji in the digital world. The thesis also attempts to challenge whether the structure of multiple identities is feasible in the postmodern era and/or whether identities are re-uniformized in a symbolic language.

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INTRODUCTION Communication, which is at the basis of relationships between people and is necessary to learn, teach, understand, tell, influence, influence, and/or share, stems from the individual’s need to address someone or something. Language, the key point of communication, is a compulsory field of compromise and a social product adopted by society. Besides, language, defined by linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (2001) as a “system of signs”, is in a reciprocal relationship with culture and includes the types of traditions and customs (social norms), ways of thinking and living, especially institutions such as culture, society, and family. Visual communication, which proceeds through images and symbols, also enables the establishment of visual language as a form of expression and description. The subject, who is the founder and reader of images in the Modern Age, has gained prominent importance, and language and representation have become integral parts of the identity approach. The interactions, relationships, and communications of identity with the self and the other have advanced at the level of language and representation. In the modern period, the subject defined the “other” from his point of view and used representations by combining and fixing complex data under a single roof. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch029

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Thus, the concept of image that underlies the visual language has a structure that refers to something but is perceived in a transcendent way. The penetration of the internet in every area, the widespread use of messaging apps and social networking sites, and the fact that the person is online in all sorts of environments have often caused the language used to be insufficient to express emotions with the digital revolution that has taken place. By allowing distinct discourses, behaviors, and roles in the identity-building process, modern communication technologies are successful in seeing, perceiving, and shaping the identities of users in different ways. More than ever, the need for simpler and quicker communication has introduced signs and symbols to frame social life, and emojis have been integrated as products of symbolic language in this process. Emojis are based on parameters that define the personality of a person, such as a gender, ethnicity, and occupation, as well as facial expressions, cultural markers, and/or categories such as food and drink, behavior, travel, locations, objects. This research aims to explore how identity is produced through emojis in Modernist and Postmodernist processes, how it is viewed, and how it came into being. Another aspect of the debate is whether the symbolic language created and placed into circulation by new technology provides a space of freedom for individuals while at the same time providing them with a space of freedom around the identities to which they believe they belong. Another topic that contributes to the debate of how much it brings to the fore the inequalities, the fractured structure, the people who can not make their voices heard, and to what degree it can put this into circulation in digital media, is the transformation of the concept of identity, which is on the agenda again in postmodern discourse.

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Communication, Language, and Image The linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (2001) distinguishes the language from the spoken word (langue) (parole). According to him, language is a device that is independent of the people who use it for communicating purposes, with its form and laws. The sounds used by the human to shape words in various combinations are the sounds (Bakker, 2007, p. 2358). Such voices may only be viewed as words when they are attempting to express a feeling. They must be a member of the scheme of signals to do this. The structure in question is abstract and social; it consists of consensus-based metrics of people who share the same community (Moran, 2002). The terms reflect the image of objects in the mind, which implies the independent units that make up the vocabulary. A letter represents a sound in the representation scheme pointed out by Saussure (2011); letter arrays are translated into words and used to represent an entity. Language acts as the key like a series of signs showing concepts serves and the emergence of the values shared by society as the carrier of collective memory and culture. Undoubtedly, visual communication, where history is as old as oral communication, is based on images produced by humans. Communities have tried to explain the unknown through these images that resemble the original. Throughout history, everything that human beings cannot make sense to has been worrying because it expresses the unknown, and people have been afraid of things they cannot control. Since the only way to overcome this anxiety is through making sense of the unknown, people have turned abstract or concrete concepts into visual messages through images. However, this transformation is not just a literal transmission of reality. For the animal figures depicted on the wall of the Lascaux cave, in ‘Eye and Mind’, Maurice Merleau-Ponty emphasizes that there is a difference between the representation of the figures in the cave paintings and the real existence of the animals they represent and the image they represent. As the result, the image enters into a different representation relation between the viewer and 487

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itself by deepening the visible. Therefore, this situation also caused people to fear images (Gombrich, 1976, p. 20). With the discovery of the power of images, sovereigns used images with their images to rule over communities. According to David Freedberg (1991, p. 10) the great iconoclastic movements of the eighth and ninth century in Byzantium, Reformation Europe, the French Revolution, and the Russian Revolution have been much studied by various scholars. From the time of the Old Testament, rulers and the public have attempted to do away with images and have assaulted specific paintings and sculptures. Freedberg, who evaluates the reactions against artistic and religious images throughout history in his book, The Power of Images (1991), says that according to the iconoclast (idolatrous) understanding that developed in the Middle Ages, nobody could portray God, and similarly, in Islam, we encounter a ‘prohibition of images’ against images. Likewise, in Torah, painting, and sculpture are explicitly prohibited with the following words: “(4) You shall not make for yourself a graven image or any likeness which is in the heavens above, which is on the earth below, or which is in the water beneath the earth (5) You shall neither prostrate yourself before them nor worship them, for I, the Lord, your God, am a jealous God ”(Shemot-Exodus, Chapter 20). Although the image is commonly used in combination with terms such as “description”, “representation” and “shadow” which is prohibited by monotheistic religions, the debates on image go back to ancient Greece. There was no strong distinction between concept pairs such as impression and image, sensation (aesthesis), and imagination in the Presocratic era (Dağtaşoğlu, 2014, p. 267). Undoubtedly, Plato is the philosopher who explores the notion of the image most deeply. The image is restricted to the lower forms of awareness by Plato’s ‘eidōlon’ (dream, shadow, idol, structure, reflection in mirror or water),’ eikōn’ (copy, depiction, simulation, definition, symbol, model, archetype, sculpture) and ‘phantasma’ (Phantasia, perception, shape, dream). The picture that Aristotle says that serves as a bridge between sensation and thought and continues by specifying that it can not be just a copy since in postAristotle Ancient Greek Philosophy it is a system composed of the sum of senses, it is usually because it includes decisions that can differ from person to person and thus stands as an obstacle to reality. Ahmet Emre Dağtaşoğlu (2014, p. 283) refers to Augustinus and Boethius, who played an important role in the transition to the Middle Ages of the significance of the image. People make sense of the real universe by imagining it according to philosophers. The Enlightenment was the time in which the sharpest shift appeared in the image. The mechanism of economic reform, which began and eventually gained speed in Europe in the 16th century, compelled the social fabric, the relationships between individuals and communities, attitudes and values to change. Enlightenment theory, which reflects the break with religious traditions and misconceptions, notes that by reason, human beings can understand everything; thus, it was a harbinger of the fact that the laws of science can address all the components that makeup society, including political influence (Cassirer et al., 1951). One of the philosophers of the Enlightenment period, Descartes adhered to the Scholastic tradition and identified the image as the image that was created by the senses and nerves by external bodies and left traces in the brain (Yalçın, 2002, p. 5). According to Immanuel Kant, a picture is a precondition that takes multiplicity into the state of nature, making all data possible (Akarsu, 1988, p. 104). David Hume (1997), who maintains his cynical approach toward belief, blends the picture with the concept of concept and believes it to be an “a copy of the impression” The picture can be expressed, according to Sartre (2003), as the consciousness of something” (Bachelard, 1996, p. 14). It is claimed that the image is in continuous experience, being and degeneration based on the philosophers of the Enlightenment period; it turns out to have a cultural and mental context. 488

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In the Modern Era, which is considered to have begun with Descartes, the subject, who is the creator and reader of images, acquired considerable significance and epistemology took the place of ontology. In terms of interpreting the universe and constructing it, scientific philosophy has therefore put the notion of subjectivity in a position of a reflection. The subject has characterized him from his point of view in contemporary times to recognize and make sense of the world around him and has preferred to “represent” the complex system under a single roof by integrating and repairing it. As can be seen in different moments, images that feed the visual language have been described in various ways, but whatever it may be the notion of an image has a form that refers to something but is interpreted in a transcendent manner.

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Representation and Identity The representation can be described as a way of thought in which something operates with complete understanding. By its very essence, representation communicates it under a definition, beginning with alliances and equations, by equating essentially unequal things and generalizing what is distinct. The depiction represented the awareness of the time, namely the Classical era, between the mid-17th century and the late 18th century. It is situated in a position that is frequently debated, with its structure centered on identities and distinctions, especially in the time when communication studies intensified with mass communication. It has been an important area for theorists to focus on the messages transmitted by mass media leaders and with which philosophy they are organized. Stuart Hall’s progress on ideology and hegemony in his studies on cultural studies and popular culture has led to a more in-depth discussion of the subject in terms of the “effect of representation on the process of interpretation”. According to Hall, representation is to say something meaningful using language or to present the world to other people in a meaningful way. Hall also states that representation is an important part of the process in which meaning is produced and shared among members of a culture. Therefore, he states that something can be represented through otherness and differences. However, Hall’s studies on representation evolve to a different point in terms of how representations are established and perceived in terms of drawing attention to the intertwining of representation with culture. Representation is among the key concepts in terms of analyzing and evaluating cultural products. Hall also states that “differences” emphasized by Saussure before are important and that these differences create some meanings. Hence, in the representation of something lies comparison with another that is not that thing. In this comparison, these differences, emphasized by Hall, are put forward as opposites. At this point, Hall emphasizes the binary oppositions stated by Derrida (1976) and states that one side of binary oppositions is usually the dominant side and affects the other. According to Hall, binary oppositions are necessary for the classifications in the establishment of representations, because individuals make sense of the world by reading and classifying them through differences. Moreover, Hall gives an example of the contrast between black and white in line with this important function that representation sees through establishing the meaning. The white and black races can be differentiated from each other and become opposite poles in their biological opposition. Three encounters in the colonization process of the West constitute the main reason for these contradictions. The first period encountered was the relationship between European merchants and West African kings in the 16th century. This period constitutes the source of the slave trade for three centuries. The second period coincides with the European colonization of Africa and the escalation of European powers based on the control of raw materials. The third encounter period, II. It is the migration to Europe and North America

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after World War II (Kırel, 2012, p. 368). In the representation of black and white, white acts through belittling, suppressing, or transforming black. This attitude in the use of signs, especially in popular culture products, also opens the concept of stereotype to the discussion. Stereotypes are defined as broad generalizations made about a group of people (Tajfel, 1981; Fiske, 1998). Stereotypes that help an individual to perceive and define the world by reducing and categorizing the numerous data around him to a small number of bases can become negative in the process of othering. In this process, it is possible to ignore the differences between group members, to ignore individuality, and to assume a homogeneous structure in the characteristics of group members. Tajfel and Turner’s (1986) social classification theories brought a new approach to stereotype research. This approach is based on the argument that stereotypes emerge as a result of the existence of opposing groups and the desire of individuals to identify and evaluate positively the identity of their group and therefore their social self. The circulation of stereotypes in popular culture, especially through mass media, and their functioning through contrasts through certain appearances and behaviors, create cultural and symbolic representations. According to Michael Hogg and Graham Vaughan (2011, p. 78), stereotypes are not only consensus beliefs of one group about another group; they are also social representations of the attributes of other groups. Therefore, stereotypes are almost always formed based on characteristics such as the gender, ethnic origin, religion, political opinion, appearance of the individual, but by avoiding the personal characteristics of the individual through one or more of these characteristics, It is formed and perceived within the framework of the qualities attributed by the society, behavioral patterns and social norms to the group of which that person belongs. Moreover, stereotypes are features associated with a social category (group). These traits may be cognitive, emotional, behavioral, or evaluations and may not fully reflect reality. According to the Social Identity Theory developed by Hogg and Vaughan (2014, p. 415), Tajfel and Turner (1979) regarding the formation of stereotypes, social categories (large groups such as race or sect, medium-sized groups or small groups such as clubs) emphasizes that it acts from the idea that it gives a social identity. This identity not only defines the individual with a definition and evaluation of who the person is but also gives an idea about the behavioral patterns and characteristics of the individual’s groups. Identity, on the other hand, emerges as a multifaceted structure that creates the experiences of the individual and that constantly changes and contains multiple paradigms (Kehily, 2009, p. 2). Even though identity comes across as a concept that started to be heard frequently in the 1990s, its inclusion in academic texts dates back to the 1960s. The Second World War accelerated the return of the ancient philosophy internally to the questions it sought to answer in terms of knowing who the individual was. Questions such as ‘who am I’, ‘where do I belong’, ‘what are the criteria that define me’ after the Great Destruction are the search for the meaning of an individual’s identity and have been a major factor in the identity becoming a part of social sciences (Ifversen, 2011; Schulz-Forberg, 2011). Stuart Hall (2014, p. 279), reports that identity is always associated with ‘consuming the other’. Hall (2014, p. 280) also states that identity is a process that operates through difference and that it needs the presence of the outsider. The concept of identity has a mutually important interaction with ‘belonging’ and ‘other’. The intertwining of identity and the phenomenon of belonging brings with it individuals’ struggle for “existence” and their pursuit of rights in social life. The definitions made over the other and the ‘outside’ indicate where and to which group the individual belongs, and these are constructed with an iterative and changing process. Therefore, according to Hall (2014, p. 281), what matters is not who we are or where we come from, but what we can be and how we are represented. Hall also argues that what we call identity is formed within, not outside representation, and constructed through difference. 490

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Therefore, identity and representation guide the individual’s sense of self and cause him to make sense of himself and position himself in society in certain ways. This constitutes the point where the individual addresses the outside world through representations of realities. Therefore, identities can only be explained in terms of their relation to the other, what is not, and the concept called ‘founder outside’. In this respect, identification can never be realized in a complete and final way; It is constantly reinstalled. According to Levinas (2006), this condition should not be focused on the individual’s interaction with the other being understood, described, and classified. Since recognizing the other entails bringing an end to the distinctness of the other and having control over the other. Levinas (2006, p. 33) thus does not dispute that variations in identities are formed over belongings and differences but criticizes the significance of the distinction. According to him as each individual has a special uniqueness and uniqueness, the distinction between individuals is. The approach to social identity (Tajgel, 1978; Tajfel & Turner, 1979) thus distinguishes social identity from private identity. Consequently, when coping with his identity, his personality can act differently. However, he will rearrange his relationships with members of the social community while he works on his social identity. Identity, although conceptually dating back to a fairly early date, was not used as a popular term until the 20th century. The term, Identity, which comes from the Latin idem root and includes identity and continuity, is used to define the same and similarity in the most general sense (Kılıçbay, 2003, p. 161). Identity, which is reinterpreted, unstable, and changed in the historical development process, has an important place in Modernity as an individual-oriented structure. The process of modernization and the formations in this process have taken the subject as the main basis for progress, and the emphasis on the free, democratic, secular, and rational individual has gained momentum with urbanization, which is an outcome of industrialization. According to the theoretician Zygmunt Bauman (2004), the human nature in which the person is born has changed, the “identity” consisting of the choices of the person has come to the fore and thus the innate qualities brought by the traditional structure have fallen into the background (Bauman, 2004). As a result, the modern age puts the subject in the foreground. In the view that proceeds on the axis of the exaltation of the value, individual identity have come to the fore more than ever. In comparison, gender, one of modernism’s most debated ideas, is dealt with in Foucault around power dynamics and subject matter. Foucault (2003; 2007), who claimed that in particular, the key challenge with attempting to make people subject to Western culture is the government’s attempt to create subjects appropriate for the public domain that began with the Modernism era. Foucault (2003, p. 14), seventeenth. It argues that raising active subjects that can be expressed in the capitalist mode of development is the most important topic that has profoundly affected Europe since the 19th century. The subject, illustrated by Foucault (2003), who analyzes the techniques of subjecting, individualizing, and manipulating individuals in-depth, is not just a symbolic figure, but a figure created with actual activities that involve historical study. Foucault (2003, p. 95) mentions the relationships of authority and power in the development of the subject and explores the subject through these relationships. According to him, the subject is reshaped by the system that is the result of force. Foucault (2003, p. 13-14) also applies to identity at this stage and notes that identity is a collection of interactions that are assigned or attributed to the person. The thinker, who defines this force as “biological power” that fully affects and forms the person (Foucault, 2003, p. 13), notes that power binds people to the identity they decide and regulates them in this way. Foucault (2007, p. 77) argues that power also establishes discourse, and discourse is legitimized by practices that neutralize opposing voices and restrict the individual rights and freedoms of subjects. 491

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Foucault (2007, pp. 77-78) also reveals that individuals tolerate administrative excesses or deficiencies, thus strengthening their existence since differences and similarities are established in a context that is not against the system in the discourse in question. As a result, the “fictional modern subject” pointed out by Foucault is not a figure that is truly free and without prejudice against the past, but rather a product of power networks. In this context, identities can be seen as a set of behaviors and emotions determined according to the social conditions in which the individual lives, not a choice determined by the individual’s own free will. This state of integrity is a result of the community’s effort to differentiate itself from others (Girgin, 2018, p. 206). The individual gives up his differences for the sake of being represented by the group. In the process of creating an identity, the dominant discourse gradually changes the collective memories of individuals by penetrating the remembering mechanisms of different cultural groups through pressure, ignore, and otherize (Howarth, 2011). In this respect, identity naturally appears as the field where a power struggle is fought. Allison Weir (2014, pp. 106-107) compares the discourses of the two, emphasizing that Charles Taylor and Michel Foucault are the first philosophers to come to mind in modern identity discourse. Accordingly, two philosophers on identity are in contrast with each other. Taylor says that the identity of the individual brings with it belonging, so if the identity is abandoned, meaninglessness will emerge in the life of the individual. Foucault, on the other hand, states that belongings and identity restrict the freedom of the individual and that the individual must constantly test himself to include himself in a certain class or to separate himself from others, and this is imposed by modern power regimes (Weir, 2014, p. 112). The identity problem, according to Foucault, is a structure that classifies us and divides us into social categories. According to Taylor, our identities are formed through our national, moral, political, or spiritual loyalties. In conclusion, while Foucault says that the individual cannot realize himself freely and that he has to be involved in everything imposed by the modern world; Taylor claims that the individual’s reason for being is through self-definition and having an identity. Identification creates a social or class in Lacanian psychoanalysis that is focused on the resemblance between its participants especially on a visually represented relationship (Sedinger, 2014, p. 310). This scenario offers emotional engagement and gives the individual a sense of solidarity with the group and belonging to the group. At the same time, however, this circumstance carries another layer of identification with it and the experience of the isolation and trauma that belongs to the identity with which the individual is associated. Leonie Huddy (2001, p.144) introduces the “prototype approach” to define the members of a group around identification and difference. Accordingly, the similarities of group members to the group prototype affect the identity development of individuals. Huddy argues that prototypes can also play a key role in understanding the behavior of group members and that the clear signals that can be seen in the basic orientation, attire, language, and lifestyle of group members give the representation of that group. Accordingly, the individual is surrounded by many biological and cultural elements that do not belong to his self to be represented against a larger other. According to Jan E. Stets and Peter J. Burke (200, p. 226), having a certain social identity means being the same with a certain group, with other members of the group, and means seeing things from the groups’ point of view. The identity concept has been stressed with a loud voice in the light of meanings, particularly since the 1960s and 1990s; it is seen that it entails the rejection of the identity identified by Modernism, which is based on an ‘other’ that is Eurocentric, contributes to the practice of inclusion/exclusion, and is endowed with universalist values. In postmodernist discourses, reconstructed identity emphasizes plurality and 492

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differentiation as liberating powers. There has been a strong mistrust of fragmentation, ambiguity, and holistic discourses with the sense of isolation that modern man fell into; meta-narratives are dismissed (Harvey, 2003, p. 21). As a consequence, Ellen Wood (2001, p. 14-15) claimed that with a form of identity crisis that occurs, our identities are complex, vague, and weak, and emphasized that a shared social identity’ should not be a foundation for unity based on common knowledge and common interests.

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Postmodernism and Demands for Difference Postmodernism, which defines an environment in which the perception of time, space, and human beings is transformed, is a defining element in the analysis and characterization of new ideas, new political, economic, cultural and artistic developments, unlike modernity, after the second half of the 20th century. The definition of the concept is based on the idea that the Enlightenment idea has collapsed and the critique of Modernity. Postmodernism, according to Andrew Heywood (2009, p. 324), is a complex and confusing concept used primarily to describe experimental movements in general western art, architecture, and cultural developments, but around the critique of Modernism, ‘divided and pluralistic’ knowledge is used as a tool of social and political analysis. it highlights the shift towards their communities. In this respect, postmodernists argue that there is no such thing as certainty and universality. Instead, an emphasis was placed on discourse, debate, and democracy. Postmodernism definitions and perspectives on historical processes differ from each other in terms of philosophers. Some philosophers (those who approach the phenomenon culturally and socially) believe that the phenomenon of globalization has always been coordinated with the existence of civilizations and that groups are reshaped within the framework of processes (Wallerstein, 1980; Arrighi & Hopkins, 1989; Modelski, 2003), some think that parallel to industrialization and modernity. In particular, they state that globalization exists in the process that started with nation-states, has been shaped since the 1980s, and that the economy has reached the extreme point with the transnational dimension in the 1990s (Sklair, 2002; Therborn, 2011). The coups of 1960 in many parts of the world, in particular, and the emergence of domestic conflicts, are triggering the changes witnessed. Germany and Japan were ravaged at the end of World War II; while Britain and France were the winners, they came out of the war in financial and spiritual devastation. Meanwhile, the colonized countries of Africa and Asia have begun to assert their independence, and the Soviet Union and America have been the two main forces that face the void that has arisen in the distribution of power economically and politically. By pursuing an expansionist strategy, the Soviets bound Central and Eastern Europe to themselves and established their defensive mechanisms day after day. The desire of America to spread capitalist ideology founded on capital and to have a say on a global scale has been the expression of the competition between two distinct poles that the world calls the Cold War, with the weight of the Soviet Union, which pursues the strategy of extending the communist regime to the world by each country that is its satellite. One of the major examples of this polarization in the military sector is the Warsaw Pact, led by the USSR, and NATO, led by the United States of America. The Marshall Plan and the Truman Doctrine were the main safeguards and first steps taken by the United States against communism and countries, not under Soviet control called the Eastern Bloc. A significant maneuver that ensures the propagation of American imperialism and liberalism in Europe is the Marshall Plan, which is contained in the ideology and placed into practice to strengthen the economic condition in Western European countries. With the fall of the Soviets, the end of the bipolar world order forced the equilibrium to accelerate in various directions. The influence of globalization and neo-liberal 493

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policy has advanced as a mechanism that accelerates the development of this balance, on a forum where inequalities are stressed on the social base and a return to locality is realized. Harun Kırılmaz and Fatma Ayparçası (2016, p. 43) note that while the sub-code of postmodernist structural reform is Fordist and the post-Fordist mode of development, modernist and postmodernist structural revisions achieve the upper limit of change. In the 1970s, capitalism faced a deep recession within the context of the phenomenon of industrial culture, and the quest for ways out of this crisis was the first harbinger of potential reform. The pace of information and communication technology and the absence of physical borders have created a modern social framework as a result of the creation of globalization (information society). This current social system, which is structurally evolving beyond capitalist society, was conceptualized with the addition of production-based Fordism and Postfordism. Fordism is a regime of development, but it can be treated in an economic-political context along with its social and cultural consequences. Gramsci (1971) thus describes Fordism as an approach that initiates a new age, symbolizes the transition to a planned economy, and plans the individual to establish a new form of a person, occupying the most intimate areas of the life of an individual. He began manufacturing cars using the moving assembly line invented by Henry Ford and charged his staff $ 5 for 8 hours a day. 1914 is considered the advent of Fordism (Harvey, 1991, p. 125). Ford needs to make sure that the money they receive correctly can be used by employees. Ford attempted to steer their lifestyles by bringing social workers into homes in 1916. Thus, as a lifestyle arrangement, Fordism, which entails increasing mass production and distribution, using emerging technology in a business enterprise, and regulating people in a way to ensure that they act following the system, has come into being. However, reasons such as heavy labor opposition in the 1960s, the 1968-72 strike wave, and countries with more favorable competitive conditions stopped Fordism from renewing itself in a competition (Harvey, 1991, p. 142). Fordism has thus been replaced by the adaptive production process, which is a production and accumulation regime in which production is carried out flexibly to satisfy market demands, ensuring versatile labor specialization and mechanization, and the extensive use of information and communication technology in production (Saklı, 2013, p.114). As a consequence, when these tables are read through social life, it is found that in Fordism, Modernism, Wholeness, and Socialization, consumer-based mass consumption is replaced by individual consumption in Post-Fordism, Postmodernism, the mechanism of adaptation and the culture of the spectacle (Clarke, 1990). Eight new eras of capitalism determined by Ernest Sternberg (1993) as follow: (1) Information age, (2) Postmodernism age, (3) Global interdependence age, (4) New mercantilism, (5) Corporate control age, (6) Humanizing capitalism the new age of social movements, (7) the age of fundamentalist rejection and (8) the age of flexible specialization. As a result of these developments, there has been an interest in daily life, national versus national, national versus ethnic, group versus dominant power, oral history versus official history, town versus metropolis, hegemonic/global culture versus authentic/local culture, and many paradigms are social and cultural It started to be organized around identities as a form of resistance. According to Zygmunt Bauman (2004), the freedom promised by modernity is a deception. For the modern individual who lacks the support of the community, but has to construct himself in the form of a project of individuality, the gift of this false freedom has come back as a feeling of abandonment, loneliness, homelessness, rootlessness, and unrest. As can be seen, globalization and economy-politics are not only a cultural encounter, but also have a wide network structure that connects nations and makes them dependent on economic, technological, communicative, social, environmental, and political aspects. A transnational perspective that spread to

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every stage of societies with the rise of the knowledge-based economic structure and neo-liberal policies triggered by this process has been effective in the acceleration of this process, especially since the 1980s. Cornel West (2014, p. 185) shows that there were new policies of cultural distinction on the topic of belonging since the 1990s, and new forms of intellectual consciousness were created. Brubaker and Cooper (2014, p. 407) explain the idea sparked by the emancipation movements that accompanied the advent of mainstream society and mass culture in the 1950s, especially the “Black Movements” that grew above ethnic identity in America in the 1960s: “WJM Mackenzie already described identity as a word “out of use with humor” in the mid-1970s; Robert Coles stated that the concepts were out of use with humor But the beginning was just that. The Humanities has entered the modern fray in the 1980s with the emergence of the conceptions of race, ethnicity, and gender, which are the “holy trinity” of literary criticism and cultural studies. Therefore,’ identification discussions’ continue to develop today - both within and outside the academy. Post-modernists strongly criticize meta-narratives, inclusive and holistic world views, and basic and essential codes. In postmodernity where fragmentation, division, difference, and authenticity are glorified, the concept of identity is addressed in the axis of differences and particularities. In this period, identity discourse is shaped based on heterogeneity and difference (Karaduman, 2010, p. 2894). Postmodernism, which opposes all categorized discourses such as uniformity and universalism, is based on the understanding of pluralism and diversity with the idea of ​​ensuring equal representation of class and racial differences. Subcultural groups construct a multicultural structure for themselves through differences in society. In the post-modernist discourse, it is necessary to approach with caution to the arguments that there are no ideologies in the pluralist world where different identities come to the agenda, the effort to make sub-identities visible instead of class conflicts, and not similarities, but differences become important (Örs, 2016, p. 40). Çetinkaya (2015, p.47) notes that there are many voices and new trends today, there are requests of richer substance and demands, and the focus in every sector is on identification. As Örs (2016, p. 40) said, however, raising the question to what degree the life initiative that comes with demands for distinction consists in the individual’s own free choices becomes a question that should be addressed in the process. Mehmet Ali Kılıçbay (2003, pp.164-165) reports that facts such as ethnicity, which comes with birth and is a mandatory affiliation, are “identity-like” due to the ideological shape given by the rulers, and at the same time “personal preference” or “demand for the difference. The author says that many of the elections that we describe as “identity-like” are controlled by the powers. Therefore, stereotypes are created by forming the identity according to various criteria such as profession, age, gender, place of residence, and individuals with the same codes of that identity are generalized under an identity. Since the purpose of the categorization in question is to make the universe easier, more predictable, and thus controllable, as it is to arrange the groups of people or objects, to reduce the complexity of the system containing infinite details. Identities consist from this point of view of the inner group and outer group voicing ‘we’ and ‘them’ around the discourse of distinction, and this circumstance provides the human, on the one hand, under the principle of ‘we’, and on the other hand, not in terms of the individual’s individuality mentioned in the post-modernist arguments. Owing to the notion of ‘they’ it varies. The problem of identity, in which the demands for distinction become an area of conflict, is not only a component of national identity, but also has a gender, ethnicity, and class aspects. Philosophers such as Derrida (1981; 1982; 1997), Fanon (1963; 1967), Foucault (1987; 2003; 2005), Lotman (1997; 2009), and Lacan (1977; 1990) contemplated how mass culture creates personality and how it implies that it can be decided that it represents relations of authority or which social groups are useful. Simi495

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larly, Cheung and Fleming (2009, p. 6) show that many political perspectives such as group identities, individual identities, public identities, private identities, gender identities, sexual identities, national identities, lower-class identities, hero/anti-hero identities under alternative perspectives. They emphasize that it rises and otherness is diversified. Therefore, after 1980, popular culture often began to construct archetypes around belonging, difference, and otherness within a wide circle such as individual identity, public identity, group identities, gender-based identities, ethnic identity, subgroup identities.

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Visual Language and Images in the Digital Age In the current age, the digital revolution has succeeded in bringing the images of philosophy from a critical point of view into the life of societies as never before, and for this reason, the issue of image regarded as a copy or representation has begun to be discussed again. Therefore, it is possible to discuss in the scientific literature the widespread effect of images, which are involved in the formation of the language of images, emerging with the internet after photography, cinema, and television. The main focus of this discussion is how digital technologies dominate the social view through the cognitive and social effect of the act of seeing and how they direct social life within a certain production and distribution economy. When categorization is to be made around the numerous images that make up the visual language, it seems possible to start the classification from mental images. Mental images, which are described as remembered or imagined images, are representations of concepts (Pylyshyn, 2003; Bértolo, 2005). Perceptual images are produced through the effects of visual stimuli (Malo et al., 2006). Starting from this, it seems possible to divide the images into two as natural images and representative images. Mirrors and shadows, which are natural images, can be counted in perceptual images. However, representative images are produced employing a medium (soundtrack, photography, painting, sculpture, cinema, etc.) and become a means of information in the digital age. Dennis Dake (2011, pp. 23-24) summarizes the interrelated principles that affect visual perception and visual language as follows: “These 3 principles deal with (1) The visual tensions within the work (2) The type of and quality of visual unity observable among visual elements and (3) Available clues the form and space that suggest to the viewer the nature of realism of the image. 3 additional principles are based on the common processes that human perception confers on every individual. These principles deal with (1) Relationship between ‘ambiguity and meaning’, (2) Control of Direction of the viewers’ gaze and therefore their understanding of the image, and (3) The Ecological relationships among visual elements and between the viewer and the embedded intentions of the maker of the image. ” Considering whether the communicative value of visual images depends entirely on what can be said about it, it seems possible to discuss the emojis and their diversity, which constitute the visual language and have an important place in digital communication. According to Tevfik Fikret Uçar (2014, p. 21), visual communication, historically dating back to 40 thousand years, constitutes a common language in terms of easy learnability, rapid signification, memorability, universal meaning, and perception dimensions. Gülten Özdemir, Rüçhan Gökdağ, and Serdar Neslihanoğlu (2019, p. 427) state that Esperanto and ISOTYPE are the two most prominent common visual communication languages ​​to date. Esperanto, which was developed as a second language at the international level in 1887 by Ludwik Zamenhof and has more than 100.000 speakers, is seen as one of the most successful artificial languages. Another artificial language that has been successful internationally, ISOTYPE (International System of Typographic Picture Education) was designed by Otto Neurath in 1936 to create a language consisting of symbols and signs without details. 496

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In addition to expressing thoughts, actions, and emotions, emoji (Skiba, 2016, p. 56) as graphicsbased small digital pictures representing symbols create a visual communication language and have many common points with Esperanta and ISOTYPE. Ebru Gökaliler and Ezgi Saatcıoğlu (2016, p. 66) state that the concept originates from the concept of ‘emoticon’, which is defined as a shortened form of a facial expression’ and consists largely of punctuation marks. Emoticons, which represent a facial expression that is generally used to express emotions, have been used in online communication for many years, but have developed since the 1980s with the emergence of systems with more advanced graphical interfaces (Tomić et al., 2013, p. 35). The ‘emoji’, which is symbolized as the picture (絵, “e”), write (文, “mo”) and character (字, “Ji”) in Kanji script of Japanese Language, is a relatively late date, unlike the emoticons’ first use based on the Morse alphabet in 1857. The alphabet was designed by Shigetaka Kurita in 1999 as work within a grid measuring 12 by 12 pixels (Prisco, 2018). Emojis, inspired by pictograms and manga, was created by the creator of the Japanese telecom giant NTT Docomo, due to the ease of communication and the system that provides e-mails (limited to 250 characters), the ability to communicate in a limited space and more. He found the opportunity to develop as a way of saying more (Stark & ​​Crawford, 2015, p. 3). After the 1990s, with the development of digital media and computer technologies and the increase in digitalization, daily life and culture started to be shaped by the transformation of the media (Krotz, 2017, p. 106). As a result of the presence of mobile communication at every stage of social life and the advancement of communication with applications on these devices, the communication language has also transformed. Therefore, “communities or communities connected to the digital network have developed a life culture that is instantly aware of what is happening, gives immediate reflexes, physically slower in terms of information and communication, but highly mobile in terms of information and communication, thanks to the diversity and speed of communication and communication facilities” (Sakalli & Bahadıroğlu, 2018, p. 133). At this point, emojis help to convey the message to the recipient more accurately by transferring the tools such as non-verbal intonation, facial expressions, and body language that are included in face-to-face communication (Çeken et al., 2017, p. 94). According to Birsen Çeken, Asuman Aypek Arslan and Damla Tuğrul (2017, p. 95), emoji can also be used to maintain a conversational connection, that is, to maintain a conversation when there is nothing left to say, for entertaining interaction and to create a unique style of expression within the speakers’ relationships. . Studies have shown that emojis containing facial expressions are perceived as real in communication, and texts transmitted only by correspondence, without the use of emojis, tend to think that the other party has a negative attitude or emotion towards him (Wibowo, et al., 2016; Kaya, 2017; Ernst & Huschens, 2018). Tabrike Kaya (2017, p. 571), stating that emojis have become operational based on symbolic communication, states that symbols represent the meanings attributed to them. According to this, social order is formed as a result of the meanings attributed by individuals to objects, events, and actions in the world in which they live, and all interaction between people includes the exchange of symbols. In societies, images, symbols, and rituals are directly related to ideology. Departing from Karl Marx’s concept of substructure-superstructure, Althusser (2003) states that the problem of “identity of class subjects and political/ideological subjects” can only be solved by the relationship between language and ideology and that there is an indirect relationship between language and ideology that affects each other. The principle that “discourse” must be analyzed to understand the social started with Saussure and gained strength with the argument of Foucault (1980) that the function of creating meaning and organizing the meaning of language turns individuals into obedient subjects through institutions. The world based on these symbols enables societies to adopt some concepts with the discourses it produces 497

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*. With the ideologies, which are the chain of thoughts produced by the human mind, the individual is taught where he is in the society, what rights and responsibilities he has, and how he should behave. Ankit Kariryaa, Simon Runde, Hendrik Heuer, Andreas Jungherr and Johannes Schöning (2020, p. 2) point out that the most concrete connection of emojis to ideology is the flag emojis, underlining that flags serve as powerful symbols of belonging and specific interpretations of a nation. Flag emojis (for example, Rainbow Flag used by LGBT movement or Transgender Flag has commonly seen at Pride events) are symbolized under an identity, not only as symbols of countries but also defining membership of a group. Individuals define themselves with an identity (Örs, 2016, p. 12) based on criteria such as age, gender, race, religion, language, income, a social class that serve to differentiate themselves from others, and emojis circulate as a symbol of that identity as a code of symbolic language.

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A Vicious Circle: Existing Demands and Representation Problem The emphasis on cultural diversity in the postmodern period has not led to an innocent increase in demands for the difference that only strive to be visible. Commitment to national identity has declined and new identities linked to ethnic, regional, religious, or ultranationalist perspectives have come to the fore. Differences that promise liberation can be counted as; Ethno-nationalism, cultural nationalism, religious fundamentalism, especially xenophobia and racism in the context of foreign migration all over the world led to the rise (Sönmez-Selçuk, 2012, p. 86). In the face of the claims that the nation-state has been disintegrated and lost its effectiveness with globalization, the concepts of national identity and fate and belief excluded by modernity have assumed an extremely defensive and aggressive nature and paved the way for the increase of racism and fanaticism in religion. This blessing of difference indicates the existence of a great crisis as a result of the fragmented structure of the society on the one hand, and the creation of ‘others’ that are built in the form of ‘enemies’ within the society, which deeply affect social relations on the other (Sönmez-Selçuk, 2012, p. 87). For this situation, which can be defined as identity dilemmas in postmodernism, Bauman (2003, p. 131) emphasizes that the slogan of Modernism is ‘Freedom, Equality and Fraternity’ and that the slogan of Postmodernism is ‘Freedom, Difference, and Tolerance’ and that this impasse can only be corrected with tolerance. Therefore, in the postmodern period, there is a structural transformation in the identity phenomenon and a tendency towards marginal identities rather than generalized identities occurs. During this period of increasing transformation into marginal identities, the issue of representation and identity attracts more attention from those working on symbols, forms of expression, and social movements, and the use of two concepts stands out: one of them is framing and the other is collective identity. In the framing approach, while framing a problem related to social relations, values, beliefs, different perspectives, and demands for difference are defined, which also provide clues to the context. Frames are not just in the linguistic setup of communication texts; It creates a communication style as visual materials and directs the content of communication (Güran & Özarslan, 2015, p. 37). Poststructuralist thinking, according to Stuart Hall, opposes the idea that a person is born with a fixed identity. Poststructuralism suggests that identities are fluid, the meaning is not constant and universally correct for all times and all people, and that the subject is constructed in memory through the unconscious (Berlin, 1992). For this reason, poststructuralists emphasize multiple social identities. The individual constructs and presents one of many possible social identities depending on the situation. Consequently, an individual has numerous identities that belong to different social groups and can also differ in the individual. 498

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The contrasts (us X other, female X male, black X white, etc.), which became widespread through mass media and emphasized by Hall, were frequently used in popular media products and identities turned into objects of consumption. Postmodernism emphasizes marginalized identities (women, ethnic minorities, colonized peoples, different sexual preferences, micro-story narratives, etc.), indicating that no identity can dominate the other and that each element must be equally represented, but the existence of idealized identities in symbolic language creates a problematic vicious circle. The process that started with the Unicode Consortium’s approval of the request of 15-year-old Rayouf Alhumedi, a high school student living in Berlin, for ‘representation of a Muslim woman with emojis’ in September 2016 and the approval of ‘religious categories’ and ‘racial categories’ ‘triggered the birth of the diversification of’ categories of sexual preference ‘and/or’ categories of cultural symbols’ (Ohlheiser, 2016). In the same year, Consortium created a new debate by approving five different skin tone options. As with skin tone, the digital circulation of gendered faces and bodies has proved to be a problem in terms of diversity and/or absence (Coats, 2018). In their article ‘Emoji Dei’, where Méadhbh McIvor and Richard Amesbury (2017, p. 56) discuss the developments, the Unicode Emoji Subcommittee’s female and male variations (a police officer, chef, welder, pilot, and an astronaut) are stated that things have evolved in a more complex direction with the circulation in 2016. Chris Stokel-Walker (2018) stated that in the process of emojis production, the committee pays attention to the ‘popular’ according to Google search results, and although writing a proposal takes 5-6 hours in total, months of lobbying, discussion, and rewriting to meet the demands of the emoji subcommittee states that they have processes. Even though it is said that it is enough to fill out a form on the Unicode website and send it to the subcommittee for the request of an emoji, it is not only that the concepts and symbols compete with each other to exist and one prevails over the other, not only that images - postmodernism claims - cannot be freely structured by choices; At the same time, in the field of cultural encounter emphasized by Hall, it is the proof that one culture/identity must still crush the other to exist, and that it must be adopted/demanded by large masses, not by individual individuals. Besides, it should not be overlooked that the demand to make differences visible is integrated into consumption and becomes a commodity.

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FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS First of all, this study could be one of the main sources for the scholars who would like to conduct a study about the interactions, relationships, and communications of identity. Secondly, the literature review used in this study can be considered as a starting point for further studies based on the main idea of this study. Finally, this study can give an idea about the methodology that should be followed in future studies in terms of explaining the transition between the concept of image and visual language.

CONCLUSION In the globalizing age, interactions that transcend national boundaries are gradually becoming more determinant, transnational communities are formed and the metaphor of ‘fluidity’ comes to the fore in making sense of the world. In Postmodernism, which has created itself as the criticism of the great narratives such as the progress of the mind, freedom, uniformization under universal ideals, which are the 499

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legacy of modernity, modern thought, and understanding of society is criticized for being unreal and mythical; Freedom in thought and pluralism in society is taken as the basis; interpretation and relativism are prioritized and absolute reality understanding is rejected. In the postmodern period, identities have transformed as part of a timeless and spaceless space. For this reason, the identity of modern man that puts himself in the center has been redefined as a fragmented, transitional, multi-character structure. However, the problem of representation in this definition has become a problem due to the prevalence of uncertainty, diversity, heterogeneity, complexity, relativity, and fragmentation in the construction of postmodern identity. In postmodernism, the tendency towards marginal identities has increased, the effort to be heard of differences has strengthened, and micro-narratives have begun to be considered instead of heroic narratives. Emojis, which became operational based on symbolic communication, is the call of the postmodern era, represent the meanings attributed to them. Of course, it is not possible to meet every demand for representation in numerous identities. When it is remembered that the demands for difference enabled by postmodernism and that identity is impermanent, transient, and fragmented, it is revealed that identities take on a fluid and variable structure rather than being fixed and static. Therefore, no matter how many numbers of them are produced, there is a structure that cannot go beyond stereotyping in popular environments. This turns the discussion into commodified identities (Sönmez-Selçuk, 2012, pp. 84-85). Identities, which are self-definition tools created by selecting from among the consumption commodities, are consumed and become commodities in the process, and taking advantage of the identities turns it into an easy task to sustain. Commodification transforms identities into an artificial one, making them serve the mainstream. Nothing that has become commodified, that is, sold and bought, can not take a critical attitude towards the capitalist system today and proceed on liberating discourses. The foresight that an individual will be able to equip himself with different identities among numerous data in the recent past seems possible when the technological possibilities are considered. However, although it seems possible that it may be possible to collect symbols that reflect the identity of the individual under the pile of images (as Bitmoji style), the only question that human beings have asked since their existence can be re-opened under today’s conditions through emojis: “Who am I?”

REFERENCES Akarsu, B. (1988). Felsefe Terimleri Sözlüğü. İnkılap Kitabevi.

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Althusser, L. (2003). İdeoloji ve Devletin İdeolojik Aygıtları (A. Tümertekin, Trans.). İthaki. (Original work published 1970) Arrighi, G., & Hopkins, T. (1989). Anti-Systemic Movements. Verso. Bachelard, G. (1996). Mekânın Poetikası (A. Derman, Trans.). Çizgi Yayınları. (Original work published 1957) Bakker, J. I. (2007). Langue and Parole. In Blackwell Encyclopedia in Sociology (pp. 2358-2359). Blackwell.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

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Communication: Communication is simply the act of transferring information from one place, person, or group to another. Digital Communication: Electronic transmission of information that has been encoded digitally (as for storage and processing by computers). Identity: The fact of being who or what a person or thing is. Image: A representation of the external form of a person or thing in art. Post-Modernity: Postmodernity or the postmodern condition is the economic or cultural state or condition of society which is said to exist after modernity. Social Science: The scientific study of human society and social relationships. Stereotype: A widely held but fixed and oversimplified image or idea of a particular type of person or thing. Symbol: A mark or character used as a conventional representation of an object, function, or process.

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Chapter 30

Projection of Orientalist Elements: White Man’s Burden Selim Beyazyüz https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8384-8992 Düzce University, Turkey

ABSTRACT The age of discovery is one of the most important periods in human history whose efects continue to be seen. In this period, the world was traveled by European sailors, new continents were discovered, and the discovered resources, work, and labor power fowed to Europe. All these developments have led to changes in the perception of the East in the West. Orientalism, defned as the manifestation of the West on the East, has found a place in art, literature, all kinds of written or printed media, especially cinema. The purpose of the study is to examine the domination structures starting with colonialism in the context of orientalism through the narratives of cinema in light of information. The narrative of 12 Years a Slave (2013) was examined using the discourse analysis method which is one of the qualitative text analysis. As a result, it was seen that the dialogues, images, character depictions, and the language used played an important role in the presentation of the othering; the white man was in the role of savior/god/good, and this situation was also supported by metaphors.

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INTRODUCTION European-type colonialism, which contains an important turning point in human history, has continued from the discovery to the present day by going through different stages and changing its form. The transformation experienced with the technical and technological developments in the seas has affected societies, nations and peoples. Exploitation scheme while European nations made the world the owners of the world, the exploited were subjected to extinction, assimilation, slaughter and domination and worked to meet all kinds of needs. In the light of the above information, the topics discussed in the study are examined through the movie 12 Years a Slave (2013), directed by Steve McQueen. Accordingly, DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch030

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 Projection of Orientalist Elements

the main factors that created the age of discoveries were discussed in the first part of the study. The effects of European explorers’ discovery of new continents were examined along with the developments in the seas. The practices of Europeans in the discovered regions, the reform movements that are the transformation in the minds after the mission they have taken, are discussed in this context. In the next section, colonial activities and strategies of colonialism are discussed in the context of ideology, power and knowledge notions, and attention is drawn to the discovery of the slave trade and America with colonialism. The mass murders committed by Europeans in America are given in the form of tables. In the next section, othering and orientalism headings, information about orientalism is conveyed by examining it together with the definition of marginalization, which is the scope of orientalism. Explanations were made especially on representation and ideology. In the next chapter, the film review, the narrative named 12 Years A Slave was analyzed according to Van Dijk’s method of critical discourse analysis. Accordingly, although the narrative criticizes the white man by criticizing slavery in the basic sense, it implies that the white man is the savior in the sub-texts of the film. The findings obtained are discussed in the conclusion section.

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Age of Discovery In the Age of Discovery, which is one of the important periods of human history, the world was first wandered by seas in a commercial sense and so, new continents were discovered, and trade started to be carried out over these discovered continents. With the discovery of new continents, the underground and aboveground resources of the continents and the labor force flowed to the European countries, thus creating a source for the economic, commercial, scientific and technological development of Europe and overseas empires were established. For this reason, the basis of almost all problems that arise today are to a greater or lesser extent Geographical Discoveries and their effects (Arnold, 1995: 3). The world was divided into different communities with little or no relationship around the14th century. Some communities, such as Central and South America, were unaware of other continents. Although the great Asian civilizations such as China and India had commercial relations in the seas, these relations were not in a position to eliminate the isolation in terms of culture and economy. Civilizations generally lacked curiosity and interest in making long journeys to the seas (Arnold, 1995: 11). Europe was behind Asia and Africa in production, raw materials and trade in the 1400s. Therefore, products brought from Asia and Africa has increased Europe’s interest in these parts of the world. Asian and African countries were curious by Europeans because there were no products such as gold, jewelery, silk, porcelain and spices in Europe (Hanilçe, 2010:55-56). The road to Europe’s future was across the oceans because in other directions progress had stalled. With the changes and developments in maritime, steps in real world history have begun to be taken (Roberts, 2015: 278). The most important change in maritime is the two transformations that ships that can cross oceans have gone through in general. The first of these was the aft rudder. The other was a slow and complex process involving sailing gear and the development of sails. The single-masted and square-shaped ships used throughout the Middle Ages were replaced by three-masted and of different lengths, and their bowto-mast carrying more sails. The ships incorporating these changes were initially small and narrow, but just as fast and safe. These ships dominated the seas until the steam age (Roberts, 2015: 278-279). This type of vessel is called caravel vessels. These ships, which could move in light winds, could also be fast. Two of the three ships Columbus used in 1492 were caravel (Arnold, 1995: 37-38).

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In the 15th and 16th centuries, Europe expanded from the Atlantic to China by developing its ships and maritime technology, thus making its position in the Middle Ages advantageous. The once frightening, ship-breaking oceans now enabled Europe to trade directly with Asia and Africa due to the above developments (Arnold, 1995: 39). Both physical changes in the ships, and the position of the sun, the use of the magnetic pointer and the astrolabe enabled Europeans to travel the world from the seas. With voyages to the unknown, seafarers have traveled to different parts of the world. As the first trips, the Portuguese followed along the coast and continued to descend south. Portuguese captain passed Bojador Burnn in 1434 and this was a victory. Reaching the Cape Verde Islands in the following years and reaching Senegal in 1445, the Portuguese established their first fortress in Africa. Finding richer resources beyond these oceans, Europeans anchored on the shores of Eastern Africa with Vasco de Gama in 1498. Finding richer resources beyond these oceans, Europeans anchored on the shores of Eastern Africa with Vasco de Gama in 1498. Thus, direct sea transportation was realized between Europe and Asia for the first time (Roberts, 2015: 280). Christopher Columbus who is a sailor set out with three small ships with the support of Queen Isabella in 1492. He set foot in the Bahamas 69 days later and arrived in Cuba ten days later. The next year he discovered the islands known as the West Indies. Although Columbus insisted on reaching Asia, he unwittingly discovered the American Continent and gave Spain the key to establishing an overseas empire after Portugal (Roberts, 2015: 280-281). The Spaniards quickly started exploring the interior of America against the superiority of the Portuguese in the East (Sander, 1989: 90). The age of discovery and research that lasted for about a century has changed the perspective of people the world and the flow of history holistically. From this age on, countries with a coast to the Atlantic have started to benefit significantly from the opportunities that the countries on the Mediterranean coast do not have in Central Europe or without the sea (Roberts, 2015: 281-282). Geographical Discoveries not only affected the geography, but also the human mindset in many issues, and enabled Europeans to comprehend the world in a new and different way. The main starting point of this change is the discovery of new geographies (Roberts, 2015: 283). Europe’s knowledge of the rest of the world was transformed during the 15th and 16th centuries. While the maps which drawn by Europeans in the 1400s were based on guesswork only, in the next 200 years the maps drawn by sailors changed from ambiguous forms to lines that we are familiar with today and can be easily recognized. By the 1600s, the only places in the world without a map are Australia, New Zealand and the North Pacific (Arnold, 1995: 7). Columbus discovered the American continent and what he discovered the continent for in his diaries and his interpretation about the people of the continent is as follows; …Indian people do not know what war is, they can be taken prisoner with fifty people. I am looking for gold around of me alertly. It is possible to be around as well, because the people are gentless on here. There are many kinds of fruits in this land that cannot be described individually. There is a lot of gold in these lands. There were such places in these rooms that when people took them out of the ground, they made huge earrings and bracelets from gold and put them on their necks, ears, arms and legs. There are also gemstones, pearls, spices which countless… (Columbus,1999:20-66). These developments in the seas and the superiority seized by the Europeans increased the European warfare in an unprecedented manner in history. It was not possible for the seafarers to resist the invaders because the local tribes they encountered in the places they went were technically, technologically 509

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and militarily behind Western societies. Europeans, who seized almost everything that worked in the rapidly explored regions, also accelerated their colonization efforts. On the other hand, the Church commissioned missionaries to spread Christianity and carried out some studies supporting colonialism. These locations where discovered are gold and silver deposits for Europe. Spanish explorers destroyed the Aztec and Inca civilizations to seize their underground and aboveground wealth. They destroyed the golden statues and ornaments of these civilizations by melting them. They forced the indigenous people to work; on the other hand, they captured the black people and brought them to the American continent (Sander, 1989: 90-91). Establishing a colony and owning a large land were seen as a condition of being a great state throughout the history (Armaoğlu, 2013: 597). Portugal, France, England and Spain have a very important part in the history of colonialism. France and England have been in constant struggle throughout history. This struggle continued in the lands they went to establish a colony (Uygur and Uygur, 2013: 274). Europeans started their colonial adventure in the Discovered New World with the gold and other precious metals they had seized through theft and looting. Europeans unexpectedly found gold and mineral deposits in the new world (Cipolla, 2003: 1). In addition to the slave trade which has commercial value and is widely bought and sold in trade, especially started in Southern Portugal, whose population decreased as a result of Black Death and was in serious need of labor. The black slave trade accompanied the gold caravan expeditions piled up in North Africa for a long time. The Portuguese bought the slaves initially for work as domestic workers and later for expanding sugar production (Arnold, 1995: 19). An important part of international trade was slaves who brought from Africa, which became a new and growing sector. It was sold by more than a thousand African by Portuguese in the five years after 1444. Almost all of the slaves who are collected in West Africa were sold to Portuguese and Spanish colonies in the Atlantic Islands for a long time (Roberts, 2015: 302). New geographical discoveries have also accelerated interstate relations. In this context, Europe where on the newly discovered lands quickly understood that there should be compromises about its interests, and therefore the first agreement on trade in regions outside of European waters was made between Portugal and Castile in 1479 (Roberts, 2015: 281). Europeans were able to find thousands of products that were impossible to find in the 1800s, together with the resources from the occupied places after their travels. The products obtained have met certain needs of the society (such as economic and health) so that newborns can survive, the welfare level has increased with the increase of resources and European states have become superior in the world (Roberts, 2015: 438-439). In the 19th century, European states have a say in almost all of the world economy and politics. It is industrialization and the imperialism that it has caused by this situation. There is a series of facts that provide all these developments; important discoveries in natural sciences and the resulting increased production have increased the welfare level of European countries, new inventions have been applied to production, and perhaps most importantly, steam powered machines have been found (Sander, 2000: 186-187). Transformation in minds has become necessary due to the increase in the level of welfare. The ideas that distinguish modern European civilization from both medieval Christianity and the Islamic world have no beginning and end. The period known as the Renaissance and the Age of Reforms, traditionally thought to have started in the 1450s, was a subject of interest only to a certain minority (Davies, 1996: 509). 510

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Renaissance philosophy is the form of people perceive and of comprehend themselves and their environment. According to Renaissance philosophy, the world is a very interesting and worth exploring place that it makes no sense to prepare for other things and a quiet life away from movement, isolated from society, and far from worldly pleasures was no more valuable than a successful world and man could not be weak and passive, even under the protection of God. While a thought and passive life was preferred in the past, the humanist Leonardo Bruni said, all the glory and honor of human beings lies in their activity in 1433(Sander, 1989: 82). Industrial Revolution which is result from discovery of new continents caused to conflict colonialist countries on the borders of sovereignty and the countries that occupied the coasts within the scope of the Hinterland Theory accelerated their efforts to establish sovereignty (Falola, 2002: 179). The fact that the colonialist countries continue quickly their colonial movements and especially the disagreements on the Congo made it necessary to hold the Berlin Conference. The colonial powers gathered in Berlin came to an agreement on the actual occupation under the name of the Berlin Act in 1855 (Armaoğlu, 2013: 416). Numerous border agreements were signed between 14 countries participating in the conference (Ferro, 2011: 135-136). Africa started to be colonized very quickly just after the conference, because the agreement was became for the region. England which started to expand its colonies in Africa in the first quarter of the 19th century was the country that has the most important share in the colonization of the African continent (Ataöv, 1977: 16-18; Parker and Rathbone, 2007: 96). England, which started to expand its colonies in Africa in the first quarter of the 19th century, is the country that took the most important share in the colonization of the African continent (Ataöv, 1977: 16-18; Parker and Rathbone, 2007: 96). Thus, Africa was started to be colonized by the colonial European states. Colonial movements were not also limited to underground and aboveground resources, but continued in all dimensions of ideological, political, material and spiritual. Thus, Africa was begun to be colonized by the colonialist European states. Colonial movements were not limited to underground and aboveground resources, were continued in all dimensions, ideological, political, material and spiritual.

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COLONIALISM When look at the short definition of concept of colonialism is the provision of material and moral benefits in accordance with their own nation and interests by controlling the behavior of the exploiters living on different lands (Başkaya, 2015: 31-32; Erkan (2017: 87; Magdoff, 2006: 19). After the 17th century, Spanish and Portuguese lost their superiority in favor of the Netherlands a first and then the British. Therefore production shifted to sugarcane based on slave labor. When the native population of America was systematically destroyed, the necessaries of work and labor arose and these problems solved with slaves who brought from Africa (Başkaya, 2015: 15). European colonists destroyed the peoples of North, Central and South America with the rhetoric of Christianization, Spanishization, and blessing of souls. For example an average of 8 million Amerindian lost their lifes in the silver mines in Bolivia, which is a Spanish monopoly. Indigenous people living in Mexico decreased by 90% in less than a century when after the occupation began. Similarly, the population in Peru has decreased by 95% and has come to the brink of extinction (Başkaya, 2015: 15-16). When the Portuguese landed in Brazil, there was an average of 5 million local people living in these lands. The locals were beginning to die outland and then their populations were 330 thousand in 2016 511

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due to the fact that the invaders bring disease, slavery and violence with themselves (Young, 2016:1). Both tables below explain the rates of indigenous and white populations in North and South America by years. Accordingly, the local people rate in North America was 86% in the 1650s. Europe and its hybrids are 12%, and the black population is 2%. In South America, 90% of Native Americans (in the Spanish-speaking region) and 51% in the Portuguese-influenced region. The rate of blacks is around 40% especially in Brazil shows as the Table 1 (Cited by, Bulut, James and Heiliger, 2000: 2596-2616). Table 1. American Continent Population Data Native Americans and Mestizons

Europeans and Hybrids

Blacks

Total

North America

860(86%)

20(12%)

22 (2%)

1,002 (100%)

Spanish America (except for Peru)

8,773(90%)

575(6%)

437(4%)

9,785(100%)

Brazil, West Indies and Guayans

843(51%)

54(9%)

667(40%)

1,664(100%)

Total

10,476(84%)

49(7%)

1,126(9%)

12,451(100%)

The native population in North America fell to 4% in the 1825s as seen in the Table.2. (Cited by, Bulut, James and Heiliger, 2000: 2596-2616). There has been a decrease from 86% to 4%. The white population has increased from 12% to 80%. The black population has increased from 2% to 17%. This table shows that there was a genocide that whether took place either naturally or in the form of ethnic cleansing. On the other hand, there has not been such a large decontamination process in South America. The local population has decreased a lot in Brazil, but it has continued to be the largest population in the Spanish region with 79%. The hybrid population in South America, which is now called Latin America, is a mixture of the native population and the white and black population. The increase of the black population in North America shows that blacks are enslaved to work in agricultural land (Cited by, Bulut, James and Heiliger, 2000: 2596-2616).

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Table 2. American Continent Population Data Native Americans And Mestizos

Europeans and Hybrids

Blacks

Totals

North America

423 (4%)

9,126 (80%)

1,920 (17%)

11,469 (100%)

Spanish America (except for Peru)

12,660 (79%)

2,937 (18%)

387 (% 2%)

15,984 (100%)

Brazil, West Indies and Guayans

381 (5%)

1,412 (20%)

5,247 (75%)

7,040 (100%)

Totals

13, 464 (39%)

13,475 (39%)

7,554 (22%)

34,493 (100%)

Similar examples apply to other colonized regions. The colonialist white man claimed lands wherever he went, saw it as his own land, and subjected the locals to a systematic crushing. He did this sometimes

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by spreading disease, sometimes by killing, sometimes by sending the strongest among the people to work on the mainland. Patient, elderly or children abandon to his fate (Erkan, 2017: 94).

Colonial Strategies Discourse on Colonialism which is written by Aime Cesaire was significantly influenced by Marxist analysis. Cesaire emphasized that while colonialism made the colonized subject into an object by not only exploiting but also dehumanizing them and making them inferior to the situation they were in and also metas of Marx replace human relations and people under capitalist conditions. Cesaire explains this through an equation; colonization (thingification) (As cited in Loomba, 1998: 40). In addition, anticolonial thinkers point out that the division between those who own and those who do not have property in the colonial sense runs parallel to the racial divide, and say that it is necessary to revise the Marxist understanding that accepts the class struggle as the engine of history. Frantz Fanon has the following to say about The Wretched of The Earth:

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Different species live in this divided world. The originality of the colonial conditions is that economic realities, inequalities, and the enormous differences in life styles never could hide human realities. When colonial conditions are distinguished in their directness, it becomes obvious that what divides the world is primarily whether or not it belongs to any human species or race. Economic infrastructure is also a superstructure in the colonies. The reason also is the result: you are rich because you are white, you are white because you are rich. Marxist analysis therefore always has to stretch a little in terms of of the colonial question. It is not only the concept of pre-capitalist society that Marx so well explained that needs to be re-examined in here. The serf is essentially different from the knight, but it is essential to refer to divine right to justify this difference of status. He came to the colonies with a foreign cannon rifle and imposed himself. The colonizer remains a stranger anyway against the success of taming and the forced appropriation. The distinguishing feature of “ruling classes” is primarily neither factory, property nor bank account. The type of manager is primarily from elsewhere, indigenous people, unlike “others” (Fanon, 2007:46). Cesaire argued that the difference between European and other societies could essentially be understood as differences between capitalist and non-capitalist societies. In this sense, he met with Frantz Fanon, who emphasized the dehumanizing dimension of colonialism and thus expanded his analysis to include both the colonized and the subjectivities of their masters. Nevertheless Black Skin, White Masks defines colonized societies not only as people whose labor is exploited by others, but as people who have created an inferiority complex in their self by the destruction and burial of their local and cultural authenticity (Fanon 2016: 18). Ideology also emerges as an important argument in making this marginalization legitimate. Contrary to popular belief, ideology does not only refer to political ideas, but also includes the way we express our mental circles, beliefs, and our relationship with the world. Thus, the term is not only complex and difficult to grasp, but has always been the focus of discussions. The same question that is how can we explain the birth of our social thoughts is always the focus of these discussions. One of the important answers to this question is from Marx and Engels’ German Ideology. According to this they argued that ideology is basically a distorted consciousness that puts limits on individuals’ relationships with their world. The reason for this is that the ideologies that circulate the most or become valid in 513

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societies reproduce the interests of the leading social classes. Thus, for example, a blue-collar workers who is paid for his labor on a daily basis continues to believe that he will be rewarded with heaven despite all the grinding work and work. These beliefs ensure that the worker continues to work and is blind to the facts. Thus it reflects the interests of the workers’ masters of the capitalist system. Parallel to this, a woman who is exposed to violence by her husband believes that women living alone are more in danger than married women, so this situation may prevent her from revolting against her situation or that a white worker mistakenly sees his unemployment as the fault of black immigrants. As a result, the function of ideology is to hide from themselves the real lives of the laboring, ie oppressed classes, and that they are being exploited (Loomba, 1998: 44). George Lukacs brought a different perspective to the perception of ideology as false consciousness. According to Lukacs, whether an ideology is valid or false is related to the class position of the subject whose views it represents. Thus bourgeois ideology was capable of expressing the intricate nature of capitalism or revealing the reality. Therefore, ideologies are not constantly false consciousness, but in any case they are products of economic and social life (Loomba, 1998: 46). Gramsci argued that ideologies are not only illusions of material realities, but also understandings that are clearly found in all dimensions of individual and collective existence (Gramsci, 2011: 324-377). The most important part of Gramsci’s work also that inspires colonial societies is the understanding that states that subjectivity and ideology occupy an absolute place in the processes of domination. Louis Althusser’s studies on ideology which explored the dialectic between ideas and material existence more deeply had a great impact and debate. Althusser opened new areas of investigation with questions such as how ideologies are internalized, how the ideas of human beings turn into their own ideas, how they spontaneously express socially determined view in these studies and he asked that how subjects and their innermost selves were invoked and positioned by ideas outside of them (Loomba, 1998: 51). According to Althusser, subjectivity or individuality is shaped within and through ideology. It was at this point that the value of psychoanalysis was emerging. Psychoanalysis other than illusory misrecognition sohe argued that there was no essential center of human existence except for the ideological formation in which human existence recognized him. According to him the importance of this misrecognition structure was invaluable in understanding ideology (Loomba, 1998: 51-52). Stuart Hall (1985:91-114) suggests that Althusser’s essay, Ideological Apparatus of the State, may have led to such a bifurcation because it adopted a two-part structure, the first of which deals with ideology and the reproduction of social relations of production, and the second, which addresses the question of how ideology makes us subjects. Gramsci stated that hegemony occurs with the combination of force and the use of consent. As a contribution to this idea, Althusser thought that, the function of coercion in modern capitalist societies is fulfilled by the State’s Repressive Apparatuses such as law enforcement, police and military, and the consent function by the Ideological Apparatuses of the State in media such as schools, churches, and media These ideological apparatuses helped the system to be reproduced by creating ideologically conditioned subjects by adopting the basic values of the system (Loomba, 1998: 52). Vaughan concluded that capitalism is different from its European equivalents because of the unequal development in Africa and its connection with discourses on Africans. Medical discourses both depicted the contradictions of capitalism and helped to create them (or, if you wish, mediate these contradictions). Africans were expected to enter and exit the market one by one according to the requirements of the circumstances. There comes a moment they are only asked to be cotton producers dealing with their own business, and at another time they are prohibited from growing crops.

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When the conditions of the supply of labor so dictate, they were required to be docile bodies serving the mining capital, but they were not expected to work in this business throughout their lives. There was a moment when they were set up as consumers of new, modern objects and products, and then they were told to revive the “traditional” knowledge they had acquired from soap factories. Colonial capitalism has also helped to create a discourse in which the idea of ​​difference occupies an important place in the discourse about the “traditional, unindividual and ignorant collective being - African -because it relies too much on earlier modes of production for success (Vaughan, 1991: 12). In this case colonial discourse is not just a new term for colonialism it also show a new way of thinking in which cultural, intellectual, economic or political processes is thought to work together in the shaping, consolidation and fragmentation of colonialism. Colonial discourse examination seeks to broaden the scope of colonialism studies by examining the intersection of ideas and institutions, knowledge and power. As a result, colonial violence is thought to contain an epistemic dimension, that is, an attack against the cultures, ideas and value systems of the colonized rings (Loomba, 1998: 75). The definitions of civilization and barbarism just like black and white are based on the production of the difference between self and other that is impossible to get along with. The image of the wild man seen in medieval Europe, that is, the man living in the forest, wild, aggressive and lacking in moral sense, was expressing all styles of cultural anxiety (Loomba, 1998: 79). Although this ferocious creature and its female lived outside of the civilized society, they constantly threatened to enter society and overthrow it. Myths like these coincided with the images of medieval European people about Africans, the Islamic world, and Indians. These images often seem to collide with fiction about the other found in the colonialist discourse for example, the representation of Muslims as barbarians, corrupt and tyrants is the same images that Said mentions in Orientalism. Therefore, colonial discourse debates from time to time examine such images as the product of a contrast between Western and non-Western ideas. Colonialism was perhaps the most important crucible for the establishment and approval of these images (Loomba, 1998: 79). Accordingly, African women are on the lowest rung of the racial hierarchy ladder. It was determined that African women did not yet reach the self-consciousness required to go mad when African men were treated for schizophrenia and incarcerated in mental hospitals (Vaughan, 1991: 22). Jean Paul Sarte, states that Europeans certainly have committed crimes and killed people in the overseas so they have revealed the principle that indigenous people cannot be human species in the preface to Frantz Fanon’s book, The Wretched of the Earth. Therefore, this had to be legitimized and the indigenous people had to be seen as an advanced species of monkey in order to the invaders to treat the natives as burden animals. The violence was not enough to intimidate the people who were enslaved and was aimed to remove them from humanity in the colonies. The invaders used zoological languages about the indigenous peoples, they talked about the reptilian movements of the yellow man, the indigenous people smelling like a barn, being crowded like bees giving a swarm, unable to express themselves and speaking with hand and arm movements (Fanon, 2007: 15-40). One of the cultural context and epistemic power relations that sustain colonialism is that discourse and discourse are under control. The aforementioned discourse consists of power relations in a Foucauldian way. According to Foucault (2003: 41). Power check the controls and processes discourse. From this point of view, the colonialist discourse has always been the language of the Western, white and dominant subject, as Said also emphasizes too (Erkan, 2017: 92). For Foucault, a closer examination to the concepts of discourse-knowledge and power will make the subject easier to understand. 515

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According to Foucault, discourse becomes resolvable together if it is produced as a whole, not alone. The comprehensibility of discourse is due to the context of the power and institutions that set the discourse and make it diverse and permanent. According to him, discourse has been both controlled, sorted, organized and redistributed in a number of ways, the task of which is to prevent its power and dangers, to restrain its uncertain occurrence, to evade its fearful materiality (Foucault 1993: 9-10). Foucault discourse is to mean forms of expression that enable the use of language to represent knowledge. Since it produces knowledge through language and shapes social behaviors, he has used it not only in terms of linguistics, but in the sense that it is integrated with behavior. Besides, Foucault explained how subjects speak and obtain results through discourse, in addition to how thoughts can be transformed into ways of behavior. Discourse does not only affect how all of these are determined, but also affects how speech and discourse limit behaviors. Thus it gains a meaning beyond texts by affecting different institutions. Even though meaningful behaviors are constructed within it, the achieved knowledge and meaning are produced by it, not language context. For this reason, Foucault states that we can access the knowledge of the things that are meaningful and that it is the discourse that creates the knowledge (Foucault 1993: 9-10; Hall, 1992: 292). While Foucault sees discourse as a theoretical formation in terms of representation, he sees it also as the product of a social practice since it is knowledge that carries desire and power. He emphasizes its logical value when it is a system of possibilities that allows us to produce statements that will be true or false by emphasizing more on the will to truth (Urhan, 2000: 19-20). In Said’s statements, Foucault said that if a text hides something, or if something about the text is invisible, it can be exposed and articulated in a different form, even if the text is part of a power assembly and also textuality and knowledge (le savoir) is the deliberate blurring of power behind in the textual form this network. In this sense, Said refers to the concept of discourse defined by Foucault in his works Archeology of Knowledge (L’archeologie du savoir) and The Birth of Prison (Surveiller et punir, naissance de la prison) in the context of colonial discourse. In the introduction of his work, Orientalism, he used to the Foucauldian concept of discourse to provide a systematic picture of how European culture perceives the East after the Enlightenment. In addition, it employs the Foucaultist concept of discourse in understanding the formative processes of how orientalism brought the East to an objective place in terms of not being an object of independent thought and action (Turanlı, 2018: 310). Knowledge is closely related to the operations and functioning of power. This Foucauldian view forms the work of Orientalism, which draws attention to the extent to which the knowledge produced and circulated in Europe about the east accompanied the colonial power. This work is not a book written about non-Western cultures, but it talks about the representations of Western representations about these cultures produced in the discipline called Orientalism. Edward Said used the concept of discourse to reconstruct the study of colonialism in this book. According to the work, it examines how the formal study of the Orient along with literary and cultural texts reinforces certain styles of seeing and thinking, how they contribute to the functioning of the colonial power (Loomba, 1998: 64). One of the examples that can set an example for the visibility of the colonialist discourse is the discovery of America. America was discovered by the Western, male subject as an empty, female, derelict land. Therefore exploring provides the right to dominate and rule. Columbus, planted his flag on America like the American astronaut who planted a flag on the moon, adopted it in the name of the Spanish kingdom. When Columbus found the American continent, there were communities already living there of course. Great civilizations lived on the continent, Kumuş Aztec, Inca and Maya civilizations. So, this is not a discovery, but a social encounter. How could the discovery of America be expressed if the historical or 516

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historical discourse had been written by the Native American people? Therefore, the history written is a Eurocentric and colonial history in itself. There is a discourse like there are prehuman species that are not subjects and waiting to be discovered. For Westerners who write history, the only history is Western historiography that de-historicizes the dominant subject and other societies. These discourses, which we express with awareness or without realizing it, justify the West’s occupation of other people’s lands by force (Erkan, 2017: 92). Another form of discourse is hannibalism, that is, cannibalism. Anthrophagia (eating human flesh) has been described as a characteristic of Barbarian others in the Middle Ages. When Columbus discovered America he gaves a nickname for the locals, Caribs which means Indian. The Caribs gained the meaning of cannibal (cannibalism) with the transformation by referring to its previous anthrophagy history. Although the Spanish colonialists did not met such a practice against the people who resisted them in the Caribbean and Mexico, they gave this name and claimed that they were cannibals (Loomba, 1998: 80). According to Kabbani, Because of the fact that the cannibals of the New World tolerable only when subjugated the indigenous people who encountered Europeans had to be controlled in some way. Native others were depicted as scalp-eating creatures that eat human flesh. All the massacres committed could only be justified in this way (Kabbani, 1993: 15). Kipling, Nobel prize winner in literature in 1907, dedicated to the Philippine people who fought for independence against America in his poem, translated the feelings of the Europeans, which ensured inner comfort by domesticating the savage peoples in the colonies. On the other hand, while the white man takes the burden of civilization, primitives do not appreciate this situation (Koçer, 2016). The poem of Kipling, Take up the White Man’s burden-Send forth the best ye breed-Go, bind your sons to exile To serve your captive’s need; To wait, in heavy harness, On fluttered folk and wild-Your new-caught sullen peoples,

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Half devil and half child. Take up the White Man’s burden-In patience to abide, To veil the threat of terror And check the show of pride;

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By open speech and simple, An hundred times made plain, To seek another’s profit And work another’s gain. The European white man claims to bring peace and tranquility wherever he goes. It has acted with the mission of modernization, development and dissolution, which will be seen in many parts of the world.

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OTHERING AND MARGINILISATION Othering is the process of defining oneself and those who are not. The persons, objects, events and situations that make up the cultural world in which human beings are surrounded by certain social meanings. These social meanings must be passed through some perceptions and interpretations in order to understand the world. A wide variety of events and categories can be used in this process; For example, people can be grouped according to various criteria such as profession, age, income level, place of residence, or they can be categorized as “we” and “them” or in-group and out-group (Arar and Bilgin, 2010: 2; Aka, 2015: 1321; Zariç, 2010: 7). At the focal point of marginalization / othering, which requires the existence of absolutely opposing groups, the parties are us and them. In order to talk about the validity of a group representing us, it is necessary to have a group representing them other than we (Şeker and Şimşek, 2011: 484). The other, one of the most controversial issues in social sciences, is a versatile concept. The concept of the other, which is based on revealing the difference, is important in terms of showing the value that the I gives to the other. The other is created as a result of a social effort, and it is not allowed to define itself because we, the opposite, must define it (Morley and Robins, 1997: 182–190). The negation of the members of a group towards the other group that is not like them is the basis of the phenomenon of marginalization and on the other hand relationships with the different can be positive or negative. Co-exist of people can lead to the formation of cooperation or a negativity between them (Arar and Bilgin, 2010: 3). The relationship between self and other is underlie of mutual domination. The other will become plausible to the extent that it resembles me. This is the beginning of the other’s alienation from himself. However, even if a compromise is reached, there is always a tension between the self and the other, and this tension is based on the representation of the negative values of the other, whereas the I represents all kinds of positive values (Kundakçı, 2013: 71). The concept of marginalization has always found in the historical process. There have been attempts to marginalize due to the first interactions between East and West. In this sense, the domination of the West over the East and the othering of the East is a strategy. This strategy can be called orientalism. For centuries, the West has continued its efforts to make the East feel its power, make its existence accepted, and bring the East to the state it wants. So, occidentalism studies was started because of discomfort of the East against the attitude and of the effort to regain the domination of itself. From this point of view, the marginalizing strategies related to the East and the West will be mentioned. .

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Orientalism The literal meaning of orientalism is: Everything that belongs to the Orient or reminds the Orient This concept derives from the French orientalisme, and more general sense could be: It is a science that studies the religion, language, history, civilization and culture of the Eastern countries. (Germaner and İnankur, 1989: 9; Sıbai, 1993: 25). Orientalism can be considered as a discipline, a form of discourse, a political ideology or a world view but in its broadest definition, orientalism is based on the us-them opposition (Kontny, 2002: 117). Orientalism is also the body of academic knowledge that describes the West’s view of the East. This definition has been used in a positive sense until a certain period, but since it is intertwined with colonialist thought in the 18th century and later, it has started to be criticized with a negative meaning. It can be said that the main reason to negative meaning of orientalism is due to its marginalizing function. He created this quality with the us-other dichotomy he established between the East and the West and developed exclusionary perspectives about the East, which he described as the other. The East is characterized by statements such as static, lacking aesthetics, and irrational, and has always stated that the West is superior (Uzun and Atasever, 2010: 175-176). Orientalist discourse is basically based on the East-West distinction. The division of the world into two regions as East and West has been legitimized by the Western power. Therefore, while establishing its power, the West maintains its marginalizing function by creating an “imaginary East” that is shaped in its own dream world and will prepare the ground for consolidating its power and by imposing lower adjectives on it (Köse and Küçük, 2015: 118). It can be said that the situation of being different from the East and against the East is effective on the basis of the historical existence of the West. Especially, the view of the people come from the West to the Eastern societies and the reflection of the Eastern societies in their own countries reveals an understanding that helps to reinforce the feeling that their position is better than Eastern societies. The difference of the East has turned into a tool for legitimizing the social and political existence of the West’s own structure, methods, life styles. In the following processes, this perception continued by deepening, and those who looked at the backward East claimed that their situation was more advanced in each view (Mutman, 1999: 44). Said’s work on orientalism emphasizes an important fault line of contemporary thought, from discussions such as the worldview of the Marxist tradition, ideology, hegemony, imperialism, colonialism, to the discussions of structuralism and poststructuralism, textuality and discursivity. If we look at it with a more specific determination, it can be said that Said’s argument is a synthesis attempt between Gramsci’s Marxism and Foucault’s poststructuralism (cited by Utku, 2002: 220). According to Said, the West has tried to impose its superiority on the East for two thousand years. For this reason, orientalism appears as a transhistorical discourse. Thus, Said separates the texts from their historical and social contexts and finds modern imperialism, Eurocentric ideology and the traces of this ideology in all texts from ancient Greece to Marx (cited by Çırakman, 2002: 187). According to Edward Said, Therefore, Orientalism is not a mere political subject matter or field that is reflected passively by culture, scholarship, or institutions; nor is it a large and diffuse collection of texts about the Orient; nor is it representative and expressive of some nefarious “Western” imperialist plot to hold down the “Oriental” world. It is rather a distribution of geopolitical awareness into aesthetic, scholarly, economic, sociologi-

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cal, historical, and philological texts; it is an elaboration not only of a basic geographical distinction (the world is made up of two unequal halves, Orient and Occident) but also of a whole series of “interests” which, by such means as scholarly discovery, philological reconstruction, psychological analysis, landscape and sociological description, it not only creates but also maintains; it is, rather than expresses, a certain will or intention to understand, in some cases to control, manipulate, even to incorporate, what is a manifestly different (or alternative and novel) world; it is, above all, a discourse that is by no means in direct, corresponding relationship with political power in the raw, but rather is produced and exists in an uneven exchange with various kinds of power, shaped to a degree by the exchange with power political (as with a colonial or imperial establishment), power intellectual (as with reigning sciences like comparative linguistics or anatomy, or any of the modern policy sciences), power cultural (as with orthodoxies and canons of taste, texts, values), power moral (as with ideas about what “we” do and what “they” cannot do or understand as “we” do). Indeed, my real argument is that Orientalism is-and does not simply represent-a considerable dimension of modern political-intellectual culture, and as such has less to do with the Orient than it does with “our” world. (Said, 1998:20). In the book of “Orientalism West’s Conceptions of the Orient,” Said (2014: 30-31) said that the East cannot represent itself and therefore the West represents them and in the book of Marx’s “18 Brumaire”, he adds the sentence;

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…Insofar as there is merely a local interconnection among these small-holding peasants, and the identity of their interests forms no community, no national bond, and no political organization among them, they do not constitute a class. They are therefore incapable of asserting their class interest in their own name, whether through a parliament or a convention. They cannot represent themselves, they must be represented. Their representative must at the same time appear as their master, as an authority over them, an unlimited governmental power which protects them from the other classes and sends them rain and sunshine from above. The political influence of the small-holding peasants, therefore, finds its final expression in the executive power which subordinates society to itself (Marx,1852:62). Regarding the representation of his encounter with an Egyptian prostitute, Flaubert only describes the prostitute’s feelings in his own terms, the woman is not able to express herself. Thus only Flaubert speaks on behalf of the woman, and the Egyptian woman is seen and represented from Flaubert’s thought and perspective (Said, 2014: 15-16). The Western society has marginalized the peoples of the East as people who are not clear what they say, who are not understood, who are far from logic and who cannot think in the studies of orientalism. Therefore, they have tried to define themselves by placing themselves in the opposite pole through this marginalization. The West developed the method of controlling the Eastern cultures, which they could not even reach their thoughts once by emphasizing the superiority of the west, affirming it, within the master-slave, center-periphery relations. According to Said, the information gathered about Eastern culture and history created a dream of the East by the authors showing that the West is superior to the East and and in the context of the dream and they wished will to dominate the East and seize it. So they tried to achieve the dream (Çırakman, 2002: 186). Said who researches on orientalism also made use of the concepts introduced by many authors and thinkers in his works and made a description of orientalism within the framework of these. Said refers to Gramsci’s concept of hegemony while explaining Orientalism (Utku, 2002: 220; Clifford, 2007: 139).

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Gramsci makes a useful analytical distinction between civilized society and political society: the first is a voluntary, or at least intelligent and unforced association with their schools, families, and unions the other is stands with its army, police and central bureaucrat system. The role is politics and therefore direct superiority. Culture, is the work of the first as is easily understood. Ideas become active in this society, institutions and individuals survive in this society, not by force, but by what Gramsci calls consensus: the majority. Gramsci calls the form this cultural superiority takes (Said, 1998: 19). Said carries the concept of hegemony introduced here to orientalism. After stating that culture belongs to civil society by repeating Gramsci’s views, Said (1998: 7) points out that culture is a process of approval. Certain cultures will continually seek to dominate others in non-totalitarian societies. Likewise, certain ideas will be more influential in a society than others. According to Said, what Gramsci defines as hegemony is the form of this cultural leadership. From here, he moves on to his own proposition and argues that it is the result of the hegemony or current cultural hegemony that gives orientalism its power in the West (Said, 1998: 7). It brings the concept of hegemony as well as the production of consent. With the ideology that is suppressed against people and societies through state ideological apparatuses, people and societies take the thoughts conveyed to them as they are without the need for criticism or analysis. Said also argues that the West has such an attitude. Said collected many concepts from Gramsci such as hegemony, organic intellectual-traditional intellectuals. But the most important development is the notion of knowledge / power that he put forward in Michel Foucault (Utku, 2002: 220). The Orient is one of the place, cultural rival and other images of Europe’s largest, richest, oldest colonies and it also has a structure opposite to that of the West and has provided the definition of the West at the same time. The Orient is an integral part of the West’s material and spiritual culture. Orientalism represents this integral part on the cultural plane. The relationship between East and West is a sovereignty, a power relationship, and is based on a complex relationship of domination (Said, 1998: 11-13). The basic of orientalism is othering notion. The East-West distinction can be expressed as self-defining through contrasts by attributing good features to the West and bad features to the East for European and Western countries. White man defines himself by contrasts such as Eastern-Western, black-white, good-bad.

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AIM AND METHOD This study deals with the black slave trade and domination structures that took place during the colonial process that started with the discovery, in the context of the 12 Years A Slave narrative directed by Steve McQueen. The selected film as a sample is Teun Van Dikj’s discourse analysis which one of the qualitative text solutions. It is important to give information about discourse before analyse in terms of understanding the subject of the study. Discourse analysis is an interdisciplinary analysis method of fields such as anthropology, sociology, and literature, which are used in the field of social sciences and accept language as a discourse. Discourse is accepted as a social practice examines the message and ideology in the text in terms of the relations between social structures. Those who own the means of production and have the dominant ideological view marginalize those who are out of this field through mass media and reproduce the reality. The method that analyzes this reproduction of the truth and the ideology revealed through texts is the discourse analysis method (Akça, 2007: 11-12). According to Van Dijk; - Meanings, ideas and ideologies are also revealed with discourse analysis. - The information represented in the memory is the mental structuring that helps to understand the text. 521

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The memory representation of information includes not only the meanings represented in the text, but also the details of the text. According to this specific mental model called as context model; the communicative and interactive appearance of the discourse is organized by linking the discourse with the social state and structure, - The method is designed to analyze the micro and macro structure (Mora, 2010: 19). The purpose of critical discourse analysis is a discourse research that explores the abuse of social forces through text and speeches and the ways of countering sovereignty and inequalities (Dijk, 2003: 352). In the book, Ömer Özer Critical News Analysis (2009: 92), Van Dijk’s discourse analysis is tabulated in the context of macro and micro structures:

Macro Structure 1. Thematic Structure a. Headlines b. News Entry i. Spot / s ii. When there is no spot, the first paragraph of the news text should be taken. If the news consists of one paragraph, the first sentence can be taken as a news entry. c. Photo 2. Schematic Structure a. Status i. Presentation of the Main Event ii. Results iii. Background Information iv. Context Information b. Comment i. News sources ii. Comments brought by the incident part to the incident

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Micro Structure 1. Syntactic Analysis a. Sentence structures are active or passive b. Sentence structures are simple or complex 2. Regional Adaptation a. Causal Relationship b. Functional Relationship c. Referential Relationship 3. Word Choices 4. News Rhetoric a. Photo b. Convincing Information c. Statements by Eyewitnesses

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Although discourse analysis was used in news analysis, Dijk states that this method is also a form of resisting the abuse of power and the reproduction of inequality through text and speech. (Dijk, 2004: 352). Therefore, this method used by Dijk can also be used in other texts. Discourse analysis method can also be used in films that will be treated as text. The critical discourse analysis method to be used in the analysis of the 12 Years a Slave movie is adapted as in Table 3. Table 3. Discourse Analysis Method Film Analysis Macro Structure

     • Thematic structure      • Social Contex      • Scenario

Micro Structure

     • Presentation of the Characters      • Discourse and Representation      • Othering and Marginalisation      • Introductory sequence and credits

ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS TO MOVIE OF 12 YEARS A SLAVE Macro Structures

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Thematic Structure Solomon Northup is author of American literature, literature, and novels. It is the filmed version of the book 12 Years A Slave written by Solomon Northup. The film which based on the memory book of Solomon Northup describes the troubles of a New York state-trained carpenter and musician who was kidnapped in 1841 and sold into slavery in the South. The film is about 20 years before the civil war in the American tradition. It contains important information about the treatment, abuse and exploitation for slaves in the South. Besides, the abduction of Solomon Northup in 1841 violated a law in force in the state of New York. The film autobiographical witnesses to the horrors of slavery before the civil war and also the film, which contains information about the daily life of a slave, played an important role in realizing the barbaric practice of slavery. In this sense, the institution of slavery makes it impossible for the viewers to soften the general opinion and to justify the colonists in any way (Coulardea,2014). 12 Years a Slave, which is not one of the first of the American Colonial movies, basically displays a stance against exploitation and slavery. The enslavement of the main character named Solomon by bringing him to New York is the subject of theme of the film. Solomon, a free black man, did not get the chance to express himself to the white man. Although he says that he is a free individual and cannot be bought as a slave or sold, nobody believes him. After harsh and violent tortures, the name that he would use as a slave was forced upon him and sold to his new owner. 12 Years a Slave is a film broadcast in connection with the work of Harriet Beecher Stowe, who opposes the continuation of slavery in the USA. McQueen is not alone in describing his vivid testimony of the realities of the slavery system. Marion Wilson Starling produced 6006 bibliographic records in slave narratives, sparking serious academic interest. According to Starling, these records were published in judicial judgments, general publications, special editions and anti-slavery newspapers and volumes,

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scientific journals. These narratives include the work of Frederick Douglass, Booker T. Washington and Northup’s book and also the movie of 12 Years a Slave (Ernest, 2014). The film clearly reveals the dreadful picture of the slavery phenomenon. All the slaves are black. Blacks can live with a document that proves their freedom. However, the slaves did not have any document or identity. They have to use whatever name is given to them. Slaves are merely goods. They call their masters not by name but as owner. Since slaves are the possessions of their masters, they use them as they wish (Uluç, Kengürü and Yavuz, 2017: 489-490). The film received Oscar awards for best film, best adapted screenplay and best supporting actress in 2014. The fact that the film directed by McQueen, a black director, and the black Lupita Nyongo won an Oscar for his performance as a slave. On the other hand, this is an indication of how much they internalized this situation as actors and directors (Uluç, Kengürü, & Yavuz, 2017: 490).

Social Context The year 1841, the filmic time of the 12-Year a Slave movie, tells about the situation of slaves who were brought to the region and bought and sold after the discovery of America. After then the Spanish and Portuguese lost their colonies in favor of the Netherlands and England, production shifted to sugar cane after 17 th century. The labor and muscle needs that emerged when most of the natives in America were systematically destroyed had to be provided from Africa (Başkaya, 2015: 15). Some of the blacks in the American continent had a residence permit and were not in a slave state however, some were imported from Africa and forced to work in plantations. Large incomes were obtained in the areas where cotton, sugar cane and tobacco were produced in the large agricultural lands of America. The film, which is about the immediate aftermath of the civil war, is about the hard life of slaves, in particular Solomon Northup. They have no say against their white master. For the colonists who want to be called owning, what is required of slaves is only their work. Slaves are evaluated according to the rate of work they do at the end of the day. The white man has absolute control over the slaves, and the slave women are free because the slaves are the property of the white man. Sold slaves are marketed just like animals and show their skills.

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Plot The film,12 Year a Slave is about the kidnapping and enslavement of Solomon Norhtup, a free black man who working as a violinist and living with his wife and two children in US state of New York in 1841. At the beginning of the film, the kidnapped freeman Solomon Northup (Chiw etel Ejiofor) goes to Washington after making a deal with two entrepreneurs who are two white man invited him to a special show and Solomon fainted after eat of dinner with entrepreneurs and when he wakes up he has in with both his hands and feet chains. Solomon tells to the others that he is a free man, but they do not believe him and dictate by torture that he is not a free person. He shipped to New Orleans where sold as slaves with a group of black people along with other captive African-Americans. All slaves are exhibited and sold naked in where slaves are to be sold Solomon is sold to a white master who gives an identitiy of Platt for him. They go to the place where they will work as slaves and start collecting sugar cane. Platt is both a musician and a knowledgeable man unlike the other slaves. Although he told his master that transportation for tree logs could be done from the river, the butler did not believe him, but the owner gave him a chance 524

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to transport the logs through the river. When Platt passes logs across the river, the butler has a grudge against Platt for being petty to a black. The butler constantly haunts Platt and eventually Platt attacks the butler and beats him. Thus, the butler and his group try to hang Northup, but they are not successful. Platt is left on tiptoes with the noose around his neck for hours before his owner arrives and cuts Northup down. When the owner arrives, he saves him and sells Platt to another owner because of butler could be kill him. The new white owner named Edwin Epps, unlike Ford, is ruthless and sadistic. Epps has a cotton field, and slaves are for him only to work. Slaves are evaluated according to their cotton-picking amount at the end of each day and those who pick less cotton are whipped. Another slave, Patsey lives among Platt and the other slaves. Epps regularly rapes to Patsey while his wife abuses and humiliates her out of jealousy. Therefore, she do everything in his power to drive Patsy from the farm. Slaves work during the day and dance in the middle of the night to entertain the whites. Disease has entered in the cotton field so the cottons are in a condition that cannot be harvested. Epps hire a judge, to the slaves because he wants to both gets rid of the slaves and waits for the disease to pass. The judge sends Platt to celebration for keep his earnings because he knows that Platt is a violinist. After a while, a white worker is added to the slaves who return to the owner Epps. This white man who lost everything is just working there and is not a slave. Platt handed the letter he wrote confidentially to this white man and asks him to reach his friends by mail and save him, but the white man complains to the owner. When the owner asks Platt if such a thing happened, he denies it. While Platt was working on the construction of a wooden house, he chats with a white man who comes to him. The white man rejects the concepts of slave and owner and slavery. He mentions that everyone is equal. Platt is wary of his previous attempt, but tells the man his situation and asks him to write a letter for him. The man agrees. Sends the letter. After a while his friend comes to tell him that he is a free person and that he should be free. Epps, on the other hand, strongly denies and claims that they are their property and that no one can take them. After all, Platt remains free by showing his certificate of freedom and goes to his family. At the end of the movie, information is given about what happened in real life. Solomon takes his kidnappers and enslavers to court, but dismisses the cases because a black’s testimony in front of white cannot be admitted. But he spends the rest of his life on freedom and the freedom of slaves.

Micro Structure

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Presentation of the Characters It has hidden many meanings in sub-texts about the presentation of narrative characters. The distinction between white and black can be clearly seen in the film. The white man made slavery legitimate, and they can claim all kinds of rights over blacks. Blacks are seen as a herd of animals that cannot even say their own name, which they have no right to speak. For example, blacks are always sleeping together, bathing and eating. The Figure 1 shows that slaves prepared for sale and without privacy. While being taken to be sold as slaves, Solomon and others like him are bathed together to clean.

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Figure 1. Slaves prepared for sale and without privacy.

Privacy is not important for blacks because of their status is not human. In another scene, a slave who opposed a white man who wanted to rape a female slave among the slaves brought for sale on the ship was immediately killed. The end of interference in the white man’s wants is death. Slaves are black. There are no white slaves. Solomon Northup lived in American continent with a certificate of freedom before he became a slave, but no white person has a certificate of freedom because the white man does not need a certificate of freedom. While Solomon was shopping with his wife as a free individual, the owner of another black who came with them apologizes on his behalf by removing him from the shop he entered. The white man speaks for the black man and acts instead. In addition, some slaves have handcuffs in their mouths so that they do not speak while on the ship. In another important scene, while the slaves are sold, the mother and two children of her are forcibly separated from each other. Since the money of the buyer is only sufficient for the mother, the slave also requests children from the owners, but the seller does not give. Buyer white man: you have no conscience? Salesman white man: my sentimentality depends on the amount of money I get. The above lines describe the one and only purpose of the Western white man corresponding to the purposes of Christopher Columbus’s discoveries. When the slaves come to where they belong, the steward greets them and tells them what to do, and mutters a song: Nigger run, nigger flew

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Nigger tore his shirt in two Run, run, the pattyroller git you Run nigger run, well ya better get away. That’s right, like you mean it. Nigger run, run so fast

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Stove his head in a hornet’s nes Run, run, the pattyroller git you Run nigger, run, well ya bette git away Run, nigger, run, the patty roller git you Run nigger run, well ya better git away Some folks say a nigger don’t steal well I caught three in my cornfield One had a bushel and one had a peck and one had a rope being hung around his neck. Even this discourse is enough to humiliate the blacks. Blacks are the size of objects that get them into trouble and watch for time to be killed. The Figure 2 shows that the scene where the white man rescues the black man. Farm employee does not anything apart from save his life after when Platt is fighting with the butler and he won’t untie the rope around Platt’s neck and no one slave also comes to help him until the owner comes and cuts the rope and saves him. The owner comes and cuts the rope and saves him. Although the white man makes the black in this situation, the white man who rescues it again, this situation is an example of the white man’s burden to rescue, purge and make better.

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Figure 2. The scene where the white man rescues the black man.

Othering and Marginalisation Many examples of marginalization can be seen in the narrative. Within the us-them dichotomy, it is possible to see the white-black, east-west distinction. Marginalization is a phenomenon which defines bad features fall into the other and good features fall into the us. Accordingly Epps, the owner of the cotton field in the film, thinks that the slaves responsible to the caterpillar infestation in the cotton field. Acoording to Epps God punishes him because of the slaves. The only way the disease can be eliminated

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is by removing slaves from the farm. So Epps hires them to another white for a while. Shortly others are demonized by all of the bad traits are attributed to them. Also, all slaves are black. There are no white slaves. Solomon Northup travels around the Americas without a slave with a certificate of freedom, but no white person has a certificate of freedom, but the white man does not need a certificate of freedom. This inequality between self and other can be seen almost throughout the film. Whites have all their good, normal, beautiful features and conversly blacks have all bad, dirty, animal features. Blacks sleep together just like animals, work together, eat together, there is no privacy for them, the only area where they are not united is the moment when they are not united against white. Another example of this situation is that the slaves who worked for their owners until the evening while the slaves were awakened from their sleep at night and danced to cheer their owners, the words of the farm owner about the slaves were an example of both marginalizing and justifying the white man’s actions to justify his actions. Farm Mistress: Look at these they are full of sins, they are in sin with their hatred, if we treat them well, they will come to kill us at night. Are you going to let these black animals kill us? Looking at the Orientalist elements in the narrative, it is seen that it is established on the contrasts of West-East, black-white, developed-primitive. Slaves were represented as people who were far from expressing themselves, unable to express their troubles, and who approved of the white man speaking on their behalf. The Western intellectual who is the opposite of all these bad traits in the face of the undeveloped, savage, primitive nature of the Eastern and Eastern people has become the white man. According to this, the Western white man in the narrative is the person who feeds the slaves, their employer and is responsible for their safety. The dialogue between Platt and the owner of the house who sent Platt to buy something from the town is as follows; Mistress: Platt, do you know literacy? Platt: A little sir. I cannot understand what ı read, ı just know some words

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Mistress: don’t take bother yourself because they brought you here just to work, if you learn more, you’ll get a hundred whips. Patsy, who is constantly raped by Epps, goes to another black mistress on her day off to chat with her. She tells the black mistress that his white master’s devotion to him is to come from slavery, and she adds: when the time comes, God will take care of them all. What happened to the Pharaoh will be the least of what happened to the colonists. A white man comes to work with the slaves in the narrative. This white man, lost all his existence, works just like slaves on a salary basis but because he is white, he is treated differently from slaves. He does not sleep in the same place with all slaves, does not eat like them, and the white man is not treated as they are. Being the worst white is way better than being the best black.

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Discourse and Representation The savior white man arrives and expresses what the director really wanted to say towards the end of the film. The dialogue between Bass (William Bradley Pitt) and the owner Epps is the main theme of the film: Edwin Epps: If something rubs you wrongly, I offer you the opportunity to speak on it. Bass: [exhales] Well, you ask plainly, so I will tell you plainly. What amused me just then was your concern for my wellbeing in this heat when, quite frankly, the condition of your laborers... Edwin Epps: The condition of my laborers? Bass: It is horrid. Edwin Epps: The hell? [chuckles] Bass: It’s all wrong. All wrong, Mr. Epps. Edwin Epps: They ain’t hired help. They’re my property. Bass: You say that with pride. Edwin Epps: I say it as fact. Bass: If this conversation concerns what is factual and what is not, then it must be said that there is no justice nor righteousness in their slavery. But you do open up an interesting question. What right have you to your niggers, when you come down to the point? Edwin Epps: What right? Bass: Mmm

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Edwin Epps: I bought ‘em. I paid for ‘em. Bass: Well, of course you did, and the law says you have the right to hold a nigger. But begging the law’s pardon, it lies. Suppose they pass a law taking away your liberty, making you a slave. Suppose. Edwin Epps: That ain’t a supposable case. Bass: Laws change, Epps. Universal truths are constant. It is a fact, a plain and simple fact, that what is true and right is true and right for all. White and black alike.

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Edwin Epps: You comparing me to a nigger, Bass? Bass: I’m only asking, in the eyes of God, what is the difference? Edwin Epps: You might as well ask what the difference is between a white man and a baboon. [chuckles] Edwin Epps: I seen one of them critters in Orleans. Know just as much as any nigger I got. Bass: Listen, Epps, these niggers are human beings. If they are allowed to climb no higher than brute animals, you and men like you will have to answer for it. There is an ill, Mr. Epps. A fearful ill resting upon this nation. And there will be a day of reckoning yet. Bass: [sigh] I will write your letter, sir. And if it brings you your freedom, it will be more than a pleasure. It will have been my duty. There are signs in the movie stating that the white man is unreliable. Although the white man is a savior, he constantly deceives the blacks and puts them in a difficult position. Solomon accepts the Washington invitation of the two men he met, and is thus kidnapped. The white man is what got him into this situation. According the information it is reported that Solomon took the kidnappers and assistants to the court, but the criminals were acquitted at the end of the film. Platt begs the white worker who came to work as a slave to write a letter to his friends. He tells him not to disclose him even if he does not write, but the white man immediately complains to owner he can read and write. The white man is unreliable. The judge who hired by Epps for slaves learns that Platt is a musician and sends him to a ball. In a sense, the animal figures in the clothes and costumes worn by the people at the ball describe the state of the West. It has been described as a developed, advanced Western animal, inhuman and bizarre.

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Figure 3. Masquerade ball of Colonialists.

The freedom of Platt is important in terms of both orientalist and representation and expressing the burns of the white man. Platt asks for help from his friends thanks to Bass, and he can gain his freedom with a letter which is send by Bass to his friends. It is the white European man who made and saved Platt as a slave. All those who come to rescue him after seeking help from his friends are white. Not

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Black or African American, unable to solve their own problems, needy and poor. Masquerade ball of Colonialists shown in Figure 3.

Introductory Sequence and Generic In the introduction sequence of the film, it is shown that the narrative is from a real life and it is stated that the unbelievable things actually happened in the movie we will watch. In the first opening, the slaves look out of the frame in a confused look to learn about the work given to them. The opening of the movie with this plan is actually to indicate what is the only thing that is required of slaves. Slaves just have to work. They should work without talking or asking questions. The continuation of the entrance scene shows the slaves lying together tired at night and in a barn-like place. Blacks and lead actor Platt are seen lying side by side in the same type of clothing. The scene reveals the trauma of slavery, the reality of oldness and corruption, and the absence of privacy.

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RESULT Colonial movements that started with the Geographical Discoveries continued in America in many parts of the world, especially in Africa, thanks to the explorers of European countries. The underground and aboveground resources and especially the labor force obtained from the colonized regions also significantly increased the slave trade. Accordingly, European countries seriously needed work and labor force after the plague disease. Thus, blacks brought from Black Africa were employed in these business lines. Slaves were put to death in jobs such as cotton and sugar cane especially in the American continent. The 12 Years A Slave narrative also deals with this situation of slavery. The representations of slavery, black and white, good and bad, Eastern and Western are frequently used in the narrative. For the audience who comes into contact with the leading actor in the narrative, the white man is portrayed as evil and cruel. Although the movie seems to criticize slavery and violence and condemn the white man, it is actually seen that the white man is affirmed. According to this, the slave, who is eastern, black, unable to represent himself or defend his rights, was unable to defend himself in the film. At the end of the movie, the white man Bass (Brad Pitt) is savior of Platt. Although he tried many times - and these trials are carried out by the white man - he failed, but the white man (Bass), who came towards the end of the film, saved Platt from his situation. The mission of the white man is clearly seen in the film. Indeed, in response to Platt, asked Bass to write a letter to his friends, he said that this was more than a pleasure for him. When this situation is read in an orientalist context, it clearly reveals the East-West dichotomy. As a result, in the visible texts of the narrative, anti-slavery, violence and domination of white against black are discussed, while the sub-texts emphasize the orientalist elements, the superiority of the white man, and the passive and static nature of the black.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS Orientalism appears as a major phenomenon with its history, nature and existence. The opposition to the East and the West has always existed in a positive or negative sense since the age of discovery. Different meanings were attributed to the East and West with the axis shift that occurred especially after 531

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September 11, and the West sought to define itself through the East. The thesis of Huntington, clash of civilizations, is also closely related to this issue. Orientalism and the conflict between West and East are also up to date considering the situation of the Middle East and Africa especially. On the other hand, although the slavery and colonialism situation discussed in the study has physically ended, neocolonialism and postcolonial processes continue on a global scale. The study could be lighted the future studies the cases mentioned above in particular.

REFERENCES Aka, A. (2015). Öteki kimliklerle birlikte yaşayabilme olanakları üzerine: Çanakkale ili örneği. International Journal of Social Sciences and Education Research, 1(1), 1320–1333. Akça, B. E. (2007). Ege’de sular ısındı: yazılı basın söyleminde Yunanistan’ın ötekileştirilmesi ve Kardak krizi. In Kimlik, medya ve temsil. Nobel Press. Arar, B. Y., Bilgin, N. (2010). Gazetelerde ötekileştirme pratikleri: Türk basını üzerine bir inceleme. İletişim Kuram ve Araştırma Journal, 30, 1-18. Armaoğlu, F. (2013). 19.yüzyıl siyasî tarihi. Timaş Press. Arnold, D. (1995). Coğrafi keşifler tarihi. Alan Press. Ataöv, T. (1977). Afrika ulusal kurtuluş mücadeleleri. Ankara University Journal of Social Sciences. Başkaya, F. (2015). Sömürgecilik, emperyalizm, küreselleşme. Öteki Press. Bulut, Y. (2006). Oryantalizmin kısa tarihi. Küre Press. Cipolla, C. M. (2003). Fatihler, korsanlar, tüccarlar. Tarih Vakfı Yurt Press. Çırakman, A. (2002). Oryantalizmin varsayımsal temelleri: Fikri sabit imgelem ve düşünce tarihi. Doğu Batı Journal, 20(5), 181–198. Clifford, J. (2007). Oryantalizm üzerine, oryantalizm tartışma metinleri. Doğu Batı Press. Coulardeau, J. (2014). Review solomon northup 12 years a slave book and film. https://www.academia. edu/8141853/Review_SOLOMON_NORTHUP_12_YEARS_A_SLAVE_Book_and_Film Davies, N. (1996). Avrupa Tarihi. İmge Press. Copyright © 2021. IGI Global. All rights reserved.

Dijk, T. V. (2004). Critical discourse analysis. The handbook of discourse analysis, 349-371. Dijk, V. T. A. (2003). Söylem ve İdeoloji: Çok Alanlı Bir Yaklaşım. Söylem ve İdeoloji: Mitoloji, Din, İdeoloji. Su Press. Erkan, Ü. (2017). Postmodern çağda postkolonyal söylemin olanakları: kolonyalizm, nekolonyalizm ve postkolonyalizm. In Yüzyılın Sorunları ve Sosyoloji II. Gece Kitaplığı Publishing. Ernest. (2014). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265924462_ReMediated_History_12_Years_a_ Slave

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Falola, T. (2002). Key events in African history: A referance Guide. Greenwood. Fanon, F. (2007). Yeryüzünün lanetlileri. Versus Press. Fanon, F. (2016). Siyah deri beyaz maske. Encore Press. Ferro, M. (2011). Sömürgecilik tarihi. İmge Press. Foucault, M. (1993). Michel foucault ders özetleri 1970-1982. YKY Press. Foucault, M. (2003). Toplumu savunmak gerekir. YKY Press. Germaner, S., & İnankur, Z. (1989). Oryantalizm ve Türkiye. Türk Kültürüne Hizmet Vakfı Press. Gramsci, A. (2011). Hapishane defterleri. Kalkedon Press. Hall, S. (1985). Signification, representation, ideology: Althusser and the post‐structuralist debates. Critical Studies in Media Communication, 2(2), 91–114. Hall, S. (1992). The West and the rest in formations of modernity. In Formations of Modernity. Oxford: Polity Press in association with Blackwell Publishers Ltd and The Open University. Hanilçe, M. (2010). Coğrafi Keşiflerin Nedenlerine Yeniden Bakmak. Tarih Okulu, 7, 47–70. James, D. R., & Heiliger, S. (2000). Slavery and Involuntary Servitude. Encyclopedia of Sociology. Kabbani, R. (1993). Avrupa’nın Doğu İmajı. Bağlam Press. Koçer, S. (2016). Irkçılık: Tek başına asla! https://www.evrensel.net/yazi/76719/irkcilik-tek-basina-asla Kolomb, K. (1999). Seyir Defterleri Keşif Yolculukları Günlüğü. Çekirdek Press. Kontny, O. (2002). Üçgenin Tabanını Yok Sayan Pythagoras: Oryantalizm ve Ataerkillik Üzerine. Doğu Batı Journali, 20(5), 117–131. Köse, M., & Küçük, M. (2015). Oryantalizm ve “Öteki” Algısı. The Journal of Social and Cultural Studies, 1(1), 107–127. Kundakçı, F. S. (2013). Heteroseksizm ve Ötekileştirme Eleştirisi. Journal of Liberal Düşünce, (71), 65–79. Loomba, A. (1998). Kolonyalizm Postkolonyalizm. Ayrıntı Press.

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Magdoff, H. (2006). Sömürgecilikten Günümüze Emperyalizmi. Kalkedon Press. Marx, K. (1852). The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte. 18th Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte. Marx 1852. Mora, N. (2010). Medya Çalışmaları Medya Pedagojisi ve Küresel İletişim. Nobel Press. Morley, D. & Robins, K. (1997). Kimlik Mekânları. Ayrıntı Press. Mutman, M. (1999). Oryantalizmin Gölgesi Altında: Batı’ya Karşı İslam. In Oryantalizm, Hegemonya ve Kültürel Fark. İletişim Press.

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Özer, Ö. (2009). Eleştirel Haber Çözümlemeleri. Anadolu University Press. Parker, J., & Rathbone, R. (2007). African history: A very short introduction. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/actrade/9780192802484.001.0001 Roberts, J. M. (2015). Avrupa Tarihi. İnkılap Press. Said, E. (1998). Oryantalizm. İrfan Press. Said, E. (2014). Şarkiyatçılık batının şark anlayışları. Metis Kitap Press. Sander, O. (1989). Siyasi Tarih İlkçağlardan 1918’e. İmge Kitabevi Press. Sander, O. (2000). Siyasi Tarih 1918-1994. İmge Kitapevi Press. Siba’i, M. (1993). Oryantalizm ve oryantalistler yararları ve zararları. Beyan Press. Turanlı, G. (2018). Edward Said’in Metodolojisinde Söylem-İdeoloji İlişkisi. FLSF, 25, 307–322. Uluç, G., Kengürü, A., & Yavuz, A. (2017). Kurtar bizi beyaz adam!: Hollywood sinemasında beyaz kurtarıcı (whıte savıor) figürü. Sobider, 4(14), 481–494. Urhan, V. (2000). Michel Foucault ve arkeolojik çözümleme. Paradigma Press. Utku, A. (2002). Edward Said oryantalizm ve Postyapısalcı/ Postmodern Başvurunun Düşündürdükleri. Journal of Doğu Batı, 20(2), 219–235. Uygur, E. & Uygur, F. (2013). Fransız sömürgecilik tarihi üzerine bir araştırma. Turkish Journal Of Social Research, 17(3), 273–286. Uzun, T., & Atasever, G. (2010). Türkiye’de modernleşme süreci bağlamında oryantalist ve oksidentalist bakışlar. Dumlupınar University Journal of Social Sciences, 26, 175–182. Vaughan, M. (1991). Curing Their llls: Colonial Power and African lllness. Stanford University Press. Young, J. R. (2016). Postkolonyalizm Tarihsel Bir Giriş. Matbu Press. Zariç, M. (2010). Ötekileştirme’den bütünleşme’ye Hüseyin Su öyküleri. Yüzüncü Yıl Univesity Journal of Social Sciences, 19, 5–20.

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ADDITIONAL READING Abdülmelik, E., Tibavi, A. L., & Algar, H. (2007). Krizdeki Oryantalizm, Oryantalizm Tartışma Metinleri. Doğu- Batı Yayınları. Hüseyin, A., Olson, R., & Kureşi, C. (1989). Oryantalistler ve İslamiyatçılar Oryantalist İdeolojinin Eleştirisi. İnsan Yayınları. Kontny, O. (2002). Üçgenin Tabanını Yok Sayan Pythagoras: Oryantalizm ve Ataerkillik Üzerine, Doğu Batı Dergisi, Sayı 20/5, Sayfa 117-131. Doğu-Batı Yayınları.

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Rodinson, M. (2002). Oryantalizmin Doğuşu, Çev. Ahmet Turan Yüksel, Marife Bilimsel Birikim Dergisi, oryantalizm Özel Sayısı sayı:3. Taşçı, Ö. (2013). Aydınlanma, oryantalizm ve İslam. Sentez Yayınları. Tonnesson, S. (2006). Oryantalizm, Oksidentalizm ve Ötekini Tanımak. Marife Bilimsel Birikim Dergisi. Oksidentalizm Özel Sayısı Yıl:6. Sayı, 3, 357–366. Zakzuk, H. M. (1993). Oryantalizm veya Medeniyet Hesaplaşmasının Arka Planı. Işık Yayınları.

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

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African American: An individual of African origin who has immigrated to America. Colonialism: All kinds of domination by one nation, country, people, community over another. East: Anything outside of the Western definition above. Orientalism: The process of defining and promoting by West to the East. Other: A person who is not like herself, who is not like herself, who looks at it from a different angle (in a negative sense). Representation: Action or speech on behalf of a person, group, business house, state, or the like by an agent, deputy, or representative. Slave: A person who is the property of and wholly subject to another and forced to provide unpaid labor. West: Colonialist experiencing the Reform and Renaissance and Enlightenment stages. Architects of mercantilist, imperialist and capitalist systems.

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Reflections of Orientalism and Modernism in the Film Hamam by Ferzan Özpetek Nilüfer Pembecioğlu https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7510-6529 Faculty of Communication, Istanbul University, Turkey Nebahat Akgün Çomak Galatasaray University, Turkey

ABSTRACT Having the visual and linguistic text of the flm Hamam as the main data, the chapter discusses how the values are attributed to the images of orientalism and modernism and how these attributions afect the meaning, value, and consumption of the messages. Not only the cultural codes as Barthes mentioned were deciphered through the qualitative and descriptive methodology mainly following the discourse analysis, but also the chapter relies upon the data analysis making use of the 12T’s approach inspired by Stoller and Grabe’s Six-T’s Approach for Content-Based Instruction. In this research, each T refers to a diferent perspective that controls the quality of the sample questioned and helps to establish consistency, cohesion, and coherence of the text. These T’s put forward how the refections of orientalism and modernism were scattered in the flm Hamam and how Western images vs. Orientalism were put in a complementary and counteracting way helps to shape the new identities.

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INTRODUCTION: REFLECTIONS OF ORIENTALISM Nowadays, ‘identity’ has begun to be considered just like a garment that can be put on and take off. Or it is taken as a set of jewelry that can be used from time to time when it is needed. It might not be easy to follow identity due to its liquid qualities in nowadays and the multiple facets shaped carefully through the political, economic, social, cultural input. However, some type of identities would be staying stable as if they do not change in time. In that case, it becomes very difficult to distinguish what is really a part DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch031

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 Reflections of Orientalism and Modernism in the Film Hamam by Ferzan Özpetek

of the identity represented or whose identity it is. And it might also be impossible to determine which elements belong to which identity or which culture when the flow and fluid structure is considered. Identities and cultures of today increasingly take the appearance of a “patchwork”, designed consciously or accepted easily via some built-on strategies. This seems to have reached the universal acceptance criteria, both as a result of eclectic methods with the effect of postmodern structuralism and functionalism and also with the effect of the concepts of multilingualism, multiculturalism, and multivocality supported by international politics. Considering Orientalizm, identity is mentioned as the core topic, because it is what one has or what one reflects through the language, culture and other means. Thus, the notion of identity is involved in different fields of science which might be quite deep and intensive study areas such as education, linguistics, communication sciences, sociology, and behavioral sciences as well as psychology, psychiatry and neurosciences. With many different perspectives, the notion of identity issues includes history, politics, and the economy. Identity is seen as an individual problem on one hand but on the other hand, its attributions and impact is regarded as a kind of social consciousness and awareness. Identity, on the one hand is seen as an individual problem, a kind of awareness and social consciousness and social identity as well. On the other hand, how identity is formed, its elements, the impact of the other identities, both positive and negative shades of it were always discussed. Today, it is also possible to talk about the made up identities and specially designed or suggested ones presented with the help of the global media networks. Identity design is most effective while presenting structures developed within the same generic framework that emerged with the influence of the media and their repetitions over the years, such as orientalism. Said’s discussion of Orientalism parallels Foucault’s discussion of power and knowledge: a discourse produces a kind of racialized form of knowledge of the other (orientalism) with its deep-rooted practices of power (imperialism) with a variety of representations (knowledge, exhibition, literature, and painting). According to Hall (Hall, 2000: 261), the circulation and dissemination of power become particularly important within the context of representation. Mainly the argument brings forth the discussion, even if it might not be equal, if everyone, strong or weak, would be in the circle of power. Neither those who are palpable victims nor those who do can remain completely outside the sphere of action of power. Thus, power creates its “subjects” as well as “victims - those who were exposed to power”. It might be easy to paint all into the same color and consider everything taking its roots from East as Orientalism. Yet, especially when it comes into the film form, it uniforms the power within it. Long-standing and very important work left traces of Turkish identity and Orientalism seem to be gaining even more importance nowadays. So much that anything having a Turkish touch might be regarded as Oriental through the prejudiced Western point of view. Yet, the understanding of the philosophy as well as its impacts pave the way to more research to analyze the past and present reflections of it let it be in the form of discourse or implications of visuals and narratives. Present research methods and findings in the light of judgments by questioning the built-in identity and culture, critical, multi-disciplinary, and multi-faceted perspective with new samples also raise interesting fields of analysis. Even if the stereotyped and cliché qualities were used as identities referring to the orientalism context of the visual narrative reflections provide us to the fundamental as well as the projected identity of the globalized culture codes. As Gilman pointed out, people sometimes need standardization in order to find the ‘real-self’. He claims that what they can see or cannot see in the standardization is actually the individual’s own strengths or weaknesses (Gilman, 1985).

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In conclusion, this study, in the eyes of Western Orientalism in Turkish identity, aims to evaluate and to bring together two different points. In its narrow sense, the research aims to compare and contrast the Turkish identity in the eyes of Westerners and the Western identity in the eyes of the Turkish people. In its core, imaginary, “build-up identity” venues and values created within the given texts are analyzed. As an example, Ferzan Ozpetek’s “Hamam” (2003) is handled. These glued characters within the narrative provides a kind of simultaneous visual identities appearing throughout the film. These narrative reflections provide us some fundamental concepts as well as the projected identity of the globalized culture codes. These visual and made up identities were compared and contrasted through the textual discourses as well as the semantic field symbols.

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HOW ÖZPETEK FILMS WERE HANDLED This research mainly dwells on the explanations of Orientalism and Özpetek film ‘Hamam’ regarding the semiotic and symbolic field of textual discourse. Orientalism is mainly defined as structuring the world through stereotyped Eastern concepts. Specifically, in art history, literature and cultural studies, Orientalism is the imitation or depiction of aspects in the Eastern world. These depictions are usually done by writers, designers, and artists from the West. Thus, it reflects the gaze of the Westerners to the East. Özpetek on the other hand is the worldwide known Turkish director and known with his auteur films. He is a frequently referred director through different concepts. One of them could be associated with using motion pictures as educational tools in sociology (Yaren & Çayıroğlu, 2014). In fact, a few courses could be devoted to the way Özpetek films reflect the society and individual in its past and / or modern sense. He is referred to be the auteur (Aşçı & Özmen, 2018) or associated with the Queer Theory which was adopted by the individuals whom the society marginalized for the purpose of initiating a resistance against the gender imposition, and even the queer word was adopted by these individuals (İmançer, 2018). Çinay ve Sezerel (2020) for example concentrate on the eating habits in Özpetek films. But mostly his work is associated with Orientalism (Şirin, 2019). Özpetek is questioned in Soydan’s research as a director who is reflecting Orientalism perspectives. Yet, to Soydan, Orientalism may be existing in different eras of the past, however, related to the intentions, being conscious and being aware of good or bad intentions these attempts of stereotyping could be positioned in different ways. He also mentions that implied Orientalism keeps the intention of constructing a rather negative East with purposeful and malice intentions (Soydan, 2007). In another article, Özpetek is positioned as one of the Turkish directors of European migration cinema (Özkoçak, 2019). Or associated with the representation of external migration and migrant identities in Turkish cinema (Agacuk, Kanlı & Kasap, 2017). Kanlı and Agocuk concentrate on the discursive constructions of gender in migration films in Turkish cinema after the 1990s and analyzed Özpetek films regarding how gender is being reflected in his films (Kanlı & Agocuk, 2018). In another context, the film Hamam is associated with a positive tourism impact (Yanmaz, 2006). According to the research,(Türsab Dergisi, 1998) costing one million dollars, the effect of the movie “Hamam” was great. The financial and moral support of Euroimages co-production might have a great impact on this success. The Italian media produced the headlines “Nice face of the Turks” theme and other foreign press produced articles regarding the historical and cultural aspects of Turkey. Bridging the gap of communication, several countries supported the idea of ‘warm Turkey’ meaning not only the climate but also human relations. Upon the film’s success, many Italian tour operators started to arrange 538

 Reflections of Orientalism and Modernism in the Film Hamam by Ferzan Özpetek

tours to Turkey specifically arranging visits to the historical parts of the city involving little houses, hammams, and narrow streets reminding the visitors of the filmic atmosphere. After its success in Italy, ‘Hamam’ has been screened in 22 countries including Spain, France, Switzerland, Sweden, Denmark, Yugoslavia, Luxembourg, Belgium, Netherlands, Argentina, Mexico, and the USA. In 1998, the screening of the film reached 200 thousand people in Turkey, 800 thousand in Italy, 600 thousand in Spain, and 400 thousand people in France. Box office Mojo states that the film gained $384,793 (https://www. boxofficemojo.com/title/tt0119248/?ref_=bo_se_r_1) This paper aims to evolve the perspective not on the director but the film itself, mainly concentrating on the textual elements of the discourse. In this research, 12T’s approach is used for the text analysis in which each T evaluates the concepts related in the text. These T’s put forward how the reflections of orientalism and modernism were scattered in the film Hamam and how Western images vs Orientalism were put in a complementary and counteracting way helps to shape the new identities.

MAIN FOCUS OF THE CHAPTER Having the visual and linguistic text of the film “Hamam” as the main data, the paper discusses how the values are attributed to the images of orientalism and modernism and how these attributions affect the meaning, value, and consumption of the messages. Not only the cultural codes as Barthes mentioned were deciphered through the qualitative and descriptive methodology mainly following the discourse analysis, but also the paper relies upon the data analysis making use of the 12T’s approach inspired by Stoller & Grabe’s Six-T’s Approach for Content-Based Instruction (Stoller & Grabe, 1997). In this research, each T (Namely Theme, Topic, Text, Thread, Task, Transfers & Trends, Transition, Thinking, Tailoring, Taking Risks, Technology, Transmedia) refers to a different perspective that controls the quality of the sample questioned and helps to establish consistency, cohesion and coherence of the text. These T’s put forward how the reflections of orientalism and modernism were scattered in the film Hamam and how Western images vs Orientalism were put in a complementary and counteracting way helps to shape the new identities.

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Orientalism Issues in Hamam: Dualities and Controversaries In this study, the movie Hamam, directed by Ferzan Özpetek, is considered as one of the most popular films in the country and abroad. The concept of “I” and “other” are questioned within salient identities of the changing atmosphere. Throughout the time the values intertwined with the mobility of the self and the other. Due to the shift of the values and power, they are again to be questioned within their new essence. As a methodology, the symbolic field semantic attributions mean more than the structural approach. That’s why codes of the culture and discourse analysis seem to be more helpful rather than the formalistic approach. Similarly, the filmic locations created and the parallel atmospheres implemented inconsistencies between the filmic world and the real world. As a result, a setting that occurs involving pluralism, multicultural, multi-voiced, and the multidimensional world as a commercial film might be requiring or targeting due to the marketing and consumption reasons. All these contribute to the individuals of this created an alternative utopian world. The multicultural world and space created by the movie Hamam, which is supposed to be Istanbul or Rome in the modern period, are also provided new identities.

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This study does not set out with an orientalist point of view, it should not be seen as an exemplary study of orientalism. Yet, it aims to analyze the characters attributed to the concept of orientalism. There appear two important elements to be considered: one is the individual who is constantly mobile, psychologically, culturally, economically, etc. and the other one is the environment where the individual is in. Even if the basic things (whatever they are) seem to be remaining the same, they tend to be so ready for any kind of change. Based on its own impulses and its efforts to adapt himself to the given environment, not to be excluded and/or to be included in the group and the community, people change. And again a shift of power occurs. Whereas immobility is generally perceived as a deficiency, mobility is a concept that leads us to constantly adopt new attitudes and question our values, place, and position. In some cases it brings the attention of the others yet in some others, the individual seems to be unnoticed (Albertsen & Diken, 2001). Change is inevitable and the unchanged individual is considered to be a lack of communication, movement. Change is adopted as a part of life and even as the first step of being social, and inactivity, lack of access, and immobility result in exclusion (Urry, 2001). Since being excluded from a group or society requires the individual to be pushed to loneliness and exclusion, in a sense, all individuals are socially encouraged to mobility. Thus, virtual/visual images replace reality, prejudice and possibilities replace the facts, and individuals are pushed to consume imaginary worlds, made-up identities. This sounds just like the Spiral of Silence defined by Noelle-Neumann (1974). In such a world no one is the real owner of the world, but only nomads and migrants who have been there for a certain period of time. Albertsen and Diken (Albertsen & Diken, 2001) state that mobility is of increasing importance in social and urban contexts. Politics, politics, weak, and sovereign powers are also moved to a more important position when considered together with global mobility. Change and mobility extend individuals beyond their individuality and enable them to be a group member and remain a group member as long as they maintain their mobility. In many different ways, individuals and countries are labeled and positioned in different and even contradictory ways. The battle of positioning Turkey as a Modernizing country and as an Orientalist country seems to be a kind of Neutralisible Opposition. That means, in fact, there is no opposition between the two concepts seeming to be too different or opposite to each other on the surface structure. In the deep structure, the two labels or brands do not seem to be too different from each other. The metalanguage of the two seems to be too similar to each other. It basically seems to be the mutual gaze of the Eastern and Western concepts. Both assume a hypothetical Turkish World or Turkish Identity. If a kind of naming is needed, “Neologism” seems to be the best concept to cover this kind of opposition. Because in its core structure, the concept of Orientalism is not something new to the audience. With a simple addition of the opposition, it is not possible to create a totally new concept or meaning. The recursive elements of the consumer culture as well as the compact conflicting messages give the chance of an obligatory transformation equalizing the neutralisible opposition. It is inevitable to deny the importance and impact of the classes or the groups of social status. Public opinion and common sense are shaped not only through the concrete facts but also by the made-up supernatural beliefs and the traditions of the given society. It does not matter how high the educational or economical level of society is. The dynamics of the society, in a way, forces the groups and the individuals into a “Conspicuous Consumption” habit. Turkey is positioned to be the orientalist one for centuries and this kind of idea has already been cultivated. Yet, the youngsters trying to be more modern and rather non-traditional, are given the opportunity to add new meanings to the ordinariness of life, such as using the diaspora of the liquidity in an unusual way. This might be regarded as the era of supporting 540

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the creation of new identities. These were either hidden in a way or were not named up to the point. Yet, just the hybrids of the old ones, but nothing new. It might be important to refer to Gerbner’s definitions of three B’s, (Blurring, Blending, and Bending.) in his cultivation analysis (Gerbner, 1987). If the orientalism approach is positioned as a means of cultivating an alternative approach to multiculturalism, it could be easier to put these terms into action. The blurring side of it is the clear-cut culture side of it, instead, a new blend is introduced and the possible new bends in the culture are also emphasized. Let it be the sexual orientation and gender preferences, or living in an urbanized society vs continuing rural habits, these new made-up identities should consider all the dichotomies and decide which way of the dilemma they choose because it is considered to be a two-way dilemma. Telimen argues that, by considering the items in Maslow’s hierarchy, the first basic requirement of modern society - the physiological requirements - is met (Telimen, 1977). Languas thinks that advanced modern societies also meet the second level - the security requirements. According to William Pride (Pride & Ferrel, 2004), perception is the process of selecting and arranging information to make sense and structuring it in line with the data obtained. However, of course, perception of reality and filmic perception take place at different levels. The reality, which seems only to be the introduction of a new identity (hybrid or blended) in the film, can be transformed into perceptions in terms of independence, nationalism, traditionalism, Turkism by being explained with different codes at different levels in the real world. Pride explains how the reality is perceived in a three steps model: There should be a central component (continuous emotion, relative perception: perception of abstract concepts such as object, human and religion, nation, education), a cognitive component (given information, previous beliefs about the object, feelings) and behavioral component (tendency to act in accordance with emotions and opinions). These components sometimes combine with normative conformity. Stored information, the disposition of the individual, and environmental and internal factors can also strengthen or weaken perception, speed it up, slow it down, change it partially or completely. Labeling (identity) something new or old (blended /hybrid) might be accepted as a product of all this perception process, beliefs, and attitudes. Normative adaptation can be defined as the existence of perceived social influence in the adaptation of choice and motives to environmental pressures. The existing conditions are the conditions of economic conditions and other factors. Gilman states that regarding the positioning of the “other” between “I” and the “object”, imaginary lines are drawn and with the help of these lines transitions and changes between self and the other become possible. However, he also states that negative stereotyping requires positive stereotyping in the opponents, and any changes in a stereotype would be affecting them all (Gilman, 1985: 88). Furthermore, Hall (Hall, 2000: 264) claims that the reflection on us from our counterparts is reduced in us and perceived in such a way that it is transformed into the most distinctive feature that exists. “The diaspora experience is defined, not by essence or purity, but by the recognition of a necessary heterogeneity and diversity; by a conception of ‘identity’ which lives with and through, not despite, difference; by hybridity. Diaspora identities are those which are constantly producing and reproducing themselves anew, through transformation and difference.” (Hall, 1990:235). Festinger’s Cognitive Dissonance Theory is based on being psychologically uncomfortable, thus motivating the person to reduce maladjustment and provide relaxation (Festinger, 1957). Here one may consider the Powershift in between the characters. For the sake of feeling better and comfortable people give up their power and choose to become somewhat more powerful by becoming the other. Power in its not only economic exploitation and physical coercion sense but also in a broader cultural or symbolic sense -including the 541

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 Reflections of Orientalism and Modernism in the Film Hamam by Ferzan Özpetek

power to represent someone or something in a certain way. It also includes the exercise of symbolic power through representational practices. “Orientalism” has been stereotyped in various ways especially in European films. To most of the people “Orientalism” was the discourse by which European culture was able to manage -and even produce - the Orient politically, sociologically, militarily, ideologically, scientifically, and imaginatively during the post-Enlightenment period.” (Said, 1978). Similarly, “Modernism” has been stereotyped in various Turkish films as well. Thus, it might be claimed that a new era had started: the people watching foreign films would even find a slice of their own lives in those. It is due to the desire to be there, to become one of them, etc. This would be their own reflection of culture, language, and identity, paving the way to hybridization. And probably, the foreign films reflecting such an indirect and blurred picture of self might help the individual to discover the reflection of the self in the different layers of the same texts. Gerbner’s “Cultivation” theory (Gerbner, 1970; Gerbner, 2002), Bandura’s “Social Cognition” theory (Bandura, 1986), and Homans’s “Social Change” theory (Homans, 1958: 595-606; Homans, 1974) argue that the messages produced by television and other media have permanent effects on the society, and they seriously affect the identities, behaviors, and attitudes of individuals. The extent to which individuals articulate what is presented (exposed) to them through the media (real people) and to what extent they feel a kind of “identification” with them might still be an issue to be questioned. Thus, the shift of the paradigms in the case of Francesco couldn’t be just a coincidence. The more he lives in this society the more he becomes oriental. Reacting and rejecting the previous self, he comes to the point of sacrificing the self for his newly blended identity. Before his experience with the other (the culture, society, history, his own past, etc) he has nothing to do with those issues. Yet, experiencing the little bit of the other gave him the courage to discover and explore more of the others (this time in its sexual sense). On the one hand, the cultivation theory creates a “world of fear”, on the other hand, it affects and contributes to the fact that the real or virtual world presented with visual images is etched into the brains of individuals and become a part of their lifelong identity (Newhagen, 1998: 265-276). To her surprise, Marta encounters this new Francesco and understands that he has no intentions to come back to the previous life. It has been proven by studies that the images perceived consciously or unconsciously in films are an important force affecting the behaviors and attitudes of individuals, communication strategies (Bower, 1983: 387-402), and their momentary (Newhagen & Reeves, 1992: 25-41). The attitudes and behaviors they develop, liking, embracing (Reeves, Newhagen, Baibach, Basil & Kurz, 1991, 679-694) and their tendency to exclude or hate (Lang, Newhagen & Reeves 1996: 460-470). It was determined that it was carried out on the way. In a sense, what we watch is loaded with functions that “teach” us what we like and don’t like, what we love and what we hate. Although Cohen and Weimann (Cohen & Weimann, 2000: 99-114) argue that this only applies to certain individuals in a certain part of society and that such generalizations do not encompass the whole of society. It has also been found in the research that these first-hand experiences of acculturation and assimilation play a prominent role that affects life forever in a negative or positive way (Taylor & Stern, 1997: 47-61). Signorielli and Morgan found in their research that distorted images of foreign cultures are more easily adopted by the “other” society (s) (Signorielli & Morgan, 1990). Even if there were more emphasis on the film regarding its Orientalism perspective, what was striking could be the plot and the storytelling success instead. The film could also be handled through the other communication and social theories having a reflection for all the actions in the film. 542

 Reflections of Orientalism and Modernism in the Film Hamam by Ferzan Özpetek

Making use of the 12T’s approach while analyzing the filmic text the use of structural, functional methodologies as well as the social theories and communication theories made up a kind of eclectic methodology. Especially with the help of the theories of Z.Todorov (Todorov, 1995), V. Propp (Propp, 1985), G. Genette (Genette, 1983), and R.Barthes (Barthes, 1977), the analysis aimed to identify and explain linguistic and discursive codes as well as the cultural codes with in-textual and non-textual references for discourse analysis. Thus, it might be regarded as an attempt to show how the same text can be handled and analyzed in different ways with different methods and perspectives.

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ANALYSIS RESULTS OF 12T’S APPROACH FOR THE FILM HAMAM Mainly, the possible outcomes of this research would be to question how to deal with the texts, from different perspectives. Because once labeling the text as somewhat orientalist approach it becomes limited to certain clusters. Instead, it would be nice to see, structurally, functionally, symbolically, semantically, how different forms of analysis could yield different outcomes. Within the framework of this evaluation, even if the X, Y, Z generations, having different living standards and life expectations, could handle the narrative through different topics such as religion, culture, stratificational society, social communication, and xenophobia, in 2020 it remains to be an old story. Thus it means the narrative might not have a similar impact if it were be screened nowadays. Thus, the acceptance and tolerance levels of the society, the rules, and outliners were all mobile. At that moment, the film was somewhat brave but today, it looks like a century ago. Through text analysis and occasionally in-text discourse analysis aim to reveal the values of the narrative even today. The text, which is handled with non-textual references, and 12T’s approach still provides examples of mobility, migration, socialization, adaptation, as well as orientalism. Chosen as the study methodology, the 12T’s approach was inspired by Stoller & Grabe’s “6T’s Approach” developed to evaluate texts for Content-Based Instruction until 1997 (Stoller & Grabe, 1997). Later on, it was developed by Pembecioğlu as a structural, contextual, and functional text analysis technique starting from 2012. Each T (Category) is considered to refer to a different perspective that controls the quality of the sample text examined, and deals with the consistency and consistency of the text. The main purpose of this kind of analysis is to arrive at a formula that reveals or solves the content, function, and position of the required unit questioned. Today, the 12K (12T) approach, which is used in many film analysis research, is an important tool in questioning how meaning and image, culture, and codes are described in different ways for various purposes. Theme means the subject of a talk, piece of writing, exhibition, etc. What is emphasized conceptually makes it necessary to put forward a perspective where we can see the basic concept under discussion. Regarding the emphasized theme as Modernism vs Orientalism, covering the film as a general umbrella term, the film “Hamam” brings back the old discussion of these two concepts. However, there seems to be a kind of dilemma here. In the past, for example, many theater plays were taking their plots from Ottoman history because the concept of ‘Turk’ means both the East and Muslim world together. Specifically, during the Elizabethan period, there were so many plays portraying the Turkish characters in it. This was supposed to be Europe’s constant confrontation with the Turkish threat naturally brought the Turks to the theater scene, as it created an extreme curiosity for the Turkish character and Turkish customs as well. It also helped to create an impressive stage setting portraying Turks with a dark face and in strange Eastern dressings: the Turk is known for his treachery and cruelty, making even the bloodiest scenes believable for the audience. Also, when put up against a Christian hero with his pagan 543

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belief, the Turkish character created an opportunity for the praises Christianity for religious sermons.” (Mason, 1963: xiv-xv). Lois Wann lists the results of her research titled “The Oriental in Elizabethan Drama” questioning 47 plays between 1579 and 1642 (Wann, 1915). These plays were portraying plots and characters taken from the history of Eastern societies including 4 Egyptians, 4 Arabs, 5 Tatars, 6 Jews, 8 Iranians, 12 Eastern Christians, 18 Maghrebians, 27 European Christians, and 31 Turks (as cited in, Aksoy, 1990: 13). Especially after Marlowe’s play called Tamburlaine, there was an explosion in the games about Turks. Almost every major writer of the Tudor period wrote plays from Turkish history. The first products of this explosion are Thomas Kyd’s Soliman and Persea (1588), Robert Greene’s Alphonsus, King of Arragon (1591), George Peele’s The Turkish Mahomet and Hyrin the Faire Grek (1594), and The tragic reign of Selimus, of an, unknow author dated 1594. This orientation became widespread in the early seventeenth century and continued until the end of the century (Chew, 1965: as cited in 104-105, Aksoy, 1990: 13). Turkish Identity and its Orientalist perspective actually reflect the orientalism of the West, its view and perception of the East. For some, this is “just-looking” without a specific purpose, as Bowlby puts it (Bowlby, 1985). For some, it is more than just a visual pleasure, it is a mental process that requires the comparison of “me” and the “other” and draws conclusions, and even adapt these results to certain consumption patterns. According to Freud, viewing has attributed a function that causes the individual to define, re-define, and re-define himself (again and again) by stimulating his ego. This helps the positioning of the self and the other, and this differentiation brings in either ‘attaining the other’ (object cathexis) or ‘being the other’ (identification) (Nixon, 2000: 316-317). Reflections of Turkish Identity and Orientalism emerge from a culture-oriented, religion-oriented perspective rather than specific geography, exhibiting a mystical, interesting, passive, and feminine structure that the West lacks. The description and positioning of the east in travel books and biographies published in the West constitute a completely different field of study. While more original and individual impressions are observed in the first works, a style of expression that became more similar and more uniform in the following centuries also appears. Yet, the heydays of Orientalism seem to be over. The cinema films took the place of theatre plays. Yet, the cinema-going activities lessened day by day, and theatre spectatorship seems to be dead already. However, alongside the filmic views, developing media, and social media there is not much left to be revealed about the East and Orientalism. Thus the mysticism and exotism attributed to the theme almost disappeared. Having the loss of fame and decentralized position of the theme of Orientalism on one hand degrades the value of the arts produced recently. Furthermore, it could even be discussed if Özpetek film Hamam really could be regarded as a portrayal of Orientalism due to his being a Turk actually. This also might bring a kind of duality to the issue, since Orientalism is also attributed to the gaze of the Westerners. Even if Özpetek lives in Italy for a long time, he still carries a Turkish identity due to spending a childhood here in Turkey. Thus, the Orientalism examples he could provide would yield a kind of pseudo Orientalism having second-hand attributions, connotations, symbols, etc. However, that could be handled as the portrayal of Modernism in Italy as Atay suggests (Atay, 2019). Thus, rather than reading the film as an example of Orientalism, it’s possible to position it as a counter interpretation regarding the presentation of Italian culture as an example unveiling the endless comparing and contrasting debates of East and West. Topic on the other hand means a matter dealt with in a text, discourse, or conversation; a subject. In text studies, many different issues related to the concept of theme could be brought up to create a new 544

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 Reflections of Orientalism and Modernism in the Film Hamam by Ferzan Özpetek

or similar discussion. For example, within the framework of the “Friendship” theme, different topics such as the friendship of a child and a dog, the friendship of a white and a black person, or else could be discussed. The same topic might be handled again and again through different actors and settings yet in fact it narrates the same story. Taken from a Structuralist perspective of Todorov and Propp, the concepts we come across are “basic action”, “dilemma” and “choice/choices”. The real dilemma here is perhaps the orientalist thought that the west focuses on the east, in a way that the east focuses on the west, bringing with it social as well as intellectual and ideological perspectives between the lines. Similarly, applying Todorov’s and Propp’s text analysis to the narrative, the main dilemma lies in between the main agent and the other, “antagonist and protagonist”. In fact, the dilemma necessitates the “othering” of the “self” as well. At the very beginning, the main protagonist of the film, Madame Anita is by no means seen in the film; only her main act is presented as her being in Turkey during World War II. She came from Rome and settled in Istanbul and managed a Turkish bath left by his husband. Her dilemma was either to choose to get back to the West or stay in the East. Her choice would be in favor of Istanbul. In this context, it may be possible to evaluate the basic concept of the film ‘Hamam’ is not only the story of Marta and Osmanlar or Madam Anita and Francesco or Francesco and Mehmet. The film involves duality through different contexts: East vs West, Skyscrapers vs Humble and cozy homes, Law vs Outlaw, Marriage vs Family, and Men vs Women. Mostly these dilemmas were provided through a cyclic narrative style rather than a linear story. Yet, each episode introduces us to a new perspective. And again, each perspective is provided rather in an embedded way instead of making it open. This embedded style makes the text more Oriental and mystic. Text requires the elements of the design to be in a certain shape, order, and frequency. As far as fiction is concerned, each verbal, visual, or literary text contains a kind of fiction. Sometimes even if the text is not a fictive one, some elements of fiction are implemented in it. Aspects of the text might become important as much as the text itself: such as if the fiction and design in the analyzed text are real, mythical, or adaptation. And whose point of view the text is constructed gains importance as much as the text itself. Here not only spoken languages, tones of voices but also the way they were used accompanying facial expressions, body language, the setting, and atmosphere, etc. could be analyzed. The text also involves the adapted and harmonized version of the main form regarding the audience, the participants of the dialogue, age, level, interest, etc. Here, for example, in the Hamam narrative, the life of a married couple in Rome suddenly changes with the arrival of a letter from Turkey. This sounds like an invitation to the unknown. Later in the film, there will be many other letters suddenly occurring, explaining or offering new perspectives and identities to the lives of people. Making use of Genette’s terminology, the text follows a spiral sequence, not a linear one. Actions do not appear in an interdependent manner but as actions that are sequenced step by step over time, they are presented independently of each other or as if taking place on different planes. For example, the story that started in Italy at the beginning of the film carries us almost completely to the atmosphere of Istanbul afterward. Beyond modern concepts and today’s network society, the heroes are informed, touched, and changed by letters from the past. The events occur in such an order that perhaps the change of order becomes so important; in conclusion, it may lead us to an entirely different textual analysis. The sequence and frequency of actions also give us information about the direction, function, meaning, sub-reading, and analysis of mobility. Thread in its real sense, means a long, thin strand of cotton, nylon, or other fibers used in sewing or weaving. Yet, through the threads, the motives and other colors are possible within the same smooth 545

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 Reflections of Orientalism and Modernism in the Film Hamam by Ferzan Özpetek

pattern. Regarding the threads in the text means considering the text involving certain different aspects. What other factors contributed to the text becomes very important as much as the text itself. In the filmic text, the theme of orientalism and the topic of family, marriage, and Turkish identity are all implemented within the text. In the case of embedding threads within the text some infrastructure is established and details, the threads are scattered within the text. It could be just a name, an action, a part of the past or unknown action, etc. The implemented truth might be observed by the audience or not. It is the question of what other concepts and topics could be yielded as secondary or subheadings within the text associated with the topic. For example, points such as social messages, references to the political or economic level, in-text and non-textual references, endophoric or exophoric references, inferences, intertextual transitions become important. All these need to become a patchwork within the main text to complete the text through different aspects. The marriages of the couples, happiness and sincerity, calm manners, and humble life were questioned through the threads of globalization, modernization, and their symbols of malls and skyscrapers, contradicting with smiling people in small intimate houses made of wood. The director of the film, Ferzan Özpetek, living abroad (Italy) and looking at Turkey from that far end could also be interpreted as a thread in the text. Each thread brings a different pattern, color, or motif to the text. Probably his own life is also a bit embedded into the Hamam text as one of the threads. In the film Hamam, the acts in a sense “following a cyclical sequence” are going backward in the story and when the way of information is viewed from Roland Barthes’s point of view, this is more like a puzzle, a puzzle that the audience has to solve. It seems as if it is necessary to know which piece is needed and to be able to find out what to put there. In a sense, such a space to be filled in by the audience creates a space that engages and activates the audience. Task is a piece of work to be done or undertaken. It would be explicit or implicit but each text provides some tasks for the audience as the receivers of the message. After a text is formed, it is necessary to be able to send it to individuals or groups hoping to yield a certain message within a certain concept. This means that the text is deployed to the target audience or a certain media in a certain way. Perhaps certain forms, language, and visibility of the text might need to be differentiated as a requirement of this deployment. Sometimes it’s the order of the textual units or the order of the event that happens within the text. The task is a point of view regarding who is taking what out of that certain limitation of the text. Thus, the text should be welcomed by the receivers hoping to get a partial task to themselves. This might be spending enjoyable time throughout the film, a social message to be performed after viewing, or anything which deals with the handling and examination of the text involving some kind of a change. The main important thing is just to reveal them and find out what duties are required and what actions to be taken on the side of the receivers of the text. The texts put their tasks as to improvise, activate, and motivate people as well as to organize them. The text could also put forward the idea of justice as the main task to be followed by people. Sacrificing the self for the people he barely knows, Francesco becomes the hero of the main narrative. Depending upon what he did for them, he’s been accepted as “one of us” by the society he’s been offered and welcomed. So, now the main task of the receiver could be welcoming other Francesco’s that might come along. One other task could be associated with the letters of the past. These letters occurring all of a sudden combines the present and the past and shapes the future. Each character of the narrative could be associated with different tasks within the filmic text and out of it. Here perhaps the main task turns to be the questioning of Orientalism and putting it into the dilemmatic situations as before just to find out what the results would be this time. Trends & Transfers give importance to what tendencies to be considered important regarding time, situation, acceptance, accessibility, etc. Transferring the message from the sender to the receiver the 546

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text carries so many different types of messages. The main structure, the substructure, connotations, denotations, all carry millions of messages within the same text. Furthermore, having the same message, different receivers might act in different ways. It is almost impossible for text to exist all alone. Coded and wrapped up in certain different ways, all these messages have their way up to the receivers and decoded in their own world. Thus, the trends and transfers of the receivers mean how all these messages were consumed and what kind of reaction is involved. As the text reaches the target audience, it provides some changes in them; acceptances or tendencies, perceptions, types of tolerance or hatred, attitudes, and behaviors might also be observed and accompanied to their own setting. That means the same film might cause somebody in the UK to think in a positive way, yet, for somebody in Turkey it might be offensive and not acceptable. As Barthes claims, all texts are open texts, although they may appear limited and closed texts. Being open to the effects of time, to the comments of different readers, and to new adaptations also make it necessary for the texts to be in constant exchange with the tendencies and reflections of the reader. Therefore, the film world presented by the texts can pass into the readers’ real-world and might cause several different trends in general or individual transfers into their lives. It might not be possible to understand or follow the possibility or the rate of the impact since it might be bounded to the personal capacity, background, and atmosphere. Some like the clothes and reflected the fashion of the text, some like the sound and music. Some like the picturesque views of Italy and may move there. Furthermore, the impact of the film might be an immediate one or a delayed one. Consequently, the text could be questioned, accepted, banned, or create big discussions, etc., yet, anyhow it would be re-transmitting its effects to the text, creating an endless repetition and transaction system between the text and the society. It is the story of Francesco that was first presented to the audience. Later on, we meet with Madame, through her letters, and later we focus on Marta’s point of view, then we return to Francesco and ultimately to Marta and ultimately to Marta’s successor. In each process, we go through different processes in different parts of the film, like watching/listening to the story of a different hero. Transition might mean the movement, passage, or change from one position, state, stage, subject, concept, etc., to another. In other words, it reflects the change such as the transition from adolescence to adulthood. Usually, this might be clearly seen and experienced compared to the trends and transfers possibilities. Transitions are the undefined parts of the text received by the audience and accepted as part of life afterward. For example, having a scene of two people eating Roma ice-cream, the part of the audience might develop a tendency of eating Roma ice-cream right after the film and this tendency becomes a routine part of their life. The audience might get something out of the filmic text and deploys it into real life. Compared to the short stories, poems, etc., the films have a larger tendency to develop a bridge between the sender and the receiver so that they might help each other to convey the transitions. At this point, it may be necessary to remind that in the 19th century, in the Victorian age, homosexuality was regarded not as a degrading image of masculinity, but as its ‘real power’, as a ‘third sex’ that includes both masculinity and femininity (Weeks, 1981). Therefore, considering that Francesco finds a different ‘I’ in the film, actually gains strength, and becomes a superior position by surpassing the previous ‘I’, it seems that Martha’s devotion to him in the face of this exaltation can be explained. The author of a book or a director of the film might also have a transition after a success. Approval of the piece of work might cause them to change a bit or a lot. Yet, the importance of the transition is that it could only occur through the help of the text but nothing else. The target audience of the text can develop a much different response to the text in different later time periods in the time the text was produced. For example, how a literary or filmic text is perceived 547

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 Reflections of Orientalism and Modernism in the Film Hamam by Ferzan Özpetek

in different time periods, or if the same text takes occurs in different forms such as theater, motion picture, a television film, musical other than literature, its effects on the audience can be evaluated. The transition of the message involves the immediate audience responses as well as the delayed responses. What changed and how it is changed throughout time might be a good analysis point. For example, the audience does not welcome the text when it first appears but later on after many years they figure out that it was not that bad and still valid. And the transition starts. On the one hand, these transitions could be perceived as the social spread and adoption of any work, on the other hand, the reactions and criticisms against this work should also be taken into consideration. Regarding Hamam for example, sexual intercourse between the two men was regarded as something bad for that time, yet, in time the way this topic is handled changed a lot and probable people look at it somewhat more normal probability. In the movie Hamam, there are very good examples of characters shifting from important to unimportant and unimportant to important. Madame Anita’s inheritance suddenly gained importance when it was learned that the bathhouse was about to be divorced, Francesco gained importance in Marta’s eyes when she was about to divorce, Madame Anita gained importance in Marta’s eyes even though she did not know it at all, and finally, Marta wrote a letter to Mehmet. It exemplifies these transitions very well. What matters is change, articulation, and differentiation. Mobility removes the danger of social exclusion that can occur in many different ways. In this respect, the film Hamam also provides a different setting (İstanbul) for the mobility of the concept of Orientalism. This time, orientalism is not blamed to be different but positioned as a kind of bridge between the East and West. Mobility provides freedom in this sense. For example, in the movie Hamam, Francesco’s participation in activities with the Osmanlar family as a guest, eating, and chatting frequently help him gradually to become one of them. This might be called the acculturation period. Being in a certain agreement with the group members, meeting with them in certain denominators, exclusion of “otherizing” eliminates or neutralizes the state of being the other or marginalization. In this case, the individual will either have to be the “self” and be content with oneself, or the individual will choose to be in the process of change, either consciously or unconsciously, thus will give up self and try to replace it with the “other” who is longed for, desired, or perceived to be in a higher position. In this case, a secondary identity that has been identified with the “other” in a sense will emerge. In essence, this new other is against the self. However, this opposition seems to have been eliminated, since throughout the integration process, it is integrated with all the features of the “other” and the features of the “self” against it are minimized or even destroyed completely. It is the same when Marta comes to visit Francesco and encounters almost totally a different personality. Whereas the previous one was not appealing to her, this new blended or made-up identity of Francesco affects her more than ever. It is possible to refer to this new position as the “Neutralisible Opposition”. This new tolerable identity of Francesco is a total surprise for Marta. Thus, the film could be handled as a counter Orientalism due to the Turkish identity of Özpetek. It’s not only including an Orientalist approach to Turkey but also portrays the West through the Turkish view, a kind of duality neutralizing each other within the narrative. Thinking means the process of considering or reasoning about something. After all, at the points where text and text readers meet, the basic requirement is an understanding and decision-making process. How this process starts or what kind of path it might follow is extremely important. For example, there are thought and action-oriented evaluations such as when the viewer watching a commercial film will be realizing how useful the introduced product is for him, and there comes a time when he transforms this understanding into a purchase. An exact comprehension of the feeling or thought affecting the audience may never be voiced out loud or it may require long-term, diachronic, and concurrent research. 548

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Anyhow, it’s normal to think about what’s consumed as the message as input and after the digestion, an output might occur. The thinking process might appear on the way as the receiver might change the first impressions, evaluate and digest the message. For example, before or after watching the film, learning that it is a 1997 Italian-Turkish-Spanish film directed by Ferzan Özpetek one may look at it as a more global film rather than a Turkish movie. That’s why the powerful transformations experienced in the film might look like something could have happened elsewhere rather than in Turkey if it were not a Turkish setting. One other thing is that having the foreign cast and crew, one might think that it’s the story of ‘the other’ in terms of social layers rather than thinking of it it’s ‘mine’. Certain features of narrative should be those that appeal to society and affect their thinking, criticizing, and evaluating styles. From this point of view, for example, a realistic character may not be accepted in a narrative with fantastic features. Similarly, fantastic elements may be considered odd in a realistic narrative. Thinking requires a smooth process and certain progress. The elements of the text should be meticulously prepared that the dynamics of intertwining should be balanced. Thus, the message may tangle in the minds of the receivers without having any barriers or distractors. Anything that might occur to prevent the thinking, evaluating and decision-making process should be eliminated to give the best chance to the receiver to capture the message in the best possible way. Tailoring means the activity or trade of a tailor. In fact, it requires the process of designing the style or cut of a garment or garments. Here the garment(s) might be considered to be the identities made up for the narrative to fit on the audiences. It involves questioning what kind of details implemented within the narrative. If there’s nothing to fit on the audience, they would be missing the chance of identifying themselves with any of the characters in the text and would never feel in the same way. However, the main thing persuading, motivating the audience to take part in the narrative is the chance of feeling the things that they could never have on their own. Text is an open-ended system of values. Individuals or groups who encounter the text, harmonize the units of the textual elements with that of their own reality. From the first moment of the encounter, they start either to participate in the text or reject it for some reason. They tend to manipulate the things in the text to make it their own, adding their own values, interpretations, and experiences. The more they could make changes to the elements the closer the text becomes to the receivers. Throughout the process, the level of acceptability is increased and the text is owned by the receivers. The receivers feel closer to the characters, plot, and setting in the text, and in a sense, they could experience a cultural adaptation process. For example, “Selvi Boylum Al Yazmalım”, one of the most important films of Turkish Cinema, is internalized, watched, and acclaimed with great joy and participation by the Turkish people. Yet, even if the text is produced actually by a foreign writer and the story takes place in different geography it is adapted to the Turkish setting and accepted as a Turkish film. Participation of the audience could be in different ways, such as emotional, scientific, fictional, political, economic, social, or cultural. The director or the author may apply different strategies to make the adaptation of the text possible for different types of receivers, audiences, and readers. Putting all these together, the sender of the message could manage to make up a text that appeals to a wider international community. That means, as Reimer puts forward the tailoring function could work in a mutual way on the side of the sender and receiver to manage the orientation and compatibility with each other. The author emphasizes how, on the one hand, one may influence the excitement in the narrative by placing mysticism, uncertainty, mystery, and a misty atmosphere (Hamam) among the images of the youth, on the other hand, how one could continue to spread and recreate the image of Orientalism by keeping it alive. (Reimer, 2000: 111-13).

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 Reflections of Orientalism and Modernism in the Film Hamam by Ferzan Özpetek

According to Diken et al., explaining Hamam in Lacanian terms (Lacan, 1973), the East is on the one hand the object of desire of the West, and on the other hand, it is implied in an inaccessible way. In this sense, the existence of the East as a product of fantasy is related to the suppression of the dreams of the West. It is orientalized, unattainable, dreamlike, and untouchable (Diken 2004). Taking Risks concentrates more on crisis solutions. This part involves how much the sender of the message knows about the receivers so that balancing the text would be possible. Taking risks involves understanding what kind of threats could be on the way to understanding the text. Each text and each image in the text actually stands at a point that might create a crisis. In this respect, their Availability, Accessibility, and Acceptance by the receiver gain more importance than the text itself. The “Intentionality” of the sender should find resonance on the side of the receivers. If the intentions are not clear, the receivers might be lost and miss the core of the message. “Informativity” is also another important factor in Barthes’ terms: if the information level of the text is too high, then it sounds more didactic, and if it is lower then it provides no new perspectives to the audience. Similarly, the intertextuality level might also be a handicap for the sender and receiver. Having frequent exophoric references, requiring a heavy load of background information might cause a distraction of attention. The “Situationality” of the text is also very important. The same plot could be designed to take place in any other country or in Turkey, in İstanbul, or in another town. Thus, the view, the context, the culture, and the historical background wouldn’t make the same impact on the audience. All and all, the acceptability of the text mainly depends upon the acceptance of the theme, topic, characters, setting, and actions within the text. If one fails, each of them fails altogether. The task of the writer or designer of the artists is to make it all balanced taking the risks of rejection and eliminating them as much as possible. The texts and text writers have to anticipate, overcome, and resolve the crises that may be created. A movie may not be reaching a wide audience as it was planned or a costly TV show may not reach its desired audience after a few episodes. The meaning within the texts or the period in which they were produced, the society, or the media may cause problems. A series that does not work on one channel may be more successful when it switches to another channel. A novel that was not acclaimed in the past might become a bestseller 50 years later. From this point of view, the crises in the author’s own autobiography and the way of solving them might be paving the way the character of Francesco emerged. The main risk of this text is the accommodation of an implied relationship between Francesco and Mehmet. How the audience will handle it and how they will be reacting to that would be regarded as the main problem of the text. The text should never take risks of being misunderstood or manipulated. The main risk of the text having controversial issues might be the prejudices or misconceptions to provoke people. Yet, every word, every scene, every sign and image seems to be involving certain direct and indirect references, associations, dichotomies, connotations, etc. Regarding the “Intentionality” of the text, we need to concentrate on the intentions of the writer. Here the narrative is being accepted as a Turkish film. Perhaps director Ozpetek was also planning to position Turkey as a place of desire, etc. regarding the foreign audience aiming to learn a lot from Turkey. In abroad this narrative is screened as a commercial film and aims to find audiences, to create a good market by placing this story in the context of Istanbul and Orientalism. Technology & Transmedia are the tools to enrich the text and keep it at a more accessible point. Enrichment and mobility are the utilizing factors that might keep the text on the agenda and may help it to reach wider audiences. Even if the media literacy rates are not high in (orientalist) Middle East countries, the implied or polysemic texts seem to be more common involving more ambiguity and mysticism. Thus, usually, the same message could transcend to the other (Western) communities in different ways 550

 Reflections of Orientalism and Modernism in the Film Hamam by Ferzan Özpetek

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and might mean different things. Access to information by new technological opportunities is possible currently. Thus, certain concepts; like keywords, collocations, Google AdWords, hashtags, and commentators, which are occupied with the “instantaneous response” as the creative output of the receivers’ activation are all possible ways to bridge the gap. Technology today, mainly helps the messages to be accessible and it also may enrich the messages in different ways through augmented reality or virtual reality possibilities. It is also possible to enrich the text via numerous audiovisual effects. Thus, each text is shaped with the media to get support from different technological processes. Affecting its nature, values, and even its messages, these technological magic touches may make the texts reach up to wider masses. Looking at the social realities of the period, whether the values, social rules, and culture of that period were reflected or not. Regarding Transmedia as a new way of storytelling, most of the text makes use of the transmedia facilities available. Yet, in those Hamam days, it was not that common. The concept introduced by Jenkins (Jenkins, 2011) has a lot to do with the new media and different platforms as well as merging companies to establish a conglomerating atmosphere. In such texts, varying authors might implement the same or similar texts as to cause different possibilities of the mobility of the text. Jenkins states the term “transmedia” means “across media” and may be applied too superficially similar, but different phenomena. In particular, the concept of “transmedia storytelling” should not be confused with traditional crossplatform, “transmedia” media franchises, or “media mixes”. Jenkins also focuses on how transmedia extends to attract larger audiences. Unfortunately, the film Hamam seems to be missing that chance of being involved in transmedia, thus interactivity with the audience and multiple readers and writers to implement a text enriched by different pieces of content not only linked together (overtly or subtly), but are in narrative synchronization with each other (Jenkins, 2007). In this way only perhaps it could be possible how the participants of the text mainly use the routes to dwell on different actions. In such cases, the text is no longer permanent in the medium in which it was created. Individuals and groups may not choose what they will be exposed to from time to time. Because of both the slippery nature of the texts and the intertwined features of the media, especially today, it can shift from one media to another, and it is possible to follow the rest of the story with another media that is transitive while acquiring a part of the story from a different source. Also, the same action might have different ends and in each, the narrative evolves in different directions. In that case, for example, there might not be a relationship between Francesco and Mehmet, yet Francesco could again be killed and Marta could also be choosing to stay in Istanbul. This slippery feature can obscure the target audience of texts and turn them into masses, as well as creating niche audiences focusing on each different media environment, each different action and reaction. Since the slippery nature of the text may not allow all texts to be seen all together, yet, it is obvious that the text message must have different messages presented to different layers. It might look like the shuffled books that you may change the order and re-read the story in a different way.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS Regarding the research, it could be argued that the text is considered not only concentrating on Westernization or Orientalism but many other perspectives. Due to the fact that each text is an open one and thus makes it possible to contribute to that even if the time passes, the film Hamam will be producing more texts about the narrative.

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Even if social sciences seem to be supporting the well-known methodology, there could be many other approaches to evaluate the same story with different techniques. There could be ways to assess the architectural design in the film, one in Italy and one in Turkey. Building blocks might have a paradigm of building identities as well. The other evaluation techniques for example might regard the text from a structural point of view and might have deeper formal analysis such as who said how many words, etc.

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CONCLUSION Cinema films shape the individual’s perception of reality and oneself with both reflective and imaginary themes. In this study, there are two films that are discussed with the aim of comparing identity and reflections and imaginary spaces established. We can see that both Francesca and Marta are practiced in the Hamam in the form of reduction or degrading mentioned by Gilman. After all, each text is an incomplete text; a text that can add new values, new items, new structures into it at any time. As long as the additions do not contradict the nature of the text, and are appropriate to its structure and adopted ... the “other” that seems to be far from us is perhaps so close to us that it is inevitable that individuals or societies will resemble each other in real life, just as the heroes in the film turn into the other over time. The film “Hamam” provides many made-up, composed identities to provide a setting and comparison rich enough to yield interesting values as possible. On one hand, the venue and the identity are carried to the front rows but on the other hand, anonymity or becoming no-one or anyone, being in nowhere, having no structural venue or place is structured. The identities were presented on one hand were rich and vivid characters of the narrative, through the venues and lifestyles emphasizing the social statues, comfort levels, and dignity in it. But on the other hand, the same characters could be torn apart, becoming no-one or anyone, being in nowhere, having no structural venue or place is structured. Similarly, whereas the culture, identity, nationality, and humanity contradict each other with its all utmost weight, the identities of consumerism appear through the shift of power, in another world which was structured by the known stereotypes, sameness, and otherness. While the suggested and later on constructed identity turns to be the ‘popular and desired identity’ step by step, the acquired and acknowledged identities are broken into pieces, scattered around building up a new and hybrid culture. As the imagined or designed new pseudo worlds, identities and cultures could become real throughout time, one may also observe how the reality could pile up through little drops and how it could be left as a heritage to the future. As the desired and imagined new pseudo worlds, identities and cultures could become real in time, one can also observe how the reality could pile up through little drops and how it could be left as a heritage to the future. This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or notfor-profit sectors.

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REFERENCES Agocuk, P., Kanlı, İ., & Kasap, F. (2017). 1990‘lı Yıllardan Günümüze Türk Sinemasında Dış Göç Temsili ve Göçmen Kimlik Sorunsalı [Representation of External Migration and Migrant Identities in Turkish Cinema from 1990’s onwards]. Tarih Kültür ve Sanat Arastirmalari Dergisi, 6(3), 505–523. doi:10.7596/taksad.v6i3.939 Aksoy, N. (1990). Rönesans İngiltere’sinde Türkler. Çağdaş Yayınları. Albertsen, N., & Diken, B. (2001). Mobility, Justification, and the City. Nordic Journal of Architectural Research, 14(1), 13–24. Aşçı, G., & Özmen, S. (2018). Sinemada Auteur Kuram ve Star Sistemiyle İlişkisi: Ferzan Özpetek Sineması Örneğiyle. Academic Press. Atay, A. (2019). Seeing the Italian culture through the eyes of Ferzan Ozpetek: Queers, immigrants, global nomads and the changing nature of Italian society. Queer Studies in Media & Popular Culture, 4(3), 271–285. doi:10.1386/qsmpc_00012_1 Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Prentice-Hall. Barthes. (1977). Image, Music, Text. Fontana. Bower, G. (1983). Affect and cognition. Philosophical Transaction of the Royal Society, 302(B), 387-402. Bowlby, R. (1985). Just Looking. Macmillan. Chew, S. C. (1965). The crescent and the Rose. Islam and England During the Renaissance. Octagon Boks, Inc. Çinay, H. H., & Sezerel, H. (2020). Ferzan Özpetek Filmlerinde Gösterge Olarak Yemek: Mine Vaganti/ Serseri Mayınlar. Journal of Tourism and Gastronomy Studies, 8(1), 111–136. Cohen, J., & Weimann, G. (2000). Cultivation revisited: Some genres have some effects on some viewers. Communication Reports, 13(2), 99-114. Diken, B. (2004). City of God. Department of Sociology, Lancaster University. http://www.comp.lancs. ac.uk/sociology/papers/diken-city-of-god.pdf Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance (Vol. 2). Stanford university press.

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Genette, G. (1983). Narrative discourse: An essay in method (Vol. 3). Cornell University Press. Gerbner, G. (1970). Cultural Indicators: The Case of Violence in Television Drama. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 388(1), 74. doi:10.1177/000271627038800108 Gerbner, G. (1987). Television’s populist brew: The three Bs. Etc.; a Review of General Semantics. Gerbner, G. (2002). Against The Mainstream. In Growing Up With Television-The Cultivation Perspective (pp. 193-213). Academic Press.

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Gilman, S. L., & Gilman, S. L. (1985). Difference and pathology: Stereotypes of sexuality, race, and madness. Cornell University Press. Hall, S. (1990). Cultural identity and diaspora. Academic Press. Hall, S. (Ed.). (2000). Representation: Cultural representations and Signifying Practices. Sage Publications. Homans, G. C. (1958). Social behavior as exchange. American Journal of Sociology, 62, 595–606. Homans, G. C. (1974). Social behavior: Its elementary forms (rev. ed.). Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. https://www.boxofficemojo.com/title/tt0119248/?ref_=bo_se_r_1 İmançer, Ç. E. (2018). Queer teorinin izinde Avrupalı bir Türk: Ferzan Özpetek ve sineması (Doctoral dissertation). Selçuk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. JenkinsH. (2007). http://henryjenkins.org/blog/2007/03/transmedia_storytelling_101.html Jenkins, H. (2011). Transmedia 202: Further Reflections. Confessions of an AcaFan. Kanli, İ., & Agocuk, P. (2018). 1990 Sonrasi Türk Sinemasinda Diş Göç Filmlerinde Toplumsal Cinsiyetin Söylemsel İnşasi. The Turkish Online Journal of Design Art and Communication, 8(3), 526–536. doi:10.7456/10803100/007 Lacan, J. (1973). Télévision. Seuil. Lang, A., Newhagen, J. E., & Reeves, B. (1996). Negative video as structure: Emotion, attention, capacity, and memory. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 40(4), 460–470. doi:10.1080/08838159609364369 Mason, J. (1963). The Turke. A. Uystpruyst. Newhagen, I. E., & Reeves, B. (1992). This evening’s bad news: Effects of compelling negative television news images on memory. Journal of Communication, 42(2), 25–41. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.1992. tb00776.x Newhagen, J. E. (1998). The news images that induce anger, fear and disgust: Effects on approachavoidance and memory. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 42(2), 265-276. Nixon, S. (2000). Exhibiting Masuclinity. In Representation: Cultural representations and Signifying Practices. Sage Publications.

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Noelle-Neumann, E. (1974). The spiral of silence a theory of public opinion. Journal of Communication, 24(2), 43–51. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.1974.tb00367.x Özkoçak, Y. (2019). Avrupa Göçmen Sinemasi Ve Türk Asilli Yönetmenler. Stratejik ve Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, 3(3), 429–452. doi:10.30692isad.612812 Pride, W. M., & Ferrell, O. C. (2004). Marketing: concepts & strategies. Dreamtech Press. Propp, V. (1985). Masalın Biçimbilimi. BFS. Reeves, B., Newhagen, J. E., Maibach, E., Basil, M., & Kurz, K. (1991). Negative and positive television messages: Effects of message type and context on attention and memory. The American Behavioral Scientist, 34(6), 679–694. doi:10.1177/0002764291034006006

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Reimer, M. (2000). Making princesses, re-making A little princess. Voices of the other: children’s literature and the postcolonial context, 111-13. Said, E. (1978). Orientalism. Penguin. Signorielli & Morgan. (1990). Cultivation Analysis: Conceptualization and Methodology. In Cultivation Analysis: New Directions in Media Effects Research. Academic Press. Şirin, Y. (2019). Oryantalizm bağlamında Ferzan Özpetek sineması (Master’s thesis). Maltepe Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. Soydan, M. (2007). Ferzan Özpetek’i̇n Hamam Fi̇lmi̇nde Doğu’nun Gi̇zli̇ Bi̇r Oryantali̇zm İle İnşa Edi̇li̇şi. Ege Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Yeni Düşünceler Hakemli E-Dergisi, (2), 51–68. Stoller, F. L., & Grabe, W. (1997). A six-T’s approach to content-based instruction. The content-based classroom: Perspectives on integrating language and content, 78-94. Taylor, C. R., & Stern, B. B. (1997). Asian-Americans: “Television advertising and the ‘model minority’ stereotype”. Journal of Advertising, 26(2), 47-61. Telimen, O. (1977). Motivasyon Teorileri, Moral ve Haberleşme. İ.İ.TA, Nihat Sayar Yardım Vakfı, No: 279. Todorov, T. (1995). Yazın Kuramı. Rus Biçimcilerin Metinleri, Yapı Kredi Yayınları. Urry, J. (2001). Mobility and Proximity. In Sociology. Lancaster University. Wann, L. (1915). The Oriental in Elizabethan Drama. Modern Philology, 12. Weeks, J. (1981). Sex, Politics and society. Longman. Yanmaz, P. (2006). Turizm tanıtımında sinemanın rolü (Master’s thesis). Kocaeli Universitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitusu. Yaren, Ö. B., & Çayıroğlu, D. Y. (2014). Sosyolojide sinema filmlerinin eğitsel araç olarak kullanılması (Doctoral dissertation). Ankara Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Radyo Televizyon Sinema Anabilim Dalı.

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ADDITIONAL READING Andrews, R. (1999). Hamam: The Turkish Bath. Film Ireland, (69), 40. Carbajal, A. F. (2019). Queering Orientalism, Ottoman homoeroticism, and Turkishness in Ferzan Özpetek’s Hamam: The Turkish Bath (1997). In Queer Muslim diasporas in contemporary literature and film. Manchester University Press. doi:10.7765/9781526128119.00010 Duncan, D. (2005). Stairway to heaven: Ferzan Özpetek and the revision of Italy. New Cinemas: Journal of Contemporary Film, 3(2), 101–113. doi:10.1386/ncin.3.2.101/1

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Girelli, E. (2007). Transnational Orientalism: Ferzan zpetek’s Turkish dream in Hamam (1997). New Cinemas: Journal of Contemporary Film, 5(1), 23–38. doi:10.1386/ncin.5.1.23_1 Hoşcan, Ö. (2013). Ferzan Özpetek sinemasında arzunun temsili ve bu temsilde ortaya konan iktidar sorunu. Kılıçbay, B. (2008). Queer as Turk: A journey to three queer melodramas. Queer cinema in Europe, 117-128. Küçük, B., & Kahyaoğlu, İ. (2013). Yerellik öğeleri içinde küreselleşen yönetmen: Ferzan Özpetek. The Turkish Online Journal of Design Art and Communication, 3(2). Pasin, B. (2014). A critical reading of the Ottoman-Turkish hamam as a queered space.

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

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Duality: The quality or character of being twofold; dichotomy. Duality of patterning refers to the ability of human language, both signed and spoken, to form discrete meaningful units. Hamam: Sometimes written as hammam or explained as Turkish Bath, it is a bath in which the bather passes through a series of steam rooms of increasing temperature and then receives a rubdown, massage, and cold shower. Identity: The distinguishing character or personality of an individual or a group of people. Modernism: Modernism, in the fine arts, a break with the past and the concurrent search for new forms of expression. Modernism fostered a period of experimentation in the arts from the late 19th to the mid-20th century, particularly in the years following World War I. Neutralisible Opposition: The action of neutralizing the duality, opposing, resisting, or combating things or ideas. Conciliation in case of antagonism or hostility or bringing together the different parts representing different ideas. Orientalism: Western scholarly discipline of the 18th and 19th centuries that encompassed the study of the languages, literatures, religions, philosophies, histories, art, and laws of Asian societies, especially ancient ones. Portrayal: Representing somebody or something in open or implied ways. The result of portraying is also defined to be a representation, description, or portrait. Reflection: A thought or writing about something, particular in the past, or what one sees when looking into a mirror or body of water. An example of reflection is an article written by an author discussing how he feels he has grown in the past year in his writing style.

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Chapter 32

Reiterative Presentation of the East in WesternProduced Video Games:

A Foucauldian Discourse Analysis Gina Al Halabi https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6435-5121 Istanbul Bilgi University, Turkey Ertuğrul Süngü https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7957-0281 Bahçeşehir University, Turkey

ABSTRACT

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Today’s video game industry is full of examples of games that showcase Oriental stereotypes repetitively and portray them with the typical passive, barbaric, and violent perception. The methodology of this study builds its structure on that problem by gathering data from a conducted survey that focuses on video gamers based in the Middle East, with the aim of exploring how the reiteration of the stereotypical portrayal of the Orient in video games produced by the West afect people’s perception of the Orient. The data then gathered will be analyzed according to Carla Willig’s approach of the Foucauldian discourse analysis using six stages: (1) discursive constructions, (2) discourses, (3) action orientation, (4) positionings, (5) practice, and (6) subjectivity. The analysis’s main limits and strengths will then be taken into consideration, and recommendations will be suggested based on the results of the analysis.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch032

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 Reiterative Presentation of the East in Western-Produced Video Games

INTRODUCTION “A long time ago there were no toys, and everyone was bored. Then they had TV, but they were bored again. They wanted control. So, they invented video games.” These words, by Victor Aurelio Bautista, form a narrative, not only for the endless basic instinctual demands of humankind, but also for our need for knowledge, learning, and interference (Kinder, 1993; Maslow 1943, 1954). Since the rise of video games, they have changed and developed to a great extent (Lule, 2010). Today, games represent many topics and present different events in their narratives, particularly political narratives (Simons, 2007). This chapter set out to investigate how certain topics are being represented in these political narratives, especially the portrayal of the East and the stereotype surrounding them in produced video games. When stereotypes are presented in mass media, they tend to give birth to normalized universal ideas (El-Aswad, 2013), and though they may not be accurate, it does not change their impact on the perception of particular communities and cultures (Ibroscheva&Ramaprasad, 2008). That gives reason to why it is important. The purpose here is to answer the research question of how the reiteration of this stereotype affects people’s perception of the East. That will be carried out by analyzing gathered data from a conducted survey which focuses on video gamers that are based in the Middle East from a Foucauldian analysis approach. It is executed by detailing the stages involved in carrying out a Foucauldian discourse analysis from Carla Willig’s approach (2008), and by applying the gathered data to those stages. The reason for adopting that approach is explained and then its strengths and limitations are considered.

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Orientalism, Neo-Orientalism and Video Games People perceive the world through cultural lenses, and Orientalism is one lens of many others that people view the world from, often making out an image of the “West” as ruling, or more advanced, than the “East” (Jouhki, 2006). Edward Said, influenced by Michel Foucault’s discourse theory, argues that this “man-made” distinction was crafted purposely by Western thought to create an “other”, or “Orient”, that could be manipulated and controlled and is but “a tradition of thought, imagery, and vocabulary” (Said, 2003). Through that tradition, Said describes that the East or the “Orient” has become associated with the stereotype of being passive, irrational, and conservationist (Kaya, 2018). Today, the concept of Orientalism metamorphosed into a post 9/11 neo-Orientalism towards Islam and the Arab-Muslim world which operates with a new paradigm and refers to new constructions of the Orient that unfold the formation of that world (Kerboua, 2016). The rise of Orientalist universal ideas has been affected critically by the stereotypes produced by Western media, as they are continuously implemented into the media we consume (El-Aswad, 2013). In unrealistic and sometimes unfavorable forms, mass media tends to construe social reality and plays an important role in shaping the perceptions of the world (Ibroscheva&Ramaprasad, 2008; Shoemaker & Reese, 1996; Boulding, 1959; Eagly, 1987; Eagly& Wood, 1991; Fishman, 1980). Further impairment to the portrayal of the Middle Eastern community is being caused due to the constant reinforcement of aggressive clichés throughout video games, and they only seem to reinforce and strengthen the perception of those who believe in Orientalist notions (Tucker, 2006).

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An example of that is the reiteration of how the East is represented in video games, which have often relied on the use of stereotypes (Mou&Peng, 2009). The effect of these stereotypes on people’s attitudes and perceptions calls for attention, especially considering the lack of positive images of certain groups, for instance, Arabs, in the media (Saleem, 2008). There has been an increase in games presenting Arabs and Muslims with the stereotype of being savage, brutal, uncivilized, and deviant since the fall of the twin towers, post 9/11 (Van Buren, 2010). These games also tend to represent Arabs as characters with turbans, facial hair, weapons, desert environments, dark skin, and unintelligible speech, which is but a mere stereotype (Saleem, 2008). Although it appears that there has been some progress to improve the representation issue in video games, we are still far from straightening out this issue. Issues with the portrayal of Arab people in video games are just a drop in the bucket when it comes to the vast range and reaches of Orientalist views (Shaw, 2010).

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Adopting a Foucauldian Discourse Analysis Approach Before exploring the methodology of this studyand applying Foucault’s approach through Willig’s design, it is better to understand the reason behind adopting the Foucauldian Discourse Analysis (FDA) approach in this study. Foucault was interested in how knowledge, power, and discourse are connected (Foucault, 1990; Carabine, 2001). He argues that the reiterative process of the produced meanings becomes normalized and then turns into a technique of control in which those who do not conform are deviant (Foucault, 1975, 1969, 1961). He states that discourses are created within a social order by the effects of power. They prescribe rules and categories, and through that method, they mask their construction. He argues that discourses seek to fix certain meanings through their reiteration in society, while hiding their political intentions (Foucault, 1975), and addresses their role in constructing social and psychological realities (Willig, 2008). In socio-cultural contexts, discourses take place, where they enable and restrict ways of constructing a subject. Through that, they have consequences for subjective experiences. From this viewpoint, Ian Parker describes discourse as ‘sets of statements that construct objects and an array of subject positions’ (Parker, 1994; Willig, 2008). From that, it is understood that Foucauldian analysis allows researchers to examine alternate notions of knowledge to encourage new ways of thinking about events (Foucault, 1983; Carnegie, 2019). It focuses on discourses that in a specific time and place function as true, it goes beyond just a linguistic analysis (Willig, 2008), and it explores systems of operating meaning, regardless of the subject’s motives (E. Georgaca& E. Avdi, 2012; Carnegie, 2019). Through FDA, researchers attempt to discover how discourses manifest themselves as a relationship of power and knowledge in society. It tries to expose the connections at work between the two, and it enables the researcher to go beyond an individual’s factors to see a wider view of what might be causing people to act in certain ways (Sheridan, 2016). In recognition that discourses arise within given cultural contexts and that these are both enabling and constraining, and in recognition that media is both a platform for power and knowledge, an FDA approach was deemed useful for this study.

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Methodology and Results The methodology of the study builds on gathering data from a conducted survey with the aim of exploring how the reiteration of the stereotypical portrayal of the East in the West’s media production, in this case, video games, affects people’s perception of the East. The focus group of the study consisted of video-gamers either of Middle Eastern descent or presiding in the Middle East, due to their direct exposure and relevance to the topic, and the lack of existing data which directly focuses on such a group (Embrick, et al., 2012). The data is then examined according to Carla Willig’s (2008) approach of the Foucauldian discourse analysis which offers an introduction to how Foucault’s work has influenced Discourse analysis using six stages: (1) discursive constructions, (2) discourses, (3) action orientation, (4) positionings, (5) practice and (6) subjectivity. The survey is structured around Foucault’s discourse analysis as it was the chosen approach. The survey is separated into 3 different parts. cccFirstly, it begins by asking the participants for their demographics; their gender, age, racial or ethnic identity, religion, and how religious they are. The participants were given the option to not answer when it regards ethnic identity and religion. The sample size was of 90 video-gamers, consisting of 70% males (63/90) and 30% females (27/90) with a mean age of 23 within a range of 18-33. The sample focused on Middle Eastern video gamers, and thus, 84% of the sample were Arabs, 5% of them were West Asian, 4% were South Asian, 1% Asian, and 6% did not wish to answer (Figure 1). Muslims accounted for the majority of their religions, as 62% of them were Muslim, 15% of them were Christian, 12% were Atheists, 3% were Agnostic, and 8% did not wish to answer (Figure 2). As for how religious they were, 33% were moderately religious, 31% were slightly religious, 26% were not religious at all, 4% were strongly religious, and 6% did not wish to answer (Figure 3).

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Figure 1. A pie chart of the participants’ ethnic identity

The survey then asks about video game exposure, it lists down around 16 games which either portray stereotypes in them or portrays characters that relate to the “Orient” in one way or another, such as the

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Call of Duty series for its stereotypical representation of Eastern characters, Battlefield for their Middle Eastern settings in environmental backgrounds, and so on. The most played games in the lists were Assassin’s Creed, Battlefield V, Call of Duty: Black Ops series, Call of Duty: Modern Warfare series, Counter Strike, and Medal of Honor. Figure 2. A pie chart of the participants’ religion

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Figure 3. A pie chart of the participants’ religious level

In the third part of the survey, Foucault’s discourse analysis plays part in how the questions were structured, as it was separated into five different sections, where each section focuses on Carla Willig’s approach of the Foucauldian discourse analysis. In the first section, the participants were asked to describe the Middle Eastern stereotype they are aware of in video games on a 7-point bipolar scale ranging from -3 (negative) to 3 (positive), where ten semantic differential adjectives were provided. The adjectives used were friendly/unfriendly, peaceful/

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violent, helpful/disruptive, nice/mean, beautiful/ugly, clean/unhygienic, good/bad, pleasant/unpleasant, honest/dishonest, educated/uneducated. The mean for this scale was M = -1.13. The adjective with the highest mean average (-1.69) was “violent”, afterward, the adjectives sorted in a decreasing mean average order were bad (-1.4), uneducated (-1.31), unfriendly (-1.12), disruptive and unpleasant (-1.12), mean/ not nice (-0.96), dishonest (-0.9), unhygienic (-0.83), ugly (-0.73). The aim of this section was to identify the different ways of how the East is being represented as truth or norm in video games, to define how this stereotype is being referred to as, and most importantly, what the shared meaning developed by the discourse is. This section refers to stage 1: discursive constructions. In the second section, the participants were asked to evaluate different statements that measure levels of patriotism on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The statements included sentences such as “I love my country,” “I am proud of my ethnic identity,” I am emotionally attached to my country,” “When I see my country’s flag flying, I feel great,” “I feel great pride in my country”. Higher scores on this measure meant higher levels of patriotism. The mean for this scale was M = 3.10. The statement with the highest mean average (3.96) was “It makes me happy when I see my people participating in our cultures and traditions,” and the statement with the lowest mean average (2.3) was “It is important for me to serve my country,”. The aim of this section was to analyze how the identified discourse was being constructed, how many constructions there were, and whether it was being constructed in a way that was being problematic or not. This section refers to stage 2: discourses. In the third section, the participants were asked to evaluate different statements that measure how Western people they have met view Arabs on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The statements included sentences such as “Western people I have met usually think that Arabs are not good people,” “…usually don’t like Arabs,” “…usually think that Arabs are terrorists/ not peaceful/not tolerant/aggressive/ignorant/uneducated.” Higher scores on this measure meant higher negative views of Arabs from Westerners. The mean for this scale was M = 3.40. The statement with the highest mean average (3.71) was “Western people I have met usually think that Arabs are ignorant and uneducated”, and the statement with the lowest mean average (3.14) was “Western people I have met usually don’t like Arabs”. The aim of this section was to analyze the function of the constructed discourses, their implications, and what is gained from constructing the East in this way. This section refers to stage 3: action orientation. In the fourth section, the participants were asked to evaluate statements that measure how normalized stereotypes in video games have become on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The statements included sentences such as “Stereotypes in video games are normal,” “Game designers can express themselves the way they want,” and “I don’t pay attention to the stereotypes that are represented in video games.” Higher scores on this measure meant higher levels of normalization towards stereotypes. The mean for this scale was M = 2.95. The statement with the highest mean average (3.11) was “Stereotypes in video games are normal”, and the statement with the lowest mean average (2.86) was “Game designers can express themselves the way they want, regardless of how it may affect others.” The aim of this section was to analyze the free agent’s position in the discourse and to study the relationship between the ways where the constructions and their position opens up or closes down opportunities for action. This section refers to stage 4: positionings; as well as stage 5: practice. In the fifth section, the participants were asked to evaluate statements that measure how they felt towards the stereotypes in video games on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The statements included sentences such as “Stereotypes in video games don’t bother me,” “I got accustomed to stereotypes in video games,” “Stereotypes in video games have never af562

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fected me negatively,” “I have never felt attacked by a stereotype in games,” and “I have not related to any stereotype in games before.” Higher scores on this measure meant higher normalization towards the stereotype. The mean for this scale was M = 3.20. The statement with the highest mean average (3.48) was “I got accustomed to stereotypes in video games,” and the statement with the lowest mean average (2.96) was “Stereotypes in video games don’t bother me.” The aim of this section was to explore what could be felt, thought, and experienced from within various subject positions, in this case, the subjects are Middle Eastern video gamers. This section refers to stage 6: subjectivity.

Foucauldian Analysis Stage 1: Discursive Constructions The first stage of Carla Willig’s (2008) approach of the Foucauldian discourse analysis asks the questions “How is the discursive object constructed?” and “What type of object is being constructed?”. From that, it is understandable that first, a discursive object needs to be identified. Here, that discursive object is the East’s representation in video games. Since the East’s representation in video games is our discursive object, it makes sense to ask questions about the ways in which this discourse is constructed and the ways in which it is absorbed as a truth or norm. The Cambridge English Dictionary defines a stereotype as a “a set of ideas that people have about someone or something.” Through our survey, the participants evaluated the Middle Eastern “stereotype” they are aware of in video games by evaluating a “set” of adjectives on a bipolar scale. Through the results, the set of adjectives were relatively negative, and the most chosen word to describe the stereotype was “violent”. Other adjectives were also chosen as they were mentioned above in the survey’s outcome. This analysis results in constructing the East’s representation as a set of ideas, or in this case, adjectives, which are defined as a stereotype. This stereotype consists of sets of ideas such as violent, bad, uneducated, and so on. What is most important about these results is that the construct is based on shared meaning between that sample of people (Stahl, 2006).

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Stage 2: Discourses In the second stage of the approach, such questions are asked: “What discourses are drawn upon?” and “What is their relationship to one another?” (Willig, 2008). In this stage, wider discourses surrounding the discursive object are located, as what appears to be one and the same, can be constructed in different ways (Budwig, 1995). Through locating these discourses, their fundamental implications should be considered. Through the survey, the participants’ levels of patriotism were measured in order to identify whether any discourses were being constructed through the discursive object, whether they have a relationship with each other, and whether this was problematic and had implications that should be considered. The results show that although the mean average (3.10) was comparatively higher than the neutral (2.5), there were still statements with slightly low mean averages such as “I feel great pride in my country,” with an average of (2.8). The construction of lower levels of patriotism may be affected by other factors unrelated to video games, yet we cannot disregard that this is problematic, and that media has a huge role in promoting 563

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and demoting patriotism values (Chan &Phua, 2012), thus it resonates with political discourse. Notions of collective power, distinguishing insiders from outsiders, and establishing boundaries dominate such discourses. In these terms, thought provokes political action, and political action provokes thought (Apter, 2001). Stage 3: Action Orientation In the third stage of the approach, such questions are asked: “What do the constructions achieve?”, “What are their functions?”, and “What is gained from deploying them here?” (Willig, 2008) In the survey, the participants’ experiences of Westerner’s views on Arabs were measured to identify whether there is a gain being deployed through the Western construction of political discourse through video games. In the results, it is seen that the mean is high (3.40), where a higher score meant a higher negative perception of Easterners. Within this context, it is understood that, here, the use of discursive construction of the East’s representation in games in the stereotypical way it is constructed could be seen as a way to mold reality into what is more advantageous, where one version of events is promoted over another, and responsibility is assigned to the stereotyped side. To counteract the impression of attempting to portray things differently from reality, construction of a certain narrative and reconstructing the receiver’s opinion, in this case, the Western player, deems it necessary. Further through the stages, it is seen that it not only reconstructs the Western player’s opinion but also the Middle Eastern player starts to normalize the stereotype themselves and accept it.

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Stage 4: Positionings In the fourth stage of the approach, “What subject positions are made available by these constructions?” is asked. Subject positions are “a location for persons within the structure of rights and duties for those who use that repertoire” (Davies and Harre, 1999: 35; Willig, 2008). This refers that taking up certain discourses allows and constrains certain ways of being (Given, 2008). Positioning refers to subject positions within discourses. In this case, a few subject positions could be drawn upon. In political discourse, subject positions available here are that of senders and receivers, or a dominating side and the other party. Senders, that are in particular passive, for example, passive game producers, are in a position where they produce narratives that grab the attention of the market without keeping in regards the effects of the stereotypes that come with these narratives. On the other hand, passive receivers, meaning passive video game players, are in a position where they play games without paying attention to the stereotypes being represented in them, thus accepting them by complying and conforming. That results in these portrayals being normalized, even to the player being stereotyped. An example of that is demonstrated in the results of the survey conducted in this study. The mean scale of the normalized stereotypes was 2.95, which is relatively high, as it is above the neutral average. Stage 5: Practice In this stage, questions such as “What can be said and done from within these subject positions?” are asked. It refers to the relationship between the ways where the constructions and their position opens or closes opportunities for action (Willig, 2008). The position of the dominating side of the discourse 564

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requires those positioned within them to act responsibly and with consideration for the consequences of their actions. Having the ability to influence the portrayal of a whole culture and community has effects on the other party within the arrangement (the players), and the dominating side should take responsibility for these effects. The dominating side’s ability to produce games into mass media demonstrates their positioning as a responsible actor. By contrast, the other party (the players) are free agents who have the right to play, or not to play, and are not forced to do so if they did not want to. This means that they are associated with considering the effects of the choices of the games they play. Stage 6: Subjectivity In this stage of the approach, it asks, “What can potentially be felt, thought, and experienced from the available subject positions?”. Discourses are concerned with certain ways of seeing, and being in the world (Buchanan, 2008). Here, it is necessary to answer this question based on the positions traced above. Although this stage is usually the most speculative, it helps that through the survey conducted, the participants’ feelings towards this discourse were measured. In the survey, the participants take the place of the “passive player”. The average mean of how the participants’ felt towards the stereotypes in video games was 3.20, which shows relatively high normalization towards them. The survey though is limited to understanding what could be felt or experienced from the “producers” or “dominating side”, in where what could potentially be felt may be speculated. Since there is no direct action towards these stereotypes and since they have been normalized, it is speculated that the second subject is most likely unaffected. This again shows how this discourse fits into political discourse, where dominating order exists.

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DISCUSSION It is important to point out that Willig’s six stages do not constitute a full analysis in the Foucauldian sense, as these stages only provide a way into Foucauldian analysis. Regardless, it was important to trace the constructions’ implications. In this section of the chapter, the stereotypes will be more examined and looked at in a deeper sense. The world created by games allows every person to create their own choices (Cliff, 2017). However, as time passed by, games transformed into narratives with one perspective. They transformed into productions that wanted the player to experience realistic narratives firsthand (Turley, 2018). The theme of realism which is confronted more particularly in First Person Shooter games (FPS) has attracted attention to a great extent (Grimshaw et. al, 2011). Characteristics of FPS games include the camera’s perspective or placement that is right at the controlled character’s eyes, as if the user sees the world of the game through their own eyes. As for the sound effects, it is transmitted to the gamer in parallel with his/her position. Perspective and movement are programmed in the same way. War blows during gameplay are felt at the exact moment they happen, and the game allows control to look at any object around as close as an actual human can with his or her own eyes (R. Weber et. al, 2009). Aside from realism, another crucial and important point is the element of testimony. That element of testimony has not been presented by other media tools, where in video games, it enables the gamer to be in unprecedented close touch through the experience of immersing him or her while playing (Alexiou, 2018). As Peters (2009) describes in “Witnessing”; “Witnessing is a range of topsy-turvy emotions. It 565

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revives reality and experience, existence and absence, briefly, the basic, essential questions of communication in minds.” Peters elaborates that microphones and cameras of media have become the eyes and the ears of a person. He also states that the fragility of witnessing is the point where experience and discourse unite. This viewpoint recalls Umberto Eco’s discourse, “Technology can give us more reality than nature can.” The criticism done by Peters (2001) creates a background of criticism for realism in games made by academicians, like Peter Mantello, who are interested more closely in today’s games. War narrative is at the heart of FPS games. Because of the daily political events changing in time and most importantly, the 9/11 attack, huge game production and delivery companies have changed their policies in parallel with these events (Lane, 2011). When it comes to the neo-orientalist approach and the War on Terror war narrative, certain examples of games come to mind. The Call of Duty (COD) series is an example of a video game series that showcases stereotypes in its games and narratives (Ząbecki, 2015). In addition to that is the Battlefield series. To describe the few stereotypes visible in the COD series, in Modern Warfare (Activision, 2007), there is the character, Khaled Al Asad, the leader of a separatist group, military commander, in a small oil-rich unnamed Arab country who murdered the country’s president on live television and leads a “noble crusade” against his government, which “has been colluding with the west” (Gagnon, 2010). As for Modern Warfare 2 (Activision, 2009), the game takes place in Karachi, Pakistan, yet the depiction had mistakes of street signs being in Urdu, as well as Arabic, even though Arabic is not used in Karachi. Another game from the series is Black Ops II (Activision, 2012), which takes place in the 80s where there is a system involving Mujahideen in Soviet-controlled Afghanistan. Finally, Black Ops III (Activision, 2015) has the character “Yousef Salim”, an Egyptian psychotherapist who illegally experiments on soldiers (Khan et al., 2016). The problem with Call of Duty only starts with the stereotypes of how the East is represented, as its scenes rewrite post-9/11 fears, anxieties, and insecurities, and reinforces a discourse that was constantly promoted by the West after 9/11. (Gagnon, 2010) To add to that, the Middle East seems to be a favorite environment battleground in video games. Action-genre games like America’s Army (U.S. Army, 2002); Command & Conquer: Generals (Electronic Arts, 2003); Delta Force: Black Hawk Down (NovaLogic, 2003); Counter-Strike Condition Zero (Valve Software, 2004); Full Spectrum Warrior (THQ, 2004); Kuma/War (Kuma Reality Games, 2004) take place either in known Middle Eastern settings or anonymous Middle East-like settings (Saleem, 2008). When we look at games with the War on Terror theme, symbols, myths, and stereotypical models are encountered; they take a significant place in such games, especially as they are naturally filled with scenarios including fictional terrorist attacks and counterattacks (Robinson, 2014). As for identity, it has importance in these games. At that point, myths step in. The genesis myth exists for every nation, in one way or another. The genesis of many takes place because of the idea of going to battle with “the other”, where that battle would be full of torments. At this point, the active identity is used to legalize the right war as “the bad” (Kingsepp, 2006; Eriksen 1993). It seems that stereotypical and cultural myths play an important role, not only in our daily lives but also in ideologies that will be built on in the future (Owens, 2002). When looking at games such as Medal of Honor and the Call of Duty series, which are sold to millions today, the dominant structure of the historical narrative is experienced (Kingsepp, 2006). In-game narratives proceed along with the exact dates according to official records, the gamer is left in a world where almost everything is accurate, considering factual data such as places, time, and even simpler details such as the names of soldiers (Nye, 2020).

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The enemies found in the War on Terror games are based on the classical stereotype of a Middle Eastern soldier. Due to the game genre, the enemy soldiers are just aggressive and violent killable terrorists designed to never surrender or interact with any of the other characters. Their main purpose is to die. The role of guns is important and always present. The warring factions are made obvious through the guns that they always use. What is important about their guns and weaponry is their nationalization. Both for each faction, the terrorist and anti-terrorist soldiers’ guns are definite, and this situation changes under no circumstance. Another symbolic element is language use. Middle Eastern unities who do not generally talk a lot use some specific sentences. No matter what the genre is, in many different War on Terror games, enemy soldiers yell “Allahu Akbar!” as they attack. The phrase has multiple meanings in Arabic, but its importance here is the stereotyping process of a nation or an ideology. According to Barthes (1972), the way of its use reveals the characteristics of a person or a character. Barthes mentioned this topic in his book Mythologies by basing it on the position of signs and signers as in Jacques Derrida’s deconstruction theory (1967). There are two main reasons for examining the games mentioned above closely. The first is the fact that games like Call of Duty: Modern Warfare and Battlefield have been played by millions of people all around the world, and more importantly, while the interest in the news about terror in different media tools has decreased, there has been an obvious increase in the interest in terror in games. The second reason is the presentation of the narratives in games. Due to the FPS camera angle, the presentation changes since it allows us to approach the event from the viewpoints of terrorists, yet the gamers in the game can only approach it from the antiterrorist perspective. Ultimately, games like Call of Duty and Battlefield which dominate the game sector, and lots of other FPS games are presented as antiterrorism games and create an atmosphere for the gamer completely to hunt terrorists. In these productions, terrorists are exactly the ‘other’ and under no circumstance do they have the right to struggle. No matter what the media type is, it is seen that while terrorists are portrayed today, they are portrayed as simple creatures who are completely misled. Terrorists are referred to as “people who are no different than strawmen ideologically” and who have no legitimate right (M. Schulzke, 2013). Based on the game Call of Duty: Modern Warfare, the antiterrorist characters that are encountered are described as heroes rather than soldiers. The first reason which makes them heroes is their fight against terrorists and their actions to protect national boundaries. They are people who can challenge any law, show an outrage upon justice, and most importantly, can kill anybody to win. Similar to the terrorists, they are designed as unrestrainable and they can act as they wish, but the only structure that legalizes the actions of the antiterrorist heroes is the reason that they do everything to protect the public realm (Marthoz, 2017). This situation also takes place in Van Veeren’s (2009) “Interrogating: 24” where Veeren describes “The capacity to step outside some boundaries of the mundane world purely and simply belongs to heroes. Heroes, according to counter-terrorist discourse, are the characters who can make that kind of a ‘self-sacrifice’ and therefore, not only they earn the respect of all of us, but also we are expected to admire them.” The narrative of the terrorist in power tells the story that not only the basic boundaries belong to the West and its allies, but also to the ‘other’, which is the warring faction that opposes the West, terrorizes it, or thinks of the act. It is certainly legitimate to kill the evil faction, regardless of the fact that no information about the opposite party is given. The fictional War on Terror period, which was created in all the three games belonging to the Modern Warfare series until 2011, portray a lot more deaths 567

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and destruction than what occurs in real life terrorism acts. In such games, terrorists are presented with characteristics stigmatized as jingoists. The terrorists, which have been presented in similar ways in lots of productions, are made as enemies only because they are called terrorists in antiterrorist games.

RECOMMENDATIONS AND LIMITATIONS By highlighting how the East is portrayed in the West’s productions, it is not intended to ignore all other stereotypic portrayals in games. However, while all group stereotypes may be harmful, Arab media stereotypes can be particularly harmful due to the lack of positive Arab images in the current media (Saleem, 2008; Shaheen, 2001; Wingfield&Karaman, 2002). While little research has been conducted on the effects of stereotypic video game portrayals (Henning et. al, 2009), it is not being suggested that whatever research has been done should be ignored. For example, a large-scale survey study has found that video games overall have a strong influence on people’s attitudes, and that direct or indirect references of certain groups in games can influence one’s attitudes towards these groups (Saleem, 2008). Unfortunately, that analysis had its limitations as it was not representative of the population, as 80% of its participants self-identified as White or Caucasians, and since the nature of the analysis was of self-report nature, it could not be understood how truthfully the participants answered the questionnaires (Saleem, 2008). This analysis focused on a sample of Eastern population, but the same limitation applies to it, where its nature was also of self-report nature. The sample size was of 90 participants and may have not been enough to generalize, but the results were sufficient enough to deduct how frequently people deal with issues resulting from the popularity of the warped Eastern image. It would be more appropriate to not only expand over the study with a larger reach to participants, but also, to include other ethnic identities, as this one only focused on Middle Eastern video gamers. The results of this study suggest that stereotypic portrayals in games are being conformed to and accepted to the degree that they are not being noticed regardless of what they represent, and regardless of their impact on the players themselves. Focusing on them, noticing them, and standing against them is an important step towards change, as is raising awareness on the impact of the unnecessary violent portrayals of Arabs in the media, especially video games, which could lead to a decrease of the phenomena.

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FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS Toward that aim, there are some methodological disadvantages to video game research, that if tackled, offer new concrete directions for future research. First, there are very few, if any, well-designed published studies that analyze the impact, whether negative in nature or otherwise, on both the Western and Eastern perception of the stereotypical representation of the East in games, and the conditions under which these effects are most likely manifested. Second, the majority of video game studies continue to rely on survey evaluations. While self-report and retrospective reviews are helpful, our understanding is limited by only relying on that data. Instead, a more qualitative approach, where in-depth interviews of the participants’ experiences can be evaluated, seems to be warranted. This methodology will allow the Foucauldian analysis approach used in this study to be more thorough and precise, as the interviews can enable the researcher to analyze both immediate 568

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and long-term “real-world” effects. Psychophysiological and neural evaluations that can identify the mental, cognitive, and neural changes associated with playing video games that reflect stereotypical portrayals can also be meaningfully implemented into that method. (Bavelier et al., 2011). The almost exclusive emphasis on the short-term effect of such games is another disadvantage of past approaches; very few longitudinal studies have been conducted in this field. In addition, no studies have examined the trends of playing such games and whether other external factors play a role in increasing these effects. Diary research, together with qualitative and survey techniques that are replicated over months and years, can be highly helpful in clarifying the impact of playing games that reflect stereotypes and their long-term effects (Granic, 2014). Data is also needed as to whether certain games are suitable to play at specific developmental stages and whether, at certain ages, playing such games no longer impacts the player. Finally, it is impossible to know whether games directly cause changes in mentality, cognitions, and social functioning without longitudinal designs that are deliberately designed to disentangle social factors that influence stereotyping from games that portray stereotypes.

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CONCLUSION The goal of this study was to investigate how the reiteration of the portrayal of the East in the West’s media production affects people’s perception of the East. To achieve that goal, a survey was conducted and analyzed using the Foucauldian analysis approach based on Carla Willig’s (2008) design. The analysis suggested that the discursive object, the East’s representation in video games, is being constructed as a set of ideas, known as a stereotype, described as violent, bad, uneducated, and more similar adjectives. A conclusion is reached that the object is being constructed through political discourse. It is understood that this political discourse has implications such as lowering the levels of patriotism of the party that is being stereotyped and eventually causing that party to normalize the stereotype and conform to it, although it is acknowledged that other factors may play a role in that as well. Through the discourse, subject positions exist, which are defined as the dominating side (the game producers) and the “other” party (the players). The dominating side has the higher level of responsibility, as they have the ability to influence the portrayal of a whole culture, meanwhile, the “other” party has the responsibility of considering the effects they are influenced by. As Willig’s stages were not enough to examine the effect of the stereotypes in-depth, as it only provides an introduction to a Foucauldian analysis, a deeper examination on how these stereotypes are represented was discussed. The discussion mostly focused on the stereotypes portrayed in FPS games, since the War on Terror war narrative is their essence. Some of the stereotypes were described, and the theme of realism, the element of testimony, symbols, and myths in such games and narratives were pointed out and identified. The way the East is represented in games is important due to the fact that these games are played by millions of people around the world, as there is an obvious increased interest in them. It is concluded that in such games, there is a certain stereotyped narrative constantly being presented, which is as follows: The terrorist in control tells the tale that not only the basic boundaries belong to the West and its allies, but also to the “other”. The “other” is the opposing faction to the West, and they are presented with characteristics stigmatized as jingoists. Other than the fact that it is legitimate to kill them, no information about them is given. They are made as enemies only because they are called as such in antiterrorist games. 569

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It is not meant to disregard other stereotypic portrayals in games by emphasizing how the East is represented in the West’s productions. However, while all group stereotypes can be harmful, due to the absence of positive Arab representations in the current media, such stereotypes may be especially harmful. (Saleem, 2008; Shaheen, 2001; Wingfield&Karaman, 2002). The findings of this study show these stereotypical portrayals are conformed to and accepted to the extent that they are not noticed regardless of what they reflect, and regardless of their impact on the players themselves. It is an important move towards change to concentrate on them, to recognize them, and to stand against them, as it raises awareness of the effect of unnecessarily violent portrayals of Arabs in the media, particularly in video games, which could lead to a decrease in phenomena. This study was limited by its sample size and its self-report nature. Not only would it be more fitting to broaden the research with a wider reach to participants, but also to include other ethnic identities, as this one concentrated only on video gamers from the Middle East. Future research directions include changing the nature of the assessment from self-report to in-depth interviews, which will allow the Foucauldian analysis approach used in the study to be more detailed and accurate. Replicating the study over months and years will also help identify the external factors that play a role in increasing the effects on the players’ perception and will help examine whether at one point of the player’s developmental stages, he or she would no longer be influenced by such games.

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Budwig, N. (1995). Language and the construction of self: developmental reflections. Dept. of Psychology, Massey University. Chan, A., & Phua, N. N. (2012). Understanding media and culture. McGraw-Hill. Cliff, C. (2017). Transmedia Storytelling Strategy (thesis). Eagly, A. H. (1987). Sex differences in social behavior: a social-role interpretation. L. Erlbaum. Eagly, A. H., & Wood, W. (1988). 17. In Explaining Sex Differences in Social Behavior A Meta-Analytic Perspective (pp. 306–315). ERIC Clearinghouse.

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Jouhki, J. (2006). Imagining us and them. In Imagining the other: Orientalism and occidentalism in Tamil-European relations in South India (pp. 20–21). University of Jyväskylä. Kaya, İ. (2018). A Postcolonial Reading on Eurocentrism, Otherization and Orientalist Discourse in Sociological Thought and Its Criticism. Academic Press. Kerboua, S. (2016). From Orientalism to neo-Orientalism: Early and contemporary constructions of Islam and the Muslim world. Academic Press. Khan, I. (2008). Game developers conference: San Francisco, California March 14-18 2016, The Current State of Muslim Representation in Video Games. Source of Knowledge.

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Shaheen, J. G. (2001). Reel bad Arabs: how Hollywood vilifies a people. Olive Branch Press. Shaw, A. (2010). Beyond Comparison: Reframing Analysis of Video Games Produced in the Middle East. Global Media Journal. https://www.globalmediajournal.com/open-access/beyond-comparisonreframing-analysis-of-video-games-produced-in-the-middle-east.pdf Sheridan, C. (2016). Foucault, Power and the Modern Panopticon (Thesis). Shoemaker, P. J., & Reese, S. D. (1996). Mediating the message: theories of influences on mass media content. Longman. Simons, J. (2007). Narrative. Games, and Theory. Stahl, G. (2006). Shared Meaning, Common Ground, Group Cognition. Academic Press.

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Tucker, E. (2006). The Orientalist Perspective: Cultural Imperialism in Gaming. Aughty. http://www. aughty.org/pdf/orientalist_perspective.pdf Turley, A. (2018). Reading The Game: Exploring Narratives In Video Games As Literary Texts (Thesis). Van Buren, C. (2010). Critical Analysis of Racist Post-9/11 Web Animations. Taylor & Francis. https:// www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1207/s15506878jobem5003_11 Veeren, E. V. (2009). Interrogating 24: Making Sense of US Counter-Terrorism in the Global War on Terrorism. Academic Press. Watterson, C. A., Carnegie, D. A., & Wilson, M. (2019). Foucauldian Discourse Analysis of Student Interviews. 2019 IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference (FIE). 10.1109/FIE43999.2019.9028601 Weber, R., Behr, K.-M., Tamborini, R., Ritterfeld, U., & Mathiak, K. (2009). What Do We Really Know About First-Person-Shooter Games? An Event-Related, High-Resolution Content Analysis. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 14(4), 1016–1037. doi:10.1111/j.1083-6101.2009.01479.x Willig, C. (2008). Foucauldian Discourse Analysis. The SAGE Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methods., doi:10.4135/9781412963909.n180 Ząbecki, K. (2015). The Developing World’s Depiction in the Battlefield and ... Semantics Scholar. http:// br.wszia.edu.pl/zeszyty/pdfs/br39_14zabecki.pdf

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

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Discourse: A reiterative process that produces meanings which become normalized and turn into a technique of control. East: Regions having a culture derived from ancient non-European areas. Orient: The countries of the East, and as Edward Said defines it, the ‘other’. Perception: The way in which a concept, idea, or notion, is understood and accepted. Stereotype: A set of ideas that people have about someone or something. This set is usually accepted and normalized between the majority of people. Video Games: A form of media which can be used as a tool to communicate certain narratives or concepts to a group of people. West: Regions having a culture derived from European areas.

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Chapter 33

The Creation of Sustainable Orientalism in Cinema Can Diker Üsküdar University, Turkey Esma Koç Independent Researcher, Turkey

ABSTRACT The myth of modern culture’s superiority to other cultures is instilled as a norm to the masses through the media. The myth of the cultural superiority of the West not only formed with the economic possibilities of the West but was also supported by the non-Western world by self-orientalism, thus becoming sustainable. While themes such as modernity, development, and technological superiority are watched within the scope of Hollywood flms, several platforms have been created for non-US countries to watch alternative flms. Although flms known as European and World Cinema have the chance to show themselves at flm festivals rather than flm theatres, non-Western directors face a cultural challenge in these festivals due to the sociocultural structure of Western-based flm festivals. In this study, by examining how non-Western directors are directed towards self-orientalism indirectly through festivals and funds, the relationship between the creation of sustainable orientalism in cinema and the political economy of the flm industry will be revealed.

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INTRODUCTION Edward Said’s theory of orientalism reveals how Western-based production of knowledge and discourse is marginalized non-Western societies. The theory of orientalism, which is discussed together with the concepts of hegemony and cultural imperialism, claims that the marginalization approach has been made a norm and pervasive in the West (Said, 2003). The West lays the groundwork for self-orientalism by providing the aforementioned marginalization, sometimes directly with the mass media it holds and sometimes indirectly with the cultural productions of Eastern societies. With the product bombardment through the media, capital owners spread certain messages and convert them into norms all over DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch033

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 The Creation of Sustainable Orientalism in Cinema

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the world. Cinema, as a media tool, has become an important global commodity by the end of the 20th century, contributing not only to the artistic but also to the ideological dominant discourse. Especially the Hollywood cinema rises to be a global soft power tool, due to support by the American governments (Miller & Maxwell, 2006). The Hollywood-based film industry has dominated the film market worldwide as a mainstream media and has used as a propaganda tool. Non-Western-alternative organizations had to take a position against both the economic power of Hollywood and its linear type film narrative structure. Since filmmaking is an expensive form of art, various categories such as European (Art) cinema and World Cinema have emerged within the scope of festivals. Although these categories that emerged after 1980s were born as a reaction to Hollywood’s profit-oriented filmmaking understanding, such difference in Western cinema (European and Hollywood) made the myth of Western supremacy inconsistent. Within the scope of the festival films, film productions carried out by non-Western directors have caused non-Western societies to code their culture historically behind and Western culture as future and superior. The production of consent for cultural hegemony, which realized due to a self-orientalist perspective, has also re-achieved without the active role of the West. Although Hollywood films regularly continue their role in the continuous production of orientalism, non-Western also internalizes this othering by addressing or even not addressing specific themes. For example, themes that are compatible with modernity and may be ahead of the age seem far away for non-Western directors. Instead of these themes, the production of films that can be associated with artistic, static, cyclical, existential problems has become mandatory. The role of the Eastern subject (Inappropriate Others), the creator of the cultural products producing self-orientalism, is critical at this point. On the other hand, financial concerns in filmmaking and doubts about getting a pass-through grade from film festivals, which is organized by major Western countries, have made nonWestern films to create western-centric supremacy myths inevitably but indirectly. This situation, which directly related to the political economy of mass media, shows that the production channels controlled by the capital owners and almost all contents reflect the voice of the owner. Thus, despite its emergence in different societies, the forms of expression shaped by centering the West and (therefore East becomes and stabilizes as the ‘Other’ of the West) strengthened the orientalist ideology and made it necessary to think about self-orientalist cinema. In film studies, it is important to consider the Western-centrist events and film categories of international organizations formed as a result of globalization in an economicpolitical context and to identify orientalist approaches. Questioning the rules by which the success criteria of films, which is an industrial production, depends on the rules will also contribute to the work of orientalism and cinema. This chapter questions the dynamics of self-orientalism, while at the same time evaluating from an economic political perspective to understand how this process became sustainable.

ORIENTALISM POLITICS AND THE EMERGENCE OF SELF-ORIENTALISM According to Said, Orientalism is a way of thinking based on the ontological and epistemological distinction between the West and the East, but it produced in a way that creates a negative perception towards the East by producing depictions in accordance with western-centric myths through cultural tools (media, cinema, art, literature, etc.). It also rearranges the relationship between West and East (2010, pp.2-5). Orientalism, which reduces non-Western identities to some basic elements due to these myths, causes people to adopt some biased ideas towards a geography they do not see and do not know and people liv-

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ing in that geography. Defining the oriental culture as the opposite of modern values ​​is also an indicator of what Europe is not culturally consists (Said, 2010, pp.68-77). It is seen that the emerging myths about East and West are a systematic effort carried out on cultural and political grounds, while maintaining the idea that the Western culture is superior to the others. This systematic effort, which we can describe it as “Cultural Imperialism”, has confined the Eastern and Western countries to unchanging patterns through representations. In this context, Orientalism and Cultural Imperialism have been two important approaches that can be evaluated together. Said expresses that what is being told about the East is the product of an imaginary process supported by financial investments of the Western world, noting that imperialism maintains the current situation of West-East relationship in a cultural dimension. According to Tomlinson, who defines cultural imperialism as a way of perpetuating the crimes committed by developed countries allegedly against underdeveloped countries through legitimate means, ‘third world’ countries or threatened non-Western national cultures are constantly represented by others. This reveals patterns that represented, defined, and contain depictions (1999, pp.37-38). The question of “Who Speaks?”, which Tomlinson named the section in which he discussed in his representation argument, has an answer. Western countries, which understand the world with a focus on maintaining the economic colonial system, are forming a colonial language through cultural imperialism on non-Western societies, which it describes them as a lower-class member compared with modern societies. For example, whoever speaks, where the Easterners has a right to say, any Westerner speaking subject becomes as the dominant power. According to Arif Dirlik, the actor in the transformation of orientalism into hegemony rhetoric is not directly Western, because orientalism is essentially an intellectual imperialism (Dirlik. 1996, p.96). When discussing the Dependency Theory, which thought to be an important element of imperialism, a particular theme seen among the characteristics of international domination and dependency. The theme is about the creation of elites with ideological and economic commitment to the outside world, not the country in which they are located (Erdogan, 2000, pp.155-156). The important factor at the intersection between Western ideology and orientalism is the presence of ‘carrier elites’. Carriers belong to the intellectual, elite strata of non-Western societies and use it to spread the modernization process in non-Western societies in order to achieve universal norms. The elites of non-Western societies are the first to accept the perception of superiority of the Western world. From this point of view, the carrier elites, who regard Western society, its value judgments and approach to the individual as subjective, lay the groundwork for self-orientalism by addressing their own cultural indicators with Western hermeneutic approaches (Golden, 2009, p.19). Pratt says that the carrier intellectuals and elites, the object of auto-orientalism, shaped in a “contact zone”. The contact zone is the regions where colonial powers, the leading figures of the exploited society, were in contact with the colonists (Pratt, 1991). The main outlet of Gramsci’s concept of the “historical bloc” perceived as the “contact zone” that Pratt mentioned. The increase of contact regions will form the concept of historical blocks, and third world countries will carry out modern revolutions ‘superstructural’. In this way, intellectuals who embrace the values of the West, cool the way of thinking in their own intellectual functioning and want to make them visible in their life practices, but cannot actually seen as Fully Western, will be formed away from their own society and culture. The intellectuals in question called ‘organic intellectuals’, according to Gramsci, and act only for the benefit of a particular class (Gramsci, 1992). The reasons that push non-Western societies to the necessity to articulate to the Western world strengthened further by neoliberal policies. The neoliberal order becomes dominant globally with the dissemination of capitalist ideology, which maintained without borders on a global scale. According to 576

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Campbell, neoliberalism is a global organization of capitalism (Campbell, 2005). Neoliberalism, which takes place on a global scale, besides its economic practices, aims to adopt modern cultural values of the whole world (Duman, 2011). Self-orientalism seen as the result of such neoliberal politics and cultural impositions. In order for this to be achieved from outside the West, the local leaders and/or intellectual elites of the other community must have internalized the norms of the West, accepting that economic development is an indicator of contemporaneousness. At the same time, intellectuals of non-Western societies for self-orientalism expected to accept Western values as superior and see their own values in a lower position in a hierarchical context. Because of self-produced orientalism, a new player formed in the Western subject – Oriental object dilemma: the Eastern subject (Kim & Chung, 2005). With this new role, the Eastern intellectual was able to become a subject even if he could not be Western and differentiated from his own society. For marginalized intellectuals or elites shaped ideologically by Western-centered thoughts, now alienated at their own society, in order to have an opportunity to become a subject, they need to question their origin and destiny in their non-Western society. While this situation causes the intellectual to think that he differentiates himself, it causes him to generalize his society, especially through mass media, and convey it through patterns (Modood, 2005, p.59-60). Films, TV broadcasts, cinema and all media tools reinforce the attitude of the media to reconstructing the myth of the pre-eminence of the Western culture with marginalizing discourse and thus maintain its dominant position. According to Said, mass media contribute to the creation of cultural clichés with the dominant view of the West and increase the effects of the post-colonial era on the fictional Oriental narratives. In addition to increasing the production of stereotypes based on the dominant discourse, with all the possibilities of the media, it becomes inevitable that the information becomes constant and stereotyped. (Said, 2010, p.35).

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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CINEMA AND ORIENTALISM Cinema has an important position in the reproduction of West-centric ideological discourse by nonWestern subjects, both in terms of discourse and visuality. By means of the signifier and the signifiers, the signs of the lower and upper culture realized through the presentation of the traditional, that is, the cultures attributed to non-Western. The exaggerated presentation of the claim to authenticity, an overdramatized reality design and uniformed society/culture perception found in many visual, audio and culpability works. Orientalist film directors are objectifying his/her own culture by doing orientalist generalizations, determining only specific roles for characters according to their clothing and language/ accent use and using specific and limited themes such as depression, solitude and existential crisis, which feeds the self-orientalist approach. Against the backdrop of political attitudes maintained through rhetoric and indicators, there is concern about adapting to the unwritten rules of the media industry. Among the qualities of adaptability, the representations produced by the films and the content it chooses to reflect paint a problematic picture in terms of the creator-capitalist relationship. Since the creation method of the cinema achieved by making the fragmented images meaningful with the editing technique, it is inevitable to consider the events and facts without an ideological perspective. Therefore, in order to reveal the political economy of films, it is necessary to first look at the financial support providers and question the connection between production and consumption relations with the capitalist owners. It cannot be said that films have an ethical obligation to reflect reality or not. However, it can be said that cinema’s desire to reflect is subject to some suggestions, especially by Hollywood cinema, in its East-oriented story and 577

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character narratives. As Ryan and Kellner said, the films, with their ideological dimension, present a number of new forms created by design rather than reflecting any situation. The forms suggested by the selected and combined scenes through representations prepare the audience for suggestions, perceptions and tendencies by indicating a certain point of view (Ryan & Kellner, 1997, p.18). Walter Benjamin puts cinema in a separate place among the visual arts by referring to other branches of art in his work titled “The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction”. There is a camera as the second eye in this art. While reality in painting is “image”, reality in photography and cinema is the image of the image. In filming, the cameraman recreates the meaning by depicting the split parts through film. The eye looking behind the camera puts a mechanism that divides reality between the object and itself. In his work, Benjamin emphasizes the personalization of the art produced by technically reproducing and moving away from its reality as an industrial product, thus becoming ideological and destroying the reality. In the continuation of his work, Benjamin mentions that there is a relationship between reproduction through film art and Western-centered propaganda (2012: 68-73). How cinema, which is a political mass communication tool, reproduces the dominant discourse can be explained by Adorno’s cultural industry theories. Adorno, by saying that “Whoever speaks of culture speaks of administration as well’”, draws attention to the fact that cultural productions are undertaken by the rulers and are produced continuously with the logic of mass production. He states that especially the instruments such as cinema and radio are more than art, they are a means of production and impose certain standards on the public. At this point, the important thing is that the established standards are arranged according to the needs of the consumers, they circulate in countless places in order to provide direct economic gain, and the wheels of the culture industry turn perfectly (Adorno, 2011: 48-49). When looked at Hollywood cinema, which is the biggest power of the film industry, it is seen that the film contents are designed in a way that will support the power, establish Western supremacy and marginalize those who are outside the West. As a result of technological possibilities, financial power and global domination, the proliferation of Western-centered myths, their spread to the masses and becoming a standard becomes absolute. How self-orientalist production is achieved through cinema can only be made meaningful by political economy relations. Cinema, which requires monetary power in its production, has a direct relationship with the economy and power relations as an industry. According to the critical political economic approach, media-culture is a profit-oriented formation that operates under the dominant conditions of political power and with the capitalist market order. The system, which collects production under a monopoly and distributes it, follows a capitalist method while marketing its cultural products to the outside world (Hall, 1999). Adorno’s expression “the power of capital” (2011: 53) emphasizes that the culture of production is not independent from the power and that almost everyone who produces except the dominant power must produce content that reflects the “voice of its master” in order to be able to hold on to this market. In this respect, cinema, which is a part of the culture industry, develops under the supervision of the Western economic regulations and political attitude like other media tools (Adorno, 2011: 110). From this point of view, it can be said that non-Western film producers are obstructed by the power of capital, voluntarily or involuntarily. While the West is already producing the orientalist discourse, non-Western directors also produce content that reflects the “voice of his master” as Adorno puts it, and can turn it into an object of success thanks to film festivals. Therefore, it becomes inevitable that the contents organized under the influence of the dominant media become ordinary and accepted by a large scale of audience. The orientalist stories about the nonWestern world approved by the major audiences worldwide and gives a hint for the future media products to be produced. Considering that cinema is a part of the culture industry, it will be necessary to question 578

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the meaning of the audience to the industry. While arguing the audience aspect of the culture industry, Adorno expresses that the customer (the viewer) is not the king that the industry wants to convince, but an object that the cultural industry can rule. The masses, who are the addressee of the product, faced with a structure that acts on the profit motive by becoming the ideology of this structure. The culture industry generally sees society as a commodity, as it cannot survive unless it adapts the masses to it. In contrast, society remains vulnerable to it, with a dizzy interest in the culture industry, which provides temporary gratification. The phrase, the world wants to be deceived, gains reality in this context and shows how deceptive but satisfying is the consumer gratification with Western-centred discourses (Adorno, 1975). Cinema, as an industry, is one of the most difficult and expensive branches of art in the formation of Western-centered discourse. The USA, as the capital owners holding this power, had the opportunity to set the rules of the cinema industry itself. The non-western directors who had to adapt to the unwritten rules of the film industry, which includes the restricted filmmaking approach tried to stay in other categories by staying outside the mainstream Hollywood cinema. In the meantime, it can be said that the non-Western directors which become Inappropriate Others and contribute to the Western-style media in the context of cinema. In these film productions, different versions of the traditional-modern conflict are re-produced and isolated from modernization process. The presence of a screening session called “World Cinema” in many film festivals is also a result of this ideology. While the films of the Western world thought by the audience as they are presenting the contemporary era, just like the linear historical understanding of the ideology of modernity, the rest of the world restrained within a limited and subjective area. Socially resolved problems in the Western world, which can be seen out-ot-date issues, still narrated in non-Western cinema with a minimalist style in current era. Therefore, an important example of Western dualities can be seen here: narratives belonging to West are naturally ‘progressive’, while others belonging to the Orient are expected to be left ‘backward’. The West, which has become the norm of the East, has already defined the rhetorical equivalent of the narrative cycle; The discursive equivalent of the cycle has already been defined by the West as the norm of the Orient; Oriental stories are limited by a narrative style that constantly makes the same mistakes, does not take lessons from the past, does not take lessons from the past, and does no progression, both individually and socially. Therefore, the closure of non-Western societies to their inner world and their inability to understand the problems of the outside world and their recurring troubles devoid of historical consciousness explained by facts that do not depend on cause-effect relations such as “fate”. When looked at the category of European cinema, it can be seen that these films reflect the social problems of the country they are located in, bringing artistic concerns while highlighting the locality and cultural nuances. As a matter of course, it is not a crime for a story to tell the problems of its own society and to contain existential elements, but the form of self-orientalist narration that contributes to the awarding of non-Western films in cinema is open to discussion. In order to understand the ideological function of films at this point, it is necessary to rethink the themes that categorize cinema genres and the political economy structure of cinema as an industry.

THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF THE CINEMA INDUSTRY AND THE FORMATION OF SUSTAINABLE ORIENTALIST DISCOURSE Although many of the countries whose labor was exploited during the colonial period gained their national independence after the Second World War, they are again dependent on their former colonies in economic, cultural and political terms due to the war-induced underdevelopment. These dependency 579

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theories discussed under the headings of theory of underdevelopment or dependency theory. Dependency theory rejects the only linear model of history offered by modernity, arguing that underdevelopment and dependence do not stem from lagging behind the era, but from exploitation because of the capitalist system. Theories claim that the development of any sovereignty over the world occurs through the masses of another society. Dependency theories reveal that after the period of colonization in The Second World War, the colonial need of imperialist countries spread newly around the world. The passing of surplus value from surrounding countries to central countries, the spread of advanced technology products (especially the patents of consumer technological products such as television, smartphones and white goods, and mass media) to the extent permitted and the creation of the obligation to the economically dominant country are among the main elements claimed by theories. Dependency theorists see spreading negatively, contrary to modernization theories. Unlike the created modern myths, the underdeveloped countries not allowed to develop because they placed in a position that exploited around capitalism (Erdoğan, 2000, pp.152-157). When the discourse of non-Western geography examined in terms of dependency theories, it found that colonial activities continue in cultural and economic context. Although it claimed that colonialism is over, it is seen that relations between exploiter and exploiter are still on an economic plane and that exploited nation states have an implicit bond with the former colonial states. In order to maintain this dependency without interruption, historical consciousness must be forgotten to non-Western societies. While liberal approaches keep the supremacy of Western states on the agenda, they convey that the reason for the supremacy is not because of unfair capital accumulation, but because of cultural differences with cultural-art works. In doing so, they hold mass media and culture and art channels as capital owners. While liberal approaches keep the supremacy of Western states on the agenda, they convey that the reason for the supremacy is not because of unfair capital accumulation, but because of cultural differences with cultural-art works. In doing so, they hold mass media and culture and art channels as capital owners. The dominant neoliberal ideology, which keeps the mass media under its control, says that the power lies not in the media, but in individuals, while “freeing” media consumers in the market that they control. By popularizing the idea of “consumer sovereignty”, the question of who is in control of media content trivialized. The collective action of media ownership and capital leads to the transformation of media companies by serving the interests of the capitalist class (Murdock, 2006). Schiller mentions that there are five myths about the manipulation of the media. Among them, the myth of media pluralism is based on the fact that consumers can watch, read and choose the media they want. However, Schiller says that the diversity is actually small, that all media outlets that seem like a lot serve Western ideology and that their essence is the same; emphasizes that there is a manipulation in this context. The messages given by these channels strengthen the status quo in order to ensure the acceptance and continuity of the consumption order based on profitability and private ownership (Schiller, 2005, pp.33-40). While the private sector that holds the control of the media can also shape the message produced by the source the way it wants (Murdock, 2006), Marx explained the ownership relations as follows: The class which has the means of material production at its disposal, has control at the same time over the means of mental production, so that thereby, generally speaking, the ideas of those who lack the means of mental production are subject to it. The ruling ideas are nothing more than the ideal expression of the dominant material relationships, the dominant material relationships grasped as ideas; hence of the relationships which make the one class the ruling one, therefore, the ideas of its dominance. The individuals composing the ruling class possess among other things consciousness, and therefore think.

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Insofar, therefore, as they rule as a class and determine the extent and compass of an epoch, it is selfevident that they do this in its whole range, hence among other things rule also as thinkers, as producers of ideas, and regulate the production and distribution of the ideas of their age: thus, their ideas are the ruling ideas of the epoch. (Marx & Engels, 2011). It is also important from the orientalist perspective that the thoughts of the ruling class are the ideas of the age. While the western-centrist ruling class defines modern culture as a norm to be reached, it is seen that modern culture is the dominant culture in mainstream Hollywood cinema and the European cinema understanding known as Art cinema. The films of the remaining non-Western world, on the other hand, are categorized under the name of third cinema or world cinema, marginalized and delivered to an orientalist perspective. Non-Western directors’ films cannot express themselves independently due to the Western-oriented political economy of film theatres, film festivals, or other alternative distribution channels. For this reason, it can be said that a sustainable understanding of orientalism was created due to political economy relations, while at the same time, this new type of Orientalism was created not directly but indirectly, because it persuaded non-Western directors to create self-orientalism because of economic concerns. Thus, the myth of Western supremacy is formed from non-Western, due to the understanding of sustainable orientalism. This new perspective, which replaces the economic colonial system maintained by the old methods, ingrained in languages and indicators through cultural productions, leading to the identification of nonWestern societies through the eyes of the West. The same dominant point of view is seen in cinema, the cultural industry that uses language and indicators in the strongest way. Cinema, one of the main industries of the 20th century, is an entertainment industry in which, as Adorno points out, the capitalist cultural industry creates objectification for profit (Adorno, 1975). From the production to the screening of a film, capital needed economically in many stages. In the process of filmmaking, where materiality needed, there is the superiority of Hollywood globally and therefore Western discourses. In order to understand how the economic policy of mass communication works together with globalization, the Hollywood cinema of the United States, which described as mainstream, can be mentioned. American governments have helped Hollywood cinema for decades with tax relief schemes and small business management credits (Miller & Maxwell, 2006), so that increasingly economically stronger Hollywood has transcended global borders and has become dominant in film markets all over the world. This success of Hollywood has been achieved with the implementation of deregulation and liberalization policies in other countries, as the national film markets have become open to the screening and distribution of international films. Hollywood films, which have been free marketed due to organizations such as WTO and GATT, have spread globally, bringing Western culture and ideology to the rest of the world through cinema (Jin, 2011). This globally dominant understanding of contemporary cultural imperialism and the large amount of revenues from motion picture films have increased the need to be included in the Western world. The idea that modernity and Westernization are necessary to have “good living standards” with concepts such as the “American dream” imposed outside the West. The monopolization of Hollywood in the global film market through neoliberal policies after Second World War enabled the dominant ideology to instill the way of thinking desired by the masses outside the West through cinema. The fact that the financial resources, the power of expression and the political camera are in the hands of the West has brought it to have a say in the cinema industry. It is necessary to distinguish Hollywood cinema from other cinema genres both in terms of content and the strength of its financial resources, and the films emphasizing the myth of Western supremacy should be reconsidered in this context. Ste581

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reotyping in a standard Hollywood cinema features immutable representations of “other” societies. The fact that Asians are very agile in fight scenes, or have a great intelligence based on memorization in educational scenes and sometimes have a mystical mood is a well-known stereotyping of Asians. Also, Arabs and/or Muslims stereotyped as terrorists is one of the main examples that can often be seen. In his article “Arab Representation in the Context of the Ideological Structure of American Cinema”, Nihan Gider Işıkman categorized Arab reflections and divided them into titles. Işıkman has sub-headed the representations in order to reveal them in their most reflected forms as “Sheikh”, “Foreign Military Unit”, “Dream and Magic”, “Mummy”, “An Exotic Doctor”, “Mascara and Rich”, Arab-Israeli Conflict and “Terrorist”. To summarize; in the films shown under the title “Sheikh”; they are films in which Arabs are often condemned to death, ignoring the invading state of Europeans. If there is a war going on, the Europeans are always the winners. Under the title of “Fantasy and Magic”, familiar themes such as snakes, charmers, harem, and extraordinary beings are seen. In the films under the title “Mummy”, on the other hand, representation of Eastern despotism, weariness, stability and death can be seen. European archaeologists who study mummies reflected with the character that represents individuality, science, youth, strength and sophistication. Exotic stories such as Casablanca (1942), which reviewed under the chapter “An Exotic Setting”, mentions the sight of the places of the Arab world as playgrounds for Westerners. In “Mascara and Rich”, attention is drawn to the incompetent side of rich and funny Arabs (Işıkman, 2009). As Turner mentioned while describing orientalism; “Orientalism, exotic, erotic, bizarre origin; has made it an understandable and acceptable phenomenon that is defined and controlled simultaneously by categories, tables and concepts. To know means to be dominated” (2003: 45). Hollywood’s films reflecting the East are not only an extension of the West’s desire to dominate the East, but also to know and reflect the East. The themes frequently used by Hollywood cinema have been another way to profit financially while reflecting the dominant colonialist point of view. The films, in which the East exhibited in certain patterns and processed together with the unusual themes, spread ideological discourses with them while aiming for profit maximization. In films that develop under the influence of Hollywood, the representation of the East has similar themes not only in the works of the world, but also in the types of documentaries that claim to reflect reality. The 2004 documentary Born Into Brothels, which had the Academy award for “Best Documentary Film”, also evokes orientalist ideology in terms of its focus. The children and women of India, documented by a Western eye with a claim to reality, conveyed by focusing on the ignorance, immorality and poverty of the Eastern people. At the same time, it gives the impression that development, knowledge and saving power will come from the West. While all this is being explained, the knowledge that India’s current situation is due to its colonization is devalued. In the documentary, the bad conditions of India, a society that counts as an ‘other’ in the West, are shown in a way to highlight that they are a helpless society and to emphasize Western subject’s the role of saviour shows the ideological attitude in awarding the Academy award. Again, the 2005 documentary The Boys of Baraka, which focuses on the disadvantaged individuals of the society and talks about poverty and lack of education in Kenya, documented the otherness of a non-Western society and received many awards at Western film festivals. While the education of the children in Baraka is aimed to be provided with a Western school, the dramatic stories of the children, their fateful cycles, and how this cycle will improve them are discussed together with the saviour obligation of the West. Martin Roberts, in his review of the documentary film Baraka, states that the world reduced to a global village in a McLuhanian sense and also, he pointed out on other topics, which include Westernist mass culture and National Geographic documentaries, with David Attenborough as narrator. He states that these documentaries not only intended to record audio-and-visual 582

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phenomena related to the world, but also contain the intention of commodification with a mythological Eurocentric approach (Roberts, 1998, p.66). At film festivals, where Hollywood is not dominant, the interest of certain themes and patterns, not going outside these patterns, gives the directors the desire to be accepted by the film elite. This phenomenon, which also makes the independence of films and the production of free content problematic, discussed along with the effects of film funding on film creativity. At this point, the concept of European (Art) cinema emerges. In the face of Hollywood cinema’s concentration on extraordinary and unreal facts, the genre known as European Cinema has led to cultural nuances and the focus of directors on the local characteristics of their countries. European cinema, at the same time, opposed the economic structure of Hollywood cinema, and created a new space with festival configurations. Although film festivals were the venues of nation cinemas of European countries that wanted to protect themselves from the US influence until the 1970s, they transformed afterwards due to the changing political atmosphere. Film festivals moved away from national industries, while individual creativity was rewarded, and unfamiliar cinema cultures were included in the festival programs (Valck, 2007, p.71). International film festivals can be described as a public space where Europe has an alternative distribution network against Hollywood, where films that cannot hold on economically at the box office meet many audiences globally (Peranson, 2009, p.23). The main thing is who decides to promote ‘other’ cultures in this public space in a stereotyped form through one or more films. Marijke de Valck notes that the festival boom after the 1980s was radically professionalized and institutionalized. She emphasizes that Hollywood has produced films such as British Patient (1996) and Shakespeare in Love (1998) for festivals, adding that festivals have begun to re-create avant-garde, experimental and alternative film definitions. Film festivals that look beyond Western Europe and North America have noticed the rise of “new wave” cinemas outside this geography, especially in Hungary, the Czech Republic, West Germany, Poland, Yugoslavia, Brazil, Argentina, Cuba, Russia and Japan. It is seen that the Hollywood does not exist among the countries that contribute to Second (Art) Cinema, and the films of underdeveloped European countries and countries politically marginalized by the USA are in this category. These categories, which make it necessary to discuss the “otherness” situation in cinema, also paint a problematic picture in terms of content. The answer to which the directors of non-Western countries receive financial support during the film production process is directly related to the fact that the films have local characteristics and reflect authentic themes. Felicia Chan mentions films that received support with the Hubert Bals fund after Rotterdam’s first director, Hubert Bals. The fund, which has supported more than 1,100 films since 1988, is aimed at independent filmmakers of Asian, Middle Eastern, Eastern European, African and Latin American descent. In 2007, Tan Chui Mui’s Mandarin film Love Conquers All (2007) won the Rotterdam Tiger award for Best Fiction, reaching a prize of €10,000 (Chan, 2011, p.254). It can also be said that Robert Koehler went so far as to say, “It’s by now widely accepted that without Rotterdam’s Hubert Bals Fund and its mission to fund and support film artists in the ‘Third’ and developing worlds, a significant number in the global ‘margins’ would have been unable to make films at all […]” (Koehler, 2009, p.94). Therefore, it is important to understand who created the hierarchy between film festivals and to examine the political economy consequences. Art films, which differ from Hollywood films with many features, are also distinguished from each other in terms of subject, content and film production techniques. Films that deal with the problems of this world, in which existential concerns are mostly processed, technological developments are ignored, are the most prominent features of World Cinema, which tries to redefine itself as Art Cinema. For example, 583

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a film narrative which includes Americans or the British to go to space may be perceived as normal, while Turks, Colombians or Mozambians going to space and having an adventure there, although it is fictional, it is still perceived as unconvincing. Such a fiction can sometimes, even to the non-Western societies, be ridiculous. Thus, the creation of self-hegemony is realized, and the idea of ​​being a developed society from the very beginning becomes an unattainable goal as a utopia. By transforming this situation into an entertainment issue, the continuity of the superiority of the West over the non-Western is provided by the self-contempt perception of the non-Western person. Thus, the narratives of the non-Western world are abstracted from modernity and restricted by the influence of adapted others, and different versions of the traditional-modern conflict are produced in storytelling. The presence of a section called “World Cinema” in film festivals is also a result of this ideology. Since non-Western directors will benefit most from the benefits of film festivals such as prestige, money, fame, recognition, and enrichment, they find it difficult to go beyond the framework set for them. Described as “authentic” by the festival management, films depicting the individual and societal crises in various non-Western geographies, their directors, and the hierarchy imposed by international film festivals and the superiority of modern culture. At this point, it can be said that a selection of films under the name of “World Cinema” was created, which enables the evaluation of other cultures with Western glasses in the festivals where the other cinemas of different geography come together. The ideological narrative of films supported by international film funds and producers creates a self-orientalist perspective. In this context, Kırel examined Iranian cinema and questioned whether the success of Iranian cinema in international film festivals has an orientalist tendency in itself (Kırel, 2007). The Academy awards, which award the films released in the USA in the categories of best film, screenplay, directing, editing, etc. sometimes have been the subject of controversy in the oriental context. It is noteworthy that the “Best Foreign Language Film” award, which is included in the Academy Awards, given to Iranian Director Ashgar Farhadi’s films A Separation (2011) and Salesman (2016) in 2012 and 2017. From a critical orientalist perspective, it is remarkable that the USA gives two Academy awards to Iran in five years, while USA impose embargo and marginalize Iran socio-politically and culturally in 21st century. In these awarded films, it is seen that the issues that the Iran is at a deadlock due to the flawed functioning of the Iranian state and it reflects into the daily lives of depressed non-modern people. This narrative style, which allows for easier comparison between West and East, also provides the authentic qualities sought in film festivals. The Golden Globes, one of the film competitions well known in the USA, also awards in many categories and attracts attention. At a ceremony held in 2004 after the 9/11 attacks, the “Golden Globe Award for Best Foreign Language Film” was awarded to the Afghan film Osama (2003). Since women forbidden to work in the Taliban regime, the difficult life and danger-filled future of a 12-year-old girl who disguises herself as a man in order to care for her family engraved with a self-orientalist approach. The daughter, named Osama by her mother, disguised as a boy, now she is entitled to go to the madrasa, but where the madrasa is the Taliban’s recruiting home. Each of these children, whose former colonists were a major problem for America, is now a potential Taliban soldier. Osama, the first film shot after the new regime in Afghanistan, shows the entire public in absence and misery, and does not mention that Afghanistan’s current situation stems from the US invasion. In this sense, the film is one of the most prominent examples of self-orientalist cinema, reflecting a Western perspective by an Afghan director. Eagleton argues that what is said can be completely reduced to the conditions of being expressed; The main issue is not what is said, but (what) who is saying it to whom, to whom, for what purpose (Eagleton, 2005, p.161). This argument gains importance in this context, noting the implicit goal of ideology. One 584

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should not think apart from the ideology of award ceremonies and other Western festival films, which are the high cultural product of the United States. World Cinema, on the other hand, shows that it has a state of otherness in cinema by being excluded from the Hollywood cinema in the center while leaving Hollywood as a result of its subjects. Accordingly, there is expected to be a purely diametric contrast between Hollywood and ‘other’ cinema. Everything about cinema in the film, such as aesthetic form, production practices, subject matter and plot, should be different from Hollywood. When the narrative structure of World Cinema and European Cinema is looked at, it is seen that it is noticeably different from the classical Hollywood narrative. Kovács notes that in modern cinema there are three basic narrative formats: linear, spiral and circular. Linear narrative, as a classical and modern narrative style, creates films in which conflicts are resolved, stories come to a conclusion and give the audience a sense of catharsis, and Hollywood cinema dominates this linear narrative globally. In general, it can be said that profit-oriented box office films, also known as commercial cinema, are linear. European cinema, on the other hand, take on the spiral narrative form, a style of story in which the problem seen at the beginning of the story is partially solved, but conflicts over new problems. Kovács examples Rossellini’s Germany Year Zero and Truffaut’s Jules and Jim as examples of spiral storytelling. The common feature of these films; as the characters try to solve the problem, they find themselves in another conflict. In circular narrative form, the stories cannot be said to have come to an end, and at the end of the film, the story returns to where it began. These films, which are evaluated in the world cinema category, have been evaluated in the narrative form in which the cycle is continuous. This also causes the characters, stories, and society itself shown in the film to be trapped in a cycle and draw a pessimistic world (Kovács, 2010). The fact that non-Western film producers have such a restriction even during the story writing phase shows the direction of the films that replace the truth. The fact that world cinema has a circular narrative form also complicates the way eastern societies are reflected in terms of self-orientalism. The fiction of the cinema of non-Western societies in a continuous loop is implicitly limited to concepts such as “world cinema” and “festival films” by Western film industry controllers. Indirect re-production of modern superiority myths and otherness also shows the hierarchy in film production. The directors, who exhibit their films under the selection of world cinema, turn to self-orientalist to take part in Western festivals and be accepted. Thus, the external production of Western ideology is provided through “inappropriate others” or “carrier elites” who look at their society through modernity goggles. As Wallerstein emphasizes in The Theory of World Systems, colonialism maintained through the necessity of articulating states belonging to the Western world (Wallerstein, 2000). According to this theory, the better the individual is in his field, the closer he is to the center or semi-center from the surrounding country. Western societies can thus receive brain drain from semi-central or periphery countries and maintain their power by feeding their own state structure from the outside. In order for this structure to be preserved, it must be preserved as an attraction notion of the Western world. The West, which intends to show itself as a constant attraction, should take an active role as it did in the old colonial period and connect the non-Western to itself socio-economically. Another way is for the non-Western geography to be open to rhetoric that will make it superior, semi-actively or passively, in order to internalize Western values and set goals for them, in other words, to agree to collect ‘praise’. In order for the myth of the Western world’s own cultural superiority created from outside the West, it must produce a self-orientalist approach on the part of the intellectuals of other societies in order to preserve and maintain this process. It is not enough for the carrier elites to offer a self-orientalist approach by confining their own nonWestern society to a narrow and traditional framework; they need to ensure that the self-orientalist 585

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approach constantly remanded. Therefore, self-orientalism protects the superiority of the West while leaving behind the intellectuals of non-Western societies to constantly hold back their own societies. The fact that there is a selection of films under the name ‘World Cinema’ or a similar name in many festivals or screening platforms actually shows that an implicit distinction made from the beginning and made continuous. While cinema is already a concept of the world, marginalization become official and pronounced with the expression of ‘World Cinema’ phase. The detail highlighted by the subtext is that cinema is currently in two: the Western world and the others. The marginalized non-Western cinema shown, categorized and limited under the name ‘World Cinema’. This leads to non-Western cultural products being self-oriental to take part in Western festivals. This painting can be read as a result of neoliberal understanding dominating the cinema market on a global scale. In order to comprehend the economic repercussions of neoliberal policies in the film market, cinema categories should be evaluated in an oriental context under the headings Hollywood Cinema, European Cinema (Art Cinema) and World Cinema. James Chapman also points out that cinema can be evaluated in these three categories thanks to neoliberal influences at the beginning of the 21st century (Chapman, 2003). These cinema categories contain a hierarchy and continuity in terms of content, story structure and fiction. This decomposition is also directly in contact with neoliberal policies and capitalist concerns. It is seen that the West, which has a historical superiority economically, makes it to believe its own culture as superior and that those who want to be superior should be modern, while non-Western cultures are only limited to marginal sections, creating an illusion of they have minor importance or no importance at all.

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CONCLUSION The self-orientalist approach has been another way for the West to make cultural imperialism sustainable. Eastern and Western societies, which are constantly read by facing each other through contrasts, are often discussed through the concept of modernity. Due to the self-marginalizing Eastern subject, the idea of modernity as a myth implying that ‘capturing the present, modern, advancing forth’ is re-produced from a non-Western perspective. The positive approach of the Western towards individual freedoms, technological qualities, compatibility with the current, etc. discourses are constantly being created and made a global norm. Especially after 1980s, when the neoliberal policies spreading globally are re-examined through the art of cinema, it is seen that non-Western cultures are reflected through certain patterns and the same performance is expected from the way these societies reflect themselves. Thus, the West remained in the position of a non-Western object trying to catch up with modernity, while preserving its position as the subject of progressive understanding, as opposed to other cultures. Said emphasizes that Orientalism is not a European dream of the Oriental, it is a whole of theory and practice created, in which significant monetary investments have been made for generations (2003, p.11-37). The West, which is constantly in creation, has become dominant in the cinema sector by using its power of centrist understanding, discourse and financial superiority. In the face of the power of the production, distribution and screening network of US-based Hollywood cinema, film festivals and alternative distribution networks have been derived. To re-remember Schiller’s theory of media manipulation, it can be said that seemingly many media companies serve the same ideology and strengthen the status-quo through profit maximization (Schiller, 2005). The Art Cinema and World Cinema categories, which left Hollywood cinema from the very beginning, reflect the immutable worlds of non-Western societies when examined in terms of content while giving the impression that there is a diversity. Societies pictured by 586

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the non-Western itself trapped behind modernity in a stagnant, cyclical and anxious universe. When this is examined in an economic-political context, it shows that the cinema organizations that stand opposite Hollywood also reflect western centrist ideology and indirectly contribute to cultural imperialism. The absence of Western countries in the selection of films described as European and World cinema has a dialectical relationship, revealing the duality between Western cinema and others. On the other hand, the anxiety of receiving awards from Western festivals, not going outside the familiar themes, has led non-Western directors to be self-orientalised by marginalizing their own societies. While self-orientalist directors reflected their local cultures through authentic themes against the perception of modernity, they also built their film narrative structures on an endless cycle. In this context, the perception of the Orient has been sustainable with the voluntary self-Orientalism of the non-Western and the indirect support of the West in terms of political economy. When cinema, which is a mass media tool, is examined in the political economy context, its orientalist elements can also be analysed. A Marxist perspective is required to analyse the Orientalist cinema with a holistic and historicist approach. Without a historical materialist approach, it is not possible to understand the dynamics of orientalism, which become sustainable with the change of the place of orientalist discourse creation.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS Developments in the cinema sector, which is an important branch of the culture industry, depending on the neoliberal order, do not only aim at profit maximization in the capitalist logic. Culturally, the view of the superiority of the Western as a norm from different perspectives indicates that the political economy of Orientalism will be a very important issue in the 21st century. Traces of self-orientalism should be researched and analyzed not only in films but also in many non-Western world’s cultural and artistic products as well.

REFERENCES Adorno, T. W. (1975). Culture Industry Reconsidered. New German Critique, NGC, (6), 12–19. Benjamin, W. (2012). Pasajlar [Passages] (A. Cemal, Trans.). Yapı Kredi Yayınları.

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Campbell, A. (2005). ABD’de Neoliberalizmin Doğuşu: Kapitalizmin Yeniden Örgütlenmesi [Neoliberalism in USA: Reorganization of Capitalism] (Ş. Başlı & T. Öncel, Trans.). Yordam. Chan, F. (2011, Summer). The International Film Festival and the Making of a National Cinema. Screen, 52(2), 253–260. Advance online publication. doi:10.1093creen/hjr012 Dirlik, A. (1996). Chinese History and the Question of Orientalism. History and Theory, 35(4), 96–118. doi:10.2307/2505446 Duman, M. Z. (2011). Neo-liberal Küreselleşmenin Zaferi [Victory of Neoliberal Globalization]. Uluslararası İnsan Bilimleri Dergisi, 8(1), 666–700. Eagleton, T. (2005). İdeoloji [Ideology] (M. Özcan, Trans.). Ayrıntı Yayınları.

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Erdoğan, İ. (2000). Kapitalizm Kalkınma Postmodernizm ve İletişim [Capitalism, Development, Postmodernism and Communication]. Erk Yayınları. Golden, S. (2009). Orientalism in East Asia: A Theorical Model. Inter Asia Papers. Gramsci, A. (1992). Selections from the Prison Notebooks (Q. Hoare & G. N. Smith, Eds. & Trans.; 11th ed.). International Publishers. Guibernau, M. (2007). Nationalisms: The Nation-State and Nationalism in the Twentieth Century. Polity Press. Hall, S. (1999). Kültür, Medya ve İdeolojik Etki [Culture, Media and Ideological Impact]. In M. Küçük (Ed.), Medya, İktidar ve İdeoloji [Media, Power and Ideology] (pp. 199–243). Academic Press. Herman, E. S., & Chomsky, N. (2012). Rızanın İmalatı: Kitle Medyasının Ekonomi Politiği [Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media] (E. Abadoğlu, Trans.). Bgst Yayınları. Işıkman, N. G. (2009). Amerikan Sinemasının İdeolojik Bağlamda Arap Temsili [Representation of Arabs in American Cinema]. Marmara İletişim Dergisi., (14), 175–191. Jin, D. Y. (2011). A Critical Analysis of US Cultural Policy in the Global Film Market. Nation-States and FTAs. the International Communication Gazette, 73(8), 651–669. doi:10.1177/1748048511420092 Kim, M., & Chung, A. Y. (2005). Consuming Orientalism: Images of Asian/ American Women in Multicultural Advertising. Qualitative Sociology, 28(1), 67–91. Kırel, S. (2007). Üçüncü Sinema ve Üçüncü Dünya Sineması [Third Cinema and Third World Cinema] (E. Biryıldız & Z. Biryıldız, Eds.). Es Yayınları. Koehler, R. (2009). Cinephilia and Film Festivals. In Dekalog 3: On Film Festivals (pp. 81–97). London: Wallflower. Kovács, A. B. (2010). Screening Modernism (E. Yılmaz, Trans.). De Ki Yayıncılık. Lary, D. (2006). Edward Said: Orientalism and Occidentalism. Journal of the Canadian Historical Association, 17(2), 3–15. Miller, T., & Maxwell, R. (2006). Film and Globalization. Communication, Media, Globalization and Empire.

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Modood, T. (2005). Multicultural Politics: Racism, Ethnicity, and Muslims in Britain. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Multicultural Advertising. Qualitative Sociology, 28(1), 67–91. Murdock, G. (2006). Büyük Şirketler ve İletişim Endüstrilerinin Kontrolü [Major Companies and Control of Communication Industries]. In L. Yaylagül (Ed.), Kitle İletişiminin Ekonomi Politiği (pp. 61–119). Dalbaz Yayıncılık. Peranson, M. (2009). First You Get the Power, Then You Get the Money: Two Models of Film Festivals. In Dekalog 3: on Film Festivals. London: Wallflower. Pratt, M. L. (1991). Arts of the Contact Zone. Profession, 33–40.

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Roberts, M. (1998, Spring). Baraka: World Cinema and the Global Culture Industry. Cinema Journal, 37(3), 62–82. doi:10.2307/1225827 Ryan, M., & Kellner, D. (1997). Politik Kamera [Camera Politica] (E. Özsayar, Trans.). Ayrıntı Yayınları. Said, E. (2003). Şarkiyatçılık [Orientalism] (B. Yıldırım, Trans.). Metis Yayınevi. Said, E. (2010). Kütlür ve Emperyalizm [Culture and Imperialism] (N. Alpay, Trans.). Hil Yayınları. Schiller, H. (2005). Zihin Yönlendirenler [Mind Managers] (Vol. 2; C. Cerit, Trans.). Pınar Yayınları. Tomlinson, J. (1999). Kültürel Emperyalizm Eleştirel Bir Giriş [Cultural Imperialism A Critical Introduction]. (E. Zeybekoğlu, Trans.). İstanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınları. Turner, B. S. (2003). Oryantalizm, Postmodernizm ve Globalizm [Orientalism, Postmodernism and Globalism] (İ. Kapaklıkaya, Trans.). Anka Yayınları. Valck, D. M. (2007). Film Festivals: From European Geopolitics to Global Cinephilia. Amsterdam University Press. doi:10.5117/9789053561928 Wallerstein, I. (2000). The Essential Wallerstein. New York: The New Press Essential Series.

ADDITIONAL READING Blaut, J. M. (1993). The Colonizer’s Model of the World: Geographical Diffusionism and Eurocentric History. Guilford. Bulut, Y. (2004). Şarkiyatçılığın Kısa Tarihi [Brief History of Orientalism]. Küre. Çaycı, A. (2015). Oryantalizm, Oksidentalizm ve Sanat [Orientalism, Occidentalism and Art]. İnsan. Goody, J. (2002). East in the West. Cambridge University. Guenon, R. (1991). East and West. Sophia Perennis. Hentch, T. (1992). Imagining the Middle East. Black Rose Books. Husserl, E. (1994). The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology. Northwestern University Press.

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Kabbani, R. (2009). Imperial Fictions: Europe’s Myths of Orient. Saqi Books. Kırel, S. (2018). Kültürel Çalışmalar ve Sinema [Cultural Studies and Cinema]. İthâkî. Lewis, B. (1982). The Question of Orientalism. New York Review of Books. Lewis, R. (2004). Rethinking Orientalism: Women, Travel, and the Ottoman Harem (Vol. 4). Rutgers University Press. doi:10.5040/9780755611744 Sontag, S. (2004). Regarding the Pain of Others. Penguin. Uluç, G. (2009). Medya ve Oryantalizm [Media and Orientalism]. Anahtar Kitaplar.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

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Cultural Industry: Economic field concerned with mass producing, reproducing, storing, and distributing cultural goods and services on industrial and commercial terms. Film Festival: An organized, extended presentation of films in one or more cinemas or screening venues, usually in a single city or region. Mass Media: Tools for the transfer of information, concepts, and ideas to both general and specific audiences. Radio, Television, Cinema, Newspaper, Internet can be counted as mass media tools. Neoliberalism: Neoliberalism, ideology and policy model that emphasizes the value of free market competition. Orientalism: Orientalism is the imitation or depiction of aspects in the Eastern world, usually done by writers, designers, and artists from the Western world. Political Economy: Branch of social science that studies the relationships between individuals and society and between markets and the state, using a diverse set of tools and methods drawn largely from economics, political science, and sociology. Self-Orientalism: The orientalisation of the Eastern world by itself.

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Chapter 34

The Discursive Representation of Islam and Muslims in Movies Fikret Güven https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9313-7166 Nişantaşı University, Turkey

ABSTRACT September 11 has changed the world we live in. Justifcations and commentaries have been a revival of the East/West Orientalist binarism. Movies on September 11 and the subsequent Iraq War have continued to follow the same discourse, frst lending themselves as conveyors of knowledge and later passing their Orientalism under a guise of art. The selected movies are Paul Greengrass’s United 93, Peter Markle’s Flight 93, David Priest’s Portraits of Courage, Kathryn Bigelow’s The Hurt Locker, and Peter Berg’s The Kingdom. The subject matter of the movies discussed in this chapter focuses on September 11 and the subsequent Iraq War for being the major recent historical events which are continually depicted as an inherent East/West confict. It largely shapes today’s perception of the world or in other terms creates a sense of a new perception today despite the continuity of the same Orientalist binarism that has always been there.

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INTRODUCTION Orientalist discourses intensified in the wake of September 11 attacks. This can be seen in the way a series of global events that took place in the last two decades are presented as a form of East and West conflicts. These events have been talked about, pictured, discussed, critiqued, and offered as such in literature, the media, and common parlance. Beginning with the attacks of September 11, followed by the subsequent American invasion of Iraq, and even with the Arab Spring, the use of the Orientalist discourses have dominated the way the contemporary world talks about these issues. Policies and imperialist interventions continue to frame themselves using Orientalist rhetoric to gain the support of people. This could be seen in the way the politicians have mobilized the rhetoric of protection against an outside threat, often an Islamic terrorist, in order to win the favor of their supporters. The rhetoric has been used even to win the vote of Britain for the Brexit: an economic deal between the United Kingdom DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch034

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 The Discursive Representation of Islam and Muslims in Movies

and Europe that has nothing to do with any countries in the East. In their campaign, some right-wing propaganda included a flyer with a map that consists of a white background, with a map of the United Kingdom and Europe, in addition to Turkey, Syria and Iraq, in order to invoke the fear that terrorists from those areas will gain access to the United Kingdom rather soon. The American elections have also seen a prominent rise in Orientalist discourses, often targeting Muslim immigrants, who are escaping war zones to find a safer place for their families. The Arab Spring, leading to the war in Syria and the subsequent immigrant crisis, is filled with examples of how Orientalist discourses still govern how the world is presented. Even before that, the War on Iraq campaign first claimed Saddam Hussein to have weapons of mass destruction capable of damaging the United States, and when they were not found, the war was quickly turned into a “War on Terror.” The Orientalist tradition of the threatening unknown has been especially useful in this case. The unknown remains unknown when it is blown out, and has to stay framed in mystical Orientalist terms. Even positive and democratic movements in East have been presented in an Orientalist fashion. The Arab Spring was on the media as a social media revolution, implying that the coordination of demonstrators in Arab countries is the success of a Western democratic tool, downplaying the very potential for political action by people oppressed and silenced for decades. The Syrian refugee crisis quickly changed in right-wing discourse and propaganda into an immigrant crisis, evoking the sentiment that ‘they’ are coming to take ‘our’ jobs, which in itself shows the extent to which a binary division is mostly useful as a geo-economic division that only benefits the internal hierarchy that aims to maintain it. The effect of Orientalist discourses is immense and direct on social and political life. Humanitarian crises are prolonged in the name of security against an enemy that does not exist as an objective truth, but as an element in the construction of a narrative. In the light of above discussion, the films selected for analysis are samples of three general categorisations of truth and fiction. The first sample, the films on United Flight 93, claim directly to be representing an event that is real, or in other words, historical. Three works have been selected: United 93, Flight 93 and Portraits of Courage. While the event they are trying to depict is as real in the American conscious as can be, they still claim their events and characters are fictitious. The second sample is The Hurt Locker (Katheryn Bigelow, 2008), which claims to be based on the writings of a journalist who has accompanied a bomb-disposal squad in Iraq. The fictional adventures of the squad are presented against a background which is offered as real: Iraq. The last sample is of an Orientalist film which lays a full claim to being fictional. The Kingdom (Peter Berg, 2007) is set in Saudi Arabia in the style of a Hollywood action movie: a team of special agents go to Saudi Arabia to locate a terrorist and repay for the death of their colleague. It links itself to September 11 in the prelude, situating its entire fiction as a natural explanation of the violence that has caused the attacks. What this analysis aims to do is to show that the quality of being an Orientalist does not lie simply in offering a negative image of the Orient, but has to operate a truth/fiction configuration, and manage a distance between the audience and the screen, which allows them to accept the background of these fictions as a real. The works analyzed are largely situated in the midst of the proclaimed East/West conflict, and also situated between the Real/ Fiction binary. Some of them are closer to the documentary, some more fiction.

BACKGROUND The term Orientalism is a set of discursive, systematic and essentialist scholarly and literary practices with political motivations that constructs an image of the mysterious, feminine Orient as the ‘Other’ to 592

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the rational, articulate, masculine of the Western ‘Self’. Orientalism is a product of the imagination of the West that constructed the orient as strange, backwards, religious and ultimately other. Edward Said defined the term as the acceptance in the West of “the basic distinction between East and West as the starting point for elaborate theories, epics, novels, social descriptions, and political accounts concerning the Orient, its people, customs, ‘mind,’ destiny and so on” (Said, 2003, p. 2). Despite the vast diversity in Muslim population across the globe, “the orientalist approach to Islam can be summarised as essentialist, empiricist and historicist; it impoverishes the rich diversity of Islam by producing an essentialising caricature” (Sayyid, 1997, p. 32). Originally, Orientalism had a positive or agreeable meaning, referring to “the study of languages, literature, religions, thought, arts and social life of the East in order to make them available to the West” (MacKenzie, 1995, p. xii). The growing opposition to colonialism, brought with it growing scepticism that orientalists were ever truly benign in their intensions towards ‘the East’, and more specifically, that ‘the West’ was by no means benevolent with what it did with the information made available to it through orientalist scholarship. The critique of Orientalism-both as scholarship and as economic-political hegemonic practice-grew tentatively following the Second World War and the gradual decolonisation of the East, developing on four fronts:

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On orientalism as an instrument of imperialism designed to secure the colonisation and enslavement of parts of the so-called third world; on orientalism as a mode of understanding and interpreting Islam and Arab nationalism; on orientalism as a “cumulative and corporate identity” and a “saturating hegemonic system”; and on orientalism as the justification for a syndrome of beliefs, attitudes and theories acting the geography, economics and sociology of the Orient (Macfie, 2002, p. 5–6). Orientalist discourses intensified in the wake of September 11 attacks and films under discussion have a strong affinity with what Said feared to be an intensified discourse of Orientalism. The concept of simulation is very important regarding Orientalism. The complete shift from a textual history to an image-dominated, mediated reality, where the mediated image replaces any need for an experience beyond it, is called something, which Baudrillard terms “simulation”. This shift happens over three stages as summarized by Paul Hegarty in Jean Baudrillard: Live Theory (2004). The first stage is the making of copies. Natural signs of power exist, but the shift in these signs results in competition, which opens up the door for creating “copies”. At this stage, there is a reality being imitated, a genuine copy as it is. In the second order of simulation, what we have is the “political economy of the sign,” a stage where what we have is representation. Paul Hegarty calls this stage in his book on Baudrillard “the industrial era, or, approximately modernity” (2004, p. 50). In the third order of simulacra, all we have is simulation. The real no longer exists. Simulation is its own reality as the sign replaces what it represents. Baudrillard sees that we are moving towards, if not already inhabiting, hyper-reality, where data and the flow of information shape who we are and how we live. He gives the example of loyalty card companies being only interested in the purchases one makes, and the amount of money they spend, and where. There is no interest in the individual qua person. The individual does not exist as a potential singularity but is instead a set of data that represents him, and predicts his or her desire, only to manufacture more objects of desire that fit their size perfectly. Orientalism does not exist without a relation to the real, and it is this connection between the real and the fictional that is at play here.

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The Construction of Binaries: The Self, the Other, and Speech Orientalism has continued within the rhetoric of terrorism after September 11 specifically because it has been seen as a peculiarly American issue with the happening on American soil and the military responses provided by the U.S. administration and backed by Western allies. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak argues that Orientalism has become more important after September 11, because the “War on Terror” essentially depends on the Western construction of terrorists as the ‘Other’ (Baer, p. 54). Similarly, Said claims that the predominant theme in the discourse of Orientalism after September 11 is the equation of terrorism with a specific religion, “what is bad about all terror is when it is attached to religious and political abstractions and reductive myths that keep veering away from history and sense” (“Islam and the West are Inadequate”). The discourse does not have any meaningful explanation historically since it attempts to come up with a justification for the killings of innocent people around the world, rather than considering concrete evidence of exploitations, destruction, and occupations by America. Such “reductive myths” have reduced Islam to monolithic violent entities whereas a heterogeneous Muslim population is lumped into a homogenous group of radicals. These discursive efforts require a collective effort to reduce wide complexities of the ‘West’ and ‘Islam’ to totalizing and misleading simplifications. The traditional sense of Orientalism is often seen in the presence of visible binary oppositions between the Islamic East and the Christian West. Images of this sort often build around the characterization of people, but also a characterization of geography or ideology. This Orientalist binarism plagues these films. The contrast between “us” and “them”, in the form of a clash, is explicitly there in the first few scenes of United 93. As the hijackers walk towards the gate, United 93’s camera chooses to put very particular images in the background: a billboard of a well-lit image of a pink bikini in the background. The hijacker looks back and the camera match-cuts to the other hijacker supposedly behind him. However, the same pink bikini image is also behind the second terrorist, revealing the deliberate positioning of that image into the frame. The hijacker walks out of the frame, and the camera makes a pause at one such billboard to emphasise the nature of the clash between the two cultures: one religious, a clique of men crowded like monks in one tight hotel-room space; the other an open culture of desire, epitomised by its most commodified symbol of sexual freedom: a woman’s body on display. According to Said, the post–modern media has made its contribution to the circulation of such myths about Islam and Muslims (Culture, p. 295). If American movie industry is to be regarded as part of mainstream media, it equally shares the guilt for the discursive dissemination of these myths, because of they all “re – cycle the same unverifiable fictions and vast generalizations to stir up ‘America’ against the foreign evil” (Orientalism, p. xv). Juxtaposition of sexual images along with terrorists could easily establish the binarism which Greengrass has so professedly set out to “erect”. However, images of “us” now begin to appear, starting with the flight crew all heading towards the camera with big smiles. This alternates with images of the hijackers having the most rigid expressionless faces throughout their appearance; in the waiting area, through the security gate, and on board the airplane. Even when they sit next to each other on the airplane and need to whisper something to each other, they do it without even turning their heads or having eye contact.The binarism and positioning of elements on the screen in a way that contrasts them to each other enables the separation of identities by associating certain characteristics to the Self, such as familiarity, rationality and comprehensibility as well as the possibility of identification, against those of distance, incomprehensibility and irrationality of the other identity. This binarism appears most starkly in characterization. The flight crew is shown smiling. The view of the faces is what characterizes the team at first glance. Passengers and crew members of the airplanes are shown in every instance talking about their babies at 594

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home. Pilot and co-pilot, hostesses and passengers, all say they have babies waiting for them at home, love lives and social relationships. None of that is visible on stage, but is instead reported. This is also doubled by the fact that most families are shown carrying babies. The American side of family relations is also put on screen as the camera looks at the player’s hands. All of the American characters are wearing similar wedding rings, and the families’ homes are shown to be full of photo frames of the characters. Besides, the wedding rings and the babies, two more factors unify the American into one and the same side: an old fashioned small TV set, and a mug of your hot drink of choice. Flight 93 combines Leroy Homer, the co-pilot, his wife and child, in a family portrait just before he leaves for his eventual doom. The familiar is constructed with objects too. The TV sets in Flight 93 are surrounded by family photo frames, baby toys, or telephones. The binarism of characters could not take place without the arrangement of elements. Camera movements, framing, and sound tracks are as important in the construction of the systematic build up of narrative. In Flight 93, the first images to appear are of the character of co-pilot Leroy Homer getting dressed. At exactly 00:00:26, the camera zooms rapidly onto the character’s face, placing immense focus on his presence, also thrusting the viewer into an uncomfortably close distance. The camera moves in straight lines between set point: Leroy’s hands and wedding ring tying the necktie, his cufflinks and pilot badge placed neatly in front of him, and then his jacket. In the tight space of a bathroom, the shot consists of an array of close-ups showing mainly parts of Leroy, emphasising symbolic accessories such as the wedding ring and the wings badge. When his face is shown, it is always shown whole. The next character then appears: he is shaving, with an uncomfortable itch sound of the razor standing out, rising almost to the same level of the background music. One cannot really tell what this character fully looks like, until at 00:02:00, an oriental flute sound is cued into the music, and the face of the character finally appears. Now a similar sudden zoom into his face, similar to that of Leroy Homer, thrusts the viewer into that extremely uncomfortable character. The two characters are both seen in a similar setting: a bathroom, divided by the setting which they will share later on: an airplane. The character of Leroy Homer is naturally neat without an effort. The other character is uncomfortably so, requiring a lot of scratching onto the skin before he can qualify as representable. Said states that “the Orient is watched, since its almost offensive behavior issues out of a reservoir of infinite peculiarity; the European, whose sensibility tours the Orient, is a watcher, never involved, always profoundly detached, always ready for new examples of what the Description de l’ Egypte called ‘bizarre jouissance’, the Orient becomes a living tableau of queerness” (Orientalism, p. 103). Partial and biased presentation of the Other is also seen in The Hurt Locker, where faces of Oriental Iraqis are always either hidden by an object, veiled, out of focus, gazing silently from a large distance, or shattered. The effect of facial distance and linking it to a duality of sides becomes more apparent in the scene where the explosive disposal squad meets a British squad in the middle of the desert. The latter are dressed in Iraqi items. The Specialist calls them “hadjis”, and the sense of fear is transferred by Sanborn’s constant shouting. The sound of the veiled character finally speaking out calmly and in a low tone does not help calm this fear much. It is only when he removes the veil, completely uncovering his blond hair that he can safely and trustingly claim: “We are on the same fucking side you guys”, upon which an immediate sense of relaxation is channelled through the screen by making all characters drop their guard. This construction, while attempting to construct the trustworthy nature of people similar to “us”, could not have been possible without the shouting and comments from the American bomb disposal company. Knowing this, we are able to see how, in order to make the image of “hadjis” fit the notion of a threat, the film has to literally subjugate the image to speech. In the history of Orientalism, an important cultural situation is the “habit of deploying large generalizations” such as race and lan595

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guage, and underneath “these categories” is the “rigidly binomial position of ‘ours’ and ‘theirs’” (Said, Orientalism, p. 227). The image of the American in The Hurt Locker is a remake of the idea of Superman: the character who risks his life, if he could lose his life at all, for the purpose of helping others, asking for nothing in return. He abides by the law and yet he is not really part of the law. This character we have here is a Sergeant First Class William James, who does not really play by the rules. Nor does the law take its course the way it normally would when he breaks it. For example, he leaves his base at some point, and walks back in from the front gates, and still does not get shot; nor does he get the kind of punishment, or at least investigation, one would imagine a Sergeant First Class would get if they are found to have gone outside of their base, and may have been in possible contact with the enemy. The superhero, and the justification for killing the bad guys is also used in Peter Berg’s The Kingdom by Western-like Colonel Al-Ghazi, who became an officer because he likes the Hulk. However, Kathryn Bigelow opts for the appealing image of the wild man on a mission to save lives. By allowing the image of the soldier to stand out as this romantic figure, clearly fictionalized, the film allows itself to pass on a different kind of image as “the truth”. The backdrop of the film, Iraq and the Iraqis, the Orient and the Orientals, Islam and the Muslims, are all one and the same thing: violent non-speaking barbarians in need of the West’s civilizing intervention. Thus, the West has lumped together all Muslims under a single stereotyped definition of Islam, which simplifies diverse and complex communities into a homogenous entity. The Other, which is where most focus in the debate on Orientalism has been, is constructed as threatening by nature, not by political motivation. The Other is also constructed in these works as specifically Islamic, and this violent Islamic Other is pitted against a Christian West using various signs that are scattered in the films. Thus, fear of Islam is the most important aspect of Orientalism. Said believes that Islam has been met with fear and anxiety by the West since the Middle Ages, because the West always associated Islam with “terror, devastation, and the demonic hordes of hated barbarians”(Orientalism, p. 89). Yet, the West also associates the East with “sexual promise, sensuality and unlimited desire” (Orientalism, p. 189). The East, then, becomes both a threat and concoction of the Western imagination. In recent times, the depiction of Muslims has shifted “from a faintly outlined stereotype as a camel-riding nomad to an accepted caricature as the embodiment of incompetence and easy defeat” (Orientalism, p. 285). The West distinguished between two kinds of Muslims. “There are good Muslims, the ones who do as they are told, and bad Muslims, who do not, and are therefore terrorists” (Orientalism, p 206). While the “good” Muslims submit to Western colonialism, those who oppose colonialism are labeled “bad” and even terrorists. Also, Muslim society is characterized as male-dominated and passive, in contrast to the democratic and enlightened West (Orientalism, p. 311), thus reinforcing the opposition between “us” vs. “them.” To reinforce to opposition between “us” vs. “them”, a voiceover recites from the Quran at the beginning of United 93, with a bird’s-eye view of a modern city scape. The hijackers are shown reciting the Quran and doing Islamic prayers. The shouts of hijackers are Allahu Akbar just before stabbing a defenceless, rational, American passenger. When agent Fleury helps his colleague, a wall piece is shown behind him with the Arabic calligraphy for “Muhammad” on it. Prayer mats are shown around the compound in the rooms they break into. The Other is also Arab and Islamic and is pitted against Christianity with the cross hanging from the camel figure which is dangling from the rear view mirror in the soldiers’ Humvee in The Hurt Locker. The violence of the irrational road-side bombs is transformed into an Islamic one by adding sound elements to the image, such as the sound of the Islamic call for prayer before the first scene, as well has a sound resembling that of a recitation of the Quran in the scene where Sgt. James 596

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discovers six bombs tied together. The irrationality of the violence is shown in the placement of bombs in The Hurt Locker. The first bomb is placed in a pile of waste in a residential area. One of the bombs is in fact placed in the middle of the desert. Rather than characterise the violence as the work of a small extremist group, or a politically-motivated faction, the violence is insisted upon as “natural” and inherent to the entire religion and region. This is done repeatedly by using the motif of a child. The Oriental child in The Kingdom is contrasted against “our children” by drawing attention to a difference in what they learn. At first, both children are playing with pictures. Our children learn different things at school, while theirs are forced to watch the violence, turning the fictitious image into that of indoctrination. The child creates a notion of an inherent nature that is simply there. When the villain is caught near the end of the The Kingdom, his children surround him, and he hands down the message of revenge to his son. Such juxtaposition serve the purpose of confirming Said’s assessment that it was always ‘We are this, ‘they’ are that’ (Culture, p. 229). The Orientalist construction of the setting can be seen with the streets of an Iraqi town full of rubble and rubbish. This background persists throughout the entire film, giving the impression that there is nothing else to see, that this is the natural state of Iraqi life. It disavows, if it were portraying historical Truth, the reason why any of this would happen, and the fact that it was the United States of America that brought war into the streets of Iraq, by a soldier suggesting the place needs grass and that he and his squad mate can start a business selling grass. This indicates the inherent rough nature of the place in question and how the people in it could not make it green. Speech is one of the main binaries in Orientalism, and is one of the main Orientalist qualities that are often depicted in Orientalist movies. Speech is a political quality and is shown in the ability to communicate and organize in movies. The silence of the Oriental is made threatening by contrasting it to the anxiety of the Westerner. Speech of the characters is distributed starkly differently between two groups that are defined by an Orientalist binary. Americans speak and communicate all the time. The hijackers of United Flight 93 do not communicate well with their Western surroundings and do not even communicate among themselves. As the announcement of the flight sounds (United 93, 2006, 00:09:26), passengers turn their heads to pay attention to the sound, while the hijacker in the frame does not flinch or make a movement. The detachment and inherent capacity for communication in the Oriental is emphasised. Ideas of communication, networking, political capacity for organization, families and love lives, are all pushed to the side. The language system which the visible elements are subject to are building upon the external knowledge that the audience are coming with, such as “everything will be fine,” and “you fly her home” in United 93. In contrast to this, the hijackers are not only detached from our world, they are detached from theirs, because their world is not one of speech. These scripts are designed to play upon the expectations of the viewer specifically because we have knowledge of what there is to come: namely that all of these characters will meet their inevitable end. The speech of the hijackers is not only limited in terms of disconnection but also in content. The Orientalists scream of “Allahu akbar” – an Islamic phrase giving praise to God and mainly used in the media in the context of war – is the one thing that all three depictions of the hijackers make them say. This is enhanced by the lack of subtitles and often by using the phrase as a shout of war, or as a scare tactic, where one of the hijackers simply shouts that as loud as he can in the face of every single passenger. In Flight 93, Ziad talks inexplicably to his comrades and no subtitles are placed on screen. He has the usual nasty angry Arab’s accent often used in Orientalist depictions, and his tone of speech emphasises the word “Allah” in more than one occasion. The speech he makes has no logic or rationality to it. All it does is sound angry, sound the word Allah several times, and sound irrelevant. In other words,the 597

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Oriental is presented as the outsider enemy who cannot represent himself, which Said, quoting from Karl Marx, says is typical of an Orientalist move to render the East inarticulate: “They cannot represent themselves; they must be represented” (Orientalism, p. 335). It is the West that articulates Muslims, and this articulation is “the prerogative, not of a puppet master, but of a genuine creator, whose life – giving power represents, animates, constitutes the otherwise silent and dangerous space beyond familiar boundaries” (Orientalism, p. 57). Speaking Orientals are always on “our” side. A very distant and outstanding exception to irrational and violent stereotypes of Muslims is the child in The Hurt Locker who has tendencies which Orientalism characterizes as Western: he speaks English, understands the soldiers’ needs, and is the opposite of the conservative surrounding environment, because he sells them porn, pirated films, and asks Sgt. James if he was gay. He also plays soccer with the sergeant. Colonel Al-Ghazi in The Kingdom, the “good Arab” in the picture, speaks English and became an officer because he was inspired by the Hulk. Speech is equated to political capacity, which is also associated with the Western Self in these images. The scene in the airport tells it all with almost every actor playing a Western passenger using a mobile phone or reading the papers. Both are technologies of communication and informational exchange. Phones, it is claimed, are the main means with which the passengers on board the plane received their intelligence, and were therefore able to organize a counter-attack. While the terrorists, mostly in focus, are sitting still like cold statues, unable to communicate or get even make eye-contact with each other, everybody else is mostly talking on a mobile phone. Those who are not on the phone are reading newspapers, which is a form of contact and being in touch with the current world around them as a network of information. As for the speech of the forces and authorities, they are quite detached from the suffering of the families, which is shown in the deliberate silence of the two police officers and the bureaucratic hierarchy that answers the phone when one of the families calls 911 (Flight 93, 2006, 01:11:50), which ends up with the agent asking completely irrelevant questions. This element enforces the role of the screen in these films, because the knowledge of the families exceeds that of the authorities because they have been watching CNN, which enables the passengers to develop an action plan. In ambiguous references, the movies present the Arabic language, its speakers and the geography in the most exotic forms. Instead of assuming that apparent vagueness may rather be due to one’s own ignorance or lack of understanding, producers resorts to the classic orientalist discourse that labels Arabic as “wordy, imprecise, complicated and high – flown” (Orientalism, p. 168). Said states: an emphasis on rhetoric and its negative impressions on the Arab mind’s vagueness, and its grandiloquence… since the Arabic language is much given to rhetoric Arabs are consequently incapable of true thought” (Orientalism, p. 287). In response to stereotyping a diverse community of Muslims into a collective community, Said argues “typical Orientalist narrative usually conveys that the ‘Arab’ or ‘Arabs’ have an aura of apartness, definitiveness and collective self–consistency such as to wipe out any traces of individual Arabs with narratable life histories” (Culture, p. 229). Movies under discussion precisely do this when they give the Western side of the story by presenting inherent stereotypes in Islamic civilization, and claiming incompatibility with its ideals of liberty and democracy. Islam is the “new empire of evil” (Orientalism, p. 346), set in opposition to the values of West. Said sees this aspect of Orientalism as a deliberate attempt to consider “Islam and fundamentalism as essentially the same thing”(Covering Islam, p. xvi).

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Virtual Reality and Trusting the Image Baudrillard’ s The Gulf War Did Not Take Place (1995) is a striking example of what he means by virtual reality and the power of images to write history. It has in fact been written while the war was taking place and telecast on TV. The book comprises of three essays written at three different points of the war: before, during and after. The first essay was titled “The Gulf War Will Not Take Place,” and was first published in Libération on 4 January 1991. As the war actually started and images began to flow, Baudrillard insisted on his view of the war as simulation in the essay titled “The Gulf War Is Not Really Taking Place,” on 6 February 1991. Against the sneering of his critics or anyone who might have thought he was delusional, he finally wrote “The Gulf War Did Not Take Place,” which appeared on 28 March 1991, concluding once and for all that his view is quite different from the popular notion of reality, as one of “making reality”, and that it still holds its own. The persistence of Baudrillard itself is a sign that what should have been seen is something outside of the discursive system of signification, namely, that the images are not informants but rather elements in the construction of a narrative. After the Gulf War, the kind of media made available for consumption and for training stood proof that the Gulf War was, for us, nothing more than a simulation of a war, or a knowledge-effect mediated by images. It was the war as mediated, not as a real. In other words, what has written the history of the Gulf War and made our experience of it was not the tanks and bombs, the killing and casualties or the blood. What made our experience of it and the history around it is the image and simulation. We lived the war as images, and it persists in history as an image. Noting the extent of distant, image-based targeting and precious bombings, Barry Buzan and Eric Herring note in The Arms Dynamic in World Politics (1998) that “Computer simulations were used intensively and extensively in training, targets were located by satellites and radar and locked onto by lasers or night sights, and evidence of destruction was gathered through video cameras and satellite photography” (1998, p.192). It was termed as the “first ‘cyber-war’” by Der Deria, whom they quote:

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Der Deria portrays the 1990-1991 Gulf War as the first “cyber-war,” by which he means “a technologically generated, televisually linked, and strategically gamed form of violence that dominated the formulation as well as the representation of U.S. policy in the Gulf. The combination of surgical video strikes and information carpet -bombing worked in maintaining support for the war and that in the Gulf, as with cyber-war more generally, war and simulation became irrevocably blurred (1992, p.185). One year after the Gulf War, the general public could play the war in a simulated video game, and could either play as an American or an Iraqi (Provenzo, p. 281). The concept that has moved the war has been the constant escalation on each side, Saddam and the USA. Baudrillard says that this escalation would continue until it explodes and there would be no actual war behind it, because this thwarting is itself the event, not the event that it promises. And indeed the war has ended that way, just as the Vietnam War ended when it was “domesticated” to world order (1995,p. 85), not with military defeat, and it did not matter whether this domestication was under democracy or communism. When the Gulf War was over, Saddam was still in power, and everything went back to order. The thwarting has served its purpose as the images have been disseminated and the narrative written. What is significant about our experience of the Gulf War is that it has never been experienced beyond its images. The existence and use of the simulated materials, video games and images supports two things: that the history of the war was indeed a matter of dissemination of images, and that in history written by simulation, history 599

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can also be rewritten. This alterability itself is a quality that, rather than seeing as a tool of the powerful to control and shape knowledge, should be seen as an emancipatory aesthetic that enables a break from the notion of history as written by power. Similarly, knowledge of the event of September 11 would not have been what it is without mass media and the dispersion of its images all over the world. The CNN live footage has become so engraved in everybody’s memory of it that it has become part and parcel of the event. In other words, the plane crashing into the tower could no longer be envisaged crashing into the tower without the CNN logo appearing right next to it. This is the same as what Baudrillard mentions in The Gulf War has not Taken Place, as he refers to the famous incident when a CNN reporter approaches a group of other-channel reporters on the war, only to find out that they are in fact watching CNN in order to make the news. The event belongs in the symbolic. It materializes as an image, disguises itself as truth, and follows on as a flow of capital: “The USA has been looking for a symbolic wound, and it finally has one, allowing it to use the event as a sort of ‘credit card’ to do what it likes” (Baudrillard in Hegarty,p. 108). While this is seen in the turn to emergency law and anti-terrorism tactics that have threatened the democracy boasted by the USA, what we will see here is that this has been presented and dealt with using the strict Orientalist divide in how this event as well as the subsequent war on Iraq took place. Inside of the USA, the police system has changed, but it could not do so without a constant reference to an outside enemy. These media and news outlets shaping public knowledge only succeeded because of the extent to which their reproduction of their own images has been treated as a confirmation of the same truth. Orientalism is here the most relevant heritage. Nevertheless, Orientalism has needed to occupy the same dynamics of knowledge production, of simulation and the hyper-real, in order to function at all. Baudrillard and W. J. T. Mitchell treat images for what they are. They confirm that the image has the power to go beyond the will of its producer, but in ways, which almost seem determined by the power of the image itself. Popular reception and the turn in meaning of an image, the way it affects movements, the way it becomes memorable are not things, which the image itself controls, but are things, which it affects. It is a function of images to have this happen to them, but it is not inherent in them what direction their meaning takes. According to Mitchell,

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Images cannot be destroyed. Pictures, by contrast, material objects that are the bearers of images, can of course be destroyed; but the image survives that destruction, and often becomes even more powerful in its tendency to return in other media, including memory, narrative, and fantasy (2006, p.11). This is why Baudrillard sees the collapse of the two towers of the World Trade Center as the only true event. The sheer naked visibility of the planes crashing into the towers and then the towers falling resists the system’s ability to thwart images and subject them to a narrative. Baudrillard calls the collapse of the towers a “suicide” (The Spirit of Terrorism, p. 29). The collapse of the Two Towers is the death of a picture, which is not an image, which allows the image to live on through its destruction. However, because of this naked visibility, it is irreducible to a narratological element, and therefore we see no “representations” of the actual fall of the two towers. Instead, their collapse is like the gouged eyes of Oedipus, un-representable in the representational universe that we occupy. For that reason, commemoration of September 11 mainly took the form of documentary dramas based on the official governmental document, giving visibility to an invisible space, thus restoring representational distancing logic. The Orientalist films attempt to establish their code as the truth by the use of narratological tools and camera movements in order to ‘plunge’ the viewer into their reality and to establish believability. 600

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Simulation in Orientalist films, or the creation of a hyperreal, according to Baudrillard, is understood in the replacement of the understanding of the world with the representation of it. For these films to achieve a hyperreal representational quality, they need to construct their narratives as representations of the world, which the implied viewer, supposedly in agreement with them, considers them sufficient. For this, they imitate the aesthetic of truth such as documentary cameras, as well as basing their narratives on true stories (The Kingdom) or to a situation outside of the film (September 11 and the War on Iraq). In order to detract from the act of deliberate construction (of binaries, or of histories), the ordered action comes into play. Simulation and narrativity are linked in the sense that the images of the film are trying to create “logical order”, which implies continuity. This continuity is achieved by several techniques including a textual element, ordering images in a row on the film’s chronological axis, or by using visual signs and themes. As Homer’s character walks down the staircase from his bedroom in Flight 93, a shadow cast on the wall by his movement betrays the artificial lighting setup exposing the deliberate blues. The same dark blue continues into the next shot of an airport tower with its rotating radar, creating continuity and a chronological context. From this new blue view of an airport tower, the camera tracks to the right, and an object obstructs the view of the tower completely, turning the entire screen black. The date and location are displayed on that black screen, and continue to be displayed as the tower comes back in view. The images, which are in fact stock footage of airport architecture and traffic, are assigned a representational meaning by adding text to the screen. An interjection between the co-pilot and the following character appears: an airplane with a very specific time displayed on screen: “6:13am”, followed by a view of a stationary plane with a different engine-sound overlay. Together, they imply a natural flow of movement at an airport. The specific timestamp gives the impression of real time accuracy, even though nothing is particularly happening at that time. It draws attention to the time of day, but the cast shadows on the two airplanes show clearly that the two shots have been taken at different times of day. This textual subtitling transforms the visual image into a mental image of something else, and shows the extent to which the representative regime functions by subjugating the visual to speech. None of the scenes of these films were shot where they claim to be representing. For example, The Kingdom is set in Saudi Arabia but is actually shot in the United States, Arizona and the UAE. The Saudi prince’s palace in the film is actually a hotel in the UAE called Emirates Palace. The camera hovers around the colossus with the voiceover of some of the characters having the following exchange:

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• • • •

How many princes are there? Over 5000 Does every prince have a house this big? Some get bigger.

With that, a real hotel structure which the audience may even be aware of could be transformed in the film into a privately owned royal palace, and be offered as such, with the adjacency of speech that says so, in the same vein that subtitles transform one image of anything into another. Being a hotel, which focuses on the distribution of its own image for marketing purposes by the very nature of its function, it is very likely that at least some people know of its ‘truth’. However, does that change the function of the image in this film? The knowledge-effect of the combination of the two is what the film offers by claiming to be actually talking about an extra-filmic truth which is out there, showing the ability to shift the image of one thing and transform it into another by giving it an internal reference in the film and a 601

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story that surrounds it. In a similar vein, when the US airplane carrying the FBI agents first lands, the screen shows the subtitle: “Prince Sultan Air Base, Al Kharj, Saudi Arabia”, in the same fashion that introduces some characters by showing text on screen. This transforms the image, which could either be stock footage, or it could be anywhere for that matter, into the mental image of a specific location. This technique does not apply solely to transformation of stock footage. Even acted footage can be transformed into anything by placing a title on the screen that states to the audience what they are looking at. The images in The Hurt Locker begin with a black screen and a foreign speech on megaphone in the background, emphasising the role of sound. The sound of the Islamic adhan intermingles in the background with sounds of hordes. This is when the first pictures appear, and they appear jagged and corrupted as if from the shake and bumps of the camera on a battle drone. This alternates with images of people running randomly while an American Army Hummer vehicle advances steadily into the scene. The sound of adhan is gone. An ambulance is only heard in a single cut with people running, but is not heard in combination with any other image. Adhan commences again in the last shot before the audible chaos settles into what the bomb disposal team are doing. The jumble of sounds comprises of the sound of adhan, the sound of a caller shouting via megaphone such as to tell people to keep away, the kind of overtures used in horror and suspense films to raise the audience to a level of anxious alertness as well as a music beat resembling a heartbeat. The images comprise of people running randomly in the streets, being driven by soldiers, shaky and unstable camera, except when it is showing an American soldier deploying himself in the wide open pointing his gun upwards towards the sky. The word “Baghdad” appears in a narrow shot and a woman in black running to the right of the frame. Most of the scene is shot with a shaky camera covering many angles of the very same slow-moving action or a violent shake of the camera. This calls forward a documentary sense of on-the-ground footage: the chaos of war. The biggest points that Greengrass has worked hard to achieve in his film are realism, authenticity and veracity (United 93, director’s commentary, 2006, 00:25:08). As the writer and director of this work, he refers to the main source of information which has been used to construct the narrative on screen, the 9/11 Commission Report as their “Bible” (United 93, director’s commentary, 2006, 00:49:54). The claim to representing reality is further emphasised by referring to Ben Sliney, the man in charge of the National Control Center, who played himself in this film, as the archive which the director is counting on, being the person with “a tremendous recall of what had happened that day.” In this sense, United 93 is also offered as a documentary based on first-hand narrated memory, as well as the official narrative outlined by the 9/11 Commission Report. In making United 93, Greengrass insists on using professionals as actors and people who are part of the professional fields that they represent. “Who better to play...?... This gives the scene a special veracity” (United 93, director’s commentary, 2006, 00:11:00). It was therefore left to the control-tower workers and their “professional jargon” which was left unexplained on purpose, as the director explains, to give the veracity of the situation in the towers. But why is this veracity important to Greengrass at all? It merely tarnishes the entire work with a tint of truth that leaks its stench into the fictionalized aspects. One is here obliged to ask why Greengrass does not bring professional terrorists or hijackers to play themselves to give an authentic feel of what the passengers must have dealt with, since this is more than half what the film shows. Greengrass congratulates himself for his choice of non-professional actors and the “tremendous power” that they give to the images of the film saying about one cut, “this scene when I saw it in the editing room always has tremendous power. These are not actors” (United 93, director’s commentary, 2006, 00:25:45). Nevertheless, he himself contradicts the pure effect of his efforts later in the commentary.

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And something extraordinary about the relation between an actor and a non-actor... something magical happens when you create a set and [fill] them with actors and non-actors, because as I would say to them, the actors stop acting, and the non-actor starts to act, and they meet somewhere in the middle. And you get this sense of inner-reality, I think (United 93, director’s commentary, 2006, 00:45:00). The actors are also reported to have been given licence to “be free, to improvise and create performances of intensity and believability (United 93, director’s commentary, 2006, 00:48:22). This is given an equal importance to the research and veracity that are claimed for this film. The result in this intermixing between a notion of truth and a notion of fiction is that a new kind of reality is formed. Talking about his own experience even while making the film, Greengrass says that “there are times when you’re directing when you’re lost and don’t know what you’re watching. You feel transported to the event” (01:04:50). We have the luxury of going home at night, turning off our TV, and ignoring the way our world is. Reality for passengers and crew was different. They were compelled to face and die (01:01:00). It is remarkable that, as they point to the very actors they themselves have casted and worked with, in their commentary they always say “This is Mark Bingham’s mother”, or other names of U93 passengers as they appear. All performers have been referred to by the names of the ones they are playing. The only mention of an actor being an actor is one of the young girls in the film as she is reported to have said “are we going to a real school or not”? Apparently, the little child is the only one aware of this being a simulation, while even the producers have been so immersed in their simulation that they take it for the real thing, to the point that the actors now really stand for passengers or their family members. Look at the point where the wife is shown realizing the destruction of her husband’s flight with a basket of children’s laundry in the foreground. The writer says this was particularly difficult to shoot, which really has nothing to do with any technical difficulty, but only with the idea of immersion in simulation. The attention given to acting the scene being so emotionally demanding is to pretend that the acting which is taking place is a replacement of the entire experience which is being represented. The rise of emotion at that moment is merely ‘expected’ and the writer is speaking to this level of expectations. In Flight 93, it is especially strange, being a production for TV where it is expected that the idea of “documentary fact” faces more scrutiny, as Brian Winston explains, that the writer and director seem to have very little knowledge of anything beyond the general narrative. Historical fact is entirely discursive fact, but for them there is still a need for dramatization and fictionalization, while at the same time avoiding any sort of reference to absolutely anything: no logos on airplanes, no real website, no TV stations. The real he is dependant on is already in the viewers mind, not because there is any more need for a document or a proof, but because the images of the film make up the real. Two of the bonus tracks on The Kingdom’s DVD titled “Fire in the Hole” and “Small Ballistic Issues” respectively show the extent of simulacra in the film. As actors, they did not need to have any knowledge of bombs, their making and their operation since there are experts who deal with this. Nevertheless the bonus track presents the actors’ own learning, “Simple Ballistic Issues” parallels shots from the training to shots from the shooting scene in the film in order to establish that the movements of the characters are authentic and have resemblance to a true situation. Berg also comments that the scene was shown to a Seal squad who approved it because the Arabs are “bad shooters”. It does not justify sensibly why a squad of four or five never receives a bullet in a rain of ballistics, but if anything, it shows the extent to which a claim to authenticity is dominating the production and how expectations of “truth” are intermixed with what is expected to be shown in film screens. Needless to say, there is no value in a squad of Seals applauding the fact of the film because the Arabs are bad shooters in this film. The Arabs are 603

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after all extras doing what the image of the film demands they do, and the montage of the film could have made every random shot hit somebody in the head. In this cut we can see the expectation “Arabs are bad shooters” working side by side with the images of film that are presented to the audience, which resonates with Said’s comments that the shock behind the Arab win of the October war was not because they won at all, but because it was believed that Arabs could not even fight back at all (Said, 2000,p. 89). One article written in favour of The Kingdom says that Arab and Saudi audiences are probably more likely to enjoy the film than Americans because it is action packed in Riyadh, something which they do not normally see, and that the car chase scene is not something which you often see in Saudi Arabia (Abbas, p. 2007). Yet, simulation is seen in that the scene was not only not shot in Saudi Arabia, it could literally have been shot anywhere in the world as it only resembles one thing only: a motorway with cars on it, and nothing else around. In this response, even the resemblance of nothing at all is equated with being in Saudi Arabia, which highlights the Orientalist aesthetic dimension of this knowledge-effect played up by this film: it is the “feeling” that it is in Saudi Arabia that is being mobilised, and it is emphasised in the images by having a man wearing a loose gown appear to be watching from on top of a bridge. The real which these works try to establish is based in the document but completes its simulation from an Orientalist heritage. All of these films follow a method of simulation where they need to visually enact and recreate what took place in a space that no one had access to. In other words, the creation of a hyper-real through visual representation. The knowledge which they build upon is itself available as public knowledge, through governmental documents and through the media, and so the need to reproduce and recycle it is the need for catharsis. Since nobody had access to the location being fictionalised, the action and speech is entirely fictitious except for the wording of some phone calls. Characterisation is therefore entirely fictional, and is where the Orientalist images are focused. These images follow the expectations of “what must have happened” on board the United Flight 93. The logic of suitability which balances knowledge operates this Orientalist structure. Traditional Orientalism, as a construction of an Other who, according to the Aristotelian categorisation of theatre, is comically “worse than us,” as explained by Richard Dutton (Dutton, 1984, p.16), contrasts this Other with the American character who is dramatically made “better than us.” The enactment of these expectations and making them into films disseminates this binary image throughout the technological universe. Behind this visible Orientalist binary, all of these films valorise the representational quality of the image, treating it as a trusted source of information, reflecting that into their own being as motion pictures, hiding the fact of montage and standing as informants who write into the mainstream flow of history. There is a sense in which re-enactment can be mistaken for simulation, whereas in fact this Orientalist enactment is trying to reflect its simulacra onto reality. Reality becomes understood as resembling what has been made visible on the screen, rather than realism meaning the resemblance of the screen to reality. This is especially the case for Orientalism because for resemblance to be, experience with the resembled should be presumed. However, what this notion of resemblance exists for is specifically to prevent that experience from happening. To establish the believability of the simulated images, the work must convey its own imageness as a purveyor of truth and knowledge despite the legal disclaimer which escapes the ethical regime. To do that, the concept of the image is reiterated within the film as an active player within the ordered action of the film, which guides other characters to take action. According to Zizek the destruction of the towers was aestheticized both by the terrorists “who aimed to create a media event” and through “the style of the televised coverage, which had much in common with film and disaster movies.” (Zizek, 2008,p. 11). The TV screen in the United Flight 93 films is shown as the unified conscience and the generally accepted denominator of unquestionable ‘knowledge’. It also 604

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functions as the signifier of the modern concept of the democratized flow of information. The familiar dominates as the only images of the initial crash into the tower are shown through the CNN’s own version of them. Even the computer-generated image of the plane descending rapidly towards the towers copies the same silhouette, which is now very familiar, from the CNN footage, which then match-cuts to the CNN’s own footage of that same plane-silhouette crashing into the building, and the fireball resulting from it. The same footage is used in United 93 and Flight 93. This image and the plainness of the view of the crash is one of the things that, in Baudrillard’s opinion, has resulted in this event forming a surplus of knowledge or a naked visibility that resists putting into a narrative. This is where these United 93 films come in, as they take that image and fit it into the gradually unfolding narrative of the invisible action on that plane, which can be turned into the kind of image that is “fit for screen.” In order to fit this excess of knowledge into an actable storyline, action must be driven diverted and channelled into an ordered action that is commensurate with the audience expectations. This diversion which regulates the excess of external knowledge is achieved in Flight 93 by a strange and seemingly irrelevant item taken out of the hijacker’s bag in the bathroom: a belt and a book. As the bomb-resemblance is assembled, the book plays a vital role: causing the hijacker a start at the possibility of the bomb going off. CNN is emphasised in United 93 as the only source of knowledge on September 11. This is emphasised both in the script and by the use of footage, and by placing that footage on large screens inside the film itself, both in the control center and in the military base. The military lady at NORAD base says: “Sir, CNN’s reporting a light civil aircraft has just hit the World Trade Center.” She gets the response: “Give me CNN up on screen 3, will you?” Ben Sliney asks someone to make a call seeing “if they got visual”; this is when CNN appears on some large screen. Sliney turns his head towards the edge of the frame with eyes wide open, emotionally transferring that moment into the viewer, which is further amplified by the music score in the background (United 93, 2006, 00:37:00). Also, the response of the Control Center’s staff to the impact on the first WTC tower is only realised when they see it on their screen broadcast by CNN. This is emphasised with how the hustle and bustle of the entirely confused center suddenly pauses along with all background sounds to mark that moment. A time of pause and silence passes (01:16:20), and after a subtle rise of background music the moment images of the Pentagon being hit are shown on CNN. Eventually, Ben Sliney shouts to one of his colleagues: “We’re at war with someone!” pointing his finger at the large screen showing “CNN LIVE” and an image of the two towers smoking. The images are therefore given an emotional and an instructive role by the use of background music and the speech of characters. In order to use images as informants, the visible must be subjected to speech. Flight 93 version of the image of TV is different, albeit highlighting the same ideas: expectation of knowledge through the TV screen and live news broadcast, and the centrality of that image around the formulation of conscious political action. Images of the broadcast, the towers, or anything that had to do with showing images of the event were entirely fake and made up by the producers. Instead, they overlaid images in montage on top of TV sets to create a window through which the families are looking at the event. The editors create this image without any TV channel brands, the same as what they do with the airliners which do not show any titles, despite the common knowledge that it has been a United Airlines jetliner, and that the main channel that broadcast the crash has been CNN. The image of the two towers and the smoke is the only thing that shows throughout. In the bonus commentary on the DVD, Peter Markle justifies this lack of branding as veracity is not a concern for this TV film, but more the emotional impact it has on its intended audience, as it has been intended for broadcast on American television. One of its main aesthetics is the revolving of American civilian life around TV. All of the TV sets shows in the images above are surrounded by neatly arranged 605

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objects that correspond to the family it is representing. One TV set is surrounded by colourful plastic baby toys, another is surrounded by medicine, a third has a photograph of a couple and yellow flowers, and the fourth has an important telephone device right next to it. Television, as well as phones, play the role of the nervous system that enables the passengers and the families, in the film, to develop a political consciousness and organise into a unity that acts against the threat that America is facing. If showing TV station logos is so much of a legal problem, then why is Peter Markle compelled to even show an image of TV on the screen? The screen is part of the audience’s consciousness about knowledge and has to be there in order to also help them look into the represented screen, and to miss the representational screen that they are in fact looking at. To emphasise the reliability of the screen as a source of information, screens play the role of the informant to all characters, starting at 00:07:35 in United 93, where screens representing weather maps are placed behind the speaker giving scientific jargon about the weather that day. Also, by match-cutting from the pixelated green monitoring screen in the control tower to an image of an airplane taking off (Flight 93, 2006, 00:31:45), the film is trying to establish that the simulation on the screen, the pixels, represent a real object. In the same fashion, it is trying to say that the simulation on our screens correspond to something which took place. This is reinforced by having the actors turn their heads and direct their gazes at whatever screen is shown, whether it is the big screens on the walls of control centers, or the computer screen next to the phone operator, every gaze is preceded or followed by a turn of the gaze and an exhibition of emotion, or a change in the state of knowledge such as Sliney’s “we’re at war with someone.” The CNN screen is also used as a source of information in the very bunker of the White House in Flight 93, where in one cut, a screen is shown facing directly towards the camera when a man walking into the frame turns it around to show his superior what he needs to know (01:04:28). In the graphical prelude to The Kingdom, the footage which is in the style of news footage also shows the CNN logo several times. When agent Fluery first reports the bombing, behind him are three massive screens showing what is made to look like live footage from the bombing scene. At least one of those screens displays the CNN logo. Simulation and the event end with the turning off of the TV. Of course because, as Baudrillard says about the Vietnam and the Gulf wars, they have been wars of images. September 11 has been a rooted in its stark visibility, and most of the world’s experience of it has been through televised images. Turn the TV off, and there is no event. The horror is unimportant unless it is visible and this is what makes September 11. The cameras and the mediated image appear in The Kingdom as conveyors of truth and revealer of knowledge. The footage shot from on top of the tower is what leads the FBI team to where the observers were. In order to emphasise that, one agent holds a small handheld video cam. The screen shows an image of the scene filling the frame, very stable as compared to the rest of the hand-held shots, and the sound effects play the sound of electronic jam sprinkling its dust onto our world. The only character which stares the film’s rolling camera in the eye is in fact the camera itself. The sight of the camera gazing into the screen gives it a presense that is stronger than any of the other characters, who never look the viewer in the eye. The captive agent’s decision to flip the camera to interrupt his own execution betrays the notion of the film and the camera as a purveyor of truth. It is a moment in which the character and the viewer both realise that there is no action without a camera’s gaze. It is this that reveals that the camera makes the action, and without one, without mediated visibility, action in the representational system does not exist. What the camera sees, as shown by the frames above, fills not only the frame, but makes an entire world. The same concept applies to the film and its handheld cameras and the montage that follows their captures.

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The world which they mediate falls onto our being “like a luminescent layer of dust upon the world and become indiscernible from it” (Hito Steyerl in Cremerotti, 2009, p. 14). In their treatment of the “necessarily fictionalised” story, by thwarting the visual for the sake of narrative, these works subjugate the visual to speech. This attempt forces the image into playing the role of information, and knowledge-effect, by acting on the aesthetic and emotional level as the purveyor of truth, and this is how they re-inscribe their Orientalist version of fantasy into the real by projecting it onto the visible plane of fictitious knowledge.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS Considering the extent to which the media affects the general perception of the shape of the world, and the extent to which identity construction and a notion of Self is often used to empower antagonisms between peoples, this research finds a necessity in re-reading Orientalism as the dominant regime that continues to function and spread its mode of thought throughout the media. One of the main questions that future research needs to answer is regarding the continuity of Orientalist thought and how its discourse survives in the light of overarching major shifts in the arrangements of knowledge and technologies for disseminating images.

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CONCLUSION A textual world in which the scholar and scholarly work are the main source of knowledge is not a world we are living. We live in a world of images that shape our lives, and the distinction between truth and fiction is evermore blurred. Having its Other as the image of the Islamic terrorist who is right at “our gates” or even already “amongst us”, has overwhelmed the media in every form since September 11. It was used to maintain support for the war on Iraq, and has been used in campaigns calling for stopping Syrian refugees pouring into Europe because of the potential threat of the indiscriminate violence of the Other who hates “us” without reason. Movies have provided an effective sites for reflection on September 11. In order to respond to the conflicts between cultural and political entities, they prove to be a powerful tool. Since movies can have such a critical effect, popular movies could help to shape the ideas of their viewers, moives discussed in this paper feeds the audience an image of the “Other” as violent and destructive, and simultaneously dangerous and vicious, suggesting through its quasi-documentary movie techniques that its portrayal of the terrorists is accurate. Baudrillard’s writings on simulation and the hyper-real provide an understanding for the kind of world we live in without resistance: a completely mediated experience with the aid of screens and digital technologies that facilitate constructing and distributing images—the way in which we can view an entire world in the way that is presented to us. The advance of technology making this possible is only an inflation of mediation. It makes the hyper-real even more realisable than ever because this technology plays the role of media which is now in every hand. We experience the world through mediated images, but our only encounter is with the screen, and we rarely look beyond it. This view of Baudrillard is only correct to the extent that the individual does not resist. Baudrillard’s fatalist model leaves no room for hope or even almost agency. While he is useful for understanding the immersive world of images, and his tools prove useful for unpacking discourses, what seems to be his conception of power or ideology 607

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critique delivers everything to an invisible power that is beyond. It is useful to consider here that not looking beyond the screen is a choice of passivity rather than a fatalist, inescapable position. Based on his understanding of the regimes of art, we are able to understand how Orientalism functioned as an ethical and mostly representational regime, and how it continues to function as a representational regime, maintaining a stultifying logic, presuming and maintaining the ignorance of its intended receivership as part and parcel of its working.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-forprofit sectors.

REFERENCES Abbas, F. (2007). The kingdom: Where hollywood movie making and saudi realities meet. Asharq AlAwsat. Available at https://english.aawsat.com/theaawsat/interviews/the-kingdom-where-hollywoodmovie-making-and-saudi-realities-meet Baer, B. C. (2017). Edward Said remembered on September 11, 2004: A conversation with Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak. In Edward Said: A legacy of emancipation and representation. U of California. Baudrillard, J. (1995). The Gulf war did not take place. Indiana University Press. Baudrillard, J. (1996). The system of objects (B. Milano, Trans.). Verso. Baudrillard, J. (2003). The spirit of terrorism and other essays. Verso. Berg, P. (Dir.). (2007). The Kingdom [DVD]. Universal Pictures Home Entertainment. Bigelow, K. (Dir.). (2008). The Hurt Locker [DVD]. Summit Home Entertainment. Dutton, R. (1984). An introduction to literary criticism. Longman. Greengrass, P. (Dir.). (2006). United 93 [DVD]. Universal Pictures Home Entertainment. Hegarty, P. (2004). Jean Baudrillard. Live theory. Continuum.

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Macfie, A. L. (2000). Orientalism: A reader. Edinburgh University Press. Macfie, A. L. (2002). Orientalism. Pearson Education. Mackenzie, M. J. (2000). Orientalism: History, theory and the arts. Orientalism: A reader (A. L. Macfie, Ed.). New York UP. Markle, P. (Dir.). (2006). Flight 93 [DVD]. MTI Home Video. Mitchell, W. J. T. (1984). What is an Image. New Literary History, 15(3), 43–48. doi:10.2307/468718 Priest, D. (Dir.). (2006). Portrait of Courage: The Untold Story of Flight 93 [DVD]. Janson Media.

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Provenzo, E. F. Jr. (2003). Virtuous war: Simulation and the militarization of play. In J. S. Kenneth & A. G. David (Eds.), Education as enforcement: The militarization and corporatization of schools (pp. 279–286). Routledge Falmer. Said, E. (1985). Orientalism revisited. In F. Barker (Ed.), Europe and its other. University of Essex. Said, E. (1994). Culture and imperialism. Vintage. Said, E. (1997). Covering Islam: How the media and the experts determine how we see the rest of the World. Vintage Books. Said, E. (2000). Shattered Myths. New York University Press. Said, E. (2003). Orientalism. Penguin: Pantheon Books. Sardar, Z. (1999). Orientalism. Open University Press. Sayyid, B. S. (1997). A fundamental fear: Eurocentrism and the emergence of Islamism. Zed Books. Tomatoes, R. (n.d.a). Portrait of Courage: The Untold Sotry of Fligh 93. Available at http://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/portrait_of_courage_the_untold_story_of_fflight_93/ Tomatoes, R. (n.d.b). The Hurt Locker (2009). Available at https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/hurt_locker

ADDITIONAL READING Barthes, R. (1972). Mythologies (A. Laver, Trans.). The Noonday Press. Bush, G. W. (2007). Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: George W. Bush. 2004 (In Three Books): Book III—October 1 to December 31, 2004. Washington: United States Government Printing Office. Chambers, S. A. (2010). Police and Oligarchy. In J.-P. Deranty (Ed.), Jacques Rancière: Key Concepts. Acumen. Fabian, J. (1983). Time and the Other: How Anthropology Makes its Object. Columbia University Press. Ghazoul, F. J. (2007). Edward Said and Critical Decolonization. The American University in Cairo Press.

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Hansen, M. B. (2012). The Question of Film Aesthetics. In E. Dimendberg (Ed.), Cinema and Experience: Siegfried Kracauer, Walter Benjamin, and Theodor W. Adorno. University of California Press. Hogam, P. C. (2011). Affective Narratolog: The Emotional Structure of Stories. University of Nebraska Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctt1df4gnk Irwin, R. (2006). For Lust of Knowing: The Orientalists and their Enemies. Allen Lane. Kabbani, R. (1986). Europe’s Myth of the Orient: Devise and Rule. Macmillan. doi:10.1007/978-1-34907320-7

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Metz, C. (2010). Cinema as a Language System. In M. Furstenau (Ed.), The Film Theory Reader: Debates and Arguments. Routledge. O’Reilly, N. (2009). Government, Media, and Power. In C. Cilano (Ed.), From Solidarity to Schisms: 9/11 and After in Fiction and Film from Outside the US. Rodopi. Zavarzadeh, M. (1991). Seeing Films Politically. Albany: State University of New York Press.

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

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Arab Spring: A series of revolutions throughout the Arab world against their dictators, of people calling for freedom and equality, and oppressive regimes cracking down violently on protestors and calling them terrorists. The image of the Islamic terrorist has been used globally by these dictators to justify their violent crackdown. Clash of Civilizations: Samuel Huntington’s theory predicted conflicts after the Cold War to be predominantly cultural and claimed that when considering all clashes around the world, Islam and the West have become the two major players in all major cultural conflicts around the World. Colonialism: The conquest and control of a country by another, and relocation of a part of the conquering nation’s population to the conquered lands. Imperialism: A more general term for exercising power over a nation through settlement, sovereignty, or indirect mechanisms of control. Iraq War: The war started as a campaign against the threat of Saddam’s weapons of mass destruction, which have never been found. Later on, it was turned into a War on Terror. Islamophobia: The fear and anxiety of Western public because of the enemy status of Islam, reinforced by the othering process and stereotypes. Orientalism: The term is a set of discursive, systematic and essentialist scholarly and literary practices with political motivations that constructs an image of the mysterious, feminine Orient as the ‘Other’ to the rational, articulate, masculine of the Western ‘Self’. Simulation: The complete shift from a textual history to an image-dominated, mediated reality, where the mediated image replaces any need for an experience beyond it.

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Chapter 35

A Comparative Study Oriented Tourism Advertisements in Turkey: The Internality of the Oriental-Self Barış Yetkin https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0577-3363 Giresun University, Turkey

ABSTRACT This study examines the orientalist infuences in the media. Studies that determine the orientalist elements in media content in Turkey are not sufcient. In order to eliminate this defciency, it was determined as the starting point of the research whether the orientalist stereotypes are still valid today and whether they contain epistemic violence. Based on this problem, some of the advertisements used in tourism promotion in the last 20 years within the framework of the ofcial state policies of the Republic of Turkey are selected. Historical understanding and analytical thinking are adopted. In this direction, cultural context research is conducted using comparative case studies. It is aimed to fnd out whether the situation defned as self-orientalism in tourism promotion advertisements coincides with Western orientalist stereotypes. Thus, it is desired to provide a new perspective to researchers working on this subject and to present meta-analysis data.

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INTRODUCTION The concept of Orientalism constitutes a broad academic discussion ground, starting with colonialism and extending from subalternation and globalization to postcolonialism. The concept first emerged as an academic discipline aimed at exploring Eastern and Islamic world. Over time, as a result of the colonialism of Western civilization in the Age of Discovery, it has transformed into the need to define and represent Eastern civilization with its own perspective and concepts. This situation, which the West DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch035

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sees as a right in itself, has opened the way for many academic studies since the publication of Edward Said’s book with the same name in the late 1970s. Orientalism includes many fields of study such as orientalism, language, thought, religion, and literature. Determinants such as social life, politics and media are also included in these areas. Blended with the cultures of the civilizations geographically in the East, the attraction of their products is always covered by the media. The indicators of the concept in question can be encountered in various forms in mass media. Novels and film adaptations, animations, documentaries, television series can often feature or use images of events and people in geographies outside Europe. Even the representation of the East can be processed by the Western news media within stereotypes. However, beyond that, it may be possible for the East to use the same stereotypes in self-representation or the way they enable the Westerners to produce their media content - what Edward Said describes as modern Orientalism. Although there have been harsh criticisms to both Edward Said and the theory of Orientalism by scholars such as Bernard Lewis (2014) and Robert Irwin (2006), it is still a topic worth studying as the internalized Orientalist lifestyle, which forms a synthesis with Western culture, surrounds the individual. An individual can only miss details in an effort to catch the rhythm of daily life. Therefore, he either makes his own representation taught or allows others to represent himself. The interest of this research is in this direction as well. Studies determining Orientalist factors in the media content in Turkey are not enough. In order to eliminate this deficiency, whether Orientalist stereotypes are still valid today and whether they contain epistemic violence were determined as the starting point of the study. Based on this problematic, some of the advertisements used in the promotion of tourism in the last 20 years within the framework of official government policy of the Republic of Turkey are selected as goal-focused. Advertisements including orientalist elements prepared by the Ministry of Tourism and a Turkey-themed short film prepared by a European director are analyzed using comparative case study. It is aimed to find out whether the situation defined as self-orientalism in tourism promotion advertisements overlaps with Western orientalist stereotypes. Thus, it is thought that a new perspective will be provided to researchers working on this subject and meta-analysis data can be presented.

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THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Orientalism, according to Edward Said (1979), is a cognitive process. When this approach is taken into account, it can be understood better how the human consciousness will be dominated by language, representation and culture. Language is one of the elements that makes of human beings as human. Stuart Hall (1997: 1) points out that language is one of the media in which thoughts, ideas and feelings are represented in a culture. As a representational system, language is a functional tool in popularizing collective images and thus public affairs as well as commercial attitudes, media practices and content. Because, thanks to language, concepts, ideas and emotions can be represented to other people by using sounds, written words, electronically produced images, musical notes and symbols created by objects. Therefore, representation is central in the field of sense production. There is a great variety of sense in cultural production. In diversity, there is the possibility to interpret and represent them very differently. This is not just because cultural senses are in minds. It also organizes social practices, influencing individual behavior. The fact that people are cultural participants giving meaning to objects and events increases the diversity of meanings (Hall, 1997: 2-3). 612

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Representation is a phenomenon connected with sense and language. In other words, in the words of Hall (1997), “we construct sense using representation systems, concepts and signs. In this framework, three different approaches to the representation can be provided (24-25):

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1. Reflective approach -sense is thought to lie in the object, person, idea or event in the real world, and language functions like a mirror to reflect the true sense already existing in the world. 2. Purposeful approach -the sense in representation acknowledges that it is the person/speaker/writer who imposes it through language; the words used in this approach are in the sense meant by the author and are unique. 3. Public recognition -recognizes that neither the things within itself nor the individual users of language can fix the sense in the language as language is a social character. According to Said (1979), Orientalism is an information system about the East. Orientalism refers to the imaginary and intellectual domain of the interaction between the three great empires of the time, France, England and America. According to Said, knowing is to dominate and establish authority. The relationship between the Occident and the Orient is a relation of power, domination, and unified hegemony to varying degrees. (5-6) Orientalism is a cognitive process. It is based on Foucault’s discourseknowledge-power context. According to Michel Foucault (1980: 133) truth should be understood as a system of sequential procedures for the production, organization, distribution, circulation and functioning of statements. Regime of truth, that is, within the political economy of reality, establishes a cyclical relationship with the power systems that produce and sustain it and the power effects that trigger and expand it. Real; (1) becomes centralized with the form of scientific discourse and the institutions that produce it; (2) (the demand for truth, for economic production as well as for political power) depends on constant economic and political provocation; (3) it is the object of powerful consumption, albeit in different forms, and of diffusion (circulating through educational and information apparatus not based on specific rigid constraints); (4) produced and transmitted under the control of a number of major political and economic (university, military, editorial, media) means; (5) is the main problem of all political (in the form of ideological conflicts) debate and social bias (131-132). The ability to control the knowledge production process ensures the mutual production of knowledge with the power. Who produces information is an important issue? According to Foucault (1980), reality is the system of processes ordered for the production, regulation, distribution, circulation and operation of judgments. In other words, the main political problem is to determine the possibility of truth policy making. The problem is not to change people’s consciousness- or what is inside their minds- but to ‘popularize’ the political, economic, institutional regime of truth production and the comprehensive ‘popularization’ of media practices and content. The problem is not false, illusional, alienated consciousness or ideology, but the knowledge itself (133) and how it is produced by whom. That Orientalism, a type of knowledge, is actually the fragmentation of knowledge (Akay, 1996: 215) should be realized at this point. Knowing in the thought of Orientalism is domination. Therefore, it brings about establishing authority (Said, 1979: 32). The conduct of cultural politics as a war of status always requires a strategy of hegemony. In this strategy, hegemony provides the construction of collective will through difference, not the loss or destruction of difference by making everyone the same and by including everyone. According to Antonio Gramsci (1986), hegemony is not actually the thought of inclusion. On the contrary,

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the articulation of differences that do not disappear is an understanding of politics that can increasingly address people through the multiple identities they have (Hall, 1998: 83-84). At this stage, the representation of the powerless or the ruled by the powerful leads to problematic facts. The importance Gramsci giving to subaltern shows itself at the stage of counter-hegemony. Transforming the subgroup capable of power in a hegemonic issue is achieved by the connection between hegemony and discourse in order to form a “reflexive”, “conscious” and “self-disciplined personality”. The movement of subordinates towards hegemony is multidimensional: generalization of material (economic), moral (spiritual) intellectual (philosophical), the problem of power and political technique, and the regulation of consent goes back to leadership and the founding of the great state (Fontana, 2005: 107). However, on the other hand, within the scope of the hegemony of the sovereigns, the problem of identity representation of these segments in a holistic manner arises. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak and Asian historians adapt the concept of subaltern, borrowed from Gramsci, to the present day. Subaltern means “people and groups whose social ‘mobility’ relationship is cut upward and, in a sense extroverted” and constitutes the contemporary version of the relationship between the rulers and the ruled. Subalternity means that these people and groups are detached from the cultural pathways that produced the colonial subject (Spivak, 2010: 55-56). With the discourse of democratization, which is a transformative function of today, “the subaltern consciousness is put into action with the capital activated for the benefit of the dominant and dominated neo-colonizer” (Yetişkin, 2010c: 17):

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…representatives or intermediaries among the subordinates who claim to speak on his behalf, for and with him may re-present and represent himself by ethnicizing and Orientalizing himself with an ethnic, national, religious or gender-identity in order to establish a historical unity. Precisely in this process, the resistance of the subaltern can be organized through legitimate networks established with the consent of the subordinate and can lead to new divisions, they can become centralized by establishing hegemonic relations, and they can become dominant and domineering. Moreover, the new -colonial-produced economy- political codings and programming are thus internalized and appropriated, preserved as a property, and a simular of continuity established, a new epistemic violation implemented. However, he is no longer considered a subaltern in this case (Yetişkin, 2010b: 148-149). Epistemic violation is a definition developed by Spivak based on Foucault’s concept of “epistemic violence”. Mass production of epistemic violation is accomplished with epistemic violence (Yetişkin, 2010c:18). The sovereign “knowledge-power”, which consists of the problem of representation, causes a shift in the process of making sense of reality while creating the deprivation of subalterns. The shift in meaning may cause various problems in terms of communication in the process of public opinion and opinion formation. Speaking on behalf of someone may result in subordination and consent to the person speaking on their behalf. It works in favor of the sovereigns that the represented segments are continually presented by others by definition and classification. Another result is that with this form of representation, subalternity (contemporary) is made functional in the maintenance of power (knowledge) (Yetişkin, 2010a: 14). Epistemic violence can be described as a “silencing program”. It ensures the reproduction of hegemonic relations while ensuring the balance: “Epistemic violence, which is described as a heterogenization project, occurs by creating an ‘other’ to fit the purposes of the exploiter.” This is legalized on the basis of “duality”, “opposition”: “It is accomplished by constructing a coding and programming narrative that stabilizes and legitimates the content and imposing the given elements that come out of this construc614

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tion on another.” Things that can be done based on pressure and coercion have the chance to do so in such a legitimate way and with consent (Yetişkin, 2010c: 18). From this point of view, it is important to determine how the East represents itself in the context of Orientalism. The formation of Orientalism is due to the belief, internalization that the East is in a backwardness from the West geographically. The East’s involvement in this perception of backwardness has clearly prepared the transformation of Orientalism into a political doctrine (Kahraman, 2011: 166). A lot of research has been done in various fields on this subject. However, it is also important to define the secret of Orientalism and to reveal and investigate its qualities. At this stage, it is necessary to derive the concept within itself for healthy execution of studies. The views written and spoken about the characteristics of the Eastern societies such as their languages, literature, histories, and sociology show the open form of Orientalism; any unconscious and even untouchable positivity about Eastern societies points to its hidden form (Said: 1979: 206). According to Said (1979), in the thought of Orientalism, Easterners are put into a framework consisting of biological determinism and moral political warnings. Along with all other people defined as underdeveloped and corrupted in various ways, they are seen as being marginalized as criminals, madmen, women and poor people alienated by Western societies. Orientals were rarely seen or looked at; they were seen though, analyzed not as citizens, or even people, but as problems to be solved or confined or -as the colonial powers openly coveted their territory -taken over. The point is that the very designation of something as Oriental involved an already pronounced evaluative judgment, and in the case of people inhabiting the decayed Ottoman Empire, an implicit program of action. (Said: 1979: 207). In this implicit program of action mentioned by Said (1979), the presence of a masculine world perception draws attention. Eastern man is considered isolated from the total community in which he lives and which many Orientalists have with something resembling contempt and fear.

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If that group of ideas allowed one to separate Orientals from advanced, civilizing Powers, and if the ‘classical’ Orient served to justify both the Orientalist and his disregard of modern Orientals, latent Orientalism also encouraged a peculiarly male conception of the World. (Said, 1979: 207). At this stage, self-Orientalism becomes important. Self-Orientalism is the non-Western use of Western descriptions. It expresses the willingness (reaction) of non-Western individuals and institutions to “playing the Other” where the global economy, system and order are dominant (Kobayashi et all, 2019) The view of the West towards the Ottomans differs from time to time. The West did not have definite, settled and continuous judgments about the Ottomans, which they regarded it as the East, in the 16th and 17th centuries. Although the situation started to become more uniform and consistent from the next century, it has preserved its quite contradictory and varied structure (Çırakman, 2011: 196; 199). The Ottoman perspective towards the West has similarly changed. Westernization movements have been determinant in the last period of the Ottoman Empire. On the one hand, society is divided into two segments that have a Western style of life and culture, on the other hand, have a traditional lifestyle: “While the Orientalist perspective of the West strengthens Occidentalism in Eastern societies, the attitude of “modernizers” in societies in the process of modernization has also been negatively affected by the traditional view of both the West and the modernization process” (Uzun and Atasever, 2010:180). 615

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Republic of Turkey, removing the presence of the Ottoman Empire, has initiated Modernization movement instead of Westernization. Some philosophers examine the relationship between Kemalism which is the ideology of new Turkey and Orientalism thoughts. Kahraman (2011) states that Kemalism is not a modernization movement, but a Westernization movement. On the one hand, it is cautious against the West due to a War of National Independence against the European countries that occupied the Ottoman Empire with World War I, on the other hand, it has a dual attitude towards the West in cultural, social and political arrangements. In this context, he explains that he clearly and secretly defines the West, not the East, within the scope of internalized Orientalism: In the open Orientalist process, Kemalism treats the East with the perspective that dominates Orientalist reasoning, and conceives it as a dark, underdeveloped geography and mentality that is incapable of changing its conditions on its own, especially religiousness. (…) Within the latent Orientalism approach… it primarily defines the West, not the East. (…) imaginary and representational. (…) It is developed as a basis, a tool for the legitimation effort of Kemalism. (…) the integration of the approach called Turkish Humanism in various segments (Kahraman, 2011: 184-185).

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In addition to this view of Kahraman, political initiatives that erode the values of the republic can also be mentioned. The reactionary and foreign-origin riots that emerged in the early years of the Republic and aimed to return back to the Ottoman Empire lifestyle, the events that caused social chaos in the attempt to transition to the multi-party period, the policies implemented after DP (Democratic Party) seized the power in 1950 and the support from the religious and reactionary groups at the stage it was blocked drew attention. It should be mentioned that there are events and conservative social segments that erode the values and principles of the Kemalist revolution (Atatürk, 1982: 889-894; Sezgin and Şaylan, 1983: 2048; 2050-2051; Sunar, 1983: 2079-2080; Yetkin, 2010: 70-75; 95). Today, Western countries’ being quite biased about Turkey’s EU accession is mentioned. Turkey is making progress towards EU membership and is striving for EU membership for years. However, in the Eurobarometer survey conducted in 2005, 55% of the EU population believes that Turkey has cultural differences that will not comply with the EU. Such detection may be considered as one of the most important obstacles to Turkey’s EU membership. It can be argued that this problem stems from subjective differences, not objectively, but because of the Western societies’ view of the East. In political discourse, it is an economically poor, culturally primitive and predominantly Muslim country and does not belong to Europe (Hülsse, 2006). Turkey’s problem, to put it in a nutshell, is not so much its culture, but its image. If Turkey wants to become a member of the EU, it needs a new image. However, image is relational, it is an attribution by others. Hence Turkey can only try to influence how others perceive Turkey, but not create a new image unilaterally. Turkey will need to persuade the relevant others in this matter, namely the governments and people in the EU, that it is culturally more similar to European countries than many in the EU take it to be (Hülsse, 2006: 310). The definition “Muslim democracy” is widely used for Turkey. This definition, according to Yusuf Devran (2007), emphasizes decomposition rather than closeness between democratic Muslims and Christians. This approach shows that the British media has an Orientalist approach that fictionalizes the distinction between ‘us’ and ‘others’: 616

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Moreover, the media’s ‘positive’ presentation of the fact that there are some Europeans who want Turkey to be given a chance —within at least 10 to 15— years to be a member of what has been called ‘the modern world’ is, in fact, hardly positive. The reason why the media mentions the time duration of the democratization process at all is to point out that even those who are open to Turkey’s membership share, at least in part, the opinion of those who are skeptical about Turkey’s entrance to the EU (Devran, 2007: 103).

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Turkey has an interesting and ambiguous status because of its multifaceted and contradictory image in Europe. In European media, Turkey, in Europe and beyond, is often seen as a politically and culturally controversial, crowded, underdeveloped and exotic Muslim country. Turkey, geopolitically, is positioned both in Europe and in East by different sources. For example, the World Trade Organization and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development accepts Turkey as European; The United Nations accepts Turkey as a Middle Eastern (Hamid Türksoy, et al., 2013). But of course, how Turkey sees and describes itself is also important. In addition to explicit and implicit Orientalism, another genre, modern Orientalism, which is linked to and overlaps both, highlights the internalized Orientalism that can be described as the result of all. Modern Orientalism can be described as “a way of ruling, reconstructing, representing the East and Easterners (such as learning, observing, writing, thinking, learning, settling there, and colonizing efforts) through various practices and institutions”. Although this kind of Orientalism does not overlap with the real East, it is a discourse that has a consistency and continuity within itself (Çırakman, 2011:191-192). Many suggestions can be made to correct the existing image or to create a new image. Without attempting any of this, tourism, which brings the most foreign currency to Turkey, is said to be one of the logical ways of income. In times of usual conditions on macro and micro scale, it is known that millions of Western tourists visit Turkey and this number increases every year. For this reason, all kinds of touristic visits that the visitors experience during their holidays are important for the image of the country. However, perhaps the most important is that it is necessary to have a story to tell about Turkey and build a discourse to the member countries of Western societies who have not visited yet, whether having or prejudices or not. Orientalism is not just a purely academic issue. Said (1979: 27) points out that Orientalism encompasses both the commercial treatment of the collective image (and public affairs) and the comprehensive “popularization” of media practices and content. Films about historical, cultural and natural wealth prepared for foreigners who have not visited yet are important for promotion. However, more importantly, for the reason in question, media contents have a value for the purpose of this research. Therefore, this study is trying to find how Turkey is trying to find itself through media contents.

METHOD The sample of the research consists of two films prepared by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism and a film prepared by a Western Producer-Director. Two promotion films, produced in the years 2007 and 2008 by the Ministry of Tourism, have been selected as goal-focused. The films selected as samples were published under the names of Turkey Home in 2007 and Istanbul Timeless City in 2008 in various domestic and international channels. The other film, the spot film named as Watchtower of Turkey shot

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in 2014 belongs to the Italian director Leonardo Dalessandri who had a journey of 3,500 km in 20 days in Turkey. In the first stage, the common features of films are determined by post-structural reading, and then compared. (a) whether the internalized Orientalism coincides with the West’s view of the East; (b) whether orientalist stereotypes are still valid today and (c) whether they contain epistemic violence which are conceptualized above are determined. Thus, clues are found about whose stereotypes are valid in Turkey. The preferred form of analysis has been comparative research, which is regarded as an approach rather than a technique due to its advantages. The comparative approach used in communication and media research is traditionally understood as research at one or more points in time between world regions, countries, subnational regions, social environment, language areas and large-scale units such as cultural concentration, and have closely linked advantages (Esser and Vliegenthart, 2016).

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More specifically, comparative analysis enhances the understanding of one ‘s own society by placing its familiar structures and routines against those of other systems (understanding); comparison heightens our awareness of other systems, cultures, and patterns of thinking and acting, thereby casting a fresh light on our own political communication arrangements and enabling us to contrast them critically with those prevalent in other countries (awareness); comparison allows for the testing of theories across diverse settings and for the evaluating of the scope and significance of certain phenomena, thereby contributing to the development of universally applicable theory (generalization); comparison prevents scholars from over-generalizing based on their own, often idiosyncratic, experiences and challenges claims to ethnocentrism or naïve universalism (relativization); and comparison provides access to a wide range of alternative options and problem solutions that can facilitate or reveal a way out of similar dilemmas at home (alternatives) (Esser ve Vliegenthart, 2016: 249). The comparative historicity perspective allows rational answers to many questions of the analysis. Defined as a type of research that examines various aspects of social life between different cultures in the historical period (Neuman, 2014:52), (a) case study, (b) cultural context research, (c) international comparison and (d) transnational comparison types are included. This analysis method has the potential to develop new alternative causal relationships in order to make causal explanations as well as to invalidate existing causal explanations (Aydın and Hanağası, 2017:66-67). In this study, using the comparative case study within the understanding of historicity and analytical thinking, it is thought that the cultural context research will be functional in the Orientalism analysis process (Figure 1). Analytical comparison is performed by using techniques (1) reconciliation, (2) discrepancy, (3) joint exchanges, (4) residue balance, (5) common procedure of reconciliation and discrepancy rules by John Stuar Mill (Aydın and Hanağası, 2017: 69-70). In this study, the most similar system design and the most different system design, which Esser and Vliegenthart (2017) pointed out, were created. In this study, conducting a cultural context research, adhering to the rule of consensus and difference, the consensus rule (the most similar system design) in order to determine the common points of the cultural perspective of different civilization and the rule of discrepancy (the most different system design) were carried out in parallel; according to the consensus rule, if only one condition is common in two or more situations or experiments of an event, this condition is the cause or effect of the event in question; on the other hand, the rule of discrepancy, the situation in which the investigated event occurs and all the other conditions other than one condition of the situation where it does not occur shall be common; in other words, if a condition is found only in the previous one, this condition separating the second situ618

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ation from each other, either the result of the event, shows that either the cause or a compulsory part of it (Aydın and Hanağası, 2017: 69-70). Figure 1. Orientalism analysis process

Balance is important for comparison to give accurate results (Neuman, 2017; Esser & Vliegenthart, 2016). For balance, word, contextual, conceptual and measurement equivalencies (Aydın and Hasanağası, 2017: 68) were taken into consideration and compared within the orientalist categories of the sample. With an emic (culture-specific) approach, the evidence was collected, classified, synthesized by establishing connections between the relevant ones, and tried to move towards an explanatory Orientalism model, again as suggested by Neuman (2014: 527). Reference is made to other concepts in an analytical note, their similarities, differences, or causal relationships with other concepts are taken into account while making notes, and then transformed into analytical short notes to facilitate integration, synthesis and analysis (Neuman, 2014:486). Objects of analysis have been compared by making equivalent conceptualizations on the basis of Orientalism, which is a common theoretical framework (Esser & Vliegenthart, 2016). The general scope of orientalism consists of the reflections of culture and daily life, including music, literature, entertainment (preferred instead of film for this study), dance, religion. The analysis of the orientalist cultural codes in the contents of the films are arranged in a comparative table.

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FINDINGS Ministry of Tourism has allocated a high budget to be used in the promotion of Turkey. Turkey Tourism Promotion and Development Agency which is affiliated to the ministry, can participate in international fairs within the scope of public relations and promotional activities, sponsor various films or prepare its own promotional advertisements in order to reform the image of the country. The themes of the films prepared may change from year to year. However, it is seen that mainly the Orientalist imagery is used when forming the image of Turkey through self-promotional films in terms of tourism in 2000s. Therefore, the focus of this study is orientalist depictions in media content.

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The first promotional film that makes up the sample is the 43-second I Dream of Turkey (Elite World Hotels, 2013). The film begins with a child crouching at the foot of one of Nemrut Mountain sculptures accompanied by oriental music and dreaming while looking at a whirling dervish toy. Real human whirling dervishes (shown in disproportionate size) that the child dreamed of, rotate on each of the hills that symbolize the Cappadocia region. As the scene continues from a different angle, a man surfing in the air enters the plan and then flies over the turquoise sea where a gulet-type cruise boat is travelling (Figure 2). Figure 2. Various sequences of I dream of Turkey promotional film

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(Elite World Hotels, 2013)

A mermaid (later there become two) leaps out of the sea; first again over Cappadocia, then Demre King Tombs and floats in the air (like a surfer). In the next plan, an Ottoman cavalryman first jumps with his horse over Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge on the Bosphorus - while an uncovered woman from inside the car looks up at him through the windscreen - and then jumps over the İshak Pasha Palace in Ağrı. On the dome of the palace, a (shown in disproportionate size) male whose above waist is naked, wearing whirling dervishes, is blowing a pipe. In the interior of the palace decorated with tiles, a woman who is understood to be a concubine, glides backward in the air and invites the audience with her hand accompanied by belly dance figures. Following the short plan with whirling dervishes on the mosaic with the face of Jesus, who is accepted as prophet in the Christian religion, a different woman than before, while floating in the air, calls the audience with her hand, walks on the water in Balıklı Lake in Urfa and then continues to float in the air with belly dance figures in front of the ruins of the ancient city of Ephesus, making direct eye contact with the audience. In the next scene, the horsemen pass through the wagons while the Ottoman cavalrymen and a subway vehicle move towards each other at a metro station. With the camera movement coming out of the door from the wagon, a young looking uncovered woman is seen standing at the station; the woman lifts her head from the newspaper she is reading and makes eye contact with the audience. In fact, one of the cavalrymen wearing black, with whom she made eye contact, raised his horse in front of the ruins of Ancient Greece (it is not clear whether he was Ottoman or Arabic) sprinkles rose petals on the woman at the metro station; it is understood from the smile of the woman that she liked that. On the crescent-shaped island anchored in front of the recreational yachts, two drummers of disproportionate size play drums on two unnatural pillars. The mermaid, who is hovering in the air on a gullet type cruise yacht, passes between two columns from the Ancient Greek civilization and hangs by swimming in the air above the Mediterranean bay, where a cruise boat is anchored, and establishes eye

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contact with the audience. The movie ends with the text “I dream of (tulip motif) Turkey” in the same plan (Figure 3) Figure 3. Various sequences of I dream of Turkey promotional film

(Elite World Hotels, 2013)

Another promotional film that makes up the sample is the 41-second Istanbul Timeless City (CCT Investments, 2015), some scenes of which are the same with the previous movie. In the Bosphorus, one of the most important stories where Turkish mythology takes place, the man running between the whirling dervishes on the sea in front of the Maiden’s Tower, naked above the waist, running with a whirling turban and a pipe in his hand approaches, jumping from the camera gaze, and holding on to the minaret of a mosque (which is not understood) blows a pipe (Figure 4) Figure 4. Various sequence of Istanbul Timeless City promotional film

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(CCT Investments, 2015)

In the next plan, the acrobats, who do entertaining activities such as juggling just behind them, walk on the roof of the Grand Bazaar, one of the historical places in the same region of Istanbul, and follow janissaries after them. On top of the three columns (shown in disproportionate size) right next to the Sultan Ahmet Mosque, four drummers are spinning while playing drums (Image 3). The Ottoman cavalryman, who takes place in the scene in the first promotional film, first jumps with the horse over Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge on the Bosphorus -meanwhile, an uncovered woman looks at him from the windshield through the car- and walking away in front of Ortaköy Mosque. In the next plan, the drummer, who keeps rhythm between the streets from Galata Tower, enters between the large skyscrapers in the great sultanate boat, which is moving in the air, and the sultan makes eye contact with his concubines and servants in the boat (Image 4). A woman who is understood to be a concubine inside the palace decorated with tiles in the scene of the first promotional film invites the audience with her hand, accompanied by belly dance figures, gliding backward in the air. Just behind

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her, the acrobat is juggling on a moving column. In the next plan, at the top of Galata Tower, a man, naked above the waist (shown in disproportionate size) wearing a bare whirling turban and tattooed with Arabic letters on his abdomen, blows the pipe in his hand; following the short plan in the first promotional film, the woman, different from the first one, floats in the air and calls the audience with her hand, walks on water in Balıklı Lake in Urfa; two drummers stands on the top of Sultan Ahmet Mosque (again shown in disproportionate size), after the short plan, a lot of women are having fun in the place, which is understood to be a bathhouse, and a drummer plays the drum right at the top of the feet of the bridges in the Bosphorus. Figure 5. Various sequence of Istanbul Timeless City promotional film (CCT Investments, 2015)

Figure 6. Various sequence of Istanbul Timeless City promotional film

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(CCT Investments, 2015)

In the next scene, the cavalrymen pass through the wagons while the Ottoman cavalrymen and a subway vehicle move towards each other at a subway station. The young-looking woman standing at the station with the camera movement coming out of the door from the wagon lifts her head from the newspaper she reads and establishes eye contact with the audience. In fact, one of the cavalrymen in black (who is same man in the scene in the first promotional film) with whom she made eye contact (it is not clear whether he was Ottoman or Arabic), unlike the first promotional film, this time he leaves the wagon and sprinkles rose petals on the uncovered woman at the subway station, it is understood from the smile of the woman that she likes that. On the two pillars right next to Sultan Ahmet Mosque, four drummers (of disproportionate size) are swinging while playing drums; whirling dervishes are circling over the mosaic where the face of the Christian prophet Jesus is depicted in the previous film. And as the sultanate boat hovering in the air above the flying carpets passes through the opening of the grand palace door, the plan moves to the Bosphorus, which consists of flying carpets in front of the silhouette of the mosques in Eminönü, Galata Tower and the Bosphorus Bridge (structures that are physically

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impossible to be in the same frame), with the reversing camera movement; a woman, who comes out of the water, dances with oriental figures in her oriental clothes, makes long eye contact with the audience and smiles. In the last plan, the word “Istanbul Timeless City” appears, followed by the word Turkey (with tulip motif) (Figure 6) The codes in these two promotional films of the classified sample are synthesized as follows (Table 1). Table 1. Orientalist cultural codes in I dream of Turkey (Elite World Hotels, 2013) and Istanbul Timeless City (CCT Investments, 2015) promotional films

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Cultural Code

East

Music

Eastern images (Oriental music of Arabic origin)

West

Synthesis

▪ None

▪ Orientalist dominance

Literature

▪ Eastern images (Flying carpets, flying boats and mermaids set in Tales of A Thousand and One Nights, which are part of Eastern mythology / literature, tulip motif)

▪ Western images (Western mythology/ literature with images of mermaid(s))

▪ Orientalist dominance (While it is shown that mermaids, who are in both Eastern and Western mythologies and literature, fly and visit Anatolia, the motifs found mainly in Arabic literature are used.)

Entertainment

▪ Eastern images (Acrobats, drummers, etc. eastern style entertainment)

▪ Western images (Flying surfing human image, Western type leisure entertainment)

▪ Orientalist dominance

Dance

▪ Eastern images (Belly dance, whose origin is Arabic dance)

▪ None

▪ Orientalist dominance

Religion

▪ Eastern images (Mosques, whirling dervishes, etc. Islam from eastern religions)

▪ Western images (Jesus mosaic, the Genoese Galata Tower, etc. Christianity, one of the Western religions, although the origin is the Middle East)

▪ East-West balance (Islam in the lands where Christianity was born)

Everyday life practices

▪ Eastern images (Palaces, sultanate boat, etc. palace life style)

▪ Western images (Subway station, automobile etc. modern way of life)

▪ East-West balance (Transition between East and West with the image of the bridge and past-present time transitions in the same plan)

•

Music and Dance -There are no elements belonging to the West, and images of women dancing with Oriental fgures with oriental costumes accompanying Oriental music played with musical instruments unique to the Orient are used extensively. Oriental music and dance, the cultural products actually belong to their origin as Arabian society, gained prevalence over time in Turkish society –especially since the 1980s– became representatives of Turkey in time. However, despite these qualifcations, it does not fully meet the culture in Turkey. In the flm, due to the dominance

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•

•

•

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•

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of the Orientalist approach, used in the promotion of Turkey in the form of misrepresentation, it can be said that there has been an epistemic violation. Literature -Images such as fying carpets, fying sultanate boats, concubines and sultan in promotional flms are cultural products that do not belong to Turkish society. They are elements of stories told with Tales of a Thousand and One Nights belonging to Arabian literature. Sirens, one of the mythological heroes of Western cultures, occupy an important place in Assyrian and Arabian societies by taking the name of mermaids or sea people in Tales of One Thousand and One Nights. However, considering the form and intensity of usage in promotional flms, the dominance of Eastern culture is exhibited by the mermaids fying to Anatolia with mystical and fantastic displays. Also, the fying sultanate boat advancing among the skyscrapers creates another fantastic moment; it causes epistemic violation. Even Turkey word and Tulip motifs is used in combination, it is noteworthy that both the flm used in the fnal scene. The tulip is a motif symbolized by the Ottoman calligraphy and the Tulip Age. Entertainment -As in every culture, acrobats are always present in Turkish society as an element of entertainment activities. It can be said that both the entertainment forms used in promotional flms and the elements such as acrobats and drummers (because of their clothes and styling) are unique to Eastern societies. Gulet type cruise boats also belong to the Eastern culture. On the other hand, windsurfng, which belongs to Western societies, has been used as a modern leisure activity in Western style. Considering the use of images, one can speak of Orientalist dominance culturally. Religion -In the Middle East considered as East and in Turkey common belief system is Islam. According to Ünüvar and Şimşek (2012: 317), Sultan Ahmet Mosque, one of the most important places of worship of Islam in Turkey, is a cultural image in Turkish history. Displaying mosques as a cultural image in the promotion of the country and showing them as a priority in a flm shot by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism is an extremely important behavior. Similarly, the whirling dervishes following the doctrines of Muhammed Celâleddîn-i Rumi, known as Mevlana, who lived in the 13th century, one of the important elements of the religion of Islam, were used extensively in both promotional flms. Using these images, the flm producers said, “Come, Come Again! Whatever you are, come again! Be an unbeliever, a pagan, a Magi, or a hundred times break your repentance… Come again. Our lodge is not a door to despair, it is the door of hope. Come again …” all citizens of the world are invited to Turkey with Rumi’s words (Ünüvar and Şimşek, 2012: 318). However, disproportionately large images of dervishes whirling above the sea, mosque domes, Galata Tower, etc. gives the flm a mystical character. Everyday life practices -The images of women in the Turkish bath, in which fbers from peshtamal, horseshoes, lenger, and palm roots are used as indicative, are one of the plans that refect the Turkish culture correctly. According to Ünüvar and Şimşek (2012: 320-321), Turkish baths are the frst to come to mind according to Europeans when it is called Ottoman or Turkish. Not just the places where the body is cleansed, beyond that, hammams, an indispensable part of Turkish social life dating back to the Roman period, are a cultural phenomenon lasting for generations. At the same time, it is “one of the main places in the mysterious world of Orientalism”, which is mentioned in many felds from literature to cinema. While the lifestyle of the East is represented as belonging to the Palace in the promotional flms that make up the sample, there are a lot of plans that combine the past with the present modern way of life. The promised ones given while inviting foreigners to Turkey and the real ones are concerned incompatible with each other; the use of such

 A Comparative Study Oriented Tourism Advertisements in Turkey

visuals indicates that there is an epistemic violation that points to the existence of a representation problem. The fact that both flms are addressing foreign tourists with English (Western language) at the end means that a synthesis has been made by the producers. Another sample was examined in order to determine the Western stereotypes and hence how the West looks to the East. The Watchtower of Turkey (Dalessandri, 2014) used has a fiction in which short plans are integrated and transitioned into each other in a fast tempo. Italian director Leonardo Dalessandri, by trying to catch the rhythm of the fast life in Turkey in 3 minutes and 30 seconds, it is understood that he is in an effort to reflect people from every social segment within the culture. It is almost impossible to describe all the plans used in the film. However, the parts with striking images are cited here. The orange ropes tied on a thin tree dance with the effect of the light wind, the fallen leaves and dust particles are blown away by the effect of the wind and the raindrops wet the brown soil outdoors. Closeup of the camera, the woman in the red headscarf blinking and one woman speaks English in the background. The camera moves over the city with fast motion, and immediately afterwards the resemblance of the white foam emerging as a result of the wave formed in the sand and the sea. In the other plan, the image of the Quran, the book of Islam, and a person drawing a rosary with her hennaed hands, the acrobat is swinging on a moving column right in front of the frame and the shoes standing next to it, and the film begins its oscillation accompanied by a bridge with its reflected image on the water (Figure 7). Figure 7. Various sequences of the movie Watchtower of Turkey

(Dalessandri, 2014)

Figure 8. Various sequences of the movie Watchtower of Turkey

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(Dalessandri, 2014)

The images of Turkey’s crowded streets, often children, young and old, men with mustaches and some women who wore headscarves and some are uncovered are used. Throughout the film, a fast-paced im-

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age flows in various moments and places in Istanbul, as if trying to catch the rhythm of life. As if there were a race, people who frequently fulfill their various beliefs in their daily life practices (headscarved women, worshiping men, human images who are lighting candles), symbols, (the depiction of Jesus, the prophet of the Christian religion, followed by a whirling dervish statue etc.), places of worship (mosque, minaret, church, frescoes etc.) are used to symbolize both East and West religious motifs (Figure 8) With the effect of the wind, the Turkish flag is waving in red and white and the birds are flying around Galata Tower. Images of Hagia Sophia, Spice Bazaar and Grand Bazaar, which are among the historical works of Istanbul, flow in the daily life with people. Crowded streets, children playing, teenagers joking, smiling women and men often appear. But different codes may be found as well: Moments such as a child who is afraid of the sound he hears when he goes downhill in the neighborhood, a gun that is fired in someone’s hand, which is not known to whom it was targeted, okey stones, a game belonging to Eastern societies, and a man who laughs and talks about something with a cigarette in his hand, A Far Eastern girl circling a percussion instrument in her hand, again accompanied by a Far Eastern man transfers the multi-cultural status of Turkey. A woman who paints an oil painting and people playing guitar, jumpsuit, darbuka, kaval, trombone, Japanese drums Kaito and Koto in various plans, images of Western, Eastern and Far Eastern dances have been used in independent plans throughout the film. From the beginning to the end, the signifiers of traditionalism and modernity are interwoven consecutively with each other and the flow of social life is tried to be presented in sections Figure 9. Figure 9. Various sequences of the movie Watchtower of Turkey

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(Dalessandri, 2014)

Many factors belonging to Turkish culture such as Pamukkale, Cappadocia, from touristic areas found in any other places than Turkey, as well as historical buildings, water pipes, sherbet, Turkish kebabs can be found. The film ends with tiny animal objects and crescent-star ornaments, the child playing in the mosque, the image of the hand touching the wall, the same woman wearing the headscarf at the beginning after seeing the photograph of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and again with the silhouettes of hot air balloons in Cappadocia at sunrise. The codes in these films of the classified sample is synthesized as follows (Table 2).

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Table 2. Orientalist cultural codes in the movie Watchtower of Turkey Cultural Code

East

West

Synthesis

Music

▪ Eastern images (Eastern cither, tambourines, drums, zurna, kaval etc.; Far Eastern (Japanese) Koto and drums Taiko)

▪ Western images (Viola, cello, piano, etc.)

▪ East-West balance (Street musicians playing guitar and darbuka)

Literature

▪ Eastern images (Inviting Westerners on behalf of the Eastern community through the Eastern person)

▪ Western images (Inviting Westerners with Western languages, English, on behalf of the Eastern community through the Eastern person)

▪ East-West balance

Entertainment

▪ Eastern images (Stone game called Okey)

▪ Western images (Western style toy acrobat, Japanese toy robot, touristic leisure activities)

▪ East-West balance

Dance

▪ Eastern images (Belly dancing at the wedding)

▪ Western images (Ballet, European folk dance)

▪ East-West balance

Religion

▪ Eastern images (Mosques, whirling dervishes, etc. Islam, one of the Eastern religions)

▪ Western images (The church, the mosaic of Christ, Galata Tower belonging to the Genoese, Christianity, one of the Western religions, although the origin is the Middle East)

▪ East-West balance (Islam in the lands where Christianity was born with the appearance of Hagia Sophia)

Everyday life practices

▪ Eastern images (Crowded streets, images of women wearing headscarves, oil paintings depicting the bath, hookah, fez (tarboosh) etc.)

▪ Western images (Although not obvious, foreign tourists and uncovered women images, planes, cars, etc.)

▪ East-West balance (cosmopolitanmulticultural life)

(Dalessandri, 2014)

•

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•

Music -The composer of the soundtrack is Ludovico Maria Enrico Einaudi, an Italian pianist and composer who works in diferent styles such as pop, rock, folk and world music. Piano and viola instruments belonging to Western culture were used as theme music. However, these instruments are used in the Ottoman Empire and then in the Republic of Turkey for over a century. In addition, people using guitar, viola and cello, which are Classical Western Music instruments, are frequently encountered in the flm; people who are understood to be at a wedding to those who play the darbuka (goblet drum), tambourine and zurna (clarion), which are also an element of Eastern culture at equal level, have fun by dancing. Even the images of young people playing guitar and bagpipes attract attention. In addition to all these, drums Taiko and Koto images of Japanese culture, which are also in the East of the East, are also used. Literature -In his flm, the verse is addressed in a poetic style: “Do you hear me? This is the voice of an imperial past; ‘the sound of horses, and the strong walk of men… Do you feel me? This is your cultural thrill, the smell of a powerful land... Can you see me?’ It is voiced by Meryem Aboulouafa, a Moroccan singer-songwriter. Its voice is expressed to be infuential in French pop, American rock and Middle Eastern folk music with its atmospheric vocals. Westerners are invited to the country on behalf of another Eastern community through a person from Eastern societies. Camel caravans, which are the symbols of the East, do not exist anymore like rugs bearing traditional Anatolian motifs; they have already taken their place in colored glossy paper books, which seem to have been printed with modern techniques.

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•

•

•

•

Entertainment -The flm features both Western and Eastern styles. Being one of the frst plans, the fgure of the male acrobat fgure with a red mustache wearing a Western culture hat, hanging on a magnetic toy draws attention. Weddings, children’s games, entertainment venues, touristic places, hot air balloons, dance and the traditional game images of the Eastern stone game called Okey, are shown to be in the public space where social life is experienced. Dance -Various images related to art branches of Western culture are used. For instance, the shadows of the ballet performers are strolling over an oil painting, or the feet of people dancing folkloric, also belonging to the West, are displayed in various venues. In the plan, which is understood to be a wedding peculiar to the East, people dance with Oriental fgures accompanied by drums, futes and cymbals. Considering all of the assessment, it said that Turkey’s polyculture is handled. Religion -While the places of worship and worshipers of the Islamic religion are frequently shown, whirling dervishes that keep the Islamic mysticism alive are also used. Images of various churches, Jesus frescoes, or burning candles are also included, which are the same Christian places of worship. Turkey is shown as adopting the religion of Islam, but also hosting diferent religions as well. Everyday life practices -That a very diferent type of people can be seen in the public spaces of Turkey according to the images used is shown. While some of the external appearances of men and women in the images are traditional and some are in the modern world, it is shown that everyone behaves freely and is happy and friendly. Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, the founder of the required image at the top of the fag of the Republic as well as his own voice, “How happy I am a Turk” Turkey’s modernity is consolidated using the word. Various images show that the Turkish society is hospitable, the country is very colorful, very lively and fun. In daily life, places such as Cappadocia, Galata Tower, ancient Greek city ruins were used as orientalist elements of interest in terms of tourism, including men in clothes and fez (tarboosh) used to sell ice cream or sherbet in the Ottoman period.

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CONCLUSION Established after the fall of the Ottoman Empire, the Republic of Turkey continued to be seen as East by European countries and the America. For example, Ernest Hemingway, who was in Istanbul as a journalist in 1922, wrote in detail his observations. Similarly, especially in the novel Murder on the Orient Express, written by Agatha Christie, one of the detective novelists, in Istanbul in 1933, this situation is very evident. The train journey called Orient Express starts from Istanbul, the capital of the ancient Ottoman. While the events that need to be enlightened in detective novels are resolved from Istanbul onwards, European women and men (and of course the author of the novel) who are the passengers of the train bring the mystery of the exotic East to their lands, the West. Today, a similar situation can be observed in other media productions in Turkey. The program Wilco’s Caravan (Iz TV), owned by Dutch Wilco Herper, who has lived in Turkey for many years and has prepared Turkish TV programs on various channels, is one of the most typical examples. Similarly, the program Kiran and Sara and The Best of Istanbul (24 Kithen) prepared by chef chefs named Kiran Jethwa from a British-Indian family and Sara La Fountain from a Finnish-American family, is also broadcast. All these examples and many more are Orientalist narratives of the East by Westerners. However, the question of this investigation how Turkey, positioned in the East by the West, represents itself. It has 628

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been sought whether self-representation is done using Orientalist stereotypes in a doctrine, and therefore includes epistemic violence. Cultural context research has been conducted by using comparative case studies within the historical mentality and analytical thinking. The two promotional films of the Ministry of Culture and Tourism are examined in terms of the reflections of Orientalism to the daily life with the whole culture, including music, literature, entertainment (specific to this study, was preferred instead of a film), dance, religion. It has been found that Orientalist images predominate in both films. In particular, the emphasis on entertainment through dance is mythized in the accompaniment of Oriental music with Arabic melodies. In the dimension of religion, a certain degree of balance can be mentioned with the use of images that represent Eastern and Western religions. There is also a similar situation in terms of daily life practices. However, it can be said that historicity in the form of nostalgia still preserves its freshness in social memory and this is expressed as well. The film prepared by the Italian director is used to determine the view of the West about Turkey and Turkish society. It is noticed that, in literature, entertainment, dance and religion dimensions of the filmas in the case of inviting Westerners with Western-language English on behalf of the Eastern community through images or through the Eastern person- there is a reflection of East-West balance. However, the director transfers cosmopolitan and its associated multiculturalism while handling Oriental characteristics in terms of everyday life practices in Turkey besides modern lifestyle. In general, East-West balance is observed throughout the film. As a result, the existence of an internalized Orientalism is evident in the films made for the promotion of Turkey. Turkey as seen as East, represents itself in a mysterious way through myths against West, in the form of an expression of nostalgia, to coincide with the stereotypes of the Orientalists of the time. This misrepresentation constitutes an epistemic violation towards the outside on the one hand, and an epistemic violence towards the inside on the other. This situation may be the answer to why the view of Western societies towards the East has not changed even in today’s postmodern period.

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FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS There is an endless struggle in the effort to represent in every society. This struggle is between social groups that want to represent themselves and those in power (sovereigns) who want to represent them on their behalf. The media creates contents in a way that organizes the way of existence of today’s human being surrounded by it, and this situation takes its place among the main research topics in communication studies. Similarly, the situation of the use of Orientalist imagination in various media channels has always been a subject that needs research. For this reason, it can be said that in the future, it would be useful to examine how certain societies or communities are represented by the Western and Eastern media comparatively.

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Irwin, R. (2006). Dangerous Knowledge: Orientalism and Its Discontents. Overlook Press. Kahraman, H. B. (2011). İçselleştirilmiş, Açık ve Gizli Oryantalizm ve Kemalizm [Internalized, Explicit and Hidden Orientalism and Kemalism]. Oryantalizm, I, 159–185. Kobayashi, K., Jackson, S. J., & Sam, M. P. (2019). Globalization, creative alliance and self-Orientalism: Negotiating Japanese identity within Asics global advertising production. International Journal of Cultural Studies, 22(1), 157–174. doi:10.1177/1367877917733812 Lewis, B. (2014). Tarih Notları: Bir Orta Doğu Tarihçisinin Notları [Notes On A Century] (Ç. Sümer, Trans.). Arkadaş Yayınevi.

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Neuman, W. L. (2014). Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches. Pearson Education Limited. Said, E. (1979). Orientalism. Vintage Books, Random House. Sezgin, Ö., & Şaylan, G. (1983). Terakkiperver Cumhuriyet Fırkası [Progressive Republican Party]. In Cumhuriyet Dönemi Türkiye Ansiklopedisi (Vol. 8, pp. 2043-2051). İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları. Spivak, G. C. (2010). Yeni Madun: Ses-siz Bir Mülakat [The New Subject: A Soundless Interview]. Toplum ve Bilim, (25), 55–73. Sunar, İ. (1983). Demokrat Parti ve Popülizm [Democratic Party and Populism]. In Cumhuriyet Dönemi Türkiye Ansiklopedisi (Vol. 8, pp. 2076-2086). İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları. Ünüvar, Ş., & Şimşek, S. (2012). Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı Yurtdışı Tanıtım Filmlerinde Kültürel İmge Kullanımı [Use of Cultural Images in the Ministry of Culture and Tourism Promotional Films Abroad]. Sosyal Ekonomik Araştırmalar Dergisi, 12(24), 305–330. Uzun, T., & Atasever, G. (2010). Türkiye’de Modernleşme Süreci Bağlamında Oryantalist ve Oksidentalist Bakışlar [Orientalist and Occidentalist Perspectives in the Context of Modernization Process in Turkey]. Dumlupınar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, (26), 175–182. Yetişkin, E. (2010a). Tarde’ın Toplum Yaklaşımı Açısından Kamuoyu ve Maduniyet [Public Opinion and Subordinating in Terms of Tarde Approach to Society]. İletişim Kuram ve Araştırma Dergisi, (31), 1-28. Yetişkin, E. (2010b). Epistemik İhlalin Çevirisi [Translation of Epistemic Violation]. Toplum ve Bilim, (25), 147–159. Yetişkin, E. (2010c). Postkolonyal Kavramlar Üzerine Notlar [Notes on Postcolonial Concepts]. Toplum ve Bilim, (25), 15–20. Yetkin, B. (2010). Popülizm ve Özal-Erdoğan Bir Siyasal İletişim Tarzı Olarak Popülizm: Turgut Özal’ın “İcraatın İçinden” ve Recep Tayyip Erdoğan’ın “Ulusa Sesleniş” Konuşmalarının Karşılaştırmalı İncelemesi [Populism and Özal-Erdoğan populism as a style of Political Communication: comparative analysis of Turgut Özal’s “through the execution” and Recep Tayyip Erdoğan’s “address to the nation” speeches]. Yeniden Anadolu ve Rumeli Müdafaa-i Hukuk Yayınları.

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ADDITIONAL READING Hübinette, T. (2003). Orientalism past and present: An introduction to a postcolonial critique. The Stockholm Journal of East Asian Studies, 13, 73–80. Lemon, R. (2011). Imperial Messages: Orientalism as Self-Critique in the Habsburg Fin de Siècle. Boydell & Brewer., doi:10.7722/j.ctt81hwx Macfie, A. (Ed.). (2000). Orientalism: A Reader. Edinburgh University Press., doi:10.3366/j.ctvxcrbwv

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Poole, E. (2002). Reporting Islam: Media Representations of British Muslims. I.B. Tauris. doi:10.5040/9780755604579 Said, E. (1979). Orientalism. Vintage Books, Random House. Said, E. (1988). Michel Foucault, 1926–1984. In J. Arac (Ed.), After Foucault: Humanistic Knowledge, Postmodern Challenges (pp. 9–10). Rutgers University Press. Spivak, G. C. (1988). Can the Subaltern Speak? In C. Nelson & L. Grossberg (Eds.), Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture (pp. 271–313). Macmillan. doi:10.1007/978-1-349-19059-1_20 Turner, B. S. (1994). Orientalism, Postmodernism and Globalism. Routledge. William, G. F. (2012). Tourism and self-Orientalism in Oman: A critical discourse analysis. Critical Discourse Studies, 9(3), 269–284. doi:10.1080/17405904.2012.688210

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

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Comparative Historicity Perspective: It is a type of research that allows rational answers in analysis and examines various aspects of social life among different cultures in the historical period. Epistemic Violence: Which is described as a heterogenization project, occurs by creating an ‘other’ to fit the purposes of the exploiter. Orient: The definitions related to Eastern civilization. Orientalism: It is a critical theory, which is reconsidered by E. Said and which describes the way the West represents the East. Ottoman: Turkish and Islamic State that existed between 1299-1922. Self-Orientalism: The willingness (reaction) of non-western individuals and institutions to play the “Other” dominated by the global economy, system, and order. Westernization: It is the process of societies adopting Western culture in areas such as industry, technology, law, politics, economy, lifestyle, nutrition, clothing, language, alphabet, religion, and philosophy. This process goes back to the Ottoman Empire about 200 years ago in Turkey.

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Chapter 36

Country in the East and West Claw: Winter Sleep

Özcan Yılmaz Sütcü İzmir Katip Çelebi University, Turkey

ABSTRACT Nuri Bilge Ceylan puts the perspectives of Anatolia under pressure through the analysis of individuals’ souls in the movie Winter Sleep (2014). He examines the “Western perspective” through the intellectuals (Aydın, Necla, and Levent) and the “religious and traditional perspective” of Anatolia through Imam Hamdi and Ismail. Ceylan gets individuals out of cultural and ideological codes and allows them to confront their own realities in Anatolian geography. This possibility can be expressed as a kind of Foucauldian violence. There is a violence of going into the deeper layers of the repressed, unresolved points. This is an inner violence that comes from stripping all code and layers. This internal violence is the result of the soul analysis that is refected in Anatolia as a camera of people awakening in Winter Sleep. The immediacy of Anatolia’s vital existence can only be grasped in the depths of vital experience itself.

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INTRODUCTION Snowflakes are like an aged voice, a requiem in the memory of the nature. Snowflakes are the universe’s silent symphony. Absence, despair, hubris, pain and sadness reflected from caves covered in snow. It is snowing from the heavens of Cappadocia, where hopes and happiness froze. Anatolia, the somber stop of travelers, the place of “those who grew up in wrong places like a captive tree” (Cansever, 1997:404). Silence, snow and those who turn inwards, in other words, a human landscape reflected from the shimmering lights of the stove that is burning in the nights of Anatolia, desolate and surrendered to snow: courteous tirades of Shakespeare, Camus’s Caligula, Dostoyevsky’s reckless fools that burn money in the hearth, Chekhov’s little government clerks are all about to rise on a brand-new day. It is almost impossible to rise on a new day, to be born into a new life in Anatolia; everything is identical. Tomorrow is not pregnant to change but to regrets and weariness. To try despite DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch036

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everything, to try once more, to try knowing that your ill fate will not change. To wake up, to wake up once more on an unhurried, monotonous day of Anatolia. The protagonists of Winter Sleep (2014) cannot help but gaze at distances, Those who bring their books with them (Aydın); those who lost hope (Nihal); those who are ready to forgive everything (Necla); those who cannot help their mothers, nephews and siblings in their homeland (Hamdi); those who spill their inner violence everywhere and poison (Ismail). Those who live in the past; those who lost hope; those who suffer their regrets; those who could not accomplish what they wanted from life: all protagonists lose something inside, and the world of each protagonist is a bleeding wound on a snowy meadow. In their own way, everything is foregone, everything is sorrow, everything is lonelinessin the snow-covered ancient Anatolian geography. But beyond everything, Anatolia is a land of tales that are difficult to tell, where every image has its own perspective. Each protagonist becomes meaningful with their own tragedy, even in places where both the cruelty of nature and the social issues are prominent. It should not be forgotten that every action, every thought and every emotional stir is not only a relationship but also an existential problem or a tale of annihilation. Every personal effort also finds its place amongst the colorfulness of Anatolian culture. Anatolia is sometimes a place of internal exile for a town dweller, sometimes a place of mandatory exile for a countryman, and sometimes a tragic place for the nature and every living being in it. But beyond everything, Anatolia is the intersection point of borders; the West and the East, the Countryside and the City, the Exile and the Local.

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ANATOLIA IN BETWEEN THE COUNTRYSIDE AND CITY TENSION Nuri Bilge Ceylan, in his previous film, Once Upon a Time in Anatolia (2011), tried to enter Anatolia in dusk and reach the “light”. The film Winter Sleep turns toward the “night” from Cappadocia where the snowflakes of the morning and the fairy chimneys challenge the sky, so to speak. The night once again becomes meaningful in the confession part where subconsciousness is exposed and where everyone finds themselves. Once again, an analogy is established between the flow of the consciousness and the flow of nature. The weight of the past was not only established in the protagonists (people) but also established as a part of Anatolia (of course, the biggest protagonist). Existential problems, poverty and sorrow are pictured on the screen within the routine nature and human relationship. The presence, existence and actions of the man at any place has always been enclosed by boundaries. Boundaries almost seem like a prerequisite that creates the existential structure of the individual. Although this prerequisite can be intellectual and cultural like western-eastern, it can also be spatial like countryman-city dweller or can also represent the psychological state of the individual like happyunhappy, angry-calm. As Simmel expresses, “By virtue of the fact that we have boundaries everywhere and always, so accordingly we are boundaries”(Simmel, 1971:353). The art of cinema (film) operates with boundaries. The technical equivalent of this is the frame. The film utilizes these borders in its own unique way. However, the actual purpose of the film is not hidden within these frames but in the perception of these frames as a whole. A new image that is born out of the sum of all these frames can provide a wider perspective: an image born out of the union of all images. This image could be a take off point in order to be able to catch the depth in any subject. This take off point may provide the individual the chance to see what is outside the boundaries and determinism that they are engulfed in. In other words, the individual, when they transcend beyond the boundaries that they were engulfed in, can perceive themselves in a manner that was not possible before. Ceylan thinks that seeing the countryside from 634

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the eye of the city dweller or seeing the city from the eye of the countryman cannot provide a holistic perspective in relation to Anatolia. The alignment of both eyes can provide a holistic image. This holistic image bears inside the power of viewing each other from the opposite side, freed of boundaries by reflecting onto itself. Nuri Bilge Ceylan approaches Anatolia with an instinct in which the boundaries are abandoned in favor of the image. Before having a look at the intellectual background of Ceylan’s film, it could be beneficial to make a parenthesis and take a look at the two separate uses of the word “countryside”: narrow and broad. In the narrow sense, countryside expresses only an administrative unit. When taken in this sense, the countryside can be expressed as a unit that is outside the city and associated with a center. As all centers have hinterlands, the countryside will always be described as off-center (Argın, Ş. 2005:278).In that case, the countryside is broadly “the outside that is inside” in a paradoxical manner (Argın, Ş. 2005:279). However, this outsideness does not correspond to a spatially different country or distance. It can be conceived as otherized within the boundaries of a country or the “tamed other”, so to speak. In this context, the countryside does not designate the other in the actual sense, but it designates a quiet place in a geography that is far away from a center or a city. In the wider sense, the countryside does not only have a spatial meaning. Although the countryside is defined spatially, it is also the name of a lifestyle, an experience style, and a state of mind (Argın, Ş. 2005:279).This lifestyle manifests with the boredom of the young girls in towns who are far-off from living their own lives and watching what is going on outside all day long from their little windows, or on the contrary, with the internal conversations of the city dwellers who moved from cities to towns and earned the animosity of the townspeople with their lifestyles. The countryside does not designate a meaning only in relation to the space, but it also produces itself as the exact opposite of the city life. While the city corresponds to expanding outside, having a wide perspective and being in constant movement during the daily life, the countryside corresponds to staying outside, shrinking, a motionless state of life that is bound by the house (Gürbilek, 1995:50). As it can easily be seen, although the countryside corresponds to a way of thinking and life, it cannot exist without the tension between itself and the city. It is possible to say that Anatolia’s last two centuries plied between within this tension. Ceylan prefers to read this tension in reverse order. In other words, he approaches the countryside from the perspective of the city dweller. Nuri Bilge Ceylan’s film Winter Sleep has been reviewed by many critics as the most political film of the director. It has been interpreted that the director handled and discussed the social structures and classes to their finest detail (McGavin, 2014). Although the idea that the film is political seems correct, it is not a “political film” in the common sense. It is not a film that is about a class or differences of social structure. Because, the film is not centered on either a class or a class struggle. The analysis of the film about the fundamental culture production forms such as the countryman and the city dweller or the modern and the traditional comes across as a political notion. This notion sheds lights on our understanding of today’s political compasses. Nevertheless, Ceylan mentions this approach in an interview as follows: “In Turkey, intellectuals expect artists to be a journalist like artist, to make a fuss about social issues” (Donadio, 2014). However, this is not a correct approach. “Art should deal with something deeper, the inner world of the people who create this political situation” (Donadio, 2014). The fundamental thing that exists in the film is the conflict between two different perspectives or culture products (the east and the west, the countryman and the city dweller, etc.) over the existence of the protagonists. Countryman or city dweller protagonists that exist or try to exist through ideas coming from outside on the one hand, and protagonists that exist or try to exist in a traditional social environment on the other. In Winter Sleep, we witness a cultural code analysis of these two different perspectives over the protagonists. This analysis 635

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is in itself “political”. These two different perspectives are the fundamental spectrum of today’s political alignments and conflicts that existed since the final period of the Ottoman Empire. We should interpret Karl Krause’s “the closer the look one takes at a word, the greater distance from which it looks back” (Benjamin,1986:200) for Nuri Bilge Ceylan’s Winter Sleep film as follows: “the closer the look one takes at an image, the greater distance from which it looks back”. In Winter Sleep, the closer the camera focuses on the image, the greater distance from which each image looks back at the camera. Then again, if it is Anatolia that is in question, Ceylan shows us how far the images of this place that is both physically and emotionally further away during both the Ottoman and the Republican periods. Anatolia is so far away that even if you leave everything behind and settle at its hearth (Cappadocia), it will still remain far away. Anatolia is a land of distant images, recognized by the Enlightened (Aydın) at the beginning of the 20th century. Anatolia, which has been the subject of many novels, poems and films until the final quarter of the 20th century, joined the winds of consumption and globalization that blew all around the world in the early 21st century, however, it never truly became part of the agenda. And of course, it became distant to being discussed in novels, films and other branches of art. Even when it is discussed in films, it only warms us as “a distant image”. All protagonists are imprinted in our memories as distant images. The image born out of the union of these distant images can provide us a holistic perspective for Anatolia. Aydın, the one who always gazes at distances, who is a stranger to everything and to himself. He runs the “Othello Hotel” in Cappadocia. His hotel Othello, stranger to Anatolia just like himself. Aydın (Haluk Bilginer), whose glorious days of theatre remains in the shadow of his patrimonial wealth, cannot escape the theatre stage, even if he does everything to belong to Anatolia and takes responsibility for the issues of that geography (such as being a columnist and helping others). He will repeat the common lines of the Anatolian landscape that the countryman can handle, and leave the stage like everyone does. As if all those sarcastic tirades are to get a better role, leaving the role of the extra in the stage of life. After all, the only role he played in the theatre is the role of the imam in a comedy. He lost that role to Imam Hamdi (Serhat Kılıç) in real life. Aydın is engulfed in a crisis in deciding where his home is, and he therefore cannot assume a real identity. Aydın is not the only one who is engulfed in this crisis, Nihal (Melisa Sözen), who is scared like rabbit and who is trying to be reborn out of her lost youth; Necla (Demet Akbağ), who travels from one room to another like a wild horse and who looks for an answer for the question “what is evil?”; Suavi (Tamer Levent), who lives his final days in his house where he heats only one room and who awaits death patiently; and the teacher Levent (Nadir Sarıbacak), who is timid and shy but who also questions his existence with a single bottle of wine, all live through the same crisis. All of them are grumbling-whimpering, telling-listening individuals until that deep “winter sleep” takes over their bodies, just like wild animals sheltering in their caves. The confrontation between the city dwelling protagonists, (Aydın, Necla, Nihal, Levent, Suavi) that are the “subject” of the modernization project in order to understand the post-Republic countryside experience, and the countryside protagonists, (Hamdi, Ismail (Nejat Işler), İlyas) that are the “object” of it, is inevitable. Because, as Melluci states: Limit, however, also stands for confinement, frontier, separation; it therefore also signifies recognition of the other, the different, the irreducible. The encounter with otherness is an experience that puts us to a test: from it is born the temptation to reduce difference by force, while it may equally generate the challenge of communication, as a constantly renewed endeavour (Melluci, 1996:129).

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As a boundary, in order for the countryside to distinguish itself as the countryside, it must recognize that it exists on the boundary of another experience, the city. In the same manner, in order for the countryman to feel as a countryman, it must see itself from the eyes of the city dweller, another boundary, and feel incomplete in the presence of the city dweller (Gürbilek, 1995:52). Aydın, his wife Nihal, sister Necla, teacher Levent, his friend Süavi from the neighboring farm, who are representing an entirely different world in the middle of the countryside, all ease their consciousness through philanthropy and dealing with social development problems. In the village just beyond the house, Aydın has tenants that pay rent to him, just like they paid to his father. Although everything is covered intellectually, the individual’s unhappiness allows the individual to rethink itself as the individual cannot escape itself. Intellectuals, glowing with heat in the rooms illuminated with fire, discuss the individual’s freedom and right to a good education. However, the poor and desperate villagers are just on the other side of the door. Like in the stories of Chekhov, even though they deal with the problems of the countryside with enlightened minds, this enlightenment is an enlightenment that does not change anything (Gerry, 2014). In places where the modern thought is encountered very late, especially like Anatolia, the interest is focused on the appearance of modernism: in terms of apparel and behavior. Simplicity, modesty, empathy and mutual respect are seen as higher values. Bragging and boasting always come before the enrichment of the inner world (Ceylan, 2012:34). We clearly see this in the conversations both between Aydın and the teacher and Aydın and Necla. In the film, Ceylan resorts to “some form of violence” on the perspective of the Enlightened on Anatolia over the character of Aydın. This perspective actually continued from the final period of the Ottoman Empire until the Modern Republic and after. Aydın’s city dweller (western) perspective. This perspective originates form the idea that Anatolian life is bleak and depressing. This thought advances on the foundation that envisions Anatolia as a physically, meaning that the winters are cold and rough and the summers are painfully scorching hot, and experientially depressing landscape, where change is almost non-existent and the environment represses any kind of change. It is the mandatory settlement, where one desires to visit but not to stay or where those in exile cannot wait to leave it. In memories, Anatolia is gray during winters and yellow during summers. This perspective appears as a thought from the city or the more modernized city (Birkan, 2005:298). Everything is rooted to the spot in the countryside; the way of thinking is based on prejudices and biases. Therefore, everyone and everything is numb, conservative and cowardly. It is the same for the living beings in this geography that resists life. It is the same for the individuals that try to hang on to the life. Just like a city dweller fears climbing the wild mountains, the countryman fears a different dawn. Necla, when saying “I still cannot believe how I accepted to leave a place like Istanbul and move in here with you, how I did something like that. My soul darkened in this numb place,” draws a thick line between the countryside and the city. And this line not only expresses a boundary, but it also expresses that it is necessary to consider the countryside alongside the city. The view of the city on countryside has already been identifying the countryside, and when this perspective reflects on itself, it shows that the two sides of the coin are the same. It does not matter if you were educated by the Europeans or lived in a metropolis like Istanbul; the countryside has its own cycle and becoming part of this cycle is inevitable. The countryside has its own state of mind, and those individuals that come into relationship with this state of mind slowly take on this state of mind. It is possible to see that those who are born in the city and lived almost their entire life there with the longing for a calmer life slowly take on this way of life and thinking after moving to the countryside. We see this transformation in the doctor Cemal character (Mehmet Uzuner) in Once Upon a Time in Anatolia. The doctor who started to live in the countryside 637

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takes on that place’s soul (Sütcü, 2012:103-104). Nevertheless, we witness in the Winter Sleep that Aydın, Necla and Nihal take on this state of mind. However, this transformation is not a transition from one state to another. It is a new state. It is neither leaving the city dweller identity behind nor becoming a countryman. It is to feel both inside. More generally, it is the reflection of two perspectives on each other. When Nihal sees the unseen Ismail, she “feels embarrassed”; when Aydın sees the unseen Hamdi, he “feels embarrassed” (Argın, Ş. 2005:289). Ceylan uses the Anatolian geography like a magic mirror to deconstruct this urban and modern perspective and lifestyle. The light reflecting from the Anatolian image is reflected from the protagonists’ states of mind rather than being a light reflected from the face of a geography. The countryside in Ceylan’s film is not the final sanctuary of a city-dwelling Enlightened. It is also a field for the individual to find itself, where the individual’s spiritual reality is revealed. Necla expressing everything explicitly during the nights, Aydın talking frankly with Nihal, Ismail presenting his world directly, etc. The loneliness in Anatolia can only reveal the aged, hidden and passed over truths within the individual’s consciousness. “Duration of the protagonists”, which is always emphasized by Ceylan, is the identity of the nature’s duration.1The issue in the Winter Sleep film is that the city dwellers do not pay attention the reality of the countryside, only seem like paying attention. Likewise, it is those who live in Anatolia not paying attention to the city dwellers moving there, only seeming to have paid attention. The people of two different worlds do not have a common ground except for sharing the tough geography. Anatolia is a landscape that resists change and transformation with its tough living conditions and rough traditional structure. Whatever the perspective is, it is also possible to see the same resistance to change and transformation in the protagonists. Those who move to Anatolia and those who live in Anatolia are not inclined to capitulate their boundaries and to understand each other.

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Analysis of Codes as a Form of Violence In some sense, Ceylan carries out a psychoanalysis of Anatolia. While doing so, he does not solely focus on the lifestyle and lifecycle of the countryside. In a broader sense, he handles the two forms of culture that creates the countryside (the production of the culture that is originated from tradition and religion, and the modern culture production of the city) in a dialectical process. In other words, understanding the countryside is not only to focus on the countryside, but also to consider the city that finds meaning as its opposite pole. The countryside in Anatolia has been at a position that is against the modernism, which advanced through the relations with Europe in the early 20th century. This opposition, which developed as the city and the countryside or the city and the village, found its meaning as a tension. Ceylan cracks open the door to “a form of violence” by dwelling in the most hidden and far away details of the individual existence. This is Foucauldian way of thinking. A new state that arises with some sort of pressure applied on the individual’s self or on the individuals. A pressure of this sort that is applied on the individual or the individuals transforms into a form of violence in order to see what is not seen in the depths (Deleuze, 1995:103). If creating a work of art is to become a journey to understand the human soul, I think that we must be relentless against ourselves and our characters. However, a real effort in understanding also brings about the necessity to not to judge so easily (Ceylan, 2014).

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There is a violence in digressing from what was previously thought about Anatolia and going deep inside the consciousness of the protagonists, just like Foucault did. There is a violence to the imaginary presentation of the points that are repressed and ignored. Ceylan carries out a dangerous performance by directing the camera on the lonely people of Anatolia who live in their own reality and are virtually in “a winter sleep”. In other words, he analyzes the individuals’ codes and sheds lights on their world. In order for the codes to be analyzed, the individuals must “awake” from their own lives. While the entire nature is in a winter sleep, the people are in an awakening state. Aydın is stranger to everything in the world he lives in, he wakes up from this strangeness for the first time. Nihal wakes up from the sleep of unhappiness and weariness for the first time. For the first time this winter, Necla realizes what she had done in the past. Ismail wakes up from the sleep of the damage he caused to the people and his family. Presenting everything’s and everyone’s awakening from the (winter) sleep is a dangerous performance. Ceylan virtually uses his camera for the awakening of everything, and this usage is reflected on the screen as some form of “violence”. Winter Sleep is mostly set in a closed space. We can say that the director was insistent on this subject. We witness the protagonist’s uninterrupted flow of thoughts during the nights at a place where an uninterrupted natural life is present. Therefore, the flow of thought presents great importance throughout the film. The uninterrupted flow of consciousness applies for Necla, Nihal and teacher Levent as well as Aydın. Aydın’s captivity within his emotions and thoughts, or Necla’s captivity within her ethical boundaries, or Nihal’s captivity in her husband’s boundaries, or teacher Levent’s captivity in his profession’s boundaries emerge as some sort of contradiction. The individual must cross itself and its boundaries, and primarily hit its own walls. In order for the city dweller protagonists to cross their own truths and to touch others’ truth or boundaries, they must first hit one of the boundaries of their inner worlds. In fact, what creates violence is the presence of a view in the deconstruction itself. And this is the best way for a thought to realize its own issue. Because, the cultural boundaries of the enlightened coming from the city are established by their ways of thought, and crossing boundaries is only possible through facing their own boundaries. Otherwise, it cannot be anything else but be a reaction to an action. It is to say wrong to someone else’s right, and this finds meaning within the relationship of action-reaction. Because, it is always possible to provide different perspectives about an event. However, the change and transformation within a thought represent more than the relationship between the action and the reaction. We can see this in the film both in the long dialogues of Aydın and Necla and the dialogue of Aydın and teacher Levent. The intellectual conflicts of the people from the same world can cause violence in thought. This is not a process that occurs between the individual boundaries of two people of different worlds. It is more of the protagonists’ analysis within the thought world that they belong to and their internal collapse. In other words, this is the uninterrupted deconstruction of the mind and the cultural codes. When the individual realizes that the boundaries that created it is in fact a prison for itself and when the individual understands that it cannot continue like this, it can join the real animation of the life. Just as Ceylan puts forth some sort of violence by analyzing the codes of the enlightened moving to Anatolia, he also analyzes the codes of the countryside individuals, those “who are always right and in need”. The stone, thrown by the kid and broke the window of the vehicle used by Aydın and Hidayet at the time, is the start of the analysis of the countryside protagonists’ codes. The kid is the nephew of Imam Hamdi, whose brother is an unemployed ex-convict. Hamdi is a person who does not know other lives and who accepts the troubles of the geography he lives in as fate, and he chooses to deal with this by not standing against those who are powerful and mighty. His compliance and submission are true as long as the mighty and the powerful exist. The moment he leaves that environment, he gets in a position 639

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to show his violence. The entire issue of Hamdi is the issue of existence. This existence happens only and only through compliance and submission. This also gains prominence as a lifestyle in Anatolia. We also see that this is enhanced in a different manner through the scenes of nature. The principle that is valid for the natural world is the dialectic of powerful and powerless. In the nature, the powerful exists and the powerless is destroyed. The powerless can exist by submitting to the powerful or by fleeing from the powerful, otherwise it becomes inevitable to face the exact opposite situation. This situation is also true for the human world. It is the reason of constant emphasis for the dilemma of the hunter and the prey both in the natural world and the human world. The cost is high when a behavior is exhibited contrary to this dialectic, just like Ismail. Ismail is angry at Aydın as he filed a complaint against his tenants and took their television by court order. However, he attributes the reason for this anger to factors external to him. He does not avoid confrontation when he is wronged. This necessarily leads to violence. A form of violence resorted against himself and his environment. The entire family pays for the cost of him challenging the environment he lives in, or in more general, his own fate. The spiritual world of a countryside protagonist requires a certain stance and perspective. However, this is by no means a self-directed perspective. Neither Ismail’s nor Hamdi’s actions give you the opportunity to understand the countryside entirely. In order to see what they are deprived of, the countryside protagonists must confront city dweller protagonists. We see this confrontation in Winter Sleep when Hamdi, who is angry but who also knows to submit to the powerful in order to stand up, takes the kid to apologize to Aydın for damaging his vehicle. This scene is where the rich and educated city dwellers meet the poor countrymen in the warmth and comfort of the hotel, to be separated both spatially and spiritually. Aydın, Necla and Nihal realize that they are at the boundary of the spiritual world of the countryside, and Hamdi and Ilyas realize that they approach the borders of the urban life deprived of them. The confrontation of these two boundaries causes a spiritual and a physical violence: the fact that Ilyas cannot stand it and faints is the materialization of this physical and spiritual violence. Ceylan persistently emphasizes that Anatolia’s cultural world plies in between the two boundaries (traditional life and modern life) with the existence and behavior of the protagonists. These two boundaries, which constitute the formal structure of the existence of people in Anatolia, are the destiny that has been ongoing as a cycle almost for a century. The content and form of this destiny is felt as an uninterrupted exclusion of each other between “the better” and “the worse” and “the more indigenous” and “the less indigenous”. In general, just as a space is shaped through a way of thinking, a future about it can always be seen in the same manner by following the change and the transformation of these boundaries throughout time. However, Ceylan looks for an exit other than this. He chases the possibility of a future that emerges in a space where all the codes are analyzed. The way to understand this is to pressure each protagonist and their form of existence; to ensure that they turn inside, and to help them understand their own intellectual boundaries. However, in that case, each protagonist’s feelings, life experience, actions or thoughts can only be followed until a certain depthand can transcend into an experiential continuity beyond the boundaries it belongs to. Nevertheless, each protagonist’s feelings, life experiences, actions or thoughts contributes to the continuity of the “Anatolian ethos” that comes together within the individual and is constrained by the individual.

Beyond the Boundaries: Anatolia as a “Protagonist” Ceylan’s camera pressures Anatolia as a whole, just like he did to his protagonists. We see this at the very beginning of the film. He first focuses on the Anatolia – human relationship. The camera is directed 640

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towards to the neighborhood from the top view when Aydın and Hidayet arrive at Ismail’s house to collect rent: the houses, roofs and gardens constructed right at the foot of the fairy chimneys, a beauty within the nature, in a nutshell everything that is the work of humans stands like a dagger pushed through the nature’s heart. Second, he focuses on the violence within the nature itself. It is important in terms of showing the violence within the nature that the camera focuses on a dead fox while Aydın is walking on the train tracks after Aydın and Hidayet arrives at the train station to go to Istanbul and Aydın decides not to go to. Ceylan brings forth the protagonists (of course, Anatolia should be seen as the biggest protagonist) in this dialectic process of violence: human-human, human-nature and nature-nature. Therefore, Anatolia is not a setting or not even an atmosphere in Ceylan’s cinema. It is a human, social and living reality that resists to the thoughts of the protagonists, that motivates them to think, that pulls them towards action, that shapes them, that transforms them by involving them in its own duration. With such position of Anatolia, we see that it is involved in the regrets, loneliness and fallaciousness of the protagonists. The sadness of the slap to the Ilyas’ face is not only seen in Ilyas, but we also understand that this sadness disseminates into nature when the camera rolls to the garden. Ceylan does not reach to conclusion only by presenting the world of the protagonists. He also presents that the geography is not indifferent to the actions of the protagonists. In other words, he emphasizes that there is a direct relationship between the two elements, i.e. the protagonists and Anatolia. Both the cruelty of Ismail to himself and to his environment and the behavior of Aydın, who is well educated, towards his sibling and wife are in fact nature’s violence towards its surroundings in the form of humans. In the film, the tension between the inner worlds of the protagonists coming from different culture production forms gains meaning as a manifestation of the inner collapse of the protagonists. This inner collapse is presented as a dramatic structure throughout the film. The inner hollowness of each individual that manifests as a dramatic individuality becomes whole with the nature’s inner hollowness. It is this inner hollowness that exists in Ismail, Necla and Nihal. The inner hollowness became the basic instinct for both the protagonists, who moved to countryside from the city and who could not get accustomed to the countryside, and the protagonists that exist in the countryside and keep up with their lives. However, there are no winners amongst those protagonists that act through this instinct, just like Anatolia. Anatolia, apart from its natural beauty, is nothing but a ruin. In a sense, all the protagonists are negating the social reality by materializing the losers in their own field: the fact that Aydın does not have any relations with the society, the fact that Necla isolates herself from everything after her realistic criticism against Aydın, the fact that Ismail isolates himself from the society after the punishment he receives, or the fact Nihal is already isolating herself from her husband, etc. It is so hard to reconcile, or to “communicate”, or in simpler terms, to “talk” in bilateral relationships that every conversation ply in between the equation of wounding or defeating the other. The communication problem in the film between the protagonists themselves and between the protagonists and the nature eventually transforms into a communication problem also with Anatolia. Experiential issues lead to ethical issues, and ethical issues lead even to the questioning of the human existence. The silence, created by the protagonists turning inside, is transformed into a “crisis of meaning”. Whomever starts to speak, it results in a crisis of “meaning” both for the protagonists that moved to Anatolia (protagonists of western thought) and the countryside protagonists (locals of the place, those who are attached to the religious and traditional values). It is almost impossible to derive a common meaning from the common tongue. The donation conversation between Aydın and Nihal, the religious conversation between Aydın and Necla, and the rent conversations between Aydın and Hamdi are all examples of this. 641

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The embodiment of the meaning crisis is Ismail. We truly struggle to understand the purpose of his conversations and the purpose of his actions. Like we do not understand why he beat Ilyas, we also cannot comprehend why he burns his money in his conversation with Nihal. As this meaninglessness increases, we see that the film moves from a human-centric position to a nature-centric one. This process creates a different existential state. For instance, both in the scene where Ismail talks to Nihal while counting money and the conversation between Aydın and the teacher, the values are turned upside down, and the boundaries of the relationship between two people are transcended. Once again in a similar manner, in the final scene Nihal confesses, “Aydın, I could not go. There is nothing calling for me in Istanbul, everything there is stranger to me”. Aydın lowers his head and looks at Nihal, but Nihal averts her looks. The looks of both transcend beyond the human world. This scene is the submission of the human before the force of life. The fact that people have no place to take shelter but in each other is unfolded here. Because, the solution is not to escape somewhere else (Istanbul). The solution is to believe in the connection, love and finally the life between the human and human, nature and human (Deleuze, 1986:170). Thus, after they slip away from the power codes, the humans understand that they have nothing else but to “believe in” the relation between itself and the other and itself and the nature.

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Poverty as an Image This process, in which the individual transcends its own codes, opens the door for us to think a new notion that transcends beyond the singular stories of the individuals. This notion invites us to think about the humans together with the nature. This notion is the result of an experience. It is an experience that transcends beyond the codes of the protagonists and that cannot be understood through a constrained time period, but it can be connected to the geography of Anatolia through the individual. Although the individual’s world is limited with its lifetime and its environment, it can become meaningful within the whole of the “Anatolian ethos”. In a broader sense, Anatolia is not only a landscape, but it is also a whole together with everyone that comes to her (Aydın, Necla, Nihal, Teacher) or that lives within her embrace (Imam Hamdi, Ismail), and this whole can open the door for a general evaluation. The single basic concept that can summarize both the physical and the spiritual state of the film is poverty. This is not only an economic poverty, but it is also a phenomenon that is experienced spiritually. “As was said, one does not belong to a socially defined category by simply being poor” (Simmel, 2009:440). In the same manner, the fact that someone is economically at a good position does not mean that they are not poor. When the rich gravitates towards the poor, and when the poor gravitates towards the rich, the resemblance will be inevitable. “The moment they are assisted—many times already if the whole constellation normally requires this, even without it actually happening—they enter into a circle characterized by poverty” (Simmel, 2009:440). This is not a situation that is arising from the interaction between the group members. On the contrary, the fact that causes this is the emotional state that the individuals experience as a whole. Therefore, poverty cannot be defined as a quantitative state, only. At best, it can be identified through a social emotion in response to a specific state or states. In this sense, poverty is a unique sociological concept: an indefinite number of individuals occupy a specific organic position within the whole society, but this position is not established by their fate or conditions, but on the contrary, by elements external to the individual that regulate these conditions (Simmel, 2009:440). Winter Sleep film is placed on this spectrum. We see a dual poverty in Ceylan’s film. One side can be seen through Imam Hamdi, i.e. the impoverishment of Anatolia through religion and tradition. The doomed Anatolian geographyhas value only as much as a minister of religion can enlighten. The minister 642

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of religion is the one that gives advice for the sake of humanity, the one that forces his nephew to kiss a hand in order to remedy his mistake, or the one that smiles upon Aydın and tries to behave humanely, but also the foul-mouthed one that can curse a blue streak behind his back, if need be. We can say that Ceylan, in every opportunity and in every conversation with this character, deconstructs the discourse that is based on the fact that Anatolia is honest and spiritually strong. You can either “live” like Hamdi, who hides his intention within the traditionality of Anatolia, or as a “lunatic” like his older brother Ismail, who is blunt and a generally more honest character. On the other hand, there is the arrogant poverty like that of Aydın’s, who is educated in the western culture, who is always ready to provide a helping hand, but who is also pompous and evaluates the events from his ivory tower and thus cannot form a relationship with the society and can only reach the audience through the teacher. Both poverty forms exist as a combination of the experience and education. The city dweller Aydın and his opposite, the countryman Hamdi are the consequences of the experience and education of the environment that they live in. However, both of them are objects of the poverty issue. Rather than a richness of contextual material, they represent the cultural differences that can only be described through templates. Therefore, both the city dweller and the countryman protagonists become “a part of a big poverty picture”. The individuals that are in the middle of these two poverty forms are the creatures that are ready to explode in terms of their inner worlds; in fact, they explode every morning but go unheard in the middle of the barren steppe. Just like other living beings in the nature. The only thing that can be called Anatolia is roughly the two basic borders that are created by the countrymen, for which the western criteria do not apply or cannot be applied, and the city dwellers, comprised of city dwelling enlightened who cannot understand the geography that they came out of. The unique weight of the individual is present on these two borders. And this unique weight gains meaning through the “Anatolian ethos”. In other words, everyone is attached to the place that they are located in. It is almost impossible to get out of this. Even Aydın, who is free and unattached to any place, cannot display the courage to leave this space. The farthest he can go is Suavi’s farm. These spatially affixed characters are spiritually homeless.

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CONCLUSION In the current position, both the culture produced through tradition and the culture produced through modernization stand as an obstacle before the creation of a new ethos in relation to Anatolia itself. We hear the critique of tradition and religion from Aydın. Referring to Imam Hamdi, he says “I was so annoyed by that guy, I could not help but write. He managed to be the subject of the column at some point, with his messiness, brazenness and ambiguity. I once played an imam in a theatre play; it was well liked, everyone talked about it, etc. Now, looking at this fella, I start to think that I did not do a very good job playing an imam”. Right after this critique of tradition and religion, Aydın’s sister Necla inquires about both the tradition and the ethical life arising out of the western way of thinking represented by Aydın: “What does it mean for you to not stand against the evil?” The dialogue revolves around this question and mentions the difficulty of doing something new. Nothing is as it should be. The relationship between the persons themselves, the world and the others are in a state of “crisis”. This is a crisis of “experience and thought”. The pride of Ismail was too “large” for the religion and the traditional ethics, but Hamdi’s swallowing of his pride was too “narrow”. Life defeats every kind of behavior based on principles. Whatever you do, the concepts of the two ways of thinking (countryman/traditional – city dweller/westerner) do not fit with life. The same is true also for Aydın, Necla, Nihan and teacher Lev643

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ent; none of the formed sentences fits with life. The ethical life, which has developed around both the religion and tradition and the modernization, only produces violence (physical and psychological) as it acts according to the principle of “an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth, and tit-for-tat”. Digressing out of this is only possible with new principles and new forms of existence. We first hear it from Necla, “What do you think it means not to stand against the evil?” We later see that it materializes through the look of Aydın on Nihal, who return from a visit to Suavi’s house. Life starts to emerge outside of the concepts of the “good” and the “evil”. In the film, when the individuals reach the experiential existence under the construction of life according to western or eastern principles, we see that the concepts of “good” and “evil” become indistinct. Nevertheless, the fact that Ismail beats his son and later goes at Hidayet after speaking with him in front of his own house can be seen as a voluntary action. In the same manner, the fact that Aydın taking shelter in the car right after Ismail’s burst and offering Hidayet to escape can be thought as a voluntary action. Nevertheless, both forms of behavior are like the explosion of nature and reactions to such explosion rather than being voluntary actions. Nevertheless, it is possible to see this in the facial expression of Ismail; we struggle to understand whether he was sad or not sad while he was beating his child. At this point, an extraordinary harmony between the nature and the human behavior can be seen. The people in the countryside act with their natural instincts rather than through rational behavior. The natural instincts are more decisive. An instinct leaves its place to another. The reason behind this is that the individuals do not demonstrate the will that necessitates change and transformation. Rather than sparking the change and transformation in the countryside, it ensures the continuation of the cycle. Just as Aydın’s donations to those in need and his meddling in the fields that he has no understanding at all such as religion, faith and spirituality do not contribute any value to life, Hamdi’s struggle to maintain the status quo does not have the power to contribute anything to life either. Everything in Anatolia is virtually under the control of the nature. Just like rabbits, whose hunting season has passed, facing the same treatment the very next hunting season. The human relationships are also doomed to a cycle, just like the cycle of nature. Life in the countryside is some sort of a cycle. Therefore, it is a life continuing between those people who struggle to remember what the cycle looks like, those who challenge it only in appearance, and those who are included in the same cycle without knowing what to do. This cycle is in fact a “Tragedy”. This tragedy is the consequence of the fact that the individuals, who do not have the power to contribute anything to the life, somehow being forced into living a life against their wills. Just like King Oedipus living a life that he has no say in it. Tragedy starts where the tradition that is to be inherited and questioned or revitalized is interrupted and where new ideas no longer take root. The key point here is as follows: neither Hamdi nor Aydın comes up with a new thought that can realize the transformation. As Ceylan stated in an interview: “the society that do not have the eye to see itself or have anything to say adopts the view of the other. Speaks the words of the other” (Ceylan, 2012:29). It is time for the individual to speak for itself. This means that Anatolia also speaks for herself.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTION Winter Sleep (2014) countryside issue’s theme of the film, both in the political world as well as Turkey’s thoughts occupy an important place in the world. There are two important points of view in the countryside. The first is that the countryside is a magical place in every way, both physically and spiritually, and the second is that the countryside is a place where in every respect it is bleak and depressing. These 644

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two perspectives without considering the turkey is not possible to make a healthy provincial assessment. The turkey should be required art as well as a political value to both perspectives need to be made in future investigations.

REFERENCES Argın, Ş. (2005). Taşraya İçeriden Bakmak Mümkün müdür? In Taşraya Bakmak. İstanbul: İletişim yayınları. Benjamin, W. (1969). Illuminations- essays and Reflections (H. Zone, Trans.). Schocken Books. Birkan, T. (2005). Taşraya Bahar Hiç Gelmez mi? In Taşraya Bakmak. İletişim Yayınları. Cansever, E. (1997). Yerçekimli Karanfil (Toplu Şiirler I). Adam Yayınları. Ceylan, N. B. (2012). Söyleşiler. Norgunk Yayıncılık. Ceylan, N. B., (2014). Nuri Bilge Ceylan’la Kış Uykusu Üzerine Söyleşiler Bölüm I. Altyazı Sinema Dergisi Deleuze, G. (1989). Cinema2: The Time-Image (H. Tomlinson & R. Galeta, Trans.). Athlone Press. Deleuze, G. (1991). Bergsonism (H. Tomlinson & B. Habberjam, Trans.). Zone Books. Deleuze, G. (1995). Negotiation (M. Joughin, Trans.). Columbia University Press. Donadio. (2014). Cannes Film Festival: From Writers’ Fights Came ‘Winter Sleep’. The New York Times. https://artsbeat.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/05/21/cannes-film-festival-from-writers-fights-camewinter-sleep Gerry. (2014). Winter Sleep: “Nuri Bilge Ceylan’s Chekhovian morality tale”. https://gerryco23.wordpress.com/2014/12/12/winter-sleep-nuri-bilge-ceylans-chekhovian-morality-tale/ McGavin. (2014). Ceylan’s Winter Sleep. Film Journey. http://filmjourney.org/?p=2795 Melucci, A. (1996). The Playing Self: Person and Meaning in the Planetary Society. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511520907 Nurdan. (1995). Yer Değiştiren Gölge. Metis Yayınları.

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Simmel, G. (1971). Georg Simmel on individuality and social forms. University of Chicago Press. Simmel, G. (2009). Sociology: Inquiries into the construction of social forms (2 vols.). Brill. Sütcü, Ö. Y. (2012). Gece, Sis ve Bilincin Akışı: Bir Zamanlar Taşrada. Birikim, 272.

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ADDITIONAL READING Akbulut H.(2005) Nuri Bilge Ceylan Sinemasını Okumak- Anlatı, Zaman, Mekân, İstanbul: Bağlam yayınları. Bergson, H. (1988).Matter and Memory, Nancy Margaret Paul - W. Scott Palmer, trans.), New York: Zone Books. Bergson, H. (2001). The Time and Free Will (F. L. Pogson, Trans.). Dover Publications,Inc. Berlin, I. (2013). The Roots of Romanticism (H. Hardy, Ed.). Princeton University Press. Pamuk, O. (1999). Öteki Renkler. İletişim Yayınları. Pamuk, O. (2007). Other Colors (M. Freely, Trans.). Alfred A Knopf. Shayegan, D. (1997). Cultural schizophrenia: Islamic Societies Confronting the West (J. Howe, Trans.). Syracuse University Press. Tanpınar, A. H. (1998). Huzur: Ahmet Hamdi Tanpınar. Dergâh Yayınları. Tanpınar, A. H. (2012). Beş Şehir. Dergâh Yayınları. Tanpınar, A. H. (2018). Tanpinar’s ‘Five Cities (R. Christie, Trans.). Anthem Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctvs09r0r

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Anatolian: Due to its strategic location at the confluence of Anatolia, Asia, and Europe, it has been the cradle of many civilizations since prehistoric times. Countryside: Is all of the places except the capital or metropolitan areas of a country. Distant: At a point that is far away. In this article the distance refers to the countryside that is far from the center. Foucauldian Violence: Is the imaginary representation of repressed points. Nuri Bilge Ceylan: He is a Turkish film director, photographer, screenwriter, and actor. Turkish Cinema: Is an important part of culture, turkey, showed improvement in two main axes: entertainment and art cinema. Nuri Bilge Ceylan, is one of the most important directors in the last period of turkey art cinema. Violence: Behaviour involving physical force intended to hurt, damage, or kill someone or something. Winter Sleep (2014): Is a Turkish drama film directed by Nuri Bilge Ceylan, adapted from the short story, “The Wife” by Anton Chekhov.

ENDNOTE 1



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Henri Bergson (1859-1941) defines duration not as the psychological processes of the person or as linearly divisible but as an existence that constantly differentiates. This state of existence is not only limited to the humans, but it also applies for the universe. As the mind takes sequences

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from the internal duration that is in constant flow and expresses them as the past, the present and the future, it also takes pieces from the live and existent animation of the things in the same manner and presents them as the actual reality. However, the external duration is also indivisible and inseparable just like the internal duration. This indivisible and inseparable universal duration can only be comprehended through intuition (Deleuze, 1991).

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Chapter 37

Searching for the East in the Shadow of the West:

Layla M as the Portrait of an Oriental Woman in Modern Orientalist Discourse Eşref Akmeşe https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0906-8928 İnönü University, Turkey

ABSTRACT Orientalism is defned as part of the discourse of power which includes the purpose of exploitation and domination that represents attribution of “Easterner” qualities that are opposite and inferior to the qualities that Euro-American cultures ascribe to themselves, and labeling them as irrational, uncivilized, inferior, not open to change, and so on. Orientalism, which is an expression of an extensive and longterm cultural and ideological process, states a discourse that marginalizes what it leaves out of EuroAmerican culture. This style of discourse is efective in diferent mediums and reproduced consistently. In this chapter, asserted Eurocentric arguments in the modern orientalist discourse are discussed with a critical approach through Dutch director Mijke de Jong’s flm Layla M. (2016).

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INTRODUCTION The radical discourse of Islam began to take place powerfully on the world’s agenda with the attacks against American targets on September, 2001. The interventions of the United States and its allies to Afghanistan, Iraq and different regions of Islamic geography by showing the actions of radical Islamist organizations as reason have generated many discussions. As the continuation of this process, developments in the Arab geography and civil commotions started at 2010 and continued until today are started a vague new process. Concepts such as the east-west contradiction, the conflict of civilizations and Islamophobia have entered into the main topics of intellectual debates by the reasons of terrorism and armed interventions of the Western world in the Middle East. With the outbreak of the civil war in DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch037

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Syria, the Middle East, which has been associated with political instability since before now, was back on the world’s agenda with its huge problems. The issue of illegal immigration and refugee, which is one of the most crucial of these problems and turned into a humanitarian drama, fueled the discussions on racism, discrimination and religion by the policies of Western Europe. Discussions with a EuroAmerican perspective within the framework of aforementioned political developments brought the topic of orientalism back to the center of intellectual debates again. Accordingly, the threat of the chaos in the Middle East to Western Europe by illegal immigration, refugees and sometimes terrorist actions led to discussions about marginalized reflexes of Western societies. In this context, the conditions of Muslims in Europe and their attitudes in the new conjuncture were discussed on various occasions. In this regard, Dutch director Mijke de Jong Un’s remarkable film Layla M. (2016) brought this subject to the agenda of the discussion with the perspective of a European director. The film, which represents the radicalization of a Dutch Muslim young woman of Moroccan origin, tabled a current issue within the boundaries of the Eurocentric paradigm with its orientalist discourse. Accordingly, in the article the film is discussed within the framework of the reproduction of the orientalist discourse with its approach to current issues debated in the context of Islam and radicalism. In this regard, the Eurocentric perspective in the presentation of the dynamics of integration of Muslims to Europe and preference of western values to eastern values is discussed in the context of orientalism. There are several reasons why Layla M. is discussed in the context of orientalism debates in the article. Firstly, the film establishes a discourse on the contradictions between the two civilizations by centering an eastern woman from the perspective of a western female director. Secondly, in the film it is talked about Muslims and spoke for them by focusing on a Muslim woman. Thirdly, a marginalizing orientalist discourse is established in the film although “Eastern” Muslims are not clearly dehumanized. Fourthly, although the simple cause and effect relations are used through the east-west contradiction in the film, complex intellectual arguments between radicalism and culture are also used. Finally, the film is a Netflix original production and has the opportunity to reach a wide audience. In this framework, firstly, the main lines of orientalism and concepts related to orientalism are explained in the article, and then the character of the discourse established in the film is studied through descriptive analysis. Within this scope, Layla M. is analyzed within the framework of Edward Said’s critical arguments for orientalist discourse in the context of a European director’s discourse on the East and Muslims but these arguments are considered only as an analysis perspective.

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ORIENTALISM Orientalism is a comrehensive field of discourse with its culture, knowledge, power, mentality and representation dimensions. The emergence of Orientalism, an important field of intellectual production in which various interrelated disciplines are discussed, goes back to the studies about the East in the Middle Age. According to Bryan S. Turner, Orientalism apperared as a discipline in the early fourteenth century when The Church Council of Vienna established a range of departments of universities to promote understanding of oriental languages and cultures. The main motivation of the orientalist studies was the trade, inter-religious rivalries and clash of arms. Therefore, Knowledge of the Orient cannot, therefore, be separated from the history of European expansion into the Middle East and Asia (Turner, 2003, p.37). Orientalism, which expresses a wide-ranging concept, is open to be characterized by different perspectives. If a general definition is to be made, “Orientalism is at one a serious exercise in textual 649

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criticism and, most fundamentally, a series of importance of tentative epistemological reflections on general styles and procedures of cultural discourse” (Clifford, 1988, p.257). In this context, orientalism is a discourse formed on a philosophical basis by the interaction of different cultural dynamics. According to Samir Amin, “This term [orientalism] refers to the ideological construction of a mythical Orient, whose characteristics are treated as immutable traits defined in simple opposition to the characteristics of the Occidental world. The image of this opposite is an essential element of Eurocentrism” (Amin, 2010, p.175). Eurocentrism, a concept associated with orientalist discourse, expresses an ideological fiction that Western Europeans have created for those who are not from themselves. According to Fikret Başkaya, “Eurocentrism; it is possible to define it as a collection of thoughts, visions, theories, imputations, delusions, fallacies, lies, neglections, falsifications ... that Western Europeans have formed about themselves and others” (2005, p.46). In this regard, the manifestation of the orientalist discourse in Europe becomes meaningful within the scope of the activities of the West to dominate the East within the framework of the complex power relations developed in the historical process. According to Bernard Lewis (1993), Europe has looked at its neighbours in the East all along, sometimes with fear, sometimes with greed, sometimes with curiosity, and sometimes with anxiety. The relationship between them for centuries or even for millennia has formed a pattern of conquest and re-conquest, attack and counterattack (p.101102). This historicity constitutes an important indicator for Europe’s discourse regarding the East. Arif Dirlik (1998), asserts that the orientalist world view, which is based on placing Europe at the peak of development in the nineteenth century and evaluating and organizing the world with a Eurocentric approach in terms of time and space, progressed with the process of Europe’s domination and colonization of the world, and today this process continues in different ways (p.108). In this context, it is an important medium for Eurocentric ideological fictions to be produced, spread and thus to influence. David Morley and Kevin Robins, in their study Spaces of Identitiy, make the following striking determination of how Europe’s intellectual formation developed in the framework of encounters with others: “Europe is not just a geographical site, it is also an idea: an idea inextricably linked with the myths of Western civilisation and grievously shaped by the haunting encounters with its colonial Others” (Morley and Robins, 2002, p.5). In this context, orientalism gains meaning as a discourse that expresses self-superiorization and self-legitimization of the Eurocentric paradigm by describing others. Orientalism, which includes the exploration and discursive construction of the East, started to become an important topic of discussion in the academic field when Edward W.Said’s study Orientalism published in 1978. Said tried to explain the east-west relations with a new perspective apart from the classical approaches in his book. Said, claiming that the multidimensional domination of the West over the East is quite complex, has been created ideas on orientalism within the context of Michel Foucault’s concept of discourse. Said, asserting that the West dominated the East with the mechanism of knowledge, power and discourse by invention of the East, defends that the orientalist discourse is constantly produced with the fictional representations created and the domination over the East is made permanent. Edward Said, who discusses orientalism over the knowledge-power relationship and the representation of other cultures, interprets orientalism as a Western-style approach that is used to describe, dominate, control and reconstruct the East it in its historical and concrete sense (2003, p.3). In this context, orientalism becomes meaningful as the West’s strategy to dominate the East. In this respect, orientalism is a comprehensive way (method) for designing history, culture, art and politics. Said’s analyzes of Orientalism explain the ideological dimensions of the West’s marginalization of the East. In the words of Terry Eagleton, “For Said, orientalism signifies a whole cultural discourse, one that habitually represents the east as indolent, treacherous, passive, inscrutable, devious, feminized and inferior. He is speaking of an 650

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ideological formation pervasive throughout western history” (Eagleton, 2006). Edward Said explains the overlapping aspects of orientalism as a field of thought and expertise with three spesifications in his writing titled Orientalism Reconsidered, which he published after his book Orientalism is criticized: As a department of thought and expertise, Orientalism of course refers to several overlapping domains: firstly, the changing historical and cultural relationship between Europe and Asia, a relationship with a 4000 year old history; secondly, the scientific discipline in the West according to which beginning in the early 19th century one specialized in the study of various Oriental cultures and traditions; and, thirdly, the ideological suppositions, images, and fantasies about a currently important and politically urgent region of the world called the Orient (Said, 1985, p.91).

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ISLAM, ORENTALISM AND OCCIDENTALISM After publishing Orientalism, Edward Said continues to expound the subject in his other works in line with the West’s approach to Islam. In this context, Said draws attention to the fact that the orientalist view positions the Islam opposite to the West by analyzing it in accordance with new political conjuncture and asserts that Muslims are represented as dehumanized: “Much in current representations of Islam is designed to show the religion’s inferiority with reference to the West, which Islam is supposed to be hell-bent on opposing, competing with, resenting, and being enraged at” (Said, 2008, p. 27). As emphasized, Orientalism refers to the whole East as a concept, but as Edward Said points out, when the East does not clearly refer to the Asian continent, it implies Islam. “When the term Orient was not simply a synonym for the Asiatic East as a whole, or taken as generally denoting the distant and exotic, it was most rigorously understood as applying to the Islamic Orient” (2003, p.74). When it comes to the Middle East geography, this situation is continuous with regard to the orientalists’ refence of Arabs and Islam. According to Said, who claims that the Eastern ideas derived from Orientalism are politically destined to produce a master-slave relationship: “More than anything else, the political and cultural circumstances in which Western Orientalism has flourished draw attention to the debased position of the Orient or Oriental as an object of study” (Said, 2003, p.96). In this context, the positioning of the East and the Eastern as a passive and inferior research object is intertwined with the West’s process of establishing intellectual hegemony over the East. Although Edward Said does not limit orientalism to the Western discourse towards Islam, many intellectuals consider orientalism as a discourse built on the West’s anti-Islamism. In this context, Turner makes an important inference in his study Orientalism, Postmodernism and Globalism(2003): “The principal balance sheet by which Islam has been understood in Western culture may be referred to as ‘orientalism’ ” (Turner, 2003, p.37). In this regard, it is a point that many philosophers agree that orientalism is influential in the West’s view of Islam. According to Mustafa Sıbai (1993), who put religious reasons in the first place for the emergence of orientalism, there is no need to research or cogitate to understand that the reason that pushed Westerners to study orientalism is religious above all. Such that Christian priests are the initiators of orientalism in order to criticize, disparage and distort Islam, which they see as a rival, and they continue orientalist discourse in the same way until today (Sıbai, 1993, p.38-39). In this context, Hilmi Yavuz (2010), who defends that Europe’s practices of excluding others are based on a legitimizing ideological and cultural basis by grounding on Christianity, states that those pointed out as “others” in the construction of the identity of the European subject are clearly non-Christians and 651

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emphasizes the history of Orientalism as the history of identifying others with non-Christians (Yavuz, 2010, p.163). In this direction, there are many approaches that identify Orientalism with anti-Islamism. In spite of these thoughts, there are also thoughts that the East marginalizes the West. In this context, the thoughts of the Easterners against the Westerners and the counter-discourse created are expressed as Occidentalism. In his writing The Origins of Occidentalism (2004), Ian Buruma explains the new dimension of Occidentalism, which he defends that it is not a new thought and approach, based on the style of the indiscriminate suicide attacks on targets thought to be related to the West on and after September 11, 2001: “a war against a particular idea of the West, which is neither new nor unique to Islamist extremism. The current jihads see the West as something less than human, to be destroyed, as thought were a cancer” (p.279). Buruma attributes the appearing of Occidentalism, which he explains within the frame of hostility to Western civilization, on European colonialism but provides a special role to Islamists: “The Islamist contribution to the long history of Occidentalism is a religious vision of purity in which the idolatrous West simply has to be destroyed” (p.284). Explaining the “contribution” of the Islamists to Occidentalism in this context, Buruma emphasizes the legitimacy of defending the West against holy warriors who try to destroy freedom of the West. James G. Carrier, in his article Occidentalism: The World Turned Upside-Down, argues that viewing orientalism as a process can lead up new realizations related to the problem: “Seeing Orientalism as a dialectical process helps us recognize that it is not merely a Western imposition of a reified identity on some alien set of people” (1992, p.197). In this context, orientalism and occidentalism gain meaning as a discourse that sections positioning each other as other describing themselves comparing to others and construct themselves and what they see except themselves by this method on identity level.

ORIENTALISM, REPRESENTATION AND DISCOURSE

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Edward Said refers Michel Foucault’s concept of discourse to base his views on orientalism and states that the principle condition for understanding orientalism depends on analyzing it as discourse (2003, p.3). Emphasizing the importance of the relationship of knowledge, discourse and power in this framework, Edward Said attaches particular importance to subjects of imagery and representation in orientalism analyzes and argues that there cannot be a truly correct representation, so representation is problematic. The real issue is whether indeed there can be a true representation of anything, or whether any and all representations, because they are representations, are embedded first in the language and then in the culture, institutions, and political ambience of the representer. If the latter alternative is the correct one (as I believe it is), then we must be prepared to accept the fact that a representation is eo ipso implicated, intertwined, embedded, interwoven with a great many other things besides the ‘truth,’ which is itself a representation (Said, 2003, p.272) In this context, Said explaining the relationship between the orientalist formation and the representation problem as a fundamental problem, identifies the representational activity, which he considers as problematic, with orientalism and emphasizes that the orientalist approaches are problematic and therefore unrealistic. According to Arif Dirlik, the problem that Said posed about representation in Orientalism is not the problem of the correctness or erroneousness of the orientalist representations; it is the problem of the metonymic reductionism that has led to the representation of these societies with some spesific 652

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behaviors of them and thus to be frozen in history by homogenization of the variations in each society (Dirlik, 1998, p.117-118). In this context, the problem of representation, apart from the compatibility of discourse with reality on the epistemological plane, is a subject of discussion with the dimension of reducing the universal to the singular. According to Edward Said, modern orientalism has been derived from the secularizing elements of eighteenth-century European culture. In this context, expansion, historical confrontation, sympathy and classification elements are very important in the emergence of orientalism (2003, p.120). Accordingly, Arif Dirlik interpreting Said’s view that “sympathetic identification” is needed to comprehend a foreign culture by the reason of epistemological assumptions of orientalism: “If only as specialist or expert, the Orientalist comes not just to speak about but also for the Other” (1998, p.109). In this context, the representation of the other can be understood as its reduction to the object position. This implies that the represented Eastern, Muslim or “other” cannot represent oneself and therefore is not a subject. Edward Said, who defends that the fundamental dogmas of orientalism exist in researchs about Arabs and Islam in their purest forms, summarizes these dogmas with four articles:

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1. One is the absolute and systematic difference between the West, which is rational, developed, humane, superior, and the Orient, which is aberrant, undeveloped, inferior. 2. Another dogma is that abstractions about the Orient, particularly those based on texts representing a ‘classical’ Oriental civilization, are always preferable to direct evidence drawn from modern Oriental realities. 3. A third dogma is that the Orient is eternal, uniform, and incapable of defining itself; therefore it is assumed that a highly generalized and systematic vocabulary for describing the Orient from a Western standpoint is inevitable and even scientifically ‘objective.’ 4. A fourth dogma is that the Orient is at bottom something either to be feared or to be controlled by pacification, research and development, outright occupation whenever possible (Said, 2003, p.300-301). As it is clearly understood from the orientalist dogmas that Edward Said summarized with four articles, the orientalist perspective basically states that the West is different from the East and the East cannot comprehend and appreciate the values of the West. In this context, in Orientalism Edward Said influentially explains the West’s thoughts about the East and its approach to hegemonise the East within the framework of the links between art, science and power. Although Said’s views in Orientalism were criticized harshly, the impact of his critical discourse continues. In the words of Terry Eagleton, “Edward Said got many things wrong, but his central argument was basically right. The west’s denigration of the east has always gone with imperialist incursions into its terrain” (2006). In this context, the long-standing multidimensional domination of the West over the East explains the current importance of Said’s views on the East-West relations. Such that, as in the example of the film Layla M. which is the subject of the article, the West still speaks for, thinks, decides instead of the other and re-establishes its Eastern discourse by constructing Eastern identities with a Eurocentric perspective. Cinema has a special place among the important mediums which representations are created by distorting with fictions the representation problem and reality that Edward Said emphasized. Cinema, which is the most influential mass art of the modern age, is a medium that fictional representations and discourse construction are most common with its impure structure. Michael Ryan and Douglas Kellner,

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in their work Camera Politica: The Politics and Ideology of Contemporary Hollywood Film (1990), explains the relationship between cinema, representation and discourse as follows: Films transcode the discourses (the forms, figures, and representation) of social life into cinematic narratives. Rather than reflect a reality external to the film medium, films execute a transfer form one discursive field to another. As a result, films themselves become part of that broader cultural system of representation that construct social reality. That construction occurs in part through the internalizition of representation (p.12-13). As stated by Ryan and Kellner, films enable the creation of representations by shaping, editing and reconstructing the theme rather than reflecting the reality. In this direction, the assertions on a certain subject function as ideological and cultural tools in the process of developing a discourse by forming representations. In this context, as stated by Said, the imaginary geography constructs that separates the East from the West and the ideological assumptions about the East reflect conceretely in films with the dimension of knowledge-power relations and have influence on building a discourse on Islam and the MiddleEast from a Euro-American perspective.

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LAYLA M.’S PLOT Layla (Nora El Koussour) is a young Dutch Muslim of Moroccan origin. Layla’s family had been integrated to the Netherlands. Layla, on the other hand, is affected by the Islamophobic attitudes and racist events she encountered in the Dutch society where she was born and raised and refuses to be integrated. Layla prioritizes her Islamic identity and Arab roots, unlike her family, and does not remain insensitive to wars and massacres in the Middle East. Being integrated to Dutch culture, Layla’s family consists of almost assimilated “happy” individuals and they do not have an identity problem except Layla’s political ascents. Layla is a smart and active young woman. Her interest in the developments in Syria and Palestine and the activities of the political Islamic organization she is involved in lead up Layla to rebellion and radicalization day by day. Layla’s covering, praying and decisively giving Islamic messages to family members creates unrest in the family. Layla’s political activities gets sharper during burqa ban is on the Dutch agenda, and Layla begins to wear chador as response. Layla’s making a propaganda film and trying to politicize her brother Younes (Bilal Wahib) sparkes heated discussions within the family. Layla’s father decides to send his daughter, whom he is unable to cope with, to Morocco, but his wife turns him and hopes that Layla will graduate from high school and become a doctor. Layla continues to watch and spread the videos of the political organization she is in. Within the organization, Layla meets Abdel (Ilias Addab), who is responsible for the organization’s social media and propaganda business, and an emotional intimacy starts between them. Layla is a smart and successful young, but her dogmatic ideological rigidity drives her to radicalization and drops out the school. Layla realizes that she cannot continue to stay in the family after a series of actions leading to the detention of her brother and so decides to marry Abdel in order to move away from home. Abdel and Layla, who got married “according to the Islamic practices” in the organization, continue their political activities. The couple who went to the jihadist training camp in Belgium narrowly escapes the pursuit of the police and then goes to the Middle East to break the siege ring. Layla moves to Amman, the capital city of Jordan, with Abdel as a jihadist bride and life there creates a new break in her thoughts. Born and raised in an important West654

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ern metropolis like Amsterdam, Layla faces difficulties to adapt to the culture of the region. Abdel and other organization members begin to treat Layla differently than they did in Europe, and because she is a woman, they narrow her range of action. Layla enters into a self-questioning process by reasons of the new approach towards herself as a woman and being affected by refugees she encounters in the Middle East. Abdel’s repressive approach, his resort to violence, and lastly his decision of suicide attack leads Layla to return to Europe in disappointment.

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IDENTITY SEEK OF LAYLA In the opening scene of the film, Layla referees as a linesman at a football match in which her father is a coach and her brother is a player. She argues with the Dutch referee over an offside decision. Layla takes a nervous and aggressive attitude whereas the referee discusses the matter calmly. Layla’s father (Mohammed Azaay) tries to play a mediator role between the referee and Layla. The referee complains that Layla is constantly causing problems. Layla, angry at the referee’s words and her father’s attitude, hits the flag to the floor and leaves the field furiously. In the first scene we see Layla, she is introduced as an aggressive, quarrelsome, rebellious and unkind young woman. The encounter between the referee and Layla reflects the difference between East and West. The referee representing the West does not get angry and calmly defends his decision while Layla has a different appearance with her tense, angry and loud tone. Layla’s father is described as a character who is being integrated to the West and Western values with his conciliatory attitude. The members of the organization who came to watch the football match see that Layla is an aggressive and contrarian person and try to bring her in the organization. In the opening scene we see Layla with her kerchiefed, unlike her mother and best friend. She turns down her friend’s offer to wait until the match is over, saying it is a racist and ridiculous match. In the prologue of the film, it is emphasized that Layla has the potential to be radicalized and that she is open to politicization with her clothing and discourse. The clothes, discourses and slogans of the radical organization members that Layla belongs to are represented in a characteristic that overlaps with the Muslim perception based on the stereotypes used by the western media constantly. Layla and her jihadist friends are described as easterners who produce themselves with what they have taken from the past and are dragged into an outdated position, rather than being integrated to modern society with their clothes and Quran-based ideologies. In the film, which is edited with a Eurocentric perspective, the politicization process of a young person seeking a way out racism in the West is indexed to the “outdated ideologies” of the Easterners. Thus, an alternative political discourse against the West is problematically coded from the very beginning. Layla does not seem to have a problem with her family or a problem related to being asocial. In this context, the director does not reduct the politization of a young woman during adolescence to a specific problem or trauma. From Layla’s discourse, it is understood that she reacted mostly to the racist attitude of the far right in Europe and that she was affected by the pain of her coreligionists who were persecuted in the Middle East. In this context, Layla’s struggle with her family is mostly experienced in an ideological and cultural dimension. Layla condemns her parents’ integration into Europe and modern European life. She questions their Islamic identities, gives them messages by reading verses from the Quran. Thinking that she is more competent and conscious than her parents, Layla confidently tries to change them. She constantly makes propaganda at home, shows videos of the cruelty and violence Muslims have suffered. The fact that her family is not politicized and does not show awareness to the issues Layla is sensitive 655

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about causes a disagreement in the family. Layla shows her father videos of the persecution of Muslims in Europe, but she doesn’t get the reactions she expects from her father. The datas to explain Layla’s attitude, which attributes her parents’ surrender to conformism and their integration into Western culture to their corruption, are given in the film in a rather superficial way. Because the arguments that would a family, who migrated to Europe and had a job and built a new life for themselves, require to oppose the culture and laws of a country they settled in, are not included in the film. In this context, Layla’s reactiveness is most clearly interpreted through the burqa ban, the developments in Gaza and the Syrian civil war. Her family’s attitude disappoints Layla and her faith becomes her only shelter. Layla only feels good when chatting with jihadists on the internet, watching videos or at demonstrations. Within the framework of the ideology she is influenced, she believes that westerners wage war against Islam and Muslims are persecuted. The Dutch media discourse about Islam and the attitudes of the far right affect Layla. Layla’s adoption of an ideology based on Islamic arguments does not happen unconsciously. She rejects the modern life in Europe. She believes in an Islamic civilization and salvation against Western civilization. She struggles for the ideology she believes in. She accepts violance and warfare legitimate for her ideology. Moving on with such motivations, Layla is represented with a Eurocentric perspective as a problematic radical who falls under the influence of anti-Western views. Layla judges her family and Muslim friends who see Islam only as part of their culture and condemns them for not living in accordance with the real Islam. For Muslims except the small radical organization Layla belongs to, religious subjects do not determine life. This situation is important as a point where the orientalist discourse is established through binary opposition in the film. In the film, it is emphasized that the people who adapt to European civilization are modern, anti-violence, rational and social people. Because the clothes, lifestyles and thoughts of the members of the salafi group expresses Eastern stereotypes, unchangeableness and irrational thoughts. In this context, the absolute, systematized differences between the rational, developed, humane, superior West and aberrant, undeveloped, inferior East that Said showed among the dogmas of the orientalists are represented by Layla and the radical organization with which she acts together. Layla is dragged into the war in Syria, influenced by the radical discourse of salafists organized in Europe. Because of her belief, she marries in order to leave the house as a woman. Layla, who is strong enough to propose, leaves Europe’s comfortable life, her plans of going to university and her family as a jihadist bride, and goes to the Middle East. The process of going from Europe to the Middle East is described through the spatial contrast between the West and the East. Europe’s modern, organized and clean urban spaces give place to the chaotic, disorganized and suffocating places of the East. This situation exemplifies the west’s positioning the East in a primitive and uncivilized way on space dimension in the orientalist approach. Layla encounters a new enviroment and culture in the Middle East. The geography she dreams of is incompatible with what she sees, moreover, her jihadist friends and husband she knows from Europe disappoint her with different attitudes and behaviors. Layla craves for the European culture she opposes for being a non-Islamic and corrupt culture. Opposing his father, does what she wishes and freewilled when at Europe, Layla leaves everything for utopian dreams and finds herself in patriarchal society at the place she emigrated. Faced with hypocrisy and lies, Layla comes to a dead end. The basic starting point of criticizing the domination created by orientalism is the construction of the East with a negative discourse and the creation of its image in a bad way. This situation is clearly described by Layla’s life in Europe and what she sees in the Middle East. Within this framework, representations regarding civilization differences, spatial differences, lifestyle differences and the gap between mentalities, emphasize the inferiority of the East against the West in general. In the film, the representation of Muslims who seek a fairer life and try to realize this with a discourse based on Islam and the 656

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Quran finds meaning within the framework of orientalist dogmas. When the representation of the eastern characters who defend their ​​ideologic adoption of Islamic values is analyzed, the freak people types who turn their faces to fourteen centuries ago, try to establish their future in the past and cannot keep up with the changing times show up. This is the repetition of the orientalist dogma in a new form that the unchanging traditions of the East and the mentality of the East obstruct the modernization of Muslims and the formation of an advanced civilization. Indicators such as the veiling, kerchief, burqa, beard and the interpretation of life with verses from the Quran reveal the repetition of the inured stereotypes used in the representation of Islam through the actions of Layla and members of the jihadist organization.

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DEFEAT OF LAYLA AND RETURN TO THE WEST The message of a film is understood when it is analyzed as holistic rather than as single scene, sequence and frame. In this framework, the representation of the eastern origins in Europe as integrated modern easterners and anti-western radical traditionalists in the film does not contradict with the messages intended to be given in the narrative. On the other hand, Layla’s depiction as a willed, intelligent and strong person, having no family or financial problems but radicalization in an ideological framework finds meaning in explaining that she is more of in an illusion. In this context, the fact that the Easterners are not completely dehumanized and represented with an “insider view” does not contradicts with the Eurocentric view established by the director. The orientalist discourse towards the East and Islam is established on a more realistic ground by representing Leyla without isolating her from personal problems. In this regard, it is not overlooked that there is not monotype of Arabs, easterners or Muslims in the film. However, the messages highlighted in the discussing the subject and character representations emphasize the superiority of Eurocentric values. As emphasized, this situation is highlighted in the film through binary opposition in the regards of space, mentality and lifestyle. The problems faced by jihadi brides, orphan children and the drama at refugee camps begin to break Layla’s rigid ideological attitude. In the Middle East, Layla’s friends Zine (Hassan Akkouch) and Sheikh Abdullah Al Sabin (Husam Chadat) from the Dutch “jihad organization” behave differently unlike in Europe and exhibit gendered attitudes towards Layla. In one of the first scenes of the movie, Layla leaves the field because she finds the game ridiculous in Amsterdam, but plays football with the children in the refugee camp. She cannot have healthy communication with anyone except Oum Osama (Yasemin Çetinkaya), who is a jihadist bride from Europe like herself in the house she stays in the Middle East. Oum Osama’s story leads Layla to see her own future. Starting with a romantic marriage adventure and utopian dreams, the journey to the East ends in disappointment and defeat with the orphans, widow women, suicide attacks and jihadist friends who beheads people. Layla coincidentally watches Zine and Abdel’s videos of suicide attackers and the beheadings by the organization shot for propaganda purposes and experiences ideational breaking. Dreams of having a child for the ummah and emigration that starts with romantic thoughts turn into a nightmare. When Layla finds out that Abdel is planning a suicide attack. She cannot dissuade him and wants to return to Europe. Although Abdel says it is impossible, he is affected by Layla’s desperation and allows her to leave. When Layla returns to the Netherlands, she talks to her mother on the phone at the airport and says she will come home. Leaving the disdainful attitude to her family and the radical discourse behind herself, Layla decides to return to her family that is filled with compassion. She is arrested at the airport, questioned by the police, and tears fall from her eyes with the effect of disappointment she experienced. The questioning continues with the question of 657

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the police: “Isn’t it a little late for the tears?”. The film ends with an informative essay that explains the dilemma caused by the issue of whether European Union countries will have back jihadist brides like Layla M. or not. The film ends as open to comment, leaving unanswered the question of how Europe will balance between protecting itself against external dangers and human rights.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS Academic studies conducted about orientalism, which is an important subject of discussion in academic literature with the contributions of Edward Said, and occidentalism, which is a kind of antithesis of orientalism, have been updated especially with the “clash of civilizations” thesis put forward by Samuel Hungtinton in the early 1990s. Cultural conflicts and cultural hybridity discussions that come to the forefront with the effect of globalization that affects many areas of life nowadays, also bring the orientalist discourse back to the agenda. In this context, encounter and coexistence of different cultures show that the concepts of orientalism and related to orientalism in the field of cinema studies will be discussed in different dimensions in the upcoming period. Political and cultural debates in the encounter areas of different cultures with the effect of illegal or planned migration also support this prediction. In this respect, discussing the problems such as east-west encounters and conflicts, which are examined through the film Layla M., the subject of this study, will be on the agenda of the cinema depending on the course of political problems. In this context, the reflections of subjects such as cultural hybridity, immigration, cultural encounters and the effects of belief systems on politics in cinema give important opportunities for researchers who will work in the field in the upcoming period.

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CONCLUSION The film focuses on the radicalization of Layla M., a Moroccan-Dutch young girl living in Amsterdam, during the individual politicization process. In the film, a discourse including the convictions by being marginalized of young people living in Western European metropolises but who do not want to break away from the geography and cultural identities they feel belonging to is established. The discourse in the film, which is an up-to-date version of Orientalism, suggests that an alternative search for the values, lifestyle and civilization of the West is a dangerous dream, based on Layla M.’s adventure. The fact that Muslim youth living in Europe do not see a future for themselves in the West and embark on new quests is explained by a simple politicization process or by reducing it to personal problems. Although this situation is explained over a strong-willed young woman’s story, at the end, Layla desperately submits to the civilization system of Europe and takes refuge in the West, which she harshly criticizes. The reduction to personal problems of the reasons why some people living in the most developed centers of Europe reject the life they have and go to death by giving up many things and the messages that it is primitiveness offered as an alternative to European civilization clearly shows that a representation is established within the framework of orientalism. The content of Layla M. establishes the identity crisis of people belonging to non-European cultures in adoption and internalization the values of Europe, over east-west contradiction by identifying being easterner with Islam. The director has a marginalizing attitude by representing the anti-European opposition of Muslims in Europe by “speaking about and speaking for them”, and by affirming the Eurocentric approach, she excludes the domination and its 658

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continuity of the Euro-American exploitation on a global level. In this context, the problems such as why immigrants in Europe leave their homelands and take refuge in Europe are not included in the film. In this regard, the choices made by the director and the representations she created provide important data that she acted with an Orientalist perspective. This approach is most obviously expressed by stigmatizing, marginalizing and talking about them as research object when a different culture, belief system, geography and people are represented. Thus, Layla M. represents the East in an inferior and primitive position on the basis of affirmation of modern Western culture. Layla M. answers the ongoing debates on Islamic radicalization, terrorism, and civilization conflicts with a Eurocentric argument. Even though they are whittled, the stereotypes about Islam and Muslims, which are consistent with orientalist dogmas, are repeated in the film. The arguments put forward by a Western director about a belief system and culture that she does not belong with an outsider perspective partially overlap with current events. It is known that there are organizations that ruthlessly apply all kind of acts of violence indiscriminately by taking Islam as a reference in many parts of the world, especially in the Middle East. In this context, in Layla M., some of the arguments about Islamic radicalization overlaps with life, but the image of Islam constructed through representation in the film evokes the generic approach of the orientalist view when considering the Muslim population exceeding one and a half billion. In this regard, the arguments put forward by the director in the film evoke the marginal organizations’ overinterpretations of religious texts. Because, presenting marginal radical organizations, who are small pawns in the figths of global powers, without showing the general picture expresses a problematic approach. When the film is analyzed as a whole, a discourse emerges that Eastern Muslims are problematic and the way to rehabilitate them is through integration to European culture and values.

REFERENCES Amin, S. (2010). Eurocentrism (R. Moore & J. Membrez, Trans.). Monthly Review Press. Başkaya, F. (2005). In F. Başkaya (Ed.), Avrupa-merkezcilik. Kavram Sözlüğü – Söylem ve Gerçek (pp. 44–54). Maki Basın Yayın. Buruma, I. (2004). Oksidentalizmin Kökenleri. YKY. Carrier, J. G. (1992, May). Occidentalism: The world turned upside-down. American Ethnologist, 19(2), 195–212. doi:10.1525/ae.1992.19.2.02a00010

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Clifford, J. (1988). The Predicament of Culture. Harvard University Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctvjf9x0h De Jong, M. (2016). Layla M. [Film]. Topkapi Films, Menuet, Chromosom Film, Schiwago Film, The Imaginarium Film and NTR. Dirlik, A. (1998). The Postcolonial Aura - Third World Criticism in the Age of Global Capitalism. Westview Press. Eagleton, T. (2006). “Eastern Block”, Review of Robert Irwin’s For Lust of Knowing: The Orientalists and Their Enemies. Retrieved from https://www.newstatesman.com/node/163735 Lewis, B. (1993). Islam and The West. Oxford University Press.

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Morley, D., & Robins, K. (2002). Spaces of Identity-Global Media, Electronic Landscapes and Cultural Boundaries. Taylor & Francis. doi:10.4324/9780203422977 Ryan, M., & Kellner, D. (1990). Camera Politica: The Politics and Ideology of Contemporary Hollywood Film. Indiana University Press. Said, E. W. (2003). Orientalism. Penguin Books. Said, E. W. (2008). Medyada İslam – Gazeteciler ve Uzmanlar Dünyaya Bakışımızı Nasıl Belirliyor? (A. Babacan, Trans.). Metis. Said, W. E. (1985, Autumn). Orientalism Reconsidered. Cultural Critique, (1), 89–107. doi:10.2307/1354282 Sıbai, M. (1993). Oryantalizm ve Oryantalistler (M. Uğur, Trans.). Beyan. Turner, B. S. (2003). Orientalism, Postmodernism and Globalism. Taylor & Francis. Yavuz, H. (2010). Alafrangalığın Tarihi – Geleneğin Tarihi Ya Da Yeniden Üretilmesi. Timaş.

ADDITIONAL READING Bartels, E. A. C., & Brouwer, L. A. Layla M.: a film about the radicalisation of a Moroccan Dutch girl. Women’s voices from Amsterdam West and the VU University In Women and Resistance to Radicalisation (pp. 137-155). Retrieved from https://www.kas.de/c/document_library/ Baumann, Z. (2005). Globalization: The Human Consequences. Polity. Bourse, M. (2009). Melezliğe Övgü (I. Ergüden, Trans.). Ayrıntı. Colin, D. G. (2004). Women, Islam and Cinema. Reaktion Books. Huntington, S. P. (1996). The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order. Simon & Schuster. Kepel, G. (2001). Jihad the Tarail of Political Islam (A. F. Roberts, Trans.). The Belknap Press of Harvard University. Kumar, D. (2012). Islamophobia and the Politics of Empire. Haymarket Books.

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Ritzger, G., & Dean, P. (2015). Globalization: A Basic Text. Wiley Blackwell. Shohat, E., & Stam, R. (2014). Unthinking Eurocentrism: Multiculturalism and the Media. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781315771441 Taştekin, F. (2015). Alacakaranlıkta Ortadoğu Suriye: Yıkıl Git, Diren Kal. İletişim. Yeğenoğlu, M. (2012). Islam, Migrancy, and Hospitality in Europe. Palgrave Macmilan. doi:10.1057/9781137015457

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

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Assimilation: Dissolution of the minority by majority, likening to itself. Assimilation can obviously take place by using force or without force. Cultural Hybridity: A concept expressing the formation of new cultural syntheses in the encounter areas of different cultures. Eurocentrism: A concept expressing a European-centered view to history of humanity. Islam: Belief system based on monotheism originating from the Middle East. Jihad: A concept that includes struggling and and fighting for the sake of religion in the sense of Islamic literature. Marginalization: A concept that includes stigmatizing and excluding those who are not from themselves. Occidentalism: A concept expressing the orientals’ approach to the West. A kind of reaction against orientalism. Orientalism: Images of the east and orientals in the eyes of westerners. The positioning the east as the other for the West to define itself.

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Chapter 38

The Trial of Traditional Turkish Culture With the AutoOrientalist Cultural Industry Erol Gülüm Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey

ABSTRACT Traditional Turkish culture has archaic, unique, universal, diverse, dynamic, competitive, and distinctive contents (traditional knowledge and practices, cultural codes, canonical images, motifs, structural patterns, etc.) that can be valued in diferent ways in cultural creative industries. However, this cultural capital cannot be utilized sufciently to meet Turkey’s sustainable economic development goals from the past to the present. One of the main reasons why the potential inherent in traditional culture cannot be efectively, creatively, and innovatively actualized is the predominance of auto-orientalist discourse in the Turkish cultural industry. Here, in this text, the trial of traditional culture with auto-orientalist Turkish cultural industry will be analyzed from historical, sociological, and economic aspects.

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INTRODUCTION The paradigm (established by the Frankfurt School), which interprets the relationship between the economic and ideological dimension of culture and capitalist entrepreneurship in a pessimistic and pejorative framework, has been effective enough to shape the social, cultural, economic and political areas of daily life for a long time. However, especially from the middle of the 20th century, there has been a growing awareness that the commercialization and industrialization of culture does not always and inevitably carry an ideological function and does not cause cultural degeneration. The new perspectives (pioneered by the UNESCO) brought by this awareness have paved the way for the evaluation of culture as one of the main elements of sustainable economic development strategies since the 1970’s. After the re-content of the concept of ‘cultural and creative industries’ (developed by DCMS) in the middle 90’s, new visions, strategies and policies were developed for national cultural industries and economies. In the early 2000’s, the international organizations such as OECD, World Bank and UNESCO officially DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch038

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 The Trial of Traditional Turkish Culture With the Auto-Orientalist Cultural Industry

mark the culture in general and cultural heritage in particular as a driver and enabler of national, regional and local sustainable development and the source of creative industries and economies (Thorsby, 2001). After this development, many countries have again undergone drastic changes in their cultural policies in order to develop a creative industry and economy based on cultural heritage. And so, today’s major cultural industries and economies which rise in traditional culture that is the source of authenticity, originality, creativity, sustainability and innovation (Özdemir, 2012) emerged. The main characteristic of the 21st century cultural industry and the economies that have reached brand identity is that it uses ongoing interactions, mutuality and dynamics between the traditional culture contents and popular culture channels in a way that generates added value. This strategy, based on the intense interactions between contexts, mediums and cultures produced by communication and interaction, has become the dominant mode of content production of our time, was defined by Jenkins (2006) the notion of convergence. Many folklorists, who have begun to notice this culture of convergence since the middle of the 20th century, have made significant studies about how folklore is adapted to the field of popular culture. For example, as Koven (2008) pointed out, as early as 1946, Stith Thompson considered cinema not only an excellent transmission channel for the transmission of traditional fairy tales, but also as a kind of storytelling event in which creations of folk imagination can be externalized. Degh (1994) also analyzed how the cultural industry interacts with folklore in the sampling of television commercials. Zipes (2008) argues that every character in sitcoms has a familiar features of fairy tales and that the plot of these productions unfolds exactly as in fairy tales. Given the intense interactions between the two cultural spheres, Bird (1996) found that popular culture can only succeed if it acts like folklore and performs functions similar to its own. Mutlu (2004) takes this determination one step further and says that popular culture is actually the common folk culture of late capitalism. Traditional Turkish culture has archaic, unique, universal, diverse, dynamic, competitive and distinctive content that can be capitalized in various ways from advertising to postmodern architecture, from television to modern craftsmanship, from design to fashion, from the film and video industry to interactive digital media, from music to performing arts, from broadcasting to software, from sports to tourism. However, this cultural capital cannot be utilized sufficiently to achiveTurkey’s sustainable economic development goal, from the past to the present. One of the main reasons why the potential inherent in traditional culture cannot be effectively, creatively and innovatively actualized is the predominance of auto-orientalist discourse in the Turkish cultural industry. The basis of the problematic relationship between the Turkish cultural industry and traditional culture is the efficiency of the auto-orientalist discourse rooted in the Tanzimat period and institutionalized in the Republic period in this field. In this text, the trial of Turkish traditional culture with auto-orientalist cultural industry will be discussed with its historical, sociological and economic dimensions in a conceptual and theoretical framework that will be formed by the relations established between Said’s orientalism thesis and Adornoian culture criticism. In this context, firstly, the conditions, the operating logic and processes of auto-orientalism as a discourse will be emphasized. Later, the significance and function of auto-orientalist discourse in Turkish modernization will be explained in relation to Adorno’s concept of “culture industry” and Althusser’s ‘ideological apparatus of the state’. It will also be discussed how traditional culture is used by the auto-orientalist cultural industry as a frame of reference and raw material in delivering mainstream ideologies to the public in the Turkish modernization process. Then, why and how the auto-orientalist cultural industry still exists in 21st century Turkey will be explained by its cultural economic dimensions. Finally, the effects of the auto-orientalist cultural industry on traditional Turkish culture will be tempted to be revealed with various analyses to be done in the sample of the Turkish television series. 663

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SETTING THE STAGE: THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL BACKGROUND OF THE ISSUE In his work titled Orientalism, published in 1978, Said analyzes the texts that are the source of all kinds of knowledge, ideas and experiences of the West about the East and concludes that the Western canon is essentially related to a homogenizing, objectifying, stereotyping Eastern image, design and reflection that appears in the Western imagination. This discipline, which has been developed under the name of orientalism from the 18th century, has expanded its scope and strengthened its effectiveness with the knowledge produced by fields such as history, philology and literature that are personally interested in the image of the East. According to Said (1979), this canon, which is the primary reason, the source and result of the erroneous perception, representation and definition of the East, caused the emergence of three types of orientalism in the historical process. The first is “manifest orientalism”, which was founded in the 18th century and which deliberately and willingly emphasizes the differences between East and West in favor of the West in order to emphasize the superiority of the West, especially over the East. “Latent orientalism”, which is the second of these categories, consists of Western writers and thinkers who draw attention to the ontological and the epistemological difference between East and West. “Modern orientalism”, which began in the late 18th century, is an attempt to dominate, rebuild and represent East and Eastern through a variety of practices and institutions. Such practices consisted primarily of learning, observing, writing, thinking, teaching, settling in, and ultimately colonizing (Çırakman, 2002). Orientalism is not only an epistemological context, but also a discourse with ontological dimensions (Said, 1979). The mass of knowledge produced based on Eastern ontology forms the discursive order and the actualized parts of this discourse constitutes the practical dimensions of orientalism. Orientalism, then, can also be defined as an epistemological tradition that arises upon the Western ontology. The internal consistency of Western texts can be seen as evidence of the depth of Eastern ontology in the Western spirit. The historical and geographical consistency between the texts is closely related to the fact that Europe has a solid Eastern ontology in time-spatial terms. One might therefore argue that the Orient is a conception invented from texts produced from an unshakeable but the fruitful ontological perspective. This is precisely why Said (1979) presupposes that reality cannot exist independently of our thoughts. Therefore, the basic function and importance of the western canon is that it can function as devices that confirm, develop, govern and habituate the ontological essence upon which it arises. The coherence and continuity between these forms of orientalism show that the East is perceived, contemplated and understood by the West through overlapping Western texts. For Said, the origins of these canonical texts and thus orientalism date back to ancient Greece (Abu Al-Haj, 2013). This shows that what is actually called the East consists primarily of a drawing or image that is carried, transferred and reproduced in the collective memory of ancient Westerners. This assertion, based on the assumption that knowledge prioritizes its object, implies that the object of the research is not something present and hence and waiting to be discovered, but a product design, built, organized and directed by information about it. The Eastern illusion, woven from intertextual relationships, consists of a design which is forgotten to be an illusion or is accepted as a reality because it is functional, although it is known to be an illusion. This kind of illusion, produced, transmitted and reproduced by texts produced on the basis of the distorted perception of the East by the West, has become a discourse that regulates, controls and manages all relations between the two worlds. Images of the East that have created the illusion of the East are found not only in written texts or canvases, but also in various other cultural artifacts, including art objects and even on-stage representations (Mackenzie, 2013). This is why the orientalist discourse, 664

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extremely creative and productive with its intellectual and operational dimensions, is the source of the absolute superiority of the West over the East. The knowledge, thoughts and actions of the West with regard to the East are produced by this consistent and simplifying discourse. This asymmetric knowledge produced by orientalist discourse is also at the root of the political, cultural and economic domination of the West against the East (Mutman, 2002). In fact, Said’s primary purpose was to explore and reveal the relationship between Western power and Eastern knowledge (Ansari, 2013). As a result, he actually took Foucault’s ideas on how knowledge is involved in power (Adib-Moghaddam, 2013) and paid particular attention to the functionality of the Foucault formulation of knowledge/power in the understanding and transformation of that discourse and the relations it determines. On the basis of this formulation, it is supposed that orientalist texts determine the historical, social, cultural and economic context of the period in which they were written (Said, 1979). In the final analysis, the basic premises that Said uses in creating the orientalism argument can be summarized as follows; a) orientalism is a transhistorical discursive unity, b) the uniformity and consistency of the East inherent in the orientalist discourse is also the guarantor of the West’s uniformity and consistency. (c) orientalist discourse ensures that the West is and always remains dominant and powerful. In short, orientalism as a trans-historical form of discourse is also the source of Western domination over the East through history. In other words, the Eastern episteme of the West is also the basis of the power of the West against the East (Çırakman, 2002). Dirlik (1996) asserts that, unlike Said, the Western intelligentsia and its texts are not the only ones responsible for inventing and reproducing the orientalist discourse. The East is as responsible as the West in the production of orientalistic knowledge, image and discourse for the East. Asian intellectuals, in particular, have played a pioneering and mediating role not only in the elaboration and diffusion of the Eastern image, which is very useful for the West, but also in getting used in the Eastern discourse by Eastern societies. Indeed, this discourse has been so adopted by Eastern societies that, after a while, orientalism has become a problem of the Eastern test in its image. Dirlik explains the dynamics of this transformation by connecting Asian and Euro-American intellectuals with contact zones or border lines. Eastern orientalism, or ‘oriental’s orientalism’ as formulated by Dirlik (1996), was achieved with active and asserted participation rather than a passive and silent acceptance of Eastern societies against the Eastern conception of the West. The East, knowingly or unknowingly, has taken on a number of critical roles in many processes, from the invention of orientalist discourse to its reproduction, transmission, diffusion and legitimation. Eastern contributions to the easternization project also required to formulate a new form of orientalism. The most well-known form of orientalism introduced in order to meet this need is self-orientalism: “Orientalism is a weapon of Western invention and its barrel is oriented by the Easterner to the Western. Self-orientalism, on the other hand, is the weapon of the Easterner who feeds on the Western role model, and its barrel is directed to the East by the Easterner” (Bezci & Çiftçi, 2012: 141). Auto-orientalist discourse is produced, conveyed and purchased in the contact zones between East and West. The Eastern intellectuals, who internalize Western values at these thresholds, become auto-orientalists when they apply the Western criteria which they internalize by explaining and representing “themselves”. And this process begins with the elites growing up in contact zones entering the axis of “modernization a unit time ago” from their own societies. The first suspicions, the first admiration and the first wishes of the main actors begin to appear in the contact zones where the questions of political, social, cultural and everyday life are problematized by reducing them to the East-West comparison. Those who return home with such intense feelings have also launched initiatives that will transform the mistakes, faults and deficiencies they 665

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see in their societies in reference to the Western model of society. When these intellectuals attempt to compare the values, norms and modern Western institutions with their institutions-norms-values, all the conditions for the reproduction of the self-orientalist discourse are met. In every moment and area where the belief, acceptance or confession of modern/western “value-norms-institutions” are superior, orientalist discourse is reproduced by the Easterner in forms and the influence that the Westerner could not even imagine (Bezci & Çiftçi, 2012). In sum, oriental intellectuals’ view, observation, analysis, repsentation and narration of their societies from a Western perspective is the source and reason of self-orientalism. Auto-orientalization, which functions as a process of indigenization of orientalism, destroys all the local originality, creativity and differences of the communities it tends toward and redefines them in accordance with the uniform model of the West value-norm-institution. In this process, the carrier elites begin to work by adopting Western intellectual tools such as scientific method, critical reason, pragmatism, materialism which produce Western hegemony. The Eastern subject, who has surrendered even to the Western hegemony, emerges, especially with the internalization of instruments laden with orientalist discourse in its natural context. The direct or indirect contributions of these subjects, who are followed by envy by a large part of their society, to cultural production also cause internalized orientalism to spread to every moment and area of daily life. Since self-orientalism is a discourse that conquers the castle from within and with soft power, it does not encounter destructive and violent reactions like orientalism imposed from the outside and often with hard power. Despite the strict, holistic, predictable nature of orientalism, auto-orientalism is a discourse that can quickly diffuse to all the limbs of the society it targets and easily transform it like a liquid and fluid substance that is difficult to define, limit and grasp. These qualities explain why auto-orientalism is considered a western weapon more effective and more dangerous than even orientalism. The most concrete reflections of self-orientalism in practice, described above, are met in the Eastern communities experienced by the processes of nationalization and modernization. In particular, nationalist ideology has facilitated the introduction of the political culture and ways of life of Western modernity to those who are not Western. The Eastern nationalists themselves have reinforced and reproduced the orientalist legacy in their modernization processes (Chatterjee, 1993). Nationalist orientalists have autoorientalised particularly by implementing Euro-American orientalist perceptions, perspectives, principles and methods in the building of the national-self (Dirlik, 1997). The orientalist canon has often been appropriated by nationalists to legitimize their claims regarding the Volk. Thus, as Burke (1998) asserts, in spite of their obvious opposition, orientalism and nationalism are profoundly linked. Even in a sense, “nationalists are inside-out orientalists” (p. 495). The consistency of these propositions becomes even clearer considering that the political ideology (nationalism, liberalism, etc.) and the means of regulating public life (laws, constitution, etc.) prevailing in the eastern communities that have become nation states are essentially Western. One of the most prominent areas where the basic characteristics of auto-orientalist are revealed is the cultural industries of the eastern societies that have experienced the processes of nationalization. The concept of culture industry was first used by Theodor Adorno and Max Horkheimer, who were amongst the founders of the Frankfurt School, in the work entitled Dialectics of Enlightenment published in 1947. In this work, Adorno and Horkheimer (2002) affirm that the culture industry is a powerful ideology and propaganda instrument that serves to maintain control by imposing certain ideologies on the citizen mass. The culture industry in particular has undertaken strategic functions by injecting the fascist ideology of political authority upon the masses in Nazi Germany and by creating a consumer culture that ensures the sustainability of the capitalist economic system in the United States. Therefore, they (2002) talk about 666

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how cultural production industrialized and commercialized under the yoke of monopoly capitalism with their analogy between the German fascism, they fled to and the American capitalist democracy, they took refuge in, and emphasizes that both uses lead to the standardization of culture and art. Marcuse (2006) pushes this determination a little further, and affirms that capitalist society transforms the individual into a cogwheel of the present economic system with the false needs produced, creating a one-dimensional entity that normalizes thought and behavior. The fact that the process of nationalization in Eastern states is based on the thesis of transforming all elements other than the dominant essence with the mission of civilization has given auto-orientalism discourse and the culture industries of the period a special mission in the initiation and maintenance of this transformation. The reproduction of the self-orientalist discourse across cultural industries as a triggering dynamic of social revolutions has been evaluated as a strategic movement in the nation-state process. At this stage, Althusser’s “ideological apparatus of the state” and Gramsci’s concepts of “hegemony” can also serve as a guide to understanding how the culture industry is used to convey ideologies and discourses to all layers of society. Althusser’s (2001) evaluation of literature, fine arts and sports in the category of cultural ideological apparatus of the state (ISA) shows that the sectors that make up the culture industry can also be used as an ideological apparatus. The sustainability of the state authority supported by cultural ideological apparatuses depends on the establishment of a hegemonic order. According to Gramsci, hegemony means that an elite group in social life propagates its “world view” throughout the society and establishes a moral, political and intellectual leadership by matching its own interests with social interests (Eagleton, 1991). Cultural hegemony, on the other hand, is the spreading of the ideology and discourses adopted by a group to the entire community, allowing its power and authority to control and direct every moment and every domain of the culture of daily life. In this context, it is clear that the concept of cultural hegemony is closely related to the concept of the culture industry, which can be used as ideological apparatus. Sections of authority attempt to bring about the social transformations they desire by injecting their ideologies and discourses into their societies through culture industries and content. The cultural industries that feed on traditional culture have a special role in the construction of cultural hegemony because folklore is also a social-political tool that encourages to get used to an ideology or discourse and to act in this direction. Folklore, which affirms and inculcates the dominant discourses and ideologies in the local context, also makes it possible to replicate traditional authority at any time and in the field with the consent of the receiver. In this regard, folklore is a cultural system that builds social unconsciousness and shapes its content. As a matter of fact, Burke (1996) suggested that the possibility of propaganda should always be kept in mind when working on sources originating from folk culture. He argued that since these sources were the media of their time, political and religious leaders consciously used these tools to influence and control people.

AUTO-ORIENTALIZM, CULTURAL INDUSTRY AND TRADITIONAL CULTURE INTERACTIONS: THE TURKISH CONTEXT Ottoman-Turkish modernization began in the eighteenth century after the first systematic attempts to understand the difference between the Ottoman and European military systems. As stated by Makdisi (2002) in the age of western dominated modernity, the 19th century Ottoman Empire created its own orient, just like every nation. The Ottomans, which were a target and an object of orientalism for centuries, also consumed, accepted, internalized and adopted it (Eldem, 2010). The self-orientalist discourse as a 667

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dynamic of modernization was initially used in the period between Selim III and Mahmut II in Turkish society. However, the real breaking point in which the self-orientalist discourse began to affect all aspects of cultural life by interacting intensely with cultural industries in the process of Turkish-Ottoman modernization is the Tanzimat period. The declaration of the Edict of Gülhane of 1839 that the desired social transformation will be built within the framework of the western paradigm, is an important step in the course and development of the self-orientalist discourse in the Turkish lands. During this period, the Ottoman attempted to redefine itself as a modern, bureaucratic and tolerant partner of the West rather than as its opponent (Makdisi, 2002). Hence, the dilemma of achieving a balance between the materiality of the West and the spirituality of the East became very clear with the initiation of Tanzimat’s reforms (Kadioğlu, 2015). Çakır’s interpretation of the declaration of the Tanzimat edict as a change of Qibla in terms of Ottoman-Turkish modernization is a perfect metaphor in this respect. The interpretation of Tanzimat as a change of the Qibla is closely linked to the abandonment of the sociocultural codes and traditional values that define, govern and direct society. This means Ottoman implicitly acknowledged to one of the most main principles of orientalism that the East was essentially different from the West (Eldem, 2010), and “the West to be the home of progress and the East to be a presentation theater of backwardness” (Makdisi 2002: 769). In this way, the Tanzim movements, as Kahraman (2002) points out, have made original contributions to the transformation of Eastern discourse. According to Makdisi (2002), these contributions resulted in the birth of a new type of orientalism called “Ottoman Orientalism”. The formal declaration of the need for westernization was also encouraged to build and manage the desired transformation through a cultural industry strengthened by the self-orientalist discourse. Tanzimat intellectuals who grew up in contact zones and thus internalized an auto-orientalist perspective, became the main actors of this process. These intellectuals have played an important role in generalizing and popularizing auto-orientalist discourse to give the public a new and critical perspective. In achieving the desired transformations, the cultural industrial branches which are developing in the Ottoman domain and the traditional cultural elements defined as the obstacle to the mental transformation of the people were determined as strategic zones. At this point, Tanzimat writers have played important roles. Because Tanzimat writers were critical of the adoption of basic Western codes of behavior and lifestyles on the part of the Ottoman elite (Kadioğlu, 2015: 180). The fact that many defenders of the idea of Westernism consisted of Tanzimat literati transformed the Turkish literature of the time into one of the domains of construction, reproduction and transfer of the self-orientalist discourse. Hence, the main features of Turkish literature in the Tanzimat period can be a guide in understanding the nature and functions of the auto-orientalist cultural industry. The certain issues that defined Tanzimat literature, from the stylistic debates in this period to Western imitation, from imported Western literary genres to the functionality of literature in Western modernization, from the studied Western themes to the subjects focusing on the self critique of traditional values, caused the auto-orientalist perspective to propagate through the cultural industry. The close contact with Tanzimat’s writers with politics, bureaucracy and the press also facilitated the use of the literature of the time as an ideological apparatus of the state and in the catalyst of the modernization journey, which was foreseen with the Tanzimat edict. Tanzimat literati’s competence in this matter is closely connected to the tradition of using literature as a propaganda tool in Turkish culture. The fact that the Turkish literary tradition, from shaman / kam to bard / baks, from Sufi saints to divan poets, from Tanzimatians to Republican literary figures, has evolved in the patronage of the political institution in every age, making it one of the most effective and useful devices in the transfer and repro668

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 The Trial of Traditional Turkish Culture With the Auto-Orientalist Cultural Industry

duction of the official ideology of the state authority. Thus, as Kadioğlu (2015) pointed out, the literary tradition between Tanzimat and the Republic is like a gold mine, not only to unravel the problem of modernization/westernisation, but also the relations between politics, ideology and cultural industries. The auto-orientalist cultural industry, which took root in the Tanzimat period, was institutionalized in the Republic period. Especially the lines of auto-orientalism after the Republic period became more evident with the transformation of Westernism, which was teleological by Kemalist ideology, into an internalized orientalism. Kemalism, as stated by Szurek (2015), is more frequently associated with the concept of occidental than with orientalism. Yet, for Kahraman (2002), the true authenticity of Kemalist orientalism is that it rejects the West on the one hand and determines it as an abstract goal on the other, and organizes the entire society to achieve it. In Turkish modernization project, Kemalist orientalism, in which occidental and auto-orientalist attitudes intertwine, can be considered as a versatile device that can be functioned in different ways in periods and areas when the need arises. Kemalism as a form of the oriental view of the “West” played a fundamental role in the way they envisioned the Turkish nation, claimed hegemony and wielded power. (Zeydanlıoğlu, 2008: 160). It was rather a flexible set of discursive and representational tropes that helped the elites of the “New Turkey” to define, justify and implement their own domestic agenda (Szurek, 2015). However, this process of nationalization has also caused the auto-orientalization of Turkey. According to Kahraman (2002), the main reason for the self-orientalization of Turkey while being civilized is the establishment of a mental identity between the concepts of civilization and westernisation. The fact that Kemalism is basically a totalitarian ideology has made it easier for the auto-orientalist discourse to penetrate to all institutions that form and regulate society and culture. The auto-orientalist discourse inherent in the representations, motifs and images in the products and services produced by the cultural creative sectors of the period from literature to music, audio-visual media to fashion, publishing to museology, craftsmanship to painting, advertising to architecture in the Republican era is the clear evidence of this determination. However, the republican intellectuals played a primordial role not only as a model in the realization of the targeted transformation, but also in the establishment of the social-psychological ground that would allow these revolutions. The transformation of the native is undertaken through a return to the disciplinary narratives of the West (Soğuk, 1993). Thus, the native emerges as an “other” that becomes ideological and scientific target of projects of Turkish civilization (Zeydanlıoğlu, 2008). The main strategy used in this context is to enable a controlled auto-orientalism to infect to all layers of the society and thus to trigger the fragmentation of the rooted, old and naturalized Eastern hegemony, which is seen as the biggest obstacle to social development and development. Thus, in this process, as Kadioğlu (2015) argued, the Turkish psyche has been overwhelmed by the difficult task of balancing Western civilization with Turkish culture. Such a confrontational attempt stemming from concern with the balance between modernity and tradition, western materialism and-orientalist spirituality is a leitmotif in Turkish nationalism and modernization. Nationalist intellectuals have benefitted from the instrumentality of the cultural industry in an efficient and creative way to reach this goal. The intellectuals working in the cultural industry of the time made meaningful contributions to targeted social transformation with the support and encouragement of the state itself. The intellectuals of the period, who reduced civilization and modernization to Westernization, were closely interested in the peasant-rural segment, which constituted a large part of the society and were more conservative and stubborn compared to the urbanities in preserving the Eastern sociocultural codes. The intelligentsia regarded the issue of the westernization of Anatolian peasants and culture as one of the critical thresholds of the realization of the vision and even of the mission. In 669

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this context, the Kemalist mantra of the 1930s, “for the people, despite the people,” makes more sense (Zeydanlıoğlu, 2008). The most obvious strategy in achieving this vision is the auto-orientalization of the folk life in every aspect. This strategy, which can be embodied even in the view of the countryside, the village, the village and the public, was implemented by stereotyping the living cultural elements of a group of society, affirming and marginalizing its backwardness by stereotypical representations. Parodic representations of traditional culture produced in various sectors, from newspaper to the novel, from western theatre to advertising, from crafts to painting, from fashion to tourism, were circulating in daily life. It was believed that when the cultural sectors imported from the West and the meaning, importance and prestige of traditional culture to the public were combined, the necessary context for the desired mental transformation could be created. The strategy of parodying traditional culture has often been used to alienate and critically approach cultural elements, which the people see as part of their social identity and memory. The fact that the folklore contents are a super organic extension of the collective consciousness and memory of the source communities makes these elements an important factor in the realization of the mental transformation. The mental transformation in traditional societies is not accomplished through persuasion or coercion, but through interventions and reconstructions in representations of collective consciousness and memory. In keeping with this objective, traditional culture was trying to be westernized, mainly subconsciously by cultural engineering. Ölçer Özünel (2014) states that when the cultural policies, folk culture approaches, representations and strategies of the Republican period are examined carefully, it can be seen how an auto-orientalist perspective and discourse in accordance with the conjuncture can affect traditional culture. During this period, the systematic attempt to westernize especially folk painting, folk architecture, folk taste, and public representations led to the auto-orientalization of traditional culture. The main areas of application of this strategy in the Republic period are public houses, art environments and museums. In these areas, which are defined as the representative institutions of the process of nationalization by westernization, traditional culture has been romanticized and idealized for the sake of glorifying national culture, and thus marginalized and dignified (Ölçer Özünel, 2014). The role of these institutions in the auto-orientalization of traditional culture is clearly manifested in the very presentation of objects of folk culture that maintain their function in the context of use as exotic and exhibition objects. The display of ordinary objects used by the public and the practices that they apply functionally in daily life either in glass cases or presenting them as objects of extreme value puts a marginalizing distance between cultural elements transformed into spectacular objects and visitors (Ölçer Özünel, 2014). This marginalizing distance, which causes a touristic view, can lead to the experience of the culture that has been enchanted in an orientalist attitude by its producer, transmitter and user after a while. Silver (1993) emphasized marketed images of indigenous people tend to portray predominantly what Westerners have historically imagined the other to be like. For example, as Ölçer Özünel (2014) pointed out, the inhabitants who take pictures wearing Ottoman clothes are a concrete example of this attitude. These types of events are associated with the Western tourist view, which sees the East as an exotic object of experience and show that residents take their own culture with a Western tourist view and therefore a self-orientalist attitude. Such touristic representations of native peoples and their culture do not merely reinforce cultural stereotypes, but also often portray the notion that natives exist primarily for the consumption of Western tourists (Silver, 1993). The auto-orientalist Turkish cultural industry, which was founded in the Tanzimat period and institutionalized in the Republican period, continues to exist strongly in 21st century Turkey. The importance of self-orientalist discourse in Turkey’s cultural economy is a determining factor in the existence and influ670

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ence of today’s self-orientalist cultural industry. The fact that cultural creative sectors operate according to an export-based content production system makes it necessary to develop products and services that are suited for the needs and requirements of the society and cultures they are trading with. The course of Turkey’s cultural economy and industry is shaped by requests from the country’s export partners in the global arena. Therefore, having a knowledge of the export partners that guide the creative cultural economy of Turkey can provide an idea of why the Turkish cultural industry has a self-orientalist structure. One of the most appropriate resources for revealing the relationship between Turkey’s creative economy and the auto-orientalization of the cultural industry is the Creative Economy Reports prepared by UNTACD. The economic data and information contained in these reports can help us assess why Turkey’s cultural industry has rapidly and intensively become self-orientalist, particularly over the past 20 years. The primary source of reference at this stage is an UNCTAD’s Report on the Creative Economy, which was published in 2008. Turkey is reported to be among the top 20 countries with the best performance in the field of creative cultural product export in this text. According to the report, Turkey was the second best country to advance in this field after India with a growth rate of 18.3% between 2000 and 2005. Turkey is also ranked 4th out of 10 developing countries in terms of creative exports, with a value of $5.081 million generated in 2005 (UNCTAD, 2008). UNCTAD’s Creative Economy Outlook and Country Profiles Report (2016), which provides data on the economic performance of 71 countries between 2003 and 2012, also clearly reflect the dramatic transformations of Turkey’s cultural creative industry and economy. Turkey is ranked 14th out of the top 20 best performing countries and 4th out of 10 developing countries in this report. Granting to the report, Turkey’s exports in the arena of creative industries doubled from $3.84 million in 2003 to $8.580 million in 2012 (UNCTAD, 2016). The basic data and information about why and how the 21st century Turkish cultural industry is auto-orientalized are found especially in the section explaining Turkey’s export partners. Striking data on Turkey’s export geography and partners, which also determines the developmental course of Turkey’s creative economy and the characteristics of the cultural industry, are embodied in the following table: The first detail that stands out in the tables above is that between 2003 and 2012, exports to Asia and Africa doubled, while exports to Europe and America contracted at the same rate. This chart clearly shows Figure 1. Turkish exports of creative products by geographical region between 2003 and 2012

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(UNCTAD, 2016: 153).

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that Turkey’s cultural industry has moved from a Europe-America-oriented structure to an Asia-Africaoriented structure in a short period of about 10 years. The orientalization and hence auto-orientalization of a cultural industry that prioritizes the production of content in accordance with the demands and needs of Asian and African communities is actually an expected transformation. The following table, which provides relevant data with Turkey’s country-based export partners, also allows for more detailed analysis and evaluation of the auto-orientalization of the Turkish cultural industry: Figure 2. Turkey’s top 10 creative goods export partners between 2003-2012

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(UNCTAD, 2016: 153).

One of the details that draws attention in this chart is the development of the two main countries where Turkey’s cultural industry exported the most between 2003 and 2012. Turkey’s top two export partners in 2003, the United States and Germany, were replaced by the U.A.E and Iraq in 2012. Apart from the development of Saudi Arabia over the years, the entry of Libya, Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan as new export partners is also worthy of mention. The data presented in this table also show that Turkey has sharply and decisively turned its face in cultural content exports from West to East. UNCTAD’s Creative Economy and Country Profile (2019) also contain valuable data that can be used to analyze the relationship of Turkish cultural industry and economy with auto-orientalism. The report (2019: 415) points out that Turkey’s revenue from creative product exports increased from $3. 3 billion in 2005 to $9.9 billion in 2014. This means that Turkey’s cultural product export revenues have tripled in 9 years. The data and indicators presented show that Turkey has made a clear improvement, especially in the design and craftsmanship sectors. The report (2019: 417) also points out that Turkey has a sufficiently strong textile and apparel sector to compete in the international market, that culinary tourism has grown rapidly in recent years and that Istanbul has become a space organization adapted to

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Figure 3. Turkey’s creative goods exports by geographical region between 2012-2014 (UNCTAD, 2016: 153; UNCTAD, 2019: 416).

the creative class. The comparison between the two reports dated 2016 and 2019 shows that the data and rankings of Turkey’s regional export partners have changed quickly, even in just two years: The data presented above show that even in as little as two years, the share of Asian exports grew by 7%, while Europe fell by 4%. These changes in export rates have also accelerated the development of Turkey’s oriental-based cultural industry. These data clearly demonstrate that an Asian-African cultural policy continues to be implemented in Turkey’s cultural industry and economy from 2012 to 2014. Another important detail noted in the comparisons between the two reports is the significant changes in the data and rankings of the Turkish export partners: Figure 4. Turkey’s top 10 creative goods export partners between 2012-2014

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(UNCTAD, 2016: 153; UNCTAD, 2019:416).

Data from two reports indicate that there was no change between 2012 and 2014 in the ranking of Turkey’s top two partners in creative exports. Revenues from exports of creative cultural goods to the

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U.A.E. and Iraq increased exponentially between 2012 and 2014. The most remarkable detail of the report released in 2019 is that Iran, one of the ancient communities of eastern civilization, also entered the 3rd position with a quick introduction among Turkey’s export partners. The top four countries in the 2014 rankings also provide significant insights into the fundamental dynamics of Turkey’s cultural creative industry and economy. Taking into account the fact that the main characteristics of the cultural creative industries are determined by consumer demands, it is clear that radical changes have also resulted in significant changes in the Turkish cultural creative industry and economy. Auto-orientalization of an industry that is trying to meet the needs and demands of Middle Eastern and Asian export partners, especially those who care about Western values and lifestyles, is also inevitable. As the above data clearly demonstrate in the final analysis, the Turkish cultural creative industry has changed dramatically and precisely from West to East over the last 20 years. The reflections of the auto-orientalization of the Turkish cultural industry and economy in practice can be followed through the transformations that the domestic TV series sector has undergone in the last 20 years. The developments in the Turkish TV series sector can be considered as both the cause and the result of the auto-orientalization of Turkey’s cultural creative industries and economy. In the 2000s, the saturation of the domestic market led Turkish series to search for new and foreign markets, although not planned, and the adventure of internationalization of Turkish soap operas began with pioneering initiatives in a short time (Öztürk & Atik 2016). Turkish foreign policy at the time also played a vital role in the success of the Turkish television series industry. Turkey’s foreign policy since the early 2000s has been an important factor in transforming Turkey’s cultural industry in the Middle East, Eastern Europe, Asia, Africa and the Balkans. In this process, the Turkish cultural industry and domestic series were also used as an important strategic instrument to increase and consolidate the influence of Turkey’s foreign and economic policy. The effects of the Turkish series on the international stage started to be felt for the first time when Deli Yürek was sold to Kazakhstan in 2001 (Bilge, 2015). However, the main event that enables this awareness to develop in a strategy is the effects of the Gümüş series, which was exported to the Middle East and Balkan countries in 2007 (Çağlar, 2010). Nuroğlu (2013) reports that 85 million Arab viewers are watching the Gümüş season finale, which has generated great interest in the Arab world in particular. Gümüş success in Arab geography is considered an important milestone for Turkey as a supplier of series, especially in the Middle East, Central Asia and the Balkans. Gümüş influence in the Arab world has been reinforced by the new series that called Yaprak Dökümü, Kurtlar Vadisi, Asmalı Konak, Ihlamurlar Altında, Hatırla Sevgili ve Aşk-ı Memnu (Öztürk&Atik, 2016). Oriental archetypes used in content production are one of the main reasons why Turkish series have received so much attention from Eastern societies, particularly in Arab geography. These communities, which have been the colony of the West for hundreds of years and then hold their lives under an aggressive Western cultural imperialism, have internalized the definition and recognition of themselves/the East through the icons, motifs and topics developed by the Western view. In this context, the admiration of Eastern communities for Western life, values and institutions is utilized as an element of seduction in these series. The theme of “modern/western life that does not reject tradition” often used in television series mainly attracts Arab communities. The signs of Western modernity, marked as unacceptable by Arab societies, are caught in these sequences and overcome by the perception that “but they look like us” (Deniz, 2010). Thus, the traditional life framed by the modernity that Arabs also wanted, envied or longed for is experienced at least in the fictional plane. The Eastern audience suspends its skeptical attitude toward Western values in the face of canonical images that carry the Eastern cultural codes in the 674

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series. Hence, the basis of the popularity of Turkish television series lies in the presentation of Western life, which is an object of desire, with contents in which traditional oriental values are also represented in the background. The traditional Turkish culture serves as an element of seduction in creating this perception. Images of traditional culture, a fundamental feature of the aforementioned series, are instrumental elements in achieving East-West synthesis. In the TV series, the use of Eastern values in the foundation of familiarity, awareness, feelings about ourselves and being represented in the backplane of Westernism leads to the erosion of the authentic meaning, context and functions of the traditional culture used in the creation of these images. A western view of the elements of traditional culture leads to their objectification, spectacle, marginalization and alienation, that is, to their self-orientalization. The foreign market vision and strategy of the sector is also a determining factor in the preference of simple, ordinary, superficial forms rather than creative, original and sophisticated uses of traditional culture in domestic productions. While the promotional uses of traditional Turkish culture in television series may increase Turkey’s soft power in the region (Yanardağoğlu & Karam, 2013), it may also cause the auto-orientalization of traditional culture. Presenting the traditional elements that shape the daily life of Turkish society as a spectator content on television, without creativity and innovation, also leads to the reification and alienation of the traditional culture in the long run. Watching traditional elements, which are a functional element of social life and thus experienced as an organic and usual extension of current culture, on television screens with an objectifying and distancing view also accelerates the auto-orientalization process of the traditional culture. Turkish TV series with this function, is one of the dominant tools that Bezci and Çiftçi (2012) marked as “popular reinforcers” of auto-orientalist discourse and perception. A Turkish-style auto-orientalism is specially reproduced by the Turkish TV series produced for the Eastern market in Turkish TVs.

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CONCLUSION The East itself has deliberately or unknowingly made significant contributions to the reproduction, transmission, dissemination, and legitimization of the orientalist discourse from past to present. The contributions of the East to the orientalization project led to the emergence of a new, creative and more effective form of orientalism defined by the concept of auto-orientalism. This orientalist discourse has been produced, transmitted and internalized by westernized orientals, who are the product of the Western revival in Eastern societies. Therefore, the most concrete reflections of self-orientalism in practice can be found in eastern communities that experience the processes of modernization and nation-stateization. The reflections, effects, and results of the symbiotic relations between modernization, nationalism and self-orientalism can also be followed through Turkish-Ottoman modernization, as in this study. Turkish type auto-orientalism, whose roots go back to the renewal movements (Tanzimat Period) in the Ottoman Empire, has managed to maintain its existence and effectiveness with the functions it fulfilled in the critical periods of the modernization process. The lines of auto-orientalism in the Republic period and afterwards became more evident with the transformation of westernism and modernization into an internalized orientalism. The Turkish cultural industry played critical roles in the development of the auto-orientalist discourse that was founded in the Tanzimat Period and became institutionalized in the Republic Period. The Turkish cultural industry, which was auto-orientalized in this process, has long been used as an ideological 675

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and manipulative propaganda machine. The cultural-economic dimensions of this discourse are effective in maintaining the existence and effectiveness of the auto-orientalist Turkish cultural industry. The dominant export regions and partners, giving direction to the Turkish cultural creative economy in the last twenty years have also played a role in the auto-orientalization of the Turkish cultural industry. An export-based content production system of cultural creative sectors necessitates the production of products and services in line with the needs, demands and desires of the societies and cultures that are exported intensively. Thus, the cultural creative industry in the course of Turkey is also shaped by the nature and demands of the country’s main economic partner. All the economic data presented in the relevant sections of this study also clearly show that the Turkish cultural creative industry has turned its direction sharply and completely from the West to the East in the last 20 years. The Turkish cultural industry has not hesitated to auto-orientalize the traditional culture, which it sees as a content, cultural capital or raw material, from the Tanzimat period to today for various purposes. The role of the auto-orientalist reproduction of the tradition in the corruption of the traditional culture is that the perspective attached to the content is naturalized and internalized by the consumer as an element inherent to the tradition after a while. The naturalization of auto-orientalist representations of tradition have also caused segments of society that define themselves as modern to be alienation to elements that are the source and fuel of social identity and memory, and therefore unity. The abandonment of a part of the society from traditional culture will cause the group that identifies itself with opposite values to see and act as the sole owner, patron and carrier of this culture. This kind of perception can even cause traditional culture to become an area of polarization. Leaving the fate of traditional culture to the initiative of a group leads to its homogenization, marginalization and degeneration over time. This process results in the loss of creativity, originality, diversity and dynamism that constitute the essence of the tradition, thus becoming dysfunctional and disappearing. As a result, Turkey’s auto-orientalist cultural industry degrades, trivializes, marginalizes and destroys the ancient, universal, original and authentic traditional culture.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTION

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The radical transformations of cultural creative industries since the beginning of the 21st century have not been experienced in a similar way in Eastern societies like Turkey. One of the main reasons why Eastern countries still cannot get a thriving and branded cultural industry and economy despite its resources and opportunities is the dominance of auto-orientalist discourse on the production of cultural content. Detailed studies can be carried out on the recommendations listed below in order to create integrations suitable for our age between national cultural creative industries and traditional cultures; 1. First and foremost, it has to be recognized that socio-economic systems functioning in the synchronous integrity of creativity as a talent / process, digital media as a tool/medium and cultural heritage as a source of raw material are reshaping the world in many aspects. 2. Perspectives that will make it possible to adapt traditional culture to the time by making it open to creative destruction and thus to process it and make it work should be developed. 3. Contact zones should be created to bring together the contents of intangible cultural heritage, stakeholders and researchers with the sectors, areas and workforce that make up the cultural creative industry. 676

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4. Cultural-specific intangible cultural heritage/capital management models that regulate, control and manage the relationships between cultural creative industries and intangible heritages should be developed and implemented. 5. A fundamental paradigm change should be made in national cultural policies which will transform the auto-orientalist cultural industry into a cultural creative industry.

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Burke, E. III. (1998). Orientalism and world history: Representing Middle Eastern nationalism and Islamism in the twentieth century. Theory and Society, 27(4), 489–507. doi:10.1023/A:1006862829197 Çakır, C. (2004). Türk aydınının Tanzimat’la imtihanı: Tanzimat ve Tanzimat Dönemi siyasî tarihi üzerine yapılan çalışmalar. Türkiye Araştırmaları Literatür Dergisi., 2(1), 9–69. Chatterjee, P. (1993). Nationalist thought and the colonial world: A derivative discourse. University of Minnesota Press. Çırakman, A. (2002). Oryantalizmin varsayımsal temelleri: Fikri sabit imgelem ve düşünce tarihi. Doğu Batı, 5(20), 181–199. Degh, L. (1994). American folklore and the mass media. Indiana University Press.

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Deniz, A. Ç. (2010). Gümüş dizisinin arap kamuoyuna etkileri bir sosyal medya incelemesi. Uşak Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 3(1), 50–67. Dirlik, A. (1996). Chinese history and the question of orientalism. History and Theory, 35(4), 96–118. doi:10.2307/2505446 Dirlik, A. (1997). The postcolonial aura: Third world criticism in the age of global capitalism. Westview Press. Eagleton, T. (1991). Ideology: An introduction. Verso. Eldem, E. (2010). Ottoman and Turkish Orientalism. Architectural Design, 80(1), 26–31. doi:10.1002/ ad.1006 Jenkins, H. (2006). Convergence culture: Where old and new media collide. New York University Press. Kadioğlu, A. (1996). The paradox of Turkish nationalism and the construction of official identity. Middle Eastern Studies, 32(2), 177–193. doi:10.1080/00263209608701110 Kahraman, H. B. (2002). İçselleştirilmiş, açık ve gizli oryantalizm ve Kemalizm. Doğu-Batı, 5(20), 153–178. Koven, M. J. (2008). Film, folklore, and urban legends. Scarecrow Press. Mackenzie, J. H. (2013). Orientalism in arts and crafts revisited: the modern and the anti- modern: the lessons from the Orient. In Orientalism revisited: Art, land and voyage (pp. 117-128). Routledge. Makdisi, U. (2002). Ottoman orientalism. The American Historical Review, 107(3), 768–796. doi:10.1086/532495 Marcuse, H. (2006). One-dimensional man. Routledge. Mutlu, E. (2004). Popüler kültürü eleştirmek. Doğu Batı, 4(15), 11–42. Mutman, M. (2002). Şarkiyatçılık: Kuramsal bir not. Doğu Batı, 4(20), 105–114. Nuroğlu, E. (2013). Dizi turizmi: Orta Doğu ve Balkanlar’dan gelen turistlerin Türkiye’yi ziyaret kararında türk dizileri ne kadar etkili? Uluslararası İstanbul İktisatçılar Zirvesi, 1-12. Ölçer Özünel, E. (2014). Kendini seyreden öteki: Halk kültürü temsillerinde öz oryantalist yaklaşımlar. Milli Folklor, 26(102), 5–16.

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Özdemir, N. (2012). Kültür ekonomisi ve yönetimi. Hacettepe Yayınları. Öztürk, M., & Atik, A. (2016). Ulusal pazardan küresel pazarlara uzanan süreçte Türk dizilerinin gelişimi. Maltepe Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Dergisi, 3(2), 66–82. Said, E. (1979). Orientalism. Vintage Books. Silver, I. (1993). Marketing authenticity in third world countries. Annals of Tourism Research, 20(2), 302–318. doi:10.1016/0160-7383(93)90057-A

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Soğuk, N. (1993). Reflections on the ‘orientalised orientals’. Alternatives, 18(3), 361–384. doi:10.1177/030437549301800305 Szurek, E. (2015). “Go West”: Variations on Kemalist Orientalism. In L. Buskens & P. M. Sijpesteijn (Eds.), After Orientalism (pp. 103–120). Brill. Thorsby, D. (2001). Economics and culture. Cambridge University Press. UNCTAD. (2008). Creative economy report 2008. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. UNCTAD. (2016).Creative economy outlook and country profiles: Trends in ınternational trade in creative industries. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. UNCTAD. (2019). Creative economy outlook: Trends in international trade in creative industries-Country profiles: 2005-2014. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Yanardağoğlu, E., & Karam, I. N. (2013). The Fever that hit Arab satellite TV: Audience perceptions of Turkish TV series. Identities (Yverdon), 20(5), 561–579. doi:10.1080/1070289X.2013.823089 Yeşil, B. (2015). Transnationalization of Turkish dramas: Exploring the convergence of local and global market imperatives. Global Media and Communication, 11(1), 43–60. doi:10.1177/1742766515573274 Zeydanlıoğlu, W. (2008). The white Turkish man’s burden: Orientalism, Kemalism and the Kurds in Turkey. In G. Rings & A. Ife (Eds.), Neo-colonial Mentalities in Contemporary Europe? Language and Discourse in the Construction of Identities (pp. 155–174). Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Zipes, J. (Ed.). (2002). The Oxford companion to fairy tales. Oxford University Press.

ADDITIONAL READING Aktar, A. (2008). “Turkification” Policies in the Early Republican Era. In C. Dufft (Ed.), Turkish Literature and Cultural Memory: “Multiculturalism” as a Literary as a Literary Theme after 1980 (pp. 29–62). Harrassowitz Verlag. Bryce, D., & Čaušević, S. (2019). Orientalism, Balkanism and Europe’s Ottoman heritage. Annals of Tourism Research, 77, 92–105. doi:10.1016/j.annals.2019.06.002

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Burke, E. III, & Prochaska, D. (2007). Rethinking the historical genealogy of orientalism. History and Anthropology, 18(2), 135–151. doi:10.1080/02757200701218262 Hartley, J. (2005). Creative Industries. In J. Hartley (Ed.), Creative industries (pp. 1–40). Blackwell Publishing. Kaymas, S. (2020). Is development possible without cultural policies? Rethinking creative industries and sustainable development in the case of Turkey. Creative Industries Journal, 13(1), 72–92. doi:10. 1080/17510694.2019.1652026

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Lazeretti, L., Capone, F., & Seçilmiş, I. E. (2016). In search of a mediterranean creativity: Cultural and creative industries in Italy, Spain and Turkey. European Planning Studies, 24(3), 568–588. doi:10.108 0/09654313.2015.1082979 Turner, P. (1995). Orientalism, postmodernism and globalism. Routledge. Yanardağoğlu, E., & Karam, I. N. (2013). The Fever that hit Arab satellite TV: Audience perceptions of Turkish TV series. Identities (Yverdon), 20(5), 561–579. doi:10.1080/1070289X.2013.823089 Yeşil, B. (2015). Transnationalization of Turkish dramas: Exploring the convergence of local and global market imperatives. Global Media and Communication, 11(1), 43–60. doi:10.1177/1742766515573274

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITION

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Auto/Self-Orientalism: The orientalization of the East itself. Creative Economy: The economic system that determines the dynamics that shape the creation, production, distribution, distribution and consumption of goods and services produced by cultural creative sectors. Cultural Industry: Industrial reproduction and mass distribution of cultural goods and services. Kemalism: The principles, social revolutions and political doctrine of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the founder of Turkish Republic. Orientalism: The design, image or illusion of “East” that is carried, transferred and reproduced in the collective memory of the Westerners. Tanzimat: The period (1839-1876) of the reformation in the Ottoman Empire. Traditional Culture: A set of information, practices and experiences transmitted through traditional means transmitted from generation to generation in a society.

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Women’s Images in Turkish Cinema in the Context of Orientalism: The Samples of Tight Dress Nural İmik Tanyıldızı https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9177-759X Firat University, Turkey Ayşe Şebnem Yolcu Bingol University, Turkey

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ABSTRACT Orientalism, which we can defne as how the West recognizes the East, can be determined in many diferent felds such as literature, music, and architectural painting since ancient times. In orientalist ideology, the negative traits of the other are always emphasized. Because, as Said also emphasizes, the West can only create its own self by alienating and negating the East. The representation styles of marginalized societies; identities and genders are negative in parallel with the Western understanding in the movies that are dominated by the orientalist ideology. The Eastern woman, who is currently the absolute other in terms of gender, is marginalized once again in the examples of Orientalist cinema. This study, based on the movie Tight Dress, aims to observe the hegemonic structure of the willingness to represent women in the patriarchal order of the Eastern Muslim-Turkish representation of women produced within the Western masculine fantasy discourse within the framework of feminist theory and to reveal the orientalist elements in the flm through semiotic analysis.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch039

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 Women’s Images in Turkish Cinema in the Context of Orientalism

INTRODUCTION Movies are making to impress the audience. Cinema can shade, change, or direct the real reality by creating its reality. Movies, rather than reflect any situation, suggest a certain position or point of view to the audience by putting forward some assumptions through representative elements selected and combined to form a certain designed form of that situation (Ryan and Kellner, 2010: 18). Orientalism has probably never been seen as an ideology by most scholars. However, since E. Said determined it as a system of thought dominating the Western perception of the East, the ideological character of orientalism is becoming increasingly clear (Sandıkçıoğlu, 1999). In films that reflect the orientalist ideology, the West’s point of view towards the East is coded in various ways, and the East is defined and legitimized according to the West. While the Easterner lives in his world’s material reality, the Western will keep the Easterner alive in paintings, poems, travel notes, and movies to present a textual truth (Said, 1998; Çözeli, 2019: 22). Orientalism, which is kept alive in movies like 300 Spartans (Yiğit, 2008) or The Physician (Satır and Özer, 2018), is more easily accessible to large audiences. Today, the importance of the situation can be noticed when considering the audience that cinema reaches in the world. Western cinema marginalizes the East to build its own identity (Yiğit, 2008: 242; Satır and Özer, 2018: 763). The “East” marginalized in orientalist thought is generally represented negatively. As a result of this shaping, the East is positioned against the good, right, and beautiful West, portrayed as bad, wrong, and ugly (Yiğit, 2008: 33). The East’s marginalization by Western travelers and dreamers, especially 19th-century orientalists, has often been through women (Taşar, 2011: 160). According to the Western perspective, in Eastern societies, women have been marginalized and pushed to a passive position with the patriarchal structure’s influence. The eastern woman, who is currently the absolute other in terms of gender, is marginalized once again in the examples of Orientalist cinema. In parallel with this understanding, in the ideology of Orientalism, it will be seen that women are positioned as “the other” and pacified in the context of the roles of women in society and the way women are depicted in each society. This study, based on the movie “Tight Dress”, aims to observe the hegemonic structure of the willingness to represent women in the patriarchal order of the Eastern Muslim - Turkish image of women produced within the Western masculine fantasy discourse within the framework of feminist theory and to reveal the orientalist elements in the film through semiotic analysis.

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THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ORIENTALISM AND CINEMA Orientalism is a concept created based on Western intellectuals, artists, and novelists in the East that took shape between the 18th and 19th centuries. The colonialist’s cultural hegemony of the 18th and 19th centuries discursively orientalize the Orient; invented a represented it in a way that essentialized specific traits -backward degenerate, uncivilized and so forth- to show its inferiority, to serve the West’s interest and desire for domination and to create another against whom the West’s identity as superior is presented (Khamas, 2013: 24). With Orientalism, as an academic discipline that expresses the West’s view of the East, the studies of interested researchers, scientists, or artists have been welcomed until a specific period. However, after a while, it was seen that these studies under the name of Orientalism started to “otherize” the East, and Orientalism gained a negative meaning and started to be criticized. As Mackenzie and Mackenzie (2004: 12-13) stated, Orientalism; has become a literary tool for creating a stereotypical and imaginary East with 682

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Western powers, rather than being a product of academic admiration for different exotic cultures. Because the West has developed various exclusionary perspectives for the Eastern societies, it has othered with Orientalism. The West, which sees itself as the representative of reason, rational thought, and civilization, has attributed opposing features to non-westerners. Thus, the “different” turns into the West’s other and is created by the West (Keyman, 2002: 21). Edward Said, one of the influential intellectuals of the twentieth century, was the first to bring a new critical interpretation of East-West relations with his work Orientalism published in 1978. According to Said, the West has produced an imaginary East to define itself, justify its colonial intentions, and realize this purpose based on the knowledge-power relationship (Çoruk, 2007: 193). The East’s negative image caused by the studies on this imaginary East has been put into use by the West in every field from daily life to politics, from social sciences to fine arts, and especially today to media contents. According to Said, who stated that the East’s literary representations could never be accurate descriptions of the East, presentations about the East should be questioned as they are ideologically constructed images. This perspective regarding the East’s representation has formed a fundamental basis in the literary field and the examination of the Eastern presentation styles in the visual field such as television, cinema, etc. (Erkan, 2009: 17). Cinema is the most effective visual space today for the continuation and reproduction of the orientalist ideology. The orientalist elements brought to the forefront with the cinema’s visual narrative technique build tomorrows to reflect the East’s facts. Thus, the cinematic narratives containing the West’s reality reproduce the orientalist view and thinking by constructing the East as passionate, amusing, mysterious, adventurous, and barbarian (Said, 2003: 300). The films, being an art form for entertainment at its initial phase, in the context of post-colonialism, has become a part of the Orientalist web, which creates a more direct image of the Other, to justify or glorify the colonizers during the time of colonization or to collaborate with western governments in a concerted effort to smear and relegate the Other or to demonize non-western cultures by casting fear among the white audience of potential threats (Liu, 2010:24). Cinema movies reproduce the orientalist ideology through the plot, the arrangement of the characters, and spaces. (Kırel, 2012: 453). The orientalist discourse arranges the protagonists, the actions, and the leading venues in the movie. Again, in movies dominated by the orientalist perspective, the other’s representation takes place through selfdefinition. A world is created by organizing the concepts of fiction, self-otherness, good-bad. In this fictional world created, Western characters attract attention with their intelligence, reliability, virtues, democracy, abilities, and physical characteristics, while Eastern characters have opposite characteristics. East represents decay and backwardness in Western cinema, while Eastern is lascivious, terrorist, lethargic, foolish, and weak (Ekinci, 2014: 55). As a result, Western cinema plays an essential role in shaping the East-West perception. Therefore, there is a strong relationship between Orientalism and cinema as an art form and visual field.

THE REPRESENTATION OF WOMEN IN CINEMA AND THE FEMINIST FILM THEORY The view of cinema to women is essentially similar to the West’s attitude to the East. Just as the West marginalizes the East by attributing negative features with an Orientalist attitude, mainstream cinema usually marginalizes women in accordance with the interests of patriarchal culture. Female characters established under the ideological and patriarchal structure have never been adequately represented real-

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 Women’s Images in Turkish Cinema in the Context of Orientalism

istically. The representation of women in the cinema, in general, is problematic and mostly compatible with patriarchal ideology (Ünal, 2020: 70). Women’s active participation in the sector and their visibility regarding positive, unbiased images representing modern Turkish women are still controversial. Despite this, women have been featured as images in Turkish cinema from the very beginning (Dönmez-Colin, 2010).In Turkey, in the late 1970s, production and distribution systems with fragile political unrest in the film industry have influenced cinema. The domestic film industry crisis has also led to the emergence of new cinema trends, including women’s films. This is related to the systematically applied depoliticization that occurred after the coup. As a result, feminism developed precisely because it was not perceived as politically or politically necessary (Cengiz, 2020; Atakav, 2013). A new era started in Turkish cinema in the mid-1990s. New cinema of Turkey” is a concept that covers the time frame from the mid-1990s until the present where the Turkish film industry has undergone a meaningful change. During this period, Turkish cinema took on a male-dominated structure in terms of representations and stories (Güçlü, 2010: 72). This period has also been defined as “macho cinema” in Turkish cinema (Dönmez-Colin, 2004; Güçlü, 2010). The presentation of women in the cinema is not limited to this. In mainstream cinema, which reproduces the patriarchal culture, female characters are generally weak, unable to stand alone, forced to live under the auspices of men, unable to make decisions about their life, in short, presented with the contrast between good and bad (Aslan, 2018: 200). Despite social life changes, political understanding, and technology, women’s place in patriarchal society and cinema presentation did not change much. Cinema, which has changed day by day and developed under the influence of independent moviemakers, met the social expectations by taking the subject of many social changes but did not need any opinion on women’s representation under patriarchal codes. Feminist movie theorist Mulvey Laura states that women are positioned as objects of pleasure and desire in the cinema and bear the responsibility of being the bearer of the man’s gaze. For her, the men’s look is also the look of the camera in the movie. The look of the male character in the story is the male look. The view of male and female viewers is the male view. Because the audience has learned that they should watch the movie from a male perspective (1997: 46), in all three cases, the “watched woman” is the passive and object of desire to the patriarchal mentality as the bearer of the man’s gaze. Feminist movie theory/criticism is a critical field of study that emerged during the second wave of feminism in the 1960s and takes its source from feminist politics and theory and focuses on cinema to establish gender (Chaudhuri, 2007: 4). Topics that feminist movie critics dealt with in the first period; are female representations per the patriarchal ideology that dominates cinema narratives. According to early studies by theorists such as Molly Haskell, Marjorie Rosen, and Joan Mellen, women are in cinema; they are represented as a mother, means of pleasure, the product of collective masculine consciousness, weak and dependent, and fulfilling traditional gender roles (Ekici, 2016: 323). After identifying various examples of women’s representations, theorists ask why women are not represented in their proper form in cinema narratives and discuss how women are presented in discourses representing the male perspective. In this context, while analyzing a movie under the feminist movie theory, the representation of female characters in body and space, the movie narrative’s discourse, the cinematic language of the narrative, etc. a critical examination is made on the elements that make up the narrative such as (Özdemir, 2018: 135).

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PRESENTATION OF WOMEN IN CINEMA FROM AN ORIENTALIST PERSPECTIVE We have stated that women’s representations are constructed in mainstream cinema under the patriarchal ideology. The word patriarchal essentially means the role of the father or “patriarchy”. Nowadays, it is mostly used to indicate male domination, characterize the relationship form in which men dominate women, the system through which women are subordinated (Sultana and Altay, 2019:418). Nowadays, because the extended family concept has lost its validity, patriarchy has become a term that emphasizes male domination and thus characterizes the system in which women are pacified. In this respect, feminists use the concept within the interests of feminists to describe the power relationship between men and women. For feminists, patriarchy is the practical and social structure in which men dominate, oppress, and exploit women (Walby, 1990: 20). In this system, women are marginalized, passive, and under pressure. The woman, who has to be subject to the other’s hierarchy because she is not male, is positioned behind her in this hierarchy where the male is at the top. Alternatively, it is the body that men always have a head (Irigaray, 2008: 23). In Orientalism, the situation concerning the point of view on women is not much different. Considering the reflection of Orientalism in today’s societies, it can be seen that it is associated with patriarchal societies and acts on the same plane. From this point of view, it can be argued that the orientalist way of thinking is patriarchal like the societies in which it exists. When the orientalist ideology is examined at the level of perspective on women, it will be seen that the woman is positioned as the “other” and exposed to exploitation in the context of the roles of women in society and the way women are depicted in society (Çözeli, 2019: 22) Cinema makes presentations parallel to the dominant ideology. Women’s cinematic presentations, therefore, serve the patriarchal ideology that reflects the masculine view. Orientalist discourses come into play in the representations of women from the East, and East being the other coincides with the being the other of the woman. Especially the Muslim Eastern woman is the target of both patriarchal and orientalist discourse. Thus, in the cinema, the Muslim Eastern woman is subjected to both the domination of the patriarchal structure and Orientalism’s marginalization.

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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY This study aims to determine how, starting from the movie Narrow Dress, produces the perception of Muslim Eastern women and understands this determination through the semiotic codes that constitute the most critical elements of the movie narratives. The images of the perception of Eastern (Turkish) Muslim women in the movie will be approached within the framework of feminist theory, and the orientalist elements in the movie will be investigated. The study’s basic assumption was taken in 2016 in Istanbul made “Tight Dress” of the movie is that Turkey and Turkish women approached the orientalist ideology direction. Identifying the movie’s point, which will be examined in this study, “capable of being discussed in the context of the movie and orientalism to include the representation of Turkish women,” is defined as the necessary parameters. Tight dress movie constitutes the universe of the work. In this study, whose theoretical basis was created through the literature review, the movie Narrow Dress will be analyzed in the context of the presentation of images on how the representation of orientalismTurkish Muslim women are realized on the patriarchal plane, with the semiotic analysis method and 685

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Roland Barthes’ system of signs. In this context, the movie “Narrow Dress,” which constitutes the study sample, will be evaluated in terms of enigmatic codes, semantic and operational codes, symbolic codes and cultural codes, and the article’s hypothesis the findings. Semiotics is a science branch that examines the relationship between verbal and non-verbal indicators and the systems formed by these indicators. Semiotics examines all cultural phenomena as a communication process. Simultaneously, it is a science that helps form “meaning” by allowing all strings to be read (Ertan and Sansarcı, 2017: 21). Artworks are also a means of communication. Novels, movies, and tables are message sources with their language, and in this respect, they can be read like a text. “These texts have side meanings that can be called sub-texts apart from their apparent, plain meanings. The current ideology spreads through these connotations” (Uluyağcı et al. 2011: 118). Using the original language of art to create connotations, the artist creates a series by combining many signs. It is possible to adapt the semiotic method used to examine this series of indicators to the cinema. Cinema uses a language composed of codes, signs, and metaphors unique to itself and common to other communication systems. Therefore, semiotics can be used in language research and cinema studies (Monaco, 2011: 65-66). Cinema’s sign series includes colors, dialogs, camera movements, and many more. In other words, “everything from receiver movements, colors to actors’ dialogues is accepted as a signifier. It is conveyed to the viewer like a language” (Uluyağcı et al. 2011: 118). The indicator is expressed as understanding the truth behind this view and interpreting this reality within itself. Looking at the historical processes, every society has its own culture; there are signs of that culture. With different interpretation and perception styles, these signs are tools that make people’s lives more comfortable in their society and enable them to communicate with people other than themselves. The sign is also the physical expression of objects, phenomena, and concepts in society’s cultural flow (Lotman, 2012; Agocuk, 2014: 8). In work named “Movie Language” (2012) prepared by Edgar-Hunt et al., The sign systems used by Roland Barthes in the analysis of narrative texts are mentioned. According to the book, meaning in all narrative texts such as movies and similar texts are constructed through five different signage systems/ codes. Each of these five different networks creates a regulation effect on perceptions by capturing different materials and filtering the indicators. These systems determined by Barthes are as follows (Edgar-Hunt et al., 2012): •

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• •

•

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Enigmatic Code: The code draws the audience’s attention and interest and increases a movie’s fuency. It consists of elements that attract and arouse the audience’s attention. Barthes sets some open and some implicit general questions for the solution of these curious elements. Contextual Code: This code consists of pieces of information given by the indirect expression, which cannot be directly understood by indicators such as clothes, body language, speeches specifc to characters. Words and images help to solve this code. Operational Code: It covers the indicators of the actions that take place in the narrative. For example, in a youth movie, the young man who makes an exhaust sound by making violent touches on the gas pedal while driving in a sports car shows his desire to go fast and challenge other car drivers. Symbolic Code: It represents ideas or objects in the narrative text by creating binary oppositions. Barthes gives examples of these binary oppositions: life/death, good/bad, rich/poor, etc. Cultural codes specifc to values and beliefs arise from these contrasts.

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•

Cultural Code: It includes the known and coded references of the text to a specifc culture. General acceptances, shared by society, such as psychology, beliefs, ethics, rituals, politics, law, social responsibility, and marriage, are evaluated within the cultural code.

Barthes’ fivefold code system is a very convenient system for reading the signs and the meaning systems that make them up in movies. For this reason, in this study, this five-point code system will be used to enable the patriarchal and orientalist discourses in the movie “Tight Dress” to be revealed, interpreted, and analyzed in depth utilizing signs.

FINDINGS AND INTERPRETATION • • • • • • • • • • • •

Movie Tag Genre: Drama, Comedy Year Built: 2016 Duration: 1 hour 21 minutes Country: Turkey Language Turkish Screenplay: Weronique Wuthrich, Hiner Saleem Cast: Tuba Büyüküstün, Caner Cindoruk, Canan Ergüder, Hazar Ergüçlü Director: Hiner Saleem Director of Photography: Jerome Lift Producer: Hiner Saleem, Adnan Menderes Şapçı, Sadık Ekinci, Emre Oskay Music: Uğur Ateş

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Film Review The young French designer Lisa requests a favor from her Helin, who lives in Turkey. She wants to organize a fashion show. He asks Helin to find fifty young, charming, flamboyant women to participate in the fashion show. He gives Helin two weeks for this. Afterward, it will also perform the show that came to Turkey. Helin announces with their advertisements that they will hold a fashion show with her friend, photographer Nazmi. Many young women apply for the announcement. However, none of the women can participate in the filming because they face the men’s inhibitions in their families. Lisa admires the girl named Gule, who applies to the advertisement. Determined to participate in the fashion show, Gule is under pressure from her husband. Gule, who disappeared for a while; Helin, Nazmi, and Lisa set out to search but cannot find it. Her husband killed Gule. For all these reasons, the fashion show cannot be held.

Semiotic Analysis of the Film After presenting a theoretical background about semiotics, the essential point to be mentioned is which elements of the movie to be analyzed are included in the semiotic analysis method. According to which criteria the indicators to be taken from the movie are determined. During the analysis of the representation of the Eastern Muslim-Turkish women within the framework of feminist theory in the movie Narrow Dress, within the framework of feminist theory, the scenes containing specific images of the patriarchal 687

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and orientalist perspective were used in the presentation of the Eastern Muslim woman. The images in these scenes are interpreted based on Barthes’ system of indicators (five-point code system). The images in the figures below are taken from the scenes in the movie. Enigmatic codes: The tight dress movie’s main issue is that a French designer named Lisa wants to make a fashion show where fifty “Eastern” girls, attractive, mysterious, exotic, flamboyant, outside the West’s cliches, will take the stage on the podium. For this purpose, in consultation with the show’s friend, Helena decides to be held in Turkey. Here is the fundamental question of the story asked. Will Lisa and Helin find these fifty girls? Will the fashion show take place? The movie chose to create curiosity in the audience through these two questions. It is okay for the western Lisa to run fashion shows or try to find mannequins to take to the podium. Because these activities are quite ordinary for someone who has grown up according to modern Western understanding, no first signals will not be easy to work in a Muslim country such as Turkey is given to the audience from the first scene. Looking at this dialogue between Helin and Nazmi, Nazmi has no hope that the fashion show will be held. • • • •

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•

Your fashion girl is crazy! So here is the fashion show haa! Why would not? Ha I will prepare Lisa’s fashion show, and everything will be so beautiful. I will ask him to take me with him on the way to Paris. He will accept. Look, shall I tell you something? Even if she were here, she would lose money, lose time.

Nevertheless, Helin’s hope on this issue also gives hope to the audience. The fact that young girls show great interest in the fashion show call and come to the trial shoot leads to an opinion that the fashion show will occur. The girls are all modern-looking and very eager to attend the fashion show. Helin is pleased. Her wish will come true. Nazmi’s negative thoughts also seem to have come to naught. They set time for a second take and fall apart. When the date and time of the meeting came, no girl came. This scene is a breaking moment for the movie. Along with Helin, the audience also realizes that things are not as easy as thought. Helin and Nazmi realize that the girls decided not to attend the fashion show because of their families. Therefore, they decide to meet with the girls’ “guardians” in order to convince them. These guardians for Helin are father, brother, wife, uncle, and cousin. It is possible to see the reflections of the patriarchal discourse here. Because Eastern societies are male-dominated societies, and women are under the yoke of male authority. This idea of meeting causes a wave of curiosity in the audience again. Will the families be convinced? Towards the end of the movie, it is understood that the fashion show will no longer take place when no family is convinced. With this ending, the audience’s primary meaning will take out of the movie is the message “Fashion shows cannot be held in an Eastern Muslim country.” This message clearly shows the existence of the orientalist discourse in the movie. Semantic and Verbal Codes: Contextual and operational codes work in parallel in the movie “Tight Dress”. Most of the characters’ actions contain connotations, contain various implications, and create multiple meanings. Thus, it was found more accurate to analyze the codes containing character traits and actions together. In the movie Tight Dress, young women are aware of their features and do not want to hide these features, and they are in a self-conscious mood. They have a modern mindset. However, both fathers, 688

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brothers, and other male relatives who make up the family members and older female family members such as mother, aunt, and aunt are uncomfortable with this situation and form a barrier to young women’s freedom. As a result, young women live under the yoke of men and masculine women who have set aside their femininity. In this respect, it would be correct to consider the movie “Tight Dress” as an example reflecting the patriarchal system. The images in the figures below are taken from the scenes in the movie.

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Figure 1. Girls applying to participate in the fashion show (11:08/ 1:03:15)

When we look at the male characters in the movie, it is seen that no character other than Nazmi, who is the main male character in the narrative, goes beyond the patriarchal thought system. Nazmi is a photographer and close friend of Helin. Nazmi, who emphasizes that he is against the social structure and thought of the region where he lives, is in a modern line with his lifestyle and discourses throughout the movie. It supports and struggles for women to do what they want and realize their dreams freely. Nazmi, who went door to door in order to convince the fathers, brothers, and husbands of young women who wanted to go to the fashion show but tried to be prevented by their families (especially male family members) with advice, insults, and even violence, was rejected by verbal violence. Nazmi, the only male character who understands, supports, and defends women, has a modern, western appearance and thought in the movie, is set up as homosexual. Other male characters are the fathers, brothers, and lovers/husbands of the girls who will go on the show. The characters are either totally opposed to the fashion show concept or, even if they are secular, forced to oppose because they are intimidated by social pressure. The father of one of the young girls (Menderes Samancılar), who informed his family about his desire to participate in the fashion show, finds an imam and asks him if his daughter wants to participate in a fashion show whether Shariah allows this situation. In the film, hodja says that the religion of Islam is a religion of tolerance; if they are wearing veiled clothes, of course religion can allow it; otherwise it will not be possible. The father explains this situation to his daughter as follows: • •

No way, my girl! Why?

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•

It is impossible because you are a woman, and the only person who has the right to see your body is your husband.

In another example, an older brother who heard that his sister was participating in the fashion show, using physical violence against his sister, expresses very harshly that she dropped this idea from her mind. • • • • • • •

What is fashion, what is fashion! (Daughter is thrown to the wall) Ahhhhhh! (The girl moans) Do you know who makes fashion? (She wraps her hair in her hand and pushes the girl’s head) Do you know who makes fashion? Who is doing it? (In pain) Bitches do it! I am not doing anything wrong. Aren’t you ashamed?

Figure 2. The scene involving violence against women in the film (14:07/ 1:03:15)

Again, in another example, the young girl, who during the trial, tells another participant friend that her father is a democrat, secular, culture and art-loving, open-minded, and is sure that she can attend the fashion show, encounters an unexpected reaction from her father:

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•

• •

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I am a secular, democratic man. I have been a feminist all my life. Fashion is also an art. You already know that I am an open-minded person and respect your opinion all my life. So if it is up to me, it is okay for you to go on the podium in a fashion show. However, our society does not understand these things. Now the neighbors will look at you diferently. Uncle Abdurrahman will not speak a word to you from now on. Our honor is at stake. After that, no man will take good care of you. So I say no because of others. If it is up to me, do not stop. So? No, but I love you...

 Women’s Images in Turkish Cinema in the Context of Orientalism

The other dominant male character in the movie is the character Ako. Ako is the most open-minded character after Nazmi earlier in the movie. She is portrayed as someone who supports her lover, Gule, in being a model. Gule appreciates Ako for his open mind and even thinks other women put their eyes on him because of it. However, after Ako marries Gule, she transforms into a repressive and violent husband with a drastic change. He vehemently refuses Ako Gule’s desire to model. He firmly emphasizes that everything will be within the framework of his (Ako’s) wish with marriage and that Gule must comply with these requests unconditionally.

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Figure 3. Gule in the burqa (42:28/ 1:03:15)

When Helin and Nazmi try to persuade the girls’ male relatives to show, they will encounter similar reactions. The male relatives who were tried to be persuaded expressed in a very reactive manner that fashion and modeling mean nudity, exhibitionism, and prostitution and that they would never allow it. The examples can be considered important indicators of how women encounter attitudes and behaviors when they do not obey the patriarchal system’s rules in the representation of an eastern society shaped by Islam’s religion. The femininity and sexuality of a woman cannot be a material open to society. The husband only owns the female body. The woman who acts against this is marginalized. Such women are considered to be devoid of honor and morality. Women who do not want to be faced with this marginalization remain silent and helpless against their father, brother, husband, and society. The desperate silence and acceptance of women create the audience’s view that in parallel with the orientalist point of view, in eastern societies, women are obedient by nature. As can be seen, men also dominate the belief

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and value systems of the society in which women do not exist alone against men. This representation of patriarchal society also reproduces orientalist representations of the east. The movie shows that the female characters are also designed according to the East-West duality. Opposite the confident characters, Helin and Lisa representing the West; Gule and other girls who want to be models and their mothers represent timid, obedient, scared Eastern women. In the film, most mothers, especially Gule’s mother, can only support their daughters in realizing their dreams. They remain silent against the decisions of the authorities, such as father, brother, and husband. Some mothers completely fit the maternal structure of the patriarchal system. Considering Helin’s conversation with the mother of one of the young girls who want to model: • • •

Are you married? No, but this is none of your business. Shame on you, embarrassed! Does the woman who knows her place and her limits perform a fashion show? Go home now. Go, and your father, your brother, will fnd a husband to dress you up like a man.

The masculine mother is considered sacred in the patriarchal system. Her word is listened to, and she is respected. Because the social role of such mothers is to repeat the discourses that guarantee the continuity of the patriarchal system and ensure that the girls give up their femininity in this system and become included in the system, it can be seen that what the mother says to Heline in the movie is what the patriarchal discourse expects from young women. The woman should be under the supervision of her father and brother, and after marriage, she should be under the control of her husband and dressed and behave within the framework of her wishes. In this way, the mothers in the movie are no more than a secondary figure that strengthens the male power over women. That is proof that men are the last word in the patriarchal system. The fathers, brothers, or husbands of the young women in the movie Tight Dress have only say in the house. These men, who adopt and apply masculine ideology expressions, gradually take on watchmen’s role over their daughters, siblings, or wives. Fathers, brothers, and husbands, who narrow the living spaces of women and restrict their movements with the prohibitions they impose, are a stereotype that fits the representation of the patriarchal man in the oriental cinema narrative. In the movie, male family members who are supposedly protecting and being positioned as guardians are turned into subjects, while Table 1. Symbolic codes in the movie

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East

West

Woman

Man

Easter Woman

Western woman

Eastern homosexuality

Western homosexuality

Man as a lover

Man as a husband

Traditional

Modern

Burqa, veil

Modern clothes (blouse, mini dress)

Domination

Liberty

Dark, complex, intertwined spaces

Bright and spacious spaces

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women are made open to these men’s physical and spiritual exploitation. They have become objects that are devalued and marginalized in a patriarchal society. As a result, the narrative text of the movie “Tight Dress” was created over the distinctions such as Eastern - Western, modern - traditional, male-female, in line with the orientalist discourse, according to the determined operational and semantic codes.

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Figure 4. Nazmi (36:41- 42:23 /1:03:15)

One of the fundamental dynamics of the functioning of Orientalism is frequently used in the movie Tight Dress. Looking at the opposition of men and women, which the movie frequently uses, from the perspective of Orientalism, it is observed that women are identified with the East and men with the West. The West, which has a say over the East’s virgin lands in the orientalist discourse, is represented in the movie with the man who has a say over the woman’s body. The dominance of men over women coincides with that of the West over the East. As Said argues, in Orientalism, the West sees in itself the right to exploit, use, change, carry, and ultimately acquire what is untouched on the East. In the movie Tight Dress, it is seen that men have the right to have a say on women in all kinds of matters, generally through the character of the father, brother, husband in particular, “Ako”. Another conflict in the movie is established through women’s lifestyles and perspectives on life. On one side; Lisa and Helin, modern looking, determined, confident young women, standing on their own feet. On the other side, there are other women in the city. Lisa and Helin are representatives of the West. These women, who can live without authority over their heads, make their own decisions and can dress as they like (miniskirt, suspenders), represent the freedom and modernity of the West. However, other

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women in the city were suppressed and dominated by the male authorities in their society and families. Young girls are not free to do whatever they want, even if they have a modern look. These girls, who are under the control of their father and brother until they get married, are under the husband’s control after getting married. Figure 5. Nazmi and his partner(36:41- 42:23 /1:03:15)

Ako’s pre-marriage and post-marriage situation is another contradiction that needs to be addressed in the movie. When Ako is in love with Gule, he paints a sensitive, selfless, open-minded portrait that will support his lover in any situation. Because of these aspects, Gule loves and trusts Ako very much. In one scene, the following dialogue takes place between Gule and her mother while rehearsing her wedding dress: •

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• •

Ahh, I could not make my dreams come true, Gule. Do whatever it takes to make your dreams come true, okay? I am always with you. You are my pride. Do not let anyone hinder your freedom, baby. Well, not all men are monsters like my father, mother. Ihhh (mother sighs thoughtfully)

Considering the dialogue, Gule’s father restricted her mother, took away her freedom, and did not allow her to realize her dreams. The mother does not want the same thing to happen to her daughter on the eve of the wedding. Gule’s mother has realized herself through Gule by raising Gule free, modern, and self-confident. She wants her daughter to realize her dreams and states that she will support her in every way. Gule is sure that Ako loves her and will support her one hundred percent in everything. It may be true that most men are like their fathers, but according to her, Ako is not one of those men. For this reason, many girls around him also keep an eye on him.

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Figure 6. The scenes involving violence against women in the film (30:26/ 1:03:15)

Ako and Gule get married. Until then, Ako, who was not disturbed by Gule’s actions, decisions, and dressing, suddenly shows an unexpected change. He takes a jealous, reactionary, and macho attitude. Finally, he becomes a murderer by killing Gule. The audience witnesses that Gule married a more monstrous man than her father. This state of Ako is entirely compatible with the orientalist ideology. In the orientalist ideology, the orientals are at the forefront with their tendency to steer and sadistic (Said,

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Figure 7. The scenes involving violence against women in the film (57:23/ 1:03:15)

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Figure 8. Helin’s view (00:13/ 1:03:15)

2003: 300). Eastern men are both barbarians and murderers (Önal and Beykal, 2015). Ako tricked Gule into being open-minded, and after her marriage, he tried to dominate her with violence and oppression. He followed Gule, who escaped from Ako and took shelter in her mother’s house, and took her back and persuaded her to come with him. Nevertheless, his primary purpose is not to give Gule her freedom but to murder her criminally. In the orientalist ideology, the Eastern woman, on the other hand, is easily deceived, devoid of choice, submissive, and fatalistic, just like Gule. Despite being deceived by Ako, Gule, who believed in him again and accepted his impositions for the sake of his love, surrendered to Ako conscientiously Space is an element that strengthens the narrative in movies, creates the atmosphere, and sometimes rises to a narrator’s position itself. Spatial displays continue to function by reflecting the movie’s moods or adding the audience to the movie’s emotion. It can perceptually move the audience to different moods. They can bring feelings of stuck, constricted, or freedom to the audience (Çözeli, 2009: 61). In Tight

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Figure 9. Gule’s view (03:19/ 1:03:15)

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Dress, an orientalist frame was drawn with the help of the spaces used. The narrow and muffled spaces used in the movie symbolize the East, and the broad and spacious spaces symbolize the West. The houses of Helin, who lived under the Western understanding, and Gule, who was raised following the Western understanding, are spacious and have a sea view. However, the other characters in the movie and the townspeople are in dark and slum-like houses; they live on narrow and gloomy streets. Although the movie was shot in Istanbul, throughout the movie, the city was shown as uncivilized and far from the West, with its dark, narrow and unsafe streets, slums. Figure 10. Narrow and gloomy streets (51:19/ 1:03:15)

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Cultural Codes In the movie Tight Dress, the facts treated as cultural codes are given through reference systems such as religious symbols and social morality. These facts are an indication of the cultural values of eastern societies. Eastern societies, which are evaluated within the orientalist ideology, are generally the societies where the Islamic religion prevails. Especially in Islamic geography, called the Middle East, religious administration and religious provisions are valid. These countries are reflected in the movies by westerners by bringing religious symbols to the fore. It is possible to see these religious symbols in the movie Tight Dress, which is inherent to the orientalist ideology. Mosque-minaret and clergyman: As the representation of Muslims, mosques and minarets are depicted as the other. Through the mosque symbol, it is tried to show that Islam is an essential obstacle to women’s freedom. In the movie, a father goes to the mosque to determine whether his daughter attending the fashion show is religiously permissible. As Subaşı stated, religion in traditional societies; has the status of the official protector of ethics, culture, customs, and traditions. The religion that the members of the society expect from it to solve all their problems related to spiritual and social life; thus, in the traditional society, the group and its culture become the ideal that they hope to mature and work through. In such societies, the clergyman has the most significant spiritual and social authority (Subaşı, 1996: 56). For this reason, the father seeks the solution to the problem he has with his daughter at the

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Figure 11. Mosque-minaret (11:23/ 1:03:15)

hodja and consults him about the fashion show. As a result of the answer he received from the hodja, the father does not allow his daughter to attend the fashion show. Religion has been an obstacle to the emancipation of the young girl and realizing her dream. Azan Voice: Azan voice is heard predominantly in two different stages. The first scene is when the girls who want to participate in the fashion show meet at Helin’s house for the first time. The azan sound was given in the transition phase before the previous scene was finished. As the girls finish the shooting happily and hopefully in tight and mini dresses accompanied by fun music, the music suddenly stops, the call to prayer is heard, and the next stage is passed. It is a fictional metaphor to take the mosque stage by giving the call to prayer, the first prayer call of Islam, in a way that suppresses the sound of the music and ends the fun moments. With this transition scene, the first message that girls will be crushed under Islamic rules is conveyed to the audience by using the sound of azan and mosque symbols. Music, fashion shows, modern young women have been used as the sign of the West, Azan’s voice, and

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Figure 12. Hodja (12:32/ 1:03:15)

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Figure 13. Lisa’s expression when she sees the women in burqas (50:13/ 1:03:15)

the mosque Islam. After this scene, the young girls were refused by their families to participate in the fashion show for religious and social reasons. The second prayer scene occurs when Lisa is sitting on the balcony, unaware that the girls will not be able to attend the fashion show, while she is sewing a dress for Gule. Helin and Nazmi watch desperately from inside Lisa, who sews to the voice of the call to prayer. While the call to prayer was still heard, Helin told Nazmi, “Maybe we should tell him the truth.” says. With this scene, it is possible to say that the main reason for the girls not being able to participate in the fashion show is due to religious reasons.

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Figure 14. Different women in burqa (50:09/ 1:03:15)

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Figure 15. The scene where Ako and Gule’s mother meet (1:02:15/ 1: 03:15)

Burka is a wide variety of clothing that is always closed and does not show body laps. Burka is usually worn by Muslim women in Afghanistan, Pakistan, and northern India. It is possible to say that there is a dress generally identified with the Taliban administration in Afghanistan (Hashimi, 2013: 35-40). In the representation of Muslim women in the West, it can sometimes be seen that eastern women are represented by a black chador or burqa. The number of women wearing burqas stands out in the movie Tight Dress. It is possible to see women wearing burqas in some scenes of the movie. For example, at the first entrance of Gule with Ako, a woman wearing a burqa during the boat trip accompanies Güle. In another scene where Güle meets Ako, there are women wearing chador on the street. Güle, who lives a modern life, wears a chador when she gets married under the pressure of her husband. Lisa, sitting desperate and wondering why women shouldn’t come to the fashion show, passes by a group of women wearing a burqa. Lisa can’t

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Figure 16. Gule’s mother after shooting Ako (1:02:18/ 1: 03:15)

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hide her surprise when she meets these people. An expression full of pity and pity appears in his eyes. It is possible to say that these examples continue throughout the film. It is possible to say that the burka is an ideological symbol. In the orientalist point of view, it can be said that burqa is the indicator of the existence of the patriarchal system.The final scene of the movie is also pretty ironic. Unable to protect her daughter from the violence and cruelty of her son-in-law, Güle’s mother pursues her daughter’s murderer Ako with a feeling of guilt and a desire for revenge. She wears a burka so that she can approach Ako without being recognized. Other cultural codes in the movie are given over the social moral reference system. Social moral reference system requires acting in parallel with traditional values. The modern understanding that ignores traditional values such as ethics and religious rules threatens traditional values, and a clash situation arises in society. The clash between modern and traditional values is usually symbolized in the figure of women in Turkish cinema (Gürata, 2006: 247). Women’s clothing, lifestyles, and behaviors provide information about whether a society is modern or traditional. In traditional societies, how a woman will behave, dress, and live is determined not according to the modern perspective but within religious and moral rules. A woman who wants to go beyond this framework will be punished. The pressure on a woman can be further increased when she is subjected to verbal or physical violence. As a matter of fact, it is possible to say that young girls who want to participate in the fashion show in Tight Dress face spiritual obstacles as well as religious obstacles. • • •

What does the familiar say? What do the people think? Don’t you shame?

Throughout the movie, family members ask questions that refer to social and moral values, like girls. Because in traditional societies based on religion and social values, women’s fashion shows are considered immoral. Considering the determinant codes in the film, Tight Dress can be considered as an orientalist film. The most basic reason is that the film’s perspective is representing Turkey and the Turkish woman. Turkey is not shown as a democratic, secular, and liberal country but is presented as an authoritarian, religiously practiced, uncivilized country. It is also possible to say that the women in the film show their freedom in general with limited.

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CONCLUSION East built through the eyes of the West cannot reflect its own reality. Declaring everybody other than itself, the West creates a perception of upper civilization with the supreme values it claims to exist in itself. This upper civilization is modern, knowledgeable, democratic, libertarian, hard-working, honest, and respectful of human rights. Conversely, the East is ignorant, perverted, tyrant, cunning, and uncivilized. Orientalism shaped as a result of these thoughts is actually the product of the East’s fictional reflection. This fictional reflection of the East is also used in Western movies that include Orientalism. East is an undeveloped, uncivilized place far from the West. There is a male-dominated social structure in these lands of ignorance. In the East, where religious and customary rules are valid, strict restrictions have been placed on individual freedom.

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Eastern women in the movies are the most affected by the restrictions imposed on individual freedom. In Eastern communities where the patriarchal structure is dominant, women are under the domination of men. Both belief systems, social structure, and male authority have cornered women and narrowed their living space The presentation of Eastern women in Western cinema serves orientalist discourses in this respect. In the movie texts used together in the patriarchal discourse, women are subjected to a two-sided marginalization because they are both female and oriental. The film shows how women are subjected to repression and silenced by restricting their fundamental rights and freedoms in the society they live in. In the film, it is seen that the patriarchal structure in the family harms the girls. The female character, whose freedom and then her life was terminated due to male oppression, indicate this situation. Women in the movie, while they are represented as submissive, helpless, subjugated, mutinous individuals, Men, are represented as authoritarian, backward, aggressive, and traditional. These representations are based on certain stereotypes, and as the primary source of this point of view, it has been concluded that the oriental typology in orientalist discourse is based on distorted textual reality. As a result, when examined in terms of audio-visual and thematic elements, the images of women in the film do not match with Turkish women. The image of women in the film is mostly defined by the images of women in some countries in the Middle East. The woman, which the patriarchal system points out as the constant other, passive, incomplete, is reduced to the object of the male gaze. It is expressed through the eyes of the West.

FUTURE RESEARCH AND DIRECTIONS Studies on orientalism and women have been found to be insufficient. Especially, more scientific research should be done about women and orientalist perspective in cinema.

REFERENCES Agocuk, P. (2014). Amarcord Filmi Özelinde Göstergebilimsel Film Çözümlemesi ve Anlamlandırma. Journal of International Social Research, 7(31), 7–18. Aslan, M. (2018). Sinemada Kadın: Başka Dilde Aşk Filmi Üzerine Bir İnceleme. Selçuk İletişim, 12(1), 199–215.

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Atakav, E. (2013). Women and Turkish cinema: Gender politics, cultural identity and representation. Routledge. Cengiz, E. P. (2020). Women’s Rights and Gender Equality in Turkey| Cinema Has Split the Girl’s Soul Into Pieces: Scrutinizing Representations of Women in Films From Turkey. International Journal of Communication, 14(17), 5482-5498. Chaudhuri, S. (2007). Feminist Film Theorists: Laura Mulvey, Kaja Silverman, Teresa de Lauretis, Barbara Creed. Routledge. Çoruk, A. Ş. (2007). Oryantalizm üzerine notlar. Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 9(2), 193–204.

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Çözeli, İ. (2019). Sinema ve Oryantalizm: 2000 Sonrası Ulusötesi Sinemada Türk Kadın Kimliğinin Temsili [Unpublished master thesis]. Selcuk University, Konya, Turkey. Dönmez-Colin, G. (2004). Women Islam and Cinema. Reaktion Books. Dönmez-Colin, G. (2010). Women in Turkish Cinema: Their presence and absence as images and as image- makers. Third Text, 24(1), 91–105. doi:10.1080/09528820903488976 Edgar-Hunt, R., Marland, J. & Rawle, S. (2012). Film Dili. Literature Publications. Ekici, A. (2016). Popüler Film Anlatısı ve Gizemin Taşıyıcısı Kadın. Moment Dergi, 3(2), 321–325. doi:10.17572/mj2016.2.319338 Ekinci, B. T. (2014). Argo Filmi Bağlaminda Hollywood Sinemasinda Söylem Ve Yeni Oryantalizm. Atatürk İletişim Dergisi, (6), 51–66. Erkan, H. (2009). Hollywood sinemasında oryantalizm. Kırmızı Kedi. Ertan, G., & Sansarcı, E. (2017). Görsel sanatlarda anlam ve algı. Alternatif Publication. Güçlü, Ö. (2010). Silent Representations of Women in the New Cinema of Turkey. Sinecine: Sinema Araştırmaları Dergisi, 1(2), 71–85. Gurata, A. (2006). Translating Modernity: Remakes in Turkish Cinema. In Asian Cinemas. A Reader & Guide. Academic Press. Hashimi, S. M. (2013). Afganistan’da kadınların sosyo-kültürel ve dini durumu: Cüzcan örneği [Unpublished master thesis], Necmettin Erbakan University, Konya, Turkey. Irigaray, L. (2008). Doğu ve Batı Arasında Tikellikten Topluluğa. ARA-lık Publication. Keyman, E. F. (2002). Globalleşme, oryantalizm ve öteki Sorunu: 11 Eylül sonrası dünya ve adalet. Doğu Batı, 20(Oryantalizm-II), 11-32. Khamas, E. A. (2013). New Colonial Rescue: Appropriating a Feminist Discourse in the War on Terror. Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona. Kırel, S. (2012). Kültürel Çalışmalar ve Sinema. Kırmızı Kedi Press. Liu, X. (2010). Collaborative Orientalism: From Hollywood’s “Yellow Perils” to Zhang Yimou’s “Red Trilogy” (Doctoral dissertation). Bowling Green State University.

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Lotman, Y. (2012). Sinema Göstergebilimi. Nirengi Kitap. MacKenzie, J., & MacKenzie, J. M. (2004). Orientalism: History, theory and the arts. Manchester University Press. Monaco, J. (2011). Bir film nasıl okunur? Sinema dili, tarihi ve kuramı: sinema, medya ve multimedya dünyası. Oğlak Publishing. Mulvey, L. (1997). Görsel haz ve anlatı sineması. Nilgün Abisel (Trans), 25, 38–46. Önal, H., & Beykal, K. C. (2015). Oksidentalizm ve Sinema. Sabah Ülkesi Kültür Sanat ve Felsefe Dergisi.

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Özdemir, B. G. (2018). Şimdiki Zaman: Kadin Karakterlerin Film Mekânlarindaki Temsilinin Feminist Film Eleştirisi Çerçevesinde İncelenmesi. Sinecine: Sinema Araştırmaları Dergisi, 9(2), 131–164. Ryan, M., & Kellner, D. (2010). Politik Kamera, Elif Özsayar (Trans.). Ayrıntı publications. Said, E. (1998). Orientalism. İrfan Publishing House. Said, E. (2003). Orientalism. Metis Publications. Sandikcioglu, E. (2010). Orientalism: the ideology behind the metaphorical gulf war. Gerhard Mercator University. Satir, M. E., & Özer, N. P. (2018). Oryantalist Bakiş Açisinin Sinemaya Yansimasi: The Physcian (2013) Filmi Örneği. Gümüşhane Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Elektronik Dergisi, 6(1), 759–778. Stokke, C. (2012). A multicultural society in the making: how Norwegian Muslims challenge a white nation. Norges teknisk-naturvitenskapelige universitet, Fakultet for samfunnsvitenskap og teknologiledelse, Sosialantropologisk institutt Subaşı, N. (1996). Türk aydınının din anlayışı (Vol. 35). Yapı Kredi Yayınları. Sultana A. Altay S. (2019). Ataerkillik Ve Kadının İkincilliği; Kuramsal Bir Analiz. e-Şarkiyat İlmi Araştırmalar Dergisi/Journal of Oriental Scientific Research (JOSR), 11(1), 417-427. Taşar, M.,M. (2011). Batı’nın Kendi Kimliğini İnşa Sürecinde Öteki Olarak Doğulu Kadın ve Harem. Milli Saraylar Kültür-Sanat-Tarih Dergisi, (8), 153-175. Uluyağcı, C., & Ünlü, S. (2011). TV Dizilerindeki Mekânlarda Kültürel Yansımaların Göstergebilimsel Çözümlemesi: Canım Ailem. Global Media Journal, 1, 117-127. Ünal, B. (2020). Türk Sinemasında Kadın Gazeteci İmajı: 1940-1980. Kastamonu İletişim Araştırmaları Dergisi, (4), 67-89. Walby, S. (1990). Theorizing Patriarchy. Blackwell Publishers Ltd. Yiğit, Z. (2008). “Harem Suare Filminde Doğu Kimliğinin İnşası”, İzmir Ekonomi Üniversitesi Kimliklerin Tasarımı. TÜRKIYE. Yiğit, Z. (2008). Hollywood Sineması’nın yeni oryantalist söylemi ve 300 Spartalı. Academic Press.

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Yüksel, S. D. (2010). Sinemada Ulusal Kimliğin Pekiştiricisi Olarak Kadınlar. Selçuk İletişim, 6(3), 85–99.

ADDITIONAL READING Bernstein, M. H., Bernstein, M. & Studlar, G. (Eds.). (1997). Visions of the East: Orientalism in film. Rutgers University Press. Dharamsey, V. (2010). The Advent of Sound in Indian Cinema: Theatre, Orientalism, Action, Magic. Journal of the Moving Image, 9, 22–46.

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Gabriel, K., & Vijayan, P. K. (2012). Orientalism, terrorism and Bombay cinema. Journal of Postcolonial Writing, 48(3), 299–310. Hutchinson, R. (2006). Orientalism or occidentalism? dynamics of appropriation. Remapping world cinema: identity, culture and politics in film, 173. King, H. (2010). Lost in Translation: Orientalism, Cinema, and the Enigmatic Signifier. Duke University Press.

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

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Cinema: As a branch of fine arts. East: The place where the sun rises according to the location. Feminism: It is a movement consisting of various ideologies, social movements and mass organizations aimed at eliminating inequalities by recognizing the rights of women and protecting these rights. Orientalism: Orientalism is the term that applied to express east-west relations and interactions from past to present. As Edward Said specify it, orientalism is the prejudiced definition, imagination, and thoughts that the Western world has established about the Eastern world by putting itself in the center. Semiotic Analysis: Semiotics is a branch of science that examines the relationship between verbal and non-verbal indicators and the systems formed by these indicators. Tight Dress: A Turkish film made in 2016. West: The region in the direction where the sun sets according to the location. Woman: Adult female human.

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Chapter 40

An Orientalist “Journey” to Istanbul From the Super Bowl Final: The Shifting of Classical Orientalist Discourse Feridun Nizam https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4215-6973 Communication Faculty, Fırat University, Turkey

ABSTRACT This study is frstly built on the determination of the orientalist elements in Turkish Airlines’ commercial flm Journey, which was broadcast in the Super Bowl fnal of the 2019 American Football League, and how Turkish culture is represented in Istanbul with these orientalist elements. In the context of the sample handled in the study, Turkish architectural structures, Turkish historical structures, Turkish Islamic cultural elements, and Turkish traditions are included, and the presentation of Istanbul from the eyes of a “foreigner” with an orientalist point of view has been handled with the method of semiotic analysis. The main problem of the study is on the diferent presentation of the East and Istanbul, despite the usual orientalist perspective in media contents and especially in advertising. In this sense, it focuses not on antiorientalism, but on the conclusion that orientalism is presented with the change of classical narratives.

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INTRODUCTION This study is firstly built on the determination of the orientalist elements in Turkish Airlines’ commercial film “Journey”, which was broadcast in the Super Bowl final of the 2019 American Football League, and how Turkish culture is represented in Istanbul with these orientalist elements. In the context of the sample handled in the study, Turkish architectural structures, Turkish historical structures, Turkish Islamic cultural elements and Turkish traditions are included, and the presentation DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch040

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 An Orientalist “Journey” to Istanbul From the Super Bowl Final

of Istanbul from the eyes of a “foreigner” with an orientalist point of view has been handled with the method of semiotic analysis. The main problem of the study is on the different presentation of the East and Istanbul, despite the usual orientalist perspective in media contents and especially in advertising. In this sense, it focuses not on anti-orientalism, but on the conclusion that orientalism is presented with the shifting of classical narratives. Global brands are faced with cultural differences. Although this difference is seen as a challenging process, it is necessary to create commercial films suitable for local markets in order to maintain market dominance. Although previously global foreign brands dominated our local market with their own culture, Turkish brands can now dominate global markets with Turkish culture. In this context, with the aim of addressing the intersection of the concepts of globalization, advertising and culture, the orientalist perspective will be examined in the commercial film of Turkish Airlines, a global brand, named “Journey”. Until this time, Istanbul has been the subject of many works and studies with an orientalist point of view. However, what makes this study different is whether Turkish Airlines, the global brand of our country, has been influenced by orientalist patterns during the global presentation of Istanbul. Advertising gives the desired message to the consumer by presenting the lifestyle of a society, more precisely by using the cultural characteristics and lifestyle of that society. “Especially in the advertising communication process of multinational or global organizations, local images of the countries where the advertisement is realized, the culture of the countries and the characteristics of the target audience are the basic elements that should be taken into consideration” (Güz & Küçükerdoğan, 2005, pp. 65-73). The sample of this study is the commercial film “Journey” directed by Ridley Scott, who has made important works for the Superbowl finale of 2019, especially Alien, Blade Runner and Gladiator. The most suitable content for the sampling for the reason of choosing “Journey” commercial is cultural elements of Istanbul and the east. In the advertisement, symbols such as Çırağan Palace, Ortaköy Mosque and Square, Şerefiye Cistern, Maiden’s Tower, Turkish tea, sugar bowl with Ottoman signature, Turkish delight, Golden Horn, Bosphorus, domes and mosques and Istanbul silhouette are handled as an adaptation advertising strategy or from an orientalist perspective. The answer to the question has been sought.

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CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK - ORİENTALİSM AND CULTURAL CONTEXT OF ADVERTİSİNG “Orientalism is all the institutions that examine and take the subject of the East, the attitudes adopted, the analogies made, a kind of doctrine, form of government or a form of government (Said, 1998, p.14). Said also speaks of the influence of mass media in the development of people’s thinking and perspective, and the formation of the attitude towards the “self” and “other”: “Serious negotiations, artistic production, the interaction of ordinary people with each other in daily life, their compromises and conflicts come from their own will. began to come under the domination of the media. As a result of the lack of sensitivity between “Us” and “Them” on both sides of the existing imaginary line, sensationalism, mere xenophobia and intense conflicts became events in the daily order ” (Said, 2000, p.50). “The West has always shown an interest in the East, Eastern civilization, philosophy, art, religion and culture. However, it is noteworthy that this interest was built on the East-West opposition and difference over time ” (Boztemur, 2002, p.135). Media content is one of the main indicators of this construction 707

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 An Orientalist “Journey” to Istanbul From the Super Bowl Final

process. There are countless movies, TV series, commercials and promotional films reflecting the orientalist view of the West to the East. Advertisements have an important place in these media contents, most of which are built on mystical prejudices. According to Uluç, the main problem in orientalism is not the existence of an other, but how this other is approached. “Without imposing an identity on the other as an identity, without punishing the difference and characterizing it as abnormal, an understanding that is aware of the uncertainty of itself and the world, is open to discussion, and therefore can look at itself with a certain distance and irony. The main thing is that there can be an understanding of the other, which does not create conflict, does not deny, does not claim superiority, and is based on the acceptance of difference without being excluded (Uluç, 2009, p.13). Where and for whom it is said is also important. “Films that contain Orientalist elements also define and legitimize the idea of ​​the East of the West by encoding the West’s view of the East in various ways” (Said, 2004, p. 60). As a matter of fact, the answer to the “how” question stated by Said in the Western media content is often seen with negative images. “In the films dealing with the Ottoman period, Turks are portrayed as“ bad ”,“ cruel ”,“ invader ”,“ an enemy of freedom that must be defeated ”on the one hand, and“ bad ”experiences of the westerners in the Eastern lands on the other hand. “The Republic of Turkey on the subject of films, Turkey international spies, smugglers of drugs and weapons and where the treasure hunter is designed as a venue” (Adiloğlu, 2005, p. 209). In addition to the past periods, even in recent productions, Istanbul as the place of the East is presented with “backward” images even with the most optimistic approach. For example, the movie Takip Istanbul (Taken 2), shot under the direction of Olivier Megaton in 2012, is set in Istanbul. “While Istanbul is represented in the film as a colorless and reactionary city full of very old buildings, it draws attention that all the women on the street wear chador, all the men bear beards and fez. Also very old model cars in the film comes as a police car in Turkey. With examples like these, the economy of the country is represented as if it was in a very bad state ” (Mert, 2015, p. 23). In another example of the analyzed Argo movie penned by Ekinci also symbolized by Turkey and Istanbul mosque. “The film highlighted Orientalist discourse is the scene in Turkey is an emphasis on Islam. Orientalist discourse in the West’s tourist, cultural and Iran is a stopover at the entrance to the mystical country of Turkey depicting the chaos serves as a bridge between the two poles “(Ekinci, 2014, p. 60). In the same context, another determination belongs to Anadolu. In the study of Michael Palin, in which he examined the second part of Michael Palin’s New Europe program named “Eastern Delight” prepared for the BBC channel in 2007, it was investigated how the Turkish image created through orientalism was produced by television in the 21st century. In the study, it was concluded that “the implicit orientalism approach, in which negative approaches to Eastern cultures are softened on a discourse basis and visually hidden behind certain images, is frequently encountered in television programs” (Anadolu, 2018, p.142). In another study written by Yanık with the assumption that 18th century orientalist philosophers laid the foundations of the Turkish (ey) image in the West and that today’s Turkish (ey) image is formed from the effects of this foundation, among the 1000 most admired films (Top 1000) in IMDB ‚” Cinema films with a clearly expressed “Turkish” discourse have been analyzed. “In addition to the communication aspect of orientalist discourses, the public relations aspect should also be carefully evaluated. According to public relations, orientalism and its discourses are a feedback and the reach and frequency of the messages to be created are shaped according to these feedbacks ”(Yanık, 2016, p.380). According to Önal and Baykal, who examined the change of the perception of the self and the Other on the axis of Orientalism through cinema, classical orientalism was “the representation of the east as 708

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an“ object of desire ”rather than“ knowledge ”, especially in the field of fine arts in accordance with the conditions of the time. ‘supports the definition of latent orientalism ” (2011, p.109). On the other hand, they found that after September 11, with the New Orientalism discourse, the distinction between “I” and “other” in the cinema got stronger and was put forward with a sharper attitude. “Advertising considers changing the current lifestyle from time to time as a duty, as it is the subject of the life style of the society” (Çamdereli, 2013, p.202). As a matter of fact, advertisements affect the daily and social life in a dual relationship, both fed by the culture of the target audience in which they were born or directed. “It can be argued that orientalist representations are manifested in films by showing themselves mainly in the context of supporting characters and the main spaces used, or they are displayed and noticed with such an arrangement. In this respect, when considering the representations in a film or looking for orientalist representations, the first thing to do is to turn to the cultural material to be examined carefully in terms of the arrangement of the story and characters and the use of spaces in the film” (Kırel, 2018,p. 497).

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METHOD The semiotic analysis method was used in the study and the content was evaluated with this method. Semiotics is the branch of science that studies the sign and sign systems with its shortest and general definition. “The sign is the combination of a concept and a hearing image. The image of hearing is the sound structure of the sign, and the concept is its semantic content ”(Guiraud, 1994, p.8). “The sign is, in general, all kinds of forms, objects, phenomena, etc. that represent something outside of itself and therefore can replace what it represents. It is defined as. In this respect, words, symbols, signs etc. is accepted as an indicator ”(Rifat, 2009, p.11). Therefore, a qualitative research method was used as a basis in the study. Ronald Barthes’s interpretation processes were selected for this study to analyze the indicators subject to analysis. The literal and connotations created by Barthes were used in the interpretation of the indicators selected as the subject of analysis. Barthes calls the systematic thinking that aims to analyze these contents as “semiotics” (2018, p. 27) that objects in the world equipped with signs contain social, moral and ideological values. The pair shown and the signifier are parts of the indicator. In other words, the indicator consists of what is represented by a signifier; showing the narrative plane; indicates the content plane shown. As the mental design of an object “shown” from these two connective elements of the sign, it is the “thing” that the user of the sign understands from this (Barthes, 2018, p.50). Defining the text as a field of study, Barthes; It analyzes this field of study in the context of four principles of semiotics, such as “language and speech”, “signified and signifier”, “syntax and system” and “meaning and connotation” stemming from structural linguistics (2018, p.17-29).

Findings In the first scene of the Journey commercial film, which is analyzed within the scope of this study, a structure drawn in the notebook stands out in terms of Barthes’ plain meaning. The connotations of the analyzed scenes were provided by the use of elements belonging to the Eastern geography. Çırağan

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Figure 1. Through the Eyes of a “Stranger”: Charcoal Drawings of Çırağan Palace.

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Source for all images: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VzwUhxquhoY (Retrieved: 14.09.2020).

Palace, where a large part of the advertisement takes place, is one of the important symbolic structures of Istanbul. Çırağan Palace, a former Ottoman palace, is located on the European shore of the Bosporus, between Beşiktaş and Ortaköy in Istanbul, Turkey. The palace, built by Sultan Abdulaziz, was designed by the Armenian palace architect Nigoğayos Balyan and constructed by his sons Sarkis and Hagop Balyan between 1863 and 1867, during a period in which all Ottoman sultans built their own palaces rather than using those of their ancestors; Çırağan Palace is the last example of this tradition. The inner walls and the roof were made of wood, the outer walls of colorful marble. A beautiful marble bridge connects the palace to the Yıldız Palace on the hill behind. A very high garden wall protects the palace from the outer world. The construction and the interior decoration of the palace continued until 1872. Sultan Abdulaziz did not live long in his magnificent palace - he was found dead inside on 30 May 1876, shortly after he was dethroned. His successor, his nephew Sultan Murad V, moved into Çırağan Palace, but reigned for only 93 days. He was deposed by his brother Abdul Hamid II due to alleged mental illness and lived there under house arrest until his death on 29 August 1904. In 1987, the ruined palace was bought by a Japanese corporation, which restored the palace and added a modern hotel complex next to it in its garden. The modern hotel building was opened in 1990 and the restored palace building was opened in 1992. Today, it serves as luxury suites for the five-star Kempinski hotel along with two restaurants that cater to guests. The Palace was renovated again during the first quarter of 2007, now resembling the authentic palace with the baroque style and soft colors (https://en.wikipedia.org, Retrieved: 12/10/2020). In the second image, there is the large and magnificent Çırağan Palace. Its side meaning is the scenes belonging to the Çırağan Palace. Çırağan Palace is a building that was built according to baroque architecture in the Ottoman period and is now used as a hotel. Therefore, the result can be understood as the historical and cultural splendor of the elements of Turkish culture. In the follow-up scene of the commercial film, the Golden Horn passage was used in the general plan. Here, against the background of the silhouette of the Fatih Mosque, there is the highway bridge in the

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Figure 2. Transition from Drawings to the Real State of Çırağan Palace

foreground and the Golden Horn Metro Bridge as the main emphasis. The tradition of the mosque and the modernity of the metro bridge are symbolized by the intertwining of the minarets and the bridge pillars. The fourth display shows a mosque figure drawn in a notebook. There is a mosque symbol drawn on paper in the literal sense of the image in the decoded scene. Mosque means a center of worship in Islamic culture. The mosque featured in the advertisement is the Great Mecidiye Mosque, popularly known as Ortaköy Mosque. Looking at the plain meaning of Barthes in the indicator of this scene, the mosque and the square where the mosque is located is given with a wide shooting scale. The square where the mosque is located is Ortaköy Square. According to the meaning of the side, the icon of the mosque reflects the Turkish-Islamic culture in the first and second indicators and makes use of the side codes while doing this. Besides being a part of Turkish culture, the mosque is a typical symbol of the East in orientalist imagination. The mosque is located as an icon of Turkish culture.

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Figure 3. Haliç Metro and Highway Bridge with the Silhouette of Fatih Mosque

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Figure 4. Büyük Mecidiye (Ortaköy) Mosque Drawings and Real View

Büyük Mecidiye Mosque, or Ortaköy Mosque as it is known by the public, is a Neo Baroque mosque located on the beach in Ortaköy district of Beşiktaş district in Istanbul Bosphorus. The mosque was built by Sultan Abdülmecid for Architect Nigoğos Balyan in 1853. The mosque, which is a very elegant structure, is in Baroque style. It is placed in a unique location on the Bosphorus. As in all selatin mosques, it consists of two parts, namely the harim and the sultan’s section. Wide and high windows are arranged in a way to carry the changing lights of the Bosphorus into the mosque. The building, which can be climbed by stairs, has two minarets with one balcony. Its walls are made of white cut stone. The walls of the single dome are of pink mosaic. The mihrab is made of mosaic and marble, and the mimbar is made of porphyry-covered marble and is the product of fine craftsmanship (https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buyuk_Mecidiye_Camii, Retrieved: 12/10/2020). In this part of the advertisement, the hero who follows his goal comes to Ortaköy Square. In one of the few dialogues in the movie, the man sitting at the next table says “He went to the Maiden’s Tower”. Here, without giving a visual of the Maiden’s Tower, another symbol of Istanbul and Turkish culture, Maiden’s Tower, is mentioned through dialogue. Because the fairy tale aspect of the Maiden’s Tower, known as the “Maiden’s Tower”, which has been the subject of legends, is an unchanging element of the orientalist perspective. The woman is drinking Turkish coffee in Ortaköy Square. It also feeds the pigeons by taking feed from the peddler. This scene ends when his target, which he followed, returns from the Maiden’s Tower tour. The connotations of these indicators, which are given as literal meaning, are given as a tour in the city and activities that can be done with an orientalist perspective.

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Figure 5. City Tour (Feeding Birds, Drinking Turkish Coffee, Maiden’s Tower)

Towards the end of the chase in the advertisement, the chased woman returning from the Maiden’s Tower tour goes to the Şerefiye Cistern. While the main hero who is after him follows and enters the cistern, examines the cistern with admiration, the scene ends with another symbol domes by aerial shooting and then the Golden Horn, where the Fatih Mosque is in the foreground, and the skyscraper silhouettes reflecting modern Istanbul. Şerefiye Cistern, between 428 and 443 Emperor II. It was built by Theodosius to provide water storage through the Bozdoğan Arch (Valens Aqueduct). Water was distributed to “Nymphaeum”, “Zeuksippos Baths” and “Grand Palace” from the Belgrad Forest and its surrounding water resources, through the Bozdoğan Kemeri canal. The Cistern, together with the Binbirdirek Cistern built in the 4th century and the Basilica Cistern built in the 6th century, is one of the works that serve as a water reservoir that has provided Istanbul’s water need for centuries. Arif Paşa Mansion was built on the cistern located on Piyerloti Street in Istanbul’s Çemberlitaş district, Binbirdirek District, in the 1910s and the Eminönü Municipality Building was built in the 1950s. In 2010, the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality demolished the Eminönü Municipality building, and the cistern, which was not known until recently, was found under the building without damaging the historical structure. The number of columns and the area is less than the Basilica and Binbirdirek cisterns and the area dimensions are approximately 45x25 meters. With its 9-meter-high roof supported by 32 marble columns, Şerefiye Cistern is also known as Constantinus and Theodosius (https:// www. serefiyesarnici.istanbul/tr, Retrieved:12/10/2020)

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Figure 6. Şerefiye Cistern, Domes and Istanbul Silhouette from Golden Horn

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In the analyzed indicators, the admiring gaze of the main hero woman between the pillars and the mystery of the target she pursues takes place. In the image given as a continuation of this scene, there is the Fatih Mosque as a transition from the domes, which are the symbols of the East, to a magnificent structure. At the end, in the opposite angle of the 3rd Visual, there are symbols from traditional to modern.

FUTURE RESEARCH DİRECTİONS This study searches for traces of orientalism in advertising content, unlike works such as cinema and orientalism, cartoons and orientalism in the literature. In addition, it determined different points from the classical orientalist discourse. Future studies can be supported by this perspective.

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REFERENCES Adiloğlu, F. (2005). 20. Yüzyıl Sinemasında Türk İmajı. Özlem Kumrular (Derleyen). In Dünyada Türk İmgesi. Kitap Yayınevi. Anadolu, B. (2018). Yüzyılda Oryantalist İmgelerin Televizyon Aracılığıyla Yeniden Üretimi: Mıchael Palın’s New Europe Örneği. İNİF (İnönü Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi), 2018(3), 1. Barthes, R. (2018). Göstergebilimsel Serüven. Baskı, Yapı Kredi Yayınları. Boztemur, R. (2002). Marx, Doğu Sorunu ve Oryantalizm. Doğu Batı Dergisi, 20(I), 135–150. Çamdereli, M. (2013). Reklamın Görme Dediği. Avrupa Yakası Yayıncılık. Ekinci, B. T. (2014). Argo Filmi Bağlamında Hollywood Sinemasında Söylem ve Yeni Oryantalizm. Atatürk Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Hakemli E-Dergi. Guiraud, P. (1994). Göstergebilim (M. Yalçın, Trans.). İmge Kitabevi. Güz, N. & Küçükerdoğan, R. (2005). Göstergeküreler, Reklam Ve “Öteki Kavramı. Journal of Istanbul Kültür University, 1. Kırel, S. (2018). Kültürel Çalışmalar ve Sinema. İthaki Yayınları. Mert, A. (2015). Orientalism and Cinema: Orientalist Images In The Movie Taken 2. Academic Press. Önal, H. & Baykal, K.C. (2011). Klasik Oryantalizm, Yeni Oryantalizm ve Oksidentalizm Söylemi Ekseninde Sinemada Değişen “Ben” ve “Öteki” Algısı. Zeitschrift für die Welt der Türken, 3(3). Rifat, M. (2009). Göstergebilimin ABC’si. Say Yayınları. Said, E. (1998). Oryantalizm (N. Uzel, Trans.). İrfan Yayınları. Said, E. (2000). Haberlerin Ağında İslam (A. Alatlı, Trans.). Babil Yayınları. Said, E. (2004). Kültür ve Emperyalizm (N. Akpay, Trans.). Hil Yayınları. Uluç, G. (2009). Medya ve Oryantalizm, Yabancı, Farklı ve Garip…Öteki. Anahtar Kitaplar.

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Yanık, A. (2016). Yüzyıl Batı Felsefesiyle Yaratılan Oryantalist Türk(İye) İmajı Ve Sinemaya Yansımaları: Imdb Üzerinde Bir Analiz. JASSS, The Journal of Academic Social Science Studies. doi:10.9761/JASSS3228

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

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Advertisement: Any form of announcement broadcast or any broadcast for self-promotional purposes whether in return for payment or for similar consideration by real and legal person in connection with a trade, business, craft or profession in order to promote the supply of goods or services, including immovable property, rights and obligations, to advance a cause or idea, or to bring about any other effect. Orientalist Discourse: Putting into effect of West as a systematic scientific discipline which has associations, publications, customs, language and rhetoric in order for the West that aims to transform the East to actualize this aim Semiotics: Semiology, the study of signs and sign-using behaviour. It was defined by one of its founders, the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, as the study of “the life of signs within society.”

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Chapter 41

Digital Games and Orientalism:

A Look at Arab and Muslim Representation in Popular Digital Games Fatih Söğüt Kırklareli University, Turkey

ABSTRACT The cultural and ideological tools that enable the West to maintain the imperial and colonial rule over the East have been varied. With the help of Western-based digital technologies and communication tools, it is possible to produce, publish, and distribute all kinds of information easily and quickly. The western and Western perspective is also refected in the media content, and all kinds of popular media texts such as flms, music, newspapers, magazines, toys are the bearers of the political social, cultural, and ideological structure of the West. Media texts produce discourses, especially about the ‘East’ and position the East as one other. In this context, digital games should not be considered independent of the political, social, cultural, and economic structure in which they exist. The aim of this study is to assess research studies focusing on the orientalist perspective in digital games. While examining the relationship between orientalism and digital games within the framework of the literature, especially the Muslim and Arab representations in the plays were examined.

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INTRODUCTION With the development of new communication technologies, human beings have had the opportunity to be more closely connected and to know each other than ever before. Nowadays, a person living on one side of the world can communicate with someone living in another part of the world, get education from him, trade, make friends, play games, gather around an idea and make their voices heard more. In addition to all these positive possibilities, human beings may fear each other and feel enmity to an extent that they have never experienced before, they can marginalize, beyond the conflict of opinion, maybe they can get into a fight with someone they can never come together with in life. Othering and hate speech have become a common occurrence with the dominance of new communication technologies in daily DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch041

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 Digital Games and Orientalism

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life. “Islamophobia”, which includes a discriminatory, marginalizing and even hostile attitude towards Islam and Muslims as a religion, is a phenomenon that this situation is frequently experienced. The most important intellectual source of Islamophobia is orientalism. In this idea, first expressed by Edward Said, the West examines the East, changes it, and creates images aimed at the East. In this sense, the East is not a geographical place but an idea. It is possible to find the traces of orientalist thought in the Western media’s view of Muslims. Islamophobic content, which is frequently pumped by various news, TV series and movies in conventional media, appears sometimes as a video, sometimes as an article, and sometimes as a visual in media where new communication technologies are used. One of these new channels in which Islamophobia comes to life is digital games. Arcade-style games were first connected to television, followed by computers, and advanced game consoles and digital games are an entertainment commodity that is used extensively not only by children but also by adults. Today, digital games have surpassed a format played against artificial intelligence in the game, and with internet technologies, it has become a format where people from all over the world can play games together or mutually. The technical devices on which the games are played have also changed, and it has become possible to play these games at any time, sometimes over a social media network, or as an application, without time and space restrictions with mobile phones and tablets. Even virtual and augmented reality technologies and digital games are still in a transformation. There are simulators in which people play as protagonists in the game today. However, it is not practical to be easily produced and put into service and has not yet been commercialized in terms of demand-cost relationship. The most important feature that distinguishes the digital game from other channels of new media is that it includes the player in the game. In these games, the person does not just look at a photo or watch a video like on a social network site. He gets excited by playing the game himself, is happy when he succeeds in the game, gets sad when he is defeated, sometimes gets ambitious, sometimes he is angry enough to kick the device he is playing and throws it against the wall. The fact that people live and reflect digital games to their behavior in this way makes the content of these games important. These games, which have a lot of content from violence to racism, and from sexism to pornography, are subject to certain regulations from age restrictions to prohibition in most countries. However, it has not been possible to prevent these games from reaching millions in today’s world where everyone has access to everything. Representations towards Muslims are processed directly in some of the digital games and indirectly in others, and an environment is prepared for the formation of an attitude or behavior in this direction in the masses who play. With this study, the results of research on this issue have been compiled to reveal a general situation of Muslim representation in digital games.

ORIENTALISM: A CONCEPTUAL INTRODUCTION Orientalism means “science of the Eastern world”, with the old word Orientalism (Derin, 2006). As for the word orientalist, it generally means Eastern languages and Eastern Sciences expert, and is used to mean a scientist who studies the history, religion, language, literature, culture, and some other points of Eastern communities. Orientalism, which emerged as a research method and discipline because of non-professional studies, has paved the way for studies in various fields over time. The term Orientalist originally had a rather different meaning than its present meaning. In 1683, the term orientalist means “a member of the Eastern or Greek Church”(Bulut, 2010). 718

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According to the Oxford English Dictionary, orientalism was a concept associated with Eastern nations, identifying the work of academics who knew eastern languages and literature well. This definition of Oxford continued without much difference until the decolonization period following World War II. Nearly two decades later, the concepts of Orientalism and Orientalist underwent changes in meaning with new debates on the agenda. As a result of these discussions and studies, orientalism has been considered together with definitions such as an instrument of Western imperialism, a way of thinking, and the epistemological and ontological distinction between west and east. This change of definition has undoubtedly occurred with the contributions of important names. Deconstructive studies of names such as “Anouar Abdel Malek (Orientalism in Crisis), A. L. Tibawi (Critique of Englishspeaking Orientalists), Bryan Turner (Marxism and the end of Orientalism), Edward Said (Orientalism: Western Conceptions of the Orient) have brought about radical changes in the traditional references of the concept. The works written by these names have significantly shaken established perceptions that think of Orientalism only as a field of study and have treated Orientalism as a new type of racism (Macfie, 2002). The relationship of orientalist studies carried out since the middle of the 19th century with imperialism has been expressed through multiple perspectives (Aydın, 2005). The present meaning of orientalism - especially after Edward Said’s definition of orientalism - has evolved into a negative meaning. In his article evaluating Edward Said’s work Orientalism, Bernard Lewis lamented the negative meaning that academic circles in America and Europe attribute to the Orientalist concept, claiming that the concept was contaminated. For this reason, the use of the orientalist concept was abandoned with a decision taken at the “International Congress of Orientalists” that convened in the summer of 1973 (Lewis, 1982). The negative connotation of the concept is undoubtedly due to the paradigm crisis created by Edward Said. While Lewis restricted orientalism to an academic endeavor, Said spread the concept of orientalism widely to include travel books and novels about the Orient, as well as reports from academics working under government administrators (Shah, 2011). The differing views of Orientalism in the work of these two names are indications of theoretical disagreement. However, in the following periods, Said’s contribution to the field enabled post-colonial thought to question the orientalist accumulation, and this led to the termination of the concept. In addition to providing an analysis, Said’s micro/macro relations between Orientalist knowledge and power production opened the door to many important discussions. Doubts about the objectivity of the Western knowledge produced about the East began to be expressed more after Edward Said’s studies. The prominent emphasis in Edward Said’s work is the claim that there is a secret cooperation and logic integrity between the production of knowledge and the dominant power structure. According to Said, there is a close cooperation between the political experience of the imperialist era and the cultural reproduction processes, and whether conscious or not, this is a distinctive feature of the Western world of thought. Orientalism, as Said points out, is a path found by Western societies that think about the orient, depict the orient, and act in the name of being its supervisor. The existence of a field such as Orientalism undoubtedly starts with thinking about the East. Orientalism has come to life based on a basic ontological pre - acceptance in the process of evolving from the discourse of everyday life to a literary and scientific discourse (Arlı, 2009). This pre-acceptance object is the East itself, on which information is produced and speculated in almost every field. In fact, terms such as “Eastern” and “Western” have metaphysical, ontological and essentialist connotations (Uluç, 2009). Orientalist studies express the desire not only to understand the non-European, but also to control and manipulate the different. Orientalism, according to Said, thus created a particular Orient image of Europeans and later Americans or a “representation” of different parts of the world that was not really 719

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concerned with how they were actually defined, and pointed to all the texts, institutions, images and approaches they maintained (Lockmann, 2004). Therefore, unless we reveal the epistemological mind and discourse that established the East, we also accept the discourse that the West produces about the East as legitimate. The way to question the legitimacy of these discussions will undoubtedly be possible by following Edward Said’s method. If Orientalism is not studied as a discourse, it will be impossible to understand the awesome discipline that allows European culture after enlightenment manage–or even produce - the East politically, sociologically, militarily, ideologically, scientifically (Said, 1978). Edward Said not only revealed the relationship of orientalism to imperialism, but also revealed the aims and methods of imperialism. Said defines Orientalism as an academic discipline, a style of thought and a legal institution at three different levels. This approach draws our attention to the institutional and historical relationship between the information of Eastern societies and the imperialist Powers (Mutman, 1999). As various studies point out, Orientalist literature is not a direct academic discipline, but rather a collective effort to achieve certain goals. All these efforts pave the way for the systematic exploitation of the geography called the East.

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DIGITAL GAMES Before defining digital games, it is necessary to resolve the naming confusion for this concept. Three different names are preferred in the literature, namely “digital game”, “video game” or “computer game”. Game researcher Schell (2008) emphasizes in his work The Art of Game Design: A Book of Lenses that the term “digital game” is more valid because it is more inclusive and qualified. In this context, the term “digital game” was preferred in this study. Digital games can be handled in different ways, depending on where they are viewed, as a game, an interactive software, audio-visual representation tools, fictional works containing narratives or social media (Sezen, 2011). According to Binark (2007), digital game is the act of playing games in virtual space. Binark also distinguishes the digital game from the classic game. According to her, digital games differ from classical games with their interactivity and multimedia features specific to new media. After the second half of the 20th century, games have been transferred to the electronic environment and thus digital games have entered our lives (Akbulut, 2009). One of the important differences that distinguishes the digital game from the classic game is that the digital game emerged with an industrial design. Digital game emerges because of an industrial production and the game itself carries a commodity value (Binark & Bayraktutan-Sütçü, 2008). The limitations that digital games have can be seen as a break from reality due to order, rules, and temporal-spatial environment. However, the software and hardware that create the online world is an extension of the real world. In this context, it would not be correct to position digital games in contrast with reality. If we further expand the link with software and hardware, the worlds created in games reflect the real world economically and socially. The digital game offers a representation of reality in this context. Pargman & Jakobsson (2008) investigated the relationship of digital games with reality in terms of individuals. According to the results of this research, it was revealed that the game is a routine activity for the players. The act of playing digital games is regarded by the players as a part of their daily lives, not as an action disconnected from the flow of their daily lives. Just like in classic games, the player tries to overcome the obstacles and reach the goal in digital games. However, the only difference is to perform all these actions in a virtual and interactive environ720

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ment. In digital games, players experience being someone else by virtually having a different identity and find the opportunity to be identified (Akbulut, 2009). In this context, digital games make it easier for the player to understand the world and society. The player improves himself by learning the rules and situations he is not used to during the game. Features such as self-improvement, gaining new skills increase the player’s commitment to the game by increasing the pleasure they receive from the game. Another factor affecting the commitment to the game for the players is that the game has a solid story, or rather a narrative. At this point, the narrative and story attract the player with elements of curiosity, conflict, and tension. Digital games are designed with features that can attract people of all ages. There are many variables in games that are interdependent or not. Basically, the features that can be accepted for all digital games are listed as follows in Juul’s (2005) study named Half-Real: Video Games between Real Rules and Fictional Worlds: • • • • • •

The Rule: The rule can be briefy expressed as the principle that must be followed. In this context, like every system, games also have a structure laid with rules. Rules are produced to restrict player movements. The rules in the game are clear and specifc. Variability: Variability refers to measurable results. Games have measurable results. Value: Value emphasizes the importance of the outcome in the game. Results have positive or negative values. At the end of the game, the results gain value. Player: Player tries to fulfll his responsibility in line with the rules determined in the game. This responsibility creates an element of competition with the player’s efort. Player link: Player link is the efect of the player on the result. The winning player is happy, the losing player is unhappy. Adaptability: Adaptive results are realized by the player in a variable way, again in accordance with the rules. The game can be played without considering the results.

The development of technology leads to the further expansion of digital environments, which have a wide range of software and hardware options. These innovations have increased the prevalence and use of digital games. In the historical process, digital games have experienced many turning points in the fields of economy, technology, and marketing.

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CONCEPT OF REPRESENTATION The concept of representation as it is used in Communication Studies describes the way social groups, different subcultures, professions, ages, social classes and places are shown in the media and how this way of showing is interpreted by the audience (Price, 1998). In other words, the concept of representation problematizes how people are presented to themselves and others in the mass media. Representation, according to Hall (2003), is the fundamental point of the process of common meanings, the production and exchange of these meanings between individuals with a certain culture. Hall also approached the relationship of representation and meaning from a different perspective. According to him, representation should be considered as a structure that constructs meaning. According to Edward Said (1978), the concept of representation is intertwined with the historical, cultural, and political context. Questioning the relationship of representation with truth and correct,

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Said emphasizes that representation is constructed with many things next to truth or correct, which is “again a representation”. The concept of representation, which entered the agenda of media research for the first time in the 70’s, has led to debates about the political nature of all representations regarding culture. Feminist, black, and gay movements that emerged in the 1960s opposed their representation in the media and initiated the process in which representations were opened for discussion. In this process, the research produced positive representations in the media of certain groups. Some other groups are offered to society in a negative way, thus serves the interests of dominant social groups is revealed. Accordingly, role models in the media have been interpreted as an effective force that determines gender identity, norms, values, appropriate and inappropriate behaviors (Durham & Kellner, 2006). One of the important points when explaining the concept of representation is its effect on meanings. The mass media participate in representation systems not only by coding or reflecting the real world, but also by producing meaning and allowing the change of meanings (Çelenk, 2005). In Hall’s words (1998), the media is the maker of signification. The media not only reproduces reality, but also defines it. Selected definitions of what is called ‘real’ are represented in the media. On the relationship between meaning and reality, Stephane Greco Larson said that the media re-present reality in a way that supports certain meanings and interpretations of the way the world works. According to Larson (2006), these representations are chosen and structured in a way that consistently supports the status quo, that is, certain beliefs, structures, and inequalities. The most concrete examples of structured meanings reach the masses through media contents. Certain types of people are constantly shown in certain roles in the media, and in this way, certain patterns about society are presented to the people who follow the media content. These patterns lead people to see both others and themselves in certain ways, teach whom and what to value, to whom and what to oppose, and therefore construct certain ways of seeing. The claim that representations construct certain ways of seeing requires questioning the relation of representation to reality. Lawrence Grossberg (2006) Say that the word representation, which means “re-presentation,” means to take something original, mediate it and “show it again”. However, this process almost necessarily changes the authenticity of the original. Representation involves making a claim about reality; but it is not the same as reality. On the other hand, it is not just a matter of realistically constructing an imaginary world. In the process of representation, the creator of the text tries to maximize the effect and experience of the text on the audience by drawing the audience to the universe created by the text (Grossberg, 2006). At this point, Grossberg emphasizes a reality universe created by representation. This universe of reality created by representation should be made attractive to the viewer.

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DIGITAL GAMES AND ORIENTALISM With the development of technology and the entertainment industry over the years, digital games have become an effective tool in spreading cultural images. It has industrial practices in digital games like other popular culture products. Stories, heroes, characters, and environment have an important place in these industrial practices. Digital games provide a schematized view of the world by its very nature. Besides game heroes with certain personality traits, usually game characters are created with only a few distinctive features. Similarly, the in-game environment and venue are created by iterating a limited number of graphic elements.

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In digital games, it is possible to find many popular examples of stories, especially from the Middle East. The examples such as Prince of Persia (Broderbund, 1989), The Magic of Scheherazade (Cultural Brain, 1989), Arabian Nights (Krisalis, 1995), Al-Qadim: The Genie’s Curse (SSI, 1994), Beyond Oasis (Sega, 1995), Persian Wars (Cryo, 2001) and Prince of Persia: The Two Thrones (Ubisoft, 2005) examples have an important place in the game world with their stories and heroes unique to the Middle East. According to Edward Said’s interpretation, photography, and cinematography, which depict the Middle East with a naive and historicizing perspective, have deliberately marginalized the Middle Eastern culture. According to Sisler (2008), the visual indicators used by the plays to create the impression of “Middle East” are exactly compatible with Said’s patterns. Symbols such as turban, machete, camels, desert, and exotic dancers used in the plays are presented among the patterns unique to the East. The games use different images, narratives, and gameplay which are mostly Oriental, whether fantasy or historical (Sisler, 2008). Digital games contain narrative. The narrative in digital games serves a broader purpose, unlike literature and cinema. Together with the narrative, graphics, and gameplay, it shapes the broader associative message of the game. In most digital games with the Middle East in the background, the plot begins with the kidnapping of a woman (princess, sister, girl) by an evil character (vizier, caliph, demon), and the protagonist’s in-Game reason for existence is to save her and revenge. These frequently used plot patterns are also very common in medieval western civilizations but are presented as if they belong only to Middle Eastern culture. Most digital games build a fantastic Middle East, using historical elements to impose an Orientalist view on the player. Several games such as Age of Empires 2 (Microsoft, 1999) depict a Middle East in line with historical facts. This prevalent orientalist view in digital games stands out, overshadowing contemporary reality. One of the game types in which the orientalist view is widely presented in games is action games. War in the Gulf (Empire, 1995), Delta Force (Nova Logic, 1998), Conflict: Desert Storm (SCi Games, 2002), Full Spectrum Warrior (THQ, 2004), Kuma / War (Kuma Reality Games, 2004) and Popular action games such as Conflict: Global Terror (SCi Games, 2005) take place in the Middle East, and the anti-hero imagery in these games is usually Middle Eastern characters.

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AN ASSESSMENT OF ARAB AND MUSLIM REPRESENTATION IN DIGITAL GAMES Digital games have positioned themselves as mainstream media that influence our understanding and worldview through various representations in the modern world. Muslim and Arab representation in digital games should be contextualized with Muslim representation in the media in general. Recent studies show that the image of Muslims in Europe and America is reduced to general stereotypes and clichés, and Muslims are marginalized by making a distinction between us and them (Yorulmaz, 2018). According to these studies, many people perceive Muslims as threats (Poole, 2006). For Westerners, Islam is probably associated with terrorism (Karim, 2006) and the average Muslim image has been marginalized in the media (Richardson, 2004). According to a study conducted by Jack Shaheen (2001) on 900 Muslim characters in American movies and TV series, only 12 of these characters have positive and 50 positive-negative representations, while the remaining characters are terrorist, barbarian, wild men or love presented as repressed women deprived of love.

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Digital games also have the general attitude of the media mentioned above. However, since games are “neglected media”, that is, they are generally considered outside of the general cultural discourse, they are neglected in academic studies and they are less subject to criticism in the media field, they can include cliche and stereotypes more openly and daring (Reichmuth & Werning, 2006). In the recent “FPS-first person shooter” games, Muslims and Arabs have been defined as the other and shown as enemies to be killed. In FPS games, the goal is based on finding and destroying the enemy, and in these games, the enemies that must be destroyed are Muslims and Arabs. According to Sisler (2008), the player usually controls American soldiers in these games while enemy forces are controlled by a computer. In these games it is mostly impossible to play the enemy. It has schemes such as skullcaps, baggy dresses, dark skin color depicting hostile Arabs or Muslims, and in-game narratives are usually associated with Islamic radicalism or international terrorism. For example, the game Delta Force: Land Warrior contains a story about a Muslim terrorist group coming together from different countries trying to undermine the activities of the USA. Full Spectrum Warrior takes place in Tajikistan, defined as “a paradise for terrorists” (Leonard, 2004). While the US and coalition soldiers are presented at a humane temperature with their nicknames and special abilities, the enemy is typified and verbally dehumanized with definitions such as “various terrorist groups” and “marginal groups”. At the same time, the courage, professionalism, moral duties of the US soldiers controlled by the player are emphasized verbally in the in-game narratives and it is stated that the enemy soldiers are not real soldiers (Machin & Suleiman, 2006). Computer-controlled enemy soldiers display undisciplined behavior, shout, raise weapons over their head, and laugh mockingly when they kill someone. Created for smartphones and tablets, Trigger Fist (Lake Effect, 2012) game takes this situation a step further and brings on the agenda modern Crusades. Players who are new to the game receive their training on a base with an emphasis on the cross, and battles take place in Islamic countries. In Command and Conquer- Generals, it is possible to choose one of the US, Chinese and Arab “Global Liberation Army”. But in the game, the US Army is an army that is well trained, armed with superior weapons, has self-repairing tools, and has the ability to instantly attack wherever it wants on the map due to its intelligence and competence. The Arab “Global Liberation Army” is depicted with terrorists, suicide bombers, explosive-laden vehicles, and angry Arab gangs, and stands apart from the rest (Chick, 2003). While choosing the US army in the game makes it easier to win the game, it is very difficult to win the game with the Arab army (Sisler, 2008). Therefore, this situation encourages the selection of the US military by the players. In the free-to-download computer game Muslim Massacre, the player parachutes into the Middle East as a US hero. The aim of the player is to kill all Muslims who appear on the screen with weapons in their hands. Some of them are terrorists wearing suicide vests and some of them are civilian people. The producer of the game, Eric Vaughn, stated that he was happy to produce the game and that this game was a fun game (Reporter, 2008). Similarly, games such as Whack the Hamas, Gaza Assault: Code Red and Bomb Gaza, produced for smartphones and tablets, are also games that focus on the killing of Muslims in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict (Hallett, 2014). In some digital games, it has also been seen that symbols belonging to Islam are identified with hostile people or groups in the game. For example, in Resident Evil 4 (Capcom, 2005), protagonist Leon is given the task of rescuing the president’s daughter from the hands of a mysterious religious organization called Los Illuminados. During the rescue operation, they enter a castle belonging to the organization. The gate of the castle belonging to this demonic organization has a very great resemblance to the gate

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of the Masjid-i-Nabawi. The only difference is that the symbol of the Los Illuminados organization is placed in the center of the door. Similarly, the door cover of the Kaaba was used in Devil May Cry 3 (Capcom, 2005). In the game there is a tower called Temen-Ni-Gru. According to the game, this tower, which is the place of transition between the realm of humans and the realm of Demons, was built by devil worshippers. People under the influence of Satan can climb this tower and worship the forces of the dark there. The main door of this devil temple is the same as the door cover of the Kaaba. There are some games in the Western world that Muslims are not the othering. For example, in Sid Meiers’s Civilizations 3: Conquest game, players can control any civilization they want, and one of these civilizations is the Islamic Civilization. The player can take develop this Middle East-based civilization from its birth and put it into a race with other civilizations. There is no superiority among civilizations in the game and encyclopedic information is given about civilizations (Sisler, 2008). Another similar game is Age of Empires 2 (Ensemble, 1999). In this game, the player can control the army of Saladin and fight with rival states. In addition, in the story parts of the play, the attention is drawn to the positive perspective towards Saladin and Islamic Civilization (Yorulmaz, 2018). A lot of research has been carried out so far on the presentation of Muslims in digital games. Sisler, in his 2006 study, concluded that Muslims are marginalized in digital games. Again, Sisler, in his 2008 study titled “Digital Arabs: Representation in video games”, concluded that Muslims are uniformized and associated with terrorism in games produced by Western companies. 2008 study by Al-Rawi investigated how Iraqis are represented in American-made films and games. According to the results of Al-Rawi’s research, Iraqis are presented with oriental motifs in parallel with the political climate of America in American-made digital games and movies. According to the results of a study conducted by Naji and Iwar in 2013, orientalist motifs predominate in the presentation of the Middle East and Muslims in digital games. In a study he conducted in 2014, Komel investigated the orientalist motifs in the first game of the Assassin’s Creed series, produced by Ubisoft. Cox’s study in 2016 investigated Muslim representation in strategy games. According to Cox’s results, Muslims are mostly presented with a barbarian and invading identity in strategy games. According to a study conducted by Ibaid in 2019, many American-made digital games contain Islamophobic elements.

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FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS The impact of the games, which portray Muslims as terrorists, barbarians and enemies that need to be killed, and that offer players the opportunity to experience this on Muslim and non-Muslim players is one of the important issues to be investigated. What does a Muslim player who is identified with a US soldier and who kills Muslims feel? Does he regret his work or just see it as a game? Does it glorify the US military and the West it controls? Does it fall into inferiority complex? Or is his anger towards the West growing? On the other hand, does a non-Muslim’s view change related with Muslims who play these games? Is the perception of the terrorist Muslim in the media consolidating or do the players perceive this experience as just a game?

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CONCLUSION

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There is also a dimension of digital games that are sometimes played to have fun, sometimes played to spend free time, and sometimes played to realize oneself, which prepares the ground for marginalization and hate speech in players. Many digital games in different categories are unfortunately racist, fascist, vandal, pornographic, etc. and many negative contents are encountered from racing to action, adventure to simulation. This study examined research focusing on Arab and Muslim representation in digital games. According to the researchers’ studies, the Middle East is typically marginalized by using “Orientalist” images and with an Islamophobic perspective in the analyzed digital games. Digital games present the Middle East in a non-contemporary and decidedly confrontational framework by schematizing or stereotyping Arabs and Muslims as enemies. In this respect, it is necessary to focus on the political and cultural consequences of this representation strategy. While making this assessment, especially Said’s “other” identity and the concept of “orientalist” approach, which is a distinction between East and West, gains importance. Western countries have been trying to create Islamophobia in public opinion around the world and trying to recreate their own images of Islam and Islamic civilization using digital games. The representation of Muslims in Western producers’ plays is presented and identified with terrorism in parallel with the general attitude of the media. However, since games are “neglected media” - they are trivial and neglected and are not subject to academic research and debates enough - they can use anti-Islamic discourses and representations more boldly. Especially in FPS games, the Middle East is chosen as the location and the enemy is clearly determined as Muslims. Winning the game depends on the number of Muslims killed. In these games, the player usually plays US soldiers, identifies himself with US soldiers, and with a few exceptions, it is not possible to play a Muslim fighter. In many of the games that give the chance to choose Muslim soldiers, managing the army of Muslims makes it difficult to win the game. It should also be noted that games featuring positive Muslim representations are rarely encountered among Western digital games, the majority of which contain negative Muslim representations, there are rarely. Today, we very much need a critical understanding of the symbolic and ideological dimensions of representation politics. Obviously, no factors lead to stereotyping. The most dangerous effect of stereotyping is that sometimes negative images are perceived as a true depiction of the other culture. This is mainly the case in the absence of positive images of some communities, especially when these schemes remain unchallenged. With a greater emphasis on other languages and cultural areas, systematic and well-researched academic reflection of representation in digital games is needed.

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Yorulmaz, B. (2018). Representation of Muslims in Digital Games. Journal of Media and Religion Studies, 1(2), 275–286.

ADDITIONAL READING Campbell, H., & Grieve, G. (Eds.). (2014). Playing with Religion in Digital Games. Indiana University Press. Chapman, A. (2016). Digital games as history: How videogames represent the past and offer access to historical practice. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781315732060 Malkowski, J., & Russworm, T. (Eds.). (2017). Gaming Representation: Race, Gender, and Sexuality in Video Games. Indiana University Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctt2005rgq Rutter, J., & Bryce, J. (Eds.). (2006). Understanding digital games. Sage.

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

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Digital Games: A digital game is an interactive program for one or more players, meant to provide entertainment at the least, and quite possibly more. Game Studies: Game studies, or ludology, is the study of games, the act of playing them, and the players and cultures surrounding them. Hate Speech: Public speech that expresses hate or encourages violence towards a person or group based on something such as race, religion, sex, or sexual orientation. Islamophobia: It means hatred, discrimination, hostility, and hatred towards Muslims. Literature Review: A literature review is a search and evaluation of the available literature in your given subject or chosen topic area. Orientalism: Orientalism is the name given to all the Western-based research areas in which Near Eastern and Far Eastern societies, cultures, languages, and peoples are examined. Othering: To make a person or group of people seem different, or to consider them to be different. Representation: The fact of including different types of people, for example in films, politics, or media, so that all different groups are represented.

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Chapter 42

Orientalism, Islamophobia, and the Concept of Otherization Through Civil Conflict, Digital Platform Netflix: The Example of the Messiah Series Hülya Semiz Türkoğlu Faculty of Communication, Istanbul University, Turkey Süleyman Türkoğlu Faculty of Communication, Istanbul University, Turkey

ABSTRACT

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Orientalism is a form of marginalization that constitutes the thinking system of Western civilizations. The question of how the East is represented can be answered with series that have a global impact. In this study, the Messiah series, which is a digital television platform Netfix series that continues its broadcasting activities on a global scale, is discussed. The Messiah series is an American-made series that draws the attention of the people of three great religions, which is about the belief that the prophet Jesus will return and save the world. Orientalist ideologies are presented in the series. It has been evaluated in terms of narrative structure, fction, characters, and space. For this purpose, the chapter discusses the orientalism fction and othering discourses in the series with the literature review method by considering the representation of the East in the series with its general framework.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch042

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INTRODUCTION Orientalism was born with the curiosity of the West towards the East and its desire to analyze. Studies on the east were collected under the heading of orientalism, and those who carried out these studies were called orientalists. With Edward Said’s reinterpretation of orientalism, the concept has become a critical expression. Let’s first look at the brief history of orientalism and then the changing field of meaning. Although the texts that the West produced about the East were before, orientalism in the official form in the West was the foundation of the ‘Arabic, Greek, Hebrew and Syriac’ chairs in the ‘Paris, Oxford, Bologna, Avignon and Salamanca’ universities of the Church Council, which was gathered in Vienna in 1312. It is accepted that it started with the decision (Said, 2006, p.59). The Orientalist era began with the publication of Thousand and One Nights in Europe between 1704-1717. Traveling to the East meant exploring / dreaming for European romantics. Similar issues were handled over and over again and reproduced. Throughout the 19th century, European consciousness kept repeating the “Eastern mirage”, that is, the similar other (Tutal, 2006, p. 81). The texts, pictures, actually all kinds of information produced by the West belonging to the East contributed to the formation of the orientalist discourse. The historical background of the concept, which started to become more visible in the literature with the events of September 11, 2001, includes the traces of the anti-Islamism that was consciously constructed by the West. This opposition has been strengthened by the East-West distinction and has increased with the definition of Islam as the religion of the East. Many studies conducted with an orientalist perspective based on prejudice and interpretation, far from being scientific, include a view that categorizes the religion of Islam, identifies it with radicalism and ultimately positions it as an enemy. This production was carried out by Western writers, artists and philosophers. In the modern age, it has found its response in newspapers, magazines, television and virtual media; Thanks to technological tools, these narratives have been continued and Westerners have read Islam through these fictions. This deeprooted history of Islamophobia is followed with interest in the literature, and the concept is the subject of many studies. However, the limitedness of the studies that deal with the concept from the perspective of the mass media, which has played an active role in shaping itself, especially since the 20th and 21st century, draws attention at first sight. With the increase in the place and importance of technology and especially digitalization in our lives, many elements in our daily life practices have changed and interacted. Developments, especially in the field of publishing, constitute one of the most important developments of our age. Developments ranging from the invention of the printing press to newspapers, from newspapers to radio, from radio to television, from television to the Internet, and even from the internet to digital broadcasting, which is regarded as new media, have managed to influence society and cultures by being influenced by each other. Individuals and societies that have gone through different periods have reached the opportunity to experience global innovations by being under the influence of technology that is increasing day by day, especially in the age we live in. Under the heading of media, mass media and television, cinema and internet arguments are included, and as the ideological devices of states and political powers, they have the most intense effect on individuals, societies and cultures. Netflix, which has been presented to the masses in a new and untested content different from the traditional structure of the television medium, which has an undeniable effect in the field of broadcasting, especially in the field of broadcasting, is a new mass communication tool that has been mentioned, dragged the masses and reached the agenda. With its Internet-based network structure, Netflix was founded with a movie rental service in 1997, and today it has reached the most 731

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important rank in a global-scale broadcasting. Netlix television network can offer movies, TV series, documentaries, entertainment and derivatives intense content to the audiences it reaches, and it can influence the masses with its broadcasts. Netflix network notation that many structures, is met with great interest in Turkey and is also enjoying a high level of impression rate. However, it is possible to observe the eastern discourse of the west, marginalization and orientalism with the TV series Messiah broadcast on Netflix, a digital television platform operating on a global scale. Especially in cinema, it is necessary to determine the concepts of “orientalism” East and West. West, Hollywood Cinema; The East can be expressed as today’s Middle East geography. America’s changing socio-political stance puts the East on a slippery ground. In this context, the focus of orientalism in cinema is the orientalist ideology (Monaco, 2009, p.268). The concept of ideology, as a combination of ideas, beliefs and concepts, aims to convince us of its correctness. The orientalist representations in the films are related to the ideology that produced the medium. Cinema is a cultural representation arena that is of particular importance in terms of conducting political struggles today (Armes, 2011, p. 43). The problem of the study is to reveal how orientalism was built in the Netflix series Messiah, which is a digital platform. It was tried to answer how it was established in terms of the functioning of the series with orientalism, its perspective towards the east and Islam.

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ORIENTALISM CONCEPT Orientalism refers to the scientific discipline in the West, which expresses specialization in the study of various Eastern cultures and traditions since the first half of the 19th century. Second, it is a term that includes ideological assumptions, images and imaginary pictures about the region of the world named as the east. The lexical meaning of the concept of orientalism: “It is everything that belongs to the East or reminds the East”. Orientalism, a branch of science that developed in the 19th century, is derived from the French word “Orientalisme”. Orientalism in a more general sense: “The science that studies the religion, language, history and civilization of Eastern countries”. (Germaner, İnankur, 1989, p.9) When it comes to the word orientalist (orientalist), it generally means Eastern languages ​​and Eastern Sciences expert, and is used to mean the scientist who studies the history, religion, language, literature, culture and some other points of the Eastern (Eastern) communities (Sönmezsoy, 1998, p.25). Orientalism, as an intellectual attitude, is not unique to a certain Westerner alone. Just as there are Westerners who do not adopt the orientalist approach, there are also Easterners who adopt it (Şentürk, 2003, p. 43). Although some researchers point out that the official emergence of orientalism was initiated by the decision of the Council of Vienna, which convened in 1312, to establish several Arabic language chairs in various Western universities, it is difficult to determine an exact date for the beginning of orientalism. However, this concept emerged in Europe only at the end of the 18th century. It was first used in England in 1779 and then in France in 1799. The word Orientalism was recorded in the dictionary of the French Language Academy in 1838 (Zakzuk, 1993, p. 8-10). After explaining the oriental concept derived from the word orient, focusing on the word Occidental will help to understand the subject better. When the concept of occidentalism is translated into Turkish, 732

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it corresponds to the word “garbiyatçılık”. Occidental; West is used to mean belonging to the West. The word occidentalism is not as straightforward as orientalism. Therefore, it was not possible to make a clear definition. The historical development line of occidentalism is in no way similar to the development stages of orientalism (Arlı, 2004, pp. 59-60). Although it is difficult to specify an official date for the birth of orientalism, the first step on this matter can be pointed out as the decision of the Council of Vienna to establish an Arabic Language Chair in various Western universities (Said, 2000, p. 19). In 1683, the term orientalist meant a member of the Eastern or Greek Church. The term has been used to name Indian cultural ceremonies in the face of British supporters who argue that Indian education should be English in colonial India (Turner, 2002, p.17). In fact, the first indicators of the emergence of a new self-confidence and racism in the struggle to get rid of colonialism have been created by academics in Arab countries and countries such as India and Pakistan, both at the cultural and political level. At the end of these studies, a new discipline called “cultural discourse studies” was created (Said, 2010, p. 162). The concept, born as a scientific curiosity and an understanding of science, performs its dance on the stage of history as a hegemonic element held by the Western sovereign. In this sense, it cannot be said that the contemporary equivalents of orientalism are very positive. Besides, the concept has pointed out two different meanings in the past. One of its meanings; A group of painters illustrated what they saw or imagined the West by visiting interesting Eastern countries such as the Middle East and North Africa, while the second one, as Lewis puts it, “has more widely used a branch of research that has no ties to the former. (Lewis, 2014, p. 220). The West, who wants to investigate the East and create knowledge of the East, approaches the East as the West and creates an identity within its own Western identity. He forms a center in the ‘identification’ process he establishes with the East, which he looks at with his Western glasses. Outside the center defines the center, indicating an identity separate from the outside of the circle. In this sense, the West establishes its own identity and existence rather than defining or understanding the East in this hegemonic process. The opposite of the other is the West itself. Said’s not restricting the word “orientalism” to a professional expertise and trying to show that the word is in effect in the context of general culture, literature and ideology as well as both social and political attitudes should be mentioned as another factor that makes the work important. Using Foucault’s formulation of knowledge-power, Said, showing how power and knowledge, hence the colonialist West and orientalist knowledge are in an inevitable relationship with each other; Thus, the orientalists, who claimed that their researches were conducted with the motive of objective and academic curiosity up to that time, made a significant impact when they tried to show how they formed the facts they examined objectively in a value-oriented manner (Bulut, 2012, p.2). Here, another important point should be made. While Foucault gave Said a tool to define the relationship between knowledge about the East and power over the East with the knowledge-power equation, Antonio Gramsci was a guide in explaining why certain ideas about the East dominate others with the concept of hegemony (Rubin, 2007, p.25) . Said, with the help of Foucault’s concepts, emphasized that knowledge is not objective but political and tried to show the connection between the orientalist studies that developed in England, France and later the USA and the imperialist interests of these countries in the Middle East. Said evaluated this tradition as “an exercise of cultural power” activated by much more comprehensive power and sovereignty structures of Europe (Bulut, 2012, p. 3).

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Orientalism also encompassed the particular foreign policy that Britain exercised on India. By the nineteenth century, England expanded the conceptual dimension of the word Orientalism by adding missionary and spreading the English language in India and other colonies (MacKenzie, 1995, p.7). Uluç defines Orientalism as follows: a discourse embellished with Western images of the East or Western collective imagination of the East, in other words, the East with the cultural and ideological institutions of the West, the words, images and doctrines created by these institutions. Orientalism, which can be defined as perceiving by means, is effective in many disciplines from politics to art, from sociology to anthropology, from history to international relations (Uluç, 2009, p. The present meaning of orientalism has evolved into a negative quality, especially after Edward Said. Bernard Lewis, in an article in which he evaluated Edward Said’s work called Orientalism, claimed that the concept, which complained about the negative meanings that academic circles in America and Europe ascribed to the concept of orientalism, was defiled. For this reason, the use of the orientalist concept was abandoned with a decision taken in the “International Congress of Orientalists” that convened in the summer of 1973 (Lewis, 1982, p.50). The negative connotation of the concept - as will be discussed in more detail in the following pages is undoubtedly due to the paradigm crisis created by Edward Said. While Lewis limited his orientalism to an academic endeavor, Said extended it to a wide range of fields to include travel books and novels about the Orient, as well as reports by academics working in the entourage of government administrators. (Shah, Said, Lewis, 2011, p. 48.) The different evaluation of orientalism in their work is a sign of theoretical disagreement. However, in the following periods, Said’s contribution to the field enabled post-colonial thinking to question the orientalist accumulation and this led to the termination of the concept. Yücel Bulut explains the termination of the words Orientalist and orientalism with two basic factors: The first is the changes in the field of orientalist studies, which started from the period between the First and Second War, but whose main emergence was determined and imposed by the conditions of the Second War. During this period, the Eastern world techniques of modern Western social science methods and began to investigate utilizing the tools and separated into its field of expertise to Eastern examined: the Middle East, Far East, China, Japan, Egypt, Syria, each of the regions or countries such as Turkey, all in their field It has begun to be studied by specialized researchers… The use of the term orientalist has become debatable when the Eastern academicians’ participation in the working circles of Western orientalists and their desire to mention their fields of study and their fields of expertise with names that will clearly express their fields have become debatable. The second is the new meanings of orientalism revealed by criticisms of orientalism - especially Edward Said’s work on Orientalism. Said, -M. Following Foucault - he establishes a link between orientalist knowledge and economic and political forces. In his analysis, orientalism is the accomplice of Western colonialism (Bulut, 2010, p.2). In addition, since the research teams (orientalists) that went to the countries studied in the previous periods were not specialized in their field, they were seen in an orientalist military science field and a scientist in the field of art. The students of the East were no longer associated with a single discipline, but rather with branches of discipline (Lewis, 1982, p. 2-4). After this period, experts in the field were assigned in the field to be examined. Among those assigned, there were sometimes academicians from the countries to be researched. Specialization of the areas studied in these countries has increased the efficiency in the field. The second is that, with Edward Said’s establishment of this symptomatic relationship between orientalism as an academic discipline and power, new negative meanings are attributed to 734

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orientalism. This relationship, which attracted a lot of reaction from the orientalists who continued their studies in the field of orientalism and adopted scientific objectivity as a principle, was subjected to many criticisms. These two reasons have worn the classical meanings of orientalism and created a brand new scale of meanings for everyone working in the field of orientalism, whether desired or not (Bulut, 2017, p.2-3). Thus, Orientalism, by working together with imperialism, aimed to make the Eastern countries fully obey the Western civilization (Yıldırım, 2002, p. 28). However, it is a fact that the word orientalism does not appeal to specialists working in the field of “Oriental Studies” or Eastern Cultures today, as these people find it very foggy and meaningless when they consider it in the history of Western European colonialism that lasted until the 19th or early twentieth century (Said, 1998., p.13). During the reform process, orientalism’s efforts, which were limited to knowing what the East had, who the Eastern was, habits and lives, later turned into a professional analysis of the East from its whole to the smallest parts. Orientalism has become a systematic and gigantic branch of science that aims to eliminate the obscurity of the East and to gain as much information about the East as possible (Clifford, 2017, p. 139). Thus, orientalism has settled on the basis of Eurocentric thought and researches, studies and scientific articles written about the east have long been the backbone of orientalism. Lewis, in the second and more widely used definition of orientalism, abstracted orientalism from its first definition by saying “it is an occupation of the academic field” and stated that orientalism is a more professional field as a research field (Lewis 2007, p. 220). Looking at these definitions, it is seen that orientalism is a branch of science for those who evaluate it positively in general. In addition to these, there are also scientists in the second category, who do not deal with orientalism so fundamentally, transferring it with more complex definitions than others, covering it with terms and defining it with negative meanings. As an example of the second category, M. Hamdi Zakzuk (1993, p.8) can be given first. Zakzuk orientalism; It sees it as the existence of a state of war between Christians and Muslims and as a decoder to understand the language and belief system of the East, and accordingly it associates this “effort” with missionary. He argues that orientalism came into being by Europe in the 13th century due to the desire to know more closely the beliefs, languages ​​and social life of Muslims, and thus it is difficult to distinguish it from religious activities (Zakzuk, 1993, p. 38). One of the harshest critics of Orientalism, Edward Said’s work Orientalism is perhaps the best example of the second group. Said says in his book “I think that the interests of Europe and then of America in the East are more political, as I try to present here based on some clear historical facts for my own account” (Said, 1998, p.26).

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ORIENTALISM AND “OTHERIZATION” The most important element that Orientalism builds on its discourse is the marginalization of the East. Othering, which is directly related to the discourse of power-knowledge, aims to glorify the opposite while negating the other. In order to fully understand the East-West distinction, the concept of the other and the other elements that make up the other should be emphasized. The concept of the other may arise from specific differences as well as from differences between social groups. If a rough generalization is made, the things that make up the differences pass into the representation dimension after a certain point and / or process. Representations, on the other hand, consist of systematic and conscious discourses, signs, languages ​​and visual contents used in the creation of the other.

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The most important element that Orientalism builds on its discourse is the marginalization of the East. Othering, which is directly related to the discourse of power-knowledge, aims to glorify the opposite while negating the other. There are different approaches to the “Other”. Keyman summarizes these approaches as follows: The ‘other’ as an empirical object; The purpose here is to explain the “other”, which is seen as an object that can be understood by collecting information, based on so-called objective and real information about it. The ‘other’ as a cultural object; The ‘other’ is defined as what is not, rather than what it is, as a result of the essentialism that characterizes the modernizing bipolar view established between the Western and the Eastern. It is seen as a cultural object showing the lack of everything the modern self has. ‘Other’ as a discourse structure; it constitutes an object of knowledge established by various discourses and institutions. The other as a difference; By emphasizing the relational character of the self and the other, allowing the interdependence between the colonizer and the exploited to be examined critically, it moves the other problem to the axis of identity / difference (Keyman, 1999, pp. 76-78). It is a matter of paradoxical way that people who cannot exist alone and who need society, while establishing the sense of us, also produce others in a paradoxical way. While I / we and the other / others exist together sociologically, they also construct mutual identities (Kentel, 2012, p.136). In this context, the existence of another person is deemed necessary in order for a person, that is, a person, to exist, since an individual self will only exist in and for itself to the extent that it exists for another self. While the person who is the subject is confident, its validity is not accepted as it is not objectively accepted by the other. That is, a struggle must have taken place for two people to get themselves accepted by each other. This struggle is not a one-off, like the master-slave relationship, but is the natural result of a history of mutual interaction. (Bulut, 2005, p.11-12) As the other principle, “the glorification of the” necessitates the degradation of the other, since it has to be in a position against “us”. Lacan (2013, pp. 219-221), analyzing the concept of subject based on the concept of the other, states that the subject emerges in the presence of the other, in his field. In this context, the other is effective in the formation of the identity of the subject, and the definition of the other in the construction of the identity causes the subject to hold the power / power, and to define his power and self through the other. In this process, the other is constantly reproduced. The identity of the reproduced subject and object is based on a distinction and prejudice. While the prejudice is secured with the stereotypes of the others, the cultural distance of the foreigner causes him to escape from learning (Alver, 2000, p. 76). According to Türkbağ (Türkbağ, 2003, p.211), the emphasis that there can be no identity without “the Other” affects both individual perspectives and foreign policies of states. The clarification of identity is directly proportional to the clarity of the “Other”. (Adanır, 2012). According to Baudrilard (Baudrilard, 2012, p. 36), what America lacks most today is the disappearance of self-critical ideologies. For example, the competition between the USA and the Soviet Union during the Cold War period is also on the axis of identity. While the USA acquired the concepts of democracy, human rights, liberal economy and the free world in general, it continued this through its anti-Soviet Union. With the conceptual process and subject / other relationship; Looking at the semantic origin of the concept of the other, it can be said that the concept is used for foreigners, and the forms of sub-humanity are defined / created in the discourse of the other with the word barbarian used by the Greeks. The con736

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cept of the other, which is sometimes preferred to describe other places and other people, has also been used in situations where Europe is hesitant to define the other (s). In this context, the ‘other’ becomes necessarily negative. Otherness involves seeing someone who does not share common features with “me” as completely “other”, sometimes even not human. This other by definition resists all familiarization. Here, the ‘other’ is the absolute denial of the ‘I’ and rejects the idea of ​​establishing a connection (Bilgin, 2007, p. 177). This attitude towards the “other” shows that an action started with “recognition” turns into “definition”. In every situation where recognition turns into a definition, one of the two subjects either gives the other an identity of their own or begins to interfere with their given identity (Bulaç, 1995, p.79). The East, seen as a member of a different culture, has always been in the other state throughout the historical process. Because the West calls what is different from itself “the other”. Thus, the East has always been in the “other” position for the West. Othering brings with it concepts such as modernity and westernization. Because the phenomenon of modernization also marginalizes what is different from itself. Modernity is the concept that the West has. Most of the time, westernization has been perceived as modernity; used interchangeably. In this direction, the West has always positioned itself as a subject against the other (East) in the historical process. The West, which chooses this path de facto and culturally, puts itself in the center and blessed it, and has postponed the others at different distances according to their perception of threat. While he was cutting various identities for the other person, he also reconstructed his own Western / Western identity (Tatar, 2012, p. 92). The main purpose of this other discourse, which reinforces a separation that will regard those outside its context as the other, is that the West reaches its own identity through the other and draws the border with it (Subaşı, 2003, p. 20-21). In the history of East-West relations, the East being the closest and the other to which the West struggled is one of the most concrete indicators of this process. East, Turks and Islam religion are mysterious, threatening, repulsive, barbarian, etc. As a result, it has existed as one of Europe’s other ever-existing, most frequently repeated images (Hentsch, 2016, p. 73,85). Although the existence of cultures necessarily leads to the existence of the other, this recognition does not necessarily require an exclusionary cultural-political discourse with an idealized perception of the other. Western thinkers, who define themselves in the mirror of the East by means of continuous shapes, are both the defining and defining part of this definition. The focus of every situation is the West. In this process, the East is both established and the West excluded by the East is defined over the positive and negative features of the definition elements (Arlı, 2004, p. 22). The West, which both defined and defined, thus provided the ground for the Orientalization of the East. For example, the East, which is the other of the West in the media, is marginalized as an object and is depicted with the following frames, especially in international news flow (Şener, 2017, p.6): The East is always presented by differentiating it according to the West, emphasizing the differences with the West. -In the news about the East, an emphasis on conflict, political crises, ethnic discrimination and especially Islam comes to the fore. - Answers to why and how questions are not included in the given news and no information is given about the historicality of the events. - From time to time, the news includes Western sources more often than local sources, and thus the East is silenced and the West speaks on its behalf .

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Orientalism has become one of the main topics of social sciences, posed by Said as the problem of the “other”. According to Hilmi Yavuz, the West considers itself different and superior to the “other” since the Greek age. It regards the other as an inferior human species and itself as a true human being. From this idea he believes that the more human himself has the right to represent the less human other. This ontological “object” of the other and the ontological “subject” of the West is the ontological basis of orientalism. According to this, the East can neither know itself nor the West. Therefore, it has the authority and right to define neither itself nor the West. Orientalism voluntarily represents the East for both the West and the East itself. In other words, Yavuz, like Said, handled orientalism in an ontological aspect; He considered the East as “object” and the West as “subject”. The East cannot define itself, cannot defend, it must be represented by someone else; And what will do this function is “West” (Yavuz, 1999, p. 41). In his work titled “Orientalism”, Said explains the internal structure of the non-Western other in the process of the establishment of the Western modern self, and analyzes historically and discursively how the modern self was established by alienating the different. According to Said, in the post-Enlightenment period, European culture has positioned its identity against the identity that defines itself as “the East”. Orientalism is the process of establishing its own hegemony in the world by producing the East as antiWestern identity of the West. Therefore, what is different is the marginalization of what is different. On the basis of the distinction between East and West, the other is established as an integral part of Europe’s material and moral (cultural) civilization. The West thus presents itself as modern, progressive, democratic, developmental and individualistic, while attributing to the different traits opposed to it (traditional, underdeveloped, authoritarian, communitarian). Thus, the different is brought to the position of the other of the West and is revealed by the West (Keyman, 2002, p. 21). In order to dominate the East, which is called the Other, the distinction called the East-West distinction was made first and the West saw the East differently by bringing its existence to the superior level. Considering today’s East-West relationship will help to better understand this situation. Because even today, it is seen that non-Western societies are colonized in order to ensure that they are marginalized by the West. Orientalism, institutionally, politically, economically, culturally, discursively and historically, is the process of Western epistemology perceiving the East, establishing it as its opposite, thus universalizing its existence hegemonically. After all, orientalism is the act of discursively marginalizing what is different (Keyman, 2002, p. 22). Concrete examples of the discourses that the West reproduces its social identity and political identity with the construction of the other are also voiced by Western politicians today. With Western discourses where examples of marginalization can be seen frequently (Ataman, 2017, p. 16); With the transition of the West to a unipolar system after the bipolar system, the enemy-other search that it needed was realized with Islam and Islam in the intellectual dimension, communism etc. It has been replaced by ideologies such as the other (Gökçe, 2012, p.95). The glorification of the West’s own identity by idealizing it through other identities, groups, and religions has also been realized through the religion of Islam, and Islam has become the field where another discourse of the West is produced. This point of view, which causes discrimination, has also gained a popular discourse with the media.

ISLAMOPHOBIA In the bipolar system that collapsed with the end of the Cold War, an enemy was needed to replace communism, which is the opposite ideology. The increasing prejudice against Islam and Muslims in 738

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Europe, especially after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, reached its peak after the terrorist acts in Europe; As the economic crisis that shook Europe in the late 2000s was linked to the increasing migrant crisis, a new enemy was created by transforming it into a radical state. In this period, the inevitable rise of far-right parties, which contributed to the transformation of prejudices into permanent codes, caused racism to gain a new face in Europe. This new face, which is defined as “Islamophobia”, contains a separating and marginalizing discourse such as looking at the members of the Muslim communities living in Europe as terrorists. Islamophobia, which means fear and hatred against Islam, is the words and deeds that violate the human rights, religious and civil liberties of Muslims and cause more discrimination and prejudices. The emphasis on Islamophobia and especially Islam causes negative thoughts about Islam. It literally means “fear of Islam”. It stems from prejudice and discrimination against Muslims and the religion of Islam. It refers to irrational hatred, discrimination, hostility and hatred towards Muslims. The word Islamophobia can also be used as an enmity to Islam, since the fear of something, especially if it is unfounded, can turn into hostility against the feared thing when it is continuous and cannot be eliminated (Uzun, 2012, p.13). Islamophobia: “All Muslims are heard and not simply linguistic; Discrimination, crimes of violence, social life and international relations are meant to be a comprehensive statement that counteracts the feelings of fear and hostility. It also makes the wise societies’ attitudes such as fear, fear, condemnation and belittling in the face of Islam. In the core of these emotions, there are historical and cultural prejudices and attitudes that are created and reproduced through the efforts of institutions such as family, social environment, education and school. In addition, it is seen that various content and currents are visible, but in their historical presentations, and in their speeches. In some world, there are some idiological and political groups, historical and cultural pre-emptions, preempting the opposition to Islamophobia, and not to be removed (Allen, 2006, p.6). As a result of this, islamophobia, the fear of the people who do not recognize the religion of Islam, and the opposition of Muslims against this fear provide the opposition. In recent years, the use of discourses such as Islam and violence, the rise of political Islam, jihad activism and Islamic terrorism has been increasing. The theme of violence is continuous within the anti-Muslim discourse. Conceptually, Islamophobia consists of the words Islam and phobia. The word “phobia” originating from Phobos, the god of horror and fear in Greek mythology, is defined in the dictionary as an irrational, intense, stubborn fear that is caused by a certain object, situation or activity and which is considered unwarranted or excessive by the person himself. Islamophobia, which is defined as negative attitudes and feelings towards Islam and Muslims in the most general sense, semantically means “fear of Islam”. Islamophobia, which has been transformed into a concept that has been sanctified in time, has been tried to be internalized on the basis of fear. (Canatan, 2007, pp. 25-26). The word Islamophobia, which draws attention to the term phobia, which is used as a psychological disease, expresses the instinct to avoid, fear and escape from Islam and Muslims, although it is not based on any reality (Hıdır, 2007a, p. 82-83). Islamophobia has been drawing attention as the most widely known and used term among the terms that have negative value judgments about Islam and Muslims or imply such judgments. However, terms such as “Anti-Muslim Racism”, “Anti-Muslim”, “Hatred of Muslims”, “Anti-Islamism”, “Islamophobia” and “Demonizing Muslims” are also used in international literature and academic debates on the basis of basic principles. 739

 Orientalism, Islamophobia, and the Concept of Otherization Through Civil Conflict, Digital Platform Netflix

Although many different terms are used to describe the negativity and hostility towards Islam and Muslims throughout the world; The common use of these terms is to describe feelings such as hostility, hatred, hatred, discrimination and racism that are generally intended to be conveyed against Muslims and Islam. To make a simple definition in this context, Islamophobia; It should be considered as the general name of negative value judgments such as hatred, hatred, hostility and fear directed against Islam and Muslims. He states that Islamophobia should be conceptualized as xenophobia and antisemitism. When the concept is taken from a broader perspective, it symbolizes a racist attitude that includes individual and social relations developed against Muslims and their lifestyles. Especially when it is necessary to approach the issue from the point of view of Muslims; Islamophobia is that a prejudice internalized by western societies has become commonplace in daily life (Gottschalk and Greenberg 2008, p.11). Although Islamophobia, a fear produced in the West, seems to be the product of new times, it should be remembered that the fear of Islam in the West is not a new and special situation. This problematic perception of Islam and prejudiced attitudes towards Muslims show that Islamophobia affects many dimensions of Muslims’ social lives and this effect occurs in the following ways.

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• • • •

Attacks, harassment and violence against Muslims. Attacks on mosques, Islamic centers and civilian formations of Muslims. Discrimination in education, business life, living spaces and services. Disrespect and difculty in public institutions and organizations.

It is important to identify a phenomenon that is on the agenda of Europe and to identify the factors that cause it to emerge. The main problem in defining this issue is that it is very diverse because it has been a long-established past just centuries ago, as opposed to a continuous uncertainty in islamophobia. The result of the migration of workers to Europe, especially to Europe, is the reaction of diverse societies that are ethnic and cultural, while this international congregation was in the 1960s. During this period, even if the phenomenon of islamophobia underwent certain changes, the people who have been subject to the negative implementation of this situation are subject to change, and the language is worn, and the language is worn. Islamophobia is not defined together with the currents such as “prejudice”, “discrimination”, “exclusion”, “violence”. The attitude and behaviors of the Muslims in the daily life of the Bâıllа and the Bâtılâri are restricted with the “Prevention”. “Discrimination” circuit; In the life of Muslims in the life of their work, the differences between education and healthcare services are differentiated, and the difficulties and troubles are exemplified by them. If Muslims are prevented by “exclusion”, they should not be deprived of their dismissal, including the governance mechanisms, and the use of politics and democratic principles. Muslims are physically stripped by the verbal confrontations made by the Muslims, but they are defined within the “violence” cycle (Esposito and Yılmaz, 2012, pp. 40-44). The West defined the peoples such as Arabs and Persians living in the lands called the Middle East today as “inferior and second class” societies even before the birth and spread of Islam. During the ancient Greek and Roman period, they feared and hated the enemies who lived in the Asian lands of which they bordered. While the Greeks define themselves as “civilized” and “freedom lover”; As the antithesis of their identity, they perceived Asians like the Persians as despotic and barbarian people (Sayar, 2014, p. 24). Roman writers depicted Arabs as “bandits and wolves of Arabia” before they became Muslims. In fact, the West established the understanding of “barbarian them” against “civilized us” in the 4th century, which corresponds to three centuries before the birth of Islam (Uzun, 2012, p. 23). With the birth 740

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of Islam, European churches made propaganda discourses against this new religion, which they saw as a threat to them, claiming that it was illegitimate. The term Islamophobia was first used in written sources in 1985 by Edward Said. Said states that Islamophobia is also common in western societies like Anti-Semitism in this usage; He stated that Islamophobia is ignored by western writers and thinkers as much as Anti-Semitism, and that modern Christian western society’s hostility to Islam and Muslims go hand in hand with Anti-Semitism (Said, 1985, p. 8-9). The second use of the term appeared in the American Journal Insight magazine in 1991 to describe the hostile attitudes and disregarding policies of the Soviet Union against Muslims in some regions. Especially after the withdrawal after the occupation of Afghanistan and the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the concept of Islamophobia has gained an even more important position in the world literature (Runnymede Trust, 1997). But the main source from which these listed reasons are basically nourished; With the end of the cold war, there has been an attempt to select the enemy from the spectrum of civilization that western societies could not find in the “ideology arena”. It is precisely at this point that a new and more comprehensive enemy was needed instead of communism whose role was taken away from the stage of history, and American think tanks and media outlets have attempted to find or produce this new enemy. Although the concept of Islamophobia started to be used in the 1990s, it gained popularity after September 11, 2001. Although Islamophobia means fear of Islam and Muslims, it also includes xenophobia and hostility towards Islam. The concept is also a new phenomenon that emerged as an irrational fear and hatred of Muslims, which means hatred, hatred and enmity towards Islam. Islamophobia, which started to rise in America and Europe with the September 11 attack, developed hostility against Muslims and Islam in Europe with the attacks of 15 and 20 November 2003 Istanbul, 11 March 2004 Madrid, 7 July 2005 London and 13 November 2015 Paris, undertaken by the terrorist organization Еl-Kаidе. and increased the sense of exclusion. Terrorist attacks reinforced old prejudices and Islamophobia increased even more. Muslims have been perceived as the new “beyond” of the West, as “threats and enemies within” and have faced enormous difficulties. In the West, the image of the Muslim is adversely affected by these attacks and fears and paranoia against Islam increase, while attitudes towards Muslims are getting harder. Muslims living in Europe and the USA have become scapegoats in the name of fighting terrorism. The Islamophobia that spread after 9/11 increased the anti-Muslim opposition, as a result of which many attacks took place. There have been numerous increases in Islamophobic discourse and agendas, such as September 11, July 7 and other terrorist attacks, such as calls for the prohibition of the Qur’an after the capture of terrorist suspects in America or Europe, filing, closing mosques, expelling Muslim citizens or preventing immigration from Muslim countries. Leaders of right-wing national parties, anti-immigration political parties, political and media commentators, and strict Christian and Zionist religious leaders regularly expressed hate speech by targeting not only extreme Muslims, but Islam and Muslims in general, thereby attempting to associate Islam and Muslims with terrorism. As a result, while the rise in Islamophobia emerged, a widespread suspicion against Muslims and the discrimination Muslims were subjected to due to their race and religion, all these led to hate crimes and other violence (Lambert-Githens-Mazer, 2010, p.27). The transmission of Islamophobia in the historical process is the construction of anti-Islamism, and this definition appears as a result of an ideological and political attitude (Canatan, 2007, p. 42-43). Islamophobia is a result of policies that produce anti-Islamism; The phobia, in other words fear, does not originate from Islam, but from phobic individuals who adopt the perceptions and ideologies 741

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produced about Islam and the perception mechanisms that produce it. Therefore, Western political administrators who position themselves as the center of the world, because of Islam’s alternative solutions to issues such as insecurity and alienation of the modern age, generate Islamophobia and fear of Islam. In this context, the mentally created anti-Islamism prepares the legitimacy ground for acts of violence (Görmez, 2015, p. 7-8). Anti-Islamism, which can be seen as a sociological and political problem, is reproduced in the West not only by civilians but also by the state and educational institutions. Anti-Islam propaganda, especially produced by educational institutions, causes young children to grow up with anti-Islamic knowledge and ideas. In addition, this systematic disinformation is carried out by people who have a biased position about Islam and do not have expert and objective knowledge (Canatan & Hıdır, 2007, p.8-9) Anti-Islamist perspective; India, like China and several African countries where sizable Muslim minority, even in countries where the majority of Muslims (Turkey, Egypt, Algeria, Lebanon) has been observed. Although there are anti-Islamic opposition groups and political representatives of these groups in these countries, Islamophobia is generally defined and used as a thought that developed in America and Europe and is referred to only with America and Europe. Therefore, with its frequent use and rich connotations, Islamophobia can be found anywhere there is an ideology or structure that people hate Muslims or fear Islam (Shryock, 2010, p. 1-2).

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A LOOK AT THE EAST IN THE CINEMA ORIENTALIST DISCOURSE Media has many functions such as informing, socializing, entertaining, educating, being a culture carrier and ensuring political participation. The fact that mass media has become more effective in daily life with technological developments has significantly increased the effect of these functions. Media, which is the main source of information on many issues, has become both the producer and the distributor of information in social life. The media, which offers a content that can appeal to everyone, has increased the power of information to direct the individual in social life with the increase of broadcasting opportunities. Therefore, while modern life is shaped by the media and shaped by the media (Kaplan, 1991, p. 1), our perceptions in the modern world are shaped by the symbolic forms in the media. The spread of the effects of media products in this way causes us to experience and observe events with a certain perception, and to learn the world beyond the field of daily encounters through the media (Thompson, 2008, p. 60). It is possible to say that cinema fulfills various functions in shaping social life and reproducing it (Işıkman, 2009, p.70). Cinema (Ryan & Kellner, 2010, p.37-38), which is of particular importance for the conduct of today’s political struggles, creates an arena of cultural representation and determines how reality will be grasped through representational forms (Ryan & Kellner, 2010, p.37-38), will be able to manipulate the audience ideologically by distorting reality with the stereotypes it produces. It has a power (Işıkman, 2009, p. 124). There are many “stereotypes” that can be interpreted as an orientalist element in cinema, as in many works of art in which orientalist thought is embodied. Examples of such films are Lawrence of Arabia (1962) (Lawrence of Arabia) directed by David Lean, Midnight Express (1978) directed by Alan Parker and The Ten Commandments (1956) directed by Cecil B. DeMille.) The movie (Ten Commandments) can be shown (Rosenblatt, 2009, p.61).

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The orientalist perspective in cinema as an art of representation can manifest in different ways. The use of the spaces in the film, the arrangement of the story and the characters are important in terms of identifying orientalist elements (Kırel, 2012, p.453). A number of theses are presented through the representative elements selected and combined together with the films that are cinema products, and while doing this, the act of inculcating a certain position or point of view to the audience is realized. (Ryan & Kellner, 2010, p.18) The psychological stances that set the groundwork for the construction of social reality, with the movies that are strong for political interests, a large piece of cultural representations that keep the social institutions standing that will guide the thinking about what the world is or should be formed (Ryan & Kellner, 2010, p.38). In addition, the structure of the cinema that enables the description of the other and its use as an important tool for nations to form their own identities through the other, define and convey their nationalist discourse necessitates the examination of cinema productions and subtext reading (Önal & Baykal, 2011, p.108). The development of technology and mass media is seen as one of the greatest achievements of world civilization. The field that created a new revolution in kite communication tools in the twentieth century was cinema. The cinema, which was in the hands of European countries until the First World War, later took over the USA and it continues to dominate until today. The media, especially cinema, which is the most powerful tool of orientalism, reflects the created image of the East today. According to Said (2004), who emphasized that literary representations of the East can never be natural depictions of the East, representations of the East should be seen as constructed images that should be questioned due to their ideological content. This point of view on the representation of the East has formed a fundamental basis not only in the literary field, but also in the examination of the representation of the East in the visual field (cinema, television, advertising). Despite its controversial Eastern representations, Orientalism continues to spread through films. Keeping similar representations seen in painting and photography alive in the cinema makes this understanding’s insistence to take a place in visual arts. When it comes to cinema, there are many examples of how orientalism is used. A little careful look at the Eastern characters in cinema and how the East is represented as a place will make it visible. In other words, the East continues to be created through cinema. Considering the East within the context of ideology and orientalist discourse will help us understand how this “creation” was processed and for whom it was created (Kırel, 2012, p. 452). In this sense, it is an indisputable fact that cinema is an art form created under the control of Western hegemony. The expressions of the West about the East reveal artistic products far from reality. If we examine the East in line with the development line of Hollywood movies, there is no content in the context of orientalism from the invention of cinema to the first quarter of the 20th century. However, it is possible to come across traces of Eastern tales in Hollywood cinema since these years. In these years, a tendency to marginalize both culturally and spatially draws attention. Warnings about the East have started to be conveyed to the audience. Some Eastern elements can be seen, such as Arab sheikhs, mummies and baths involved in mysterious events. Looking at the representation of the East in Western cinema (especially in Hollywood) is of great importance in revealing the discursive strategies the West uses in defining the East. Kellner argues that radio, television, cinema, and other means of communication play a major role in shaping our identity, our race-nation, our thoughts of being male or female. Media products not only influence our thoughts about our own identities, but also shape our perception of the “other” by representing the “other”. According to Kellner, the media reveal who is strong, or rather able to exercise force. Thus, it both legitimizes the

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attitude of those who have power and ensures that the powerless always remain in their current position (Erkan, 2009, p.20). Matthew Bernstein (1997) The Birth of a Nation (D. Griffith-1915), considered the most important “transformation” films in American cinema history, Jazz Singer (The Jazz Singer, Alan Crosland-1927), Gone with the Wind (Gone With the Wind, Victor Fleming-1939) draws attention to the fact that African heroes were used in all of his films to “represent the protagonists below”. However, the author argues that the translation of the Thousand and One Nights into French for the first time in 1800 and then other Western languages ​​turned into one of the biggest factors in the strengthening of orientalist ideology in cinema. With the influence of the One Thousand and One Nights, the heroes of the Middle East started to replace the North African heroes who represent the other in American cinema. Between 1910 and 1920, Hollywood film companies produce 4 to 6 action and romantic melodramas set in Africa each year and serve them to the world. Apart from this, the fact that With Lawrance in Arabia and the Lawrance document films in Arabia were watched by significant audiences during the First World War shows that the productions about the East are being wondered by the Western audience. In 1917 and 1918, the American film company Fox began preparing to shoot the films Alaaddin and the Magic Lamp (Alaaddin and His Lamp) and Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves. By 1920, the theater play Kısmet, written by Edward Knoblauch in 1911, was adapted for the first time and transferred to the cinema (Bernstein, 2011, p.1). It is possible to see these films as the most primitive form of orientalism in cinema. In addition, the above films provide a historical reminder of the orientalist arrangements produced during World War I. Hilal Erkan is one of the writers who maintain that the emphasis on cultural difference continues today in movies produced by Hollywood, which is considered to be the world’s largest film industry. According to Erkan, this emphasis is also made on the East, however, in the production of Hollywood movies, the East is also used as a rich setting; Hollywood movies watched almost all over the world shape our view of the world and our values; These films have an effect on what we consider to be good, what is bad, what is positive and what is negative (Erkan, 2009, p. 21). In his work Orientalism in Hollywood Cinema, Erkan analyzed the films Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981), Mummy (Stephen Sommers-1999), Mummy Returns (Stephen Sommers-2001). The Divine Treasure Hunters movie is one of the Indiana Jones adventures serials. In the film, a well-known archaeologist, Dr. Indiana Jones is tasked by the American Army Intelligence to find the Ark of the Holy Testament. Erkan says the film is filled with images of Egyptian men and women who act erratically in their local dress. Erkan shows that the film carries the elements of the orientalist discourse and criticizes the positioning of the East in the other position in the film and its characterization as a place away from civilization (Erkan, 2009, p. 124-126). Erkan analyzed the film by comparing the representation of the local woman and the local man with the representation of the Western woman and the Western man. Criticizing the reduction of Egyptian women to similar images in the film, Erkan underlined that local women are portrayed as shy, quiet and hospitable. The representations of indigenous men in the film are presented through characters such as Sallah and Katanga and Arab men in masses. Erkan pointed out that Arab men are portrayed as anonymous and inexpressive masses that roam around Western researchers, display strange behaviors, and are used for jobs that Westerners do not want to do. In the film, indigenous men are shown as lazy, cowardly, fatalistic, insidious and treacherous, as in orientalist texts. Western characters are represented as individuals with both scientific and physical strength. Western men are more often positioned as archaeologists, travelers or treasure hunters, and are presented as heroes who will save the East from ignorance and ignorance. Arab men are shown as people who are unaware of the 744

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 Orientalism, Islamophobia, and the Concept of Otherization Through Civil Conflict, Digital Platform Netflix

treasure and heritage under their own land, and who watch their work with indifferent eyes, thus creating the impression that the Easterners are indifferent and therefore easily exploitable. On the other hand, by representing the Westerners (Indiana Jones, Belloq and Germans) as knowledgeable people who are aware of this sacred heritage, according to Erkan, Westerners are legitimized, depriving the Egyptians of their historical heritage and keeping them in European museums, and ruling uninformed natives, It transforms the East into a female image awaiting the West’s rescue (Erkan, 2009, p. 135-140). Islam was identified with Arabs in these productions, which were inspired by the cartoons of Europeans, whose traces we can see since the years of cinema’s influence, and Arabs were transferred to the big screen as people living in the desert, trading women, fighting with each other. Especially in films such as Fatima (1897) and Fatima’s Dance (Fatma’s Dance-1907), the character of Muslim women was formed and Muslims were presented as entertainment material. In the movie Adventure in Iraq (1943), which was published in the following years, Muslims were presented as devil worshipers. In these films produced in the West, Muslims were transferred to the cinema with similar discourses; characters such as the murderous terrorist and immoral sheikh were added to the Arab representation in 138 films (Ramji, 2005, p.3; Shaheen, 2009, p.70-71; Keskin, 1996, p. 33-34). These representations about Islam and Muslims, produced through cinema, included discourses that are far from reality and based on clichés, but also functioned as the manifestation of the perception of the other created by the West. Therefore, it is possible to see the reflections of Islamophobia, which is also present in the representations in other media tools, in the cinema sector. Islam, which is represented in this way in cinema films, was also matched with terrorist incidents, and contents were created for the construction of the Muslim terrorist concept in minds. Muslims, who are the villains of Hollywood, were presented in the cinema as terrorists and supporters of violence before the September 11 events. Since the 1970s, the representations about Islam and Muslims in the above films have changed shape and various terrorist characters have been produced in parallel with the foreign policies of America (Yorulmaz, 2018, p.3337). Especially since the late 1970s, films in which Muslims / Arabs are identified with terrorism have started to increase (Ramji, 2015, p.953). Edward Said also speaks of the influence of the mass media in the development of people’s thinking and perspective, and the formation of the attitude towards the “self” and “other”: Serious negotiations, artistic production, the interaction of ordinary people with each other in daily life, their compromises and conflicts come from their own will. began to come under the domination of the media. Sensationalism, mere xenophobia and intense conflicts have become events in the daily routine as a result of the lack of sensitivity between “Us” and “Them” on both sides of the existing imaginary line (Said, 2000, p.50). Mass media are seen as channels that reproduce social ideology. McPhaill linked the ideological dimension of these tools to electronic colonialism. According to him, how much of the cultural products produced by the mass media in “third world countries” are rejected, forgotten, changed and preferred to products imported from foreign countries constitutes one of the most fundamental problems in these countries. McPhaill argued that electronic colonialism was just as dangerous as economic, military, and political colonialism (McPhaill, 1991, p.151).

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EVALUATION OF THE “MESSIAH” SERIES ON THE CONCEPT OF ORIENTALISM, ISLAMOPHOBI AND OTHERIZATION One of the most important visual art representation tools of the media is cinema. Today, new media channels determine how we perceive individuals and societies. With the internet taking an important place in our lives, the TV series industry has developed rapidly. Historical figures and powerful periods of the past have been put at the service of popular culture in order to enchant people again. In today’s era of digitalization, Netflix, which is the most important sample of digital television understanding, has taken on the mission of playing a decisive role in social relations. Netflix, which reaches the masses with its broadcasts, can influence the masses with the scene it creates and the discourse it creates. Directing its aforementioned influence to the phenomena of marginalization with hate speech, Netflix serves the relevant ideology. The TV series industry, which combines visual and auditory elements, is now doing things that make the cinema industry jealous, and it can be said that it will take the place of cinema in the future. It can be thought that this transition process will be achieved quickly with the opening of the houses to technical tools called cinema systems and companies that control the TV series market such as Netflix. TV series viewers are in a passive position, just like the cinema audience. With the scenario in the series, a new reality is revealed and the perceptions of the audience are reshaped through this reality. Thus, it is the contents of these series that also constitute the perception of the “other” of individuals and societies.

AİM AND METHOD In the study; Religious issues in the TV series “Messiah” published on a digital platform called Netflix have been examined in relation to the phenomenon of orientalism. It has been tried to reveal that the series examined in the research contains many messages from civilization conflict to orientalism. Purpose of the research; to examine the orientalist discourses in the series and to reveal the effects of ideological discourses on religion. For this purpose, the “Messiah” series has been evaluated over the concept of orientalism by taking the Orientalism and the Concept of Othering, Islamophobia and a View to the East in Cinema Orientalist Discourse.

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FINDINGS Orientalist films reveal themselves mainly in the context of the characters and the main venues used. In this respect, the first thing to do when looking for an orientalist perspective in films is the arrangement of the story and characters in the film and the use of the spaces. (Kırel, 2012: 453). Another important point is the representation of race, nationality and otherness. Especially the arrangement of good and evil plays an important role in the presentation of the fictional world created by the film. Opposite features represented in films against the intelligence, abilities and physical characteristics of Western characters are given in Eastern characters. According to the orientalist discourse, the characters representing the east show lust, materialism, terrorism, lethargy, folly and character weakness. The east also represents 746

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backwardness. Western characters are presented with a democratic, sane, reliable, virtuous, and powerful image. Especially in western movies, there are almost no positive depictions in characters that are defined as Arab. The religious content geopolitical thriller “Messiah” (Messiah, 2020), published by the American online digital streaming platform Netflix, has quickly become a current issue both on its own platform and on online movie sites.

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Figure 1. Poster for Messiah TV series, 2020

With this series, orientalism was brought to the fore in a Netflix project for the first time. In this series, especially the association of Islamic elements with terrorism draws the attention of the audience. It is clearly seen in the series that there are “moving away from traditional religion” directions. The series contains many messages from the clash of civilizations to orientalism. Netflix’s broadcast line, which is known by everyone and has become a classic, has been moved to a very different dimension with the “Messiah” series.

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‘Michael Petroni, who created the Messiah ‘series project, realized it and mostly worked as a scriptwriter, says that they want to open their belief systems to discussion with this series. He states that they did not give people a clear answer about the Messiah until the last part of the series, and that topics such as Christ, religions, salvation, and the End Times should be opened to discussion through the series, and people from all over the world wanted to put forward their own thoughts by making inferences about the character in the series. It is understood that it is intended to impress more people with the ambiguous narrative skillfully designed around the question of “Is it the Messiah or the fraudulent?” As stated on the official website of Netflix’s platform, it is said that the script of the series is completely fictional and has no connection with real life. The names of the episodes of the Messiah series, each episode lasting between 38-55 minutes, are as follows: He That Hath an Ear Tremor, The Finger of God, Trial, So That Seeing They May Not See, We Will Not All Sleep, It Came to Pass as It Was Spoken, Force Majeure, God Is Greater, The Wages of Sin. Messiah series players and character names:

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Who Is the Messiah in the Series? The father of the Messiah character in the series is Jewish and his mother is a Christian. It is of Iraqi origin. He went to Iran as a refugee. He appears for the first time in Damascus as the Messiah-i Mahdi. The young Syrian named Jibril, who is shown among the most strict followers of Christ in the series, is an orphan who lost his parents. Jibril is an ignorant, illiterate, naive young man who has suffered all the pain of the Syrian war and expects saving. It is seen that Christ followed Jibril to death with fancy words that would make him feel valuable, as Christ did to many people. In fact, it is seen that the character of Christ is brought to the fore in the series through Jibril’s innocence. The names of the characters used in the series evoke names that have an important place in the three major religions. Eve Saint Adam’s wife, Saint Eve, Miriam Saint Jesus’ mother is Saint Mary, Abdulmuttalip character Saint Muhammad’s uncle, Jabril (Gabriel) Saint It is reminiscent of Gabriel, the angel who brought revelation to Muhammad. The direct relationship of the series with history and religions makes it attract all the attention. The filming of the series took place in Amman, the capital city of Jordan, and in the regions of Albuquerque, Mountainair, Estancia, Belen, Santa Fe, Clines Corners in the US state of New Mexico. In the series, A new interpretation was made using the information contained in Islamic sources about the personality and physical condition of Jesus and adapted according to time. Ignoring many differences between religions, east and west were tried to be united in a common story from an orientalist perspective. At first, claiming that his real name is unknown and is the fallen form of the Messiah, the person who is called “El Messiah” by his followers, with some verses quoted from the Quran and the prophet of Islam As reported by Muhammad, it emerges in Damascus, Syria, and crosses over the desert to Jerusalem with its followers. He first appears before the audience while he is giving a sermon to the public, synthesizing the traditional and modern understanding and wears a simple yellow kurta-style shirt over jeans. (As Ahmed bin Hanbal describes the Prophet Jesus’ mustan as “He has a light yellow dress consisting of two pieces”) In the series, the character of Messiah is personified as a Muslim and it is stated that he is a Muslim. It is shown that he was a Muslim because of the way he emerged, the geography he was in, the people he first established relationships with, and his discourse. However, it is not seen that he behaves in a 748

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Table 1. ­

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Figure 2. A view from the series

Muslim way even in his worship. For example, in a scene, instead of praying in a prison cell, it is noteworthy that he sits by doing the mudra, which is expressed as mudra instead of praying. In one scene of the series, Christ is seen talking to several people in the desert at dusk. During this conversation, when a man says, “By those who will be saved, you must mean the Muslims”, it is seen that Christ scolded, kicked and expelled him. Although the character of Christ in the series warns Jibril, who glorifies him and is his chief follower, “There is no god but God,” in the interrogation scene, he implied that he was the “son of God” and clearly stated that he was the Word. With such discourses, it is possible to say that Christ speaks according to the person and goes a little further each time. As he tells his Muslim followers that separation from him is death and says, “I’m here to tell you to let go of your assumptions about God. Stop clinging to what you think you know. At this hour, humanity is a boat without a rudder. Hold on to me, ”he tries to convince him that it is the only truth that will invalidate the previous ones like the prophet who brought a new religion and says that he is a reality beyond the religions. He also says that according to Christ, those who follow Islam cannot grasp the truth due to their prejudices and will stand against him and that will be their end. When we look at the general script of the film, the phenomenon of religion, especially the traditional religious understanding, is shown as bigotry. In general, the negative characters of the film are portrayed as devout characters, especially those of the Islamic segment.

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Figure 3. The moment of Christ’s imprisonment

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In the series, it is shown that a group of refugees from Syria and brought them to the Israeli border and said to wait here did not listen to Christ’s words and left the border and went to Jordan, where they met the sheikh who taught the Quran. It is seen that this sheikh is portrayed as a brutal man, just like a Daesh militant, and an elderly imam living in Palestine who says that the Messiah is a fraudulent is presented as a self-interested character whose only goal is to gain political interests through Jibril. These and similar narratives show that the perspective of the series on Islam and the effort to reflect Islam through the eyes of the series adopt a narrative style that is full of negativities, alienating and incorporating orientalist discourses. Al-Messiah acts like someone who eliminated Islam in the series and implies that Muslims cannot reach the truth due to false beliefs. Islam is shown as dangerous and unscientific through the view of the west and the concept of marginalization. It is shown in the series that Al Messiah is the goal of uniting members of the two religions. Such a goal is incompatible with the Islamic belief. At many points in the series, open doors are left for the viewer to make an alternative explanation for the miracles shown by “Christ”. It is given together that both the character of Christ is a prophet who performs miracles and that he is actually an illusionist hospitalized in the mad hospital. We can say that this ambiguous narrative method is actually a propaganda tactic that allows an idea to spread more effectively to a wider audience. The Messiah series draws its audience behind more than 2,000 followers in the pursuit of the alleged Messiah Al Messiah (Mahdi Dehbi), intercontinental from Damascus to Jerusalem, from Jerusalem to the town of Dilley in Texas and from there to the capital Washington takes you on a journey. Although the character of El Messiah is at the center of the series, his personification, which oscillates between prophecy and dishonesty, includes opposing secondary figures such as CIA agent analyst Eva (Michelle Monaghan), Mossad agent Aviram (Tomer Sisley), CNN reporter Miriam (Jane Adams)

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Figure 4. Christ’s coming to Jerusalem through the desert from Syria

and her supporters. Secondary figures like Jibril (Sayyid el Alami), Texan pastor Felix (John Ortiz), his daughter Rebecca (Stefania LaVie Owen) play major roles. In the series, in the triangle of opposition organizations depicted as CIA, Mossad and terrorists, a strange adventure is reflected in the media, which

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is supported by the miracle testimonies shared in the pot of the world media, sometimes via social media, and a strange adventure that is hampered by deciphered information leaked by the CIA. In the series, the doctrines that reach the dogma against Christ are described as opposing forces. The first of these definitions is the doctrine of the CIA: in one scene of this doctrine, a candidate applying for and being interviewed as a CIA agent said, “There are many versions of the truth. The truth is quite gray, ”said Eva, who made the interview, and said,” The CIA is like a sacred order, a doctrine to which you adhere, people’s lives depend on the decisions we make, the things we do, you need to know who the enemy is when you are on the front line. ” The person who does not conform to the CIA doctrine has no place in the CIA and this is shown as the most justified requirement of an intelligence agency. But on the other hand, a man who defends the truth of Islam among Christ’s followers and who is accused of being bigoted for this reason is fired from his followers. The Messiah, who implies that the world’s problem is greater than Palestine, makes a sudden leap from the continents to the United States. Christ, who appeared inexplicably in the hurricane that broke out when Felix, a Baptist Church pastor in Texas, lost his faith in Christianity and tried to burn his own church, brought Pastor Felix and his family among his followers and gathered a large mass of Americans around him with their support. Pastor Felix is ​​shown in several scenes in the series as a person who is completely after his own personal interests and interests. Moreover, it is emphasized that his faith has weakened enough to try to burn his own church. Again, in a scene of the series, Messiah holding a press conference unaware of him causes Felix to get angry and break a vase. Because Felix wants to act as some kind of manager of Christ, and he wants to set limits in his own way and want Christ to act within these limits. As the character named Aviram, a Mossad agent, tells Christ, the American people look like an easily deceived adolescent girl, and Christ knows this very well. This analogy, of course, includes the president of the United States. Ultimately, Christ, who had the opportunity to speak with the President of the United States, asks for the withdrawal of the American soldier to ensure peace in the Middle East. Perhaps the best scene in the series can be said to be this scene where Christ speaks and confronts the US president. “Withdraw all American soldiers for a thousand years of peace,” Christ tells the President. Although the effort to turn the source of the war to peace is not credible, his opposition to the US president is considered an act in accordance with the Christ understanding of Islam. However, his followers are disappointed when the information about the past of El Christ is announced to the world through the media. In the series, Muslims are held responsible for the destruction of mosques and Christians for the burning of churches. The Baptist church in Texas is tried to be burned by the priest of that church, and the Great Mosque in Ramallah is destroyed by Muslims. The threat against religion arises from the members of that religion again. No anti-religious organization is shown to be responsible for such terrorist acts. In the series, Jibril sees her mother coming out of the grave in her dream. This scene in the Christian faith It is likened to Jesus coming out of the rock tomb, and in the plan that follows, Christ appears instead of his mother. Scenes like these, which are designed to meet the image of Christ for the audience of the Christian religion, damage the perception that Christ is a Muslim and the Islamic depiction of Christ at the beginning of the series. An isosceles triangle is used instead of the letter “a” in Messiah, which is the logotype name of the series. This triangle is the delta, which is the symbol of change. Since the fourth letter of the Greek alphabet, delta (Δ δ), instead of the letter A, is a symbol that expresses the change in mathematical representations, it has been specially chosen to symbolize the change that Christ will bring in accordance with the theme. 752

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Figure 5. The delta character in the poster of the Messiah sequence (change)

As Al-Messiah said in front of the cameras, he claims to close an era and open a new era, but he avoids defining the order he opposes. In the series, a common personification of the prophets is tried to be made with the character of Christ. Therefore, the character of Christ gradually becomes inconsistent in the following chapters. For example, CNN reporter Miriam repeatedly asked “Are you the messiah?” By answering this question directly, Christ does not say “Yes, I am the Christ”, he says “They chose to call me so,” saying that his followers made this definition and avoids the question by saying “I am a message.” This discourse actually shows that Christ has positioned himself in a higher position. In summary, the clash of civilizations is mentioned and it is mentioned that east and west conflict over religion and the author is justified. It is aimed to create a new religious trend by blending and reconciling beliefs with the Messiah series.

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CONCLUSION The concept of orientalism is a form of critical thinking that refers to the policies of American and European societies on eastern societies. The West uses these policies for the construction of the East. Edward Said, one of the important intellectuals of the twentieth century, criticizes orientalism with a critical point of view. He focuses on the theory of power, using Foucault and Gramsci. (Kırel, 2012. p.428). According to Said, the West has produced an imaginary East to define and glorify itself, justify its colonial intentions and maintain its colonialism, based on the ideology-power relationship. The Western world, which puts itself at the center of the world with a distinctive perspective based on the basis of “I and others”, has formed its own East with the oriental studies it has started around Eastern cultures, civilizations and beliefs since the Middle Ages. The image of the East, which emerged as a result of these studies and loaded with all the negativities that come to mind, has been put into use in almost every field of life from daily life to politics, from social sciences to fine arts. Orientalism can be explained as the West’s distinction between the subject in the most specific sense, and geographically in the broadest sense, a culture or life rule and civilization against the other. From this point of view, it would be a more correct inference to consider orientalism not as an East-West distinction, but as the West, which is formed or shaped by this distinction, separates the other from itself and reveals a view on its behalf. In more general terms, orientalism; It is possible to define it as the reportrayal of the Eastern curiosity, which derives from the essence of the relationship between the subject and the other, thus extending from the existence of human being to wide geographies, progressing with a Western perspective, extending from specialized sciences to colonialism and from there to art, feeding on political or self-interested ideas.

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The attacks on Islam and Muslims, especially through mass media and negative media stereotypes, should be regarded as the proof of the “Islamic Paranoia” that the Western civilization has set up to erase the Islamic civilization and its great potential from the stage of history. The East has traditionally been shaped within the framework of the modern-traditional dialectic, one of the greatest of textual differences created between East and West. The West defends the backwardness of the East, that traditional methods are valid, that it is a geography that is far from logic and cannot govern itself, and repeats this with its accumulation of knowledge. Edward Said argued that orientalism is not simply linguistics, history, or travel activities. Orientalism, according to Said, was the “exploration path of colonialism”. In Orientalist activities, Orientals were seen as secondary people and secondary societies. The West wanted to make itself its master. He was applying this wish not only in the economic field but also in the fields of culture and arts. Colonial activities and the power of the West lie behind the cultural imperialism applied by the West to the East. It is seen in the practices of the West that cultural differences are not considered only as a difference, that the non-Western is different and the different is seen as worthless and represents the subculture. According to this point of view, there are profound differences between East and West in every field. The West represents the most advanced stage of humanity, thanks to its mind and rational thinking ability. It is not possible for the East, which lives outside of history and lacks the ability to use its mind and history, to realize these developments on its own. Also, according to this point of view, the West has the right of tutelage and disposition over the backward, uncivilized East, which represents its laziness, lethargy, lack of work discipline, sinfulness, sexual addiction, and tyranny. Especially after the 19th century, the colonial and occupation movements of the West on the East are the result of seeing this right of guardianship and disposition in itself. According to Said, orientalism, which is a “cultural and political phenomenon” with a wide sphere of influence, is not a pure and innocent knowledge discipline and should be questioned from this aspect (Said, 2004, p. 22). It is an undeniable fact that the cinema industry took an active role in various political periods (Vietnam, Cold War, etc.) and ideological issues (citizenship, feminism, capitalist ideology, liberalism, etc.). From this perspective, it is seen that Western cinema has created a narrative that alienates Islam due to political and religious concerns (due to the conflictual relations in the historical process), and in these narratives, Islam and Muslims are portrayed as a barbarian religion and individual who like to kill people and kill those who believe in other religions. Although these representations contain stereotypical discourses conveyed in a hate-inducing style, they have always found their way into cinema, the most important tool of visual media. Orientalism, nourished by the West’s thoughts about the East, exists through othering, as stated, the West, which has built its own identity by marginalizing the East, shows its orientalist perspective in many areas today. The Messiah series, which is also important in terms of this study, can be shown as only one of these areas. TV series can be used for many purposes in this context. Series films, primarily propaganda, serve as a tool frequently used to reproduce the dominant thought. The Messiah series deals with the re-blending of the values of Judaism, Christianity and Islam in the grip of post-modern culture by Jesus, who came to earth in modern times. Finally, the Messiah series sends the message that religion is a threat to humanity. Leaving alone the more than two thousand Muslim communities he brought from Damascus to Jerusalem and the Christian community he took from Texas to Washington is a heavy criticism against religion through the religious community and leaders.

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In addition, Samir’s burning the mosque as a suicide bomber, and Priest Felix’s church, makes the religious people sick. It is exaggerated that acts of violence do not originate from secular thinking. Moreover, it is seen that Christ, who recites verses from the Qur’an and the Bible, oscillates between being a savior or a clergyman and a dishonest throughout the series. Another issue that needs to be emphasized in this process is the language structures and modes of transmission that the mass media, which affects and shapes the intellectual world, which is an important factor in the functioning and shaping of social and political life, will be used when dealing with or conveying Islam and Muslims. Language structures, definitions, the discourse produced in texts and the forms of transmission used are very effective in the legitimation, normalization and transformation of Islamophobia and the hatred produced in social life against Muslims into a daily routine. The series of Messiah, which offers discourses to shape the perception of “us” and “them”, is an important indicator of the realization of civilization conflict through orientalism today. Eastern representations created for the Western audience are mostly realized through orientalist discourses put forward by westerners. The East, which was shown as a mystical, traditional and exotic place before, was brought to the agenda with terrorist acts and terrorists.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTION Orientalism determined the dominant image of Islam and Muslim in Western societies and continues to determine today. This perspective, which has spread to all areas of life, continues to see the Eastern world as an exotic and mystical “other”, an object that needs explanation and enlightenment. In order for the East to develop its own discourse and create its own perception, it can reach everyone more actively and effectively in all kinds of media (cinema, TV series, digital platforms, periodicals, etc.), especially in new media develop discourses and behaviors.

REFERENCES Adanır, O. (2012). Sinemada Anlam ve Anlatım. Say Publishing. Alim, A. (2004). Oryantalizm, Oksidentalizm ve Şerif Mardin. Küre Publishing. Allen, C. (2006). Islamophobia. Birmingham University: Birmingham University Press.

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Alver, F. (2000). Medya Aracılığıyla Yabancıyla Karşılaşmanın Gerçekliği. Journal of Istanbul University Faculty of Communication. Arlı, A. (2004). Oryantalizm-Oksidentalizm ve Şerif Mardin. İstanbul: Küre Publications. Armes, R. (2011). Sinema ve Gerçeklik. Doruk Publications. Ataman, M. (2017). Batı’daki İslam ve Türk Algısı: Tıkanan Batı’da Yeniden Yükselen Irkçılık. Diyanet, 15-17. Bernstein, M., & Studlar, G. (2011). Visions of the East Orientalism in Film. Rutgers University Press. Bilgin, N. (2007). Kimlik İnşası. Aşina Kitaplar.

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Bulaç, A. (1995). Ötekinin Kimliği ve İmajı. Birikim Dergisi, 71-72, 76-80. Bulut, Y. (2005). Türkiye’nin Çağdaş Tarihine İlişkin Bazı Gözlemler. Journal of Divan Scientific Research, (2), 1–34. Bulut, Y. (2012). Orientalism in Ardından. Journal of Sociological Studies, 3(25), 1–57. Bulut, Y. (2017). Oryantalizmin Kısa Tarihi. Küre Publications. Canatan, K. & Hıdır, Ö. (2007). Preface. In Batı Dünyasında İslamofobi ve Anti-İslamizm (pp. 7-15). Ankara: Eskiyeni Publications. Clifford, J. (2014). Oryantalizm Üzerine, Oryantalizm Tartışma Metinleri. Ankara: Doğu Batı Publications Erkan, H. (2009). Hollywood Sinemasında Oryantalizm. Kırmızı Kedi Publications. Esposito, J. L. & Yılmaz, İ. (2012). Islam and Peacebuilding. New York: Blue Dome Press. Gökçe, O. (2012). Avrupa Medyasının ve Kamuoyunun İslam Algısı. İslamofobi Kolektif Bir Korkunun Anatomisi içinde. Sivas Kemal İbn-i Hümam Vakfı Publications. Görmez, M. (2015). Sunuş Yazısı. İslamofobi Endüstrisi içinde. Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı Publications. Gottschalk, P., & Gabriel, G. (2006). Islamophobia: Making Muslims the Enemy. Rowman and Littlefield. Hentsch, T. (2016). Hayali Doğu. (Çev. Aysel Bora). Metis Publications. Hıdır, Ö. (2007). Anti-Semitizm ve Anti-İslamizm; Benzerlikler ve Farklılıklar. In Batı Dünyasında İslamofobi ve Anti-İslamizm içinde (pp. 63-99). Ankara: Eskiyeni Publications. Kaplan, Y. (1991). Enformasyon Devrimi Efsanesi içinde. Rey Publications. Kentel, F. (2012). “İslamofobi” Vesilesiyle Türkiye’nin Fobilerine Bakmak. İslamofobi Kolektif Bir Korkunun Anatomisi içinde. Sivas Kemal İbn-i Hümam Vakfı Publications. Keyman, E. F. (2002). Globalleşme, Oryantalizm ve Öteki Sorunu: 11Eylül Sonrası Dünya ve Adalet. Oryantalizm-II, Journal of Doğu-Batı, 20. Keyman, F. (1999). Farklılığa Direnmek: Uluslararası İlişkiler Kuramında “Öteki” Sorunu. İletişim Publications. Kırel, S. (2012). Kültürel Çalışmalar ve Sinema. Kırmızı Kedi Publications.

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Lacan, J. (2013). Psikanalizin Dört Kavramı. Metis Publications. Lambert, R. & Githens-Mazer, J. (2010). Islamophobia and Anti-Muslim Hate Crime: UK Case Studies. London: EMRC University of Exeter Lewis, B. (1982). The Question of Orientalism. The New York Review of Books. Lewis, B. (1982). The Question of orientalism. The New York Review of Books. Lewis, B. (2014). Oryantalizm Sorunu. In İçinde Oryantalizm Tartışma Metinleri (pp. 217–245). Ankara: Doğu Batı Publications.

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MacKenzie, J. M. (1995). Orientalism: History, Theory and the Arts. Manchester University Press. McPhaill, T. L. (1991). Yanlış bir başlangıç. In Enformasyon Devrimi Efsanesi içinde. Rey Publications. Monaco, J. (2009). Bir Film Nasıl Okunur? İstanbul: Oğlak Publications. Ramji, R. (2015). Examining the Critical Role American Popular Film Continues to Play in Maintaining the Muslim Terrorist Image. Dem Publications. Rosenblatt, N. (2009). Orientalism in American Popular Culture. Penn History Review, 16(2), 51–63. Rubin, A. N. (2007). Edward W. Said. In Oryantalizm Tartışma Metinleri. Ankara: Doğu Batı Publications. Said, E. W. (1998). Oryantalizm, Çev. Nezih Uzel. İrfan Publications. Said, E. W. (2000). Oryantalizm. Pınar Publications. Said, E. W. (2000). Haberlerin Ağında İslam. Babil Publications. Said, E. W. (2006). Şarkiyatçılık. Metis Publications. Said, E. W. (2010). Kültür ve Emperyalizm. Hil Publications. Said, E. W. (2004). Oryantalizm, Batı’nın Şark Anlayışları. İstanbul: Metis Publications Şener, N. K. (2017). Haberlerde Gerçeğin Yeniden Üretilmesi. Middle Black Sea Journal of Communication Studies, 3(1), 1-7. Şentürk, R. (2003). Oryantalizm ve Sosyal Teori. In Oryantalizmi Yeniden Okumak Batı’da İslam Çalışmaları Sempozyumu (p. 43). Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı Publications. Shah, M., Said, E., & Lewis, B. (2011). On The Question Of Orientalism: A Clash Of Paradigm. In Orıentalism and Conspıracy, In Politics and Conspıracy Theory in The İslamic World. I.B.Tauris & Co. Ltd. Shryock, A. (2010). Islamophobia/Islamophilia: Beyond the Politics of Enemy and Friend. Indiana University Press. Sönmezsoy, S. (1998). Kurân ve Oryantalistler. Fecr Publications. Subaşı, N. (2003). Öteki Türkiye’de Din ve Modernleşme. Vadi Publications. Tatar, H. C. (2012). Batının Kimlik İnşasında Ötekinin Yeri. Karadeniz Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, (14), 91–102. Copyright © 2021. IGI Global. All rights reserved.

Thompson, J. B. (2008). Medya ve Modernite. Kırmızı Publications. Türkbağ, A. U. (2003). Kimlik, Hukuk ve Adalet Sorunu Doğu Batı Dergisi: Kimlikler. Ankara: Doğu Batı Publications. Turner, B. S. (2002). Oryantalizm Postmodernizim ve Globalizm. Anka Publications. doi:10.4324/9780203427255 Tutal, N. (2006). Küreselleşme İletişim Kültürlerarasılık. Kırmızı Publications. Uluç, G. (2009). Medya ve Oryantalizm. Anahtar Publications.

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Uzun, N. (2012). Avrupa’da İslamofobi: İngiltere Örneği. Pınar Publications. Yavuz, H. (1999). Modernleşme, Oryantalizm ve İslam. Boyut Kitapları. Yıldırım, A. K. (2002). Edward Said’in Şarkiyatçılık Düşüncesine Eleştirel Bir Bakış. Doğu Batı, 4(20), 135-148. Yorulmaz, B. (2018). 1896’dan Günümüze Hollywood’un Kötü Adamları: Müslümanlar. Medya ve Din Araştırmaları Dergisi, 1(1), 33–47. Zakzuk, M. H. (1993). Oryantalizm veya Medeniyet Hesaplaşmasının Arka Planı. Işık Publications.

ADDITIONAL READING Kalın, İ. (2007). İslam Ve Batı. 2. Basım. İstanbul: İsam Publications MERİÇ. Cemil. (1993), Oryantalizm, Sosyoloji Notları, İletişim Publications, İstanbul Miquel, A. (2003). İslam Dünyası ve Yabancı Diyarlar. (A. Berktay, Çev.). Kitap Publications. Said, E. W. (2016). Kış Ruhu Tuncay Birkan (Çev.) İstanbul: Metis Publications Shih, W. C., & Kaufman, S. P. ve Spinola, D. (2009). Netflix. Boston: Harvard Business School. Zizek, S. (2011). İdeolojinin Yüce Nesnesi (çev. Tuncay Birkan). İstanbul: Metis Publications

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITION Auto/Self-Orientalism: The orientalization of the East itself. Clash of Civilizations: The Clash of Civilizations thesis was put forward by Samuel Hungtington as one of the efforts to make sense of the fundamental dynamics of the new international system that emerged after the end of the Cold War in the early 1990s. Discourse: Language¸ is also a means of power and control because it performs an action through its use. The use of language for all these purposes is called discourse, and discourse involves the society, the world, the participants, communication and the purpose of communication; therefore, it shapes the context and is shaped by them. Islamophobia: Islamophobia, which means fear and hatred against Islam, is a word and deed that violates the human rights, religion and civil liberties of Muslims and leads to more discrimination and prejudices. Netflix: Netflix was established in the United States in 1997. Netflix is the world’s leading streaming entertainment service, with TV series, documentaries and feature films in a wide variety of genres and languages, with 183 million paid subscriptions in more than 190 countries. It offers TV series, documentary, and movie content via subscription system. Members can watch Netflix as much as they want, whenever they want, wherever they want, on any screen connected to the internet (About Netflix, 2020).

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Orientalism: Orientalism, defined as the science of the East, is rooted in ancient times. Orientalism, which etymologically signifies the sunrise, is based on the Latin word oriens and is geographically used to name the Eastern geography, means seeking information about the East. Orientalism, which is based on the East-West opposition, is a branch of science that first emerged in the early 14th century by the Vienna Church Council in a number of universities to understand eastern languages and cultures. Othering: As the dictionary definition of marginalization, it is to argue that the different is the enemy and the evil one. Being excluded.

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Orientalism and Humour:

Marginalization of the Turks in 9GAG Serkan Biçer Communication Faculty, Fırat University, Turkey

ABSTRACT Edward Said undoubtedly didn’t analyze the concept of orientalism through an Ottoman or Turkish perspective in the context of the relationship with the West. However, although orientalism isn’t directly connected to Turkey, it indirectly concerns the country as the image of Turkey and East is the same in many articles, literary works, political texts, and orientalist pictures. The purpose of this study is to understand and analyze the orientalist viewpoint about the Turkish identity on “9GAG” internet site, one of the most known humour sites created after 2000 with the participatory culture. In this study, the two-level interpretation system of Roland Barthes, involving the systematic connotation and denotation and myth, is used. The images of Turks in caps are presented with signifers such as Turban, Islamic tabard, beard, prayer beads, coif, and shalwar. Signifed, on the other hand, is usually the element of East, religion/Islam, tradition, underdevelopment, and violence. The specifcally designed Turkish image is used as a kind of actor that creates a sense of threat.

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INTRODUCTION Orientalism, in other words, oriental science, is a concept used by Europe to describe, re-establish, and represent the Islamic East after the Crusades in the eyes of Western Civilization. According to Edward Said, orientalism is no more a concept merely about the geographical differences; it has turned into a conceptual difference through the products of Western culture. East is a very different world and place for West. The culture and civilization it holds are different from that of the West. From this perspective, the East is a whole structure made of a degenerated population; it is beyond a different geographical destination and it withholds a particular kind of conceptual dimension. Orientalism, in the widest sense, depends on the discrimination between “us” and “them”. In this context, West needs to create an image of “the other” to describe itself. In this respect, orientalism is a discourse. Orientalism depends on the assumption that the West is at the center and the more one gets close to this center, the more one moves DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch043

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 Orientalism and Humour

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away from the concept of East. As the concept of the other represents what is not one of us, it has a negative meaning and it is supported by a variety of channels serving the discourse created by West. The concept of “identity” that doesn’t cause a problem for the individuals of primitive-slaver society has become a problematic issue for the individual who discovers “the others” with globalization. The effect of globalization on this issue has increased with commercialization and communication; societies that live in different locations started to learn about one another thanks to the developments in the economy and changes in social communication. The communities that are now aware of one another started to define themselves based on this newly learned definition of “the other” (Poyraz and Arıkan, 2003). Starting from this moment, the other has become a concept representing something that is suspected and threats a risk. Edward Said didn’t analyze Turkey, namely the Ottomans, in the context of the relations with the West. However, the image of Turkey isn’t different from that perception of the East created by the West. So it can be said that although Said didn’t directly focus on Turkey in the scope of this perception, the country is directly connected to the concept of Orientalism. It can be observed that the image of the Turks and East are the same in orientalist works, literature, political texts, and paintings. This study is based on this basic assumption and the discussion is framed with this perspective. The new media has brought some essential changes in the traditional sense of humor. The humorous content that is produced by a specific group in traditional humor started to reach everybody through new media. Everybody is now a content creator. Humor created with the new media has become international, standard, and turned into a process of commodification with the help of the internet which removed the boundaries. This humor is more aggressive, ideological and it discriminates more than ever. Caps are the most isolated and refined form of this humor. As content producers are internet users, no element defines the boundaries of humor. In the new types of humor such as rage comic, offensive humor, etc. Turkish identity becomes an element of marginalization and these environments become the fields in which orientalism is reproduced. The purpose of this study, based on these explanations, is to analyze the orientalist viewpoint about Turkish identity through caps, which is one of the new types of modern media. 9GAG humor site is used as the sampling of the study process. 9GAG is one of the biggest environments in which offensive humor and caps are produced. One of the reasons why this environment is used is that although the site is America-centered, it serves many producers and involves consumers in Europe. To present the orientalist viewpoint in caps, the semiological analysis method of Roland Barthes based on connotation and denotation is used in this study. It is attempted to analyze the viewpoint about the Turks according to the perception of Edward Said.

THEOROTICAL FRAMEWORK The questions of “Are we from the East or the West?” and “who are we, what are we made of?” seem to be about the identity at first glance. However, they also serve another purpose; the idea that resembling one another, benefiting from one another, having differences is basic problems. Based on this perception, it seems impossible to talk about or define who is a Westerner without defining the idea of an Easterner or who is an Easterner without defining the image of a Westerner (Tutal, 2011). At this point, it should be noted that the East and West are discursively intertwined. Edward Said, struggling with this “deadlock” finds the solution in putting a name. The name of this impossibility is orientalism. 761

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Said states that the West, particularly Europe, has a twisted perspective about the countries in the Middle East and people living there. According to Said, orientalism is a lens used to understand the unknown and unfamiliar and it shows as if the communities in the Middle East are different and scary (Köroğlu, 2016). Yanık (2016) defines orientalism as such: Orientalism, in its broadest sense, depends on the discrimination of people as “us” and “them”. Orientalism is the depiction of the East which feels connected to the politics and culture of the West. Orientalism, a fictional, artistic and political discourse, isn’t a true reflection of the history of the East; it is rather the opposite of the Western discourse or a different reflection of the West in the East. In other words, the West created a negative, evil East in order to make its culture, history and art valuable. While reinterpreting orientalism, Said benefits from Foucault. He used an instrument to define the relation between the information about the East and the power on East. According to Mardin (2002), one of the most important foundations in the concept of orientalism created by Said, is Foucault’s concept of discourse. According to Said, the West has a discourse of East and it is impossible to understand the real history of East depending on the discourse created by West. Besides the ideas of Foucault, Said benefited from Gramsci while shaping the concept of orientalism. Antonio Gramsci’s concept of hegemony is a guide in explaining the reason why some specific ideas about East are more dominant than others. Namely, while Foucault gave Said the opportunity to interpret the discourse of East-West through the concepts of knowledge and power, Gramsci guided him through the concept of hegemony and enabled him understand why some ideas are more dominant (Rubin, 2007). As mentioned in the definition of orientalism by Uluç (2009), it is possible to see the depiction of East through the eyes of the West. The West reflects the East it defined on different discourse and images. Concepts such as East/East, West/Occident, Easterner/Easterner, Westerner/From the Occident are metaphysical, ontological and essential connotations. Orientalism isn’t the representative or the expression of the setting created by the ugly “Western” imperialism which attempts to keep the “Eastern” world under pressure. It is rather the distribution of a geological conscious to research articles, aesthetic, financial, sociological, historical, and philological texts (Said, 1978). Sardar (1999) also has similar thoughts about Orientalism. A recent work on Orientalism opens with the following passage The problem of Orientalism, what makes the dissection and display of its skeletal being a tricky matter, is the very fact of its existence. Because Orientalism exists we have a world where reality is differently perceived, expressed and experienced across a great divide of mutual misunderstanding. To discuss Orientalism one has to urge people to go beyond this misunderstanding and see what has been made invisible: to distinguish a different outline in a picture that has been distorted by centuries of myopic vision. There is nothing about Orientalism that is neutral or objective. By definition it is a partial and partisan subject. No one comes to the subject without a background and baggage. The baggage for many consists of the assumption that, given its long history, somewhere within or about this subject there is real knowledge about the Orient; and that this knowledge can be used to develop an understanding of the cultures East of the West. The task of this book is to undermine this assumption ... While Orientalism is real, it is still, nevertheless, an artificial construction. It is entirely distinct and unattached to the East as understood within and by the East. There is no route map, no itinerary locked within the subject to bridge that divide. In this context, orientalism can be perceived as an organized writing, description and research style dominated by the obligations, viewpoints, ideological tendencies which are seemingly Easterner. Yüksel 762

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(2015) analyzed orientalism through the concept of identity; he emphasizes that the dialectic of identity lies at the heart of the West’s point of view about the East. Yüksel (2015) mentions that the opposition of West-East, which is often discussed in today’s world, is reflected as a kind of cultural identity problem which is built on the basis of discrimination between what is modern and traditional. According to him, the concept of cultural identity has a strong relationship with “the other”. Said’s (1978) concept of orientalism has three different meanings; these meanings can be explained in these three titles: The first one of these meanings is the work made by the individual who researches or gives classes about the “East”, in other words, “the academic domain of orientalism. The second is the style of thinking that depends on the ontological discrimination between “East” and “Occident”. Analysis of the epics, novels, records on the basis of the discrimination between “East and West” by poets, novelists, philosophers, political theorists, economists, and managers. The third is determining the views about the “Orientalism” at the end of the 18th century, legitimating the viewpoints about it, learning them by describing it, placing and managing it. In this way, orientalism dominates the East and reshapes it. It can be said that it is a kind of western discourse used for dominating East. Orientalism, which emphasizes that East is a field of occupation thus has the power to dominate and reshape it at the end of the 18th century. In this respect, orientalism presents a culturally perfect systematic mechanism and points to a phenomenon beyond individual. In this context, orientalism analyzes all of the civilizations of the East (religion, literature, art, culture etc.), it ensures Westerners have systematical knowledge about Eastern civilization and carries out studies through the eyes of the West, based on the duality of Eastern-Western civilization. Good, honorable, virtuous, hard-working self-centered West; evil, aggressive East, which is the perfect opposite of West, in other words, “the other” (Yüksel, 2016).

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Presentation of Orientalism and the Problematic of “the Other” in the Media The first orientalists, attempting to practice the idea of orientalism which doesn’t really exist, but created in the minds of the Westerners, were travelers; writers and painters followed them and carried out the mission of telling orientalism wherever they could. Newsmakers, television programmers, movie-makers undertook this duty at the beginning of the 20th century. Today, media generally carries out this mission. As the basic resources new media are rooted from West, the content is naturally created by people living there. There is a discourse about “the other” created in the international news discourse. The others specified by the Westerners are associated with bad deeds; earthquakes, corruption, and different types of negativities are all associated with these people. These kinds of events are experienced by the others or they cause such incidents. The biggest other created by the West is East. Western mind judges East and uses the discourse of “the others” in reality. It ignores the positive things and underlines negativities. According to Said (1978), media creates some stereotype prejudices about the East. He states that these prejudices are mostly formed on the basis of Muslim and Arab communities. This emphasis is also frequently reflected in cinema and television. An Arap is either lustful or dishonorable. Basically evil, addicted to sexuality, always thinking about tricky deeds, witty but inclined to malignancy. Easterners, according to the Westerner viewpoint, are sadist, treacherous, shabby individuals; they are slave traders, cameleers and cowards. These are some of the traditional Muslim roles depicted in the cinema. (Said, 1978).

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Although Dursun (2014) emphasizes that the viewpoints of the Westerners have slightly changed technically, the basic idea is still the same. Dursun states that the Easterners despises, belittles the East and they think that they are unable to self-govern. Additionally, Easterners cannot make any progress in the fields of art or literature and this is a very significant, common image in the eyes of Westerners. This viewpoint is reproduced and supported by the media. In this respect, it can be said that media has a key role and impact in creating the image of “the other”. Representation of “the other” in news media is based on this negative, insufficient image of the East; there is a constant conflict in this evil place and it constantly poses a threat to the West in the news made by this media. Mora analyzes the reflection of Pope 16th Benetict’s speech in Ragensburg University in the media. Pope implied that the understanding of Jihad in Islam is against the will of God by uttering these words: “Show me, what Mohammad brought as new except for his order of spreading Islam with sword”. The purpose of Pope is to build an equation including the sword of Muslims against the wit of Byzantium. The rise of the incidents started upon this statement. Western media, on the other hand, reflected these incidents as if Muslims showed violence as they are primitive and dangerous masses (Mora, 2007). Uluç (2009), on the other hand, expresses who is inside and who is outside in the national communities with his formula of “us” and “the others”. He mentions that media defines the boundaries of communities and helps creating a “social map”. Uluç (2009) focused on analyzing how media creates a sense of being inside (included), while it also frequently misrepresents the outsiders-the ones that are excluded. At this point, the inclusiveness and exclusiveness mechanism of the media arouses. Media shows some images of “the others” as a representation while it on the other hand creates a meaning scheme by eliminating some specific images. Uluç (2009) states that only “images” are reflected on the screen; these images are specifically chosen to create and define identities. According to him, media reflects the fears, dreams and wishes about “the others”. In this context, thoughts about “the other” are fictionally created through media. Said (1997) said that the Western media’s content andinterpretation of Islam is extremely influential and the success “of this coverage can be attributed to the political influence of those people and institutions producing it rather than necessarily to truth or accuracy” West have a prejudice about Eastern and Islam and Muslim society (Özmen, 2012). This prejudice is particularly evident in the popular media. The Muslims are generally made of two things according to the image reflected in popular media. The first is that they are bad guys and they are fanatics. The second is that most of the films end with the death of many Muslims, whose bodies are scattered all over the place. There are numerous movies about guerillas, willingly participating in killing Muslim terrorists. The point in showing these ideas is to show that Islam should be eradicated (Köroğlu 2016).

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Orientalism and Indicators in Turkey Edward Said didn’t discuss the Ottoman Empire, thus Turkey, in the scope of the relationships with West. However, the place of Turkey isn’t different form the other countries in the frame of the image of East created by West. Thus, although orientalism doesn’t include Turkey directly, it indirectly is about it. In many texts, varying from literature to politics, the image of the Turks is completely same with the image of East depicted in with the orientalist understanding. It is possible to see the same viewpoint in media when we look at the images used in Western media. According to Uluç (2009), the established Turkish identity between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries in Europe is made of a variety of negative definitions such as “barbarians”, “looters”, “lustful”, irreligious”, “intolerant”, “illiterate”, “the one with a huge body by small brain”. Uluç (2009) states that 764

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the image of “barbarian” associated with the Huns at the end of the Middle Age, was later associated with Turks that represent the Muslim East against West. The word “barbarian” points to the Easterner who is wild, cruel, vulgar and mindless. The effort to justify the dominance and exploitation of West increased and supported the negative Turkish image throughout hundreds of years. While the negative images about Turks had spread in the second half of 17th century, it turned into a source of exoticness at the end of 19th century for Europeans Aktan (2006) suggests that the racism against European Jews seen in the past survives in disguise working against Turks and Muslims in the new century. The racism in the identity of the Christian Europe was exposed and punished after the World War 2 and the greater European identity was purified from the racism against the Jew. Now, however, historically otherized Turks and Moslems become the new targets of the new racism. The new racism waits to be exposed in Europe. European travelers and politicians pointed to the Ottoman Empire and Turks by using both some highly similar and different adjectives. In this context, Uluç (2009) emphasizes that Westerners associated Turks with “barbarianism”, “ignorance”, “despotism” and “combativeness”. However, when it was 18th century, the imageries of barbarianism and combativeness were changed with the period of regression in Ottoman Empire. The Westerners started to use the expression of despotism more, which meant destruction and evil. During this period, Westerners thought of Turks as lazy, passive and shy individuals.

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Humor, Mariginalization and Caps Humor isn’t merely an activity of art involving the elements of comedy. Although it involves the elements of entertainment, it is one of the most “serious” works in the entire world. Besides appealing to the imaginary world of the audience, the art of humor gives humorist the opportunity to use the elements representing the images of “good” and “evil”. Humor, essentially working to make audience laugh, has been used for creating discourses about East and Easterners through political representation. It thus turns into a weapon that manages the image of “the dangerous other” in the mind of Westerners and carry out the role of legitimizing Western policies. Humor is essentially simple and ordinary. These features make it both dangerous and seemingly innocent. This simplicity makes the connection between Muslims and ‘the dangerous other’ ordinary while empowering the bond between them; it, on the other hand, feeds the sense that this bond is natural through the element of entertainment. For instance, one of the highest-rated videos on Youtube “Achmed the Dead Terrorist” (Meet Achmed the Dead Terrorist, 2020) involves an orientalist viewpoint about Muslims in each tirade. He says that “be quiet, I kill you” every time he gets angry at the audience. He defines himself as a fearful terrorist, he complains about the houris he was promised, he starts his monologue with the words of “good evening infidels”. His look, his Arab accent, his anger, the rage in his eyes all summarizes the imagery of Muslims created by the West. The mariginalization and stereotype created through a character which is essentially innocent and funny is very dangerous especially as it seemingly is created as a comic character. As mentioned before, the reason of the danger is obvious: Simplicity and ordinariness. Although the adventure of new communication technologies goes back to long before, it can be said that the frame of internet humor is pretty new. The concept of participatory culture should be analyzed to understand this new domain. Production of content by participators seemed as a remote possibility during the first times of internet. However, the phase of change and transformation in the 21st century has been undoubtedly extraordinary. Wikies, forums, blogs are different environments whose contents 765

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Figure 1. The character of “Achmed The Dead Terrorist” depicted by Jeff Dunham

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Source: memegenerator.net

are created by users; this new understanding, which is also called Web 2.0, has been a phenomenological experience environment through social media tools. Mcluhan (1994) associates internet with an organ of humans by stating that “medium is an extension of ourselves”. It can be said that, this medium is today an extension of almost every single individual living on earth. The use of content created by users developed through this field of phenomenological experience along with the “convergence” brought by the nature of the internet. According to Jenkins (2006), convergence encourages consumers to collect data and make connections between scattered media contents; it thus represents a cultural change. Jenkins describes this process of creating participatory culture climate with these words: “These are the environments that give users the opportunity to express themselves artistically. Civil participation, creation, sharing, feeling important and communicating with individuals that are important is the possibilities presented by these environments.” The term participatory culture contradicts with the old passive media audiences. In environments with a participatory culture like 9GAG (4chan, Reddit, etc.), classical humor is replaced with visual culture materials like captions. There are many studies on this issue in the literature in recent years and it has become a field closely linked to communication and sociology. Shifman is a significant figure as he carried out significant studies about caps in participatory culture (Shifman, 2010; Shifman, 2011; Shifman, 2013; Shifman, 2014a; Shifman, 2014b). Shifman (2014a), in his book Memes in Digital Culture, mentions that the word “mem” derives from the word “mimema” in Greek. Dawkins used the word memo, which he derived from mimemos meaning imitation, mimic. As a part of the greater effort to apply his theory of evolution in cultural change, Dawkins said that internet caps are the units of small cultural transmissions through copying and imitation; he stated that they are similar to genes that spread from one person to another. There are two different descriptions of meme in Merriam Webster (Merriam-Webster, 2020) dictionary. According to the first description, meme is an idea, behavior, style or use that spreads from person to person. According to the second description, it is an online entertaining or interesting element that reaches masses through social media (e.g. an image or video with subtitles). The second description

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puts memes in the same category with caps. The word ‘caps’ will be preferred in this study as it is more widely used. Every single individual has become humor producers with the transformation of humor. Thoughts of individuals are shaped with these new developments and different types of images are produced. The interaction of the produced humor elements is quite fast. Social events that attract the attention of masses are transmitted to internet, humorous images and contents are quickly produced thanks to the possibilities presented by digital environments. An image, a photo or an animation is reshaped and reconstructed on the basis of the meaning it originally holds, and they are interpreted in a variety of manners by masses. As mentioned before, the understanding of humor has been affected from technological developments, and they are transformed and transmitted to digital environments. Humor sites, which as participatory culture elements, rapidly grows with the participation of the young. These sites, which focus on the topics in the agenda, are the new cultural fields on digital platforms; social, political and economic topics are discussed in an original manner while on the other hand entertaining audiences. Images, photos, texts and videos are the contents of sub-cultures transported to the internet environment. Environments such as 9gag, Reddit, and 4Chan have become the new humor environments of the digital world.

METHODOLOGY Study Group

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9GAG is an online Web 2 based social media site. Users share contents that are either created by them or taken from somewhere else. The site was established in 2008 in California. The motto of the site is “Go Fun the World”. According to the data of December 2020, it has 16, 7 millions of followers on Twitter. Users upload memes/caps they created and they are interpreted according to number of likes they get. Censorship is out of question. Contents are separated into different categories (hot, trending, cosplay, geek, TV etc.); user are called “gaggers”. This study is designed on the basis of 9GAG humor site. There are some reasons why this specific site, which fits into the purpose of this study, is chosen. These are: 1. There are references in the site in the shape of comedy-humor and its content is mostly humor-based 2. There are more European content creators in 9GAG and consumers than the other similar sites (4Chan, Reddit) 3. According to the preliminary research carried out by the researcher, there are numerous Caps about Turks in 9GAG 4. Humor content is mostly based on memes and caps 5. It has a centralized structure created by the participatory culture. Criterion sampling is used while selecting the caps to be used in the study. This sampling, one of the purposeful sampling methods, depends on determining criteria that fit the purpose of a given study. The criteria used while selecting the caps in this study are presented below. 1. Caps’ contents are about Turks, 2. There is humor content, 767

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3. The most popular and liked contents in 9GAG are selected (in the section named ‘hot’, which includes the most popular videos), 4. The contents created by Westerners are selected (the flag next to the name of the content creator is taken into consideration). There is the assumption that the flag belongs to the westerner content creator; this assumption is the limitation of this study, 5. The chosen contents aren’t in the channel “Turkey” (there are generally the contents of Turkish producers in the channel named “Turkey”. It is excluded as this is not a self-orientalist study) 6. The keywords “Turks”, “Turkish”, “Turkey” were searched in “Hot Section” in a time period October 20 – December 1, in 9GAG internet site. 4 caps out of 26 caps were chosen as they fit the criteria above and the analyses were accordingly carried out.

Data Analysis Said (1978) mentions that the Western discourse passivates East, despises, marginalizes through creating an environment with words. Moreover, Western discourse creates absolute texts and creates an imaginary concept of the East. Instead of analyzing the East in its reality, it combines it with exotic and wild representations and creates a Western discourse with a subjective viewpoint. The Western discourse deliberately creates an Eastern-Western dilemma in the process of recreating the East; it drags this dilemma into a field of discourses designed and supported with a variety of representation myths. Analyzing these discourses requires a semiological point of view. In this study, the two-level interpretation system of Roland Barthes, involving the systematic connotation and denotation and myth, is used (Barthes, 1979). In semiotics, Roland Barthes mentions that signifiers take meaning with language; different from Saussure, he states that cultural codes of individuals are efficient in analyzing signifiers and this meaning can be understood and analyzed through an interaction (Fiske, 2003).

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Figure 2. Semiological Scheme of Roland Barthes

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FINDINGS Semiological Analysis of the Images of Turks in 9GAG Humor Site Analysis of Caps 1 Figure 3. Perfusing the mosaic of Deisis

The mosaic, which was built in 13th century in Hagia Sophia, depicts Saint John and Saint Mary who appeal for mercy from Jesus Christ. Only Saint Mary and Jesus are visible in the image. This content is reproduced after Hagia Sophia was opened to worship by placing the words “remember what they took from us”. These specific words are part of a language created in environments like 9GAG. There are visual, lingual, structural and humane indicators in the caps, evoking the irrational fear and hatred of Western minds. Anger and marginalization about Turks presented in the image are reproduced over Christianity, the religion of West. Erasing the significant images in the mosaic indicates a place where there is no civilization and culture. The language used in the caps emphasizing the belief that West is always aware of the other supports the sense of “us” and “the others”, in other words, it draws a line between the imagery of West and East.

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Analysis of Caps 2 SpongeBob Squarepants character is a cartoon produced by Nickelodeon. The character of SpongeBob Squarepants is presented as a funny, helpful, happy and energetic character. The SpongeBob Squarepants depicted as a Turkish figure is quite different from the original image. The most important emphasis is the dreary look in his eyes; the careless image presented in the character is associated with East. How he sits, how he looks and the hookah next to him are all indicators of “recklessness in Turks”. The moustache, beard, hairs of Turkish SpongeBob are emphasized in the caps. Fez, shalwar, moustache and hookah are significant indicators that emphasize the “image of the other” specific to East.

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Table 1. Semiological Analysis of Caps 1 Sign

Signifier

Signified

Connotation

Structure

Perfusing the mosaic of Deisis in Hagia Sophia

Christian value

Destruction of one of the most important values of Christian identity; destruction of spiritual, divine signs, historical value and heritage.

Person

Working men

Easterner, Saracen, stereotyped Turkish Muslim stereotyped and presented

An external target or a figure of threat, barbarian, not creating any value, destroying values, uncivilized, the other, primitive, guilty, criminal

Phrase/slogan

Remember what they took from us

Creating the sense of “us” under the Christian identity and values, specific to Hagia Sophia

Covering the forgiving, protecting Jesus and Mary figures and thus destroying the most important elements of Christianity Being Westerner, threat, being consolidated against the others

Fez has been widely used to represent Turks, Muslims and Ottomans in caps. It is a strong sign used in reflecting Religion/Islam along with Ottoman/Turk identity. The statement of “Turkish SpongeBob isn’t real, he can’t hurt you” is presented through the image of a therapist. Turkish imagery becomes a highly fearful element even when it is presented with a cute character. The imagery is associated with fear.

Analysis of Caps 3 5 of 76 caps selected by the researcher while determining the research sampling are under the title of “Remove Kebab”. As it represents the strongest orientalist discussion, Serbia Strong/Remove Kebab caps is selected. According to the study by Zannettou et al. (2018), 0,5% of internet memes are “Remove Kebab” contents. These caps went viral in 4chan participatory internet site with a video with the comment “REMOVE KEBAB remove kebab you are worst turk. You are the turk idiot you are the turk

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Figure 4. Turkish Spongebob

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Table 2. Semiological Analysis of Caps 2 Sign

Signifier

Signified

Connotation

Character

Turkish SpongeBob

Senseless Eastern Muslim with moustache; a tatty and pleasure-seeking male, Saracen.

Lazy, reckless, ugly, uncivilized, ridiculous, a Turkish image decontextualized and stereotyped, countryman, the other, mean, simple, not modern

Object

Fes

Eastern object

Westerner, mystical and exotic, the other, Turk

Object

Hookah

Eastern object

Westerner, mystical and exotic, the other, Turk

Object

Tea

Object belonging to Turk

Westerner, mystical and exotic, the other Turk

Phrase/slogan

Turkish SpongeBob isn’t real, he can’t hurt you

A cute character is turned into a fearful image over Turkish identity

The other, fearful, harmful, wild, barbarian

Figure 5. Remove kebap and Novislav Đajić

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Table 3. Semiological Analysis of Caps 3 Sign

Signifier

Signified

Connotation

Person

Novislav Dajic

Europe, protector of the Serbians v

Protector, powerful, tough, soldier

Person

An Easterner holding a weapon

A Muslim figure threatening the Westerner with the weapon he holds

Armed, enemy of the civilization, the other, barbarian, wild, ugly, Easterner, not modern, threat for the West

Phrase/slogan

I want all kebabs dead

I want all the Turks and Muslims dead

Threat, violence, hatred, the other, devaluation, simplicity, ordinariness

Phrase/slogan

Can you kindly say that again?

Muslim that should be removed from Europe, the center of civilization

Being European, civilization, underdeveloped, Muslim, uncivilized, us and the others threat, away from West

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smell…” A Serbian nationalist wishing an ethnic cleansing by destroying Turks shared the video. The person playing accordion in the video is Nodislav Dajic, the Serbian cetnik soldier who was responsible for killing tens of Bosnian Muslims and sentenced to 5 years prison. Dajic has been widely used as a figure in nationalist caps about removing Turks, especially Bosnian Muslims, from Europe. In the first picture of the caps, there is an image of Dajic with the words “I want all kebabs dead”. The word kebab is associated with Turks in Europe in the participatory humor sites; this association is based on the profession of Turks. The word kebab is a type of stereotypical reductionist viewpoint and it involves the meanings of humiliation and marginalization. In Dajic’s video, he says that “We will kill Turks” although Serbians fight with Bosnians. Although Bosnians aren’t ethnically Turkish, they are associated with Turks as they are Muslim. The reference “kebab” is basically built on Turks. There is a man in the second image whose identity isn’t clear; however, as the contents of “Remove kebab” is based on Turks, the person is probably a Turk. He uses his weapon as a threat and says “Can you kindly say that again?” In terms of the physical appearance, the person seems dirty, messy and uncivilized. His character, on the other hand, is depicted as horrible, dreary, criminal, savage and offensive. The person fits into the Western imagery of Muslim terrorists. The image of Dajic is zoomed in the last image and “Did I stutter? I said ‘all kebabs must die including you sandnigger mudslime savage now go back to your third world hellhole and die there before I remove you permanently because you have no business in civilized God-Fearing Europe”. There is an example of hate speech in this passage about Muslims in Europe. Besides, it is emphasized that the barbarians and others, in other words Turks, have nothing to do in Europe, which is a civilized place; Muslims, thus, shall go back to their homelands, which are described as the third-world. The concept of being European is clearly presented in these caps. Although Christian countries in Europe have different ethnic origins, they define themselves over the identity of Christianity (German, French, Italian, Serbian etc.) Muslims have no place in this world, so they should be destroyed and removed. Muslim Bosnians have been living in Europe for thousands of years, but they should still be removed as they are associated with Muslims.

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Analysis of Caps 4 This caption and similar ones involve stereotyped humor elements based on the self-orientalist viewpoint of content creators about their nation. They are grouped under the title of “What people think when I say I’m from….” The above-left image is in the channel “Turkey”, in 9GAG under the Turkish title “Türk olduğumu söylediğimde insanların düşündükleri”. The content is created by a Turkish content creator. The above right image, on the other hand, is created by a Westerner and includes orientalist symbols. The caption depicts Turks as warriors, serious, violent men of pleasure; the physical appearance of Turks, on the other hand, is ugly, furious, and dark-skinned. Fez, tea, kebab are also placed in the image besides lace, which was once commonly used in Turkish houses. Turkish image evokes death, darkness, poverty, aggressiveness, combativeness, invader understanding, evil, fear, power, and authority.

CONCLUSION When the habits of modern people in terms of media are analyzed, it is seen that the use of imagery is more dominant than words; in other words, we have been living in a so-called “glossy-image period”. 772

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Figure 6. Self- Orientalist Caps

It has been specifically important to understand the visual culture of this age. Meaning created by the visual culture doesn’t merely glorify a specific culture or cultural values; it also locates and recreates the image of “the other” and value judgments. Scientific and objective realities aren’t reflected in the visual areas; subjective reflections of content producers exist in these environments. This subjective freedom ensured by the caps, in other words, the products of visual culture, have eased and enriched the recreation of orientalist discourses in today’s world. The images of Turks in caps are presented with signifiers such as Turban, Islamic tabard, beard, prayer beads, coif, and shalwar. Signified, on the other hand, is usually the element of East, religion/Islam, history, tradition, obscurantism, underdevelopment, and violence. The specifically designed Turkish image is used as a kind of actor that creates a sense of threat. The sense of “insecurity, unreliableness” created with the image is associated with Muslim Turks; the Western understanding designs this imagery to create a positive identity for the West; establishing the concept of “the other”, understanding, grasping, defining and thus controlling the image of the other empowers the positive image of the West. It can be

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Table 4. Semiological Analysis of Caps 4 Sign

Signifier

Signified

Connotation

person

Individual on the computer

Decontextualized and Stereotyped Turkish image, Saracen

Ugly, unattractive, aggressive, Easterner, offensive, pleasure-seeker, disorderly

object

weapons

Warrior Turks

Violent, criminal, harmful, destructive

object

kebab

Turkish food

Easterner, mystical, humiliation, simple, the other, Turkish

object

fez

Traditional Turkish cloth

Easterner, mystical, exotic, the other, Turkish, not modern

object

lace

Traditional Turkish ornament

Easterner, mystical, the other, traditional, not modern

object

tea

Traditional Turkish drink

Easterner, mystical, the other,

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said that the physical attitude of the Turkish image besides the behaviors, movements, looks, is based on a Muslim Turk who is intolerant, menacing, challenging, and aggressive. The concept of orientalism, which looks as if it has completed its mission recently, recreated itself and continued its existence through the discourse that establishes global Islamophobia fantasy. The Turks are seen as “the others” by the West, which puts its understanding at the center, because of the historical and cultural values it has. In the discourse created by West, it is the symbol of modernity and superiority while Turks are still associated with the Ottoman culture, underdevelopment, fanaticism, and barbarianism.

DISCUSSION

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The results of this study are similar to the statements of Miles. East and Turks are the same in the eyes of the West. Turks have borders with the West for 700 years and have all types of interactions with it. The concept of Easterner in the eyes of the West is the same as Turks. Miles (1998) states that the Islamic threat, which started in the 14th century, increased with the rise of Ottoman Turks. According to him, the wild Saracen image that started with the Crusades was turned into the image of wild Turk; starting from that period, the concept of the other started to be defined through Turks. As mentioned by Aydın, the definitions of ‘Muslim’, ‘Turk’, ‘Islam’, and ‘Turkish religion’, in other words, ‘Religio Turco’, were synonymous until the era of enlightenment in Central Europe (1999). This understanding which had continued for a long time might be the reason why the identities of Turks and Arabs are so intermingled in the eyes of the West. The Turks are still perceived as a part of the Muslim world as if they don’t have a specific, separate identity or civilization. They are defined as “the others” who are the representatives of the Muslim world. The idea of being European has been built on this basis. The Turks and the image of “the others” have been the basic factors in the formation of this image which helped Europeans locate their identity on a more positive, civilized basis. When the Turkish image created in caps is analyzed, it can be said that a theological, political, cultural, and social irrational fear, danger, and threat is deliberately constructed. Çebi (2015) says that various linguistic and visual indicators, images and symbols, ideological discourse elements-instruments and strategies, contradictions, implications, and premises are used while establishing the Turkish image. On the other hand, there are negative representations of social actors that symbolize Islam and Muslims in these processes of image-creation. According to Çebi (2015), a variety of rhetoric tools such as exaggeration, dramatization, and use of metaphors are constantly, deliberately, and purposefully used while creating the Turkish image.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTION The purpose of this study is to reveal the orientalist discourses in the humor created by the participatory culture. Throughout the study process, it was observed that there are some missing points in the topics of change and transformation in humor, especially in participatory humor sites. There has been an acceleration in the change and transformation of how humor is created and presented thanks to the new media platforms; humor and hate speeches meet on common ground in these platforms. It is necessary to carry out inter-cultural studies to analyze this significant issue. The researcher suggests that the new type of racism in humor sites should be analyzed in terms of ideology and discourse. Besides, it is 774

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important to research the understanding of humor in humor sites based on the participatory culture, in the context of Hobbes’ Superiority in Humor Theory.

REFERENCES Aktan, G. (2006). Açık Kriptolar: Ermeni Soykırım İddiaları, Avrupa’da Irkçılık ve Türkiye’nin AB Üyeliği [Open Cryptos: Armenian Genocide Allegations of Racism in Europe and Turkey’s EU Membership]. Aşina Kitaplar. Aydın, K. (1999). Images of Turkey in Western Literature. The Eothen Press. Çebi, M. (2015). İsviçre’deki Minare Karşıtı Referandum Afişlerinde İslamofobi’nin Söylemsel İnşası [Discursive Construction of Islamophobia in Anti-Minaret Referendum Posters in Switzerland]. Bilig, (73), 99-140. Retrieved from https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/bilig/issue/25349/267624 Dursun, O. (2014). Batı’nin Egemen ‘Kötü-Öteki-Doğu’ Düşüncesinin Pekiştirildiği Bir Alan: Dünya Basın Fotoğrafları Kuruluşu, Yılın Fotoğrafı Kategorisi Üzerine Bir Analiz. İstanbul University Faculty of Communication Journal, (47), 19-50. Retrieved from https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/iuifd/issue/22897/245089 Fiske, J. (2003). İletişim Çalışmalarına Giriş [Introduction to Communication Studies]. Çev. Süleyman İrvan. Bilim ve Sanat Yayınları. Jenkins, H. (2006). Fans, bloggers, and gamers: Exploring participatory culture. New York University Press. Köroğlu, A. (2016). Edward Said ile Oryantalizme Dair… [“Edward Said: On ‘Orientalism]. Necmettin Erbakan Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, 41(41), 167-178. Retrieved from https://dergipark.org. tr/tr/pub/neuifd/issue/19722/286278 Mardin, Ş. (2002). Oryantalizmin Hasıraltı Ettikleri. Doğu-Batı Düşünce Dergisi Oryantalizm-I, (20), 42–50. McLuhan, M., & Lapham, L. H. (1994). Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man. MIT press. Meet Achmed the Dead Terrorist. (2020). Youtube.com. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GBvfiCdk-jc Meme. (2020). In Merriam Webster.com. Retrieved November 15. 2020. https://www.merriam-webster. com/dictionary/meme

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Miles, R. (1998). Irkçılık [Racism] (S. Yaman, Trans.). Sarmal Yayınevi. Mora, N. (2007). Küresel medyada ötekinin temsili [Representation of the other in the global media]. Dördüncü Kuvvet Medya. Retrieved from: http://dorduncukuvvetmedya.com/arsiv/articlebcfe. html?sid=8414 Özmen, Ş. Y. (2012). Representing of Cartoon Crisis in Turkish Press: Samples of Vakit, Cumhuriyet and Posta Dailies. Karadeniz Araştırmaları Dergisi, 51-60.

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Poyraz, T., & Arıkan, G. (2003). Avrupa-Türkiye İlişkileri ve Dönemsel Olarak Değişen “Öteki” Tanımları [Europe-Turkey Relations and the Periodically Changing as the Definitions of “Other”]. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, 20(2), 61–71. Rubin, A. N. (2007). Edward W. Said (1935-2003). In A. Yıldız (Ed.), Oryantalizm, Tartışma Metinleri (pp. 17–38). Doğu Batı Yay. Said, E. W. (1978). Orientalism. Penguin Books. Said, E. W. (1997). Covering Islam: How the media and the experts determine how we see the rest of the world. Vintage Books. Sardar, Z. (1999). Orientalism. Open University Press. Shifman, L. (2011). An anatomy of a YouTube meme. New Media & Society, 14(2), 187–203. doi:10.1177/1461444811412160 Shifman, L. (2013). Memes in a digital world: Reconciling with a conceptual troublemaker. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 18(3), 362–377. doi:10.1111/jcc4.12013 Shifman, L. (2014a). Memes in digital culture. MIT Press. Shifman, L. (2014b). The cultural logic of photo-based meme genres. Journal of Visual Culture, 13(3), 340–358. doi:10.1177/1470412914546577 Shifman, L., & Blondheim, M. (2010). The medium is the joke: Online humor about and by networked computers. New Media & Society, 12(8), 1348–1367. doi:10.1177/1461444810365311 Tutal, N. (2011). Edward Said’in Oryantalizmi Nasıl Okunuyor? [How to Read Edward Said’s Orientalism]. Doğu Batı- Oryantalizm II, 20(2), 117-137. Uluç, G. (2009). Medya ve Oryantalizm, Yabancı, Farklı ve Garip, Öteki [Media and Orientalism, Foreign, Different and Strange, The Other]. Anahtar Kitaplar Yayınevi. Yanık, H. (2016). Batı Felsefesiyle Yaratılan Oryantalist Türk(iye) İmajı ve Sinemaya Yansımaları IMDB Üzerinden Bir Analiz [Orientalist Turk(Ey) Image Created Through Western Philosophy of 18th Century and Its Reflections on Cinema: An Analysis on Imdb]. The Journal of Academic Social Science Studies, 43, 361–381.

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Yüksel, M. (2014). İslamofobinin Tarihsel Temellerine Bir Bakış: Oryantalizm ya da Batı ve Öteki [A Hıstorıcal Foundatıon of Islamophobia: Orıentalısm or The West And Other]. Journal of Istanbul University Law Faculty, 72(1), 189–200. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/iuhfm/issue/9191/115284 Zannettou, S., Caulleld, T., Blackburn, J., De Cristofaro, E., Sirivianos, M., Stringhini, G., & SuarezTangil, G. (2018). On the Origins of Memes by Means of Fringe Web Communities. In Proceedings of IMC ’18. ACM. 10.1145/3278532.3278550

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ADDITIONAL READING Arcan, H. (2012). Reflections of the Turkey in the Mirror of Orientalism: Orientalist Discourse in the British Press Regarding Turkey’s EU Membership. İstanbul University. Journal of Sociology (Melbourne, Vic.), 3(24), 119–153. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/iusosyoloji/issue/534/4917 Aydın, K. (1999). Images of Turkey in Western Literature. The Eothen Press. Barthes, R. (1979). Göstergebilim İlkeleri (B. Vardar & M. Rıfat, Trans.). Kültür Bakanlığı. Çebi, M. (2015). İsviçre’deki Minare Karşıtı Referandum Afişlerinde İslamofobi’nin Söylemsel İnşası [Discursive Construction of Islamophobia in Anti-Minaret Referendum Posters in Switzerland]. Bilig, (73), 99-140. Retrieved from https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/bilig/issue/25349/267624 Said, E. W. (1997). Covering Islam: How the media and the experts determine how we see the rest of the World. Vintage Books. Shifman, L. (2014). Memes in digital culture. MIT Press.

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

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9GAG: An online social media site through which users create content, upload, and share what they created. Captions/Caps: The word is derived from the words “Capture” and “Captions”; the act of writing sub-titles fitting for the image especially in sites that produce humorous content. Meme: A contagious information structure that reproduces by the transition from one brain to another; the structure that changes human behaviors and causes them to spread the structure. Participatory Culture: A new type of culture occurred when the media consumers have become active with the new media and started to have a voice in the production and distribution of the content. Saracen: A name was given to Muslims by European artists during Crusades, meaning “Non-Christian.” Semiology: A discipline-based on systematically analyzing all of the factors that involve the processes of interpretation, production, or understanding of the signs.

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Chapter 44

Evaluation of Women’s Perspectives in the East Societies on New Media News Hicabi Arslan Aydin Adnan Menderes University, Turkey Aslihan Topal Aydin Adnan Menderes University, Turkey

ABSTRACT Turkey is located frequently in women’s media. The representation of women in the media, which should be evaluated in many aspects such as sociological, psychological, political, economic, and legal, has been frequently the subject of academic studies. In the country and in the world, women can generally fnd their place in the media within the social roles assigned to them. The view of countries towards women is also shaped by the efect of cultural, economic, political, and social structures. In Eastern cultures, the woman is usually burdened with roles in need of protection, such as the woman of her home, the mother of her child, a good wife, a self-sacrifcing woman who lives at home.

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INTRODUCTION In Turkey, as in many places in the world is also located frequently in women’s media. It is regarded as a social problem of violence against women in Turkey, and civil society organizations working mainly at this point is a phenomenon that is beginning to occur after 1980 (the Gokul & Hosta, 2013, p. 1836). The representation of women in the media, which should be evaluated in many aspects such as sociological, psychological, political, economic and legal, is frequently the subject of academic studies. woman in the world in Turkey, generally, in the framework of social roles ascribed to them are able to find in the media. The view of countries towards women is also shaped by the impact of cultural, economic, political and social structure. In Eastern cultures, women are often burdened with roles in need of protection, such as the woman of her house, the mother of her child, a good wife, a devoted woman who lives DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch044

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 Evaluation of Women’s Perspectives in the East Societies on New Media News

at home. The roles assigned to them in the society they live in are shaped according to the patriarchal structure. The representation of all kinds of violence against women in the media will continue as long as the reality of violence against women is not eliminated. Of course, the media’s right to information and news, people’s need to get news, learn what is happening in their immediate surroundings, and the sense of curiosity will be mutually resolved. However, the problematic media here is to justify the presentation of events that sometimes pose a social problem in the representation of women, or to divert the perception of the society from the current situation, to establish the perception of women with the language of the news they use. The point that should not be forgotten and should be emphasized here is that violence against women should not be reflected as an incident seen only in Eastern societies. Violence against women, which is seen in different dimensions and forms in all societies in general, especially in male-dominated societies, has a tendency to dominate women, and in order to achieve this, women’s sexual identity, behaviors and attitudes are tried to be under control through the concepts of morality and honor, the ego of women is through fear and intimidation. are tried to be suppressed and restricted. (Sarıoğlu & Özgen, 2019, p.1060) Violence against women is a common occurrence all over the world, even in societies that are called modern and defined as high level of development, and it is obvious with these data. For this reason, it is the necessity of the media organizations to act sensitively in terms of doing their part in raising the awareness of the public through the news they give within the scope of social responsibility against all kinds of violence against women all over the world. No matter how much the social structure changes, the established patterns of the patriarchal system continue to exist unchanged. Evaluating or questioning the media coverage of female representation established in Eastern culture is an evaluation and questioning of male identity, in fact, in its cells. Because, in the perception of male dominant structure, woman corresponds to sensuality and fragility, male mind and power. These roles assigned to women are reinforced through the media, with the language used in the news in the media. Even though the woman escapes her status of being imprisoned in her home as before and makes a name for herself and her presence in business life, the settled roles continue under certain patterns in Eastern cultures and cultural societies dominated by traditional structures. Cultures impose social roles and responsibilities on women and men with their varying characteristics within their own accumulations, and these depend on the characteristics of the culture to which the individual belongs (Çötok, 2015, p.779). Cultural patterns in the society determine the view of women and violence (Gündüz, 2018, p.298) As Gül and Altındal stated in the “patriarchal social values ​​system, the excessive importance attributed to the woman, her body, sexuality and fertility is based on honor and private sphere. It is defined by the family and women’s roles within the family. If the woman does not fulfill these roles, her verbal or physical punishment is normalized and legitimized (Gül & Altındal, 2015, p.175). The concept of gender is determined by the cultural, social and economic factors belonging to the structure of the individual and passes into feelings, thoughts and behaviors through “gender roles” and gender roles also mediate the regulation of the relations of women and men with each other and with the society as a whole (Sarbay, 2015, p.97). The traditional female role expectations also support her rationalization and internalization of exploitation and violence. (Bilgin, 2016, p. 223) While in some societies women represented meanings such as freedom, bondage and fertility, in some societies, women were seen as a symbol in which esoteric messages were transmitted (Ağçoban, 2016, p.14). Social context in patriarchal structures. While his perception of the East is shaped as barbarian and dangerous within the orientalist perspective, the backward and dangerous mentality towards the East is still present. However, only in Eastern 779

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societies the place of women in society and the presentation of this place in the media differ from Western societies due to the established commitments. Apart from this, violence against women cannot be framed by any country or society border. This situation manifests itself in the statistics made and the data presented. Many women die every year due to violence. The media coverage of these losses should be evaluated in terms of the visuals as well as the words used, so that it will be possible to fully read the representation of women in the media. Palabıyık stated in his study on the relationship between violence and the media, according to the results of his research, that it is difficult to talk about a cause and effect relationship between violence in the media and violence observed in the society, however, he stated that the power of the media to influence human behaviors cannot be ignored (Palabıyıkoğlu, 1997, pp. 124-125.). Images reinforce the meanings in the news they are used in or can pull the perception of the society in a different direction. While the presentation of the selected image to the public by examining it in the context of ethical values ​​in the news is very important, sometimes news presentations and ethical values ​​in the language used can be disregarded, especially with the concern of readability, commercial concerns. The relatives of the person who lost his life, the first degree relatives of the perpetrator, who have nothing to do with the incident, can find themselves in the incident and become the victim of another violence. Visual literacy is among the lifelong learning sections of the society. Visual literacy, which we can express as analyzing and interpreting visual contents and creating our own visual contents, is the basis for human learning (Alpan (Bangir), 2008, p.77). It is obvious that we are frequently exposed to visual content, especially not only in terms of news, but also due to the developing communication technology and the increasing use of technological devices. While the images used are sometimes considered as pornography of violence, sometimes they can be a source of an excuse that may occur in society for the crime committed by the perpetrator. No matter how much the development level of societies increases, women leave their homes and make their presence felt in every point of life, but still they are seen as material or moral deficiencies in the face of men and women. Being a child and being a woman are regarded as assets that are always missing. Children cannot, cannot know, cannot understand, women cannot catch up with life, cannot reach their children, cannot touch life, they are generally seen as two beings who are on the edge of life and cannot be included in it. While the woman is in a marriage full of psychological or physical violence, especially if she has children, everyone tries to be guided by various minds in terms of maintaining that marriage. While this marriage is seen as the protection point of women and the most important place in society, the experiences of women are generally justified when they die. A woman who ends her marriage in spite of her children can actually show the courage to do this for her children and her own life, but because the society cannot continue this marriage, she regards her as a failed mother, an unsuccessful woman, a failed wife. While having to prove himself, only to show himself that he is standing and upright is enough, while he is financially and morally sufficient for himself and his children, and the society tries to see this, in fact, the victim of violence actually causes the victim of violence to become a victim of social violence created by invisible hands. If a woman has children, it is very meaningful for the woman to continue that marriage, but it is forgotten that growing up in a violent environment teaches those children violence. The rates of violence against women in European countries are also not underestimated. Western countries are trying to take various measures in this regard to prevent violence against women.

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Figure 1. ­

(https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/info/infografik/16590: Access Date-29-09-2020)

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BACKGROUND Looking at the definitions on the subject, violence against women; It is defined as all actions that result in or are likely to result in physical, sexual, psychological or economic harm or suffering of women, whether in public or private life, including coercion or preventing their random freedom. At this point, another concept that needs to be defined is gender. The concept of gender; The socially constructed roles that a particular society deems appropriate for women and men are expressed in the form of behaviors, activities and approaches. The concept of violence; acts that result or are likely to result in physical, sexual, psychological or economic harm or suffering, including threats and coercion, or arbitrary impairment of liberty, occurring in the social, public or private sphere. It is explained as all kinds of economic attitudes and behaviors and in grouping violence against women; A classification is made as physical violence, economic violence, sexual violence and psychological / emotional violence (General Directorate on the Status of Women, 2016, p.iv, v, 5) Violence against women was defined by the United Nations in 1993: “Violence in public or private life means any act of violence based on gender, which results in or is likely to result in physical, sexual or psychological harm or pain to women, including threatening, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty. ‘’ (Nations, 1993). Although societies try to take measures to prevent this troublesome situation, violence against women continues almost everywhere in the world. This violence is frequently found in traditional media and new media. Regarding the way in which women

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are present in traditional media and new media, Akmeşe and Deniz stated that there is no difference in the representation of women in both channels as a result of their work here, and in addition to this, the second-degree position produced by the male-dominated masculine perspective and legitimized in the social structure They stated that it has been observed that the continuity of this is ensured by constantly being reproduced, and they also emphasized that although the media, which is expressed as new media, has an innovation feature, it is exactly the same with traditional media in the approach to women and the representation of women. (Akmeşe & Deniz, 2015, p. 324) The influence of the media on people is undeniable. However, a point that should not be forgotten; With the changes experienced with the new communication technologies and the place of the internet in our lives, we are now in a social order that is kneaded with individuals who are born into technology, who can produce their own content not only in a passive position, but when and where they want. In other words, the individual is in an active position in the face of the media, not in a passive position as in traditional media. Especially with the opportunities offered by the new media, the time and speed of the news, information, comments, and all the posts are quite high. The media’s ability to reach large masses in a short time increases its impact on people. The fact that the Internet is so effectively embedded in our lives makes its presence felt in journalism practices as well as in every field, as in every field. Someone from another corner of the world can easily learn about an event happening anywhere in the world. The sense of curiosity in people and the desire to learn what is happening in the near or far environment have become easier to eliminate with the Internet. Although there are differences between traditional media and new media, while taking part in the representation of women in both media It is identical with the roles of good and bad women, which can be presented as a beautiful, pleasant, good wife, good mother, good housewife, victim of violence or sexual object (Yiğitbaşı & Sarıçam, 2020, p.21). Mass media present it as adapting to social roles or acting against it. From this point of view, while the identity of woman is defined as an object that does not have property rights over her own body, it contributes to the formation and establishment of the image of women in the collective consciousness of the society according to the good or bad evaluation (Mora, 2005, p.2). Söğüt states that the most striking point in the presentation of the image of women in the media is not what is conveyed, but what is not conveyed, and that women are not associated with money, business and politics, and that the media content also supports this (Söğüt, 2019, p.219). In the media, care should be taken to reflect women not only with their sexuality but also with their achievements in various fields of society from politics to economy, from culture and arts to sports (Büyükbaykal, 2007, p.28). Women are generally equipped with elements such as beauty, aesthetics, slim body measurements, make-up, hair, care, and fashion, and are integrated into roles that fit these elements (Uğurlu, 2015: 244). Women are positioned as being deceived, cheating, victim, dieting, taking recipes, cleaning the house, a good wife, occasionally a political actor involved in sportive activities. Generally, these issues are addressed in the content of the news that are presented with a male-dominated perspective, and the content of the female identity. In the developing technological, economic and social structure, women come to the agenda with their business life or success, and this way they can find a place for themselves. However, their involvement in this way is very limited. In general, a child or woman’s media coverage is as much as their lives and traces they will leave on people rather than their success. Women can easily share their own content with the new media, they can announce their problems and screams more easily from this medium, and they continue their presence on social networks in the new media they take place as entrepreneurs. However, it can be found on the third page in news about murder, harassment and rape or on the first page depending on the depth of the incident. 782

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It is clear that the Covid-19 Pandemic process has effects on societies at many different points. When evaluated not only on the basis of societies but also on the basis of individuals, perhaps there is not much data for now, but many studies will be conducted on the effects that will occur in the future. In a study on the course of violence against women in the Covid-19 Pandemic process, findings were shared that male violence increased during the epidemic. In the post made by Unicef, although there is no comprehensive data, it was stated that there was a 25% increase in the number of cases in countries where there is a reporting system of violence against women, and it was stated that the numbers shared were likely to reflect the worst cases. In addition, the report also emphasized the concerns about the increase of gender-based abuse in digital areas due to the excessive time spent at home during the pandemic process (Nations, Policy Summary: The Impact of Covid-19 on Women, 2020, p.17). On the point of violence against women, UN Secretary General António Guterres, while talking about the impact of the Covid-19 pandemic on women, used the expressions “We are aware of the increased exposure to domestic violence” (Nations, United Nations “This is the moment to step up for the vulnerable”, 2020). In its statement on the social and economic effects of COVID-19 on women, the United Nations Women Unit (UN Women) said, “While restricted movement and social isolation measures deepen the increasing economic and social stress, gender-based violence is also increasing exponentially. Access to services provided to survivors is not possible or restricted, and many women are forced to stay home with people who abuse them ”. Although it is stated that it is still early for detailed data in the report, it is also stated that reports about the increase of violence against women have started to come. “The COVID-19 pandemic, coupled with economic and social stresses, and measures to restrict contact and movement, has led to increased violence against women and girls globally. Crowded homes, substance use, limited access to services, and reduced peer support worsen these conditions. Before the epidemic, it was predicted that one in three women would experience violence during their lifetime. Now, most of these women are trapped in their homes with their abusers. ” (UN Women BM, 2020, p.17). This situation is a very special indicator that violence against women continues under all conditions and conditions. As can be seen from the effects of Covid-19, which is under the influence of the whole world, not only in terms of health, but also in terms of social, psychological, economic and cultural structures, the foundation stones of these structures show the effects of children, women, men, old and young from every point and from all dimensions. It is stated that intimate partner violence based on gender is expected to increase with the disruption of deterrence measures and support services during the pandemic process (United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), 2020, p.16). While the emphasis on the increase in violence against women is important in the study, not only physical violence against women, but also digital violence during the pandemic process will be the subject of future studies. Social media or internet usage rates of people who have to spend their lives at homes, especially during certain periods, have increased. Of course, the dimensions of the increase here and the effect of this increase on all areas of life will become clearer in future studies with data. The importance of new communication technologies in our lives is obvious. These influences, which manifest themselves in every aspect of our lives, also manifest themselves in journalism practices. Thanks to the new media, people can learn about every event in the world, wherever and whenever they want, with just one click. In terms of journalism, when this situation is evaluated in the context of reporting, journalists / reporters can now share the content of the news they will convey without a page problem. This situation is reflected both by accessing other news related to the presentation of different links within the news and by facilitating the presentation, sometimes with the support of video and sometimes visual diversity, in the detailed description of the event. News can be easily delivered to users via instant 783

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Figure 2. ­

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(UN Women BM, 2020, s. 19)

messages. It is among the examples of the new media to provide convenience to journalists as well as individuals who are consumers, such as the more detailed transmission of the content, the absence of space and time limitations. While providing this convenience, it is also possible to place existing ideas in the social structure more strongly through the media. It is of great importance to evaluate whether the contents meet the information needed by the public in the understanding of journalism with the new media, or to meet the information needs of the public in the new journalism practices developed with new media, for example, how women are represented in the media, and the place of men in the media content. Because when looking at the changes experienced, a lot of media content is transferred to the public. How much of what is presented in the mass of information that flows into people’s lives in an incredible way will serve to eliminate the responsibility towards the public, how much will touch the social, cultural, psychological and economic situation of the society, to what extent and the quality of this effect will contribute to the development of the society. In the meeting held at Balliol College in Oxford in 2013, England, the changing media environment, the type of information and entertainment received by the public and the effects of these changes on individuals and society was carried out. In the meeting held in 2013, it was stated that the amount of news, information and entertainment presented to

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the public was quite high (Institute, 2013). Violence against women should not only be associated with the cultural structure, especially because of the topic. An issue that concerns the whole world should not be included in any region, country or borders on the world map. Considering only the presentation of the media and its representation towards women, the difference and weight of social and cultural structures make itself felt and this situation is reflected in the media. Studies conducted show that violence against women is generally a problem in representation in all societies. In Turkey, the Radio and Television Supreme Council (RTÜK) Audiovisual media service providers in Broadcasting Code of Ethics was adopted in 2018. Here; There are expressions such as “paying attention not to encourage and legitimize violence, to be sensitive to women’s problems and avoid objectifying women, and not to include gender discrimination, humiliation and prejudices in publications”. Not limited to this, ethical principles consist of 20 items (Anadolu Agency, 2018). In 2019, UNESCO published a handbook for media professionals on how to convey violence against women and girls. The translation of the “Reporting on Violence Against Women and Girls: A Handbook for Journalists” into all languages ​​will be beneficial for the field. In the first part of the book, 10 specific themes are mentioned in alphabetical order along with basic information, and these themes range from cyber bullying and online harassment of female journalists to so-called honor killings. In the second part, how the subject should be handled, framed and handled is emphasized, and in the last section, International Declarations, resolutions and Congresses list are included (Impe, 2019). Inclusion of Gender-Based Violence in the Media - Handbook and the Handbook for Training of Trainers are also intended for journalists working in Bosnia-Herzegovina to end violence (Dekić, 2017). Women and gender Media book was published by the Contemporary Journalists Association of Turkey as egalitarian news guide. The five-part book is a bedside book for journalists working in the field. The book, which also includes national and international conventions, includes words that are used in terms of news language and words that can be used instead of these words. Especially carefully the words were voiced on behalf of sexist to say they do not refer to the requirement of the selected sample words (Turkey Journalists’ Society, 2016). It will be beneficial for journalists / reporters to use common language to publish studies such as these studies, whose examples will be increased even more. Baran, Sarıtaş and Kütük, in their study on the coverage of violence against women in the media, stated that the news of violence against women causes the normalization of violence rather than preventing or reducing it, and can almost cause women to be perceived as deserving of this situation. However, in their study, it was also stated that considering the heterogeneity of the audience in the presentation of the news in this direction, the media followed this way, causing the issue to turn into a form that could not be solved and legitimized the violence of men. (Baran, Sarıtaş, & Kütük, 2017, p.129) Similarly, in Avcı and Güdekli, it is stated that the media does not pay attention to the language of the news, that they ordinaryize and legitimize violence against women with discourses, and also at the point of ethical values​​ by giving a striking picture of women who have been subjected to violence. They stated that there was a problem (Avcı & Güdekli, 2018, p.477). At this point, the increasingly widespread internet media is a very important medium that should be taken into consideration regarding the presentation of violence against women and ethical violations. While speed and promptness are very important in internet journalism, the understanding of making quality news, the understanding of correct interpretation of events and parties should not be abandoned in order to achieve this (Yegen, 2014, p.26).

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MAIN FOCUS OF THE CHAPTER Evaluation of the Issue With Example News In the cultural structure of the East, the understanding of returning to the house with a wedding dress with a shroud works almost similarly in many countries. Even if he is subjected to violence, he tries to justify the understanding of what he did to this violence, but this happened to him. In other words, the news of violence in the media can lead to stronger social perceptions. In eastern societies with a traditional structure and strong cultural ties, for example, while a man’s cheating on his wife is an ordinary situation that can happen to every woman, requiring almost compulsory forgiveness for their children, cheating on her husband is interpreted as an unforgivable behavior. It is seen as a situation that will lead him to death so that he can only receive the punishment he deserves. The news is in itself life in many countries around the world not only in Turkey, there is also life outside of work with women who are still sent home to die with honor killings in the name. The news in this direction almost tries to find an excuse for the murder. “Outrage over Iraqi woman’s alleged torture by her husband Malak al-Zubeidi says she was lit on fire by her husband and prevented from visiting her parents for eight months.” In this article, the statements of the wife of the woman hospitalized due to the severe burns on her body due to the violence she suffered by her husband are included. It is also included in the article that

Figure 3. ­

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(https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/4/13/outrage-over-iraqi-womans-alleged-torture-by-her-husband Access Date: 6-11-2020

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the man was a police officer, and he wrote on his social media account that his wife was mentally ill and that he burned himself. In fact, the use of the image may also create a psychological pressure on other women who are subjected to violence by their husbands. A woman who feels vulnerable and helpless may remain silent to the pressure she faces to not experience the same situation. In the news, the man makes a statement about the woman in a way that he is mentally unstable and burned himself. The inclusion of such a statement in the press is a psychological re-presentation of the violence suffered by women through another channel. In particular, if a woman who lost her life could not give any of these statements, the fact that only the man’s statements were included can be considered as another violence against women. The woman will not be able to defend herself. At this point, the remaining relatives and children should be considered by journalists / reporters in the context of social responsibility and ethical aspects. The reporters, of course, place the man’s statements in line with the news they receive from intelligence channels. Press organizations are also commercial enterprises. However, it should not be forgotten that these commercial concerns and readability may cause the weakening of the belief in the media in terms of women and many segments of the society. It is seen that the incident taking place in the social media in this way has gathered the great reaction of social media users, and it is emphasized by the users that such events are important in the countries that are insufficient in terms of penalties in terms of making voices against violence, thanks to social media. The woman died a week after hospitalization (https://www.sozcu.com.tr/2020/dunya/iraktaki-cinayette-korkunc-gercek-ortaya-cikti-5762129/ Access Date 6-11-2020). It should be taken into account when reporting that this presentation of violence can be a new source of trauma for women in similar situations in society. -Qandeel Baloch’s brother confesses ‘honour’ killing “No regrets,” says brother of Pakistani social media sensation after he strangles her to death in family home.” In a statement he made to the journalists, he said that he committed the murder because he could not stand his sister’s behavior, that he was not ashamed and never regretted, and these statements took place in the newspaper.

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- Breaking news ... He killed Pınar Gültekin, destroyed his wife! When the killer saw the evidence ... “ In the murder of Pınar Gültekin, the visual used in the news may cause the perception of the society to take a different direction. Giving three of a married man, his wife, and a woman who lost his life in the same frame poses an ethical problem. The trauma of the relatives of this woman who lost her life may be another source of violence by those relatives. The problems that the perpetrator’s spouse or child will experience throughout their lives should not be fed by the media. -“A Daughter Is Beheaded, and Iran Asks if Women Have a Right to Safety The so-called honor killing of a 14-year-old girl in Iran has shaken the country and forced an examination of its failure to protect women and children.”

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Figure 4. ­

(https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/07/17/qandeel-balochs-brother-confesses-honour-killing/ Access Date:06-11-2020)

The expressions of honor killings and honor killings are among the expressions in the news of murder against women, especially in the eastern culture. In Iran, in June 2020, 14-year-old Romani Eşrefi was beheaded by his father. According to the news in the media, Rıza Eşrefi decapitated his daughter after the return of her daughter who ran away from home. According to the news of the New York Times; A 29-year-old teenager killed her daughter, who ran away, because her father humiliated the family. In the subtitle of the news given by the New York Times, there were also the words of honor killings on the

Figure 5. ­

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(https://www.hurriyet.com.tr/gundem/son-dakika-haberi-pinar-gultekini-oldurdu-esini-mahvetti-balkona-bile-cikamiyorum-41575192 Erişim Tarihi 6-11-2020

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Figure 6. ­

(https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/07/world/middleeast/honor-killing-iran women.html?searchResultPosition=1 Access Date: 06-11-2020)

Figure 7. ­

(https://www.opindia.com/2020/05/kerala-man-uses-cobra-snakebite-kill-wife-dowry-arrest/ Erişim Tarihi: 06-11-2020)

subject and he said “women, Iran ask whether women have a right to security”. It was also stated in the news that after this incident, women shared their stories through social media. -Kerala: Man buys a cobra, watches while it bites his wife to kill her so he can marry again

Figure 8. ­

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https://www.aksalser.com/news/2017/07/

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Figure 9. ­

https://www.baladnaelyoum.com/news/5f01b372a243211b9

The remarkable point in the details in the news is that such an incident occurred due to the jealousy of the spouse. -The crime shook Syria ... The rape and drowning of a 13-year-old girl with a power cord . Blood freezing event in Şanlıurfa! He closed his imam wed wife in the room and for 5 days .... Wherever you go in the world, news of violence against women is in the media. If a woman’s murder has not occurred as a result of a sensational act, it is either ignored or ignored with a few sentences (Kaygusuz, Alkan, & Ökten, 2015, p.77). Beverley Ochieng states that graphic details are emphasized in the presentation of physical or sexual assault news in the media, some victims are sexualized in the use of photographs, and sometimes the news is morally approached, indicating that the victims deserve death (Ochieng, 2018).

Figure 10. ­

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(https://www.takvim.com.tr/guncel/2020/10/06/sanliurfada-kan-donduran-olay-imam-nikahli-esini-odaya-kapatip-5-gunboyunca Access Date: 07-11-2020)

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 Evaluation of Women’s Perspectives in the East Societies on New Media News

Figure 11. ­

(https://www.bbc.com/turkce/haberler-dunya-49633881 Access Date::24-09-2020)

In order to stop violence against women, to raise awareness and to draw attention to this violence, people come together in various periods in the world to make their voices heard, and these voices are tried to be heard through the press. However, again through the media, this violence, the images used, the headline given to the news, and the words used can be reproduced in a different dimension, not a physical one, this time. El Heraldo, in the news he gave about the publications; It was mentioned in several Mexican media that headlines such as “It was the crime of Cupid”, “Skinny” and that the news about the depiction of the images of the woman’s body aroused great anger. Figure 12. ­

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(https://www.elheraldo.hn/mundo/1356015-466/ingrid-escamilla-indignantes-portadascuerpo-desollado Access Date:07-112020)

The sharing of images of violence against women stands before us as an indicator of this understanding in the publications made with a sensational point of view. Of course, the press takes part, like other institutions and organizations, in a very important task such as announcing the news and raising awareness in the sense of responsibility towards the society. However, this information should not lead to new violence while fulfilling its duty of awareness raising. The effect that it will have on individuals with poor psychological conditions in the society should be evaluated ethically from the presentation of pornography of violence with photographs. At the point of publicizing the violence against women, news is presented by reinforcing the male-dominant language, with the concern of being able to read, rather than conveying the relevant authorities to which women can apply when faced with such a situation, the shelter points they can go to, and the media language that they are not alone. The presentation of a bloody knife used in the murder of a woman, the transfer of all the details of putting the woman’s body into the barrel and pouring concrete on it, knowing everything that was done to the body of the woman killed by her husband in front of her son’s eyes, in preventing violence against women, the public, at the

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point of informing fear, anxiety, intimidation, introversion. It should not be forgotten that it can cause psychological consequences such as closure. In the production of such news, a detailed examination of the news made by women journalists and the language used here, the news of male journalists and the language they use in a separate study can provide important data on the language used by the media and what they can do. Regardless of the type of violence, the idea that a woman who experiences violence is not alone in society and that a solution can be found should be able to be placed with the information conveyed through the media. Of course, media alone is not a solution point for the prevention and prevention of violence against women, but it stands before us as a very important tool in terms of trainings to be given to the public. The importance of this point will be understood more especially when the speed and accessibility of the new media is considered. However, at this point, considering the mass of news, images and videos in the new media, it is a fact that there are ethical problems here. In the news, news should be made without forgetting the children and relatives of women who have been subjected to violence and lost their lives, and images and videos should be shared in this context. In the news about the death of a woman as a result of the violence she was subjected to, the transfer of the perpetrator that the perpetrator was married refers to the message of a woman who acted outside the social roles assigned to women in society. Individuals who find themselves the right to comment on social media as they wish by some segments of the society may also consider this situation as a result of having a relationship with a married man. A news that will be evaluated in every aspect and the language to be used in this news reveal the importance of specialization in the media. It is especially important to direct the experts in the field to the news about women, child abuse, rape, violence in terms of making more accurate and informative news. In addition, in the solution of violence against women, education of women and men from an early age is also very important (Uçar, 2016, p.363). At this point, the necessity of integrating media literacy, information literacy, visual literacy, social media literacy education into the education life of individuals from an early age shows its existence with the developments in communication technologies today. Media literacy; It is the ability to access media messages of various types (visual, auditory, printed, etc.), analyze and evaluate the accessed media with a critical point of view, and produce their own media messages (RTÜK, 2016). Information literacy; individuals are aware of the need for information in problem solving and decision-making stages, having the skills to access and use the information they need, and adapting these skills to their lives. (Gürdal, 2000, p.176). People who react to violence against women or violence in the media use social media to make their voices heard. Social media literacy should also be known, especially in today’s world where the concept of digital violence gains importance. Social media literacy too; Access to social media, social media competencies and social media use, and effective digital identity management in social networks, is defined as the ability to consciously produce content, to analyze and make sense of content / messages shared on social networks (Transferred, Durak, & Seferoğlu, 2016 527) As Utma has stated, “should not include sexist expressions, avoid discourses that will produce patriarchal stereotypes in the media content presented via mass media, strategies should be developed to solve the problem in order to ensure equal representation of women in the media by spreading the image of modern women. should protect ethical values ​​against the representations that cause gender inequality against women, and should take care to form publication policies in this context (Utma, 2020, p.1082). Montiel stated in his study that traditional media and new media normalize violence against women and girls, and by doing so, genderbased violence is not a solution but a part of the problem (Montiel, 2014, p.18).

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SOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Media is not the sole solution authority for violence against women. It is a very important medium for raising awareness, informing and educating people in solution. It will be able to achieve this with the language of the news, images, expertise and experience of the reporter who wrote the news, and the understanding of publishing with an understanding of social responsibility, free from conscious and commercial concerns. The realization of all of these can be supported by various trainings to be created around the world on behalf of the media, handbooks to be published jointly for press workers, and guiding dictionaries that can be created to use words that do not cause sexual discrimination in the words used in the news. On the basis of countries, broadcasters may be considered to impose sanctions against statements that violate ethical rules, legitimize violence, show light violence or support violence in this direction against the news they make to journalists. Again, in terms of media, it will be ensured that journalists update their knowledge and remind them of their responsibilities with the training within the scope of compulsory in-service training to be given at various periods. Among the suggestions for the media, the creation of content that is sensitive to women’s rights and human dignity, and the auditing of the news in the media in terms of this responsibility can be presented as suggestions (Karaca, Barlas, Öngün, Öz, & Korkmaz, 2017, p.143). Aldemir prepared a detailed report on the presentation of violence against women in the media. In line with the work carried out on the criteria determined in this report, suggestions were made to newspapers, the public, the state, and the sector. Some of these suggestions are as follows: • • • • • •

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•

The proximity of the victim and the murderer should not be the focus of these news, and the criminal should be identifed in terms of their diferent characteristics and included in the news headlines and sub-headings. At the same time, bringing the criminal story to the fore in the news and not giving the incident in a way to arouse fear and indignation in a way that overshadows the social aspect of the event. Be careful in the use of visuals, not including the photos of the criminal with the victim, or the photographs of the scene and time, the injured and violent situation of the victim, which will evoke reputation or smiling, Not including murder details due to commercial concerns in the content Training of journalists at this point Attention should be paid to the fact that the use of “frequency words” while reporting femicides may cause banalization. Newspapers do not ignore the social dimension of the problem in violent news, and pay attention to producing news in consideration of the public interest, considering the impact of the news on the society (Akdemir, 2020, p. 82-87).

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS Media has important responsibilities in preventing violence against women. It is important that they announce that they are not desperate by conveying information about the dairy responsible publishing understanding when they are subjected to verbal violence. In order for the media to continue their broadcasts with this understanding, first of all, the training of their journalists in this field should be 793

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updated and organized at regular intervals, regardless of whether they are male or female. In addition, the importance of journalists’ specialization in the types of news is to show itself particularly to the use of the news used. In this respect, it is obvious that specialist journalists should be directed to women’s or children’s news. With a single word in the number of news, this word can be specified as simplicity. However, this study can serve as a resource for further studies on the subject. There will be solutions for the main headings of trainings for press employees, comprehensive studies, surveys.

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CONCLUSION As in Eastern societies, problems are experienced in many parts of the world in the media’s presentation of news about women. These problems experienced in news language and visuals are also seen in the sample news in this study. These news, whose number is limited within the scope of the study, can be examined in more detail with larger-scale studies in other studies. Within the scope of this study, it has been seen that the media makes news in a way that legitimizes violence against women, especially with the language and images they use in Eastern societies. Considering the intensity of the information flow in the light of the developments in new communication technologies for individuals consuming news content, it is very important to maintain trust in the media. In this study, a holistic approach that does not approach any media organizations with a special criticism dimension, and all the media organizations have taken steps to reach a solution on the mistakes made together. From this point of view, the evaluation of what can be done can be made more widespread with the participation of academics, journalists and media managers from various countries when considered internationally. The media should be liberating beyond restricting the life of women, and in this context, the media should address the issues that are not taken into account in the issue of violence against women and femicide, and ensure that the existing issues as well as the deficiencies are expressed (Güneş & Yıldırım, 2019, p.958). Instead of sensational news content, media reporting with a sense of responsibility towards the society is very valuable in terms of creating awareness in the society when its effect on people is considered. In fact, the increase in the number of women journalists may be an important step in differentiating their professional language from the male-dominated structure. Apart from this, the increase in the number of studies on the discourses in the language of the news will be an important step in ensuring unity in the sense of creating a common news language all over the world. In addition, the widespread use of handbooks for journalists to be published, increasing the work to be done for the press workers and supporting the participation of press employees in these publications and supporting the participation in the meetings, the importance of the language to be used in the news in the trainings on journalism at universities, the spread of expertise in journalism and the news It is important to support follow-up by specialized journalists. In addition, the importance of media literacy education, which should be extended to all segments of the society, is also important for media workers, the importance of information literacy and visual literacy, and the dissemination of the trainings through the support and means of the media in terms of adopting all segments of the society and press workers is also beneficial on the way the news of violence against women is covered in the media. It is thought that it will. News of violence against women is of great importance not only for the way the media presents the news, but also for many different disciplines that need to be evaluated from many different angles, that concern the whole world, sociological, psychological and economic. At this point, interdisciplinary studies will be an important step in attracting the attention of the society and raising awareness in this 794

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direction. There are many studies on the ethical evaluation of the media coverage of violence against women. Looking at the studies in general, it is noted that there is not much difference between the new media and traditional media in terms of the presentation of violence against women and the language used in the news. Not only in Turkey the world’s a common problem with which the news language on violence against women, violence legalize and legitimize, haklılaştırıc terms almost violence suffered by the woman with the language used in applying violence is seen as a cause found. Regarding the violence suffered by women, for example, the use of the expression of the woman’s married male lover, and the presentation of the photograph of the victim, the perpetrator and the perpetrator’s wife together pulls the perception of the society in a different direction. When the news language and visuals used in the media are examined, it is seen that the readability anxiety, namely commercial concerns, come to the fore. Considering the speed of new media to deliver media content to people, it is very important to create news content by acting more meticulously when evaluated in the context of multimedia and hypertextuality features. As Dursun stated, the main challenge of the journalist is that the male or female journalist / journalist does not include the elements of the sexist patriarchal discourse against women and insists on this point (Dursun, 2010, p.29).

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Anadolu Ajansı. (2018). ‘Radyo ve Televizyon Yayın Etik İlkeleri’ güncellendi. https://www.aa.com.tr/ tr/turkiye/radyo-ve-televizyon-yayin-etik-ilkeleri-guncellendi/1336270 Avcı, F., & Güdekli, İ. A. (2018). Toplumsal Cinsiyet Ve Medya İlişkisi: Yazılı Basında Kadına Şiddet Ve Kadın Cinayetleri Haberleri Üzerine Bir Analiz. Uluslararası Kültürel ve Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, 475-506. Aydeniz, H. (2019). Medyayı Tanımak. Aile, Çalışma ve Sosyal Hizmetler. Baran, A. G., Sarıtaş, C. T., & Kütük, B. Ş. (2017). Medyada Kadına Yönelik Şiddet Haberlerinin İçerik veSunum Açısından Analizi: Beyazgazete.com Örneği. Sosyoloji Konferansları, 107-132. Bilgin, R. (2016). Geleneksel ve Modern Toplumda Kadın Bedeni ve Cinselliği. Fırat Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 219-243.

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Büyükbaykal, C. I. (2007). Medyada Kadın Olgusu. İstanbul Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Dergisi, 19-30. Çötok, N. A. (2015). Toplumsal Cinsiyet Rolü Dâhilinde Kadına Şiddet Olgusuna Karşı Kadın Algısı. International Journal of Social Sciences and Education Research, 778-790. Dekić, S. (2017). Toplumsal cinsiyete dayalı şiddetin medyada yer alması - El Kitabı ve Eğiticilerin Eğitimi. Birleşmiş Milletler Cinsiyet Eşitliği ve Kadınların Güçlendirilmesi Kurumu. Dursun, Ç. (2010). Kadına Yönelik Şiddet Karşısında Haber Etiği. Fe Dergi: Feminist Eleştiri, 19-32. Gökulu, G., & Hosta, N. (2013). Basında Kadına Yönelik Şiddet Haberlerinin Analizi:Hürriyet, Sabah ve Posta Gazeteleri Örneği (2005-2008). The Journal of Academic Social Science Studies International Journal of Social Science, 1829-1850. Gül, S. S., & Altındal, Y. (2015). Medyada Kadın Cinayeti Haberlerindeki Cinsiyetçi İzler: Radikal Gazetesi. Akdeniz İletişim Dergisi, 168-188. Gündüz, F. (2018). Kadına Yönelik Şiddet: Cinayet Haberi Çözümlemesi. Eğitimde Nitel Araştırmalar Dergisi - Journal of Qualitative Research in Education, 297-318. Güneş, G., & Yıldırım, B. (2019). Cinsiyet Temelli Bir Savaş: Kadın Cinayetlerinin Medyada Temsili Üzerine Bir Değerlendirme. Toplum ve Sosyal Hizmet, 936-964. Gürdal, O. (2000). Yaşamboyu Öğrenme Etkinliği “EnformasyonOkuryazarlığı”. Türk Kütüphaneciliği, 176-187. Impe, A.-M. (2019). Reporting on Violence Against Women and Girls: A Handbook For Journalists. United Nations Educational, Scientific And Cultural Organization. Institute, T. S. (2013). What Society Needs from Media in the Age of Digital Communication. https:// socialtrendsinstitute.org/experts-meetings/civil-society/what-society-needs-from-media-in-the-age-ofdigital-communication Kadının Statüsü Genel Müdürlüğü. (2016). Kadına Yönelik Şidettle Mücadele Ulusal Eylem Planı (20162020). T.C Aile ve Sosyal Politikalar Bakanliği. Karaca, S., Barlas, G. Ü., Öngün, E., Öz, Y. C., & Korkmaz, G. (2017). Gazetelerde Bulunan Kadına Yönelik Şiddet Haberlerinin İncelenmesi. G.O.P. Taksim E.A.H. JAREN, 137-144.

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Kaygusuz, C., Alkan, E., & Ökten, M. (2015). Kadın Cinayetlerini Yazılı Basın Nasıl Görüyor? In Türkiye’de ve Dünyada Kadın Araştırmaları (pp. 76-82). Adana: Çukurova Üniversitesi (Ç.Ü.) Kadın Sorunları Araştırma ve Uygulama Merkezi (KADAUM) Müdürlüğü. Milletler, B. (1993). Kadınlara Yönelik Şiddetin Ortadan Kaldırılmasına Dair. https:// www.tbmm.gov.tr/komisyon/kefe/belge/uluslararasi_belgeler/kadina_karsi_siddet/BM%20Kad%C4%B1na%20Kar%C5%9F%C4%B1%20%C5%9Eiddetin%20Ortadan%20 Kald%C4%B1r%C4%B1lmas%C4%B1na%20Dair%20Bildirgesi%2020.12.1993.pdf Montiel, A. V. (2014). Violence against women and media:advancements and challenges of a research and political agenda. In Media and Gender:A Scholarly Agenda for a Global Alliance. UNESCO - IAMCR.

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Mora, N. (2005). Kitle iletişim araçlarında yeniden üretilen cinsiyetçilik ve topluma yansıması. Uluslararası ønsan Bilimleri Dergisi, 1-7. Nations, U. (2020a). Politika Özeti: Covid-19’un Kadınlar Üzerindeki Etkisi. https://turkey.un.org/sites/ default/files/2020-06/policy-brief-the-impact-of-covid-19-on-women-tr.pdf Nations, U. (2020b). United Nations “This is the moment to step up for the vulnerable”. https://www. un.org/en/un-coronavirus-communications-team/moment-step-vulnerable Ochieng, B. (2018). Violence against women: The stories behind the statistics. https://www.bbc.com/ news/world-46307051 Palabıyıkoğlu, R. (1997). Medya ve Şiddet. Kriz Dergisi, 5(2), 123–126. doi:10.1501/0000876 RTÜK. (2016). Medya Okuryazarlığı Nedir? https://www.medyaokuryazarligi.gov.tr/menu_goster.php?Guid=B7AA7732-1593-4B32-BDE5-D76E64C2A5FA&MenuId=2#:~:text=Medya%20 okuryazarl%C4%B1%C4%9F%C4%B1%3B%20yayg%C4%B1n%20kabul%20g%C3%B6ren,kendi%20medya%20iletilerini%20%C3%BCretebilme%20becerisidir Sarbay, Z. S. (2015). Çelik ile Çeliknaz’ın Reklam Kokan Aşkı: Arçelik Reklamlarında Toplumsal Cinsiyet Rolleri. Ankara Üniversitesi İLEF Dergisi, 95-114. Sarıoğlu, E. B., & Özgen, E. (2019). Basında Kadına Şiddeti Olumlayan Dil Kullanımı (Bir İnternet Haberciliği Analizi). Turkish Studies Social Sciences, 1053-1075. Söğüt, F. (2019). Yeni Medya ve Temsil: İnternet Gazeteciliğinde Toplumsal Cinsiyet Kimliklerinin Sunumu. Akdeniz İletişim Dergisi, 212-231. Türkiye Gazeteciler Cemiyeti. (2016). Kadın ve Medya. Akademi Yayın. Uçar, A. (2016). İstatistiki Verilerle Ulusal Basında Kadına Karşı Şiddet. İnönü Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, 315-364. UN Women BM. (2020). Genel Sekreter’in Politika Özeti: COVID-19’un Kadınlar Üzerindeki Etkisi. https://turkey.un.org/tr/49533-genel-sekreterin-politika-ozeti-covid-19un-kadinlar-uzerindeki-etkisi United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA). (2020). Global humanitarian response plan COVID-19. Geneva, Switzerland: United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA).

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Utma, S. (2020). Türk Kültüründe Kadın Olmak Ve Medyada Kadının Temsili. Uluslararası Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, 1076-1082. Vikipedi. (2020). Haber. https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haber Yegen, C. (2014). İnternet Haberciliğinde Kadın Cinayeti. The Turkish Online Journal of Design, Art and Communication, 15-28. Yiğitbaşı, K. G., & Sarıçam, S. (2020). Toplumsal Cinsiyet Rollerinin Temsili ve Medya: TRT Çocuk Dergisi Örneği. Türkiye İletişim Araştırmaları Dergisi, 19-45.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

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Gender: It is expressed in the form of socially constructed roles, behaviors, activities and approaches that a certain society deems appropriate for women and men (General Directorate of Women’s Status, 2016). Information Literacy: It is the awareness of individuals that information is needed in problem solving and decision-making stages, having the skills to access and use the information they need, and adapting these skills to their lives (Gürdal, 2000, p.176). Media: Mass media such as newspapers, magazines, radio, television, and the Internet are called media (Aydeniz, 2019, p.16). Media Literacy: It is the ability to access media messages of various types (visual, auditory, printed, etc.), analyze and evaluate the accessed media with a critical point of view, and produce their own media messages (Rtük, 2016). News: In the media, presenting an up-to-date and interesting event as objectively and truthfully; communication channels or tools (Wikipedia) used to store and present information or data. Violence: Acts that result or are likely to result in physical, sexual, psychological or economic harm or suffering, including threats and coercion, or arbitrary hindrance of freedom, occurring in the social, public or private sphere, whether physical, sexual, psychological, verbal or It is explained as all kinds of economic attitudes and behaviors and in grouping violence against women; A classification is made as physical violence, economic violence, sexual violence and psychological/emotional violence (General Directorate of Women’s Status, 2016, p. iv). Visual Literacy: It can be expressed as analyzing visual contents, making sense of it and creating our own visual content (Bangir, 2008, p. 77).

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Chapter 45

The Otherization of Turkey in the Orientalist Discourse: Turkey and Orientalism Emel Özdemir Communication Faculty, Akdeniz University, Turkey

ABSTRACT This chapter aims to make out how the orientalism that dominates and that reshapes the East as Western discourse afects the construction of Turkish image that is infuenced by the new orientalism process, and how it has changed with the media. By studying the news and images about Turkey, it is purposed to analyze whether the otherization of Turkey in orientalist discourse that is generally established with diferent kinds of many bad images, expressions from past to now is still alive with all the images, discourses, expressions in the media, or whether it has started to acquire a diferent point of view in orientalism today, or not. In this study, it is possible to see the reconstruction of Turkish image and the general perception of the West about Turkey in the process of new orientalism that is refected via the discourses, images, and expressions in the media by analyzing the news about tensions in the Eastern Mediterranean in the foreign press.

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INTRODUCTION In this study, the orientalism that dominates and the reshapes the East as western discourse affects the construction of Turkish image that is influenced by the new orientalism process, changed with the media is planned to be analyzed. By studying the news and images about Turkey, It is purposed to see whether is the otherization of Turkey in orientalist discourse that is generally established with different kinds of many bad images, expressions from past to now still keeping alive with all the mages, discourses, expressions in the media, or not. Therefore, it is significant to make out what the orientalism includes in its research area, as there is no general definition about orientalism that is accepted by all researchers. It is mainly seen as all of the western-based and western-centered research areas where all Eastern societies and cultures, languages and peoples are examined within the studies, named as Orientalism DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch045

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 The Otherization of Turkey in the Orientalist Discourse

and Oriental Studies. However, some orientalists, such as Edward Said define the orientalism in the field of a study area of people who are excluded by the Westerners, regarded as the “other” and thrown into the background in each environment with prejudice and hostile eyes, while western academics such as Bernard Lewis criticize these negative allusions, attributed to the word. As it is understood, the field of study of orientalism is interpreted in different ways.

BACKGROUND

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What Is Orientalism and Identity? There has been an interest in the East since ancient times; It can be said that orientalism is a specialized expression because of this subject. The word is “orientalism” in other languages, based on the Latin word oriens, which means the sunrise and it is used to indicate the east in a geographical sense. The term Occidentalism is also derived in the sense of the Eastern bias towards the West, as opposed to the Western prejudice against the East. That is, Orientalism or Oriental Studies is the common name given to all of the western-based and western-centered research areas in which Near and Far Eastern societies and cultures, languages and peoples are examined (Arlı, 2004: 21). It has been discussed for a long time whether the activities of this field of Eastern studies, whose lexical meaning is “Oriental science” that are analyzing “Eastern languages, literature, historical expertise” are innocent knowledge production, or not. With a decision taken at the 29 th International Congress of Orientalists, held in Paris in 1973, the official use of the term orientalism (by orientalists) was terminated; Orientalists especially avoided using the term after this date. An important reason for this was the negative meanings, attributed to orientalism. (Bulut, 2004: 2) The reason of the avoiding the use of the concept of orientalism can be seen as an expression of the orientalists’ discomfort about their association with colonialism and their efforts to get rid of this negative identity. The term has been used in a negative connotation by some societies to describe the Eastern studies of Americans and Europeans, shaped by the mentality of the development period of industrial capitalism in the 18 th and 19 th centuries. In this sense, orientalism points to the marginalizing and prejudiced interpretations of the Western European white man, after the Enlightenment age towards Eastern rights and culture (Arlı, 2004: 21). Edward Said is the most famous person to use the term from this point of view and in a negative sense in his books, particularly Orientalism (1978). In other words, according to Said, Easterners are people who are excluded by the Westerners, seen as the “other” and thrown into the background in every environment with prejudice and hostile eyes. Western scholars like Bernard Lewis criticized these negative allusions, attributed to the word by Edward Said. Ömer Baharoğlu, one of the Turkish intellectuals who examines orientalism in a more radical way, says that orientalism is a fiction that contributes to the imperialist attitudes of the West and that it is not an innocent imagination or discipline, as this idea, scientific and cultural infrastructure of the West’s attempts to infiltrate different geographies of the world is equipped by orientalism (Baharoğlu, 2006: 18). As it can be seen, the concept of orientalism is interpreted with many different meanings. But, almost all bourgeois intellectuals got caught up in racist choir. Many intellectuals, from Victor Hugo to Flaubert, despised Orientals in their novels and depicted them as lustful creatures who thought nothing but sexuality. Likewise, Shakespeare always portrayed the eastern and the Turks as the “other”. For example, Shakespeare gives very bad, defamatory adjectives to Turks, such as “circumcised dogs”, “vulgar Turks without intelligence” throughout the play Othello. According to the West who has 800

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 The Otherization of Turkey in the Orientalist Discourse

excluded the East, the West is the representative of a developed superior civilization and culture and the world has to recognize the superiority and dominance of the West. It can be said that the most important name in the discussions about orientalism is Edward Said. The perspective and evaluations, regarding orientalism has been varied “radically” with Said’s work,named “Orientalism” published in 1978. Edward Said, in his work Orientalism that was published in 1978, has showed that any analysis that includes the East as the obligatory other of the West with the inconsistent process must include the question of representation. Because, orientalism is an important discourse problem. It is an indirect cultural representation of the West through the otherness of East (Yeğenoğlu, 1998: 1). The term Orient refers to the representation system, surrounded by political forces that carried the East to the realm of Western education, Western world and the Western point of wiev. According to Said, the East (Orient) exists for the West and is built by the West. It is a mirror that East reflects the other and they are all alien to the West. Undoubtedly, the criticisms of orientalism did not begin with this book; Long before Said, the dominant view that orientalism was an innocent academic-scientific area of interest was questioned. But, the difference of Said is that by his making a comprehensive examination from literature to anthropology, from political discourses to travel books, he revealed the process of forming a system of thought that permeates Europe in all its aspects and is based on the idea of the European supremacy. Said, in this sense, did an archaeological excavation of knowledge; by taking the facts behind the visible (not as disconnected, accidental, incidental processes-relations) within a certain context, he revealed the deep-complex relationship between the knowledge, produced about the East and Western colonialism. It was a serious critique of the dominant thought that reflected the positive attitude about orientalism; in a sense it was “the bankruptcy of the paradigm.” Besides, Said makes a distinction between latent and manifest orientalism. Manifest orientalism tells us “established views about Eastern societies, their languages, literature, history, sociology….”, while Latent orientalism corresponds to “almost unconscious and untouchable certainties such as dreams, images, desires, fantasy and fears”. Said begins his point of wiew about orientalism, titled “Latent and Manifest Orientalism” with some philosophizing about meaning and truth in language, quoting a famous dictum by Friedrich Nietzsche: “truths are illusions about which one has forgotten that this is what they are” (Said, 1995: 203). This complements quite well his theory that Orientalism can be regarded “as a manner of regularized (or Orientalized) writing, vision, and study, dominated by imperatives, perspectives, and ideological biases ostensibly suited to the Orient.” (Said, 1995: 202). The distinction that is done is an almost unconscious (and certainly an untouchable) positivity, which is called latent Orientalism, and the various stated views about Oriental society, languages, literatures, history, sociology, and so forth, which is called manifest Orientalism. (Said, 1995: 206). Latent Orientalism is an unconscious positivity and manifest Orientalism consists of stated views about Oriental phenomena. The first definition, latent orientalism is of the central importance to Said’s work and this study is mainly based on his latent orientalism,Jas it is aimed to make out the west’s hidden orientalism approach with their discourses and images. Said concludes that the manifest differences in their methods are less important than the consensus they have agreed upon, which he summarizes as “latent inferiority” of Islam. Each of the experts have had something to criticize about Islam and each of those arguments Said presumes to have its roots in latent Orientalism, in this case intensified by a common political affinity of the authors. (Said, 1995: 209) What Said means with the term orientalism is both the systematic production of knowledge and the mechanism of the unconscious space where desire and fantasy take place. According to Said, the East is both an object of knowledge and an object of desire (Yeğenoğlu, 1999: 110-111). While, manifest orientalism studies the evident language of the East, its literature, history ... etc., latent orientalism has an active role in making 801

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 The Otherization of Turkey in the Orientalist Discourse

sense of any view and discourse about the East, based on the infrastructural, implicit acceptance and approval of the linguist, literature, historian, sociologist, and filmmaker. Fantasies have an undeniable role in the formation of the meanings of racial and ethnic identities, in the studies of latent orientalism. It is argued that fantasy is never individual, but a group fantasy. Therefore, it is possible to read social meanings in it. As it turns out, according to Said, “Latent Orientalism” has an uncertain certainty about what the East is. The East is seen as separate, eccentric, backward, different sensual and passive. It is prone to despotism and far from progress. Its progress and virtue are judged in Western and comparative terms. East which is always other, inferior and is open to conquest. On the other hand, It includes changing information and knowledge about the East and political decisions in Oriental thought. That is, manifest orientalism is the latent orientalism’s expressed way in word and action. In this assessment, the concept of “identity”, which is considered as a field of study in many fields and tried to be defined in detailed way with its different dimensions, will be explained in relation to orientalism and Turkey, by making various researches and findings in foreign press. Today, the concept of identity, which is included in the field of study of almost every discipline and which is handled with a different dimension with each passing day, emerges as a subject that is highly discussed and still cannot be conclusively agreed. It is seen that there are many debates on the scope and the content of the concept of identity, which is considered and perceived from different perspectives in every society. First of all, in its most general form, the concept of identity shows who a person is or more precisely what are the characteristics of himself/herself. In this assessment, the concept of “identity” which is considered as a field of study in many fields and tried to be defined in detailed way with its different dimensions, will be explained in relation to orientalism and Turkey, by making various researches and findings by analyzing the news about “Tensions in Eastern Mediterranean” in The Independent. Identity is our main reference point that we organize and evaluate our relationships with the world, past, future and other people. Identity is the most subjective existence of man. Bilgin, defines identity as a person or group defining himself and positioning himself among other persons and groups. The concept of identity can be described as a person’s definition of himself as that person on a psychological level. Here, identity includes the various representations (opinions, definitions, images, information, etc.) that we have about ourselves. Hence, identity is an expression of human self-understanding. Selfconsciousness is not an unchanging conception that emerges or inherited suddenly at a certain moment, but is an understanding that is learned and developed in interaction with others during the development process of the human being (Bilgin, 2007: 78). As it can be understood, the identity of a group or individual that begins with the process of self knowledge is not formed and fixed in a certain period of time, but rather gains a different direction from everything that it interacts with. And, it continues the process of building in a way that constantly renews and changes itself. Identity indicates who a person is, more precisely. What is being debated is whether other individuals in the society recognize the identity that is expected to accept without questioning and if so, to what extent they recognize it, or not. Groups that are involved in discussions about identity are generally groups with different religion, race and culture. There are two different views on identity formation, as the essentialist and the constructionist. For example, according to those who adopt the essentialist understanding, identity is the expression of a substance, whereas according to the constructivist approach, identity has no substantial reality.Because, for them, identity is a product of construction. However, the point that is agreed upon in the field of social sciences today is the idea that identity is established with a cultural-historical-social construction (Bilgin, 2007: 59). So, it is accepted that everything in society is built and some things exist because we believe it. In this study, the concept of identity will be evaluated by adopting a constructivist approach, 802

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 The Otherization of Turkey in the Orientalist Discourse

since it is reshaped according to the conditions and requirements of the time, having a continuously dynamic and variable quality. Based on the understanding of a construction process of identity, this study aims to evaluate both how the Turkish identity was constructed in the past and today, how it is defined by the expressions and words used in this process. This assessment which analyzes Turkey from the perspective of orientalism is not entirely studies objective manner the transfer of rhetoric and image that reflects all the realities, as it shows the impacts, shaped in society, their perceptions. The answer given to the question “Who are Turkish people?” to West explains the way the society that has been created that image, established by them, according to how they perceive the Turkish people. As it is understood as a result of the researches, the expressions and images, used by society will have a guiding function in the process of perceiving the perspective of a society about another society. The constructivist approach that is used in this study is an approach that argues that individuals continuously and actively contribute to the formation of this world, rather than adapting to an existing world before them. According to this approach, society is a built reality. Individuals participates in the construction of reality. Especially in the construction of reality in cultural phenomena, many phenomena transcend the physical properties of the underlying physical reality. In ancient Rome, the Greeks, the Christian and Muslim distinction, the Western and the non-Western distinction, when we look at history, we can find examples of the opposition between us and the other. That is, this phenomenon is an all the time reality. For this reason, the “anthropological perspective” sees identity construction as the problem of all societies and all times. When the distinction is made between us and the other, the basic image of the other is to be bad and immoral. Even, other peoples are mainly drawn closer to animals than to humans. Identity, as understood, originated on a specific date and points to a specific process. In other words, identity defined as construction is not an activity, carried out according to the arbitrary demands of individual actors on an empty plate by deleting everything belonging to the past. The constructivist approach argues that individuals contribute continuously and actively to the formation of this world rather than adapting to an existing world before them. So, everything in society is built, and some things exist because we believe it. Nuri Bilgin embodies this with very striking examples. In one of the examples given by Bilgin, it is understood what kind of a construction the society is, with a story about the Cartagena Clocks (Bilgin, 2007: 62). In the story, a visitor to the city of Cartagene wonders how the throwing time of the ball was set, because the ball thrown at 12:00 every day, He asks the soldier, who sets the time of the cannon shot, how he arranged this clock, and learns that the clock is arranged according to the clock of a famous watchmaker in the city. Later, this visitor finds the famous watchmaker in the city and learns what their clocks are adjusted for. The response of the visitor is really interesting, because the watchmaker sets his watches according to the ball shot every day. As you can see, our truths are built. In addition, our perception of ourselves or others is very effective in the formation of our individual identity. Our images and representations about something become reality as we perceive it. Stigmatization of people is another important factor in identity construction. Stigma is the disclosure of some characteristics of a person so that they can be seen by others and the exclusion of those people from society because of these characteristics. Stigmatized persons, in a sense, are perceived in society as cursed persons and are in inferior status. As a result, the notorious distinction between “them” and the normal “us” emerges. Therefore, stigma plays a big role in identity construction. In addition, it is understood that other important factors that play a role in identity construction are collective memory and national identity. Groups on which collective identities are built, such as the family, ethnic group or nation are communities that socialize us about what needs to be remembered and forgotten; because they define the past of the group and give new members the collective identity of the group 803

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 The Otherization of Turkey in the Orientalist Discourse

(Misztal, 2003: 15-23). Because, collective memory is defined as a set of shared representations, based on the common identity of the members of a group (Bilgin, 2007: 236). Therefore, it is understood that the impact of collective memory will be used when constructing the identity of a group or person who has always had a connection with the past. That is, thanks to collective memory, a group examines its past to get to know itself and people who examine their past try to define their identity positively with the positive characteristics that they receive from the past. In addition, people legitimize their groups by finding justified reasons for what the group they belong to. As a result of the researches, it is seen that another issue discussed about the concept of identity in multicultural societies whether other individuals who make up the society recognize other identities in the society, or not and if they are, to what extent they recognize them. On the basis of this discussion, it is understood that the main problem of multicultural societies is the denial, exclusion and hostility of different identities. As it can be understood from the researches about the Turkish image from the past to the present in order to shed light on this study that will examine the Turkish identity, built in the globalizing world, Turkish people are mainly defined with bad expressions and discourses and they are marginalized by many societies. As it has been witnessed all over the world, it is understood that some people, living in a society are seen as “others” due to their different characteristics. While, some people are excluded because of their race, language, religion and culture, others are excluded and marginalized due to their gender, gender preference and economic level. In other words, it is seen that a person who has a different understanding and lifestyle in any of the generally accepted life style and criteria of the society, he/she lives in or who does not accept the general is condemned to be the “other”. That is, prejudiced and hostile eyes on societies seen as “the Other” are increasing day by day. The only fault of these societies is that they are a minority in that society and they are seen as the “other” in that country. It is understood that there is a situation where an individual or group defines itself through others and positions itself in the environment of others in constructing identity by making one “the other”. Of course, while this person or group define themselves over others, it ascribes negative or bad traits to them and alienates that individual or group. As Huntington points out, people need the other, even an enemy to get to know themselves (Bilgin, 2007: 166). This situation has a functional feature not only in terms of identity but also in terms of maintaining the current state of a society, dealing with new problems and legitimizing all kinds of actions they take. In addition, it can be said that the concept of otherness is functionalized in a positive sense, too. That is, even in situations where there is no person or group qualified to be the other, another is immediately invented. The statements of Balibar and Wallerstein on this issue explain this situation very clearly. According to them, ‘If there is no black or insufficient numbers to play this role’, white blacks can be invented (Balibar, Wallerstein, 2007: 47). In other words, even in the absence of a person or group capable of being other in a society, there are some people to be othered and in a sense the other is invented. Likewise, developed industrial countries regain their lost colonies by bringing foreign workers (Turan, 1997: 45). When we ask ourselves and other people the question why we need the other, we encounter many valid reasons. Because, as we have witnessed in our lives, we need others to build our identity anyway. The relationships that we build with others are important in the formation of our identity. That is, at this point, as Levinas said, “maybe the source of humanity is different” (Levitas, 2002: 84). As we build ourselves, we have to create the other, too. Because, it is like another me in another sense. In Addition, It is seen that the concepts of “prejudices and discrimination” are very effective on identity, especially in the formation of the other. Foreigners are the people who are the most exposed to prejudice and discrimination. Because, in most societies those who are excluded are excluded not because of their fundamental differences; but because of their foreignness. For this reason, prejudiced and discrimina804

 The Otherization of Turkey in the Orientalist Discourse

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tory behaviors towards foreigners create problems in terms of their identity. In today’s communication age, where intercultural relations are intense, negative stereotypes, prejudices and images of foreign peoples and cultures continue to constitute barriers to the peaceful, cultural dialogue and cooperation expected today (Akpınar, 2006: 15). Just because of their prejudiced perspectives, some societies marginalize others, by not even making an effort to get to know others. “Prejudices” which are constantly expressed in a society also cause a vicious circle in the society. As a result of the prejudices, imposed on them in the society they live in, people who are constantly excluded begin to behave according to the characteristics of the prejudices after a while. Because, people who have many negative characteristics unfairly have a feeling that acting according to prejudices will not affect the negative thoughts of their rights that are widespread in the society and they reorient their behavior and gradually fill the empty prejudices. Social psychologists who examine the effects of this situation on the “othering” group evaluate as follows; “The victim internalized the devaluating features that were constantly attributed to him and acted in accordance with the image constantly imposed on him from outside” (Schnapper, 2005: 140). Therefore, as a result of prejudices, which are completely fictional, the characteristics of the other are gradually becoming real. When an evaluation is made from the past to the present, the image of the Turks can be seen in all kinds of “war, defeat, victory” ... etc. It is seen that it was built by being affected by the event and has traces that cannot be erased from every period. Cultural values, religious differences, traditions and lifestyles, positive or negative thinking structures in every society have a profound effect on the formation of the Turkish image and its reconstruction in every period. In addition, one of the main reasons why the negative images about Turks have been transferred from past to present is that many states accept the ossified expressions that have been going on for centuries without questioning instead of trying to recognize Turks and Turkish life styles and traditions. When the image of the Turk constructed through various forms of expression is examined, it is often seen that the Turks are excluded and marginalized. In many societies, Turks have taken the image of “barbarian”. In addition, most of the time, Turks are seen as a symbol of the East due to their religious differences and the negative characteristics of other societies have been attributed to the Turks. The Church, which wanted to provoke the Christian people against the Turks, addressed the thoughts and feelings and carried out studies showing the material and moral sources of interest. Turks were easily prejudiced and depicted as “irreligious, intolerant, rude, vulgar, destructive, unscrupulous, ruthless, immoral, and inclined to commit terrible sins as a result of their disgusting acts” (Kula, 1992: 35). In this way, Turks have begun to be transmitted negatively in many societies in every period. Because, according to Westerners, Turks are a society whose language, religion, culture, appearance and lifestyle are completely different and seen as a “potential danger”. For this reason, Turks, like many Westerners, are humiliated, ostracized by West societies and used as a means to show themselves superior.

THE AIM OF THE STUDY In order to be able to see the ideological codes in the news, the implicit meanings and the general perception about a country are constructed via the discourses, images and expressions in the media must be analyzed. In this study, it is aimed to make out how the manipulation about a country is done and the general perception about a country is constructed via the discourses, images and expressions in the newspapers of “The Independent (UK)”. Therefore, it is possible to understand how Turkish image is 805

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constructed and what kinds of images and expressions and representations are used in the news about “Tensions in Eastern Mediterranean” in The Independent (UK) in October, 2020. In this analysis, it is aimed see how the orientalism that dominates and the reshapes the East as western discourse affects the construction of Turkish image that is influenced by the new orientalism process and whether Turkish image has been started to change with the orientalism. It is seen how the reconstruction of Turkish Image and the general perception of West about Turkey, in the process of new orientalism that is reflected via the discourses, images and expressions in the media, by analyzing the news about “Tensions in Eastern Mediterranean” in foreign press.

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METHODOLOGY The content analysis method is going to be used to be able to make out whether the otherization of Turkey in orientalist discourse is seen in The Independent (UK), or not. Content analysis method was used in this research, as it is an objective, systematic and quantitative description of its content. By defining the categories, the objectivity of this study will be possible with the same results in analyzing the same content by different people. In other words, the personal characteristics and tendencies of the researcher is not entirely seen in the content analysis method. The essence of the content analysis method is the classification system. Content analysis builds on the classification system. The content analysis is used to make out how the orientalism that dominates and the reshapes the Eas,t as western discourse affects the construction of Turkey that is influenced by the new orientalism process, changed with the media. There are many definitions of the content analysis. Walizer and Wienir (1978) define the content analysis as a systematic procedure, developed to examine the content of recorded information. Content analysis is an analysis technique rather than an observation method. Content analysis results are presented in the form of percentage tables, as in searching researches. The definition of Kerlinger which defines content analysis as a technique for analyzing and analyzing communication in a quantitative context in order to measure systematic, objective and variables contains concepts that require detailed elaboration. (Kerlinger, 1973) In the study of “The Otherization of Turkey in The Orientalist Discourse”, the discourses of different societies, orientalism that dominates and the reshapes the East as western discourse affects the construction of Turkish image that is influenced by the new orientalism process, changed with the media and owned creating the rhetoric used in this process “ideological point of view” will be understood. For this reason, the analysis of news, by regarding the reality is reconstructed through “language and discourse”, discourse analysis method is very significiant in terms of explaning the explicit and implicit meanings of the discourses, used in these news and the effect that they have on different parts of the society. Discourse analysis method is used in this study, when analyzing news about the orientalism that dominates and reshapes the East as western discourse to see the construction of Turkish image that is influenced by the new orientalism process, changed with the media in the foreign press and it is possible to examine the ideological discourse of West, transmitted through the messages, discourses and the images. In general, discourse analysis is a method that aims to analyze media texts ideologically and critically and to reveal the thought behind the texts based on interpretation. Discourse analysis is “an analysis aimed at obtaining information through discovery” (Sözen, 1999: 86). Therefore, in newspapers, selected as an example from the foreign press in this study, in order to reveal the thoughts about Turkey, using discourse analysis methods, the ideological and critical examination will be carried out. In this study, especially Van Dijk’s theory will be discussed in the discourse analysis method in order to reveal 806

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the different perspectives that are intended to be conveyed in newspaper texts. According to Van Dijk’s discourse analysis method, texts are divided into “macro and micro structures”. “Macro structures” consists of news headlines, sub-headings, news spots, news entries, thematic structure, aiming to reveal which themes follow each other in the news and schematic structures of these themes. “Microstructures”, on the other hand, includes the discourse of the news, which consists of lexical choices in the news, the structures of the sentences used and the relations of these sentences (Van Dijk, 1998: 31-45). In addition, according to Van Dijk, ideologies and thought structures in the news can be revealed through discourse analysis, whether they are conveyed explicitly or covertly. In this way, news texts are evaluated with discourse analysis, analyzing information about what is happening in that society in terms of social, political and ideological aspects. Because, according to Van Dijk, the information, represented in the memory is the mental structuring that helps to understand the text. The memory representation of information includes not only the meanings represented in the text, but also the details of the text. As it is understood, all kinds of linguistic, formal, expressive and contextual characteristics of a news text should be examined in detailed way in order to be understood and to reveal the information it contains. Because these texts, which are seen as only news texts from time to time, will even transform the society and affect the social structure deeply, as they reconstruct the reality with the ideological ideas and codes they contain. In other words, the analysis of the news texts is done not only with the relations at the level of surface structures, but also with the text titles and text relations, their differences from the temporal order in the narrative, especially the created uncertainties. For this reason, when Van Dijk’s theory of discourse analysis is considered in general, this theory, unlike many theories is a method that does not only evaluate texts within themselves and examines the properties of texts, as well as the levels of “understanding, interpretation” of those texts in society. Van Dijk defends the view that discourse is very important in the formation of an ideological perspective in a society. According to him, ideology is a form of social cognition, shared by members of a group, class or other social formations (Van Dijk, 1999: 340-341). However, according to Dijk, discourse and communication play a central role in the formation and transformation of ideology, which is seen as this social cognition. Therefore, according to him, with the structures, the way of using discourses and processes of discourse; there is a need for a clear analysis of the specific role that discourse plays in the reproduction of ideologies (Van Dijk, 1999: 340-341). As it is understood, while analyzing the news texts, Van Dijk takes the discourse which he puts the ideological dimension to the fore, as his main starting point and conducts his studies in this direction. Because, according to him, “discourse” is a very important factor in the construction of ideological structures in a society and in shaping intergroup communication.

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THE UNIVERSE, THE SAMPLING AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY England (UK) is as a universe in research; as a sample; “The Independent (UK)” has been identified in terms of “Turkey” throughout October in 2020. In this study, only very significant examples are evaluated to demonstate the process of the establishment of Turkey, owing to the limitations of the study.

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 The Otherization of Turkey in the Orientalist Discourse

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THE RESULTS OF THE STUDY In the study of “The Otherization of Turkey in The Orientalist Discourse”, the construction of Turkish image that is influenced by the new orientalism process, changed with the media is aimed to be analyzed by examining the discourse of news in the newspaper of The Independent (UK) in order to see how the orientalism that dominates and the reshapes the East as western discourse the media, while reflecting Turkey. It is made out whether is the otherization of Turkey in orientalist discourse that is generally established with different kinds of many bad images, expressions from past to now still keeping alive with all the images, discourses, expressions in the media, or has started to acquire a different point of view in orientalism today, or not. For this reason, the news, images and discourses, used in The Independent (UK) are examined to see the reconstruction of Turkish Image and the general perception of west about Turkey, in the process of new orientalism that is reflected via the discourses, images and expressions in the media, by analyzing the news about “Tensions in Eastern Mediterranean” in foreign press. When, the news about “Tensions in Eastern Mediterranean” in The Independent (UK) are analyzed, throughout “October of 2020” to make out how the Turkish image that is influenced by the new orientalism process, changed with the media is constructed with the discourse analysis method, 23 related news are found in The Independent (UK) in this process. In this study, it is significant how the news about “Tensions in Eastern Mediterranean” in The Independent (UK) are transferred to society and reflect the realities via the images and discourses in their texts in this process, by regarding the orientalism. It is possible to make out the “ideological point of view” and its reasons of the news in The Independent (UK), while studying the images and orientalist discourses that are especially used to manifest their hidden perspectives about Turkey with the latent orientalism approach. It is purposed to be able to see how the otherization of Turkey is done with the discourses, images and expressions in The Independent (UK). Some methods are used in this study such as the content analysis method and discourse analysis method to make out whether there is an otherization of Turkey, or not in the newspaper of The Independent (UK), by regarding orientalism approach. It is purposed to understand how Turkish image is reporduced by this newspaper’s discourses in foreign press and whether Turkish image that is generally reflected, negatively has started to be change and improve, or not. Because, many bad images, discourses, phrases about Turkey, such as ‘cruel, wild, violent, brutual, bad’ are used in different coutries’ historical sources, written texts and Turkish people are accepted as an ‘other’ and a symbol of ‘a common enemy’ as the one of the orientalist country of many society from past to now. (Özdemir, 2020). It is seen how The Independent (UK) has reflected Turkey in its discourses, by analyzing the words, images, phrases, photographs that are used in its texts, in a detailed way with the content and discourse analysis method. When the news about “Tensions in Eastern Mediterranean” in the newspaper of The Independent (UK) is analyzed during October in 2020 according to the news’ numbers about Turkey, it is seen that there are 21 news about “Tensions in Eastern Mediterranean” in The Independent (UK).

Macro Structure In this study, to assess the orientalism that dominates and the reshapes the East as western discourse affects the construction of Turkish image that is influenced by the new orientalism process, the news and the images used in these news about “Tensions in Eastern Mediterranean” in the foreign press from The Independent (UK) are examined. When the news primarily constitute the macro structure of the 808

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news texts, such as the main headline of the news, the news entries, the way the main event is handled, the context information, themes, the schematic structure of the themes and the evaluation of the event parties are analyzed during October in 2020, it is seen that there are 13 negative, 0 positive and 8 being neutral, a total of 21 news about “Tensions in Eastern Mediterranean” in The Independent (UK).

THE HEADLİNES OF THE NEWS İN THE INDEPENDENT (UK) DURİNG OCTOBER, 2020

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Negative News 1. EU lashes out at Turkey over rule of law, rights, freedoms (Tuesday 06 October 2020, The Independent (UK)) 2. Turkish Cypriots choose leader as Cyprus talks reboot looms (Friday 09 October 2020, The Independent (UK)) 3. Greece calls new Turkish survey mission a threat to region (Monday 12 October 2020, The Independent (UK)) 4. Germany: “Solidarity” with Greece, Cyprus in Turkey dispute (Tuesday 13 October 2020, The Independent (UK)) 5. Turkey denies deliberately holding Greek plane in the air (Thursday 15 October 2020, The Independent (UK)) 6. EU leaders hit out at Turkey’s ‘provocations’ in the Med (Friday 16 October 2020, The Independent (UK)) 7. Turkish Cypriots pick leader as stakes soar in Mediterranean (Sunday 18 October 2020 The Independent (UK)) 8. Greece asks EU countries to halt military exports to Turkey (Wednesday 21 October 2020, The Independent (UK)) 9. Cyprus, Greece, Egypt to Turkey: drop the rancor, join us) Thursday 22 October 2020, The Independent (UK)) 10. Turkey slams joint declaration by Cyprus, Greece and Egypt (Friday 23 October 2020, The Independent (UK)) 11. Turkish president questions French president’s mental health: ‘We are not accepting insults’ 12. (Sunday 25 October 2020, The Independent (UK)) 13. Turkish president Erodgan dares Trump to impose economic sanctions: ‘Don’t be late’ (Monday 26 October 2020, The Independent (UK)) 14. Tensions between EU and Turkey escalate over Erdogan insults (Thursday 27 October 2020, The Independent (UK))

POSİTİVE NEWS Neutral News

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 The Otherization of Turkey in the Orientalist Discourse

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1. Greek premier meets with NATO chief over tension with Turkey (Tuesday 06 October 2020, The Independent (UK)) 2. Greek, Turkish foreign ministers meet as tensions ease (Thursday 08 October 2020, The Independent (UK)) 3. Turkey says Greece failed to fulfill promises, vows response (Wednesday 14 October 2020, The Independent (UK)) 4. Greece finalizes plan to build wall on border with Turkey (Tuesday 20 October 2020, The Independent (UK)) 5. NATO chief says Greece, Turkey agree to cancel war games (Saturday) 24 October 2020, The Independent (UK)) 6. Egypt’s president signs strategic maritime deal with Greece (Saturday 10 October 2020, The Independent (UK)) 7. Turkish Cypriots choose leader with peace deal at stake (Sunday 11 October 2020, The Independent (UK)) 8. Greece, Turkey wrangle over military games in eastern Med (Monday 26 October 2020, The Independent (UK)) When the headlines of the news and the images used in the news about “Tensions in Eastern Mediterranean” in The Independent (UK) are examined in order to assess the orientalism that dominates and the reshapes the East as western discourse, affecting the construction of Turkish image that is influenced by the new orientalism process, it is possible to understand that the reader is provided with an idea about the content of the news, through each headline. In this way, with the news headlines that are encountered as the first item in news texts, readers see how Turkey is constructed during October, 2020 in The Independent (UK). To illustrate, when the headlines of the news that are mostly seen in October, 2020 in The Independent (UK), as “EU lashes out at Turkey over rule of law, rights, freedoms (Tuesday 06 October 2020), Turkish Cypriots choose leader as Cyprus talks reboot looms (Friday 09 October 2020), Greece calls new Turkish survey mission a threat to region (Monday 12 October 2020), Germany: “Solidarity” with Greece, Cyprus in Turkey dispute (Tuesday 13 October 2020), Turkey denies deliberately holding Greek plane in the air (Thursday 15 October 2020), EU leaders hit out at Turkey’s ‘provocations’ in the Med (Friday 16 October 2020), Turkish Cypriots pick leader as stakes soar in Mediterranean (Sunday 18 October 2020), Greece asks EU countries to halt military exports to Turkey (Wednesday 21 October 2020), Cyprus, Greece, Egypt to Turkey: drop the rancor, join us)Thursday 22 October 2020), Turkey slams joint declaration by Cyprus, Greece and Egypt (Friday 23 October 2020), Turkish president questions French president’s mental health: ‘We are not accepting insults’ (Sunday 25 October 2020), Turkish president Erodgan dares Trump to impose economic sanctions: ‘Don’t be late’(Monday 26 October 2020), Tensions between EU and Turkey escalate over Erdogan insults (Thursday 27 October 2020)” (October, The Independent (UK) are analyzed, it is going to be seen that there is still otherization of Turkey in the perception and an image of West, while they are establishing their Turkish image with their orientalist discourse in media in this study. When these news’ headlines are evaluated, it is seen that the discourses of these news are going to reflect Turkey and Turkish image in a negative manner. It is made out that there is orientalism that dominates and the reshapes the East as western discourse affects the construction of Turkish image that is influenced by the new orientalism process, while they are establishing their Turkish image with their orientalist discourse. It is possible to understand the reconstruction of Turkish Image and the general perception of west about Turkey, in the process of new 810

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 The Otherization of Turkey in the Orientalist Discourse

orientalism that is reflected via the discourses, images and expressions in the media, by analyzing the news about “Tensions in Eastern Mediterranean” in foreign press. Another news item that will be used in order to understand the Turkish identity and the perspective conveyed to the reader in The Independent (UK) in October 2020 is the “news entries” in which a summary of the event is given. In this way, after the headlines, the readers who encounter the news entries will have more insight into how the news is conveyed and what is aimed in the news. Therefore, in this study which examined the news about Turkey and the tensions in Eastern Mediterranean, how Turkey is transferred positively or negatively is going to be made out. For example, the entry of the “EU lashes out at Turkey over rule of law, rights, freedoms (Tuesday 06 October 2020)” news as “The European Union says it sees no reason to speed up membership talks with Turkey” shows the reader that Turkish image is going to be established negatively in this news. In October 2020, while studying the news, discussed in The Independent (UK) to understand the Turkish identity and the perspective, aimed to convey to the reader, other important steps in the macro analysis are the “schematic structure” of the event and “contextual information” that are the way of handling the event, background and general evaluation of some important characteristics of the news. Because, with this analysis, it will be possible to have an idea about the direction of the Turkish identity, constructed through discourse in the news texts. For example, when the new in The Independent (UK) related to Turkey is examined, important issues, such as “Turkey’s dispute in the Eastern Mediterranean with EU members Greece and Cyprus, its roles in conflict-torn Libya and Syria, disputed energy exploration in parts of the Mediterranean Sea, tensions in parts of the Mediterranean Sea” are encountered as the main event. In addition, when the wide coverage of the news in The Independent (UK) in October, 2020 is analyzed in general, it is seen that some significant issues are told directly or indirectly, by implying in the news’ discourses as a historical and contextual information to be able to construct the realities, aimed to reflect as they want about Turkey, such as; “backsliding in the areas of democracy, Turkey’s resorting to provocations, unilateral actions in the Mediterranean, Turkey’s stoping this dangerous spiral of confrontation, seeing Erdoğan’s comments as “unacceptable”, EUJofficials harshly criticizing Erdoğan’s comments, advice the Turkish leader for changing his approach, the French leader’s terming Islamist separatism, Turkey issueing a new maritime safety warning, the two sides facing off in the area, leading to fears of open conflict, disputing in over maritime boundaries and energy exploration rights in the eastern Mediterranean Sea, Turkey’s beeing a troublemaker in wider region, Turkey’sJplaning to carry out a maritime military, Greece’s and Turkey’s calling off wargames on each other’s national holidays, Erdoğan’s sparking controversy when he called the Dutch government “Nazi remnants and fascists”, Erdogan’s campaigning among the Netherlands’, Turkish diaspora ahead of a Turkish referendum on enlarging his Powers, Turks’ making targets for uncovering rising racism in Europe, Dutch anti-Islam lawmaker Geert Wilders, whose tweet describing Erdoğan as a “terrorist”, personal insults of Macron, calling Turkey to stop this dangerous spiral of confrontation, slamming Erdoğan comments as “unacceptable”, EUJofficials harshly criticized Erdogan’s comments, the French leader terming “Islamist separatism, the two sides facing off in the area, leading to fears of open conflict, dispute in over maritime boundaries and energy exploration rights in the eastern Mediterranean Sea, Turkey’s stance in Syria tensions between NATO allies France and Turkey have intensified in recent months, Erdoğan, a devout Muslim, protecting rights and the rights of Turkish Cypriots in the eastern Mediterranean, Ankara’s urgingJto end its “aggressive” actions in the eastern Mediterranean, Heiko Maas, the foreign minister of Germany, which has been mediating between Athens and Ankara, Turkey’s denying accusations by Greece that Ankara refused an overflight permit to a plane, a deepening dispute between Greece and its 811

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neighbour over maritime boundaries, the two countries’ warships facing off and sparking fears of open conflict, Greece’s and Turkey’s having historically testy relations and dividing by a series of issues, including territorial disputes, Turkey’s favors resolving disputes through negotiations, Turkey’s sending its seismic research vessel Oruc Reis to prospect for gas in an area”. As it is seen, by using some historical and contextual information, it is tried to be conveyed Turkey and Turkish image in a negative way. By analyzing the news and images about “Tensions in Eastern Mediterranean” about Turkey, It is possible to see that there is the otherization of Turkey in orientalist discourse that is generally established with different kinds of many bad images, expressions from past to now and it is still keeping alive with all the images, discourses, expressions in The Independent (UK).

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Micro Structure In study of “The Otherization Of Turkey in The Orientalist Discourse”, when the news about “Tensions in Eastern Mediterranean” in The Independent during October, 2020 are analyzed according to Van Dijk’s discourse analysis method’s “micro-structure” analysis section, news about “Tensions in Eastern Mediterranean” are going to be evaluated in terms of criteria such as “syntatic analysis, images, word choice and rhetorical analysis” to make out how the orientalism that dominates and the reshapes the East as western discourse affects the construction of Turkish image that is influenced by the new orientalism process, changed with the media. Van Dijk defines micro context based on the concept of cognition and considers it as a form of a mental model of a communicative situation and calls it a context model. Context models are mental representations that control many of the features of text production and comprehension such as genre, choice of topic, and cohesion on one hand, and speech act, style, and imagery on the other. Themes and topics are realized in the headlines and lead paragraphs (Van Dijk, 1998: 31-45). It is possible to analyze the discourses, in the newspapers of “The Indepedenr” (UK), both structural level and thematic level with Van Dijk’s discourse analysis, in order see its approach to Turkey. In this way, it is significant to see which the gramatic structures of the sentences and forms of expression are prefered in the news about “Turkey’s tensions in Eastern Mediterranean”, while constructing Turkish image as micro structure analysis, because it aims to convey to readers the news discourse, planned to be established. In October of 2020, when the news texts in The Independent (UK) are evaluated on the basis of “syntatic analysis” in terms of their sentences’ structures, which are the first stage of “microstructure analysis” that study the news, according to the criteria of the sentences of the text “to be simple or complex, active or passive”, it is possible to see that detailed long and compound sentence structures are generally used in the discourses of the news about “Tensions in Eastern Mediterranean” to reflect Turkey in a negative way. For example, In the news of “Tensions between EU and Turkey escalate over Erdogan insults” (27 October 2020), detailed long and compound sentence structures are generally used in the discourses, such as “SeveralJEUJofficials harshly criticized Erdogan’s comments over the weekend and the bloc’s executive arm, the European Commission, said on Monday that the Turkish leader should change his approach if he does not want to derail the bloc’s attempts at renewed dialogue with his country.”, “Erdogan said Saturday that Macron needed his head examined. He made the comments during a local party congress, apparently in response to statements Macron made this month about problems created by radical Muslims in France who practice what the French leader termed “Islamist separatism”” (October, The Independent (UK). And “The spat comes as tensions between France and Turkey have intensified in recent months over issues that include the fighting in Syria, Libya and Nagorno-Karabakh, a region within Azerbaijan that is controlled by ethnic Armenian separatists.” 812

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 The Otherization of Turkey in the Orientalist Discourse

In addition, news texts about “Tensions in Eastern Mediterranean” in The Independent (UK) have been created actively by emphasizing the subject. In other words, while the news about “Tensions in Eastern Mediterranean” is being conveyed to the reader in The Independent (UK), the sentence structures used in the news are actively created, the subject has been tried to be emphasized and long and compound sentences are preferred instead of simple sentences in the discourse of the news. In this study, in Van Dijk’s discourse analysis, another important topic examined at micro level is “the choice of words”. Because, the words, used in a news text appear as the most effective news item that enables the ideological perspective to be conveyed to the reader by the creator of the text and reshaping the reality in the reader’s mind. For this reason, examining the words, used in a news text is very important in terms of revealing the ideological thought structures that are both said and implied in the content of that text. So, the word used in newspaper texts are discussed, by examining the image and expression, which aims to establish Turkey as an other with using orientalist approach, as it is quite important to understand the ideological point of view. For example, in the news of “EU lashes out at Turkey over rule of law, rights, freedoms” (Tuesday 06 October 2020), some words, used in newspaper text are seen as; “Turkey, EU, corruption, rights, rule of law, failure, courts, leaders, independence, Ankara, Turkey’s negotiations, The European Union, Turkey’s failure, democratic standards, protect the independence, courts and effectively fight corruption, serious backsliding in the areas of democracy, rule of law, fundamentalJrightsJand the independence of the judiciary, its disputed energy, exploration in parts of the Mediterranean Sea, Some EU countries, opposing the large, relatively poor and mainly Muslim country joining, Germany, prefering an alternate kind of “privileged partnership.”, France too is opposing to Turkey’s membership, Turkey’s disputing in the eastern Mediterranean with EU members Greece and Cyprus, Turkey’s roles in conflict-torn Libya and Syria”. (October, The Independent (UK) When these words are examined, it is seen that it is aimed to make the reality in the mind of the reader in a negative way by using negative words and expressions about “Tensions in Eastern Mediterranean”. In October of 2020, when the news about “Tensions in Eastern Mediterranean” in The Independent (UK) are examined in general, in this news, it is seen that the effect of the news on the reader is increased, by using some rhetorical elements, such as “using numerical data, expert opinion, showing examples, using photographs and imaginary expressions”. To illustrate, in the news of “Greece finalizes plan to build wall on border with Turkey” (Tuesday 20 October 2020), the effect of the news on the reader is increased by using numerical data, such as “Turkey hosts the largest number of refugees worldwide, at nearly 4 million people, mostly from Syria, according to the U.N. Refugee Agency.”, “A standoff occurred at the border earlier this year after Turkey said it would no longer prevent migrants trying to reach the EU, and tens of thousands tried to cross into Greece.”, “GovernmentJspokesman Stelios Petsas said Monday that 26 kilometers (16 miles) ofJwallJwould be added to an existing 10-kilometer (six-mile) section in a 63-million-euro ($74 million) project due to be completed by the end of April.” (October, The Independent (UK) As it is seen, by making use of the rhetorical element of “numerical data”, the effect of the news on the reader and the power of being believable are increased.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS The future of the book’s theme may be about Turkish image in coronavirus process from the perspective of the identity and otherness.

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 The Otherization of Turkey in the Orientalist Discourse

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CONCLUSION Since, the ideological point of view shapes the “language and linguistic structures” of every society, it is necessary to consider what it will be discussed in the context of language and discourse, while making analysis about discourses and images of a country. As, this study which evaluates how the Turkish image is conveyed in the foreign press, the subject of “ideology” is very important. In this study, how the news about the Turkish identity is formed, which expressions and discourses are defined, how images are reflected, the ideological structure of that newspaper in general are seen with an detailed analysis of the newspaper texts discussed in The Independent (UK). Because, the ideological structure of a society about a subject or a person is reflected through “language” and in this sense, “language” is instrumentalized and serves as the windows of societies, opening to the world. By studying the news and images about Turkey, It is purposed to analyze whether is the otherization of Turkey in orientalist discourse that is generally established with different kinds of many bad images, expressions from past to now still keeping alive with all the images, discourses, expressions in the media, or has started to acquire a different point of view in orientalism today, or not. In this study, it is seen how the reconstruction of Turkish Image and the general perception of West about Turkey, in the process of new orientalism that is reflected via the discourses, images and expressions in the media, by analyzing the news about “Tensions in Eastern Mediterranean” in The Independent (UK). It is possible to understand how Turkey that is maily constructed as negatively with especiallly images, showing their perception of Turkey is described in new orientalism today, by examinig the news about Turkey with using various analysis methods, such as the discourse analysis, the content analysis and images studies. When the news about “Tensions in Eastern Mediterranean” in The Independent (UK) during October, 2020 are analyzed, it is made out that there is still otherization of Turkey in the perception and an image of West, while they are establishing their Turkish image with their orientalist discourse in media. According to this analysis, there are 21 news about “Tensions in Eastern Mediterranean” in The Independent (UK), as 13 negative, 0 positive, 8 neutral news about Turkey and as it is seen, there are 13 negative news about Turkey that this number shows how the Turkish image is still reflected, negatively in West with the orientalist approach. Since it can be seen from these data, as the total “21” of news text, “13” of the being transferred to the reader in a negative direction, this process is observed that Turkish identity is built entirely with a negative way. The results of the evaluation that study how the orientalism that dominates and the reshapes the East as western discourse affects the construction of Turkish image that is influenced by the new orientalism process, it is seen that the reconstruction of Turkish Image and the general perception of West about Turkey, in the process of new orientalism that is reflected, negatively via the discourses, images and expressions in the media, by analyzing the news about “Tensions in Eastern Mediterranean” in foreign press with the discourse analysis and the content analysis method. This study demonstrates how Turkey that is maily constructed as negatively with especiallly images, showing their perception of Turkey is described in new orientalism today, by examinig the news about Turkey with using various analysis methods, such as the discourse analysis, the content analysis technique and images studies. There is stil otherization of Turkey in the perception and an image of West. In today’s communication age, where intercultural relations are intense, negative stereotypes, prejudices and images regarding foreign peoples and cultures continue to constitute barriers to the peaceful-cultural dialogue and cooperation, expected today. Just because of their prejudiced perspectives, some societies marginalize others, not even making an effort to get to know others.

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REFERENCES Alarslan, B. (2005). Türk imajının Görsel Yansımaları. In Dünyada Türk İmgesi. Kitap Yayınevi. Allan, S. (1998). News from Nowwhere: Television News Discourse and the Construction of Hegemony. In Approaches to Media Discourse içinde. Blackwell Publishers. Althusser, L. (1994). İdeoloji ve Devletin İdeolojik Aygıtları. İletişim Yayınları. Arlı. (2004). Alim. Orientalizm, Oksidentalizm ve Şerif Mardin, Küre Yayınları. Baharoğlu, Ö. (2006). Orientalizm İslam ve Türkler. Toker Yayınları. Balibar, E. (1994). Masses, Classes, Ideas: Studies on Politics and Philosophy Before and After Marx. Routledge. Balibar, E., & Wallerstein, I. (2007). Irk Ulus Sınıf Belirsiz Kimlikler. Metis. Bilgin, N. (2007). Kimlik İnşası. Aşina Kitaplar. Bulut, Y. (2004). Orientalizmin Kısa Tarihi. Küre Yayınları. Danforth, N. (2008). Ideology and Pragmatism in Turkish Foreign Policy: From Atatürk to The AKP. Turkish Policy Quarterly, 7(3). Dellal, N. (2000). Karşılaştırmalı Yazınbikim: İmgebilim, Evrensel Kültür. Evrensel. Dellal, A. N. (2006). Türk Sorunu: Asya-Avrupa Ekseninde Türkler, BükeKitapları:1. Baskı. Ertan Keskin, Z. (2004). Türkiye’de Haber İncelemelerinde Van Dijk Yöntemi. In Haber-Hakikat ve İktidar İlişkisi. Elips Yayınları. İnal, A. (1996). Haberi Okumak. Temuçin Yayınları. Kerlinger, F. N. (1973). Foundations of Behavioral Research (2nd ed.). Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Kula, O. B. (1992). Alman Kültüründe Türk İmgesi I. Gündoğan Yayınları. Kula, O. B. (1993). Alman Kültüründe Türk İmgesi II. Gündoğan Yayınları. Levinas, E. (2002). Sonsuza Tanıklık. Çev., Medar Atıcı-Melih Başaran (Vol. D). Metis Yayınları.

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Misztal, B. A. (2003). Theories of Social Remembering. Englad. Open University Press. Nietzsche, F. (1954). On Truth and Lie in an Extra-Moral Sense. In The Portable Nietzsche (W. Kaufmann, Ed. & Trans.). Viking Press. Özarslan, Z. (2003). Söylem ve İdeoloji Mitoloji, Din, İdeoloji. Çev. Nurcan Ateş, Barış Çoban, Zeynep Özarslan. Su Yayınları. Özdemir, E. (2020). How Is a Country Image and Identitiy Construction Reflected via Discourses in Press? In New Media and Visual Communication in Social Networks. IGI Global. Said, E. (1978). Orientalism. Penguin.

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Said, E. (1995). Orientalism -Western Concepts of the Orient. Penguin Books. Said, E. (1997). Covering Islam: How the Media and the Experts Determine How We See the World. Vintage. Said, E. (2000). Haberlerin Ağında İslam. Babil Yay. Said, E. (2004). Freud ve Avrupalı Olmayan. Aram Yay. Schnapper, D. (2005). Öteki ile İlişki. İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları. Sözen, E. (1999). Söylem, Belirsizlik, Mücadele, Bilgi/ Güç ve Refleksivite. Paradigma Yayınları. Turan, K. (1992). Almanya’da Türk Olmak. Sümer Yayınları. Ülkü, G. (2004). Söylem Çözümlemesinde Yöntem Sorunu ve Van Dijk Yöntemi. In Haber-Hakikat ve İktidar İlişkisi. Elips Yayınları. Van Dijk, T. (1998). Ideology. Sage (Atlanta, Ga.). Van Dijk, T. A. (1985). News Analysis Case Studies of International and National News. Van Dijk, T. A. (1999). Söylemin Yapıları ve İktidarın Yapıları. Medya İktidar İdeoloji, Der. ve Çev. Van Dijk, T. A. (2003). Söylem ve İdeoloji, Çokalanlı Bir Yaklaşım. In Söylem ve İdeoloji: Mitoloji, Din, İdeoloji. İstanbul: Su Yayınları. Van Dijk, T. A. (2008). Discourse and Power. Macmillan. doi:10.1007/978-1-137-07299-3 Walizer, M. H., & Wienir, P. L. (1978). Research Methods and Analysis: Searching for Relationships. Harper & Row. Weeks, J. (1998). Farklılığın Değeri. Kimlik: Topluluk/Kimlik/Farklılık. Yeğenoğlu, M. (1998). Çokkültürlülük Disiplinlerarasılık mıdır? In Sosyal Bilimleri Yeniden Düsünmek, Sempozyum Bildirileri. Metis Yayınları. Young, I. M. (1990). Justice and the Politics of Difference. Princeton University Press.

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ADDITIONAL READING Barker, C., & Galasinski, D. (2001). Cultural Studies and Discourse Analysis: A Dialogue on Language and Identity. Sage. Bilgin, N. (1994). Sosyal Bilimlerin Kavşağında Kimlik Sorunu. Ege Yayıncılık. Dellal, A. (2002). Nevide. Alman Kültür Tarihi’nden Seçme Tarihi ve Yazınsal Ürünlerde Türkler. Kültür Bakanlığı. Güvenç, B. (1996). Türk Kimliği. Remzi Kitabevi. Kula, O. B. (2006). Avrupa Kimliği ve Türkiye. Büke Kitapları.

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Milas, H. (2000). Türk Romanı ve “Öteki”. Ulusal Kimlikte Yunan İmajı, Sabancı Üniversitesi. Young, R. (2000). Beyaz Mitolojiler. Bağlam.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Content Analysis: The content analysis is an analysis technique rather than an observation method. Content analysis results are presented in the form of percentage tables, as in searching researches. Content analysis is as a technique for analyzing and analyzing communication in a quantitative context, in order to measure systematic, objective and variables contains three concepts that require detailed elaboration. Discourse Analysis: Discourse analysis is one of the most detailed discouses analysis method evaluate all the texts both textual and contextual level and it takes places at two sections: microstructure and macrostructure. The orientalism that dominates and the reshapes the East as western discourse affects the construction of Turkish image that is influenced by the new orientalism process, changed with the media is planned to be analyzedi by using discourse analysis in this study. Foreign Press: The news about Turkey in foreign press in October, The Independent (UK) are aimed to be analyzed to make out the establishment way of Turkish image. Identity Construction: Identity is our main reference point that we organize and evaluate our relationships with the world, past, future, and other people. Identity is the most subjective existence of man. Orientalism: It is mainly seen as all of the western-based and western-centered research areas where all Eastern societies and cultures, languages and peoples are examined within the studies, named as Orientalism and Oriental Studies. However, some orientalists, such as Edward Said define the orientalism in the field of a study area of people who are excluded by the Westerners, regarded as the “other” and thrown into the background in each environment with prejudice and hostile eyes. Otherness: Just because of their prejudiced perspectives, some societies marginalize others, by not even making an effort to get to know others. “Prejudices” which are constantly expressed in a society also cause a vicious circle in the society. As a result of the prejudices, imposed on them in the society they live in, people who are constantly excluded begin to behave according to the characteristics of the prejudices after a while. Because, people who have many negative characteristics unfairly have a feeling that acting according to prejudices will not affect the negative thoughts of their rights that are widespread in the society and they reorient their behavior and gradually fill the empty prejudices. Social psychologists who examine the effects of this situation on the “othering” group. Tensions in Mediterranean: Turkey’s and Greece’s dispute in the eastern Mediterranean. Turkish Image: The important examples about the Turkey and Turkish image is analyzed to make out whether is the otherization of Turkey in orientalist discourse that is generally established with different kinds of many bad images, expressions from past to now still keeping alive with all the mages, discourses, expressions in the media, or not.

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Chapter 46

Transmedia Storytelling in Advertising:

The Mediator Between Orientalism and Occidentalism Huri Deniz Karcı Ankara Medipol University, Turkey

ABSTRACT Otherization has been executed in both Orientalism and Occidentalism for a long time. People have always been expected to choose either side in a binary opposition such as “mother or father,” “male or female,” “destiny or coincidence,” “pasta or pizza,” “Fenerbahce or Galatasaray,” etc. However, the human itself is the balance of those binary oppositions such as “good and bad,” “normal and abnormal,” “optimistic and pessimistic,” etc. In this respect, this chapter ofered a new term, “medientalism,” indicating advertizing as a possible alternative medium to mediate between otherized opposites such as gender, race, ideology, lifestyle, religion within the fame of the opposition between Orientalism and Occidentalism. As a result, transmedia storytelling, a persuasive multiplatform strategy to reach the audience by telling stories, was suggested as a functional tool to employ in spreading the idea of mediation between otherized opposites.

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INTRODUCTION The roots of advertizing are bound to the United States. Advertizing has always been known for its effort to introduce and spread global consumerism by American capitalism. Although non-American societies always complain about the oppressive, enslaving and imperialist attributes of the U.S. and its way of imposing these traits in media including Hollywood films, news stories or programmes, TV shows and; of course, advertizing, they keep on publishing and broadcasting such media products in their countries. Because advertizing is an indispensable marketing communication and all societies have already been in the circle of consuming for a long time, it would be unrealistic to suppose they will not continue DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch046

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 Transmedia Storytelling in Advertising

employing it any more. The power of advertizing is undeniable however non-American societies do not like its national origin. Advertizing is a proven functional way to bring long-term sales and loyalty to the company or brand. In this respect, turning our perspective away from the national roots of advertizing into its effective subservient function on behalf of humanity would be a solution for the clash between Western and Eastern “otherization”. What is meant here is not a Pollyanna perspective. Or else, the perspective that is proposed does not imply a global uniforming but erasing strict geographic or demographic boundaries between opposite sides as Kotler et. al. (2017) suggest “comprehensiveness”. It does not indicate one unified entity totalizing all the power from Western and Eastern culture in itself. Actually, it means respect to the economic, cultural and social diversity traits. This perspective rather proposes advertizing as a mediator between two opposed cultures, which regards each other’s values and living in this cultivation-the true civilization. In the study, Gerbner’s cultivation theory that suggests the influence of media, especially television, on people’s beliefs, lifestyles, values by telling stories was based on. Advertizing was one of the influential communications reflecting certain life styles, norms and values according to the theory. Basing the study on cultivation theory, advertizing was proposed with its power to influence the audience in changing their mind. In this new era, transmedia storytelling could increase the non-stop effectiveness of advertizing to spread on multi-platforms.

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LITERATURE REVIEW Criticism of Orientalism is mainly characterized by three perspectives. Those main perspectives determine principles, issues, characteristics, origins of Orientalism within the framework of postcolonial theory rooted in the Western imperialist diffusion. The first one is Edward Said’s perspective constructing the Orient in the eyes of some Western people as the “other”. The second perspective was developed by Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, which is characterized by Third-World feminism, deconstructive thought and writing. And the third one is Homi Bhabha’s cultural critique on Third-Worldist and postmodernist approach (Said, 1978; Spivak, 1993; Bhabha, 1994; Ning, 1997; Sawant, 2011). On the other hand; criticism of Occidentalism seems to have been started by Buruma and Margalit’s chronicle The Origins of Occidentalism (2004), which inflames many researchers from the Middle East, Asia and Africa who have counterpart otherization approach. Muharram’s (2014) Occidentalism/Orientalism In Reverse: The West In The Eyes Of Modern Arab Intellectuals puts forward Arabian Occidentalism. Huang (2011) gives details about Chinese Occidentalism in Constructing the West in Chinese Magazine Advertizing: A Content and Semiotic Analysis. Anadolu (2018) explains the Turkish perspective in Occidentalism and how Orientalism has affected Turkey throughout history in 21. yüzyılda Oryantalist İmgelerin Televizyon Aracılığıyla Yeniden Üretimi: Michael Palin’s New Europe Örneği. Other than criticism on one side, either Orientalism or Occidentalism, mediating perspectives are given by some researchers including Huang and Anadolu. Ning (1997) proposes a cultural dialogue rather than an opposition. Indeed, as the scope of the study, neither Orientalism nor Occidentalism was the main focus but “otherization” in general. So, general otherization criticism was included in the main focus of the chapter. Kotler’s and his friends’ (2017) Pazarlama 4.0 (the original English version Marketing 4.0) discussing

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otherization in terms of a new era marketing strategy was important to this study that indicates advertizing as a mediator between binary oppositions. As the background theory of the study, George Gerbner’s (1998a, 1998b, 2014) cultivation theory was based on. Thus, Gerbner was included in the literature review of the study. Finally, Jenkins’s Convergence Culture (2006) should be reviewed to have a deep understanding of transmedia storytelling.

THE LONG-TERM CLASH BETWEEN ORIENTALISM AND OCCIDENTALISM Although the aim of the study is to propose advertizing as a mediator between all kinds of binary oppositions leading to otherization, the main focus of the chapter is on the duality between “Orientalism”, “Occidentalism” and their depiction in advertizing.

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Orientalism The term “Orientalism” was firstly introduced by Edward Said (1978) coming from a Palestinian origin to criticize Western overlooking opinion against the East, Orient. The West, in his masterpiece Orientalism, would include both European and American origins. According to his conceptualized view, the West believes it bears the power to name the qualities of geographical places, people belonging to those places with their races and their cultural norms. In this manner, some binary oppositions were consciously created such as “the coloniser-the colonised”, “the civilised-the uncivilised”, “the white/fair-the black/ dark”, “the developed-the undeveloped” (but with a milder naming “developing”), “the modern-the savage” etc. and lastly but perhaps most importantly “us-the other/the alien”. He shows objection to the Western idea that the survival of the Orient depends on the West. Said (1978) presents three different Orientalism approaches. The first one is an academic approach that addresses the value of knowledge since producing knowledge means power and domination. The second one is the conceptual differentiation between “the Orient” and “the Occident”. The third approach insists on the domination of Western imperialism in the Orient. Furthermore, he divides Orientalism into two interrelated types: “latent Orientalism” and “manifest Orientalism”. The main objective of latent Orientalism is based on a static and nonvocal conspiracy. In this category, the Orient is implied to be odd, backward, exotic, susceptible and passive. Here is a sluggish deadlock far from development. And it has a feminine identity-making masculinity superior. And a fantasy-world that the Orient exists for the West in a miserable condition hoping to be saved by its master West is consciously created. On the other hand, the unknown side of the Orient makes it a hidden enemy. This is the motivation of latent Orientalism to form an opinion in the eyes of the world (Said, 1978; Yeğenoğlu, 1998; Kalmar, 2002; Anadolu, 2018). With a Freudian perspective, it could be said this aim could be realised through creating fantasy and addressing the unconscious because people perform behaviour with their desire laying out unconscious (Freud, 1983). Even if latent Orientalism could address the unconscious, the fantasy it has created needs to be realised in action. At this point, manifest Orientalism, based on action and vocal conspiracy, realises the aim of latent Orientalism (Said, 1978; Anadolu, 2018). The otherization idea, both racial and gender, has to be spread to achieve the aim because it has to continue forever. The story that the East is inferior to the West because it is a miserable and underdeveloped feminine geographical region to be saved and the saver would be the wise, powerful 820

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West should be narrated. Hence, the West took the “civilising mission” to civilise all primitive cultures even by force in case of need (Rodney, 1981). The narration neccessitates a medium to reach people. More and more people are targeted to persuade them in order to make their dream come true. For this, the media could present TV and radio programmes, films, books, comics and advertizing. New media also continues what traditional media has been doing. So, both traditional and new media are intensively used by the West to manifest Orientalism. For instance; African depictions in media and other discourses imply that they are sub-human savages in need to be civilised by conquests and colonisation according to colonial ideology (Ivie, 2005). By the way, the actual meanings of “conquest” and “invasion” are a subject of discourse. “Conquest” bears a meaning of victory after a fight against the enemy and a right to take the possession of its land. On the other hand, “invasion” bears the opposite point of view whose land is captured oppressing force by the enemy. So, it could be said these two words seem to be counterparts of each other in the eye of two opposite sides just like Orientalism and Occidentalism. The portrayal of Africa and the Africans in early books, films, pop art, advertizing were intended to justify the West’s colonial ideology to make Africa inferior (Andreasson, 2005; Dunn,2004). The current depiction of Africa is a wild and dangerous region essentializing Eurocentric intervention to be saved from the violence problem (Dunn, 2004). To look through Orientalism from a Turkish perspective, in the 16th and 18th centuries, trade relations developed between the Ottoman Empire and Europe as a result of the empire’s spanning boundaries towards Europe. Therefore, the West’s, especially France and Britain, attention turned to Turkish culture. Because attaining knowledge is the symbol of power, the West started to transfer different cultural products from the East including Turkish ones by their traders, scholars and ambassadors. But it continued reducing the East to be statical and make no headway (Curtis, 2009). That was the devastating way the West applied to impose its norms to the East not respecting its cultural values (Hall, 1992). With the defeats against the West in the 18th century, the Ottoman Empire started to be affected by the West’s modernity settling embassies mutually. But the soil loss to the West in the end of the 19th century made it possible for the West to decenter Turkey and see it as an enemy but centralising Ancient Greek in civilisation. Turkish image was started to be portrayed as bloody, barbarian, deceptive, weak, lustful in brochures and comics. Since then and the 11/7 attacks, this image has been continued to spread with its adaptation into time and context via new communication technologies Neo-Orientalism focusing mainly on Muslim countries, Middle East and North Africa rather than the Asians (Anadolu, 2018).

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Occidentalism Buruma and Margalit (2004) indicate the starting point of Occidentalism mainly on the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center. So, the West was associated with U.S. imperialism and globalisation. And they claim it originated from Islamic jihad, which makes Occidentalism a Middle Eastern, Islamic motivation. They explain the concept of Occidentalism: “a war against a particular idea of the West, which is neither new nor unique to Islamist extremism.” Like Muslims, the Japanese would see “modernity” as something “European”, “Westernisation” or “Americanism”, which makes the West the “other”, even worse the “enemy”. Even interestingly, seeing the West as “rootless cosmopolitanism” (meaning Jewish), “global capitalism” or “mechanical industrialism” also had its roots by Marxists, Spanish fascists or the Nazis in Europe. The authors severely criticize all Eastern, Asian and European followers of Occidentalism doing the same but the counter form of Orientalism, they also blame. Finally,

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 Transmedia Storytelling in Advertising

they conclude their chronicle with a call to their side, Westerners, to defend themselves against “outside enemies”, which could be counted as a paradox, another form of Orientalism again. Occidentalism is conceptualised as a response to Orientalism, which rejects Western superiority over non-Western nations. Although it rose as the counterpart of Orientalism, which continuously shows the West superior and the East inferior, Occidentalism is not in a hurry to essentialise the East’s power over the West (Chen, 1995). Muharram’s (2014) approach to Arab Occidentalism is divided into two types: literary and nonliterary. The non-literary criticism, which the scope of this study is targeted, focuses on seven social critics: Qutb, Al-Jabiri, Arkon, Al-Azm, Amin, Afghani, and Kawakibi. Qutb, Al-Jabiri, Arkon and Al-Azm have marked the issue of modernity while Amin, Afghani, and Kawakibi are likely to use some kind of manipulative information about the West. Within the framework of modernity, Qutb sees it as enslaving and dehumanizing; Al-Jabiri and Arkon associate it with reform in a considerate manner. On the other hand, Al-Azm has a quite temperate perspective towards modernity: universal and enabling. Qutb seems to have a severe Occidental perspective, which mentions modernity as idolatry, religious ignorance or barbarism. Arkon could be said to be rather secular. Al-Azm puts forward a certain secular manner. In “Orientalism in Reverse” he criticises Edward Said to do the same with the West in otherising. He tries to find a way that could help get rid of the inferiority to the West. And Al-Jabiri presents a mediator position. The other group’s perspective is claimed by Muharram to be more manipulative. Amin defends double discourse emphasizing certain information about the West. Afghani uses exaggeration, which exaggerates the weakness of the British army and the power of the Arabs. And Kawakibi employs selectivity, which criticises some aspects of the West while praising some others. In the Chinese perspective of Occidentalism, the West is seen as the other but especially “foreign” that holds superiority over the Orient. Even some Chinese intellectuals take for the power of the West granted mainly in terms of science and democracy. In the 1920s and 30s, the West was associated with modernity and progress. However, Occidentalism started officially with the Maoist Era, establishing the People’s Republic of China. The Cultural Revolution during that time started to see the West as the “evil capitalism” which became a taboo in the Chinese lifestyle. Hence, that period of Occidentalism in China is refferred to as “Maoist Occidentalism”. Then, China gradually passed into an open door market-oriented policy. Since then, it has continued a gradual diplomatic and economic convergence with the West (Huang, 2011). As for Turkish Occidentalism, it could be done as a counterpart of Orientalism against Turkey. It should not be the only way to malign the West in order to protect historical values and cultural traditions. To embrace cultural traits from both the East and West who made Anatolia home once would be a reconciliatory approach. However, like latent Orientalism images, Occidentalism also imposes images for its counterpart especially to make a gain from the Western tourists (Anadolu, 2018). In the recent past, Turkey’s economic dependence on tourism made an unbalanced attitude between foreign and local tourists. On one hand, it basically has addressed foreign tourists to earn foreign currency and omitted local tourists; on the other hand, it has tried to deceive foreigners about the prices of the products or mock them by uttering swearword in the guise of teaching native Turkish. These scenes have even been mentioned in Turkish media, films and comics. Or else; in some diplomatic relations or conditions, failures have mostly ascribed to the West ignoring reasons resulting from mistakes by the country itself.

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Oriental or Occidental Representations in Advertizing There are many technical definitions of advertizing. Here are some: “The activities taken for presenting some verbal or nonverbal messages about a certain product or service to marketing units is called advertizing” (Classer, 1972). “Advertizing is a paid, mediated form of communication from an identifiable source, designed to persuade the receiver to take some action, now or in the future” (Weigold&Arens, 2015). American Marketing Association defines advertizing as the impersonal presentation of thoughts, goods or services paying a certain amount of money (Elden, 2016). Despite the emphasis on the presentation of goods and services paying a certain amount of money in definitions in terms of technical qualities of advertizing, the main point to focus should be on the presentation of certain values, lifestyles, patterns as a social reality. In this respect, Van Dyck asks a question about advertizing one of the questions researched in the WWF/PIRC report (World Wildlife Fund/Public Interest Research Centre): “Is advertizing a reflection of society and social values, or else; does it both corroborate and “normalise” the values it reflects?” (Van Dyck, 2017). Advertizing could be accepted as the henchman of mass media with an influence on consumers about which products worth buying. But in serving this responsibility to communicate to the audience, it encodes its message with specific cultural representations (Wilson&Gutierrez, 1995), lifestyles and even ideologies. An idealised world is implied by portraying how we should think, feel and behave even if it is not always realistic (Schudson, 1989). Said (1978) has a categorisation of Orientalism as “latent Orientalism” and “manifest Orientalism”. The otherization by Westerners portraying the characters of the Orient in media including advertizing practices could be classified as “manifest Orientalism”. In latent Orientalism, the Orient is seen as a kind of exotic, underdeveloped or mildly (!?) developing region. On the other hand, manifest Orientalism could be seen as the evoked version of the former. The way it is seen comes true in actions in this category. So, Western advertisers may manifest Orientalism using overlooking strategy in advertizing (Huang, 2011). Early Oriental depictions were included in travel and academic writing. As time progresses, stories are started to be narrated through media mainly in cinema. Oriental characters would be shown as the symbols of exoticism or evil; a terrorist or dictator, in the Western heroes’ adventures in the Orient as it is done in Arabian Nights, Lawrence in Arabia, Ali Baba in the 1900s. (Bernstein, 1997; Dai, 2014). So, while the protagonist was the white Westerner with fair hair and blue eyes, the antagonist was the dark Easterner with rather dark hair and black eyes reflecting evil looks. Since people’s desires and worldviews are signalised in advertisements, the audience receives and decodes the message in ads according to their own background, culture, characteristics, experiences. As social psychology studies suggest, characters’ race and ethnicity are some important indicators that the audience perceive the similarity between theirs and the one in the ads (Dai, 2014). Muller (1992) claims five different way of Westernisation in Japanese advertizing: The first one is the use of Western celebrities as the face of the brand; secondly, American brand names; thirdly, the usage of English language in ads messages; the fourth way is that some Western patterns such as the statue of liberty are included in ads, and the fifth one is Western marketing techniques. According to the study, a superior West and inferior East; Japan, was portrayed in Japanese advertizing. O’Barr’s study (1994) resulted in the changing relations between Japan and the U.S. He stated the changing position of Japan as an Orient other in the eyes of the West into authentic territory with beauties, a producer of cheap goods for the U.S. but not threatening any more. Japanese characterisation in advertizing has also changed in the same way. 823

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Huang’s study (2011), which employed content and semiotic analysis on the usage of Western models in Chinese magazine ads, concluded that the recent perception of the West has changed since ancient times of Chinese view against the West. In old times, the West used to be seen as inferior and barbarian. In the early twentieth century, the overall modernisation movement across the world seems to have influenced China, too. They started to portray Western models as the representative of modernity and progress. The 1920s’ changing economic policies in China have brought Chinese consumers Western goods like Westinghouse refrigerators, Chesterfield cigarettes and many more. That new consuming way of turning into Westernisation has reflected into advertizing as well. These goods have been advertised in their native languages, brand names and models. More westernised commercials do not only introduce Western goods but they also impose Western lifestyle and values such as modernity, luxury and progress. In the Cold War period, it was associated with “evil capitalism”. Because of Chinese nationalism based on communism, advertisements of some international brands are obliged to be erased or change on the grounds that they are against Chinese cultural norms. For example, Nike ads starring NBA player LeBron James defeating Kung Fu master was not permitted to be shown. It was viewed as an insult to Chinese culture. In today’s advertisements in China, the West is depicted as the “better other” in terms of both their physical racial qualities and economy. They seem to have absorbed Western superiority. Dai (2014) studies general Asian representation in American media including films and advertizing. She claims that in American films Asian men are featured in financially successful positions but with their unattractive appearance. On the other hand, women are hypersexualised with a submissive attitude to Western men opposite to romantic, classic American women. Just like films, advertisements have also been using a hegemonic representation of Asian culture by focusing on native models’ gender, race and age in the guise of introducing the qualities of the product since the Cold War. That was a kind of model minority stereotype that was initially started during the Cold War. An overall representation of Asianness reflected in American advertizing is fashionable and interesting but non-threatening for the American economy in the future. In American popular culture including advertisements Asian women’s portrayal is in the direction of a “Geisha”, a kind of obedient, sexually inviting, an exotic woman (Kim&Chung, 2005). Africa’s and the African’s miserable susceptibility to the West’s bringing civilisation is also reflected in all media and advertizing. For instance; in destination marketing or tourism marketing campaigns; while Western cities such as New York, London and Paris are exhibited as cradles of civilisation, Africa is marketed to tourist consumers as an exotic, wild paradise to visit. Besides, in advertizing its savaged and brutal images were brought into the forefront to legitimise the West’s colonial mission to civilise and have the political, cultural and economic superiority over it (O’Barr, 1994; Ivie, 2005; Schroeder, 2002; Bonsu, 2009). The stereotypical and most common feature of Africa is the direction of “primitiveness”. Africans are portrayed as powerless primitives, naked hunters and gatherers, exotic citizens, sick, poor and violent as it happens in the examples of Just For Feet shoes featuring a barefoot Kenyan runner; World Vision International catalogue presenting poor, diseased and worn-out African children in need of intervention by benevolent West or Benetton ads featuring “Soldier with Bone” as too primitive and poor but struggling for a fight (Bonsu, 2009).

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SOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Whether Oriental or Occidental is the figure depicted in ads has always been a problem subjected to “otherization”. Actually, it was not only the Orientalist approach but Occidental, as well. It was an exoticist approach by advertisers or advertizing agencies. The figure appearing in ads coming from either origin was shown as something clown-like (Moeran, 2003). Brands with the global claim have to regard the audience across the world including both Eastern and Western origins, Asians, Europeans, African, Scandinavian, etc. Moeran (2003) claims three problem areas should be dealt with the agency: the brand image, the position of the brand in consumer’s perception; the market situation across the world and the products. Furthermore, the corporate image, whether the brand or company is the leader in the market or not; the brand prestige, the brand’s role in the past and the future; and the aspirational value, also referred to as “one brand, one voice” strategy unifying the ideas of freedom and entertainment globally. In this respect, Moeran suggests two main target audience: an outer audience group and inner audience group. And he emphasizes the role of anthropologists in the advertizing process in order to know the outer audience group in detail. Asics’ advertizing could be shown as a successful example to negotiate between the West and The East/non-West. Kobayashi et. al. (2019) examined Asics advertizing, a Japanese-oriented brand, through its campaign websites, ad agencies’ press releases and its ads in popular magazines and journals and interviewed Asics managers. As it is seen in Figure-1, Japanese “authenticity” is highlighted in 2010 Made of Japan campaign. The traditional Japanese shoe tansu was designed in world-wide brand Asics and the sneaker shaped Asics model Onutsika Tiger in tansu. The researchers concluded that even it seems to be self-Orientalism, Asics takes a negotiator role between the West and the East/non-West as a world-wide but bound to its authentic roots. That could be a supportive effort of branding or advertizing to resist “otherization”. Figure 1. An advertizing image from the 2010 Made of Japan campaign.

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Source: Kaboyashi et. al. (2019)

In Orientalism Versus Occidentalism (1997), Ning stated that setting an opposition between Orientalism and Occidentalism was not appropriate in the so-called “new era” in modern times. Thus, he offered the idea of cultural dialogue instead of cultural opposition. In here, based on Gerbner’s cultivation theory, which is positioned in borderline between mainstream and critical theories of communication, the solution to the clash of the West and the East proposes ad-

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vertizing as a mediator through transmedia storytelling, a persuasive new media strategy narrating the content across multiplatform via the continuous engagement of the audience in the process. Based on the Cultivation theory by Gerbner, advertizing and transmedia storytelling are offered as the solution by the study to the “otherization” problem between Occidentalism and Orientalism. So, the study has an obvious mediating position but not taking a side with either otherising approach.

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Cultivation Theory Focusing on Advertizing Since the 60s, when “youth culture” rose in the aftermath of the Cold War, witnessed many social changings, media has evolved meanwhile. The economic welfare in the aftermath brought in some unprecedented economic and cultural power to the youth of age. Besides consuming power, it provided them with a certain influence in demanding solutions to unsolved world matters such as racism, nuclear power, discrimination between genders, ecological hazardous effects stemming from the industry and technology. Their demand for solution introduced a reconciliatory view in society. This youth culture was labeled “counterculture” (Gere, 2018). Since that recent past, humanity has been struggling for those world problems based upon all power relations and otherization effort and got sickened with the consciously continued deadlock. As a result, counterculture has not liked otherization-based world problems for a long period of time. The rise of media via television coincides with the rise of the counterculture. The gradually rising influence of media technology and television attracted researchers’ attention. One of them was Gerbner who founded the cultivation theory. Cultivation theory emphasizes the influence of television on the audience’s perceptions of social reality. The word “cultivate” means to work the soil, grow, plant, fertilise and settle, which bears the same meaning with the word “culture”, coming from the word cultura ve colore in Latin language (Williams, 2011). The term “cultivation” is used by George Gerbner as a key concept to explain the effects and role of media in modern societies. Although Gerbner uses this term to claim the effect of media, he does not situate himself as a mainstream researcher because he criticises this phenomenon. However, he uses empirical methods unifying the objectives of social sciences criticism. In this respect, he takes a position between two communication approaches. In his theory, he attracts attention to the single-sided influence and persuasive process of media with symbolic and cultural qualities of communication (Özçetin, 2018). Gerbner (1998a; 2014) refers to cultivation as the continuous and consistent production and perception of messages creating generalised and stereotypical images are encoded in media. As a result, the influence process in which repetitive messages capturing the audience any time anywhere to impose certain images and ideologies will be long-termed. Not instant but long-time attitudes and behaviours in the audience are targeted and achieved. No matter how Gerbner highlights television within the framework of the theory, he also mentions the general influence of media including advertizing (Gerbner, 2014; Miller, 2005; Özçetin, 2018). So, many advertizing researchers benefit from this background theory in their studies (Kim&Lowry, 2005; Huang, 2011). The theory assumes that television is easily accessible and spreadable and TV viewing process is not selective but passive (Gerbner, 2014; Miller, 2005; Huang, 2011). Mediated television programmes and advertizing are seen to affect people’s consuming behaviours. Bailey (2006) utilised cultivation theory to indicate African American representation in print ads. So, advertizing seems to have an influence on directing people’s perception of races and genders and social reality (Huang, 2011).

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Advertizing does not only reflect social reality, it also creates them and encodes some social values and roles (Prieler&Centano, 2013; Pollay, 1986; Frith&Mueller, 2010; Holden, 2004). Certain representations reflected might manage the audience’s perception of some social groups in society. So, different ways to otherise certain groups according to gender, race, politics, religion, culture and economy are employed in advertizing. A specific advertizing model based on cultivation theory could also be given as a specific example: DTC (direct-to-consumer) advertizing. Park and Grow (2007) examined the role of DTC in constructing the social reality of depression. They found familiarity between the ads to which the consumers were subjected and the risk of depression featured in those ads. Evenmore; soap operas, films, TV programmes could generally be used to influence consumer’s buying behaviours (O’guinn&Shrum, 1997; Lichter et al., 1994). The more frequently consumers are subjected to advertizing, the more positive attitudes are developed by them (Menon&Raghubir, 2003). As a consequence, advertizing is not only a paid marketing communication to create a desire in the consumer to buy a certain product or service but it is also a medium to create a social reality in the eyes of the audience.

Cultivation Theory Emphasizing Storytelling One of the most effective ways of communication according to Gerbner (2014) is storytelling, which continues throughout the history of humanity in different forms. He sees storytelling as the unique magic of the human being, which makes them homo sapiens species. People create a world in other people’s minds whom they communicate through music, dance, poetry, art. He sets three kinds of stories inspiring cultural environment:

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1. Stories about how things work: These kind of stories are called fiction, in which a fantasy-world is built. Then, people name it the reality. 2. Stories about how things happened: These are generally called news. These stories are told to confirm the vision, norms and aims of the society. 3. Stories stating choices and values about what to do: Throughout history, these stories have been confronted as homilies, orders or rules. Today, advertizing is the new form of these kinds of stories (Gerbner, 2014). Although three kinds of stories are interrelated, the last kind included in advertizing finances the first one. The circulation form of these stories has an influence on the cultural environment; consequently, on society and individuals. Well-balanced circulation based on which kind should be highlighted will bring the best-selling result (Özçetin, 2018). It would be fitting to focus on the third kind of stories highlighting advertizing, which is proposed as a solution to every kind of “otherization” but mainly between the West and the East. Advertizing messages and images to which people are exposed everyday tell some stories of choices and values. They present desirable or undesirable lifestyles and behaviours. They show the way to obtain the desirables and avoid the undesirable ones. And they necessitate the price to pay for the ideal and present what price people will have to pay for the possible failure (Gerbner, 1998b) Gerbner (2014) draws attention to the power of mass media and popular culture in performing “propaganda” rather than leaders’. Stories imposing certain concepts have started to be narrated via mass 827

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media. That has a much more powerful effect on changing people’s minds. He termed this phenomenon as the cultivation of stereotypes and generalised images in encoding messages in the communication process. In this way, he presents storytelling as something much more than tactics. In Stories We Tell, Gerbner (1998b) draws attention to the relationship between storytelling and media in detail. According to his statement, people do not know what they think they know learning from their own experiences but stories told by others. The crucial part of this is by whom those stories are told because they are the ones who shape the cultural environment. Then, he indicates the media as the main storyteller. Erdoğan (1998) brings criticism to Gerbner’s Stories We Tell in terms of the otherising “we” expression. Erdoğan explains the underlying meaning of “we” in storytelling: “what Gerbner’s refer as “stories we tell” is actually the stories “told us” and “told by passing through someone who is one of us and not one of us”. He also expresses the temporality of the term “we”. That’s; the “we” term uttered in media for the 1950s’ and 1990s’ Anatolia are not the same. The latter bears the trace of American culture and mass products passing through television under the effect of Americanism. He claims storytelling in media is one of the ways to achieve the supremacy of “getting and developing power confirmation”.

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The Mediating Role of Advertizing Through Transmedia Storytelling Based on the Cultivation Theory “Advertizing is a paid, mediated form of communication from an identifiable source, designed to persuade the receiver to take some action, now or in the future” (Weigold&Arens, 2015). On one hand, this definition shows the technical side of advertizing, mediation is included in the nature of advertizing. It is an undeniable fact that advertizing is not only the presentation of certain products or services creating the desired feeling in consumers. As Gerbner (1998a; 1998b, 2014) concluded in cultivation theory advertizing tells stories about what values, orders, lifestyles and behaviours, determined by a certain power group, people should choose and desire. However, the truth does not go away anywhere when those groups want to direct people in the direction of their aim and own desires. The ethical responsibility of advertizing must drive it to minister to the humanity of the whole world, not on the behalf of only one side of power. As Wally Snyder, the president and CEO of the American Advertizing Federation, claims, it is urgent to develop an ethical understanding of advertizing. As he stated, customers seem to be ready to pay for products by companies that have developed and respect ethical values. That could be achieved firstly by “honest advertisements”, secondly “social responsibility consciousness” and then “environmentally-friendly” attitudes. (Van Dyck, 2017). These are issues of the 21st-century youth that give importance to the spreadable media effects. “Each new technology creates some social transformations and changings” (Sezerer Albayrak, 2019) on individuals and societies. These could be given as some of those issues. Within this frame, Michael Porter and Mark Kramer (2011), Harvard University professors, propose a solution in their article Creating Shared Values: “creating shared values”. Even if they imply Western globalism, they state the “old” capitalism form does not work anymore, which regards only profit gain but not any social matters. According to their “new” capitalism model, despite their surficial respect to all cultural values of both the East and the West, only favouring Western values and patterns with an Orientalist approach does not make the West gain a long-term profit even lose. The “otherization” culture has been inserted into people’s minds by media so deeply that media has also been the victim of itself. Otherization does not happen only in gender, race, age, religion but media, 828

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as well. Today is the era of the “new” form of everything: the new generation, new values, new systems even the new “normal”, which has recently been used to refer to new norms and lifestyle digitalising everything from marketing to education and behaviours. Even worse; elderly people have no right to speak today. Only new generations are targeted. Old generations are otherised, too. Under these circumstances; media has become inevitable to be “new”. The “old” and “new” media have started to be separated from each other with clear boundaries. The otherization motivation has reflected into media by constructing a wall between the old and the new. Young (2017) highlights the new human form’s intolerance against something “old”. Old media has been killed irreversably. Only the new is essentialised not “the West” or “the East”, “the female” or “the male”, “the Muslim, “the Christian” or “the Jew”. Besides the facilities it provides, new media is exposed and a cause to negative effects such as digital monitoring, racism, sexism, hate speech about different political viewers and religious believers (Binark, 2013). Although all new phenomena have been adopted within the process of passing into the “new world”, the old, traditional “otherization” forms still continue in different areas including “new” media. So, a combination of old and new media could be a better way to go on. New media is aware that otherization is useless and meaningless. It has had to shed light on it because the new audience is fed up with otherization between genders, races, religious beliefs, ideologies. The discourse “the geography is the one’s destiny” is something concocted by the ones who cannot quit the power they hold. And people should create awareness, produce and cultivate their own culture not to yield the discourse. Kotler et. al. (2017) criticises the otherization as an old-fashion practice in the new world of the time. The conventional power structure has been passing through dramatic changes under the responsibility of the Internet, which has brought connection and transference into people’s lives. People are currently experiencing otherising groups’ power yielding the power of comprehensiveness. An otherising group of G7 countries who used to hold the power could not solve the global financial crisis on their own. They had to involve G20 countries including China, India and Indonesia to solve the big problem. Hence; economic power has become more comprehensively distributed. Even large companies have realised feeding innovation in their otherising organisational structure is not so simple any more. Large companies such as Microsoft and Amazon had to buy rather small but more innovative companies like Skype and Zappos. Big bosses like Bill Gates and Mark Zuckerberg have got aware of the need for economic comprehensiveness. Those changes have revolutionised the whole world. Now the power structure has recently been more horizontal but not vertical, more social but not individual and as a result, it has started to be much more comprehensive but not otherising. Those times when otherising used to be targeted have fallen behind. The world has been passing into a multi-lateral power structure from hegemony. European Union and the U.S.A, well-known as the superpowers, are aware of some economic power dynamics that have started to distribute especially to Asia in recent years. This transformation has also changed the definition of “what market is” and “what market is not”. The industry has directed to new rising products and services, which were excluded and otherised as cheaper and simpler not fitting into the market of the superpowers. However, things have reversed by the means of the Internet with transparency. In the era of marketing 4.0, it has introduced the concept “compresensiveness” instead of “exclusiveness” of only Western powers in a manner of “otherization”. “Comprehensiveness” does not mean “uniformity” but to be able to live in coherence despite diversity. The Internet and then social media have provided people with getting connections to each other erasing geographic and demographic boundaries; which redefines the method of integration. Social comprehensiveness is a condition of embracing “the other” giving a feeling of belonging, comfort and safety. The understanding of comprehensiveness has also 829

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started to reflect into fair trade, employment diversity and strengthening women. Comprehensive practices in gender, race and economy embrace diversity among people. So, this comprehensive approach is practiced in advertizing, as well. Some global brand could be given as examples to have a comprehensive responsibility (Kotler et. al., 2017): • •

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•

The Body Shop supports some values such as “community trade support” and “preventing domestic violence” programmes TripAdvisor works according to f-factor (friends, family, Facebook fans, Twitter followers) rather than a traditional marketing communication Sephora researches communities as media assets and has constructed a social media community that produces content and data for the brand on the Beauty Talk platform. And like other companies who have self-awareness, Sephora does not have any control over the communication of customers or prospects regarding the idea censoring would give harm to reliability.

As it is seen in these examples, social media and the Internet help a more respectful manner to customers from all nations removing any geographic and demographic boundaries. Brands tread more carefully, which makes otherization old-fashion marketing and advertizing communication. Telling stories is now known to be one of the most frequently applied ways to influence and persuade people because the human brain needs stories to make sense of the knowledge and can decode the given units of knowledge by imaging and associating the stereotypes in the content (Hazboun, 2014; Campbell, 2008). As cultivation theory claims, stories told on media including advertizing have the power to influence people what to choose and desire according to certain values, norms, beliefs. And the theory says there is a positive relationship between the effect of those stories on media and the frequency of the audience’s exposure to those stories (Gerbner, 1998a; 2014) And the story has to be spread, or it dies as Jenkins and his friends (2013) state. In today’s world of getting weary because of all kinds of “otherization” (gender, race, religion, ideologies, etc.), a new discourse is in need: “comprehensiveness” as Kotler and his friends suggested for marketing 4.0. Comprehensiveness could be utilised as a new social embracement of all kinds. It does not mean to be unified under the same roof but respect the values, origins, dreams, beliefs of what/who is seen as “the other”. And it is time for advertizing, which holds the power of influencing people across the world by telling stories and encoding some certain patterns in those stories, to “mediate” between all binary oppositions “the male and the female”, “the Muslim, the Christian and the Jewish” and “Orientalism and Occidentalism”. The old-fashioned otherization could be erased in a long period of time with the help of advertizing. The stories respecting values, norms, qualities, traditions of diversified geographic and demographic entities could be told by advertizing on different media. As a result, the media itself could mediate between opposite sides such as Orientalism and Occidentalism. Perhaps, if one day the media succeeds it, it will be able to create its own concept “medientalism”. The cultivation theory sees television as a major storyteller of the time which persuades people what to believe and create a world-view by offering some social norms, behaviours and values (Gerbner, 1998a). One of the main points of the theory is that the effect of television on people’s beliefs about social reality depends on how frequently they watch. (Gerbner, 2014; Prieler&Centano, 2013). To practise this proposal of a solution to the problem of otherization, advertizing should continue stories on different media during 7/24 as cultivation theory recommends. The rule to make people’s exposure to those stories could gain a good-willing for the sake of humanity. Therefore, advertizing will have taken literally 830

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ethical responsibility. The way to reach big numbers of people and persuade that respecting each other is not impossible could be “transmedia storytelling”. Henry Jenkins (2006), the pioneer of transmedia storytelling, explains the structure of a transmedia story. He expresses every text telling the same story manifests on many platforms to which it makes an individual and a wholistic contribution. Jenkins defines the ideal form of transmedia storytelling highlighting the responsibility of each medium to use its capacity at maximum level. That’s; a story could be firstly introduced in a film; then, it can develop in television, novels and comics. The story world could be discovered through a game or a theme park. The crucial point here is that every franchise should be unique, independent but continue the whole story. So, the audience does not have to have watched all Star Wars films to enjoy the game. Transmedia storytelling is practised in advertizing and branding, as well. Today many brands from Coca-cola, Old-Spice, Nike, etc. use transmedia storytelling, combining the old and new media. This is another positive side of T.S. as a communiciation strategy. In a world of the “new” (new age, new normal, new marketing, new media), it does not quit all traditional media uses. It combines both old and new media. So it could be said it does not apply otherization even in media dynamics. Within the process, the audience, to whom the story is told, is engaged in the story. Participation of the audience is encouraged with talking on forums, commenting on social media platforms, game playing, going to theme parks. Consequently, different people around the world are collected on multi-platforms. A “collective intelligence” is developed by converging those people around the same story. All geographic and demographic boundaries could be erased in this way (Jenkins, 2006; Potapiuk, 2014; Artieri, 2012). Transmedia storytelling could be a functional way to reach the audience because of its multiplatform strategy. As the cultivation theory suggests, being exposed to different media at different times provides a deeper effect on the audience. As a result, a brand using a transmedia strategy in its advertizing could catch the opportunity to tell its story in a broader way and could reach brand loyalty (Karcı, 2019). And if it employs this intensive, participative and collaborative strategy adapting into new marketing 4.0 era theme “comprehensiveness”, the brand will both minister to humanity with a literally ethical approach and be one of those surviving in the market where the power is balanced between the Orient and the West but not only in the hands of West anymore. As a creative, conscious and successful example, a Turkish brand leading into the global market could be given: Koton. Koton is one of the smart and innovative brands getting up to date. Its current advertizing campaign “Now respect everyone is fashionable”, which a network ad agency TBWA/Istanbul runs, tells the story of the youth subjected to labelings and prejudices. In the commercial film, there is the “Labelling Factory” which symbolises stereotypes in labels “Are you going to wear this?”, “You stand out too much”, “Are you going to get out in this appearance at nighttime?”, “This shirt is apachi”, “The woman with headscarf does not wear pants/jeans”, which are being announced by an off-voice at the same time. Then, suddenly a big group of a young generation full of girls and boys from different styles with assisting jingle with lyrics stating the resistance to all labelings and otherising manner. The story is basically narrated through images of diversified styles of the young and criticising lyrics against labeling. There are monitors everywhere in the factory, the symbol of controlling power that makes otherization and labeling. The lyric resists those ideas: women should not wear short skirts outside, people should not wear sportswear going to work, men should not wear a scotch plaid shirt with stretching jeans, it is not suitable to wear in white in winter, a woman with headscarf cannot be open to being fashionable and many more. The main message of the story is given with the hashtag: “#TakeTheLabelsOff”. (https://mediacat. com/simdi-herkese-saygi-moda-koton-reklami/, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dhxSpMtqmGk). 831

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Figure 2. The diversified social groups depicted in Koton Campaign “Now respect everyone is fashionable”

Source: http://www.womantv.com.tr/kotondan-simdi-herkese-saygi-moda-durusu-1240h.htm

To make a general analysis of the commercial, the Labelling Factory is a portrayal of monitoring society who makes otherizations and forces oppressions on people. It is just like a postmodern practice of George Orwell’s 1984 with the images depicted in the commercial film. Figure 3. The Labelling Factory in Konton Commercial Film

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Source: https://mediacat.com/simdi-herkese-saygi-moda-koton-reklami/

The brand uses transmedia storytelling as an advertizing strategy. It introduces the story firstly on TV commercials directing the audience into social media engagement with the hashtag: “#TakeTheLabelsOff”. It shares each style on different platforms, opening to the comments of consumers.

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FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS The study has presented a theoretical background. Future research could be done to conceptualise “medientalism” in a qualitative research method.

CONCLUSION Like every creature, the human is in the balance of good and evil. Feeding one of them is in the hands of people. They can shine their good side by developing their soft skills which are some humanitarian qualities already exist in every normal human brain and neural network. They are just waiting there to be cultivated (Urhan Torun, 2019). The current study focused on the otherization made by both “Orientalism” and “Occidentalism” not making the either superior. Based on the cultivation theory, it proposed the new concept “medientalism” as the usage of advertizing to mediate between all otherization forms including the Western and Eastern otherization perspectives. Transmedia storytelling is thought to get advertizing’s this goodwill accelerated in the future. It is not only a new media strategy but a comprehensive strategy embracing the old and new media. All forms of otherization have started to be old-fashioned because all people from different geographies and demographics have suffered from it so far. Gen Z gives hope to resist against otherization. People living in a new era from all generations, genders and cultures are in the process of developing one of their soft skills to trying to be more humanitarian. Humanization will save the world, not dehumazisation… Then, a dream will come true!..

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Pollay, R. W. (1986). The distorted mirror: Reflections on the unintended consequences of advertising. Journal of Marketing, 50(2), 18–36. doi:10.1177/002224298605000202 Porter, M. E., & Kramer, M. R. (2011). Creating shared value. How to Re-invent capitalism – and unleash a wave of innovation and growth. Harvard Business Review, 89(1), 62–77. Potapiuk, K. (2014). Literature and transmedia in social network services-case study: The Lizzie Bennet diaries. Social Communication, 1(9), 46–58. Prieler, M., & Centano, D. (2013). Gender representation in Philippine television advertisements. Sex Roles, 69(5-6), 276–288. doi:10.100711199-013-0301-4

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Rodney, W. (1981). How Europe underdeveloped Africa. Howard University Press. Said, E. (1978). Orientalism. Routledge. Sawant, D. (2011). Perspective on post-colonial theory: Said, Spivak and Bhabha. file:///C:/Users/TT/ Desktop/Orientalism/perspectives%20in%20orientalism.pdf Schudson, M. (1989). How culture works. Theory and Society, 18(2), 153-180. Spivak, G. C. (1993). Can the subaltern speak? Reflections on the history of an idea. Columbia University Press. Urhan Torun, B. (2019). Soft Beceriler: Etkili İletişim ve Liderlik. Gazi Publishing. Van Dyck, F. (2017). Yeni Nesil Reklamcılık: Dijital Çağ İçin Yeni Kurallar (2nd ed.). (V. Eke, Trans.). The Kitap Publishing. Weigold, M. F., & Arens, W. (2015). Advertising. McGraw-Hill. Williams, R. (2011). Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society. Routledge. Wilson, C. C. II, & Gutiérrez, F. F. (1995). Race, multiculturalism, and the media: From mass to class communication. Sage Publications, Inc. Yeğenoğlu, M. (1998). Colonial Fantasies: Towards a Feminist Reading of Orientalism. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511583445 Young, M. (2017). Dijital Çağda Ogilvy’ye Göre Reklamcılık (H. Mesci, Trans.). The Kitap Publishing.

ADDITIONAL READING Bozatsiz, N. (2016). Cultural Othering, banal Occidentalism and the discursive construction of the “Greek crisis” in global media: A case study. Suomen Antropologi, 41(1), 47–71. Daher, R. F. (2007). Tourism in the Middle East: Continuity, Change and Transformation. Channel View Publications. Hobson, J. (2008). Digital whiteness, primitive blackness. Feminist Media Studies, 8(2), 11–126. doi:10.1080/00220380801980467 Copyright © 2021. IGI Global. All rights reserved.

Rosenblatt, N. (2009). Orientalism in American Popular Culture. Penn History Review, 16(2), 51–63. Scolari, C. A. (2009). Transmedia storytelling: implicit consumers, narrative worlds, and branding in contemporary media production. International Journal of Communciation, 586-606.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

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Advertizing: A marketing communicaiton leading the consumer to buy depicting both desirable qualities of certain products and services and reflecting values, norms and stereotypes as social reality. Comprehensiveness: Philip Kotler’s concept used for embracement in Marketing 4.0 era. Cultivation Theory: George Gerbner’s communication theory positioning between mainstream approach and criticism. Medientalism: A brand-new term invented by H. Deniz Karcý, the author of the chapter, to refer the role of advertizing, a mass media practice, as a mediator between binary oppositions. Occidentalism: The Eastern counterpart of Orientalism rejecting the West’ s opressions, exclusions and reductions. Orientalism: The vision of the Orient in the eye of the Westerners. Otherization: Not accepting but rejecting qualities, values and style of the one not similar with the self. Transmedia Storytelling: A multi-platform engaging storytelling form involving the audience in the process.

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Chapter 47

Orientalist Representations of Antakya (Antioch-onthe-Orontes) in Digital Media Narrations Feride Zeynep Guder Faculty of Communication, Üsküdar University, Turkey Tulay Atay Faculty of Communication, Hatay Mustafa Kemal University, Turkey

ABSTRACT

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This study aims to criticize the defnition and misinterpretation of “the East-the Orient” in the scope of Antakya city according to Orientalist approach and to analyze how this approach put into practice by the narration of the Westerners via scrutinizing digital media platforms. To uncover this dominant narration, Said’s Orientalist theory has been explored for the main arguments of the study. With the help of cognitive semiotics benchmarks, three digital media platforms are analyzed to indicate how Orientalist perspectives dominate the narration and representation of Antakya. Although the city conveys modern lifestyle and outlook, these perspectives are omitted, and these narrations fail to represent the core and unique characteristics of Antakya. Examples found in digital media prove the lack of such representations, including particularly the absence of images, narrations, and portrayals of inhabitants. In conclusion, close and critical reading of digital tourism genres are recommended, and although these platforms are new and digital, the way they narrate have echoes of the old.

INTRODUCTION Antakya, Antioch-on-the-Orontes, as historically called used to be referred to as “Orientis Opicum Pulcrum (The Queen of the East)”. This definition clearly characterizes the axiom of its identity. However, the attribution of the East to Antakya is far-fetched in terms of the real and unique characteristics of the DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch047

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 Orientalist Representations of Antakya (Antioch-on-the-Orontes) in Digital Media Narrations

city. When a city is defined by its historical characterization, it is difficult to purge those narrations and representations from traditional and digital media. This is the challenge that Antakya faces. One can trace the typical Orientalist representation of Antakya through the centuries. In this chapter, this study aims to analyze the mismatch between the city’s identity and its representation, particularly in digital media with the help of the discussions developed by Cognitive Semiotics. Having the aim of analyzing the most popular digital tourism sites, this study explores the mismatch of the narration of the city on these sites and the meta narration of the city. Digital travel sites are significant as they are playing major roles to define, document and advertise the cities and therefore are expected to give that information with unbiased and objective eyes. To realize this aim three criteria have been set for the analysis methodology. These criteria are derived from Cognitive Semiotics which aims to employ visual analysis and ideological critique of aforementioned Western outlook in the digital media.

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BACKGROUND Conceived as new digitalized guidebooks, tourism websites play a very big role by retelling the old stories and old attitudes in their own digital frames. Cities are digitally introduced, advertised, narrated, evaluated, criticized via these digital platforms. If a city has green parts and a lively social activity, that city life is characterized peaceful and modern. Every city has its own visual identity. Its visual identity is mainly shaped by its narrators. What is proposed in this study that digital touristic websites have orientalist representation of Antakya. Over millions of personal users upload their own images in those travel websites by sharing their own experience to the city. As Zhou explained that those images contain a huge amount of information about the cities are not only used for landmark detection and reconstruction but they are also used to monitor ecological phenomena and human activity happening in the narrated city (Zhou, et al, 2014, pp. 519-520). City attributions on this web sites are properties observable in images that have human-designated names such as smooth, natural, and vertical. It is, therefore, play high and significant role to define those cities from the mouth of these users. In other words, attribute-based representation of cities has shown great potential for object and scene recognition. These recognitions are generally human-labeled attributes. Millions of opinions act as supervised information to describe and organize images. Zhou here underlines the same semantic space with the common attribute dimension despite the fact that they represent images with a wide variety of image contents, from different cities. So all these photos, narrations and images actually reflect those visitors’ personal perception of the city (Zhou, et al, 2014, p. 521-522). Taking their subjective reflection of the city into account, any city identities given in those websites ought to be questioned carefully. Following the trajectory that Zhou used in their geo tagged image analysis, this study has similar questioning methods, as it is believed that Antakya’s city identity that has been described in digital travel sites are deeply subjective (Zhou, et al, 2014, p. 530-531). Narrations created on those images, their frames, and the portrayal of the city and the orientalist perspectives of their producers are highly correlated. The visual representation of a city is closely related to its narration. Once a narration created based on a myth developed by a westerner its meta narration also affected and generated from one generation to another. Here orientalist narration and representation have shaped the main paradigms of the discussion. As Said proposed, the strategic location of Antakya as a border city shapes its formation. This chapter proposes that the “Eastern Narration” regarding Antakya was produced by Westerners based on their own cultural context and outlook. It also confirms once again that 839

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as Said stated, the East was created by the West. Said utilized the 18th Century Neapolitan philosopher Giovanni Battista Vico’s well-founded argument that history is man-made to illustrate that the same statement also applies to the “Orient” and the “Occident”. He stated that “the East and the West also mirror each other.” (Said, 2013, pp. 4-5). Entman (1991; Trivundza, 2004, p. 481) proposed that frames are ‘information-processing schemata’ which work by ‘selecting and highlighting some features of reality while omitting others’ (Entman, 1993, p. 53). We can locate Said’s (2003) and Turner’s (1994) opinion regarding Orientalism as a set of frameworks shaped by various perspectives that create an “imaginative geography” of “powerful” Europe on the same trajectory. Here is Orientalism in its essential form, representing a whole culture as the homogenous Other, with the aim of establishing hegemonic power over its interpretation (Kulić, 2018). Ideological and political narrations pass from one generation to another. Although digital media have high technology tools to produce hi-tech images, these images have been produced by that Orientalist perspective. Orientalism has found new platforms in digital tourism websites. These websites reflect the western point of view by neglecting the unique characteristics and identity of the cities both in their narration verbally and visually. Kress (2006) highlighted the role of the critical disciplines to analyze visual communication as they are always the means for the articulation of ideological positions. He warned that neither power nor its use has disappeared. For ordinary readers, power issues in the images is not an easy job to follow. For common readers they are hard to locate and trace. Therefore, as Kress (2006) proposed here what is needed is the democratic methodologies to scan the means of understanding the articulations of power anywhere, in any form. However, ‘critical discourse analysis’ are usually the beyond of many people. Digital media users’ awareness should be increased on the usage of power issues. For example, “how language is used to convey power and status in contemporary social interaction, and how the apparently neutral, purely informative (linguistic) texts which emerge in newspaper reporting, government publications, social science reports, and so on, realize, articulate and disseminate ‘discourses’ as ideological positions just as much as do texts which more explicitly editorialize or propagandize.” Definition of critical reading requires not only reading between the lines but also beyond the lines. Digital tourism websites require careful reader to understand and catch how “a sense of what discursive/ ideological position, what ‘interest’, may have given rise to a particular text, and maybe to glimpse at least the possibility of an alternative view. Therefore, this study is seeking the possibility of finding a critical reading activities for cities where the ways and means are provided by critical discourse analysis (Kress, 2006, p. 14). This study is the culmination of those beliefs that the visual representation of a city is not beyond the scope of critical discourse analysis. Narration of a city is going together with its visual presentation. So this study focuses both on verbal texts and images of city to catch the orientalist representation of the city of Antakya with the aid of critical discourse analysis. It is hoped that the examples will demonstrate its potential for this kind of work.

ORIENTALIST NARRATION OF ANTAKYA IN DIGITAL MEDIA Although digital media are new platforms, the way they narrate cities are usually the echoes of the old ideologies. Orientalist narrations are looming their existence in new media. Antakya has no exception. The retelling of the widespread usage of “the East” that has attached itself to the city. It is hard to find facets of the city unbound by these typical narrations. Similarly, the perpetual highlighting of faith tourism in Antakya has been a very popular subject. However, the stories, myths, and beliefs related to 840

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this faith tourism often convey partial realities. Other belief systems, apart from Christianity and Islam, stemming from diverse civilizations such as Stoicism and Mithraism are hardly found in narrations of the city exclusively in the print media. Orientalism here is based on these dualistic paradigms of Islam and Christianity. This narrow-minded, binary approach denigrates the unique characteristics of Antakya. The cliché Orientalist media representations make it easy to perpetuate popular Orientalist claims. Within this context, digital media is no exception. Those old features are still embedded in the narration of the city and the meta-narration of its dwellers in new media platforms such as websites, social media sites, and mobile applications.

The Semiotic Landscape of Antakya in Digital Media

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Kress and van Leeuwen (2006) defined the semiotic landscape as part of a visual communication in a given society. The features of a landscape such as a field, a wood, a clump of trees, a house, a group of buildings can only carry meanings the context of their whole environment and of the history of its development. Taking this definition into account this part considers the ideological representation of Antakya visuals in digital media. Seeing the open fields, empty city images, architectural photos without any people are these particular features and modes of communication developed by Western societies. Kress and van Leeuwen (2006) proposes that each feature of a landscape has its history, as does the landscape as a whole, and each is subject to constant remaking. Here the authors adapt this definition for the presentation of Antakya landscapes, which have a timeless appearance as this timelessness stick to its definition as the queen of the East. So the same logical trajectory continues for its narration. Therefore, the semiotic landscape of Antakya is not free from the ideological representation of Antakya with an Orientalist approach (Kress & van Leeuwen, 2006, p. 35). What is critical here is the semiotic modes as Kress and van Leeuwen (2006) highlighted are shaped both by the intrinsic characteristics and potentialities of the medium and by the requirements, histories and values of societies and their cultures. It is therefore cultural and social valuations and structures strongly affect the uses of these potentialities. Kress and van Leeuwen (2006) explains that in Western societies written language has mainly replaced by visual mode that inevitably replace the semiotic means of expression. For the study purposes, this chapter implement Kress and van Leeuwen’s (2006) explanation on semiotic landscape. That approach paves the way for the arguments proposed in here in the sense that the semiotic landscape of Antakya has been created by social, cultural and political factors. What is obvious here is that instead of the real representation of Antakya one can see a designed reality (Kress & van Leeuwen, 2006, pp. 36- 41).

The Omission of the Core Qualities of Antakya The omission of the core qualities of Antakya as a real city- with its modern and European lifestyle and perspectives can be easily disregarded when doing a random reading. A close and critical reading of those genres is necessary. As Lynch proposed, to understand a city and its visuals one need to talk with their inhabitants (Lynch, 1960, p. 14). However, this basic requirement to tie a city with its inhabitants is wholly neglected by the digital media users who produced content. The lack of representation for this contemporary and European lifestyle of Antakya can also be traced back to the historical characterization of the city. Examples of digital media given in this study prove the lack of such representation, including 841

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particularly the absence of images, narrations, and portrayals of free-spirited, strong, and talented women from history and the present. The improper visual representation of historical portrayal of Hellenistic or Roman women on the coins or mosaics without their life stories can be given as the typical examples of that situation. Just like in traditional media, images and visuals in digital media have used the same style of presentation when it comes to Antakya.

Meta-narration of Antakya and Orientalist Approach In this study, the definition of meta narration conveys its own perspectives. It means the narration employed by the residents to describe themselves. People living in Antakya proudly describes themselves as lively, modern, and tolerating each other’s lifestyle. Here the identity of the authors of this chapter are significant as they are almost locals. Atay was born in İstanbul and moved to Antakya in 1998 and she has been carrying out anthropological and sociological research since then. Güder was born in Antakya, and moved to İstanbul to attend the university then settled down there without breaking her ties with Antakya. Two authors met by chance during a conference afterwards they both realized that they were sharing the same (or similar) academic approach towards the city Antakya. This article emerged upon the discussions that they had discovered that there was a misrepresentation of Antakya in digital media platforms. It is hard to free Antakya from that Orientalist stigma attached to Antakya. Since the authors have the unique meta-narration, they can focus on the neglected narration of Antakya with its unique modern attributions. These attributions are in the mouth of every single person of Antakya dwellers. When two words are used as a slogan, peace and tolerance comes to people’s mind. When searched, these two dominant words appear as 292.000 results narrating and defining the city of Antakya as the symbol of peace and tolerance. Here this is the opposite to the typical orientalist narration. Meta narration of the city by the residents and city dwellers passes from one generation to another.

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Methodological Framework Cognitive Semiotics as its transdisciplinary study of meaning offer convenient tools that go along to the aim of the study. These tools provide fresh insights into the study by analyzing the examples of images and narrations of Antakya within the scope of its Orientalist representation. This study has three methodological frames. In the first phase, as shown in Part A, three critical questions are used in Table 1 (Initial Criteria of the Research). In the second frame, as shown in Part B, three most popular digital tourism websites are analyzed: The Guardian Travel Section, Tripadvisor and Lonely Planet (LP). The scope of this study is limited to these three digital tourism genres as they provide sufficient examples to the arguments of this research. Upon the analysis, related tables are designed according to the data derived from the chart. Subsequently, in the third frame, the visual representation of Antakya is analyzed according to van Leeuwen (2008) in Table 6. Van Leeuwen’s table (See Appendix 1) is based mainly on Cognitive Semiotics which discusses the visual analysis and ideological critique of aforementioned Western outlook in the digital media. This table was adapted for the study and data are analyzed in Table 5. In the conclusion part, whole data are commented and finalized by commenting the research corpus based on the perspectives of Cognitive Semiotics. Further recommendations for future researches are offered as this study can provide new insights on this topic.

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Part A. Designing Initial Criteria for the Research In this part, three questions are used to define the problem of the article. The aim of the first question is to determine “Whether there are any Orientalist images such as religious representations?”. Second question is significant as orientalist narrations always use the word and images of exotic to narrate cities. So the second question seeks to find out “Whether there is any emphasis on the ‘exotic’?”. The third question is crucial as it looks for “Whether there are any omissions or silencing of real characteristics?”. Table 1. Initial Criteria of the Research No.

Criteria

1

Whether there are any Orientalist images such as religious representations?

2

Whether there are any emphasis on the “exotic”?

3

Whether there are any omissions or silencing of real characteristics?

Part B. Analysis of Three Most Popular Digital Tourism Sites In Part B three most popular Digital Tourism Sites are analyzed by implementing the criteria in Table 1. Analysis 1. The Guardian According to Alexa (2020), this British media web site ranks as 158th. Chef Kevin Gould (2012) wrote an article for Guardian Travel web site about Antakya in 2012 as a regular contributor. His article uses four (4) pictures. First one is the “The cave church of St Peter, Antioch”. The second picture is depicting “two women” but this is taken in nearby town Tarsus not in Antakya. The third one shows “spice bazaar in old Antioch” and the last photo is shown traditional “Antiochian” bakery goodies. The writer’s narratives covering whole cuisine, ancient stories including “a horny Apollo pursuing the nymph Daphne” with an “exotic” tone of voice. Gould (2012) does not forget to mention ethnically and religiously mixed society but neglects the real life and physical appearance of native people of the city Antioch. Table 2 shows how the article is analyzed according to three research criterion.

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Analysis 2. Tripadvisor Tripadvisor is one of the most prominent and visited online travel social media sites (2020) well representing “convergence culture” which combines “tales of travelers-oldness” and “digital social medianewness” and, also collides traditional and new media (Jamerson, 2017, p. 12, 122; Jenkins, 2006, pp. 282-283, 260). When visited Tripadvisor on 8th of September 2020, Antakya city pictures and Hatay Province pictures are as if the people are something not to be shown visually. Spaces are sterile and without people. The website is depicting only and mostly the natural beauty of waterfalls. This is the pure “Orientalist Approach”. There are no women drinking alcohol in a local bar, pub or restaurant of the “Old Quarter of Antakya.” Tripadvisor prefers to depict Antakya without “human beings”. According to tripadvisor.com the city of Antakya lost her “genius loci” namely “the spirit of her unique qualities”. This is actually considered as an Orientalist visualization of hate speech. Sprits of spaces are lost when

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Table 2. Analysis of TheGuardian.com The Name of the Medium

The Guardian: “Time travel in ancient Antioch, Turkey.” https://www.theguardian. com/travel/2012/mar/23/ antioch-turkey-culture-food (Retrieved: 26 October 2020)

Criterion 1: “Orientalist Images Such as Religious Representations”

Criterion 2: “An Emphasis on the ‘Exotic’”

Criterion 3: “The Omission or Silencing of Real Characteristics”

• “The cave church of St Peter, Antioch.” Photograph: Alamy. (See: App. 2/Photo 1)

• “A spice market in old Antioch.” Photograph: Alamy. (See: App. 2/Photo 3)

• Places where people enjoy eating and night life.

• “Young women in Bedesten market, Tarsus.” This photo depicts two young women. Tarsus is 5-hour drive away from Antioch. Photograph: Kevin Gould. (See: App. 2/Photo 2)

• “Tempting goods in an Antioch bakery.” Photograph: Kevin Gould. (See: App. 2/Photo 4)

• Women enjoying night life.

the place is reduced to objects with no people living. A deep zombification of the city, a huge void and emptiness are the eyes of orientalists’ mentality. When the page of Antakya is compared to the other cities pages such as London (UK), Leuven (Belgium) or Edinburgh (Scotland) one can immediately catch the formation of social, cultural, gendered “Otherness” positioned by “West” but in this case as MacCannell states that is “positive” Orientalism (MacCannell, 2011, pp. 8-9; Said, 2003, p. 97). Table 3 tries to explain how tripadvisor.com depicts Antakya.

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Analysis 3. Lonely Planet Lonely Planet (LP) is an Australian company publishing guidebooks for travelers initially. A couple originally from the United Kingdom was founded the company. British Broadcasting Company (BBC) promoted the books. Currently, lonelyplanet.com is “informing and inspiring the travelers with trusted content for print and digital from experts who visit every destination” as the website indicated (Lonely Planet, n.d.). When LP first appeared as paper guidebook format company defined themselves ethical in terms of informing the readers. Their aim was to overcome the existing inequalities caused by capitalist and colonialist view. Lisle (2008) argues by citing Cyntia Enloe, “Westerners are reproducing the colonial power by means of travel. In other words, while colonial power is abusing the local people when traveling on the other hand, media always tell something else which does not reflect the reality” (Lisle, 2008, p. 156). Lisle (2008) also uses Armand Mattelart’s and Slavoj Zizek’s arguments how the eyes of Westerners are producing and framing the Others. When the LP web page of Antakya is analyzed it is easy to find similarities as Roland Barthes describes and criticizes Blue Guides (Lisle, 2008, p. 163). LP reduces the realities of Antakya to almost nothing. The city of Antakya on LP has no picture whereas the other European cities as big as Antakya have half a screen colourful significant pictures in the opening which is a highly prejudiced approach. Only the hotels in Antakya have thumbnail pictures on the LP’s Antakya web site (Lonely Planet, n.d.). Ianquinto (2012) studies the LP guidebooks for backpackers and claims that Internet will be disseminating much more sufficient and efficient information along with word of mouth knowledge. Antakya case is the great example for this findings. LP’s Antakya page has no sufficient information, instead people tend to believe in word of mouth information. Local perspective silencing and framing in LP’s Cambodia guidebook were studied by Tegelberg (2010). He also argues and criticizes that the narrative usage of LP is full of colonial myths of Western assumptions (Tegel-

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Table 3. Analysis of tripadvisor The Name of the Medium

Tripadvisor: “Explore Antakya.” https://www.tripadvisor.com/Tourismg312729-Antakya_Hatay_Province_ Turkish_Mediterranean_Coast-Vacations. html (Retrieved: 8 September 2020 / 7 November 2020)

Criterion 1: “Orientalist Images Such as Religious Representations”

• There are 5 sections; “Go Play”, “Go Rest”, “Go Eat”, “Cheap eats” and “Top-rated by travelers” respectively. Altogether this part of page has 16 pictures. • 1 picture depicts “Antakya Archeological Museum” formally called “Hatay Archeological Museum”. (See: App. 2/Photo 5) • 1 picture shows the interior of “Habib Neccar Mosque.” (See: App. 2/Photo 6) • 1 picture shows “Old city of Antakya”. (See: App. 2/Photo 7) • There are no human appearing in the pictures.

Criterion 2: “An Emphasis on the ‘Exotic’”

Criterion 3: “The Omission or Silencing of Real Characteristics”

• 10 pictures out of 20 are “waterfalls” of Harbiye (Daphne) province under the “see all photos” section on the top of the page. (See: App. 2/Photo 8) • 5 pictures out of 16 are showing famous cuisine of the province. (See: App. 2/Photo 9) • There are no human appearing in the pictures.

• There are cafes and restaurants in Harbiye (Daphne) where people as group and large families enjoy eating and their leisure time. • In fact, The Mosque of Habib-i Neccar (Habib al-Najjâr) was said to be a church and a pagan temple back in the history. • The picture shown actually depicts a bird view of the city’s shantytown, not the “old quarter of Antakya”. • There are no human appearing in the pictures.

berg, 2010, p. 506). Image of destination has huge impact on travelers that is why “effective destination positioning” attracts people (Choi et al, 2007, p. 119).

Part C- The Visual Representation of Antioch on the Orontes In Part C, the visual representation of Antakya is analyzed according to van Leeuwen (2008) in Table 6. As shown in the Table 3, 4 and 5, places in Antakya are shown as almost empty. Streets are isolated and there are no humans appearing in the pictures. Table 4. Analysis of lonely planet

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The Name of the Medium

Lonely Planet: “Antakya.” https://www.lonelyplanet. com/turkey/antakya (Retrieved: 17 November 2020)

Criterion 1: “Orientalist Images Such as Religious Representations”

Criterion 2: “An Emphasis on the ‘Exotic’”

Criterion 3: “The Omission or Silencing of Real Characteristics”

• No pictures only the map of Antakya indicating mosques and churches etc.

• Only the hotels have thumbnail pictures. (See: App. 2/Photo 10)

• No picture of the city

• Two paragraphs explaining the short history background of the city and the ethnic and religious composition.

• Most of the subtitles are empty.

• No human picture.

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In Table 5, in the first phase, Part A, “the image of the viewer” is discussed. In this part, this study asks 3 questions related to “the image and the viewer”. After analyzing three web sites, The Guardian, Tripadvisor and LP, one thing has been revealed quite clear that inhabitants of Antakya seems to be invisible. Tripadvisor and LP never depict Antakya city dwellers. On the other hand, The Guardian has a photo of two women but this picture was not taken in Antakya. In this particular photo, women are posing leaning one another, looking directly to the viewer. Their look conveys little shyness reflecting female subordination. Cities and spaces without human appearing as in Tripadvisor and LP can provide solid examples for this study by supporting the argument presented here as the western narration of a city. A city without their inhabitants cannot be taken as the real or objective representation of it. In the case of this study, these images are far from the real Antakya which has a dynamic and a lively soul. The real attribution of Antakya must contain images with full of people enjoying food, social gatherings, modern lifestyle and both men and women dressing in modern fashion. The real emphasis ought to be on the depiction of the lively and crowded social city life. Therefore, the visual representation of Antioch on Orontes are devoid of its own identity. In Part B on the table 5, analyzing the visuals continued with two questions: “How are the people in the picture represented?” and “How is the viewer’s relation to the people in the picture represented?” The aim of these questions are to be looked closely for the depiction of Antakya inhabitants. This part expands these two questions by five features: Exclusion of modern Antakya city dwellers. Two women are given as the Antakya women without seeing multicultural mosaics. However, although the article is about Antakya but the picture was taken in a town which is 3-hour away by car. In the second feature the Roles of Antakya people are questioned. In the Guardian: Two women leaning to each other. Only the faces are seen in the frame. Background is blurred. Here the role of these women are portrayed as submissive, shy and passive. However real Antakya narration should be given as dominant, confident, subject of their own life. So this portrayal of the city is not real presentation. In third part Specific and Generic narration has been analyzed where we can see the stereotyped depiction of Antakya. In the Guardian again only portrayal of women is chosen. The fourth question underlines the message that the western perspective that people are all the same ignoring the individual differences. Last but not least, for the Categorization feature on the table 5, we can see again that the women images show that “they cannot stand independently so that is why they are leaning to each other”.

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RECOMMENDATIONS TO CREATE A NEW NARRATIVE FOR ANTAKYA As shown and criticized in the previous parts, Orientalist representation of the city is a widespread attitude that shaped the narration of Antioch. The most convenient solution and recommendation can be designed in the same digital media platform by increasing people’s full awareness to the situation. Digital Media can be activated to increase the awareness of the orientalist approach. This raising awareness activities can activate a much more authentic city narration which has a closer look. Similarly, new digital activities that involve art and deep thinking activities can shape a more convenient meta narration of the city. The Western spirit of the modern identity of the city must be polished and publicized. This include wide range of digital performances such providing pictures of Antakya women in modern clothes, clubs that have western stand such as equestrian clubs and art activities such as amphitheater and active social interaction among different believers that ignite peace and tolerance to embrace others’ culture and life 846

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Table 5. “The Visual Representation of Antioch on the Orontes” this benchmark was adapted for the study from the tool developed van Leeuwen (2008) (see Appendix 1) “The Visual Representation of Others” van Leeuwen (2008) “How are Antakya people depicted in travel site?” -The Guardian: Two women. No men, children from other cultures etc. -Tripadvisor: No human appearing. -Lonely Planet: No human appearing. “How are the depicted people of Antakya related to the viewer?” -The Guardian: Two women facing to the viewer next to each other.

1-The Image and the Viewer

Q1- the social distance between depicted people and the viewer,

“distance communicates interpersonal relationships” -No human so that no space

Q2- the social relation between depicted people and the viewer,

“the vertical angle: power differences” “the horizontal angle: face-to-face” -The Guardian: Two women facing to the viewer next to each other. But this was not taken in Antakya.

Q3- the social interaction between depicted people and the viewer.

3 strategies for visually representing people as “others,”: 1- the strategy of distancing, representing people as “not close to us,” as “strangers”; 2- the strategy of disempowerment, representing people as “below us”; 3- the strategy of objectivation, representing people as objects for our scrutiny. -The Guardian: two women facing to viewer next to each other, smiling. They are looking into the camera with their shy eyes. The article is about Antakya but the picture was taken in a town which is 3-hour away by car. Two women are standing still and only their heads are visibly framed. In the background there are blurring jewelries. Two women is leaning to each other.

“How are the people in the picture represented?” “How is the viewer’s relation to the people in the picture represented?”

2-Depicting People

1- Exclusion

The Guardian: Only women, no men, children etc…

2- Roles

The Guardian: Two women leaning to each other. Only the faces are seen in the frame. Background is blurred.

3- Specific and Generic

The Guardian: Stereotyped narration

4- Individuals and Groups

The Guardian: “All women but men” kind of message that they are all the same, no multicultural scenery

5- Categorization

The Guardian: “two women”, “cannot stand independently that is why leaning to each other”

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5 Final Strategies for visually representing people as “others” in The Guardian: 1

-Yes, there is a strategy of exclusion, not representing people from all walks of life at all in contexts where, in reality, they are present. Although, in Antakya there are plenty of people from different cultural background but the newspaper and the writer chose this particular photo.

2

-The way they are looking in to the camera indicates that two women are shy and low esteemed.

3

-“all Turkish women are the same”

4

-the strategy of negative cultural connotations is held

5

-the strategy of negative racial stereotyping is held

style. The visualization and the narration of city must embrace the unique characteristic of Antioch that support and confirm one another.

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FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS This study can ignite informed awareness not only for the academic minds but also for the digital media users who create contents on cities. Freeing themselves from the biased viewpoints to narrate a city take a long intellectual journey and critical awareness. At this point, this study also suggests to implement the benchmark “Critical Media Analysis” developed by van Leeuwen (2008) and the awareness activities for a more convenient narration of any city by its own meta narration. What is emphasized here that “Critical Media Analysis” benchmark and the perspectives of Cognitive Semiotics can be adapted for different cities as it has a very rich potential in terms of its adaption to the other cities. Therefore, further recommendations for future researchers are offered as this study can provide new insights on this topic.

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CONCLUSION The analysis of three most popular digital tourism sites has shown that there is a very big gap between the narration of those sites and the meta narration of Antakya. Orientalist point of view dominated to present the city as an Oriental city or a city for Eastern qualities. Pictures are taken without people of in isolation. Here one can see the biased representation of a city. These problems are summed as the 5 Final Strategies for visually representing people as “others”: The strategy of exclusion, not representing people at all in contexts where, in reality, they are present; the strategy of depicting people as the agents of actions which are held in low esteem or regarded as subservient, deviant, criminal, or evil; the strategy of showing people as homogeneous groups and thereby denying them individual characteristics and differences (“they’re all the same”); the strategy of negative cultural connotations; the strategy of negative racial stereotyping. In the study Part A and Part B presented the discussions and arguments by analyzing the three digital sites with the three initial criteria covering religious and exotic connotation and, the omission of inhabitants in action. Part B evaluates three websites in depth. The article written by Chef Kevin Gould (2012) in The Guardian Travel Website is investigated. Four picture used in the article, one is as an ancient church with no human depicting; the second two women leaning to each other and looking directly to the photographer; the third one depicting the spice bazaar without any inhabitant/shoppers/sellers; and finally a picture of a bakery goods with a short distance shot. The second website, Tripadvisor tells the viewers/ visitors that Antakya only is comprised of “waterfalls” where no settlers ever wonder if the waterfalls exist. The third website of LP dates back to paper based times of guides depicts the city of Antakya as a ghostly deserted town where no human being prefers to live in. Part C plays the main role in the research as the benchmark by van Leeuwen. It has an integral role to understand and analyze the arguments -given in the study to find orientalist point of views. To confirm the argument in the Guardian, writer does not even bother to give a picture of two women of whom the photos was not even taken in Antakya. The other question to ask why the writer preferred to choose a photo showing two women but men, children of different cultures. Last but not least, unbiased narrations can be reached by critical media awareness and reading activities. Orientalism has a very long and deep roots not only in the minds of the westerners but also in the mindset of the so-called new media content creators. Digital tourism websites as the new city guide books ought to find new ways to narrate cities freeing themselves from the echoes of Orientalist worldview. 848

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REFERENCES About Tripadvisor. (2020). Retrieved November 07, 2020, from https://tripadvisor.mediaroom.com/ US-about-us Choi, S., Lehto, X. Y., & Morrison, A. M. (2007). Destination image representation on the web: Content analysis of Macau travel related websites. Tourism Management, 28(1), 118–129. doi:10.1016/j. tourman.2006.03.002 Entman, R. (1991). Framing U.S. coverage of international news: Contrasts in narratives of the Korean and Iranian airline incidents. Journal of Communication, 51(4), 6–27. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.1991. tb02328.x Entman, R. M. (1993). Framing: Toward clarification of a fractured paradigm. Journal of Communication, 43(4), 51–58. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.1993.tb01304.x Gould, K. (2012, March 23). Time travel in ancient Antioch, Turkey. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2012/mar/23/antioch-turkey-culture-food Hall, E. T. (1959). The silent language. Doubleday. Jamerson, T. (2017). Digital Orientalism: TripAdvisor and online travelers’ tales. Digital Sociologies, 119-135. Jenkins, H. (2006). Convergence culture: Where old and new media collide. New York UP. Kress, G. R., & van Leeuwen, T. (2006). Reading images: The grammar of visual design. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203619728 Kulić, V. (2018). Orientalizing socialism: Architecture, media, and the representations of eastern Europe. Architectural Histories, 6(1), 7. doi:10.5334/ah.273 Lisle, D. (2008). Humanitarian Travels: Ethical Communication in “Lonely Planet” Guidebooks. Review of International Studies, 34(S1), 155–172. doi:10.1017/S0260210508007845 Lonely Planet. (n.d.). About the Lonely Planet. Retrieved November 17, 2020, from https://www.lonelyplanet.com/about Lonely Planet. (n.d.). Antakya. Retrieved November 17, 2020, from https://www.lonelyplanet.com/ turkey/antakya Copyright © 2021. IGI Global. All rights reserved.

Lynch, K. (1960). The image of the city (Vol. 11). MIT Press. MacCannell, D. (2011). The Ethics of Sightseeing. The Regents of the University of California. Said, E. W. (2003). Orientalism. Penguin Group. Tegelberg, M. (2010). Hidden sights: Tourism, representation and Lonely Planet Cambodia. International Journal of Cultural Studies, 13(5), 491–509. doi:10.1177/1367877910372707 Theguardian.com. (2020). Competitive Analysis, Marketing Mix and Traffic. Retrieved 2020, from https:// www.alexa.com/siteinfo/theguardian.com

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Trivundza, I. T. (2004). Orientalism as news: Pictorial representations of the US attack on Iraq in Delo. Journalism, 5(4), 480–499. doi:10.1177/1464884904044206 Turner, B. S. (1994). Orientalism, postmodernism and globalism. Routledge. Van Leeuwen, T. (2008). Discourse and practice: New tools for critical discourse analysis. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195323306.001.0001 Zhou, B., Liu, L., Oliva, A., & Torralba, A. (2014, September). Recognizing city identity via attribute analysis of geo-tagged images. In European conference on computer vision (pp. 519-534). Springer. 10.1007/978-3-319-10578-9_34

ADDITIONAL READING Açıkgöz, Ü. F. (2016). À la Recherche de l’Espace perdu: Architecture, urban fabric, and French travelers to Antioch (1784–1914). Architectural Histories, 4(1): 18, pp. 1–17, Doi:10.5334/ah.201 Balciogullari, A. (2015). Historical geography of Antioch — the queen of the east: Through arab travelers. International Journal of Culture and History, 1(1), 44–49. Chun, W. H. K. (2003). Orienting orientalism, or how to map cyberspace. Asian America. Net: Ethnicity, Nationalism, and Cyberspace, 3-36. Iaquinto, B. L. (2012). Backpacking in the internet age: Contextualizing the use of lonely planet guidebooks. Tourism Recreation Research, 37(2), 145–155. doi:10.1080/02508281.2012.11081699 Kloeg, P. (2013). Antioch the great: Population and economy of second-century Antioch [Unpublished Master Thesis]. Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands. Taşkın, S. (2011). Antiokhis, Uzaklardan Gelen Ece. In N. Başgelen (Ed.), Pergamon kadınları, kraliçeleri bağlamında bir anadolu krallığının kısa tarihi (pp. 31–42). Arkeoloji ve Sanat Yayınları. Wong, M. (2019). Multimodal communication: A social semiotic approach to text and image in print and digital media. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-15428-8

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Zlatev, J. (2012). Cognitive Semiotics: An emerging field for the transdisciplinary study of meaning. Public Journal of Semiotics, 4(1), 2–24. doi:10.37693/pjos.2012.4.8837

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

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Antioch-on-the-Orontes: The ancient name of the city which is currently called Antakya. It is now part of Hatay Province in Turkish Republic. The city has been a home for many civilizations through centuries. The River Orontes, “Asi” in modern Turkish, halves the city. The name of the city is called “Αντιόχεια η επί Ορόντου” in Greek and “Antiochia ad Orontem” in Latin as historically and Antiochon-the-Orontes has been identified as “Orientis Opicum Pulcrum (The Queen of the East).” City Identity: It is the unique character of the urban place. As Ali Cheshmehzangi puts that “identity to place is like light to colour” in his newly published book called “Identity of Cities and City of Identities”. City identity has been formed by the inhabitants/settlers through years. Each city distinguish herself from others by her identity. Digital City Narration: Digital Media provide a wide range of contents that tell stories, explain the important places, locate the cities. All these city guide narrations now have new digital platforms. Digital Media: It is the any form of encrypted and electronic machine readable “middle (p)layer” which one can reach Internet based news, information and knowledge by means of electronic devices such as smart phone, laptop, desktop computers. Meta Narration: Meta narrations are the stories we create by ourselves to narrate ourselves. They are important as they are highly authentical in the sense of its real and rich content. Orientalism: It is the explanatory term which is coined by dedicated literature scholar and critique Edward Said who adapted Michel Foucault’s discourses. Orientalism explains how European and North American (US & Canada) sees the Middle Eastern culture and how “West” tries to construct “East” with superior attitude using literature, arts, media, etc. Visual Representation: Visual representation is mainly the direct or symbolic reflection of something in the format of photos, the images, memes, graphics to represent people, things, a place, or a situation.

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Table 6. “The Visual Representation of Others” developed van Leeuwen (2008) “The Visual Representation of Others” van Leeuwen (2008) • Word and Image

“words provide the facts” & “images provide interpretations” (Berger, 1972) “Semiotic divisions of labor” (Hall, 1982) “Roland Barthes in Mythologies” (1973) “How are people depicted?” “How are the depicted people related to the viewer?”

• The Image and the Viewer

1- the social distance between depicted people and the viewer,

“distance communicates interpersonal relationships”

2- the social relation between depicted people and the viewer,

“the vertical angle: power differences” “the horizontal angle: face-to-face”

3- the social interaction between depicted people and the viewer.

3 strategies for visually representing people as “others,”: 1- the strategy of distancing, representing people as “not close to us,” as “strangers”; 2- the strategy of disempowerment, representing people as “below us”; 3- the strategy of objectivation, representing people as objects for our scrutiny.

“How are the people in the picture represented?” “How is the viewer’s relation to the people in the picture represented?”

• Depicting People

1- Exclusion

“not include black soldiers” (Gulf War-Australian Newspaper) “ethnic family” (Playmobil toys)

2- Roles

Black people shown as beggars = “wild” “uncivilized”

3- Specific and Generic

Cartoons presenting stereotyped depiction.

4- Individuals and Groups

“they are all the same”, “black band members look alike”

5- Categorization

“dress code”, “hairdo”, “only women but not men, children from other cultures”

5 Final Strategies for visually representing people as “others”: 1

the strategy of exclusion, not representing people at all in contexts where, in reality, they are present;

2

the strategy of depicting people as the agents of actions which are held in low esteem or regarded as subservient, deviant, criminal, or evil;

3

the strategy of showing people as homogeneous groups and thereby denying them individual characteristics and differences (“they’re all the same”);

4

the strategy of negative cultural connotations;

5

the strategy of negative racial stereotyping.

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APPENDIX 1

APPENDIX 2

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Figure 1. “The cave church of St Peter, Antioch. Click on the magnifying glass icon for a larger version” Photograph: Alamy (The Guardian web site)

Figure 2. “Young women in Bedesten market, Tarsus” Photograph: Kevin Gould (The Guardian web site)

Figure 3. “A spice market in old Antioch”

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Photograph: Alamy (The Guardian web site)

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Orientalist Representations of Antakya (Antioch-on-the-Orontes) in Digital Media Narrations

Figure 4. “Tempting goods in an Antioch bakery” Photograph: Kevin Gould (The Guardian web site)

Figure 5. “Antakya Archaeological Museum”

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Photograph: Tripadvisor web site

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Orientalist Representations of Antakya (Antioch-on-the-Orontes) in Digital Media Narrations

Figure 6. “Habib Neccar Mosque” Photograph: Tripadvisor web site

Figure 7. “Old city of Antakya”

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Photograph: Tripadvisor web site

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Figure 8. “Waterfall in Harbiye (Daphne)” Photograph: Tripadvisor web site

Figure 9. “Famous cuisine of Antakya”

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Photograph: Tripadvisor web site

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Figure 10. “A Boutique Hotel in Antakya”

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Photograph: Lonely Planet web site

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Chapter 48

The West-East From Two Children’s Points of View: The Example of BBC-TRT Murat Özdemir Independent Researcher, Turkey

ABSTRACT This study discussed whether the media is a tool that produces orientalist representations and whether the media is efective in the internalization of orientalism. The aim of the study is to identify the orientalist discourse in the language and culture of the media through discourse analysis method, and to discuss the efects of the media on the formation of self-orientalism as well as the instrumentality of the media on this issue. In the study, a sample of the documentary named Istanbul and Bristol in 1971 From Two Children’s Point of View, which is a co-production of BBC-TRT, was taken, and the documentary was analysed with the orientalist discourse analysis method of Edward Said. As a result of the research, it was seen that the media has a discourse that alienates Eastern culture and is also a tool in the production and internalization of orientalism.

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INTRODUCTION The idea of establishing domination in the social order is one of the most discussed topics in the field of social sciences. Dominant ways of thinking in the historical plane; they try to define cultures, states or a particular community on the basis of their opinion. Western culture’s view of Eastern culture is one of the research areas that should be examined in this context. The concept used to express the researches of Western researchers or scientists on the East is called “Orientalism”. Orientalism is a concept that was formed especially in the 18th and 19th centuries and was generally used with a negative meaning. Edward Said’s work on orientalism has been a turning point in terms of orientalist studies. Edward Said called the Western culture’s attempt to explain itself through Eastern culture as “Orientalism”. Said mentions that the West invented the concept of “Orientalism” for Eastern culture and that the marginalization of the East provides imperial benefits for the West (Said, 2017: 10). In this sense, DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch048

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 The West-East From Two Children’s Points of View

Orientalism is an important key concept that should be considered and discussed. While the West explains itself socially in the position of subject; in this effort to explain, it moulds the Eastern representations into a passive society. While the West represents rationality and truth in the West-East opposition, the East is presented with an understanding that represents exoticism and savagery. The West produces ontological and epistemological distinctions by establishing domination on the East. These points of departure are included in the texts, including the Eastern representations of the West. Said uses a textual analysis method in the analysis of the discourse structured in language, in the light of the structuralist and poststructuralist tendencies of his period. Said who wants to reveal the marginalization and opposition in the texts with a discourse analysis method; he based his theories on the concepts of important figures like Antonio Gramsci, Raymond Williams, Michel Foucault and Jacques Derrida. Mass media are tools that produce various oppositions discursively and semiotically and present them to the society. The fact that traditional mass media such as television, radio, and newspapers are still seen and used as the largest source of information by the society are effective in internalizing and spreading these oppositions. West-East opposition is also an issue to be considered at this point. The inclusiveness and marginalization of the representations and discourses in the media also show the reader / viewer who is the ruler or the other. The media shows the West as hegemonically superior by presenting ideological propositions and praises the West over the Eastern identity in terms of representation, and the orientalist discourse is internalized by the audience / reader through the media. This phenomenon, also included in the literature as self-orientalism, is a term that explains the East’s view of itself from the perspective of Western discourse. Orientalism was created in line with the request of the West, but the East has also been effective in spreading this discourse. In this context, both the West and the East are partners in crime in terms of the formation of the orientalist discourse.While the West is an active founding element in the production process of media contents, the East accepts this discourse and legitimizes it by including orientalism in media representations. In this study, using Said’s orientalist discourse analysis method, it will be discussed whether the media has an effect on revealing the orientalist representations in the media and internalizing orientalism. In the study, the documentary named “Istanbul and Bristol in 1971 from the ‘Istanbul And Brıstol In 1971 From Two Chıldren’s Point Of View”, was taken as a sample, which is a joint production of BBC-TRT. Although the documentary was shot in 1971, it was published in 2018. The documentary includes the observations and comments of a Turkish and an English boy who host each other, during their stay in their home country. In this context, the aim of the study is to identify the orientalist discourse in the media language and culture with the method of discourse analysis, and to discuss the effects of the media on the formation of self-orientalism as well as the instrumentality of the media on this issue.In the introduction part of the study, brief information about Orientalism, Edward Said’s treatment of Orientalism and the effects of media in the context of self-orientalism are given. In the first part of the study, a brief history of Orientalism and Edward Said’s perspective and criticisms of Orientalism are included. In the second part, the concept of Self-Orientalism is examined and the actors involved in the production of West-East opposition are discussed. In the third part, the effect of the media on the production of orientalist discourse is discussed in connection with the concept of self-orientalism within the scope of Said’s Orientalism and Islamic works in the media. In the fourth chapter, the sample BBC documentary was analysed with Edward Said’s discourse analysis method and the concept of self-orientalism in the context of media was discussed. Said’s discourse analysis questions the West’s values about the East and its power over the East. Combining the philosophies of Foucault, Williams and Gramsci, Edward

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Said examines Western texts on the East with a deconstructive analysis. Thus, by redefining orientalism, he tries to destroy the West’s positioning strategy of the East based on exotic, feminine and wild tools.

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ORIENTALISM ANDTHE OTHER From the foundation of civilizations to today, nearly every civilization tried to protect its own political, economic, cultural values and structures, had changed every now and then and transformed under the influence of other cultures. Historically, the civilizations that formed their identity inherent in culture, on the other hand, started to create their own identities again interacting with other civilizations in a lot of ways. These interactions led ontological and epistemological relations to establish. Civilizations that formed a relationship network as an outcome of these interactions, started to create themselves and the civilization that they’ve been interacting with, through the visions they created with their own imagination. The formation of imagination changes the vision and the images that the civilizations have, in a causal and relational way. Every civilization, whether they’re in interact or not, is going to define, change and transform the other civilization by their own wish. The bipolar perspective that came out as a result of this situation, revives the distinction of us/the other. From the Ancient Age to today, the relation between the West and the East is presenting us a field where it is considered in this context and where various researches take place. Orientalism is perceived as a branch of science that expresses the study of Western societies in terms of language, history and culture as a whole. According to the orientalists who are interested in this discipline, orientalism has a unifying role between two different cultural worlds and they claim that it has a constructive function that helps Eastern peoples to define themselves (Bulut, 2016: 4). Thinkers like Bernard Lewis, John M. MacKenzie, and Roger Benjamin are representatives of this functional and positive thinking. However, unlike these thinkers, there are also thinkers who conceptualize the relationship between East and West as a set of discourses developed by the West to dominate the East, and Edward Said is one of the prominent names among these thinkers. According to Said, orientalism is not a type of knowledge, but a way of perceiving Eastern concepts within the framework of the West’s own interests (Said, 2017a: 15-18). According to another view, the orientalist literature draws every word spoken about the East on a normative basis of negation by automatically comparing information with the West (Azmeh, 2000: 234). In this case, the East is seen as an object negated by the West. Orientalism often presents us a perspective which the West put determined patterns,from their point of view,to the Orient. This reductionist approach; ıt aims to achieve economic, political and cultural interests. In other words, orientalism is not a geographical distinction, but a series of interests (Said, 2017a: 26). However, this situation is not new. The origin of “The West is always more superior than the orient.” mentality comes from the ancient times. From the Ancient Age to the Middle Age,by creating dialectical identity, the East had been tagged as “the other” and its structure had been imprisoned as wild,feminine and passive on people’s minds. According to the orientalist thought, the Orient can’t be self-sufficient and is not able to manage (Turner, 2001: 107-110). According to this certain dialectic identity, while the West had been positioned as rational and reformist, the Orient had been described as traditionalist and as closed minded to innovations. Examining this narrow framework and identical otherization in political and ideological terms, Edward Said conceptualized orientalism. Describing Orientalism as an academic thing, Edward Said subjects it to discoursive analysis in an ontological and epistemological way. According to Said, with the modernity showing up after the Enlightenment period, 860

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 The West-East From Two Children’s Points of View

Europe or the Western world, created their own identities set up on the identity of the East (Said, 2017a: 12-13). While the one that’s different is being otherized, it is getting banalized at the same time. Orient not being able to exist by itself and getting subjected to a political, ideological and cultural objectification which makes it unable to get out of the values the Western has portrayed, is the main center of Saids Orientalism criticisms. Edward Said who thinks Orientalism and Oriental Sciences are connected to each other, describes Orientalism as an academic field (Said, 2017a: 14). In this sense Orientalism actually establishes hegemonia over “the other” in this case by sneakily transforming the orient into a building block of a split point. So, “Orientalism, is a Western pattern which is in control over orients and which configures the orients again” (Said, 2017a: 12-13). Saying that this Eurocentric discourse that came from Renaissance to today had a great impact on subject-object dialectic, wouldn’t be wrong. Said, mentioned that the things that are similar got differentiated by the Eurocentric point of view and the West degraded the orient to a discursive object position in this building process. The orient which is in the position of being the object in antonymous meaning relations in social space,is an extent that Westerns own. The concept of reality being subjected to periods of change and transformation in the studies of orientalism, is one of the topics that has been agreed upon. According to the orientalist point of view, the reality of the orient gets produced by the West. This production process, leans on colonialism mentality. The Wests’ colonialist policy on the orient, leans on various superiorities of the West in many periods of the history. Thus, “He who has the bigger stick has the better chance of imposing his definitions of reality” (Berger and Luckmann, 2008: 158). Said associated the production of reality about the East, with the political and economic appliances in an informational and discursive field. “With this approach, Said, not only places orientalism inside colonialist institutional and material context, but also shows that it is a production of reality and information and subject establishment” (Mutman, 2002: 189-192). The reality of the orient is closely related to authority. Because of it, the West which has hegomonia upon the orient, reproduces the authority and the reality with its self produced biased representations. Authority is ideational and has a certain place in society. It can’t be distinguished in reality from the ideas aggrandizing because it’s true, traditions that had been formed, transfered and recreated, perceptions and the judgments (Said, 2017a: 29). In this sense if the authority gets resolved, the ‘ideational authorities’ historicalness and intimateness about Orientalism will be able to be questioned. Historically, Orientalisms origin is related to the modern thought occuring in the West. Especially the mentality of European culture and its point of view being in a central position, sustains a Eurocentric character. This character which its origins leaning all the way back to Renaissance, had transformed into an integrated and consistent notion by gaining wide prevalance in the 19th century. With this aspect,the Eurocentric opinion which nourishes Orientalism, creates a dimension of modern capitalist world’s culture and its ideology (Amir, 1993: 25-27). Edward Saids’ effort to explain ‘Orientalism’ as a political, sociological, martial, ideological and scientific discipline that had been developed after the Enlightenment period, got placed in discourse. On the basis of discourse, one of the Center for Contemporary Cultural Studies representatives Stuart Hall who is also examining the boundaries of the East and the West with a Western point of view, explains the historicity of distinction in four stages. In the first title which he defined as classical knowledge, he explains the epistemes that are designed and obtained about the other worlds, by referring to Platon and Kristof Kolomb. In the second title, he points out that geographical regions of the East were reinterpreted, by mentioning the kings reigning in Asia and Africa based on religious sources and the Bible. In the third and the fourth title, he states that mythological sources and tales gets created for the purpose of filling the gaps remaining from the other two factors and also points out that narrations which myths and realities get mixed up together causes uncertainty 861

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(Hall, 1992: 297-298). These orientations which explain the relationality between the East and the West in an epistemological way, allow to systematically examine the origin of the orientalist discourse where the East almost was created as a simulation. We mentioned above that Orientalism is a field which appears with modernity and has an organic bond. Alienation notion that shreds the reality of the East, is an exclusive state of thought of the Western which establishes hierarchical order (Kaya, 2017: 1980). The politics of alienation which are aimed to dominate by modernity, gets created through dicatomic structures. The West gets affirmed with the factors that differentiate such as Mind-Body, the East-the West, reality-dream by getting embroidered to the East-the West images in practical discourses. In this sense the broken reality of the West and the East, can’t be solved with positivist or empirical methods but with discourse analysis. Edward Said, tried to analyze Orientalism with discourse analysis by getting inspired by Michel Foucault. Discourse analysis tries to demonstrate, information getting examined in a socio-political way and ideological factors being how much effective in formation of social dilemmas. Reality is not absolute in discourse analysis and does not sustain a claim of objectivity unlike the mentality of positivism. The subjectiveness of the individual is the dominant element in interpreting reality. At this point, we can borrow Pierre Bourdieu’s concept of habitus. Habitus is a mechanism that manages the individual from inside and these mechanisms are able to activate perpetrators (Bourdieu, 2015: 170). Habitus gets structured by the micro subjectiveness of the individual and society in creating the reality and giving meaning to it. Bourdieu who is against pure objectivity or subjectivity, indicates that subjectivity and objectivity take shape with field dynamics (Bourdieu: 2018: 158). So, it is seen certain that Said and Bourdieu, have common view on the subjective comments of reality having the potential of getting formalized by the society and the information/ power structures in the field. Orientalism carries on its dominant discourse beside the Eastern societies by various mass communication tools. Even if accumulation of information and knowledge offers advantages to social actuators to a certain extent after modernism, discourse structures take place in them. These discourse structures are especially presented hidden in media texts as social praxis and the social actuators interiorize the Orientalist discourses that take place in these discourse structures in reception period, to a certain extent. This conceptualization which also crossed to literature as self-orientalism and oto-orientalism, can be expressed as othering oneself by the Easterns whose Orientalist discourse defines them as objects.

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SELF-ORIENTALISM AND OTHERING ITSELF Self-orientalism is a concept that expresses the orientalist discourse which conceptualizes the East as the other in the face of the West, getting assimilated and interiorized by the East in a voluntary way. It is seen that even though it’s not agreed on a common definition on this concept, various descriptions are made by touching upon different aspects of orientalism. The producing process of the Easterns’ own reality, fell behind in the face of reality about the East which was created by the West in a makro and micro plan. These studies that are also known as Occidentalism, were done in the purpose of overcoming the Orientalist discourse and being able to criticize the praxises which the West labeled the East as the other. However, there is an hierarchical power imbalance. The Easterns, especially in the last 200 years, sustains a desire of Westernization and willingness to reach a certain level of being a civilized civilization. This demand is being tried to be destroyed by the West imprisoning the East to historical belatedness through economic dependency and audit relations (Arlı, 2009). This cause-effect relation 862

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which improved in a social and political way, keeps its effect in governmental praxises and under the lead of intellectual organizations. In this context, orientalism is being internalized in post-colonial social structures (Jouhki: 2006: 76). Whereat, the East internalizing these visions not being able to overcome them and recreating them in different ways is an important point that is as considerable as the visions the West has created about the East in the East being marked and placed on object status. In this sense, there is an ontological and epistemological complicity of the East and the West in the process of the orientalist discourse. The historical occurrence of self-orientalism corresponds to after the establishment of nation states. The nation states sustain the purpose of keeping their nature going by creating their own cultural identities in a nationalist discourse. The countries had drawn their lines and appointed their own future fairly by themselves by announcing their independence. However, the borders between countries had disappeared and interactions had actualized with other countries which were not approached, with the world entering a turbulent period where various world wars happen and with the development of informatics technology. This process evolved to a more reflexive way with the state and intellectual organizations of the nations. The Eastern intellectual adopting the values of the West, occurs independently of political and geographical borders. The Eastern intellectuality which we can define as ‘ a subject that tried to become subjective but became objective’, shapes its own images and values according to the Wests’ East. In this sense self-orientalism is defined as “Someone who is Eastern, interpreting the Eastern images and references with a Western point of view” (Golden, 2009: 19). Self-orientalism which was named as ‘involved or internal alterity’, is fed by the mentality of modern paradigms essentialism (Iwabuchi, 2004: 95). Essentialism is a phenomenon that represents staying away from identities which take place other than its own, in an anthropological way. The essentialist understanding builds a desire to protect its own history and identity with other identities getting rejected. Also in the East-the West relations, the West places its own history to a Eurocentric, ethnocentric path and in a sense this case attains a consistent appearance with the nature of modern episteme (Kaya, 2017: 1987). On the other hand, the Eastern societies want to break the hegemonic superiority of the West by acting in line with the mentality of essentialism. However, even though the East carries its own identity and locality to an international arena in a colonialist scheme, these values melt inside orientalist discourse and are exposed to othering. In this process, “The Eastern qualifications are being reified by the community” (Bezci ve Çiftçi, 2012: 146). With the cultural identities and values crossing borders, local elements had been interacted with and thus ‘the universal identity and authentic identity changed places’ (Obendorf, 2006:73). The idea of establishing a new sovereignty to the West, stays weak compared to the power hierarchy of the transnational and colonialist West. Acceptance of the values of universal identity, from the East, creates an internal otherness. This inner otherness that occurs as a result of it, is self-orientalism itself (Lin, 2010: 38).

MEDIA AND ORIENTALISM Media’s function of enlightening the society and the public opinion, started to lose its significance because of its status which is in various relations with the status quo or the power structures. The media organizations which fulfill society’s need to have news and learn, transforming the reality by their ideological praxises and presenting the identities and the values which are in opposite status compared to their own identities, by othering the images, not only shows us that the media is biased but also shows that it is far 863

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from being objective. The chain of events that are reported by the media, are presented to the reader/ viewer by getting moved away from its own reality or being transformed. In this sense, the media which is in service in an international field, presents an imaginary world and a biased image to its readers by consulting disinformation and manipulation. Throughout the history of mankind, the Western and the Eastern societies which have been battling with each other in a political, social and economic way, scramble to establish their own sovereignty by producing representations which nourish distinctions via media channels. In this regard, especially the Western civilization is in an advantageous position with its international news channels and networks. The media takes on a key task in understanding social relations. Most of the content that is created by the media, doesn’t present the differences and variations which exist between societies in an affirmative demeanor. Instead of setting forth the mentality of cultural diversity being ‘richness’, a political attitude is presented which otherizes other societies or civilizations through glorifying values of a certain society, civilization or a social group. This certain political demeanor, can process the social praxises for a long time by producing the distinction categorically between good-bad, us-the other, the East-the West in a social-cultural way and in this way “The political and the social status of the other, is designed again with discrimination” (Alver: 2003: 222). This certain design is far from objective reality in terms of image and the other is represented in fact, as an enemy. The discriminatory projections which are usually degraded to the dicatonomy of the East-the West, like anti-Islam or racism, are presented in news texts, by getting storified. In this process, the press plays an important role of individuals and minorities being excluded who are also tagged as outsiders/ foreigners and the other (Kearney: 2012: 55-56). Media is an hegemonical field where the East-the West division is produced and orientalist representations are presented to the public comprehensively. Media is the fourth force which establishes authority and defines the East according to its own benefits. The Western media channels usually set up the East negatively and present the East with the image of continuously being aggrieved,incapable and weak, in media texts. “The East appears as a guest on stage of the Western media as the sufferer and the incapable one” (Kocabay Şener, 2017: 2). Even though the starting point of this representation production is the West, these biased representations can be assimilated by the Eastern societies. Edward Said, explains this certain situation with the concept of hegemonia. According to him, the hegemonic superiority of the West on the East can’t be explained with only pressure and the orientalist discourses can be interiorized by the Easterns through acquiescence production. According to Said, how the Palestinian, Arabic and Muslim representations stayed as a cultural and political, unbeatable power which the Western media has portrayed, only can be explained with hegemonia (Rubin, 2007: 25). Whereat, the international media organizations belonging to the West in globalizing world order or getting support by the West in terms of economy-politics, causes the media to build orientalist and self-orientalist discourses that accomodate acceptance and acquiescence productions systematically. The message of the East needed to be tamed and modernized, is continuously emphasised by the cartelizing Western media. In this way, the social arrangements that lean on modernity principles of Western institutions getting imposed to the Eastern societies started to get easy and legitimized (Yeğenoğlu: 2003: 129). The content of news about the East that are produced on issues such as terrorism and racism, are created with discourses of Western media organizations, which are far from reality. “‘The Eastern in mediatic news language, mostly is fictionalized, presented and judged as the negative end of the idealized emotions and types of individuals of the Western societies such as violence, terror, hatred, exoticism and patriarchal asperity” (Arlı, 2009: 36). Said, evaluates the content of the Western news which views the Eastern individuals as far from individuality: “In the videos and the pictures of the news, Arab’s are 864

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always shown multitudinous. There is no individuality, no personal traits or experiences. Most of the pictures show massive anger, misery or incomprehensible gestures. The thing hidden behind all these images is the threat of jihad. Result: It’s the fear of the Muslims (or the Arabs) capturing the world” (Said, 2017b: 300). The Western media organizations fictionalize the orientalist discourses on the basis of Islamophobia. The East that is tagged and presented as the other, usually takes place in the Western media with threatening and subversive representations. The Eurocentric and the orientalist point of view have an Islamophobic mindset which ignores the personal, cultural, social and ideological segregations between Muslim groups and the societies and totalizes them along with homogenizing them, at the present time (Yüksel, 2014: 189). So, the West degrades the Eastern societies which also have several cultural structures and organizations, to a narrow mindset. In historical course, the West, which sees the Eastern culture as a force that threatens the Western’s freedom and benefits continuously, uses the media actively to spread and strengthen their orientalist discourses. The West which has global media sources, has a big broadcast network. According to Ramonet, the media as the fourth force, is on the hands of the globalizer big trio that are the International Monetary Fund, World Bank and Masters of the World which gather in Davos every year within the framework of the World Economic Forum (Ramonet, 2004: 2-3). The orientalist discourses spreading around the world through mediatic language, arises from the number of Western media organizations and the news organizations working systematically. News providers and reporters shape with a Western point of view by weakening the strengths of the other in a lexical way. Edward Said, argues that the modelling process actualizes through television and newspapers which have reporters and local sources in many parts of the world (Said, 2017b: 128-129). The Western world has international news distribution sources such as CBS, Time, New York Times and AP. The structures of these institution’s organizations and their expertness ensure them to win the trust of the countries that they carry on business in. This trust becomes the assurance of changed reality. The presence of deprivation is effective in the orientalist discourse that takes place in media representations getting interiorized by the East. According to Dirlik, the societies which are not European didn’t define themselves with qualifications they have but with distance with Europe where they fell behind (Dirlik, 1996: 99-100). There are two main approaches to this certain description for its attempt. First one is, the images that are produced in the Orient getting affected by the images that are produced in the West. The images and the information that were produced by the West about the East, have been interiorized and haven’t been able to be changed by the East itself. On the other hand the second one is the effort of the Orient trying to catch modernism (Yan ve Santos: 2009: 298). The Eastern societies which make effort to catch up with modernism, follow the media organizations of the West and interact with these certain media organizations that have representatives in almost every country nowadays. The Eastern watches its own values with a Western view and produces its own values with a Western view in the news production process. The orientalist myths and stereotypes getting eliminated which take place in these news that are produced, can be provided with Muslims producing a different type of history (Said, 2017b: 141-142).

METHOD To analyze the documentary in the study, Edward Said’s orientalist discourse analysis was used. Said, sees the other as a discourse factor in a social and historical context in his work called ‘Orientalism’. Said, 865

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unlike the standard representations of orientalism, conceptualizes the East as a determinative power. Said, who is trying to go beyond this orientalist point of view for the East with this conceptualization, points out that orientalism should be considered as an academic field. Said, tries to resolve the certain actions of the West trying to establish dominance over the East on the basis of Marxist ideology. This effort brings along concepts like knowledge/potency, hegemonia, discourse and text with it. Said, who especially calls attention to the use of discursive texts thinks orientalism should be examined as a discourse to be able to understand the images the West has portrayed about the East and puts it into words this way: “Unless orientalism is not examined as a discourse, to understand that terrific systematic discipline which provides the European culture to manage -even produce- the East politically, sociologically, militarily, ideologically, scientifically and imaginary is impossible” (Said, 2017a: 13). The West produces ontological and epistemological distinctions by variously dominating the East. These split points take place in texts which accommodates the West’s representations of the East. Said consults a textual method of analyzing to resolve the discourse that is structured in the language in light of the structuralist and post-structuralist trend of his own period. Said, who wants to reveal otherizations and oppositions -which take place in certain texts- with a discursive analysis method, grounds on concepts of some important names like Antonio Gramsci, Raymond Williams, Michel Foucault and Jacques Derrida. Especially the knowledge/potency model of Michel Foucault is the central starting point of his orientalist discourse analysis. According to Foucault, the structures who have the knowledge therewithal will have the power to create a certain world view. Said, based on this model, points out that the source of the West’s domination on the East is in discourse in texts. However, unlike Foucault giving a passive role to the discourse, he emphasizes the contentious aspect of discourse in resolving dominance (Turanlı, 2017: 106). On the other hand, Said attributes the methodological background of orientalism to Antonio Gramsci’s concept of hegemonia. Hegemonia arises when minority cultures adopt the cultural values of the ruling class and this situation actualizes via acquiescence production. Whereat, the orientalist discourse also can be reproduced by the East itself which the orientalist discourse sees as the other.

ANALYSIS OF THE DOCUMENTARY ‘ISTANBUL AND BRISTOL IN 1971 FROM TWO CHILDREN’SPOİNT OF VİEW’

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The Topic of the Documentary The documentary analyzed in the context of work, is a documentary which had been prepared by BBC-TRT partnership. This documentary, within the scope of the series ‘If You Were Me’ which was published by BBC in the 1970s, creates the Turkey leg of the documentary chain where two children are visiting each other’s countries as one of them is from a city of England and one of them is from another city of the world, stating their personal impressions in every episode(https://www.bbc.com/ turkce/haberler-turkiye-46229564 Erişim tarihi: 26.09.2020). The documentary includes two children who lived in Istanbul and Bristol in 1971, meeting each other and conveying their personal impressions by visiting each other’s countries. The documentary takes 24 minutes and consists of one part only. Nicholas Turpin who lives in Bristol, is a child of an English nuclear family. The other child who took part in the documentary and who lives in Istanbul, is named Alptekin Oktayer. Firstly in the documentary, Nicholas Turpin who came from Bristol to Istanbul and visited Alptekin Oktayer’s house as a guest, was included and his observations as well. Turpin observes the Turkish society as he travels around 866

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the historical districts that are very preferred places by people nowadays. Also, Turpin who obtained information about the Turkish education life by visiting Alptekin Oktayer’s school, explicates various comments by observing Alptekin Oktayer’s house. Afterwards, Nicholas Turpin who watched a show of the Janissary Band that serves as a military band during the Ottoman Empire period, leaves Turkey. In the second part of the documentary, Alptekin Oktayer visits Nicholas Turpin’s house by going to Bristol from Istanbul. In this second part of the documentary Oktayer gets information about education there by going to school with Turpin in the city of Bristol. In this part where sections of daily life of the city of Bristol also takes place, Oktayer and Turpin shops from various places and goes to the stadium. As a result of these trips, Oktayer compares the city of Istanbul to Bristol and at the same time, compares people who live in Istanbul to people who live in the city of Bristol in terms of various factors. At the end of the documentary, it comes to an end as the images of two cities are included and shown. The documentary got analyzed accordingly to Edwards Said’s orientalist discourse analysis. The analysis consists of two parts. In the first part of the analysis, the childrens’ -who took part in the documentarydiscourses, were analyzed via orientalist analysis method together with the pictures that had been used in the documentary. In the second part, in the production of orientalist and self-orientalist discourses -which was included in the documentary- the instrumentalism of media was discussed. Whereat, with the dialectic of us/the other of orientalist factors that take place in this study being examined on the basis of the East/the West division textually and visually, the study contributing to orientalist arguments that still continue nowadays, is targeted to make it happen. The texts and the pictures that take place in the study, have been analyzed accordingly to the course of the documentary. Firstly Nicholas Turpin’s observations of Istanbul and afterwards Alptekin Oktayer’s observations of Bristol were examined via orientalist discourse analysis method.

Analysis and Findings

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The documentary starts with Nicholas Turpin’s observations who lives in Bristol and visited Alptekin Oktayer in Istanbul. The first part from the documentary where Turpin’s observations take place, is 13 minutes and 15 seconds. The first part of the documentary starts with Nicholas Turpin being welcomed by Alptekin Oktayer in the airport. The dialogue kids who got on a private vehicle had inside while they were going into the city, contains important data in terms of us seeing the orientalist discourses. While the vehicle which is going to Alptekin Oktayer’s house itinarates, scenes of crowded people and images of traffic draw attention. Nicholas Turpin who had a dialogue inside the vehicle and conveyed his own comments, points out that Istanbul is more beautiful than he imagined. Turpin’s opinion on Istanbul is as follows: “When I came to Istanbul, I realized that it was far more beautiful than I imagined. A big airport, larger roads, more traffic and more people...” These opinions of Turpin, shows us that Western information and knowledge produced about the East are surrounded by the orientalist discourse. According to the orientalist discourse, the East consists of a field undeveloped and unable to create its own identity. The West is more superior than the East on concrete reality and technological development and in this regard the East is far from being able to rise to the level of the West. As a result, Turpin’s words reflect the idea of Istanbul being backward and an undeveloped city. Also completions ‘more traffic and more people’ reflect the orientalist images that 867

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the West has created about the East. According to Said, the Western media presents the East with forms of social organizations that are far from selfhood. The East can’t be considered individually in any topic and is always remembered with crowds. This situation shows the mass anger and the presence of misery (Said, 2017b: 300). In the first part of the documentary, images of Istanbul are being shown while Turpin goes to Alptekin Oktayers’s house where he will stay for a while as a guest. These images show that orientalist texts which take place in the documentary, are being supported with pictures. While he’s going to Alptekin Oktayer’s house, sections of mosques and historical walls that are in Istanbul, are included. These sections are the example of the West being tagged with the future and the East being tagged with the past. The mosques and the historical walls are the example of the West imprisoning the East to its historical past. The West freezes the East in its own history, points out that it (the West) is in the future and emphasizes that the East is far from present times and is ‘backward’. In continuation of the first part of the documentary, Turpin visited Alptekin Oktayer’s house and went to school together afterwards. Turpin and Alptekin, travelled around central points of the city after school together. During this trip, Turpin reflects the West having oriental point of view, with these words:

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“Before I came to Istanbul, I thought people were wearing turbans that were in different colours and that there were camels. When I came here, I was shocked. There were no turbans and I saw a few hats. They looked exactly like us.” When Turpin’s words get analyzed, it is seen clearly that he has an orientalist point of view. Although Turpin realized when he came to Istanbul that what has been told to him about the East(ern) is different, us/the other split point draws attention. Turpin’s sentence ‘There were no turban. They looked just like us.’, states that the other is outside of us and the East trying to look like us by giving up its differences as the other. The dialectic of us/other’s modernizing aspect historically, has been produced in this text discursively. The East as the other, is far from modernity and follows the West in terms of civilization. In this regard, Istanbul is traditional from Turpin’s perspective in the documentary and is one of the centers of the Ottoman Empire meaning the East. In this regard even though the Republic of Turkey has a modern and secular government approach, according to the orientalist discourse it is seen as Ottoman Empire’s continuation. In the documentary, one of the important sequences to see the orientalist point of view, is scenes where the swords are being examined. Turpin and Alptekin play games examining the swords inherited from Alptekin’s grandfather in Alptekin’s house. In the documentary Turpin’s words, after he examined the swords, “There are two swords hanging in Alptekin’s room. They belonged to his grandfather.”, are being presented with a picture that Ottoman Pasha is in and with a picture that contains Ottoman writing and a sword. When the pictures and the texts are examined integrally, orientalist factors are seen completing each other. Turkey is being presented to the viewers as a transporter of the Ottoman Empire and with the sword metaphor jihad mentality of the Islamic world is being referenced. Sword represents war and because of that, it states an East(ern) despotic lifestyle. A depiction of the East which is far from civilization consolidates the superiority of the West. Thus, the East has the power only in certain periods of history. and is more superior than the West. In this way “Today’s Turkey is being remembered either as a heir of Ottoman Empire’s exoticized charms from the past or as the heir of the same empire challenging Europe. In Europe’s collective consciousness,Turk is being linked to a barbarian and tempting Eastern figure” (Tutal, 2003: 169).

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At the ending of the first part of the documentary, Nicholas Turpin and Alptekin Oktayer went to Rumelihisarı together. They watched a show there of the Janissary Band which takes place nowadays through various activities and is the marching band of the Ottoman Empire. The Janissary Band being included in the documentary supports the orientalist discourses. The Janissary Band can be read as the one which reminds the strong and mighty days of the Ottoman Empire and because of that it also can be read as the East challenging the West. However this occidentalist challenge attempt, supports the orientalist point of view at some point. The Janissary Band which is used as the representative of the East in the documentary, transfers to the readers/viewers that the East does not have the superiority compared to the West nowadays even though it reminds them of the aspects of the East which were stronger and more superior than the West in the context of collective memory. The visibility of a concrete claim of superiority was provided by referring to superorities from the historical past. The second part of the documentary consists of Alptekin Oktayer visiting Nicholas Turpin’s house in Bristol and his observations. The two kids who directly came home after leaving the airport were welcomed by Turpin’s family inside the house. Alptekin Oktayer tells us these following sentences finding this situation strange:

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“When Nicholas came to us, everyone in my family including my grandmother and my grandfather, were waiting to welcome him with kisses and hugs. Here though, they weren’t waiting at the door. I was surprised. It seemed like they were not waiting for me.” When Alptekin Oktayer’s words are analyzed, the self-orientalist discourse can be seen. Oktayer’s astonishment is related to him not being able to see the values identified with the West in this greeting which we mentioned above. In the orientalist discourse the West presents itself as an extent that cares about the human values and individuality being at the forefront. In this extent the East gets built as a civilization that has a crowded, mean and furious identity. Until this trip, Oktayer sees the West as a civilization which treats everyone equally regardless of differences like race, language, religion, sect, beliefs etc and this situation can be explained with him adopting the orientalist discourses way before. The West is different from the East and is a civilization which has individuality being at the forefront more than collective community traditions. While the East provides its presence by individuals being united, the West has a tradition which follows the thought of a particular modern human (Said, 2017b: 300-301). In the continuation of the documentary, Nicholas Turpin and Alptekin Oktayer go to school together. This scene is for showing that concepts of education in Istanbul and Bristol are different from each other. The students who sit on desks in one classroom in Oktayer’s school have classes with their teachers but in Turpin’s school, there are classes like art, jazz and cricket and these classes are the reflection of modernity. In the scenes where the lessons are being taught, students studying individually and independent from their teachers can be seen. In this way the message of caring about creativity and singularity in education is given. Also the orientalist point of view lies down in the origin of this message. While the education given in Istanbul, presents to the viewers the mentality of every student getting a national education in a collective way rather than creativity, education given in Bristol is an education programme applied to uncover the artistic and creative aspects of students who are interested in modern arts, gets emphasised. In the documentary during the school education, Turpin’s words of praise about his dad’s job draw attention. Turpin points out that his dad’s work is about aircraft engines and he wants to have the same job in the upcoming future. During these words being said, Turpin’s dad is shown doing some work related to aircraft engines. In the first part of the documentary, Alptekin Oktayer’s dad or similar about 869

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his culture not being shown as a section, alludes to opposition of presence-absence in comparing the East-the West. Present technology in the West does not take place in the East. In the continuation of the documentary, Oktay Alptekin’s observations about the city of Bristol are included. This observation is as follows: “Cars do not sound their horns in Bristol. All streets are calm. Also streets are very quiet in afternoon hours on Sundays.” These words of Oktay Alptekin about the city of Bristol, consolidate the orientalist point of view that Turpin has about Istanbul in the first part of the documentary. While Turpin defines Istanbul as a crowded crowded city which has a lot of traffic, Oktayer defines Bristol as a calm city which has civilized behaviours. A concept of a city being far from being crowded establishes an extent where the West detaches itself from the other like Said mentioned before. Even though this documentary which was shot in the context of the documentary series If You Were Me by BBC generally gives place to factors that show affirmative aspects of two cultures, it also shows that orientalist images still get produced concretely in a discursive field nowadays. Despite the documentary getting published by BBC in 1970’s, it was published again in 2018 on its website. The orientalist point of view which the West tagged the East as the other, being presented by the representations in 1970’s is seen, like today. Also the two kids who were in the documentary having an orientalist point of view and structuring their views ideologically again in their discourses can be noticed. The preferred images of the cities in the documentary consist of orientalist images. At this point, it’s not necessary to look if representations are being loyal to their truth and their original or not, but to look at used styles, forms of expressions, decors, narrative tools and the historical and social conditions (Said, 2017a: 23). When the documentary is viewed this way, locations of the East identified with tradition given place in the documentary like historical walls and mosques exemplifies this situation. The role TRT got in the process of producing this documentary shows that it performs a self-orientalist stance. Visual elements that belong to the Ottoman Empire taking place in the documentary, presents the message of underdeveloped compared to the West to the readers/viewers in an indirect form. According to the orientalist discourse, the West is incomparable with its modernity and the East always follows the West from behind. TRT positioned its own culture accordingly to the West as it is in self-orientalist discourse in the documentary. This positioning can be explained with the desire of catching the Westerns rather than the East imagination which the orientalist discourse described as the other or the enemy.

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FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS Social media provides important data to media researchers today. In this sense, the production of orientalist discourse on digital social networks can be examined in future studies by means of the netnographic method. In addition, the contents of digital television platforms such as Netflix can be handled within the context of an orientalist discourse.

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CONCLUSION Orientalism which is defined as information about the East built with a Western eye is an academic field that conceptualizes the Orient as the other. Orientalism which gets fed by distinctions and oppositions glorifies its own values by producing cliche images and representations about the East. The East gets designed all over as the ‘unknown’ and awareness of the East is provided through the imagination of the West. The West scrapped the idea of the East being able to be modernized by following the West in the historical periods, to the structures of information and minds by claiming to be responsible for being the representative of history. This process gained speed especially in the last century through the media and in time orientalist discourse starting to reflect on media texts was being noticed. The orientalist media contents which are presented by strofying them get moved to many parts of the world through big news networks or the big Western media companies. Especially the representations that otherize and that take place in news content which get created according to a plan which was certain before like documentaries, contain political, economic, cultural and social messages. In the documentary ‘Istanbul and Bristol from Two Children’s Point of View’ which was published by BBC and TRT co-produced, orientalist and self-orientalist images being in kid’s discourses who were in the documentary can be noticed easily. Istanbul is one of the centers of the East from the perspective of a Western kid and this city is crowded and noisy as it is in the orientalist discourse as well. In this society, the individual can’t discover his own creativity, even if he did discover, the East being underdeveloped and ‘backward’ blocks the use of that talent. Istanbul exists as a location with its history and apart from that a modern aspect of it is out of question. It settled down to imaginary as the capital of the Ottoman Empire with its mosques, walls and crowded central spots. Any discourse or image that can remind modernity and scientific productivity in the city not taking place consolidates the kid’s thought in the background. Thus, these argumentations of the West that imprison the East to the past and backwardness, get completed with belongings that associate war, such as swords, that take place in the documentary. In the orientalist discourse the East is barbarian and sheds blood in order to spread the jihad mentality, it has no other identity feature. In this way, the orientalist point of view that takes place in texts gets strengthened by the editorial mechanisms of the channels which produce the documentary through the use of orientalist images semantically. On the other hand, Alptekin Oktayer who visited the city of Bristol producing orientalist discourses can be noticed clearly also. Bristol being a calm and a technology oriented city, their education system being art and creativity centered, produce the meaning of Bristol being superior compared to Istanbul in a discursive way. This situation revives the thought of the East emulating the West. The East, which learns about itself with the Western perspective, is at a desire to catch the West in terms of scientific and social praxises. The effort to catch modernity means Westernation and the effort to Westernize of the East causes a self-orientalist manner to get adopted. “This self-orientalist manner which was developed as a result of the dialogue being had through orientalism these last two hundred years, is an effort to read and tell through Western values which we encountered in the process of the modernization project of the non-western societies” (Kaya, 2017: 2003). If we evaluate the channels that shoot the documentary in the context of orientalism and self-orientalism, both channels imprinting the East-the West dichotomy to the documentary hierarchically, can be seen. Even though BBC is a UK centered international news channel, it adopted a demeanor that supports the orientalist discourse through shooting this documentary in the 1970’s. When we look at TRT’s position in the documentary, we can see that TRT shaped its own cultural dynamics from a Western view by being involved in the process of co-producing this documentary. Thus, decors and locations that take 871

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place in the content of this documentary are used accordingly to the orientalist point of view. Districts that evoke the absolute Ottoman Empire such as Eminönü, Kapalıçarşı and Rumelihisarı given place and its traditions along with it as well, is an example of this. Whereas, even though the Republic of Turkey is considered as a government of Ottoman Empire’s continuation, it aims to rise to a modern country status with the revolutions it has made. In this sense, in the documentary, saying that TRT has a share in Istanbul being presented as the other and its modern aspects not being shown won’t be wrong. After all, the media has a big share in scraping the orientalist mind-set to the minds. Both the Western and the Eastern media tools have a big share in construction of this discourse and spreading it as well. It is clearly viewed that the publishing policies of the 1970’s and the publishing policies of today have similar discourses. Although the Wester media channels point out that they adopted the idea of broadcasting objectively, their perspective on the East hasn’t changed so much. Even though the media channels of the Easterns and the Asians improved themselves in terms of structure and organization compared to the old times, they still maintain an occidental publishing policy by reversing the orientalist discourse. However, this situation causes the reproduction of orientalism. Both cultures establish a chain of representation which otherize each other in regard to topics such as Islamophobia, antisemitism, terror and security in today’s world where social and political events happen globally. Editorial mechanisms producing content without being attached to prejudice and negativities experienced will provide the function of media informing the public truthfully.

REFERENCES Alver, F. (2003). Basında Yabancı Tasarımı ve Yabancı Düşmanlığı. Der Yayınları. Amir, S. (1993). Avrupa Merkezcilik: Bir İdeolojinin Eleştirisi. İstanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınları. Arlı, Â. (2009). Oryantalizm, Oksidentalizm ve Şerif Mardin. Küre Yayınları. Azmeh, A. (2000). Oryantalizmin Eklemlenmesi. In Oryantalistler ve İslamiyatçılar: Oryantalist İdeolojinin Eleştirisi (pp. 229-260). İstanbul: İnsan Yayınları. BBC. (2020). Erişim adresi: https://www.bbc.com/turkce/haberler-turkiye-46229564 Berger, P., & Luckmann, T. (2008). Gerçekliğin Sosyal İnşası Bir Bilgi Sosyolojisi İncelemesi. İstanbul: Paradigma Yayıncılık.

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Bezci, B., & Çiftçi, Y. (2012). Self Oryantalizm: İçimizdeki Modernite ve/veya İçselleştirdiğimiz Modernleşme. Akademik İncelemeler Dergisi, 7(1), 139–166. Bourdieu, P. (2015). Ayrım: Beğeni Yargısının Toplumsal Eleştirisi. Ankara: Heretik Yayınları. Bourdieu, P. (2018). Bir Pratik Teorisi için Taslak: Kabiliyet Üzerine Üç Etnoloji Çalışması. İstanbul: İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları. Bulut, Y. (2016). Oryantalizmin Kısa Tarihi. Küre Yayınları. Dirlik, A. (1996). Chinese History and the Question of Orientalism. History and Theory, 35(4), 96-118. Golden, S. (2009). Orientalism in East Asia: A Theoretical Model. Inter Asia Papers.

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Hall, S. (1992). The West and The Rest: Discourse and Power. In Formations of Modernity: Understanding Modern Societies An Introduction (pp. 275-333). The Open University. Iwabuchı, K. (1994). Complicit Exoticism: Japan and Its Other. Critical Multiculturalism, Continuum: The Australian Journal Media and Culture, 8(2). Jouhkı, J. (2006). Imaginig the Other Orientalism and Occidentalism in Tamil European Relations in South India. University of Jyvaskyla Press. Kaya, İ. (2017). Sosyolojik Düşüncede Avrupa-merkezcilik, Ötekileştirme ve Oryantalist Söylem Üzerine Post-Kolonyal Bir Okuma ve Eleştirisi. Cumhuriyet İlahiyat Dergisi, 21(3), 1973–2008. doi:10.18505/ cuid.346780 Kearney, R. (2012). Yabancılar, Tanrılar ve Canavarlar Ötekiliği Yorumlamak. İstanbul: Metis Yayınları. Kocabay-Şener, N. (2017). Haberlerde Gerçeğin Yeniden Üretilmesi: Batı Medyasında Doğu İmgesi. Middle Black Sea Journal of Communication Studies, 2(1), 1–7. Lin, L. (2010). The Asian Renaissance: Reclaiming Centrality (Unpublished M.A. Thesis). East Asian Studies, University of Toronto. Mutman, M. (2002). Şarkiyatçılık: Kuramsal Bir Not. Doğu-Batı Dergisi, 20(2), 105–115. Obendorf, S. B. (2006). Sexing up Theinternational (Unpublished Thesis). The University of Melbourne. Ramonet, I. (2004). Beşinci Kuvvet. Varlık Dergisi., 1159, 3–7. Rubin, A. N. (2007). Edward W. Said (1935-2003). In Oryantalizm Tartışma Metinleri. Doğu-Batı Yayınları. Said, E. W. (2017a). Şarkiyatçılık. Metis Yayınları. Said, E. W. (2017b). Medyada İslam: Gazeteciler ve Uzmanlar Dünyaya Bakışımızı Nasıl Belirliyor? İstanbul: Metis Yayınları. Turanlı, G. (2017). Edward Said’in Oryantalist Söylem Analizi. Şarkiyat Mecmuası, 30(1), 101-119. Turner, B. S. (2001). Marx ve Oryantalizmin Sonu. İstanbul: Kaynak Yayınları. Tutal, N. (2003). Doğu ve Amerika Arasında Avrupa. Doğu ve Batı Dergisi, 23, 163–175.

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Yan, G., & Santos, C. A. (2009). China Forever: Tourism Discourse and Self-Orientalism. Annals of Tourism Research, 36(2), 295–315. doi:10.1016/j.annals.2009.01.003 Yeğenoğlu, M. (2003). Sömürgeci Fanteziler. Metis Yayınları. Yüksel, M. (2014). İslamofobinin Tarihsel Temellerine Bir Bakış: Oryantalizm Ya Da Batı ve Öteki. Journal of Istanbul University Law Faculty, 72(1), 189–200.

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ADDITIONAL READING Kabbani, R. (1994). Imperial Fictions: Europe’s Myths of Orient. Harper Collins. Kalmar, I. (2012). Early Orientalism: Imagined Islam and the Notion of Sublime Power. Routledge. Kennedy, V. (2000). Edward Said: A Critical Introduction. Polity Press. Lennon, J. (2008). Irish Orientalism: A Literary and Intellectual History. Syracuse University Press. Macfie, A. L. (2002). Orientalism. Pearson Education. Quinn, F. (2008). The Sum of All Heresies: The Image of Islam in Western Thought. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195325638.001.0001

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

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BBC: British Broadcasting Corporation. A national organization which broadcasts television and radio programmes and which is paid for by the public and not by advertising. Media: The main ways that large numbers of people receive information and entertainment, that is television, radio, newspapers, and the internet. Orientalism: In art history, literature and cultural studies, Orientalism is the imitation or depiction of aspects in the Eastern world. These depictions are usually done by writers, designers, and artists from the West. Orientalist Discourse Analysis: The method by which Edward Said examines the orientalist point of view in terms of discourse. Other: Used to refer to people or things that are additional or different to people or things that have been mentioned or are known about. Self-Orientalism: Internalization of the orientalist point of view by individuals or institutions. TRT: The first public officials to make public broadcasting organization in Turkey.

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Chapter 49

The Transformation of Ion Perdicaris to Eden Perdicaris as a Retro Scenario and Orientalist Codes in Art: Woman and East “To Be Saved” From Eastern Gizem Parlayandemir Faculty of Communication, Istanbul University, Turkey

ABSTRACT

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Based on mainly the perspectives of three thinkers, Walter Benjamin, Edward Said, and Jean Baudrillard, in this study, beyond the general perception and “Barbarian” and “Berbers,” the flm The Wind and The Lion, which was written and directed by John Milius in 1975 and inspired by a “real” life event that happened in 1904, and the transformation of the man kidnapped in real life, Ion Perdicaris, into a woman, Eden Pedecaris, in the flm, and the relationship of this transformation with the “orient” perception, the economic and political infrastructures of this relationship, its roots in Orientalist painting will be discussed through intertextual reading and discourse analysis. The analysis of this flm’s discourse sustains its importance since not only flm scholars but also audiences can receive the discourse of the flm via new media presently.

INTRODUCTION Cinema, as a work of art and a mass communication product, is influenced by the former arts and cultural products, directly through the perspectives of the artists and indirectly through social and cultural dynamics. The works of different thinkers in the 20th century guide the reading of films which are cinematic products such as works of art and cultural products. In Walter Benjamin’s work titled, The Work of Art DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch049

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 The Transformation of Ion Perdicaris to Eden Perdicaris as a Retro Scenario and Orientalist Codes in Art

in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction, it is claimed that as a result of the reproduction of art with the possibilities of technique, art loses its aura and thus its political side comes to the fore. On the other hand, when we consider the perspective of Orientalism studies, which gains important place in social sciences with Edward Said’s works, it is possible to say that while the work of art cannot be reproduced with the possibilities of technique, the Eastern and Eastern female representations in Orientalist painting are also political. Similar to the reproduction of the work of art with the possibilities of technique, Jean Baudrillard also stated that history is reproduced as a retro scenario via cinema. Based on mainly the perspectives of these aforesaid three thinkers, in this study, beyond the general perception and “Barbarian” and “Berbers”, the film The Wind and The Lion, which was written and directed by John Milius in 1975 and inspired by a “real” life event that happened in 1904, and the transformation of the man was taken hostage in real life -Ion Perdicaris into a woman- Eden Pedecaris in the film, and the relationship of this transformation with the “orient” perception, the economic and political infrastructures of this relationship, its roots in Orientalist painting will be discussed through intertextual reading and discourse analysis. The analysis of this film’s discourse sustains its importance since not only film scholars but also audiences can receive the discourse of the film via new media presently. Benjamin discusses the work of art in different periods, and with the mechanical reproduction and so with loss of aura, he states for art “Instead of being based on ritual, it begins to be based on another practice – politics” (Benjamin, 2006: 23). However, given that art had a political function in the period when it was actually a part of ritual or when it was not reproductionable. So that orientalism was a political stance rather than an artistic movement - as is often stated –. Hence it is possible to think about that whether the “aura” lost in the cinema since the work of art can be “reproduced with the possibilities of technique” to be considered already lost in the orientalist painting or not. In this context, beyond the general perception of “Barbarian” “Berbers” on the movie The Wind and The Lion, which was written and directed by Milius in 1975 and produced based on a “real” event that happened in 1904, the situation of real life inspiration: the hostage of Ion Perdicaris. The transformation of Ion pedecaris (Mr. Perdicaris) to Eden Perdicaris (Mrs. Perdicaris), whether there is a relation of this transformation with the “orient” concept or not, and if there is a relationship, the economic and political infrastructures of this relationship will be discussed. Moreover, discussions about whether the “aura”, which is said to have been lost in the cinema, had already lost in the painting will be remembered. In a proceeding called “The Cultural Representation of the Cooperating Arab in Pre- and Post-9/11 American Cinema” the film and this transformation has been analyzed and it is argued that with the gender shift, film gains “possibilities of both romance and suffering”. One of the reasons of this shift is “carefully handled to create the opportunity of including a romantic subplot, without which the political and military intrigues would not have been sufficient to attract American audiences.” (Chaouch, 2013: 29). On the other hand, the representation style of the Barbarian is interesting in the film, and the relative heroism of the “Barbarian” chief is emphasized more than the question of what the “Western” man is doing there. However, Raisuli’s roles change during the film and every change in his role addresses the change the discourse about the Other that Raisuli represents (Chaouch, 2013: 30). (…) the filmmakers had to assign different roles to Raisuli, who is then to play, first, as an opponent to be defeated by the American heroes, then to act, afterwards, as an adjuvant against all the other corrupt opponents (the Moroccans, the Germans and the like), so that by the end the only good heroes are the Americans. Raisuli comes out as a cooperative figure since he is a rebel and he shows some love,

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understanding and fascination towards Americans, both as captives (Eden and her children) and as leaders (President Roosevelt). In order to analyze the discourse of the film first theoretical background as the Loss of Aura, Orientalism and Relationship Between Orientalism and Cinema, and Hyperreality as a form of representation will be discussed.

BACKGROUND

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The Loss of Aura Benjamin’s famous essay “The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction ” has become one of the “cult” texts for cultural studies. Especially the concept of “aura” in that essay has been discussed in and affected various following texts. According to Benjamin (2006: 23), the reception of works of art takes place with different emphasis; two extreme points between them are evident. One of these highlights focuses on the cult value of the work of art, and the other on the exhibition value. Artistic production begins with the service of the “cult”. According to him it can be assumed that the main point of these formations is not based on their appearance but from their existence. The elk drawn by the stone age man on the walls of his cave is a tool of magic. Although the artist displayed it to his fellows, the painting was actually intended for souls. With this structure, the cult value makes it almost compulsory to keep the work of art hidden, apparently today: only the priest in his cell can see certain gods; some Madonna paintings remain covered for almost an entire year; certain sculptures in medieval cathedrals cannot be seen by visitors on the ground floor (Benjamin, 2006: 23). Keeping Gombrich’s (2006: 21) word in mind “There really is no such thing as Art. There are only artists.”, when we compare the paintings made by unknown painters after Ingres, or when we analyze Gerome’s paintings as examples, it can be argued whether there is “uniqueness” in the work of art before “the age when it can be produced with the possibilities of technique” or not. In an era where art cannot be reproduced with the possibilities of technology yet, Gerome’s paintings are productions that reproduce the same discourse. Whether there is a special atmosphere surrounding these works, whether it goes beyond their discourse, or the political infrastructure of these works can also be included in the scope of discussion. For the party that has become the target of the discourse, the most important thing is “where” the artwork affects the receptionist, “in what way” it affects. When we approach the subject in terms of orientalist painting in this study, it will be focused on the thought patterns that are reproduced independently of the technique - in the works that are formed by the quotations made from each other (Said, 2003: 118) - independently from the technique.

Orientalism and Cinema: A Brief Overview The relationship between Orientalism and painting is underlined by Said (2003: 118-119): Thus in some cases the Oriental representation can be associated with Piranesi’s prisons, in others with Tiepolo’s luxurious ambiences, in still others with the exotic sublimity of late eighteenth-century paintings.7 Later in the nineteenth century, in the works of Delacroix and literally dozens of other French and

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 The Transformation of Ion Perdicaris to Eden Perdicaris as a Retro Scenario and Orientalist Codes in Art

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British painters, the Oriental genre tableau carried representation into visual expression and a life of its own (which this book unfortunately must scant). Sensuality, promise, terror, sublimity, idyllic pleasure, intense energy: the Orient as a figure in the pre-Romantic, pretechnical Orientalist imagination of lateeighteenth- century Europe was really a chameleon like quality called (adjectivally) “Oriental.”8 But this free-floating Orient would be severely curtailed with the advent of academic Orientalism. Orientalism can be discussed within perspective of the former artistic and cultural products that build the orientalistic discourse and the critical approach to that discourse with the works of Edward Said and following thinkers. In fact, the discourse is formed by knowledge, however as “the Orientalist scholar betrays the way in which the organization of knowledge is always ideological and the subject formed by the exercise of power” (Bari and Eaglestone, 2011: 757). The relationship between knowledge and power leads us to think about Foucault. On the other hand, the impact of orientalism studies and Said’s work cannot be denied in terms of understanding the importance of discourse for cultural studies. As emphasized by Munif, it is possible to say that Edward Said was the first researcher to use Foucault’s discourse theories in order to examine and discuss the characteristics of the cultures that are imperial and colonial (Munif, 2011: 162-163). So orientalism –as an academic discipline- affects some fields such as the postcolonial studies directly, and feminist studies or gender studies indirectly. Orientalism can also be analyzed with the dichotomy of core and periphere. “(…) Orientalism – the body of writing and scholarship produced about the Orient – defined the Orient as culturally inferior and peripheral to Europe” (Morton, 2011: 537). As Sedgwick states one of the ways of representing a group may turn to -voluntary or involuntary- stereotyping that group. Hence, in a way like this ‘representation’ may be characterised as misrepresentation, such as he underlines “the ‘presentation’ or construction of identity.” This kind of identity constructions may be linked to relations of ideology and power, and as he mentions ‘to the forms of discourse implicated in the procedures whereby such images are created’. Hereby, “the construction of concepts relating to issues of gender, race or sexuality are questions of representation” (Sedgwick, 2003a: 225-226). Not only Orientalism studies but also the relationship between cinema and Orientalism are important fields for cultural studies. In order to tell narratives, cinema uses representations and hence produce and reproduce the discourse that is either obvious and attached to or hidden to that representations. When discussing about cinema and orientalism, two important issues come to the fore. One of them is the origin of the cinema and the other is the Hollywood as the world cinema dominating industry. When we look at the origin of the cinema, we see cinema has begun to be formed as a western art. At the beginning of the cinema history, cinema audience are founded at western countries’ periphere and eastern countries’ core, with the reasons such as class-oriented preferences as it is in the west world or economic and technological restrictions and reasons at it is in the east. But in the both cases when the production side is to be analyzed, it is obvious at the first years the films and the narrations are from the west world whether are received by eastern or western audience. So the norms and conventions of cinema were formed in a world that comes orientalist tradition. On the other hand when we look at the world cinema, we see the domination of Hollywood cinema industry both as economically and as conventionally (Parlayandemir, 2011).

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Representations and Hyperreality Representation is also related to topics about real and hyperreal. Gomez (2011: 1279) states ‘’In contemporary cultural studies, the terms “simulation” and “simulacra” invariably refer to Jean Baudrillard’s theory of post-modern simulation as the representation of a representation, rather than of reality.’’ Hyperreality can be discussed within the writings of Baudrillard and postmodernism. The term is used by Baudrillard in order to explain the new kind reality that is not real in fact but fiction and simulated but still takes place of the reality. According to Baudrillard, in postmodern era and with media gaining importance, simulations and perceptions have become more important than facts and truth. Another point to be discussed is the indirect relation between simulation and aura concepts. Baudrillard addresses the “the successive phases of the image” and he manifests four phases and then explain them in order. According to his explanation the first phase “is the reflection of a profound reality” (Baudrillard, 2006: 456) and as he states in this case “the image is a good appearance – representation is of the sacramental order.” (Baudrillard, 2006:457) as it can be relational to cult value of art. The tree phases in order are “it masks and denatures a profound reality; it masks the absence of a profound reality; it has no relation to any reality whatsoever: it is its own pure simulacrum.” (Baudrillard, 2006: 456) and as Baudrillard states “In the second, it is an evil appearance – it is of the order of maleficence. In the third, it plays at being an appearance – it is of the order of sorcery. In the fourth, it is no longer of the order of appearances, but of simulation” (Baudrillard, 2006: 457).

ANALYSIS OF THE FILM

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The Story of Film In the opening of the film, we see the three-crescent green flag representing the east, also the sea, nature, horses, warriors as well as representations of barbarism and the east, as well as the non-modern nature. In the scene that follows, we see the French flag on the ground. A falling flag gives an idea about the losing position of that country generally in a war or conflict. While the film tells a story that takes place in the city of Tangier on October 15, 1904, this information lead to think the audience about the filmic reality corresponds with life. Speaking as the equivalent of a wine-drinking man, the wine-drinking woman is the representation of modern, Western values. In fact, as will be seen during the film, the conflict and versus between modern and primitive, West and East to be underlined mostly by parallel editing. The film uses the parallel editing in order to show the conflict between a peaceful environment and the marketplace where the attack took place. The dramatic action begins in the film with the death of the maid who was stabbed in the back, and who continues to walk like everything is fine and bring wine. It is used to describe the eastern barbarism that breaks and sheds for pleasure, accompanied by the tense music resulting from the blending of Arabic and classical music. They hostage the woman and her children. Meanwhile, Raisuli, played by Sean Connary, who we understand to be more qualified than barbarians, falls when he mounts his horse and then hostage woman who laughs. The short-term superiority that the woman achieved by laughing and humiliating ends with a knife to her throat.

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 The Transformation of Ion Perdicaris to Eden Perdicaris as a Retro Scenario and Orientalist Codes in Art

The American President, who received the telegram explaining that Perdicaris was abducted, states that the British minister and himself will declare war for foreigners in Morocco. So he says that he will send the Atlantic Union to Morocco and teach them respect. Unaware of respect, barbarians are represented as if they do not speak when harassing the woman, but merely sound like animals. When the woman throws away her changed underwear to get rid of the barbarians, they go there again like a hunter crowd. Despite all this representation, Raisuli and the Eden go on the horse in front of the group and Eden is shown at the same level as Raisuli. In the following scene, Bashov’s Palace is shown, and the representation of Palace constructs the orientalist discourse again. It is possible to think that Bashov used the expression Western Constantinople for the Ottoman Empire. Bashov describes himself as the servant of the Moroccan Sultan. Ambassadors use the expression “we represent the modern world”. Since the film is a classic narrative and uses the 1970’s cinematic language, the expressions are very direct and the dichotomy is very evident. Ambassadors asking how to please the Sultan learn that the Sultan wants a lion, not gold. While gold is associated with material interests with the Western world, wanting lion might make audience think he is seeking dignity. As a metaphor the lion represents the east in the movie. In the scene that follows, there are flags, which are considered to be Islamic flags, orientalist music and camels. The hostage child also draws water from the well, surrounded by his head like the kidnappers. Raisuli and his men, who kidnapped the woman and their children, pray. Raisuli addresses the woman as ‘woman’ instead of her name. He defends himself by saying “I am not a barbarian, I am a scholar and leader of my people.” When he says “Islam will become very strong one day”, audience may follow the claims of the filmmakers about the future as much as Raisuli’s intention. Meanwhile, there is a beheading scene. Children watch this event, which takes place in front of the woman and children, with curiosity. This scene may also make the contemporary audience think of similar violence that spread to public after the new media. On the other hand, although the woman is not comfortable with her position, she is generally represented fearlessly throughout the film. Roosevelt, nicknamed Teddy, who declares they will fight for hostages is represented by saying “We will spread our own justice all over the world” in America with the parallel editing. While Raisuli and the woman sleep together, Raisuli puts a sword in between, so that he is represented as a noble person who will not covet the honor of his captive while he is even barbarous. Even though chess is a game of eastern origin, it has become readable to the upper culture in relation to the west. In the scene where Raisuli plays chess with Eden, he says that the winds come and go, the waves remain, and he likens the east to the wave and the west to the wind. He also says that Europe has the weapon that will turn the whole world into a fireball. This man with anti-imperialist and antiorientalist rhetoric is represented in the scene that follows as if he is a psychopath. Thus, the power of discourse is broken. The bear is the symbol of America for Roosevelt. He states that the American is not afraid of anything, neither man nor animal nor death. Before the stage where the Ambassador and Sultan will meet, someone from the Sultan’s palace gives information about the Sultan as an answer about the question why Sultan does not deal with improving the ways so that the life quality. According the his answering it does not concern the Sultan to make others comfortable. The Sultan is also represented in entertainment. People carry his car. He sits on the gold covered sofa. The Ambassador conveys to Sultan the conditions proposed by the Raisuli to release the hostages. In this speech, the Ambassador realizes that Raisuli is the Sultan’s uncle and that the person Raisuli wants killed is Raisuli’s brother, that is, the Sultan’s other uncle. 880

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 The Transformation of Ion Perdicaris to Eden Perdicaris as a Retro Scenario and Orientalist Codes in Art

In the following scene, it realizes the cinematic aspect used to glorify the American president, which is widely used in propaganda cinema, with the cinematic language that positions the American president from the lower angle. When the American President says “Rifle is very important”, he says that the rifle is also important for Raisuli. However, in the previous scene, his Raisuli brought people forward by saying “I would not change 100 rifles for a friend”. The different choice between machine and human of Roosevelt and Raisuli also highlights the differences between modern and primitive, west and east. In the scene that follows, the ambassadors say, “If we fail, it will be a world war”, then they toast to the world war that started 10 years after the film’s time, and they hope that such madness will not be necessary. Eden Perdicaris and his children run away at night, and a man who betrayed Rausili takes them away. After the scenes showing the desert and the seas, they realize that the man has betrayed them too. Thus, while fleeing from the Eastern barbarians, they fall into the hands of other eastern barbarians. But Raisuli comes alone to save the woman and the children. Western music is used in the scene where we see Raisuli. Raisuli cuts off the man’s head. After rescuing the main woman, expostulate on her instead of punishing her. The American navy seizes Bashov’s palace and takes Bashov hostage. Roosevelt tells his daughter that he respects his enemy and looks like him. Raisuli’s friends comes to convey the agreed and proposed conditions for the delivery of the hostages. Meanwhile, Eden interferes, putting forward logical arguments. However, Raisuli does not accept Eden’s advice and words, as Eden has spoken in front of other men. He says, “I didn’t ask for a man’s advice so I would take a woman’s advice” and then adds, “You are not even one of my wives.” Eden, on the other hand, gets angry and goes. Rausili’s friend Sharif refers to the secret romantic affair that has existed since the beginning of the film, saying “this woman has taken the Raisuli hostage”. The conflict in the dialogues between Raisuli and Eden from the beginning of the film is more reminiscent of Shakespeare’s play “Much Ado About Nothing” than it suggests a hostage conflict. The Bedouins are shown with the Westen music at the entrance to the city. Europeans do not care about human rights, says Sharif, Rausili’s friend. Rausili’s friend Sharif betrays him for gold and rifle and gives Rausili to the Germans. They also speak Arabic among themselves. The characters, the acts, the dialogs are so direct and the audience does not need to think about in order to understand or decide about situation hence everything is already clear, direct, and has a significant meaning as the one meaning is aimed to be built in most of the mainstream classic narrative films. The son of Eden Perdicaris asks about the situation of Raisuli to his mother. After being doubtful about they decide to save Raisuli so Eden Perdicaris takes American soldiers hostage with the help of her children and convinces them to save Rausili, because when Roosevelt and America make a promise, they must also keep. After that in order to save Raisuli Americans and Germans start to clash. The Germans throw cannons on Arabs who are returning to save Raisuli. But Rausili is saved by the operation of American soldiers and actually by Eden Perdicaris. Roosevelt, who said that there will be a new administration in Morocco, says that the fate of this country will be determined by the American citizens in November and the fate of Morocco is unfortunately by me. Raisuli sends a letter to Roosevelt, Roosevelt reads the letter.

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The Discourse of the Film As mentioned before East-West issues can be perceived at first glance as a matter of location or positioning. One of the places to think about for this is Morocco, which is also the place where the story of the film that is analyzed takes place. Morocco’s place on earth is more related to what language you speak about it, rather than where you are in as geographical location. Because Morocco, whose Arabic name is “al-Maghreb” refers to ‘in the West’ in Arabic, but means “where Muslims live” when spoken in English as “Morocco” and It is located in the Muslim world – so in the east. From this point of view, when the East-West issue is approached as a concept matter rather than a position issue, when the concepts of East and West in the ancient world do not have a counterpart in the present sense (Arlı, 2004: 17) and Lacan’s “mirror phase” is considered together (Arlı, 2004: 23) It would not be unfounded to claim that it was produced by a Westerner who needs an other to define himself. On the other hand, it is possible to be agree with Said about “To believe that the Orient was created” —or, as Said call it, “‘Orientalized’ —and to believe that such things happen simply as a necessity of ‘he imagination, is to be disingenuous.” While Said explains this relationship “between Occident and Orient” he underlines “it is a relationship of power, of domination, of varying degrees of a complex hegemony (…)” (Said, 2003: 5). Historically, “East / West opposition was experienced by the administrative division of the Roman Empire,” imperium “, followed by the division within Christianity itself. Afterwards, “the Crusades were the first event that the European geography (Latin Catholic world), which entered a period of great withdrawal, broke this crust. (...) With the Crusader armies, European societies met with the culture and riches of the other systematically for the first time.” (Arlı, 2004: 17) Although they have economic and political infrastructures, when we approach the subject from the art framework, from the Iliad era, ” Two of the most profoundly influential qualities associated with the East appear in Aeschylus’s The Persians, the earliest Athenian play extant, and in The Bacchae of Euripides, the very last one extant.”(Said, 2003: 56). Orientalist knowledge in Europe has many resources as Said (2003: 39-40) states, One was a growing systematic knowledge in Europe about the Orient, knowledge reinforced by the colonial encounter as well as by the widespread interest in the alien and unusual, exploited by the developing sciences of ethnology, comparative anatomy, philology, and history; furthermore, to this systematic knowledge was added a sizable body of literature produced by novelists, poets, translators, and gifted travelers.

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All the information reproduce the same discourse during centuries. While Said states the disortion of detail (Said, 2003: 15): What interests me most as a scholar is not the gross political verity but the detail, as indeed what interests us in someone like Lane or Flaubert or Renan is not the (to him) indisputable truth that Occidentals are superior to Orientals, but the profoundly worked over and modulated evidence of his detailed work within the very wide space opened up by that truth. A new reality has been produced due to the fact that the studied work is a motion picture based on a historical event and the change of “detail”. As Baudrillard underlines, the relationship of history which cinema shows us (stolen from us) with historical reality is not more intense than the relation between

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 The Transformation of Ion Perdicaris to Eden Perdicaris as a Retro Scenario and Orientalist Codes in Art

classical realist images and neo-figuration in the field of painting (Baudrillard, 2008: 73). Even cinema itself contributed to the disappearance of history and the seizure of sovereignty by an archive (Baudrillard, 2008: 77). However, the main attraction in the film, rather than the transformation of history into hyperreal, is the “distortion of detail” that Said refers to for the texts he examines, and in this film, which is the transformation of Ion Perdicaris into Eden Perdicaris. At first glance, it is possible to think that this that is, the hostage’s transformation into a hostage - is due to the ideal audience is always accepted as a man, and the image of the woman is arranged to caress his pride (Berger, 2005: 64). On the other hand, when we evaluate this change in terms of the discourse of the movie, what is interesting is the relation of “distorting the detail” with the representation of the East and the approach to the idea of ​​the East. According to Bulut, the West always approached the East with sexuality and always portrayed it as female. Comparing it with the East, he felt like “the groom to lift the bride’s veil”. In paintings, travel books, stories, poems, fascinating exotic beauty Eastern women were presented together with rich but ugly Eastern men, in a way that evokes a sense of inequality. In the harems of ugly, rude, lazy, immoral and barbarian Eastern men, desperate women who were forcibly detained by the terrifying eunuchs were depicted (Bulut, 2002: 25). From this point of view, Eden’s involvement in the story is to emphasize the bondage of “woman” rather than being an inevitable requirement of the narrative of women’s existence (Mulvey, 2006: 346), but this emphasis is altered rather than conforming to the traditional narrative in the process of becoming a “hero” in the film’s story. Referring to Greek mythology, Mary Ann Jezewski’s article “Characteristics of the Female Hero” states, “The heroine usually gains power from her father, or through marriage, so her father and / or husband become an important part of her story” (Cornea, 2009: 165). In the initiation of Eden, a widowed woman, instead of her husband or father, there are two men who take her captive (Lion) and save her from captivity (Wind) and the story is their story rather than the hostage Eden. As Boetticher says, the important thing is what the heroine provokes or rather represents. She is the one that causes the man to behave as she does, by the love or fear she causes in the male protagonist, or the concern the male hero feels for him. She does not really matter as herself (Mulvey, 2006: 347). In this story, where Eden can taken as representing the “east to be liberated”, who causes others to “act as they behave” at first gaze, both the woman and the east are passive, so both of them have to be presented, not presenting themselves. Said with referencing to Marx underlines (Said, 2003: 21): ‘The exteriority of the representation is always governed by some version of the truism that if the Orient could represent itself, it would; since it cannot, the representation does the job, for the West, and faute de mieux, for the poor Orient.’ On the other hand, since Eden is a “western” woman, the audience’s relationship with her will differ from Falubert’s encounter with the Egyptian woman- Kuchuk Hanem. In the film, Eden is not a woman who never speaks about herself and does not reveal her feelings and opinions, as in the case described by Said (Said, 2003: 6). So instead of being “twice in the shadow” (Spivak, 1988: 84) like an eastern woman, Eden is the shadow of two separate others - woman and east - overlapping in the story.

Shadow in the Desert ... “The Wind Goes Away, the Lion Remains” For a deeper discussion of the representations in the film, it may be helpful to take a closer look at the film. Parallel editing has an important place in the film. Until the kidnapping of Eden, the scenes with Eden and Mulai Ahmed er Raisuli, the scenes with Raisuli and Teddy-Theodor Roosevelt after Eden

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was taken hostage by Raisuli, are connected with parallel fiction, and the differences between the parties are emphasized. The first scene, which begins with horsemen going to war in a beautiful landscape, introduces the viewer to the east and the barbarian eastern (the next scene will attack a sluggish eastern man shot in a horizontal plane). When the house of Eden is seen, there is a Moroccan who also serves there. In the scene where the audience first sees Eden, Eden is in a conversation about the need to drink “red bordeaux” at dinner. The people screamed when they saw the Barbarians who broke and shed everything necessary, the Moroccan butler who obeyed the order and brought the wine his wife (Eden) wanted and fell to the ground, with a knife on his back, the Moroccan butler who protected himself until he ran out of bullets with a single gun, and the westerner who shot every shot There are underlined, caricatured characters, such as the eastern, who breaks the gramaphone who laughs when he beats the destroying woman who enters with horses and wears a hat on her head. The broken gramophone detail at the end of the chapter is the symbol of the destruction of modernity by those who do not understand it. However, what is more emphatic is Raisuli, who in one of the following scenes gave a knife and slaps Eden, who laughed at himself when he could not look at a cut tongue (the tongue of an ambassador) and ride a laughing horse. After the scene where the American President’s hand is seen above the globe, the President says that Raisuli threatened the lives of American citizens and that it was an insult to the world public opinion. Emphasizing the duty of protecting innocent women and children in his speech, Roosevelt said that laws cause problems, while “barbarian” Raisuli states himself as he took his laws from his Prophet, he was not a barbarian, he was a scholar and leader of his people, “winds” came and went, seas always remained. While fleeing from the house of Eden Raisuli, his rifle carries his son, a small boy, instead of Eden, and Raisuli, who does not kill women and children, saves Eden, who was deceived by the man of Raisuli whom he bribed. The most striking point in the film is that while Raisuli is heroized, there is the unreasonable violent and barbaric behavior of all oriental characters, or an eastern ruler who continues to eat his meal while all his men are killed one by one. In the film, in which all women except Eden are part of the setting in the story, Roosevelt did not mind the American President’s adviser on the military landing plan saying “I don’t think the Germans and the French will like it”, while Eden warned Raisuli that “the great powers want this land” I don’t need to ... will take place opposite - followed by the rescue from German soldiers. The east is no longer a threat to the west, but a place to be protected by the west. From this point of view, “unfortunately” in Roosevelt’s words “The fate of this country will be determined by the elections and the fate of Morocco will be determined by me” in the film, he explains that the West has taken this role reluctantly (pretending to be).

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS The readings to be made about the film are multiplied depending on the period the film is told, the period in which the film is told and the period the film is watched. For this reason, reception analysis can also lead new perspectives for this movie.

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CONCLUSION One of the most striking examples of the East-West issue, which is a matter of positioning rather than location, can be Morocco since where Morocco is located depends on whether you name it in Arabic or English. For this study, the film “West and Lion” in Morocco is chosen. This distortion - the transformation of Ion Perdicaris taken male hostage into Eden Perdicaris, the female hostage - when one thinks about this film made on the basis of a historical event, about the “distortion of detail” rather than the relation of cinema to ‘historical reality’ - the centuries-long approaching of the west to the east in art has always depicting him as a female, in his encounter with the east, feeling like “the groom to lift the veil of the bride”. Nevertheless, Eden is a “western” woman, and not a woman who never speaks about herself, does not reveal her feelings and views, as in Said’s case. So instead of being “twice in the shadow” like an eastern woman, Eden becomes the overlapping shadow of two separate others - the woman and the east - in the story. While Eden, who took the rifle in his hand and saved Raisuli, who was captured by the Germans, together with the American soldiers, was masculinizing, in the identity of Raisuli, “eastern” America is no longer a threat, as well as being “protected”, albeit “compulsorily”, a “fate determined” ” it turns into a subject.

REFERENCES Arlı, A. (2004). Oryantalizm, Oksidentalizm ve Şerif Mardin [Orientalism, Occidentalism and Şerif Mardin]. Küre Press. Bari, S., & Eaglestone, R. (2011). Orientalism. In The Encyclopedia of Literary and Cultural Theory. Wiley-Blackwell. Baudrillard, J. (2006). The Precession of Simulacra. In M. G. Durham & D. M. Kellner (Eds.), Media and cultural studies: keyworks (pp. 453–481). Blackwell Publishing. Baudrillard, J. (2008). Retro Bir Senaryo Olarak Tarih in Simülakrlar Ve Simülasyon [History as a Retro Scenario in Simulations and Simulation]. Doğu Batı Press. Benjamin, W. (2006). Work of art in the age of mechanical reproduction. In M. G. Durham & D. M. Kellner (Eds.), Media and cultural studies: keyworks (pp. 18–40). Blackwell Publishing. Berger, J. (2005). Görme Biçimleri [Way of Seeing] (Y. Salman, Trans.). Metis Press. Copyright © 2021. IGI Global. All rights reserved.

Bulut, Y. (2002). Oryantalizmin Eleştirel Kısa Tarihi [A Brief Critical History of Orientalism]. Yöneliş. Chaouch, H. (2013). The Cultural Representation of the Cooperating Arab in Pre- and Post-9/11 American Cinema. Proceedings of the 1st Annual International Conference on Cultures and Languages in Contact, 18, 26-38. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/337873692_The_Cultural_Representation_of_the_Cooperating_Arab_in_Pre-_and_Post-911_American_Cinema Cornea, C. (2009). Science Fiction Cinema: Between Fantasy and Reality. Edinburgh University Press.

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Durham and Kellner. (2006). Introduction to Part 1. In M. G. Durham & D. M. Kellner (Eds.), Media and cultural studies: keyworks (pp. 3–8). Blackwell Publishing. Edgar, A. (2003). Television in Key Concepts in Cultural Theory. Routledge. Gombrich, E. H. (2006). The Story of Art. Phaidon Press. Gomez, R. (2011). Simulation/Simulacra. In The Encyclopedia of Literary and Cultural Theory. WileyBlackwell. Merriam Webster. (2020a). Aura. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/aura Merriam Webster. (2020b). Dichotomy. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/dichotomy Morton, S. (2011). Core and Periphery. In The Encyclopedia of Literary and Cultural Theory. WileyBlackwell. Mulvey, L. (2006). Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema. In M. G. Durham & D. M. Kellner (Eds.), Media and cultural studies: keyworks (pp. 342–352). Blackwell Publishing. Munif, Y. (2011). Discourse. In The Encyclopedia of Literary and Cultural Theory. Wiley-Blackwell. Parlayandemir, G. (2011). Türk sinemasının endüstriyel yapısının Amerikan sinemasının endüstriyel yapısıyla karşılaştırmalı olarak incelenmesi [Analysis of the structure of Turkish cinema industry with comparison to the structure of American cinema industry] [Unpublished Master’s Thesis]. Istanbul University, Istanbul, Türkiye. Said, E. (2003). Orientalism. Pengiun Books. Sedgwick, P. (2003a). Representation in Key Concepts in Cultural Theory. Routledge. Sedgwick, P. (2003b). Other in Key Concepts in Cultural Theory. Routledge. Spivak, G. C. (1988). Can the Subaltern Speak? https://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~sj6/Spivak%20CanTheSubalternSpeak.pdf

ADDITIONAL READING Foucault, M. (1977). Discipline and Punish: the Birth of the Prison. Random House. Copyright © 2021. IGI Global. All rights reserved.

Foucault, M. (2008). The history of sexuality. Penguin Books. Hayward, S. (2010). Cinema Studies The Key Concepts. Routledge. Rose, G. (2002). Visual Methodologies An Introduction to the Interpretation of Visual Materials. Sage.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Aura: Aura, which is literally “a distinctive atmosphere surrounding a given source” (Merriam Webster, 2020a) has become a concept related to the reception process of the artwork with Benjamin’s definition. According to Benjamin, before the mechanical reproduction era aura is about the uniqueness, originality, and authenticity but with the mass production and film industry “could create a new kind of ideological magic and aura through the cult of celebrity and techniques like the close-up that fetishized certain stars or images via the technology of the cinema” (Durham & Kellner, 2006: 5). Dichotomy: Dichotomy refers to “a division into two especially mutually exclusive or contradictory groups or entities” (Merriam Webster, 2020b). Dichotomy in philosophy can even be founded in the writings of Platon. But the term commonly used with in modernist paradigm in order to the underline the contradiction between the structures or facts such as mainstream and alternative, core and periphere, base and infrastructure, culture and society, etc. Discourse: As a term, “Discourse” refers to a systematic and relational set of meaningful expressions such as speech and text, and semiotic elements such as signs and symbols that affect practices and express the values, behaviors and worldviews of social groups. On the other hand when taking into the consideration in social sciences the term can be discussed with the works of Ferdinand de Saussure, and the works of Michel Foucault. Meanwhile Ferdinand de Saussure approaches the term as focusing internal mechanisms of the language, Michel Foucault approaches the term in terms of external relations as focusing the effects of it in culture, society and politics (Munif, 2011: 159). Hyperreality: The term is used by Baudrillard in order to explain the new kind reality that is not real in fact but fiction and simulated but still takes place of the reality. According to Baudrillard, in postmodern era and with media gaining importance, simulations and perceptions have become more important than facts and truth. Moreover, “Baudrillard (1991) could notoriously claim that the Gulf War did not take place. Behind this rhetorical flourish is a claim that the Gulf War was conducted, not simply under the gaze of television cameras, but rather that it was conducted for those cameras” (Edgar, 2003: 276). Orientalism: Orientalism can be discussed within perspective of the former artistic and cultural production traditions that build the orientalistic discourse and the critical approach to that discourse with the works of Edward Said and following thinkers. According to academic perspective Orient is constructed by Europe as an Other in order to construct the self-Europe. Other: Although it does not correspond to a certain singular response; We see that this concept, which can be encountered in various approaches such as philosophy, epistemology, cultural identity problems and psychoanalysis, has an important place in the works of Hegel, Lacan, Sartr, Derrida as well as Said. In these terms, the Other can be called a form of cultural representation of concepts. This representation constructs the identities of cultural subjects through a relationship of power against the Other (Sedgwick, 2003b: 177). “The construction of the Other in Orientalist discourse, then, is a matter of asserting self-identity, and the issue of the European account of the Oriental Other is thereby rendered a question of power” (Sedgwick, 2003b: 178). Representation: Representation is an act of expression that takes place in a way that can work for or against the represented. A group can be represented politically or socially, or through media texts. In social sciences, especially with the tradition of cultural studies and discourse analysis, how representation is constructed through media texts has been an important area of research. As mentioned before, representation may turn into the misrepresentation, so “the construction of concepts relating to issues of gender, race or sexuality are questions of representation” (Sedgwick, 2003a: 225-226).

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Chapter 50

Analysis of Poster Designs of Turkish TV Series on Ottoman History: Resurrection Ertugrul and Magnificent Century Examples Bahar Soğukkuyu Dokuz Eylül University, Turkey

ABSTRACT TV series are signifcant media products when considered as part of audience’s leisure activities at home. Marketing of leisure activities to the audience in front of the screen as an indicator of individuality is one of the basic conditions of media consumption. With the watched product, the person feels that he belongs to a community, or, on the contrary, he is unique. It is possible for the individual who watches the historical series to adopt/refect the national and social spirit. Again, as a part of the consumer society, the displays of the spectacular elements that emphasize the individual’s need to express himself/herself with commodities are quite high. In the study, the poster designs of two series that are shown in Turkey (and in various countries of the world) and reach a wide audience have been examined with both visual design elements and principles and semiotics to reveal clues about cultural memory and orientalism in terms of refecting the Ottoman history.

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INTRODUCTION Assman’s cultural memory (2015), is one of the keywords guiding this study in terms of bringing together the concepts of culture, image, memory, history, unity, commitment. “Two aspects of culture, namely prescriptive and narrative, directing and conveying, create the foundations of identity and belonging that enable individuals to say “we”. It is the binding structure formed by common knowledge and selfperception that unites individuals in such a “we”, on the one hand adhering to common rules and values, DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch050

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 Analysis of Poster Designs of Turkish TV Series on Ottoman History

and on the other, based on the memories of a shared past” (Assman, 2015, p. 23). “We” is a general aim for the TV series with national feelings in their themes. Cultural memory is based on a set of unwritten rules that cover a long period when a human life is not enough in which a common consciousness is formed. Series that are about a certain period of history can either stay connected to real events in the past or be edited by making quotations from these events. The series examined in this study Resurrection Ertuğrul and Magnificent Century are both fictionalized inspired by real historical events. Due to the late period of Magnificent Century (1520-1566), there are more written information about the term. It can be said that Magnificent Century is more committed to real events. According to Anadolu Agency, after the United States, Turkey is the country exporting the maximum number of television series (more than 150) to 146 countries in total in Europe, Middle East, Central Asia, Africa, North, and South America. The TV series exported to the largest number of countries was the “Magnificent Century” series. The series reached more than 500 million viewers in 70 different countries (Uştuk, 2019, https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/kultur-sanat/abdden-sonra-en-fazla-dizi-ihrac-edenulke-turkiye/1641524). In this study, the examination of the poster designs assuming the promotion of TV series that people are often interested in today’s media world will be discussed at a certain limit framework: First orientation to the series published in Turkey, it was necessary in terms of the geographical boundaries. The poster designs of the Turkish TV series about Ottoman history are preferred in terms of containing various design products created under the influence of orientalism. Poster designs promoting Resurrection Ertuğrul and Magnificent Century series, which are about Ottoman history, were chosen as the sample of this study.

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BACKGROUND Before examining the concepts of orientalism and occidentalism, it is necessary to give general information about the series about the period of Ertuğrul Gazi, the father of Osman Bey, the founder of the Ottoman Empire, which is the starting point of the study, and the Magnificent Century series, which covers the period of Sultan Süleyman the Magnificent, which covers the rise of the Ottoman Period. “Ahmedi records that Osman’s father Ertuğrul and his relatives are descended from Oğuz. … Zeki V. Togan thinks that the Kayı tribe, under the rule of Osman’s father, Ertuğrul, came to Anatolia in 1230 during the struggle between the Seljuk Sultan Alaeddin Keykubad and Celaledin Harzemşah” (Acun, 2000, pp. 60-62). Ertuğrul is known as the leader who provided the conditions for the establishment of the Ottoman state. The period of the subject in Muhteşem Yüzyıl is between 1520-1566, Diriliş Ertuğrul is during 13th century. Muhteşem Yüzyıl (The Magnificent Century) is about Ottoman history in the axis of the 10th Ottoman Sultan Süleyman the Magnificent. The series is especially about what happened in the palace of Suleiman the Magnificent, the relationship of the sultan with his family and the life of the harem. Therefore, in the scenes of the series, rather than what is experienced in the outside world, the environment in the palace is generally magnificent and physically safe, wealthy, and flashy objects, furniture, clothing, and architectural features. On the other hand, the scenes of the Resurrection Ertuğrul series, the settlement area where the living conditions of the people living in the lands under the order of Ertuğrul Gazi, are shown, the lands where the struggles take place, in short, are generally performed in the external environment. From this perspective it is easy to say that Magnificent Century has more oriental design product due to the most scenes were shot in the palace. On the other hand, Resurrection Ertuğrul were shot outside with hard living conditions due to the daily life routines of the people living 889

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in that period. As a general view of the series Resurrection Ertuğrul, it can be said that the scenes have objects, background, textiles affected by occidentalism. As the starting point of the study, it is necessary to include the words of Said, who played an important role in clarifying the concept of orientalism (1979, p. 12):

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Orientalism is not a mere political subject matter or field that is reflected passively by culture, scholarship, or institutions; nor is it a large and diffuse collection of texts about the Orient; nor is it representative and expressive of some nefarious “Western” imperialist plot to hold down the “Oriental” world. It is rather a distribution of geopolitical awareness into aesthetic, scholarly, economic, sociological, historical and philological texts; it is an elaboration not only of a basic geographical distinction (the world is made up of two unequal halves, Orient and Occident) but also of a whole series of “interests” which, by such means as scholarly discovery, philological reconstruction, psychological analysis, landscape and sociological description, it not only creates but also maintains; it is, rather than expresses, a certain will or intention to understand, in some cases to control, manipulate, even to incorporate, what is a manifestly different (or alternative and novel) world; it is, above all, a discourse that is by no means in direct, corresponding relationship with political power in the raw, but rather is produced and exists in an uneven exchange with various kinds of power, shaped to a degree by the exchange with power political (as with a colonial or imperial establishment), power intellectual (as with reigning sciences like comparative linguistics or anatomy, or any of the modern policy sciences), power cultural (as with orthodoxies and canons of taste, texts, values), power moral (as with ideas about what “we” do and what “they” cannot do or understand as “we” do). “With the passage of Istanbul to the Ottoman Empire, Christianity and Islam became neighbors and enemies at the same time. The two cultures tried to get to know each other, primarily for political and military reasons, and mainly due to economic interests / expectation” (Özdal, 2013, p. 63).”In the 19thcentury the expansion of the British and French Empires provided artists with new knowledge of the Near and Middle East” (Little, 2016, p. 74). “Orientalist works often justified colonialism as a civilizational process by showing the East as backward and primitive. …The east could be the place of all sorts of fierce passions, splendid or barbarian; but it could not be rational like the West” (Little, 2016, p. 74). From orientalism and occidentalism perspective, in both series East and West societies are in relation during daily life or political issues. National, religious themes are mostly used, too. Media as the spreading center of ideas, thoughts, has a major role in ensuring that the messages that are requested to be transmitted in sub texts are transferred. “The relationship between words and images is full of creative tensions. While the text people rule the spiritual heights as guardians of the printed word, visual people counterattack claiming that the picture is worth a thousand words” (Heller & Vienne, 2016, p. 42). … The struggle for supremacy between words and pictures, and between books and television today (Crowley & Heyer, 2017, p. 420). However, it is an inevitable fact that today, especially on a global scale, TV series are one of the most powerful broadcasting types in the hands of internet broadcasting. “Reading teaches us to reason by its nature. Television, on the other hand, conflicts with this linear tradition due to its random and disconnected images and damages logic and thinking habits” (Crowley & Heyer, 2017, p. 421).TV series can present capsule information to the audience through images, influence the audience through the indicators included around a subject, and lead to changes in individual or mass thinking styles. The audience can be persuaded by manipulating many ideas through the fictions designed by the producers and directors of 890

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historical films and TV series in line with the direction of media powers. “It is not subject who desire, but a world of money that stimulates their desires that subjects mechanical desire. There is a dual attraction power. The fact that the media forces see us as personalities to be desired rather than the desirability of goods, shows us the current state of the monetary economy (Akay, 2005, p. 30).In the new regimes, in addition to the power making tremendous demands on art, art also had difficulties in getting rid of its control with the demands of the political authority, and even could not find a suitable way (Hobsbawm, 2013, p.237). “Several large groups in the media sector in Turkey, have become dominant in the sector because of horizontal and vertical condensation. These groups have commercial investments in all subsectors such as newspaper, news agency, magazine, television, distribution, marketing, film production, music production, television production” (Dağtaş, 2009, p. 82). There are various invisible forces on the back of the media that have an impact on the programs that will be broadcast. But mostly in historical series the effect of these forces can be seen more clearly. Through the series, various messages such as heroism, uniqueness, and the superiority of national feelings are conveyed to the audience in TV series and movies. While these themes are being processed, the traces of collective culture and cultural memory are conveyed to the viewer through signs. “Our memories do not remain in dust and unchanged like old books in the library; they are living and breathing beings. What we remember about the past today is the product of correction and reshaping that happens every time we recall the memory. In other words, our present experiences shape our perspective on the past” (Levine & Heller, 2020, p. 149).“Societies create their self-images (perceiving and defining themselves- c.n.) imaginatively and transmit this image from generation to generation with the recall culture they create” (Assman, 2015, p. 25).”Oral peoples before writing also had a sense of group because they were not given any possible options. In our age where secondary vocabulary is in question, we acquire group feeling in a self-conscious and planned manner” (Crowley & Heyer, 2017, p. 115). Media forces draw self-images of common audience for historical series to gather them together, and they do that through cultural items, heroic, national symbols such as war equipment, accessories such as rings, necklaces, crowns, textile products such as caftan and fez, etc. When local values gain global popularity, it is inevitable that another consumption market will emerge. Accessories, clothing products and war materials, daily habits, gestures, and mimics advertised with close-up shots throughout the series turn into consumer goods in the countries where the series are shown. oriental and stinging understanding are mixed. The digital native living in the global village begins to consume these historical, cultural, and social traces, which are displayed just like other objects that they consume quickly to add a new one to their daily life. The audience becomes consumer, and the series becomes advertisement of another treasure world ready to be experienced. “The gap between what the advertisement offers and the future it refers to coincides with the gap between the situation the audience is in and the situation it wants to be. Two cliffs overlap and merge; Instead of being closed by activities or real life, this gap is tried to be filled with dreams of attraction” (Berger, 2005, p. 148). The consumer does not turn to an object in the context of the special utility it provides, but to a set of objects in the context of its holistic meaning. … like a chain, the showcase, the advertisement, the manufacturer, and the brand, which plays a fundamental role here, impose a coherent, collective vision of this meaning. Like a chain connecting the signifiers, not ordinary objects, each object shows the others as a more complex super-object and leads the consumer to a series of more complex preferences (Baudrillard, 2008, p. 18).”As Dyer stated (1982) in consumption culture; while advertisements provide a financial motivation by suggesting continuous consumption, they refer paradoxically to culture and values by saying that the material world is not sufficient ”(cited in Dağtaş, 2009, p. 39).“Today’s economies need more consumption than ever before, and leisure is needed to increase consumption” (Dağtaş, 2009: 30).According to 891

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Baudrillard (1997), contemporary consumer consumes indicators, not products, and these indicators reach the consumer through advertisements. In consumption, needs and desires take only social values and images. Individuals believe that purchasing and displaying consumer goods brings social privilege and prestige. The need is no longer the need for a single object; it is a need for differentiation (as cited in Dağtaş, 2009, p. 32). As one of the most preferred leisure practices, watching TV series is a unique period targeting the audience / consumer who is open to all these advertisements, different experiences, different products, and who are open to hypnotizing with scenes, lights, sets, decors, products. The producers, directors, actors, media forces, agents of the government will be mobilized together in the aim of controlling the audience in the 2 or 3 hours that will pass throughout the series.

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Power generally makes three demands on art. The first is to show the glory and triumphant side of power, as in the great columns and arbors erected to celebrate the victories of war since the Roman Empire, which were the principal model of Western public art. … The second major function of art favored by power was to organize power as a public drama. Rituals and ceremonies are essential elements of the political process; with the democratization of politics, power gradually takes the form of public theater, while its audience and its organized participants (as a specific innovation of the dictators’ age) become the people. … A third service that art could give to power was in the field of education or propaganda: Art could teach the value system of the state, spread knowledge about it and instill it in people. Before the age of public participation in politics, these functions were mainly left to churches and other religious structures, but in the 19th century these functions were increasingly taken over by secular governments (most clearly with general basic education) (Hobsbawm, 2013, pp. 239-240). It is seen that Hobsbawm’s expression on the effect of authority on art in the historical process continues to be used in different ways in today’s societies. The aim of the power to direct the thoughts of the audience is applied in various ways. In addition, it is seen that different artistic criticisms are carried out through satire and metaphors, depending on the individual freedom of expression rate of the countries. It is also seen that two- or three-dimensional designs, all kinds of products (video, gif, etc.) arranged in mobile media can be applied for this purpose. However, in countries with secular management, interpretation of the current situation is often censored due to the limitation of individual expression and the prevalence of fear psychology. At this stage, besides the audited media channels, artistic products and designs in independent media continue to be effective. The serials, which are one of the products that take place in the media controlled, are constantly under the shadow of the media forces and the government in terms of the objects, decorations, the order of the texts, the editing of the scenes, etc. It is not a surprise that the development of both modern media and computers started around the same time. Both media machines and computing machines were necessary for modern mass societies. The ability to spread the same texts, images, and sounds - and therefore the same ideological beliefs - to millions of people was just as important as keeping records of their birth, work, medical and police. While photography, film, offset printing, radio, and television created possibilities for the first, computers made the other possible. Mass media and data processing are technologies that complement each other; they arise and thrive together, making modern mass society possible (Crowley &Heyer, 2017, p. 468). “The only change was not the computer. In the last decade of the century, the revolution in communication with satellite dishes turned the whole world into a global village. Then the internet came into being. Graphic design gained momentum with interactivity. Yesterday’s graphic designer is now dealing with multimedia today” (İstek, 2004, p. 78). Nowadays the expansion of the dimensions 892

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of communication in parallel with the development of technology requires the hybrid study of different art and design disciplines. The graphic designer, who previously specialized in typography, print painting, illustration, advertising graphics and continues to work in this way before, nowadays needs to be fed from different disciplines, learn different applications, and combine them with his designs. The unspoiled and surprising nature of experimental designs varies according to the environment and the material. The kinetic sculpture experiments of Bauhaus have now been replaced by numerical abstract arrangements performed on giant screens above skyscrapers. Although the designer is not obliged to use technological possibilities, he / she should work in cooperation with the experts in this field. “If we accept this meaning of the word cinematograph, which means “writing movement”, we can say that the essence of cinema is to save and store visual data in a material form” (Crowley & Heyer, 2017, p. 469).Graphic designers working in the field of cinema also need to think movement and graphic design together, and to make the correct editing on the surface for the most effective reflection of the portraits of the characters in two-dimensional design. It is aimed to reveal this interdisciplinary collaboration with the analysis of graphic design products that promote historical series that emerged with the collaboration of different disciplines such as photography, cinema, graphic design, fashion design, interior architecture, performing arts, jewelry design.

FINDINGS The TV screen is smaller than a cinema screen and can be viewed more closely. When this is the case, it is unimaginable that mixed decors and crowded scenes give positive results on the TV screen. Especially for television shootings, simple, plain, and precise décors should be used as much as possible, and overly ornate, complex, detailed backgrounds and décors that will force the audience should be avoided (as cited in Kocabaş & Elden, 2008, p.136). Through the study it is aimed to examine the elements that are placed on the posters promoting Turkish historical TV series (Magnificent Century and Resurrection Ertuğrul) which have been broadcasted not only in Turkey but also in different countries around the world. For the descriptive analysis of posters, the graphic design elements typography, image, layout, space, color; for graphic design principles, balance, proportion, hierarchy, continuity, contrast, integrity are considered.

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ANALYSIS OF RESURRECTION ERTUĞRUL AND MAGNIFICENT CENTURY In the study, the poster designs of the two series that is shown in Turkey (and in various countries of the world) and reach a wide audience have been examined with both visual design elements and principles, and semiotics to reveal clues about cultural memory and orientalism in terms of reflecting the Ottoman history.

Graphic Design Elements (Typography, Image, Layout, Space, Color) When we look at the typography, it is seen that both designs are arranged by adhering to the central, symmetrical composition with gold, white and serif fonts. It is seen that the letter “D” in the Diriliş (resurrection), the initial and last letters of the word Magnificent, are ornately formed as the initial letter. Kayı community comes from the root of “Bozok” (the combination of boz+ok, boz means grey color, 893

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Figure 1. Diriliş Ertuğrul (Resurrection Ertuğrul) poster design

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Source: https://i.pinimg.com/originals/8d/2b/a2/8d2ba24ef4a9fa95f857a64eead0ddef.jpg

ok means arrow as skillfully used weapon by Turkish societies). Kayı means strong and powerful. The symbol of Kayı has two arrows and a bow. D letter of Diriliş Ertuğrul (Resurrection Ertuğrul), has a horse, and a stylization of Kayı symbol. This typeface and initial use of letters symbolize the kingdom and empire periods that existed in the past. In the written sources of that period, the use of initial letters and the first letter decoration art are frequently encountered. In addition, the central composition, gold color and the quotes symbolize being traditional, determined, and strong. One of the posters of Resurrection Ertuğrul has a slogan. “The slogan is short, succinct. It says only one thing. It only makes one point. It does it well” (Book & Schick, 1998, p. 62). In the poster of Resurrection Ertuğrul (Figure 2) there is a slogan where the word “Justice forever, freedom forever” is used and emphasized. It contains the theme of justice, freedom, and national feelings. When the posters are viewed in terms of page layout, it is seen that they are prepared in a windowpictured layout. In the window pictorial layout, “often three quarters or more of the advertisement is devoted to image” (Book & Schick, 1998, p. 100). “In the world of cinematographic words, images of human take the main place, the human image joins the art of cinema as a universe consisting of complex

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Figure 2. Diriliş Ertuğrul (Resurrection Ertuğrul) poster design (Justice forever, freedom forever!)

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Source: https://i.pinimg.com/originals/57/89/87/5789874981c0f75679de512e514739ef.jpg

cultural signs” (Lotman, 2012, p. 69). The image can be a photograph, illustration, or graphics. All the posters have photographs at the background providing visual information about the series in general. There are portraits of people depicting characteristics, carrying various symbols of the period, culture. All posters have no negative space: The posters of Resurrection Ertuğrul have cloudy and foggy sky at the background. The posters of Magnificent Century have Ottoman ornament, decoration, and architectural elements at the background. Colors have a great importance in the adaptation of living things to their surroundings. Colors create a unique emotional loading in protection, housing, nutrition, and sexual behavior (Tuncer, 2019: 123). The colors of the posters of Resurrection Ertuğrul are grey and black based, they are not used bright and vibrant. This leads the audience to the typographic elements. The writings are on the image and they are gold and white colored.

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Figure 3. MuhteşemYüzyıl (Magnificent Century) Poster Design Source: https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1848220/mediaviewer/rm86556416/

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Graphic Design Principles (Balance, Proportion, Hierarchy, Continuity, Contrast, Integrity) Balance, a type of equal distribution of elements with visual weights, is one of the design principles. ... It shows itself in balance form, color, movement, light and dark (Çellek & Sağocak, 2014, p. 265). Looking at the distribution of design elements in all posters, it is seen that a symmetrical balance prevails on the page surface. Symmetrical balance expresses monotony, rigidity, limitation, order, and rule. Wellestablished and official institutions generally adopt the symmetrical design approach. The symmetrical balance has been also used in the posters of this work, which undertook the promotion of traditionalism and long-established historical serials. Proportion, hierarchy principles will be analyzed together due to the hierarchy on posters has been applied by arranging the proportions of the characters in the sequence in order of importance. Contrast is applied through colors (Magnificent Century), brightness and darkness (Resurrection Ertuğrul) of the posters. In the portraits of Resurrection Ertuğrul, the enemy’s face is darker (to reflect the bad side) and the Turkish warriors’ faces are brighter (to reflect the good side).

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Figure 4. MuhteşemYüzyıl (Magnificent Century) Poster Design

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Source: https://i.jeded.com/i/magnificent-century.133471.jpg

Integrity in posters have been applied by the typographic selection as used serif fonts to convey traditional style. As the placement of images, integrity is applied through colors, ornamental, decorative and symbolic usage to convey oriental (Magnificent Century) and occidental (Resurrection Ertuğrul) style. In addition, symmetric style is also used in all posters to reflect the traditional, cultural structure. Continuity has been carried out through poster design styles. Showing the protagonist’s (Ertuğrul) gaze as a trovachar also symbolizes determined gaze to the uncertain future.

Semiotic Analysis of Resurrection Ertuğrul and Magnificent Century See Table 1.

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Table 1. Semiotics analysis of posters of Resurrection Ertuğrul& Magnificent Century Series

Sign

Signifier

Signified

DirilişErtuğrul Resurrection Ertuğrul

• human • object • activity • environment

•the men, warriors (Ertuğrul and his team), army • war supplies, war clothes • hands holding war supplies tightly, fists • cloudy foggy weather, castle

•power, combat-ready stance • power, war • power, resistance, attack •uncertainty, tension

DirilişErtuğrul Resurrection Ertuğrul

• human • object • environment

•Ertuğrul from behind • hands holding war supply behind • cloudy foggy weather

•three-quarter portrait, looking away with a determined glance •ands firmly holding material refers to courage, fearlessness •uncertainty, tension

• human • object • environment

•self-confident posture, hierarchical order, places where the hands rest in men and women, bearded men, bright, well-groomed faces •quality fabrics, crown, embroidered materials •palace setting, ornate architecture •symmetrical composition, hierarchically ordered stance

• power, court nobility stance, management, pride •wealth, grandeur, vanity, orientalism •palace government hierarchy

MuhteşemYüzyıl Magnificent Century

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Semiotic Analysis of Resurrection Ertuğrul In the posters of Resurrection Ertuğrul, there is a masculine style. There are only men (warriors, leaders, army behind) in the posters. The men holding war materials have shown as powerful, confident, determined warriors. The objects seen in the posters are helmet, furry hide, thick coats, ax, sword, chained head protection, clothes made of leather, thick belts, beard. The posters carry various symbols to convey traditional, cultural, sociological traces. These symbols in Resurrection Ertuğrul posters are horse, Kayı symbol with two arrows and a bow, cross symbol to convey Christianity, the opposing power, different belief. War equipment in hands, strong, protective clothing on warriors reflect the historical term of the series. Symmetrical composition of portraits of warriors and two leaders reflects the historical, traditional, regulatory community of the period. The body positioning of the warriors is symbolized as being ready for war, being fearless, and brave. The big portrait behind the warriors is reflected as a Christian leader of enemy. His portrait is bigger, and he is located on top to show his hierarchical superiority. In the posters of Resurrection Ertuğrul, it is seen that masculine style is used. war, bravery, national values are handled mainly in grey and black. The foggy, cloudy grey sky reflects the uncertain, harsh living conditions. Being uncomfortable, alert, careful postures, hands tightly grasping the tools of war reflect the conditions of war process. The castle behind is one of the main environments where the story takes place. The army on horses moving with flags symbolizes community, unity, struggle. Golden color of the name of the series reflect glory, history, roots, and tradition.

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Semiotic Analysis of Magnificent Century

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Magnificent Century posters are designed in warm, bright colors to reflect the flamboyant, comfortable living conditions in the palace. Besides, the yellow, golden colors are used in Ottoman, oriental countries such as Arabic countries and Egypt. Golden colors are still used today to reflect the Eastern, Islamic countries. Ornaments and traditional motives are also illustrated in golden colors. The hands of the women in Magnificent Century poster reflect the woman’s posture during these days. The women also wear flashy, high-quality fabrics just as the Sultan. Looking at the clothes on the sultan, it is seen that expensive quality fabrics such as fur and velvet contain various golden motifs. The size of the rings on the sultan’s fingers, the jewels on it, the thick belt understood to be gold on his waist are also used as symbols of wealth, the palace, and the only ruler of the empire. The ring in the hand of the Sultan’s wife is also seen on the poster. In addition, the various rings, necklaces, jewelry, and crowns carried by other dynasty members are expensive, handmade, special designs used by the people living in the palace. Their presentation shows that they belong to the upper class as well as being indicators of wealth and luxury. It is not possible for civilians to use or buy the accessories and fabrics used by the people in the palace. Displaying historical series is a proof that class differences are normalized. It is imposed that expensive materials can only be used by the people of the palace and its surroundings as the upper class, and that these expensive materials are not products that the middle class or the working class or the people living in the village or the small-town can desire and buy. However, considering that it is possible to produce fast consumption products with imitation and similar materials (such as ring, necklace, crown), it has become possible to sell symbols, all kinds of accessories and various promotional materials belonging to the palace, or ancient Turkish societies. Here, it is possible to see the traces of the uniformity in fast consumption. Objects presented to the consumer with the reproduction of historical, cultural, and social materials are the identification indicators given to the public in different doses. This type of imitation increases the sales of products, so it can be said that certain indicators of the cultural memory processed in the series are effective in the formation of individuals’ identities and daily myths and influence the masses. In the posters of Magnificent Century, the power of the sultan is represented by the body posture, his foremost stance, his portrait, his gaze, and materials on him. The sword on the male character is a sign of strength and protection of the sultan. It is understood from standing behind the sultan with determined looking. This is just the unique war equipment in the poster. Most of other elements are related to the palace. Looking at the architectural structure in the background, the dome and flower depictions are indicators seen in Islamic countries due to human and portrait descriptions are forbidden in Islamic rules.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS TV series industry has now shifted to internet broadcasting with the development of media, technology, and internet usage. Although serial broadcasts in traditional media, national and international TV channel broadcasts continue, membership in different broadcast media on the internet is in demand. Internet broadcast has become more widespread with the pandemic process. Investigating the differences between traditional media and internet broadcast is important for studies in the field of communication. In terms of design, comparative analysis of visual promotion activities of TV series in traditional media 899

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and internet broadcasts can be performed. These analyzes can be performed more specifically by realizing the limitations in visual design products after restrictions such as theme, year, and target audience are made. For example, different design products such as poster designs, web interface page designs in mobile media, application designs, social media communication pages can be examined comparatively.

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CONCLUSION Throughout the study aiming to reflect the impact of orientalism, the scope is limited with two Turkish series thorough the period of Ottoman, Magnificent Century and Resurrection Ertuğrul posters selected as samples in this study have been analyzed descriptively in the context of graphic design elements (typography, image, layout, space, color), graphic design principles (balance, proportion, hierarchy, continuity, contrast, integrity). In addition, the posters were analyzed with semiotic method in terms of their orientalism and occidentalism. The poster of Resurrection Ertuğrul has occidental style according to the clues such as war equipment, clothing, symbols. Also, in the series, the living conditions are similar: living in tents, carrying symbols on tents, living condition on natural environment. In this perspective, it can be said that the posters of Resurrection Ertuğrul have similar characteristics of western countries. In the poster, the clothes of the two sides are similar, and the side of the warriors can be understood from the symbols they carry on their war clothes. On the other hand, the posters of Magnificent Century carry oriental symbols on clothing, accessories, headgear, rings, interior design items, ornaments. Since Magnificent Century is in the rise of the Ottoman, fictions usually take place inside the palace, the posters incorporate both female and masculine style. The sultan is at the forefront, his jewelry is eye-catching, there are oriental marks on his clothes. However, these characters are also depicted just as close. This stance symbolizes that they are also important characters after the sultan. As a result of the study, it can be said that using image, especially portraits of important characters in the series, emphasizing their qualitative characteristics is a frequently used method. Through the posters these portraits generally look directly in the frame, as looking to the viewer. Besides, the portraits are of the main characters are descripted with their most important aspects: gestures, looking, clothing, body posture, etc. Looking at the posters of the series examined within the scope of the study, it can be said that they have similar sides in terms of symmetrical composition, serif font, symbolic details reflecting cultural, sociological, religious specifications of the characters. The points where the posters diverge are masculine as reflecting outside, uncomfortable living conditions of war days (Resurrection Ertuğrul) and feminine style warm, flamboyant, fancy lifestyle of the palace. This reflects the diversity of living conditions. Historical series on Turkish TV have several common methods to convey messages to the audience such as national, religious unity, integrity, adherence to cultural values, accepted and applied ethical values. It is not possible to give these sub-messages in the posters of Magnificent Century and Resurrection Ertuğrul completely. However, looking at the signs, it is understood that the understanding of Turkish, Ottoman, Islam style is dominant. As a conclusion, the historical series carry common aims to convey these national, religious, cultural sub-messages to the digital immigrants and digital natives who adopt consumer culture, individual living conditions. In this perspective, the posters of the series are used as signs of valor, heroism, glorious past. The symbols of these messages are also used in the posters of the series that take the consumer 900

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from daily life and take the consumer from the past to a world in different doses. As a result, graphic design is a discipline that conveys the product / service it is obliged to promote to the audience through indicators, and to read these indicators, it is necessary to analyze variables such as time, condition, society, individual, culture.

REFERENCES Acun, F. (2000). İlk Osmanlılara Dair [On the First Ottomans]. Kebikeç İnsan Bilimleri İçin Kaynak Araştırmaları Dergisi, 10, 59-73. https://kebikecdergi.org/sayilar/sayi-10-icindekiler/ AkayA. (2005). Postmodernizm [Postmodernism]. L&M. Assman, J. (2015). Kültürel Bellek [Cultural Memory]. Ayrıntı. Baudrillard, J. (2008). Tüketim Toplumu [The Consumption Society]. Ayrıntı. Berger, J. (2005). Görme Biçimleri [Ways of Seeing]. Metis. Book, A. C. & Schick, C. D. (1998). Reklamcılıkta Metin ve Taslağın İlkeleri [Principles of Text and Draft in Advertising]. Yayınevi. Çellek, T., & Sağocak, A. M. (2014). Temel Tasarım Sürecinde Yaratıcılık [Creativity in the Basic Design Process]. Grafik Kitaplığı. Crowley, D. &Heyer, P. (2017). İletişim Tarihi [Communication History]. Siyasal. Dağtaş, B. (2009). Reklam Kültür Toplum [Advertising Culture Society]. Ütopya. Elden, M., & Kocabaş, F. (2008). Reklamcılık Kavramlar, Kararlar, Kurumlar [Advertising Concepts, Decisions, Institutions]. İletişim. Heller, S. & Vienne, V. (2016), Grafik Tasarımı Değiştiren 100 Fikir [100 Ideas That Changed Graphic Design]. Literatür. Hobsbawm, E. (2013). Parçalanmış Zamanlar - 20. Yüzyılda Kültür ve Toplum [Fractured Times- Culture and Society in the Twentieth Century]. Agora. İstek, R. (2004). Görsel İletişimde Tipografi ve Sayfa Düzeni [Typography and Page Layout in Visual Communication]. Pusula. Copyright © 2021. IGI Global. All rights reserved.

Levine, A. & Heller, R. (2020). Bağlanma [Attached]. Aganta. Little, S. (2016). …izmler: Sanat ıAnlamak […isms: Understanding Art]. Yem. Lotman, Y. M. (2012). Sinema Göstergebilimi [Cinema Semiotics]. Nirengi. Özdal, I. (2013). Oryantalizm, Görsel İzler ve Günümüz Fotoğraf Sanatı [Orientalism, Visual Traces and Contemporary Art of Photography]. Yedi: Journal of Art, Design & Science, 9, 61-73. https://dergipark. org.tr/tr/pub/yedi/issue/21842 Said, E. W. (1979). Orientalism. Vintage Books.

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Tuncer, M. U. (2019). Renk ve Halkla İlişkiler Üzerine: Logo Tasarımlarında Renklerin Duygusal Tamamlayıcı Rolü [On Color and Public Relations: The Emotional Complementary Role of Color in Logo Designs]. In B. A. Aytekin (Ed.), Renk ve Halkla İlişkiler Üzerine: Logo Tasarımlarında Renklerin Duygusal Tamamlayıcı Rolü (pp. 117–127). Nobel. Uştuk, H. (2019). ABD’den sonra en fazla dizi ihraç eden ülke Türkiye [After the United States the maximum number of series exporting countries Turkey]. https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/kultur-sanat/abddensonra-en-fazla-dizi-ihrac-eden-ulke-turkiye/1641524

ADDITIONAL READING Ambrose, G., & Harris, P. (2003). The Fundamentals of Creative Design. Avá (Posadas). Fuchs, C. (2008). Internet and Society. Social Theory in the Information Age. Routledge. Kalay, A. (1995). Türkiye’de Video ve Kitle Kültürü İlişkisi (Video and Mass Culture Relations in Turkey). İletişim. Twemlow: A. (2008). Grafik Tasarım Ne İçindir (What Is Graphic Design For). Dalsu Özgen (Trans.). YEM. Yanık, O. (2007). Yaratıcılık (Creativity). Reklam Yaratıcıları Derneği & Business Advertising Marketing Media.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Cultural Memory: It is the concept introduced by the German cultural scientists Aleida Assmann and Jan Assmann. It is a cultural accumulation that covers the traditions that have left traces from the past to the present through texts and images and guides the person in his behavior and daily life. Design Elements: The design elements that make up the graphic design product are classified as point, line, shape, color, texture, area, value. Design Principles: It is a set of rules that consists of balance, integrity, proportion, rhythm, emphasis, contrast, movement elements and that allows the design to be systematically formed. Digital Media: It is a digital medium based on the principle of coding content such as audio, video, photograph, and text. While digital media consists of encodings at the software stage, it offers the reader, the audience, and the consumer the opportunity to see these encodings on the screen as audio, video, photo, text. Graphic Design: It is the producing process of two-dimensional or three-dimensional, digital or printed designs following certain design principles and rules in order to promote a product or service, to convey information about a subject, to visualize an idea and theoretical knowledge, in short, to ensure the transfer of information to the reader, consumer, viewer through image and writing. Commonly used elements in a graphic design product are format, name / logo, typography, image (illustration, photograph, graphics).

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Orientalism: Edward Said’s concept includes the aim of dominating the East. It is a system of thought based on the definition of the traditions and rules of the East from their own framework by the Western government, intellectuals, and interpretation through marginalization. Poster Design: It is a graphic design product prepared for the purpose of introducing, conveying information, changing thoughts and behaviors in the desired direction. It is examined in three areas as advertising, cultural and social posters. Semiotics: It is a field that includes various theories that enable systematic interpretation of signs in images. Semiotics is an expanded science with contributions from Peirce, Saussure, and Roland Barthes.

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Chapter 51

Orientalist Discourse in Communication and Media: Analysis of Researches in the Field of Media and Communication in Terms of Orientalism Nihal Toros Ntapiapis Üsküdar University, Turkey Ezgi Kunacaf Independent Researcher, Turkey

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ABSTRACT Today’s people fall into the advertising network more and more every day with the developing technology. The modern world is exposed to many written and visual images in this area. All these images contain a whole of meanings. Advertising, which is one of the concepts that afects and transforms society, is also a collection of messages. While conveying his messages, the facts that create and transform society, cultures, and identities, and creation processes occur in this context. The created advertisements, the concepts of self, and the “other,” East and West, have existed since the formation of human history and have been infuenced from time to time, and the Orientalist, re-orientalist perspective has shown itself in the advertisements. The underdevelopment of the East is a discourse aimed at religion, language, and races. The West spreads its Orientalist discourse to the world through mass media. This research investigates the orientalism efects in media and communication regarding how the media and communication feld is afected by Orientalism.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch051

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 Orientalist Discourse in Communication and Media

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INTRODUCTION The dictionary meaning of the word Orientalism is Eastern Science, and its other meaning is to seek information about the East. Although Orientalism stands before us as a branch of science, defining it as a kind of “engineering of Eastern cultures and civilizations” is possible. In other words, Orientalism is a process developed by the West in order to dominate the East, to restructure it according to its interests. The name of the long-lasting process has fueled the Muslim-Christian divide for centuries and defined the East through the West’s eyes. Orientalism is a historical phenomenon that was disciplined centuries ago and integrated with colonialism and missionary. For the West, the East has been a subject of interest and curiosity for different reasons for centuries. East’s culture, philosophy, art, religion, history, etc. It is seen that it is a material for orientalist research in a wide range of fields. Studies on the East / West attract attention as proof that the two communities have mutual communication at all times. Sometimes these studies are done to get to know the enemy better, sometimes for reasons such as curiosity and interest in the East or creating a mystical, mysterious, exotic East. It is possible to gather the studies in this field under orientalist studies heading in the most basic sense. Societies’ imaginations of ‘I’ affect their perception of ‘other’ in an absolute way as there is a connection between the self’s perception and the other individual or society that sees the other as an opportunity and wealth. Moreover, a connection between the other’s perception of the individual or society sees others as “hell.” The fact that a community that sees itself ontologically at the center of the universe does not hesitate to see others, that is, the “other” as “barbarian,” “pariah” is closely related to the self-concept (Kalın, 2007: 7). In this context, the East of the West’s perception expresses the whole of real or imaginary images it has formed about another civilization and shows how the West has an “I” vision and self-consciousness (Kalın, 2007: 17). Therefore, the history of Orientalism also presents the history of Western consciousness. Edward Said, in his Orientalism, He states that the Westerners, while dealing with the East, act from their views and assumptions, make their dreams speak, and draw a fabricated view of the East that suits the West’s interests. While looking at the East, Western consciousness looks at itself from the opposite and expresses itself consciously or unconsciously. Orientalism, which we can define as the West’s imagination about the East, is a field that we can encounter in every point of the Western mind world from art to science, from literature to politics. Even though the exact date of Orientalism’s origin cannot be revealed according to many researchers, some researchers attribute the emergence of the concept to the establishment of Arab Chairs in various Western universities by the Vienna Council in 1312. The concept was accepted as an academic discipline starting from the last quarter of the 18th-century to the 19th century. It is seen that the studies on the East continue their existence in various fields and different tracks (Bulut 2004: 1-10). Until the 18th century, the aim of Orientalism was: While the West was to create an East that is entirely different from itself, at the end of the century, the Western countries took on the mission of educating, developing, helping, and civilizing the Eastern countries. It seems to have aimed to create an East that serves its ideological purposes. Revealing the differences of this established East becomes a way to benefit from the blessings of the East. Thus, it is seen that the East has become supported in order to be controlled by the West. While some East / West views view orientalist studies positively, some do not accept the objectivity and accuracy of these studies and adopt a negative attitude towards orientalist studies. In the 1970s, studies 905

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that looked negatively on orientalist studies became apparent, especially with Edward Said, Said’s book Orientalism was both the name father of the word, and after this study, such studies were intensified. TV series, movies, advertisements, and books are essential media tools that shape life and reflect cultural factors. These tools should be evaluated and made sense in the context of their societies. As a means of carrying ideologies and messages, advertisements have often become one of the current order’s building blocks. Advertisements and films, which are one of the devices that society used as support in change and development, have been the order’s help. Especially advertisements, which contain orientalist discourses by producers confined to Western media’s point of view, repeatedly reproduce this discourse. In advertisements where East and West’s concepts are constructed with the West’s eyes, the East’s Orientalization contributes to the production of re-orientalism and internalizes the indigenous orientalist discourse within the system. Stereotypical thoughts meet with the masses with the images, images, and texts produced by the Orientalist and reorientalist discourse (Şişli,2017).

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ORIENTALISM AND OCCIDENTALISM The dictionary meaning of the word is Eastern Science. Its origin is based on the Latin word ‘Oriens,’ which refers to the sunrise and indicates the East in a geographical sense. Orientalism, from a cultural or even ideological point of view, is a form of reasoning that has institutions, words, sciences, descriptions, teachings, concepts behind it. Orientalism is the “knowledge of the East” placed in the handbook, which is a reference for examining, criticizing, judging, disciplining, or managing Eastern objects. The common name was given to all Western-based and western-centered research areas in which Near and Far Eastern societies and cultures, languages, and peoples are examined. Orientalism is a political doctrine that finds the East’s difference envisaged as “the West’s domination over the East” because the East is weaker than the West. It has been used to describe the Eastern studies of Americans and Europeans. In this sense, Orientalism points to the marginalizing and prejudiced interpretations of the Western European white man after the Enlightenment age towards Eastern rights and culture. The most famous person who uses the term from this point of view and in a negative sense in his books - especially in Orientalism (1978) - is Edward Said. Said Orientalism; It defines it as all the efforts made for learning, guiding, and ultimately using the societies other than the West (Sarı, 2008). Edward Said is the person who can adopt it as the field of scientific investigation. Edward Said, one of the influential intellectuals of the twentieth century, made a new interpretation of the East-West relationship with his work Orientalism, which he published in 1978. According to Said, based on the knowledge-power relationship, the West has produced an imaginary East to justify others’ colonial intentions and realize this purpose (Çoruk, 2007: 193). According to Said (2013: 13), orientalism “by making determinations about the Orient, legitimizing its views, describing it, teaching it, settling there, ruling-dealing with it, in short, dominates the Orient, reconstructs the Orient, It is a Western-style used to establish authority over the Orient. The starting point in Orientalism is a fictional reality rather than an empirical reality. In Said’s (2013: 82) statement, “Everybody who has adopted Orientalism, which means the habit of dealing with problems, objects, qualities, and regions, which are considered to belong to the Orient, will show, name, sign, fix, and thus what they talk about or think about with a word or phrase. This word will either be considered to gain reality or to be reality itself. “However, the fictional world created by the West about the East is not “an 906

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outrageous European dream about the Orient” (Said 2013: 16); Orientalist creates representations of the East per his interests by changing and transforming the East, which exists as a concrete region, on a fictional plane. Thus “The Orient of the Orientalist is not the Orient itself, but the Orientalized Orient.” (Said, 2013: 114). In Orientalism, which was first published in 1978 and considered a “paradigm-building work,” Edward Said examined an ancient writing tradition stemming from Europe’s cultural, political, and economic interests connected with the East. The work was neither the first book to examine the subject of Orientalism, nor did it criticize Orientalism. Edward Said’s work in 1978 marks the beginning of a very active discussion on Orientalism. It is possible to mention some of the figures who had thought about Orientalism before him and made specific criticisms of Western Orientalist thought, especially its methodology: Muhammed el-Behiy, Malik Bin Nebi, Mustafa Sibai, Meryem Cemile, Mohammed Khalifa, MM Ahsan, Enver Abdulmalik, Abdullah Laroui, Yves Lacoste, AL Tibawi, Talal Esad, Bryan S. Turner, et al. However, none of them have achieved the effect of Said’s book. The subject is not new, either. However, the influence of Said’s work has been much more substantial than its predecessors. It can be summarized as “the distortion of the East’s historical, cultural and social facts in the direction of the West’s interests.” The determination that Orientalism is “the science of imperialism” is the result of Western studies to a great extent. This unique and self-interested interest of the West in the East can be briefly expressed as an “exploration arm of colonialism.” Orientalism started with the Crusader Wars. When the West discovered that Muslims were excellent in science, morality, and character; He started to make plans and projects corrupt the Islamic civilization (Sarı, 2008). In the eyes of Westerners, the Easterners stand out above all with their Muslim identity. One of the main drivers of the orientalist approach to the East is religious opposition (Şahin, 2015). By the theory of Orientalism, the fictional text, not the author, is responsible for the orientalist discourse. In the Orientalist discourse, in which the truth or falsity of any information produced about the East is not subject to questioning, in any form of representation produced about the East, the orientalist discourse formed by various forms of representation about the East should be focused on, not the author who is the producer of the Eastern representation. Foucault (2014: 79), who is the source of inspiration regarding this quality of discourse by Said, draws attention to the discourse itself, not to the particular, with his statement that “the rules of formation are not within the” mentality “or consciousness of the individuals but within the discourse itself. Therefore, what is essential in the orientalist discourse is not the individual producers of the texts that make up the discourse, but the discourse itself. Said’s competence and wealth of knowledge in his field have certainly been useful in making Orientalism sound so much. As Holbrook accurately noted, “The genius of Orientalism was that it said something we all know, but added the legitimacy of the educational institution to it” (2000, p. 6). Also, the fact that a person closely related to the Palestinian cause is also a Palestinian Christian Arab is another essential factor. Said is not restricting the word “orientalism” to professional expertise and trying to show that the word is in effect in the context of general culture, literature, and ideology. Social and political attitudes should be mentioned as another factor that makes the work meaningful. Using Foucault’s formulation of knowledge-power, Said, demonstrating how power and knowledge (the colonial West and the orientalist knowledge) are in an unavoidable relationship with each other, Said, thus claiming that his research up to that time was impartial and motivated by academic curiosity. He also had a significant impact by showing how the orientalists, who awaited the unquestionable acceptance of their determinations, formed the “facts” they examined objectively in a value-oriented manner (Holbrook, 2000).

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The East’s alienation concerning the West is achieved by attributing the “non-existent” features of the West, which is the subject, to the East, which has been negated and turned into an object (Yeğenoğlu, 2017: 15). As for the Europeans’ view of the East: the image of the East in Europe emerges in the Western product orientalism, which is based on the Eastern descriptions such as “destructive, murderous, barbarian, wicked.” Visits from Europe started from the 15th century, and continuing increase in the 18th and 19th centuries left significant visual and written legacies. Romanticism and Orientalism, which prevailed in Europe, developed parallel with the century’s social, economic, scientific, and cultural developments. Along with these trends, the interest and curiosity of the westerner towards the eastern and eastern peoples have increased. With the development of trade and the improvement of travel conditions, the East, an imaginary image, has become visible. These travels produced two essential products: Travelogues and engravings. Clergymen, travelers, and artists have been trying to identify, document, and present what they see in these lands through painting since the Byzantine period. The mysterious Eastern country and way of life have become meaning and subject to the art of engraving. City landscapes, topographic images, mosques, streets, harbors, and many cities’ daily lives, especially Istanbul, have become living spaces in many artists’ engravings (Çalışkan, 2016). Orientalism appears not only in European painting but also in a wide range of art circles such as architecture and photography. One of the most striking areas in this broad framework is undoubtedly graphic design. It is seen that Orientalist images are frequently used in examples such as advertisements and billboards by European graphic artists. In short, this time, graphic designers undertook the task of Orientalist paintings. These artists have fondly used the mysterious and exotic East in advertisements and billboards, hoping to reach the consumers (Deveci & Güzel, 2018). This situation, which Hentsch (1996: 17) describes as the “distortion of geopolitical place names,” is a force for producing regions and categories as taking the whole West as a center and defining cultural and cultural characteristics that remain outside the West as fixed categories. Cause to create. While none of the West, East, or other regions are simply real geographic locations, “divisions and distances make the East not simply another place or culture, but a radically different from the West, both less civilized and mysterious, exotic and fantastic. as space” (Keyman, Mutman, & Yeğenoğlu, 1996: 8) historically and discursively. According to Yumul (2003: 20), who thinks that spatial distinctions such as East and West are primarily built on difference, descriptive and classifying metaphors that produce a consciousness of separation and otherness in our minds have also started to dominate spatial relations. One of the main ways to emphasize that East and West are different is to create two geographically different areas and create a world of meanings that define and describe East and West and fill in these two areas. However, the East’s area and the exact opposite of the West, where it will be established, is imaginary and limitless enough to include everything as the West itself or does not regard as its direct extension. In other words, “geopolitical boundaries will never be apparent since there is an imaginary line” (Hentsch, 1996: 10). According to Orientalism, the West constitutes the world’s center, and other regions form the West’s periphery. It is believed that the Western people, who are in the center of the world, are responsible for developing the other region’s people who form their environment. Thus, the humanization of the indigenous Indians who are not even human beings will then start modernizing Eastern societies. Interest and curiosity about Eastern societies have increased, and the process of Orientalism arose out of this curiosity and the need for colonial resources. Irwin (2008: 11) explains the change in the meaning of Orientalism in its historical course. In the 21st century, the word ‘orientalist’ in French defines those dealing with issues specific to the Levant (not China and India). As used in England, ‘orientalist’ primarily pointed

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to a style rather than a scientific discipline. However, at the beginning of the 19th century, he stated that it points to studying Asian language and culture. Although colonialism has changed its form and approach over time, it continues today. Having found different ways of exploiting, the West may now prefer Global slavery rather than colonize overtly. While globalization should lead people to a more equal and free life, postmodernist hedonism (hedonism) imposed by the mass consumption culture necessitates a continuously consuming structure and is limited by the urge to enjoy it. Defending that Globalism offers an alternative to Orientalism, Bryan S. Turner explains the subject in his work on Orientalism in the postmodernist period; “To know is to dominate. Orientalist discourse is ultimately an essential and continuous framework of analysis expressed through theology, literature, philosophy, and sociology, a sphere in which imperialist relations are expressed and an entire field of political power. Orientalism has created a character typology organized around the contrast between the realist Western and the lazy Eastern. Orientalism’s task was to transform the East’s infinite complexity into specific types, characters, and institutions. Therefore, the quotations presenting the Exotic Orient in its accessible systematic table of knowledge were a specific cultural product of Western domination.” “Orientalism is the name of a great knowledge structure in which the spoken words, studies, travel books, memories, in short, a world of life called” East, “are described and portrayed about the East he founded” (Arlı, 2009: 16). Edward Said questioned this categorization that forms the basis of Orientalist discourses, called Orientalism “an exercise of cultural power” and made a long history study arising from Europe’s cultural, political, and economic interests East. In today’s age of unlimited communication, it is the best time to cross the border. Massignon, also an orientalist, shows what needs to be done for this to happen: “In order to understand the other, it is necessary to be his guest, not to include him (Türkbağ, 2002). ‘Occidentalism’ is the opposite of Orientalism. So, just as “Orientalism” means looking at Eastern societies through Western glasses, “Occidentalism” means looking at Western societies through the glasses of the “East” (Yavuz, 1998). The origin of the word Occidentalism comes from “occido” in Latin. “Occido” is used to mean landing, setting the sun. Later this word was transferred to French, and it is now considered as a French word. The word arose from the combination of “occidental” and “ism” words. “Occident” is used to express the West as “ism” and it is a science or doctrine (Çaycı, 2015: 41). The word “Oriental” means “Eastern” or “belongs to the East” in French, and the word “occidental” means “Western” or “belongs to the West” (Salkım, 2015: 10). The concept of occidentalism focuses on the East’s approach to the West, which can constitute a general subject. Conceptually, occidentalism is the reversal of the tendency to define the other that dominates the orientalist discourse, namely the East, through clichés. It can be said that the tendency to marginalize based on the conceptual opposition of the East and the West emerged with the dominance of the modern West centrist perception. Therefore, it would be appropriate to bring the historical background of the concept of occidentalism as far back and deep as the historical religions and civilization conflicts (Kılıç, 2006: 126- 127). It is divided it into Occident / West and Orient / East (Okumuş, 2002). As Hasan Hanafi often emphasizes, it will be occidentalism in the sense of Western studies as opposed to Orientalism that expresses oriental studies (Ahatlı, 2002). When we define occidentalism as the dependent variable of Orientalism and position its historicity after its encounter with modernism, the classification to be made in the period we live requires that modernism be centered on us. In this context, we believe that it would be appropriate to classify the concept of occidentalism in two main channels: First, the maneuver of the Arab elite to address the West in its 909

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language, and secondly, the will that instrumentalizes modernization in line with its desire to develop. Under the leadership of Hasan Hanefi, his approach to occidentalism, which has meaning as a maneuver of addressing the West with his language, anger towards the West, and the reflection of Orientalism in the mirror, glorifies the East by alienating the West in five subtitles (Özçelik, 2015).

ORIENTALISM IN COMMUNICATION AND MEDIA Radio, television, cinema, and other media culture products are our own identities, our view of ourselves, our thoughts about our being male or female; They provide materials that we use to shape our perceptions of class, ethnic differences, race, nationality, and sexuality, and finally our perception of “us” and “them.” According to Kellner, media demonstrations reveal who is strong or weak, who is capable of exercising power and brutality, and who is incapable, legitimizing the situation of those who have power and giving the message to the helpless to stay where they are (Kellner, 1996: 1–2). The acquisition of information about many events happening in the world and making evaluations and opinion formation about these events relies heavily on the media discourse shared by millions of people. Media discourse is shared in less time than many types of discourse and by more people. In this respect, this critical power of news discourse is the close examination of news reports, diagrams, headlines, and style; It is essential in the context of understanding the practices of political, economic, social, and cultural power and the discourses that legitimize these practices and the acquisition of these discourses (Van Dijk, 2003: 53).

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Orientalism and Cinema Orientalism, an anthropological and philological occupation, has gone through many stages until today. Today, Orientalism is still as intense as it used to be and still preserves its feature of being a science and study field based on the description. Orientalism used its old methods to depict the East until the nineteenth century. The emergence of new media such as photography and cinema, which accelerated the ideological spread in the nineteenth century and later, can be considered a new stage in terms of the ideological spread of Orientalism. Orientalism uses these cultural apparatuses for its purposes and continues its ideological functioning, taking into account the propaganda characteristics of cinema and photography, such as the cultivation of ideas and the current popularity of these media and their societies’ orientation. If Orientalism is regarded as the basis of research, it can be determined that the Orientalist thought the shape of the “East” being othering it and how it followed to depict the East as an enemy while shaping it (Hepdinçler, 2006). Orientalist discourse; It is associated with colonial (imperialist), economic and political forces, which means that the ideological imagination is also related to these forces. In this new form of Orientalism; The East is not only the opposite of the West but also a terrorist and threatening enemy (Ekinci, 2014). Said tried to emerge Orientalism through a critical reading of literary texts. However, it is possible to see orientalist representations in every field today. Such representations can also be seen in cinema, a useful tool for combining images with text and the audiences it reaches. Hollywood-based cinemas, in particular, contain rich examples in this context. The fact that Third World and Immigrant cinema produce cinemas with orientalist representations, in addition to Hollywood cinema, is an indication that the West does not only realize Orientalism. It is possible to see this situation, especially in the films 910

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Slumdog Millionaire and Süreyya’nın Stoning, which were released recently. In this context, self Fatih Akin and the two directors of Turkish Ferzan Ozpetek films / reading auto oriental analysis revealed the same condition. It can be said that these two directors’ perceptions of their geography and culture, like the examples in Third World Cinema, are shaped by an orientalist perspective in spatial and subjective terms (Kaya, 2010).

Orientalism and Photography The selection of 19th-century photography and photographers as research objects for a study on Orientalism is related to his ability to represent non-Western modernities and create a universe of social and cultural knowledge, especially concerning the East. With Orientalism moving beyond the daily life discourse in the 19th century and transforming into literary and scientific discourse practices and institutionalizing, all kinds of East’s experiences were internalized by the West and the establishment of an East built (or pointed) as the other. On the other hand, photography emerges as a useful tool in drawing material boundaries representing this otherness. The mediation of photography in the description of the East’s cultural and social practices plays an active role in forming the West’s visual memory related to the East and the permanence of the stereotypes about the East. Travel books and travel guides dating back to the 15th century, and Orientalism concepts, which developed first in literature and then painting in the 19th century, prepared a vast literature for Eastern knowledge. In the 19th century, with the discovery of photography, fairs, exhibition halls, and postcards were included in the public space, and towards the end of the century, photographs that could be called Orientalist gained change in daily life and became commercialized (Hepdinçler, 2006). In today’s world, which the East and West have achieved by transforming the accumulation of their past, it is essential to draw attention to the photographs that are engraved in history and constitute the visual memory, to question their “reality” and the purpose they serve, in terms of creating consciousness. This consciousness created is a concrete structure that will remain for tomorrow to realize the power of photography and reveal this power again in today’s life where the unknown gradually decreases, and exploration has become a privilege. Time is the time to live the “different” without alienating it, realizing it. If photography is the mirror of time, in a world where images increase, it stands before us today as the simplest way to make “reality” visible. The biggest deception of the photographer is the ‘objective reality’ deception at the very beginning. It is the photographer’s eye that makes the decision, not the objective. In oriental typing, a dark gaze is an essential tool for interpreting character deprivation, alienation, and inviting (Karadağ, 2008).

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Orientalism and Paint Among the most important painters who produced Orientalist works were Frederick Arthur Bridgman (1847--1928), Eugène Delacroix (1798--1863), Jean-Leon Gerome (1824--1904), Frederick Goodall (1822-1904), John Frederick Lewis (1805--1876), countable. During the Ottoman Empire, many painters came to Istanbul and produced orientalist works. The most important of these are François Dubois (1790-1871), Jean Schranz (1794--1872), Amadeo Preziosi (1816--1882), Eugene Fromentin (1820--1876), Felix Ziem (1821--1911), Fabius Brest (1823--1900).), Jean Leon Gerome (1824-1904), Philippe Bello (1831-1911), Leonardo De Mango (1843-1930), Varnia Zarjecki (1850-?), Fausto Zonaro (1854-1929), and Salvatore Valery (1856-1946)) is. In Turkey, the great painter and museum director can compete 911

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with them on the subject of Orientalist its subject acquirer and technical Osman Hamdi (1842-1910) Eastern replaces the stage of history as an orientalist (Frosty’s, 2007). Paintings and photographs with orientalism content, primarily to recognize and introduce places visited, landscapes, architecture, archeology, etc. It was determined that it consists of topographic pictures and photographs. According to the West, the pictures and photographs that determine the Ottoman society’s social and cultural characteristics in the “Eastern” position are divided into two. First, clothes, goods, places, etc. belonging to that culture for information purposes. They are ethnographic records. The second is imaginary, fictional paintings for commercial purposes shaped by the sense of curiosity evoked by the palace’s lifestyles and the wealthy group, such as the harem, which have become the symbol of the eastern lifestyle in the West’s eyes. In these paintings, particular objects and formal fictions belonging to the Eastern culture are repeated continuously, so the images have become clichés, and images have become archetypes. This point of view, unique to the art of painting, was also repeated by photographers from Ottoman subjects, who determined images of Ottoman society’s lifestyle. Therefore, they have become a part of reality (Özdal, 2013). The Orientalism trend seen in Europe in the 19th century reached an advanced level with the trips to the cities where Islamic architecture and art were intense. The travel book containing the observations of these trips and the engravings that decorate them have increased the curiosity and interest in Islamic culture in Europe for centuries. In the 19th century, with the influence of Orientalism, Western travelers and artists’ attention was North Africa and the Middle East lands of the Ottoman Empire at that time. The major cities of the Ottoman Empire, such as Istanbul, Cairo, Jerusalem, Damascus, and Beirut, are among the places visited by traveling writers and painters and depicted in their memoirs and paintings (Güzel, 2019).

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Orientalism and Literature The reflection of orientalist studies in literature appears as “oriental exoticism.” Especially in England, a country that carried out colonialism as its most common policy, orientalism was very popular between the years 1785-1830 due to the influence of political developments. In this period, the word oriental in England was used to mean the east of Europe, or belonging to the Mediterranean or Asia, but for everything that is not British. In other words, oriental equals other. The first impact of Orientalism on English Literature started with the translation of One Thousand and One Nights Tales from French to English between 1705 and 1708. Lord Byron (1788-1824) “Infidel”; Frances Sheridan (1724-1766) “History of Nurhayat,” Sir Willliam Jones (1746-1794) “Palace of Fortune,” Clara Reeve (1729-1807) “Queen of Egypt,” William Beckford (1760-1844) “Vathek,” WS Landor (1775-1864) “Gebir,” Thomas Moore (1779-1852) “Lalla Rookh” were influenced by orientalism. As a result of new research on this subject, a book with romantic poems and stories written by Sheridan, Beckford, and Byron was published by New Riverside Edition in 2002 with the title “Three Oriental Stories” (Ayazlar, 2017). The dangerous combination of power and knowledge emerges as one of Western literature’s oldest themes (Parla, 2001). The most important example of the influence of Orientalism in French Literature is seen in the novel “Salammbô” by Gustave Flaubert (1821-1880). In this work, ancient Carthage in North Africa is an obstacle to ancient Rome (Ayazlar, 2007). The situation created by the contradictions such as staying between the West and the East, feeling close to the West while considering the East in the West’s eyes, has also shown its effects in Turkish literature. This situation, which can be observed mostly in novels, has been a subject of study since the 912

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Tanzimat Period when the novel genre began to enter in Turkish literature. The echo of the Ottoman State’s attempts to take the West as an example was reflected in the novels. Modernization and progress studies progressed through the characters of the novel. On the one hand, there have been writers who expressed discomfort with the apparent emphasis on Westernization, on the other hand, that national values are no longer critical. Orhan Pamuk frequently uses Westernization and being between two worlds and disidentified in his novels. Since Pamuk, a wealthy family member, was born and raised in Nişantaşı, one of the most elite and wealthy sections of Istanbul, his own life’s effects are also significant in the formation. It leads a life relatively close to the Western world (Şahin, 2015). It is possible to say that the influence of the orientalist discourse in Turkish literature started in the Tanzimat period (Gürbilek, 2016: 32). The first orientalist texts seen in the form of social criticism have reached very advanced dimensions today. Postmodernism increased its influence in Turkish literature after the 1980s, enabling writers to expand their freedom areas. This movement, which aims to break literary traditions and push the boundaries of literature, has little sensitivity to reality. In this respect, it can be seen against traditional literature (Kolcu, 292: 2016). During the siege of Vienna in 1683, Ottoman Army Mehter Team Music, a military musical genre, was listened to by the Viennese behind the city walls during the blockade. Since Turks left the city, the music was not remembered in detail and remained memories as European imagination. Thus, even though the abolished siege of Vienna ended the Turkish Spread, the remembrance of the Turks, who dared to take over the West, in music from a European perspective, while having oriental influences on European music, at the same time created a reason for Europeans to remember the pride of victory. Among the best examples of the period, W.A. Mozart’s (1756-1791) ‘s Turkish Anthem (Marcha Turka). Features of the 18th century Turkish Style; First, repeating trills, 2/4 march rhythm, insistent tonic pedal use, ornaments made with generally incompatible interval notes, octave interval melodies, and mostly triple intervals are used as harmonic structure (Ayazlar, 2007). Ahmet Mithat Efendi, who strived to recognize and introduce the Western civilization in all its aspects, undertook a mission that guided the society during the transition and crisis period of the Ottoman Empire. Using literature to inform the public and raise awareness, the author did not hesitate to reflect his intellectual attitude even in novels and translations. Ahmet Mithat did not remain silent against the criticisms that came from the West, generally against the Islamic civilization in particular, and opposed them with his pen (Eskin, 2018).

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Orientalism and Mass Media Mass media are among the most effective means of ideology production in which ideas are presented clearly within the social structure. New types of communication and mass media developing in parallel with societies’ development processes also played a significant role in transforming social structures in terms of thought. The mass media/press organizations, which have assumed the duty of protecting the national integrity of the country from time to time, caused the society to gather around a particular idea instead of observing the social balances by refereeing the events in some periods and even made publications that would disrupt the constitutional order of the society. Newspapers, which emerged in the first quarter of the 17th century, have reached today’s ideology production tools by shaping their development within the framework of political focuses and economic forces (Dursun, 2009). International media organizations, which have the power to gather news from all over the world, view the news they make about the East with the West’s eyes and, therefore, in a sense, prejudiced. People who 913

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follow the news about East are mostly the reporters sent because of an incident there, and these reporters were generally trained in orientalist discourses. Even if the reporter lives in the mentioned place, he is Eastern; his news gets different when sent to the office because it is tailored to the media organization’s identity. In the news about the East, it is a matter of breaking away from reality and placing it in the West’s reality. The West perceives the East, together with its traditional image, and evaluates the events occurring within this scope. Reporters cannot evaluate the event that has taken place together with the area’s political, economic, social, and historical conditions (Kocabay, 2017). It is possible to see the traces of the West’s orientalist perception regarding the East to make sense of what happened in the Arab geography in many parts of the universe or many media tools (Babacan et al., 2011). In recent years, the digital world’s technology-based growth has enabled East Asian countries, which channel their investments in this direction to the fore. Many technological innovations such as computer processors, camera equipment, mobile phone devices, electric cars, data storage devices, and video game consoles are produced in East Asian countries and spread worldwide. In his time, travelers, historians, and researchers created the East’s imaginary image with novels, encyclopedias, or paintings, and nowadays, he produces video games, series, and films. After Said conceptualizes Orientalism, the relations between East and West are redefined according to power and power relations. In a sense, Orientalism is the West’s vision of being developed, powerful, and modern in the East’s mental world. Western societies show the countries or societies that conflict with them for economic, political, and technological power in the world of mind as bad, passive, and inferior. Techno-orientalist thought is an effort to prove to East Asian countries first and then to the whole world that the West is still strong, especially in the context of America. Techno-orientalist discourses are imaginary images that are not like that but are projected as accurate (Becerikli, 2020). Most writers who criticize Orientalism point out that the media is despising the East, stating what is not what it is rather than what it is, and always aiming to reveal the superiority of the “other” side by describing the East with a lack and lack, and thus the media works in line with Western interests. The media has described the East as different and inferior to the West and placed in an ‘other’ position. This process started with travel books, books, and magazines when radio and television were not ordinary. These made it possible to create and re-transform the East piece by piece. Keyman et al. (1996), who questioned the creation process of the “other,” stated that the division of the world into directions such as East, West, North, and South has turned into specific information for us, and if the world is round, when determining the directions and spatial distinctions, “where” is considered as the center, It raises the question of why the West rigidly fixes itself as the center in geography and in determining directions (Keyman et al. 1996). In her work, Şişli addresses the Orientalist and re-orientalist discourse in Turkish Airlines and Cococola advertisements and states that the orientalist language divides the world into two as the West and the East is seen in the advertisements in which repeat the words “I-the other,” “East-West,” and “EasternWestern,” the language arts, word games, messages to the target audience were delivered. The interest and excitement of the target audience were kept alive with the deliberate diversions made with slogans. As a result; With its success in delivering its message to its target audience and the benefits, it provides to the brand, advertisements that get a passing grade sometimes fail with their distinctive language and perspective (Şişli, 2017). Considering the orientalist approach towards Turkish identity in The Simpsons and Friends on TV: Turks are seen in the “other” position due to the historical and cultural values they have by the Western states that have placed themselves at the center of the “self.” Thanks to their media power, Western 914

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states embody this marginalization of Turks through mass media and ensure the dissemination of the data they produce. Although the West is the symbol of modernity and superiority in the discourse used by the West against the Turks; Turks are still considered as a whole with the Ottoman culture, continuing their identification with Islam, backwardness, bigotry, being projected as a symbol of barbarism, should the country name is made sarcastic jokes over success both through Turkey. It has been stated that the orientalist discourse towards Turks finds its place in the media, especially in television productions that are easy to access, a reality created by the West is reached through the channels, and manipulative and marginalizing interpretations are created with subtext (Sarı et al., 2019). The practices of patriarchal ideology are among the orientalism practices of the West. Patriarchal ideology has similarities and commonalities with Orientalism. Just as patriarchal ideology marginalizes women and makes them vulnerable to exploitation, Orientalism also marginalizes the East and makes it open to exploitation. In Orientalist thought, the West created the desired East by keeping the East alive in minds as an object of pleasure. The East has become exotic to the West and being created as if it had to be penetrated. In an Orientalist framework, these women and their families will not be able to discard their Eastern identity wherever they go in the world, and in return, they will always be crushed and in a secondary position. Women are represented in films as oppressed, condemned to live in secondary positions, while men are represented as selfish, unsympathetic, rude, uneducated, aggressive, irrational, and exploitative. Men’s situation differs from women in terms of status, education, position, and personal rights when films are subjected to feminist criticism. However, when these films are evaluated from an orientalist perspective, the difference between men and women is reduced to a cultural level; thus, they represent common. Eastern men and women are also depicted in the same line, as uneducated, need to be exploited, rude, manageable, indecisive, and primitive. Certain stereotypes are also seen in men’s representations, and the primary source of this point of view is that the representations of men in the orientalist discourse are based on textual reality directed in a particular direction (Çözeli, 2019).

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SOLUTIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS Orientalism is an academic term used in art history, literature, and cultural studies. The basis of orientalism, which includes many negative experiences and dualities in which the west is mostly described as “positive-negative” features, lies in the mind of the west rather than being geographic, but two life and understanding styles that are separated from each other with clear lines (Gülaçti, 2018). According to Bauman’s definition of ‘the other’, modernity, as required by the certainty principle of positive science understanding, is obliged to define the other, whom he sees as a threat element, as an enemy although he does not know it at all, ignores and takes away his right to life (Kahraman, 2016: 395). The only thing that is at the basis of orientalist thought; the knowledge and mindset of the eastern nations, which is different and universal than the western ones, should be western knowledge and mindset. According to the result, nations that learn about their past evaluations from westerners believe that there is no significant history and knowledge. Because the west has inscribed in the minds that the only civilization on the earth’s surface is western civilization, from this, it is implied that the eastern nations should resemble westerners. Resembling something is possible by giving up oneself. That is not to be himself. Just as the individual can exist with what is against him and define himself, the west owes its existence to what is not itself. The tradition of western thought has examined the east based on imagination and the east in this imagination is reflected in the western consciousness without question. The 915

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east shaped in imagination and the real east is in contradiction. However, the imaginary east is preferred to the actual east (Serdar & Küçük, 2015). Significantly, these orientalist discourses attract attention in many communication areas, including movies and tv series. In these discourses, the proper identity analysis of the east should be done, and especially the east should be able to reveal the educational and educational reality. In this respect, much work falls on social scientists and historians to work with realistic approaches For future researches, ‘the orientalist image in the TV series on film / TV series viewing digital platforms’ topic is suggested.

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CONCLUSION Orientalism, translated into Turkish as Orientalism and Orientalism, is a French concept based on the distinction between self and other in the broadest sense. Orientalism, a term used by Europeans, is based on the distinction between Eastern civilization and Western civilization. The West has tried to build an identity by looking at the East. Westerners have created an image of the East in their imaginations. This image is far from reality, wholly shaped in the way Westerners want. East; It has been described in negative words such as barbarian, backward, bigoted, bigoted, far from democracy. People who have never been to the East have imagined an East drawn by authors, believing in the texts they read. The imaginary East is waiting to be developed, democratized, and civilized by the Westerners. Although these concepts seem to be well-intentioned, they are merely a softened discourse of colonialism. Orientalism, based on the cultural distinction between East and West, also brought along religious oppositions. According to orientalists, East means Muslim, and a Muslim is always doomed to lag. In this respect, it is seen that there is a prejudiced approach to Islam. Edward Said reconstructs Orientalism’s definition by saying that Orientalism is the idea of the East of Europe (2003: 25). According to Said’s work, in short, Orientalism is the product of a systematic thought that fills all areas of social and cultural life with the help of physiological texts. On the ideology plane of translation, Orientalism as a form of discourse has become a part of western culture. The ontological and epistemological distinction points out has turned into sustainable integrity of meaning with the images repeatedly featured in art and literature. These intercultural semantic interactions were transferred to religious, social, military, scientific, and economic fields with the help of the developed translation policies and caused societies to undergo metamorphosis (Öztürk et al., 2018). Orientalism can be defined very generally as the way the West marks and defines the East. This form of marking and definition takes place over an epistemological and ontological distinction. Orientalism, also as a form or form of discourse, is not independent of power, knowledge, domination, or relations. As a form of discourse that includes a distinction and relations of knowledge, power, and domination, it is related to the idea of orientalism, Modernity, enlightenment, and rationalism. According to Turner (2003), the end of Orientalism requires a radical reformulation of perspectives and paradigms. However, this reconstruction of knowledge can only be accomplished in the context of significant shifts in political relations between the Orient and Occident. Because the transformation of discourse also requires the transformation of power “. Europe’s strategy has been consistently supported by colonialism and conflicts of interest in the east. Colonizing a place means targeting the interests there first. These interests can be political, commercial, scientific, cultural, and more economical. An orientalist discourse inherent to Western thought also shows the vertical and horizontal depth and prevalence of orientalist discourse. It is seen that the orientalist discourse that is inherent to this 916

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hegemony can produce itself in different ways in different times and places. Hence, following the traces of orientalist discourse in different societies that have entered or entered under the global hegemony of Modernity, both to break the influence of Western hegemony, which contains power, power and domination relations and to take on the discourse and patriarchs of the elite and modernizing states and elites who undertake the discourse and action forms of Modernity in their societies. What shows will be to reveal the power, authority, domination, and complicated relationships? Orientalism has played the most critical role in reaching these interests. Translation, an intercultural communication tool, has the competence to construct the other’s perception with its role as a cultural planner. That is why translation is seen as the most crucial pillar of projects that will produce the other’s perception within social sciences and cultural disciplines. It has processed this with both information transfer and perception management through media and communication. For future researches, ‘the orientalist imagery in the TV series on film / TV series viewing digital platforms’ topic is suggested.

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Yumul, A. (2003). Araf’ta Kalanlar. Mayıs-Haziran- Tammuz.

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From Theory to Discussion Orientalism and History From Past to Present İsa Kalayci https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2043-5127 Hatay Mustafa Kemal University, Turkey Ahmet Kuşçi https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7168-6466 Hatay Mustafa Kemal University, Turkey

ABSTRACT The subject of orientalism is generally discussed by both Western and Eastern researchers from a religiouscentered perspective. However, this issue can be understood by analyzing in terms of inter-communal and socio-economic-cultural interactions and perceptions. In this respect, revealing the relationship between orientalism and history strengthens the originality claim of this chapter. In addition to this, considering that mission of history science is not just “past,” knowledge about the current debates of orientalism is signifcant in analyzing the situation. This makes it necessary to research the “orientalismhistory-media” equation. In short, the refections of orientalism in media are also addressed in order to reach the current knowledge in this section. Therefore, it has been tried to reveal how a historical issue evolved in the 19th century.

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INTRODUCTION Orientalism is a word that has different meanings in terms of concept, scope, and terminology. It is possible to see the traces of the Question dê Orient in the interpretation and perception of this word, where different definitions and associations are made periodically. The word “Orientalism”, which stretches out from Ancient Greece to the Assyrian Empire, has been used in many ways both as a description of a geographical area and in terms of the comparison of civilizations. There are even claims DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch052

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 From Theory to Discussion Orientalism and History From Past to Present

that Asia and Europe, salip (cross=Christianity) and crescent (Islam), are a struggle between Turks and European tribes (Topçubası, 2000, p. 23-26; Kızılcık, 2018, p. 152). However, this concept began to gain its modern meaning in the first quarter of the 14th century with the establishment of a department at some universities by the Church Council of Vienna to encourage the research of Eastern languages and cultures. In 1683, it appeared as a reference to a member of the “East” or “Greek Church”. In 1691, Anthony Wood introduced Samuel Clark as “orientalian” in the sense of “someone who knows some Eastern languages” (Bulut, 2012a, 428). However, Sylvestre de Sacy (1758-1838), who founded the Societe Asiatique (Asiatic Society) in 1822, is considered the founder of Orientalism. Orientalism is also described as intellectual imperialism, and the interest in orientalism has increased dramatically since the 14th century. In addition to this, it has caught its real rise and popularity after Edward Said’s work “Orientalism” published in 1978. After this year, it developed methodologically over time and created an academic discipline and brought perspective to the science of history. The interaction between orientalism and history has continuously developed in a positive direction, and accordingly, the use of the concept of orientalism in the discipline of history has increased (Said, 2014, p. 1-412). The subject of orientalism is generally discussed by both Western and Eastern researchers from a religious-centered perspective. However, this issue can be understood by analyzing in terms of intercommunal and socio-economic-cultural interactions and perceptions. In this respect, revealing the relationship between orientalism and history strengthens the originality claim of this book chapter. In addition to this, considering that mission of history science is not just “past”, knowledge about the current debates of orientalism is significant in analyzing the situation. This makes it necessary to research the “orientalism-history-media” equation. In short, the reflections of orientalism in media are also addressed in order to reach the current knowledge in this section. Therefore, it has been tried to reveal how a historical issue evolved in the 19th century. In this section, the definition, meaning, emergence, theoretical framework of the concept of orientalism, and its institutionalization journey from antiquity to the present are explained in general terms. Hence, although the scope of the study seems to be very broad in terms of time, it is limited by considering the terminological, chronological, and anachronistic historiography. This study aims to establish orientalism as a science and to reveal the relationship between orientalism and history. In this direction, the role played by orientalism in the historical background of East-West dualism is emphasized. Therefore, it was concluded that orientalism is not only a means of cultural interaction, but also causes historical divisions and social deterioration. Books and study works, periodicals, and internet resources were used to investigate the subject. This study mainly aims to reveal the birth, development, change over time, philosophical background, and paradigms of the concept of Orientalism with its historical dimension. The fact that the scientific researches on Orientalism were mostly carried out by theologians revealed the importance of evaluating the issue from the angle of historical events.

Studies on Orientalism Outside Turkey European travelers had a great influence on the shift of the issues written and discussed on Orientalism to the Ottoman, Middle East, and Islamic geographies. Especially the travel notes reflecting the observations of the visitors to the Ottoman lands since the first quarter of the 19th century caused mysterious and sometimes incorrect information about the Ottoman geography called the East, in the Western world. One of them is the book consisting of twenty-nine chapters and footnotes in which Alexander William 921

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Kinglake explained his observations during his trips to Ottoman lands such as Istanbul, Izmir, Damascus, Jerusalem, and Nablus between 1834 and 1835. According to the author, who describes his point of view towards the east with the orientalist depictions; the West represents progress while the East reactionism. The sections consist of titles such as “Over the Border”, “Turkish Traveling”, “Constantinople”, “The Troad”, “Infidel Smyrna”, “Greek Mariners”, “Cyprus”, “Lady Hester Stanhope”, “The Sanctuary”, “The Monks of Palestine”, “Galilee”, “My First Bivouac”, “The Dead Sea”, “The Black Tents”, “Passage of the Jordan”, “Terra Santa”, “The Desert”, “Cairo and the Plague”, “The Pyramids”, “The Sphinx”, “Cairo to Suez”, “Suez”, “Suez to Gaza”, “Gaza to Nablous”, “Mariam”, “The Prophet Damoor”, “Damascus”, “Pass of the Lebanon”, “Surprise of Satalieh” (Kinglake, 2004, p. 1-256). Orientalism writings, which had intensified since the 19th century, continued in the 20th century. However, “Orientalism” by Edward Said, published in 1978, which takes the actual discussions on Orientalism to the official platform and focuses on scientific research on this subject, differs from others in that it provides a paradigmatic perspective. This work was a breakthrough in the field of Orientalism. In his book, Said emphasized the image of the East created by the West and how Orientalists constitute the East as a discourse analysis of this image. The book consists of four chapters with an introduction. In the “Introduction” section, different definitions of the East are made. In the first chapter titled “The Scope of Orientalism”, the general boundaries of Orientalism are drawn. In the second chapter titled “Orientalist Structures and Restructures”, the development of Orientalism and especially the works of philosophers such as Sacy, Lane, and Renan who supported this development were examined. Today’s Orientalism studies are discussed in the last chapter titled “Orientalism Now”. Said’s limiting the East to Arab-Islamic geography and Orientalists to England, France, and the United States of America (USA) was the most criticized issue (Said, 2014, p. 1-412). One of the philosophers of Orientalism is Reina Lewis of England. In her book “Rethinking Orientalism”, Lewis examined Orientalism as a conceptual and institutional paradigm. In addition, the author presented information on how women living in the East, such as Zeynep Hanım and Melek Hanım, Halide Edip [Adıvar], Demetra Kenneth Brown, British journalist, and author Grace Ellison, who produced works in the late Ottoman period, refuted the discourses of Orientalists. The chapter titles of the work were “Harem Travelers”, “Empire, Nation, and Culture”, “Harem: Limits of Emancipation”, “Eroticized Bodies: Representing Other Women”, “Contested Behaviors, Gendered Spaces”, “Dress Acts: The Shifting Significance Clothes”. The book was completed with the conclusion section titled “Commodification, Time and Nostalgia: The Search for Authenticity”. Evaluation of Orientalism from a female perspective increased the importance of the book (Lewis, 2006, p. 1-424). In his book “New Orientalists” published in 2013, Ian Almond examined the discourses of authors such as Nietzche, Foucault, Derrida, Borges, Salman Rushdie, Orhan Pamuk, Kristeva Baudrillard, and Zizek, which he defined as new Orientalists, and stated their effects on Orientalist studies. In the “Introduction” section of the book, general information about the purpose of the study and the common characteristics of the authors is given. In the first chapter titled “Islam and the Critique of Modernity”, the Orientalist discourses in the works of Nietzsche, Foucault, Derrida; in the second chapter titled “Islam and Postmodern Fiction”, the Orientalist discourses in the works of Borges, Salman Rushdie, Orhan Pamuk; and in the third chapter titled “Islam, ‘Theory’, and Europe”, the Orientalist discourses in the works of Kristeva Baudrillard and Zizek were examined. The fact that Orientalist discourse is limited to only nine authors can be considered as a deficiency, but the presence of original information in its content makes this work important (Almond, 2013, p. 1-272).

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Studies on Orientalism by Domestic Researchers Orientalism discussions, in which East-West conflict turned into a war of civilizations or intercultural competition, took place as a phase of Question dê Orient. From the 16th century onwards, the Ottoman Empire became the representative of the Islamic geography that the Westerners described as “East” and tried to humiliate between the lines. As such, the discussions took place mostly in the form of the Europe-Ottoman conflict. However, the Republic of Turkey, the cultural heir of the Ottoman Empire, was placed at the center of these discussions after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire. Therefore, historical events and the search for legitimacy that developed accordingly lie behind the discussions of Orientalism that have been going on to this day. Against the accusations of Western Orientalists, Eastern Orientalists also put forward their own arguments. For example, Jale Parla gave information about the evolution of the eastern myth created by 19th century romantics in the historical process in her book titled “Mastery, Orientalism, Slavery” published in 1985. In the first chapter of the book consisting of seven chapters, the definition of the concepts of the East and Orientalism under the title of “Orientalism and Eastern Myth” is given together with the purpose of the book. In the second chapter titled “Origins of Turkish Myth in English and French Literature”, the author, who accepted the Eastern myth as Turkish myth, examined the images related to the Eastern and/or Turkish myth in English and French literature in the 19th century. In the third chapter titled “The Turkish Myth Created by Byron”, she emphasized the eastern myth in the books titled “Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage” and “Turkish Tales” written by the English writer Lord Byron. In the fourth chapter titled “Parody of Turkish Myth in Victor Hugo”, she discussed the eastern depiction in the book by Victor Hugo titled “Les Orientales” published in 1828. In the fifth chapter titled “Politicization of Lamartine and Turkish Myth”, she reflected Lamartine’s view of the East in his book “Voyage en Orient”, in which he recounted his memories of his journey to the East in 1832. In the sixth chapter titled “Disappointment of the Eastern Journey Between 1835-1850”, it was stated that the interest in Turkish and/or Eastern myth decreased between 1835-1850. The Crimean War of 1853-1855, which the Ottoman Empire won against the Russians with the grace of England and France and influenced the formation of the European map, took its place in the last chapter of this work under the title of “Crimean War and the Destruction of Turkish Myth”. Description of the perspectives of European philosophers such as Goethe, Byron, Hugo, Flaubert, Musset, Baudelaire, and Lamartine in an original way increased the importance of this book (Parla, 2010, p. 1-120). A book by Hilal Erkan titled “Orientalism in Hollywood Cinema”, which was produced from her master’s thesis titled “Cultural Representation and Orientalism in Hollywood Cinema”, is another Turkish author’s book on Orientalism. This work, which consists of four main chapters, made the projection of Orientalism through movies. In the first chapter titled “The Historical Evolution of Orientalism”, information is given about the historical process of images formed upon the East starting from the ancient ages until the 20th century. In the second chapter titled “The Image of the East Created by Travelers”, the images created by travelers such as Jean Baptiste Tavernier, Jean Chardin, Jean de Thevenot, and Volney about the East were emphasized. In the third chapter titled “Orientalism in Hollywood Cinema”, Orientalist representations in and discourse analysis of Indiana Jones Raiders of the Lost Ark, Mummy, and Mummy Returns movies were presented (Erkan, 2009, p. 1-268). Guliz Uluc’s book titled “Media and Orientalism” is similar to Erkan’s work. This work consists of an introduction, two main chapters, a conclusion, and reference sections. In the book, the author, who touched upon the media angle of Orientalism, emphasized how marginalization takes place through the 923

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media. In the first chapter titled “The Marginal, Marginalization, and Media”, the author discussed the historical and philosophical background of marginalization. In the second chapter titled “Orientalism and Media”, the historical process of Orientalism was explained (Uluç, 2009, p. 1-478). Semra Germaner and Zeynep Inankur’s book titled “Orientalism and Turkey” discussed Orientalism in the context of art history. The subtitles of the study, which consists of eleven chapters, are “Meaning of Orientalism”, “Geographical Boundaries of Orientalism”, “History of Orientalist Painting”, “Orientalism in the Nineteenth Century”, “Orientalist Painting in the Nineteenth Century”, “Subjects of Orientalist Painting”, “Aesthetics of Orientalist Painting”, “The End of Orientalism”, “Orientalism in Turkey”, “Nineteenth-Century Orientalists and Ottoman Palace”, and “Orientalist Paintings, Monographs in Turkish Collections”. This study has made an important contribution to the literature due to its new perspective to Orientalism, and originality (Germaner & Inankur, 1989, p. 1-191). Ismail Suphandagı, in his book titled “Orientalism Between West and Islam” published in 2004, discussed the historical process of the Eastern image created by the West from ancient ages to today. In this study, the author, who touched upon the main causes of East-West struggle, expressed the fundamental differences between East and West based on the opinions of domestic and foreign researchers. This book, which examines the concepts of East and West ontologically, consists of a preface, introduction, thirteen chapters, and references. Chapter titles are as follows: “The East and the West from an Ontological Perspective”, “European Centralism”, “Consciousness and Spirit of Europeanism”, “Marginalization”, “Acrid Mother of the Rebel Son: East”, “Towards the Formation of the East”, “Great Opposite: Islam-East”, “Towards the Formation of Consciousness of Westernism”, “Europe’s Interpretation of Islam”, “Towards the Orientalist Highbrowed Type”, “Ottoman and Westernization”, “Modernization of Turkey and the Republic Age Orientalist Highbrowed Type”, “Black Poems-Indian and Western Spirit” (Suphandagı, 2004, p. 1-219). The works of Yucel Bulut, the author of the article “Orientalism” in the Turkish Religious Foundation Encyclopedia of Islam, also contain satisfying information. On the other hand, in Bulut’s book titled “The Short History of Orientalism”, the historical process of Orientalism was explained chronologically in a short and concise way. In the first chapter of the book, which consists of eight chapters, references, and indexes, titled “What is Orientalism? Who is Orientalist?”, the opinions of those who attributed positive and negative expressions to these definitions are given after the definition of the words Orientalism and Orientalist. In the second chapter titled “East-West Separation in Ancient Ages”, the origins of the East-West dilemma that emerged in the Ancient Ages were mentioned. In the third chapter titled “The Image of Islam in Europe from the Middle Ages to the Enlightenment”, the West’s view of Islam in the Middle Ages was discussed. In the fourth chapter titled “East of the Enlightenment Age”, the image of the East created by philosophers in the Enlightenment period of Europe was emphasized. In the fifth chapter titled “Eastern Studies in the Nineteenth Century”, information is provided about the institutionalization of Orientalism as an academic discipline. In the sixth chapter titled “Orientalist Studies at the Turning Point of the Century”, general information about the Orientalist studies conducted in the 20th century is presented. In the seventh chapter titled “Orientalism After the Second World War”, Orientalist studies from the Second World War to the Cold War period were evaluated. In the eighth and final chapter titled “Criticisms of Orientalism”, the book was completed with the criticisms by intellectuals such as Aijaz Ahmad and Bernard Lewis to Edward Said about Orientalism. Chronological presentation of Orientalist studies starting from ancient history to the Cold War period increases the readability and importance of the book (Bulut, 2010, p. 1-199; Bulut, 2012, p. 113-160; Bulut, 2012c, p. 71-106).

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Necmettin Alkan’s book titled “Orientalism with Caricatures, Europe’s Perception of Turks and Turkey” published in 2016 contains the caricatures drawn by European caricature artists about the Ottoman Empire from 1876 to 1909. The work consists of an introduction and two main chapters. In the first chapter titled “History, Caricature, and Orientalism”; the concepts of history, caricature, and Orientalism are explained. The second chapter titled “The Stories told by the Caricatures” consists of 33 parts. Each section contains the caricatures drawn by European caricaturist artists about the Ottoman Empire from 1876 to 1909. The book is important in terms of Europe’s reflection on the Ottoman Empire (Alkan, 2016, p. 1-373).

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On the Terminological Meaning of Orientalism Orientalism, which originates from the French ‘orientalisme’ root, is equivalent to “Doğu Bilimi (en. Oriental Science)” in Turkish Language Institution (https://sozluk.gov.tr). In the modern sense, the word Orientalist was used for people who were members of the Eastern or Greek church in 1683. In 1691, Anthony Wood introduced Samuel Clark as “Orientalian” in the sense of “someone who knows some Eastern languages”. However, the word Orientalist, in the sense of a person specialized in Eastern studies, was mentioned for the first time in English in the article written on Edward Pococke in 1779 (Bulut, 2012a: 428). Orientalism entered Dictionnaire de L’Académie Francaise in 1838 with the meaning of “Oriental study”. This meaning was provided with the words “Sarkiyat”, then “Doğu Bilimi” in Turkish and “Istisrâk” in Arabic. “Mustesrik”, a word of Arabic origin, was described for those who work scientifically on the East (Karakaş, 2015, p. 167). The opinions and definitions of researchers in different disciplines upon Oriental Science have also varied. Among these; Meltem Ahıska, Hasan Bülent Kahraman, Şerif Mardin, Mahmut Mutman, Aslı Çırakman, Jale Parla, and Taner Timur stand out (Yıldız, 2013, p. 222; Ahıska & Sokmen, 2005; Mardin, 2002, p. 111-117; Mutman, 2002, p. 105-114; Kahraman, 2002, p. 153- 178; Timur, 2003, p. 64-70). However, Orientalism has three meanings: general, academic, and historical according to Edward Said, who is at the center of the Orientalism discussions. Orientalism according to its general meaning; “is a way of thinking based on the ontological and epistemological distinction between the East and West”. According to its academic meaning; “Even if there are different academic disciplines, the person who writes, teaches or researches about the Orient is the Orientalist, and their work is Orientalism”. According to its historical meaning; “Orientalism is a joint institution of the West used to dominate the Orient, restructure the Orient, and establish competence over the Orient.” (Said, 2014, p. 12-13). Edward Said drew attention to the power of the Historical-Orientalism connection in this trilateral description with different perspectives. Today, Orientalism is subjected to a historical depth and chronological sequence more than anything else, while its anachronical structure is ignored. Because it is seen that this term has a different meaning in each period. However, it can be said that Orientalism found its strongest meaning in historical events that took place in the form of the West dominating the East or establishing superiority. On the other hand, according to Said; rather than limiting the word “Orientalism” to professional expertise, this word is in force today in the context of general culture, literature, ideology, and both social and political attitudes. In the language of Orientalists, referring to one as Oriental is not just about showing them as someone who fills the scholarly books with language, geography, and history. Because the word Oriental is generally used as a demeaning expression that means an inferior person (Said, 1995, p. 4). Said mentioned three types of Orientalism: “manifest”, “latent”, and “contemporary”. Orientalism concept as an academic discipline that started to develop in the 18th century has been reinforced with 925

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the disciplines of history, philology, and anthropology. Orientalism discipline is not very different from early Orientalist, that is, pre-18th century studies in terms of mindset. Only its scope, methods, and field of activity are improved. This type of Orientalism is called “manifest Orientalism”. Orientalists in this category knowingly and willingly examined the differences between East and West to emphasize the superiority of the West over other cultures. Within the scope of latent Orientalism, Orientalism constructs the existential and informational distinctions between East and West as a way of thinking. Manifest Orientalism, which is mostly fueled by Eastern sources, is based on discourse and movement (Anadolu, 2018, p. 144-145). Not only the Orientalist scholars were interested in the definition of Orientalism, but also all kinds of authors and philosophers who made any statements about the East. The element that brings together different names is that they all assumed that there was a difference in essence between the West and the East. One of the reasons why these Orientalists are called latent Orientalists is that they emphasized the difference between East and West without knowing or unwittingly. Finally, Orientalism is a way of dealing with the East, being intimate, which is called contemporary Orientalism. This movement started in the late 18th century. Contemporary Orientalism is a form of domination, restructuring, representing the East, and Orientals through various practices and theories. Instances of these practices include efforts to learn about, observe, write on, think on, teach, settle in, and colonize the East (Çırakman, 2002, p. 191-192). According to Edward Said, uncertain, semi imaginary and sometimes distorted information about the East are seen in the philosophies of history of Vico and Herder, poems of Hugo, analyses of Marx, language studies of Sacy, Renan, and Lane, hundreds of books written by travelers such as Volney and Nerval from the genre of “Journey to the East” without ever being in the East (Said, 2014, p. 12-13). Orientalism has two meanings, according to Bernard Lewis, a historian who specialized in Oriental studies. The first is a painting school founded mostly by a group of artists from Western Europe who visited the Middle East and North Africa and sometimes depicted what they had seen or dreamed in a very romantic and exaggerated way. The second is a “scholarship branch”, which is not related to the first and has a more general meaning. The word and its academic discipline stemmed from the expansion of scholarships in Western Europe from the Renaissance period. According to him, there were Hellenists studying Greek, Latinists studying Latin, and Hebraists studying Hebrew. Among these, Latinists and Hellenists were referred to as “classics” and Hebraists as “orientalists” (Lewis, 1982, June 24, p. 3). According to Jale Parla, Orientalism is part of Europe’s colonial culture as both a science and an attitude. According to her, the works related to the East will continue on the axis of mastery-slavery as long as the East continues to be the colony of the West (Parla, 2010, p. 11-13). Mahmut Mutman supported this view in his article titled “Islam Against the West Under the Shade of Orientalism”. In this study, Mutman considers Orientalism as a centering or hegemonic process on the East through various discourse styles such as literature, science, and politics of the West (Keyman, Mutman, & Yeğenoğlu, 1996, p. 31). Zachary Lockman approached the concept of Orientalism from a wider perspective. According to Lockman, Orientalism is the terminological name of the academic field especially for the Asian region where Muslims live (Lockman & Birinci, 2012, p. 119). However, Asaf Huseyin suggested that Orientalism is an imperialist strategy designed to create a new academic discipline for re-evaluating Islam (Huseyin, 1991, p. 68). Muhammad Raza also expressed an opinion similar to Asaf Huseyin. According to Raza, Orientalism is an intellectual discipline developed to consolidate the colonies of the West in the East and to help the West (Topçuoglu & Aktay, 1996, p. 338).

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The concept of Orientalism is no longer preferred because it is both an abstract and general concept and evokes the colonialism of Europe in the early 19th and 20th centuries. Today, it is seen that the term “Oriental Studies” is used instead of Orientalism (Bulut, 2012d, p. 3). The term ‘orientalism’ was officially abolished at the XIX. International Orientalists Congress gathered in Paris in 1973. Instead, the name “International Congress of Asian and North African Studies” began to be used. “Self-Orientalism”, which has a dictionary meaning of “self-orientation”, was first used by Antonio Chuffat Latour in 1927 to describe Chinese society in the study titled “Apunte Historico de las Chinas en Cuba” (Bezci, & Çiftçi, 2014, p. 143). The concept of “Neo-Orientalism” emerged as an alternative to classical Orientalism after the 9/11 attacks (Anadolu, 2018, p. 146).

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Orientalism Discussions Edward Said was the turning point of the discussions on the concept of Orientalism, which has been used since ancient ages. After Said’s work Orientalism was published, it became the focus of criticism by several intellectual researchers such as Aijaz Ahmad, Bernard Lewis, Serif Mardin, James Clifford, Sadik Jalal al-Azm, Fred Halliday, Albert Hourani, John McKenzie, Aslı Cirakman, Robert Irwin, David Kopf, and Leonard Binder (Bulut, 2012d, p. 5). According to Bernard Lewis, who criticized Edward Said the most, Said made some arbitrary choices to support his evaluations. For example, Said reduced the East to the Middle East and the Middle East to a part of the Arab world. According to Lewis, Said ignored Turkology and Iranian studies as well as and Semitic studies. Moreover, Said distinguished Arabic studies from its philological and historical origins. In this way, Orientalism is limited to time and space. To strengthen Edward Said’s argument, he initiated Orientalism in the late 18th century and drove England and France forward as the main centers of Orientalist work. According to Lewis, the establishment of the Arabic department in Cambridge in 1633 should be taken as the starting date of Orientalism, and Germany and neighboring countries should be included in the center of the subject. Thinking of an Arabic history without Germans is as incomplete and wrong as thinking of European history of philosophy and music without Germans. Lewis disagrees with Said’s disregard for the role of the Germans in Orientalist studies, his giving the lead to the British and French, and his assessment that the Germans worked on the texts compiled by these two imperialist powers and improved only the methods used. According to him, collections in Germany and Austria are no less valuable than those in England and France. In addition to German Orientalism, Lewis considered the lack of Russian Orientalism as another deficiency of the work. Lewis found Said’s preferences and evaluations at this point to be “not only wrong but also ridiculous”. He said that that this was something that revealed the lack of information about what academicians and Said did. According to Lewis, Said preferred to sequence many synonymous words that make sexual associations such as “self-attribution”, “accumulation”, “hitting-on”, “looting”, and “rape” in order to hide this ignorance (Bulut, 2012d, p. 7). According to Edward Said, who disagreed with Bernard Lewis’ opinions, Lewis stated that Orientalism is a branch of science that deals with Islam and Arabs and therefore can be easily placed in the same context as classical philology. Lewis argued that it was wrong to reduce Islamic Orientalism to an “innocent and exciting” branch of science, while Orientalism was too complex, varied, and technical to form a shape that could be criticized by non-Orientalists like him. According to Said, Lewis’ tactic at this point is to significantly cover up the historical experience (Said, 1995, p. 4). According to Sadik Jalal al-Azm, who criticized Said’s evaluations of the beginning of Orientalism; “The essence of Orientalism is the indelible distinction between the superiority of the West and the in927

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feriority of the East”. Azm stated, “Said himself used the distinction regarding the ontological origins of Orientalism.” The criticism of Aijaz Ahmad, an Indian literary critic, and political commentator, is basically that Said did not adhere to Foucault’s analysis and avoided to convey his method to its natural logical conclusions (Bulut, 2012d, p. 7). According to Şerif Mardin, one of the leading critics of Edward Said in Turkey, the West’s thoughts and suggestions about the East do not cover all periods of history because they are conjunctural. According to Mardin, Edward Said made generalizations in line with the “tweezer-selected works” (Mardin, 2002, p. 111-112; Said, 1977). Aslı Çırakman, who discussed the development and change of Oriental thinking in the West based on the Ottoman example, suggested that some Western travelers had positive thoughts about the Ottoman Empire, especially in the 16th and 17th centuries, and negative thoughts increased from the 18th century (Ciırakman, 2002, p. 183). According to Ciırakman, who criticizes Said for generalizing and not seeing the whole at this point, it is not possible to conceptualize Orientalism as an excessive, continuous, and consistent discourse just for this reason (Coruk, 2007, p. 201). Cemil Meric stated that Orientalism plays a role as the exploratory arm of colonialism in different ways although he agreed with Edward Said. The characterization of E. Said’s book “Orientalism” as “the exploratory arm of colonialism” used in the Turkish translation belongs to Cemil Meriç. Cemil Meriç thinks in parallel with Said about how Orientalism emerged. According to Cemil Meriç, Said interpreted the feelings of the East, which was silent and condemned to silence under the material and spiritual domination of the West. According to Jale Parla, Said successfully revealed the dimensions of how the Orientalism discourse and colonial discourse define and support each other by applying Foucault’s theoretical analysis. According to the author who considers the subject from a cultural perspective; all dominant cultures create a dominant discourse suitable for them and reflect other cultures as they want in this discourse (Parla, 2010, p. 13). According to George Landow, China, Japan, and Southeast Asia were never mentioned in Edward Said’s book. Little has been mentioned about India. The Orient is limited to the Middle East only. Landow also criticized the claim that no other Europeans and Americans knew about the East except him (Türkbağ, 2002, p. 204).

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Orientalism in the Historical Process There is no complete consensus among researchers about the emergence of Orientalism. Some researchers base the emergence of Orientalism in the 10th century and others in the 11th century (Adanir & Ileri, 2013, p. 72). However, there is a consensus that Orientalism studies started with researching Arabic and Islam first. After the development of Western colonialism in the East, Orientalism has become a form of researching all Eastern languages, customs, civilizations, the geography of Eastern countries, the traditions and customs of the people living here, and the most famous dialects of the languages they speak. Some researchers trace the beginning of Orientalism back to the Battle of Mu’tah, which Muslims and Byzantines fought in 629, or the Expedition of Tabuk in 630. Some researchers who advocate a similar opinion state that Orientalism is based on the Crusades, the beginning of religious and political friction between Muslims and Christians. Accordingly, the Patriarch of Jerusalem went around Europe dressed in black to show the people their sadness with many famous crusader knights and asked the people for help and mercy when Saladin conquered Jerusalem in 1187. Their behaviors brought a negative perspective to the West against the East (Özçelik, 2015, p. 58-59). 928

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Some researchers attribute the official emergence of Orientalism to the decision of the Vienna Council in 1312 to establish several Arabic Language departments in various Western universities. Rudi Paret provided a completely different explanation of the matter. According to him, Orientalism began in the 12th century when Islamic and Arab research in Europe were translated into Latin for the first time and the first Latin-Arabic dictionary was written. As can be understood by the explanations mentioned above, it is difficult to determine a definite date for the beginning of Orientalism (Gönültaş, 2008, p. 20). According to Halil Inalcık, Orientalism started with the fact that Arabic and Arabic texts were the subjects of research with hermeneutic methods (İnalcık, 2002, p. 22). The discovery of the route from Cape of Good Hope to Asia by Vasco dê Gama in 1498 greatly expanded the field of Orientalism. However, the publications of detailed oriental society research in Europe only took place in the 18th-19th centuries (Yüksel, 2014, p. 191). Various translations, dictionaries, and encyclopedias began to be published to inform the West and facilitate the understanding of the East. In this century, d’Herbelot drafted a “General Dictionary” in 1697, which included everything about the Eastern library or the Eastern peoples in general, their history and real or epic traditions, religions, sects and politics, and sciences and arts. In this study, an encyclopedic summary of all information about the East was presented. What was revealed in this period provided a great academic accumulation for the next century. The contemporary Orientalist period, in which the dominance of the West over the East increased noticeably, which can be described as the second stage of Orientalism, corresponds to the end of the 18th century. Until the 18th century, the field of Orientalism was to create a different “marginal” and to learn the marginal culture. However, the West adopted a civilizing mission against the marginal in the late 18th century, and Orientalism became the ideology of revealing the differences of the East, examining these differences, and acquiring the riches of the East in order to emphasize the superiority of the West and to convince that this superiority should spread to the rest of the world (Atasever, 2009, p. 33-34). Even though Napoleon’s attempt to invade Egypt in 1798 failed, it marked a turning point in the West’s relations with the Islamic world –especially with the Ottoman Empire. Because on this date, the French left their Turkish ally behind. Above all, Napoleon’s expedition symbolizes the coexistence of Orientalist studies and colonial activities and the coexistence of the pen and military power. Napoleon took many Orientalist scientists with him on his expedition. He founded the Institut d’Egypte in Egypt. The research of this institute, which included chemists, historians, biologists, archaeologists, medical scientists, and collectors of ancient artifacts, revealed the famous Description de l’Égypte (1809-1828). In addition, Napoleon had read a great deal about Egypt, including his work Voyage en Egypte et en Syrie pendant les années 1783, 1784, et 1785 (1787) by C.F. Volney (1757-1820), which had a great influence on him before his expedition (Bulut, 2002, p. 26). The publication of the first comprehensive studies of European Orientalism research centers also coincides with the first quarter of the 19th century. Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain was founded in Bengal in 1784. In 1821, the Paris Asiatic Society and in 1823, the Royal Asiatic Society centers were established. France, England’s most important rival in the struggle for world hegemony, also tried to get to know the East, especially the Near East, in the same years. Napoleon Bonaparte had a group of 165 scientists, including engineers, technicians, archaeologists, and linguists when he arrived in Alexandria in 1798. France’s Institut d’Égypte was founded by them in Cairo. In 1833, the Sanskrit department in Oxford and the “Oriental Studies Translation Agency” were established and more than fifty translation works were published in Hindi, especially between 1829 and 1834 (Atasever, 2009, p. 31-35).

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The Paris Asiatic Society, the Royal Asiatic Society, the American Oriental Society are the leading societies established in relation to Orientalism. The first journal published about Orientalism was the Journal of Oriental Sources published by Hammer in 1815-1818. Orientalism began to be institutionalized in Europe with the first International Congress of Orientalists held in 1873. According to Aslı Çırakman, who stated that Orientalism is a transhistorical discourse, Orientalism also includes a lot of places and names such as Asia, China, India, Egypt, Turkey, Middle East, Iran, and North Africa that are not related to each other (Çırakman, 2002, p. 187).

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Orientalism-Media Relationship The East has been reconstructed and produced with texts, paintings, movies, media transfers, and social media tools used in many Orientalist studies from the past to the present. Media cultural products that shape people’s perspective on the world, change the perceptions of the audience, and affect the thinking and decision mechanisms have revealed the problem of the East fiction established by Orientalism, which creates the perception of “us” and “others”. Oriental societies’ approach to information about themselves from a Western perspective has created self-Orientalism and the products presented by Oriental alienated from their own society have been reshaped in Orientalist Western knowledge (Yıldırım & Hira, 2016, p. 51). This issue is mostly shaped through the media today although the historical origins of East-West separation date back to ancient ages. Media, which is a very comprehensive concept, produces a lot of content and shapes the minds of individuals and societies with what they produce. It can be said based on this definition that the efforts to reach the closest to the truth from the contents produced by the media continue (Kocabay Şener, 2017, p. 2). The importance of using the media as a political element is evident. The political dimension of mass media has brought the phenomenon of digital colonialism, which marked the 20th century to the agenda. It is thought that digital colonialism is not lagging behind colonial activities in the 18th-19th centuries. In this respect, the trilogy of “Orientalism-media-history” becomes obligatory to be handled together and on a new level in the 21st century. In other words, the discussions of Orientalism should be reconsidered and explained without being separated from their origins in the past, but only with the media dimension created by technological developments and directly affecting the perceptions of the peoples. It is necessary to think about the language, discourse, and methods used by the Eastern media and the Western media together and in interaction, and separately conditionally. Western Media builds Western identity through the East, which it defines as the marginal from an Orientalist perspective. The West manifests itself as not having the characteristics of the East as in Orientalism. In addition, Orientalism has made exotic, erotic, and bizarre orientation an understandable and acceptable appearance that is defined and controlled simultaneously with categories, tables, and concepts. As Cemil Meriç stated, it should be taken into consideration that the West conducts research and studies on the East, defines and controls the East, and thus, dominates the East. Because Orientalism also serves the imperialist purposes of the West at this point. Oriental image and Orientalist traces are encountered in literature, which is one of the elements of the mass media. Jacob Ayrer’s “Administration of the Turkish Emperor Mehmet who Conquered Istanbul and the Terrible Tragedy of his Embarrassing Death”, Andreas Gryphius’ “Katharina von Georgien”, Goethe’s “Faust” and “West–östlicher Divan”, Friedrich Schiller’s “Die Malteser”, Lord Byron’s “The

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 From Theory to Discussion Orientalism and History From Past to Present

Giaour” and Victor Hugo’s “Les Orientales” should be evaluated from this perspective once again (Kula, 2011, p. 1-2). It is also possible to see Orientalist motifs in magazines and encyclopedias, which are another element of the mass media. The first journal published by Hammer, an Orientalist in Europe, is Oriental Sources. Founded in Paris in 1820, the Asiatic Society published a magazine called Journal Asiatique. Founded in 1823 in London, the Royal Asiatic Society brought readers together with another magazine, the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. In 1842, it was presented by the American Oriental Society to a public opinion called Journal of the American Oriental Society. In 1895, an Islamic magazine was published in Paris. This magazine became the Journal of the Islamic World in 1906 and then the Journal of Islamic Research. In 1910, Der Islam magazine was published in Germany. In 1912, Mir Islama magazine was published in Russia. In addition to magazines, there are encyclopedias published by Orientalists. The Encyclopedia of Islam, Shorter Encyclopedia of Islam, Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, and Encyclopedia of Social Sciences are considered the most famous Orientalist encyclopedias (Yıldız, 2002, p. 27). Orientalist perspectives, which exist in many different fields from literature to music, painting to architecture, are also found in television and cinema. Today, television and cinema are the most common means of mass media with traces of Orientalism. In this context, movies and series produced from an Orientalist perspective have reached a wide audience. Thus, the Orientalist perspective was internalized by Eastern societies and they expressed and evaluated themselves from a Western perspective. There is a close relationship between the East and the “Muhteşem Yüzyıl” series depicted by painters, writers, politicians who explained the East from the same perspective in addition to travelers’ writings as an exotic and imaginary location in terms of defining and explaining the East. In this context, the palace life, which is constantly created curiosity by producing various fantasies, is given a wide place in the Muhteşem Yüzyıl series, which has the reflections of self-Orientalism. Especially spaces such as harems and Turkish baths have a wide narrative place. Also, concepts attributed to Orientals such as intrigue, power, hatred, revenge, savage, tyrant, and barbarian are masterfully embraced. The fact that the characters portrayed in this series have a bad, violent, sexual object and fantastic aspects indicates that they have strong ties with Orientalist images (Yıldırım & Hira, 2016, p. 51). Orientalist motifs were also used in cinema, which is one of the most important tools of the mass media and considered as the seventh art. For example, Far Eastern nations such as China and Japan are presented as yellow dangers or primitive societies that need to be civilized in movies such as 55 Days at Peking (Nicholas Ray-1963), Year of the Dragon (Michael Cimino-1982), The Last Emperor (Bernardo Bertolucci-1987), Seven Years in Tibet (Jean-Jacques Annaud-1997), The Last Samurai (Edward Zwick-2002), and so on. Thus, the occidental world has laid the groundwork for the colonization of these countries on the grounds of bringing civilization to these countries. West-East opposition was given with American-Ottoman fiction in the movie “Harem” directed by William Hale in 1986 (Yiğit, 2013, p. 239). Hollywood movies about the East are divided into two categories according to their thematic features. The first of these are movies where only the East is told, and no western characters are included. The Thief of Bagdad (1940) and The 7th Voyage of Sinbad (1958) are such movies. The second are movies in which the East is told by a Western archaeologist, historian, or a traveling hero. Movies such as Indiana Jones Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981), Mummy (1999), and Mummy Returns (2001) are examples of such works (Erkan, 2009, p. 23-24). As in many works of art where Orientalist thinking materializes, there are many simplified descriptive categories defined as “stereotypes” that are interpreted as Orientalist elements in cinema (Uluc, 2009, 931

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 From Theory to Discussion Orientalism and History From Past to Present

p. 65). Lawrence of Arabia (1962) directed by David Lean; Midnight Express (1978) directed by Alan Parker; Cecil B. The Ten Commandments (1956) directed by DeMille can be given as examples of such movies (Satır, & Ozer, 2018, p. 767-768). Orientalist movies predominantly reveal themselves in the context of side characters and the main spaces used. In this respect, the first thing to do when Orientalist politics are sought in movies is the organization of the story and characters in the movie and the use of the spaces. Another important issue is the representation of race, nationality, and the “marginal”. In particular, the organization of good and evil is extremely important in the presentation of the fiction created by the movie. Orientals who are given a role against Western characters are depicted as difficult to understand and incompetent whereas the intelligence, abilities, and physical characteristics of Western characters are generally exaggerated in the movies. According to the Orientalist saying, Arabs are lecherous, terrorist, lethargic, mindless, and weak. On one hand, they represent decay and backwardness. On the other hand, Western human types have a democratic, sane, reliable, virtuous, and strong character. There are almost no positive typologies in terms of Arab representations (Ekinci, 2014, p. 55). Descriptions created to show the terrorist aspect of al-Qaeda in the movie Body of Lies (2008) directed by Ridley Scott also bear traces of Orientalism. Another famous area where Orientalism can be observed is animated movies. Animation works may seem “innocent” at first glance. However, it is understood that the situation is different as a result of an in-depth review. For example, it is seen that the Disney animations watched by both children and adults reflect the familiar Orientalist views (Kırel, 2010, p. 462). Subliminal messages such as “crescent”, “Islamic amulet”, “red cap (janissary)”, and “Turkish mustache” embed on ‘evil’ characters depicted in animation and cartoons should also be considered as a negative perception of the characters and distortion of history. The Orientalism perspective of the West about the East manifests itself in many fields such as art, science, literature, and politics. The effect of Orientalism sometimes causes West-East separation even within the country. There are examples of this in some advertisements. It is understood that Western and Eastern objects were designed in MNG Kargo’s ‘Mardin Kapısından Atlayamadım’ and Turkcell’s ‘Dümdük’ advertisements and identity differences were transformed into reality with ideological indicators (Tanyıldızı & Kaya, 2018, p. 99). The repertoire of Orientalist painting includes rituals of Islamic religion, everyday life scenes, and harem life, all of which are a magical mystery for Westerners. Oriental interest in France, which began in the early nineteenth century with the war paintings of Gros and Girodet for Napoleon, soon became a fashion of Orientalism with the influence of romance. The drawings depicted in this period are usually imaginary. In these paintings, artists painted the compositions they created with exotic objects they could find in France using local colors based on the photos taken during the travels to the East. Orientalist artists such as Bonington and Ingres painted their pictures without ever going to the East, inspired by literary writings and travel notes. The inspiration for “Turkish Bath”, one of Ingres’ most famous works, was the Turkish Embassy Letters written by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, the wife of the British ambassador in Istanbul in 1716-1718 (Olçer, & Ersoy, 2013, p. 69). Delacroix, who traveled to the East only once, produced his works “Chios Massacre” and “The Death of Sardanapalus” before his visit to Morocco. The mysterious Eastern thinking for artists was transformed into an excuse to draw exotic pictures by the end of the 19th century (Uzunoğlu, 2018, p. 225). Among the important representatives of Orientalism are Jean-Léon Gérôme, Rudolf Ernst, Ludwig Deutsch, Ingres, Valeri, John Frederic Lewis, and Preziosi (Özendeş, 1999, p. 15-21). Jean-Léon Gérôme is a French painter and sculptor who lived between 1824 and 2004. Gérôme, who painted in historical and 932

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Orientalist style, is said to be one of the most important artists of the Orientalism movement. Gérôme is also the teacher of many famous painters such as Odilon, Redon, Thomas Eakins, Osman Hamdi Bey, and Şeker Ahmet Pasha. It is noteworthy that among Jean-Léon Gérôme’s paintings about the East; women and harem were frequently used. Observing the world of women and men in the East closely, as depicted by Gérôme, allows obtaining many clues about the creation and maintenance of Orientalism and colonialist view (Kırel, 2010, p. 441). The effect of Orientalism on painting and photography in the historical development process became more evident in the second half of the 19th century and in the early 20th century. As a result of the research, there are also works that depict the life of the harem and appeal to imaginary fantasies in terms of form and content besides the paintings and photographs that reflect reality as it is. The stereotyped paintings and photographs of the harem life represent the Orientalist point of view on the art agenda. Orientalist paintings were originally based entirely on fiction and narratives such as “One Thousand and One Nights”. Over time, the concept started to shift to areas such as architecture and clothing due to technological developments and as a result of the increase in expeditions to the East. Postcard series covering the daily life of Istanbul, professions, portraits, landscapes, etc. attracted the intense attention of foreigners visiting Istanbul. Orientalist traces can be observed in the series of Max Früchtermann (1852-1918), the most important postcard producer and publisher of the period. Women belonging to minority communities -sometimes men- were dressed in Turkish women’s clothes and photographed in the studio environment since Turkish women did not have their photographs taken and it was not possible for men to enter the places belonging to women considering the period. The most prominent accessories in these photos are hookahs, rods, pearl inlay coffee tables-desks, coffee cups-trays, rosaries, pitchers, Turkish barbecues, and rugs. Photographs representing the harem life and the secret world of women are generally defined as Beaute Oriental. Self-portraits of Roger Fenton, William Grundy, Francis Frith, James Robertson, and Felice Beato in Turkish clothes taken in 1855 are the most striking examples of early Orientalism in photographic art (Özdal, 2013, p. 68-71).

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FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS Conceptual and theoretical discussions of Orientalism, which have been going on since the early periods of history, seem to continue in the future as it is today. However, the subject of Orientalism should not be examined from a mono-block perspective, but by considering the breakpoints of the historical process and dividing them into categories. Because even the meaning of this concept has anachronical and geographical differences. Orientalism has sometimes been shaped as the conflict between Asia and Europe, sometimes as the conflict between Christianity and Islam, and sometimes as a reflection of the struggle between sects. However, it became a method used to explain a view from the West to the East in the period after 1683. It is possible to define Orientalism in a modern sense and in a common way as “the way the West perceives the East”. It can be said that the gap between Orientalism and the East-West problem may deepen in the historical process when the West and East are considered as distinctive elements in terms of their differences from each other and the marginalization of the East. Moreover, the media, which progresses depending on technology, serves the disintegrative language of Orientalism while technological developments shrink the globe and remove borders. However, the phenomenon of Orientalism used by the West to define itself is important in the context of realizing its own consciousness.

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CONCLUSION It is believed that the West realizes its dominant policies on the East through Orientalism when the historical data are examined. In doing so, the West objectified the concept of the East and legitimized its own identity as opposed to the marginal by giving the East the “marginal” identity. From past to present, the West has despised the East. Almost all studies on the East depict the East as evil, ugly, and barbaric. The West did not leave these in the discourse and showed the success of adopting this identity to the East and Eastern people and making them acknowledge it within themselves. It can be stated that the source of prejudices about the East and especially Islam in the political and media world of the West in the 21st century is the contempt and marginalization that has been committed until today. It can be mentioned that there is a historical sequence dating back to the Crusades in the historical background of this. In this context, the East is identified with the primitive or barbarian concepts whereas the West represents the social, political, scientific, technological, and economically civilized world. Media is transformative on society with its ability to manipulate, direct, and influence and is a creative art and mass communication tool with new ideas. It is seen that the use of Orientalist motifs by the Western world in the media is directly proportional to Western politics. In conclusion, the discussions of Orientalism should be reconsidered and explained without being separated from their origins in the past, but only with the media dimension created by technological developments and directly affecting the perceptions of the peoples.

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Yüksel, M. (2014). İslamofobinin tarihsel temellerine bir bakış: Oryantalizm ya da Batı ve öteki. İstanbul Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Mecmuası, 72(1), 189-200.

ADDITIONAL READING Dikici, E. (2014). Doğu-Batı ayrımı ekseninde oryantalizm ve emperyalizm. Tarih Kültür ve Sanat Arastirmalari Dergisi, 3(2). Advance online publication. doi:10.7596/taksad.v3i2.319 Koçyiğit, D. (2017). Batı’yı kurgulamak -Doğu’yu sunmak, Doğu’yu kurgulamak- Batı’yı sunmak: Oksidentalizm’de ben ve öteki. İstanbul Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı Dergisi, (57), 133-160. doi:10.26561/iutded.369131 Kula, O. B. (2018). Batı felsefesinde oryantalizm ve Türk imgesi (3rd ed.). Türkiye İş Bankası Cultural Publications. Tibawi, A. L., Abdülmelik, E., & Algar, H. (1998). Krizdeki oryantalizm: eleştiriler. Yöneliş Publishing. Turner, B. S. (2002). Or yantalizm, postmodernizm ve globalizm. Anka Publishing. doi:10.4324/9780203427255 Vezzan, A. M. (2013). Oryantalizm ve oryantalistler. Tezmer. Yavuz, H. (1998). Modernleşme, oryantalizm ve İslam. Boyut Publishing. Yıldız, A. (Ed.). (2007). Oryantalizm Sorunu. Oryantalizm: Tartışma Metinleri. Doğu-Batı Publications. Zakzuk, M. H. (1993). Oryantalizm veya medeniyet hesaplaşmasının arka planı. Işık Publications.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Anatolia: Anatolia is a name given to parts of the Asian continent of Turkey since the 16th century. This word, which is pronounced as “Anadolu” in Turkish, is also referred to as “Asia Minor” in Western sources. Anatolia is located in the center of the land called “Old World”. East-West Discussions: Discussions on the impressions of Western civilization towards the Southwest Asian region, with a focus on Orientalism. Edward Said: In his book “Orientalism” published in 1978, he initiated a great debate by addressing the representation of the East by the West. History of Orientalism: It is a discourse that describes the emergence, historical development and debates of the concept of orientalism. Middle East: Geographically it is Southwest Asia. It is the region that includes the places where Asia, Europe and Africa come closest to each other. The term Middle East is based on the Eurocentric approach and is a concept that Britannia’s began to use in the 19th century. Orientalism: Orientalism, as a way of thinking and an area of expertise, is a term expressing the varying historical and cultural relationship between Europe and Asia, specializing in the study of Eastern cultures and traditions.

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Orientalism and Media: Media projections of the West’s perspectives of the East. Question Dê Orient: This term was first used in the Congress of Vienna in 1815 and became official. However, there are some who discuss the “Eastern Question” as the conflict between Asia and Europe since ancient times.

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Chapter 53

Reflection of Orientalist Discourse on Netflix Turkey: The Protector

Yasemin Özkent https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8617-8429 Selçuk University, Turkey

ABSTRACT This study focuses on the analysis of the orientalist structures in The Protector (2018-2020) which is the frst original series of Netfix Turkey. The formation method of the image of the East through a popular culture product in a global digital broadcast program constituted the starting point of the study. New media platforms have also gained a place as the principal actor of orientalist fction with the development of digital technology today. As a digital platform producing special contents for each country, Netfix interprets cultural values through exchanging and re-producing them. Accordingly, discourse analysis method was used in the study to discover how orientalism related patterns were inserted in Netfix contents. Formation of orientalist discourse was examined through character representation and time-space representation categories formed through considering theoretic information. As a result, it was observed that orientalism has also found a representation area for itself in media devices emerging with technology.

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INTRODUCTION Globalization is one of the first concepts to explain the present condition of human beings. Globalization fact has undisputedly changed the world. Technological developments caused the emergence of ‘Time/ space compression’ summarizing multi-directional transformation. Time and space difference present even between the geographically most distant societies becomes void. Even though ‘interconnection’ appears as the first thing expected about globalized world, globalization also provides a separation as well as an interconnection. Even if economy and information flow reaches global dimensions, a space fixing phase DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch053

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 Reflection of Orientalist Discourse on Netflix Turkey

under the name of ‘localization’ also takes place (Bauman, 2010, p. 8). As in Bauman’s globalization approach, conceptualization of East and West as opposite concepts rooted on similar intellectual bases. In addition to different geographies, East and West also have different cultural structures. The roots of the cultural structure-related orientalist perspective towards Eastern societies date back to the Ancient Age. Technological and scientific developments in the West influenced art, literature, economy and politics, etc. These developments caused orientalist studies to gain speed since the middle of the twentieth century. As Said stated, marking the East as an object of information and examination since then, Orientalism was based on the “ontological and epistomological distinction” between the East and West (1998, p. 13). Representations of the East merge over some concepts. It is possible to trace these building styles back in present media devices. Radio, cinema, television and other cultural products are the most productive areas constituting the basis of the orientalist discourse. The present study analyses orientalist discourse in The Protector which is the first original series of a global digital broadcasting platform, Netflix Turkey. The Protector (2018-2020, Can Evrenol, Umut Aral, Gönenç Uyanık) adapted from N. İpek Gökdel’s novel Strange Story of Charcoal and a Young Man (2019) lasted four seasons with a total of thirty-two episodes. All episodes of the series were examined in this study. Media devices are the principal actor of the orientalist fiction and studying each as an information production strategy is among the bases of the study. Accordingly, discourse analysis was used to discover how the series was nourished by orientalist imagery and how East and West were situated in it. Discourse analysis was applied through plotline, character configuration, visual items, actions and use of time and space constituting the discourse of the series. Within the framework of theoretic information presented in the study, the data presented by the series was interpreted through relating with orientalist representations. Thus, the orientalist language built during the localization of a global broadcast platform will be presented.

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CONCEPT OF ORIENTALISM Edward W. Said defined the concepts of orientalism in different ways in the introduction of his book Orientalism (1978). First of all, orientalism is how the Western countries see the East based on common values. Secondly, remarking the large scope of the concept, Said defined everyone researching on the East as ‘orientalist’. These researchers can be ethnologists, sociologists, historians or philologists. Its third definition with more historical and material measures is related to all institutions covering the West, its perspective, metaphors and administration. Orientalism expresses West’s effort to build authority on the East (Said, 1998, p. 12-14). Through these definitions, Said drew attention to the political and ideological dimension of the concept. Using the word orientalism with the same meaning as Eurocentrism concept, John M. Hobson stated that it is used for defining West’s superiority over East. Classifying the East as “the other”, he refers to the underdevelopment and inferior characteristic of the East. While the West was blessed with characteristics such as rationalist, hardworking, productive, unselfish, liberal democratic, honest, developed, open for improvement and independent, the East was depicted with the characteristics of irrationality, recklessness, laziness, immaturity, underdeveloped, passive, and stable (2015, p. 22-23). As Kontny stated, its structurization was based on “us” and “them”. Orientalism is a discourse, representation and philosophy. It is the basic concept used by the West for stating something about the East in political, cultural and social terms (2002, p. 121).

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According to Bryan S. Turner, orientalism is the analysis framework built through the sciences of orientalism, theology, literature, philosophy and sociology. He builds Occident/Orient comparison within the axis of differences within power relation. Showing the reachability of the East which he described as “exotic” enables the interpretation of Western hegemony as a typical cultural product. As a system of thought with roots based on epistemology and ontology, it covers Orient through the eyes of Occident (2003, p. 45). Thus, we can say that orientalism is a discourse categorizing the social, cultural and political difference of the East as non-Western. Although it is originated from the East itself, orientalism derived from this contrast harshly criticized by Said is more distant to the East and emphasized mostly on West-related attitudes (1998, p. 39). The discussion started by Said and based on European imperialism remarked the negative meaning of orientalism and led to many criticisms. These criticisms were centered on the views that the West wouldn’t exist without the East, the alienation of the East and the construction of an East discourse which is totally opposite of the West. Thus, claiming that the East doesn’t possess West’s good qualities, the West attributes all negative qualities to the East (Bulut, 2004, p. 13). Building the orientalist discourse on the representation of the ‘other’ through separating the East from the West helps to legitimize imperialist acts. The fact that the East lacks the qualities of the West such as individuality is highlighted. Through this method which can be regarded as a rhetorical strategy, non-Western societies are forced to modernize by describing them as ‘underdeveloped’. Thus, the West centralizes itself through claiming to behold the source of power. Here we should also cover Occidentalism concept emerging as a reaction against this approach of the West. The concept of occidentalism is related to anti-colonialist modernism integrated with colonialism and capitalism. It is caused by the thoughts of non-Western societies on the West. Today, it has a position against economic, cultural, political and military forces like the World Bank, NGOs, the IMF, the United Nations, etc. Presence of non-Western societies in this regard is a liberating ideal especially in the struggle to modernize (2000, p. 19). Said analyzed Orientalism in three ways. First, the superiority of the West over the East in social, language, literary and sociological terms, etc are explained through ‘manifest orientalism’. Changes in the East’s world of consciousness can be followed through manifest orientalism. The second approach of orientalism dates back to latent orientalism and even philosophers like Renan, Marks, Lane, Silvestre, Sacy, Flaubert and Nerval covering the differences between the East and the West (1998, p. 281). According to Yeğenoğlu, Said is referring such possible subliminal dreams, images, fantasies and fears. Thus, the East becomes an object of desire apart from an object of information (2003, p. 110-111). The third orientalism is the ‘modern orientalism’ intertwining with the East. It is a discourse dealing with the East’s need for West’s science, technique, intellectual power and management methods (Said, 1998, p. 301). Orientalism was mostly used with its meaning legitimizing the negative representations and discourses on the East. Although it is not the only work on this subject, Said’s Orientalism has the principal effect. Bernard Lewis who was the most important critic of Said’s orientalism approaches led a new way through opposing to the concept’s correlation with imperialism. According to Lewis, the word ‘orientalism’ was intellectually contaminated. This concept was first used for a group of artists who visited Middle East and North Africa and illustrated what they saw there in a romantic manner and under the imfluence of imagination. Secondly, the groups like Hellenists examining the Greeks and Latinists examining the Latins were named as orientalists (2007, p. 220). Despite the ideas of Lewis, the point on which many philosophers reconcile is the lack of such a simple meaning in orientalism. Above all, representation and discourse are the main products of orientalism. According to Zachary Lockman, orientalism is based on discourse. The most important aspect of discourse is concealing of the reality (2012, p. 269). In fact, unless orientalism is covered as a discourse, it is neither possible for European culture to rule 941

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over the East nor to comprehend the discipline leading it in political, sociological, military, ideological and scientific fields (Said, 1998, p. 14). In the light of these approaches, orientalism will be used as a concept bringing different images together in this study.

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NETFLIX IN GLOBALIZATION AND ORIENTALISM’S CLAW Concepts like ‘a connected age’, ‘web society’ and ‘human web’ are quite common in modern literature today. Use of networks dominates all fields of life. This change dates back to 1990s. With the use of internet influencing the whole world in 1990s, an unprecedented new era started. All digital technologies such as telephone, computer, satellite TV and tablets prevailed in all fields of life, dominantly affecting the social life of individuals and turning almost all organizations into a digital practice are gathered under new media concept of today. Digital networks at society level and global scale have spread to the whole world in social and economic terms. Digital networks are expected to become the nervous system of the society in the 21st century which may be called the era of networks and to have more effect than the geographical discoveries in the historical process (Van Dijk, 2006, p. 2-12). As a digital age television, Netflix has been an important step in the transformation of traditional television broadcasting. Netflix got into the market in 1997, providing DVD sales and renting service through the internet. Use of film watching feature through the internet was one of the most important steps of post-television era in 2007 (Jenner, 2016, p. 257; Osur, 2016). With an approximate number of 200 million subscribers in nearly 200 countries, it has become the pioneer of digital content sector after starting to be used in internetconnected devices in 2010 (netflix.com/tr). Netflix started broadcasting in Turkey in January 2016. Netflix’s first original Turkish content was The Protector (2018-2020) which lasted four seasons and was broadcasted in more than 130 countries. The Gift which was shot in 2019 and Love 101 which was shot in 2020 followed it. Just like other countries, Netflix provides service through subscription in Turkey (https://www.netflix.com/tr/). Producing special contents for each country, Netflix first considers the cultural and social structures of the countries. The contents and subjects are determined according to the tastes of the subscribers through the use of big data. The concept of big data refers to the conversion of data that cannot be saved by conventional storage devices into an accessible format. Netflix presents its global broadcasting understanding through combining it with glocalization. It positions these strategy contents as carriers of globalization. Netflix provides people living in different places of the world the chance to consume the same things (Ryan, 2010, p. 156-157). For example, the consumption preferences of the individuals watching Netflix original content Black Mirror (2011-) series are the same all around the world. Broadcasting the productions of many countries to which it provides service through a single channel, Netflix cause an interaction between different cultures. According to Turner, the globalization renders the East-West opposition meaningless. Orientalism establishing ‘otherhood’ concept for foreign cultures since the seventeenth century gained a new logical background through the taming of ‘otherhood’ by globalization. With the emergence of globalization and multi-cultural policies as an important dimension in political systems, the feeling of estrangement to the outside world couldn’t be preserved as much as before (2003, p. 269270). Accordingly, we can say that Turner considered the problem in terms of consistencies rather than differences. Or directly oppositely, people in Eastern-Western societies may want to live together with similar people and alienate from unsimilar ones.

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Formation of orientalism concept was related to imperialism. Concept of cultural imperialism was developed by Herbert Schiller. Cultural imperialism is used to state that the cultural differences decrease around the world (Aydoğan, 2005, p. 81). Present mass communication devices, newspapers, journals, books, radio-television programs, videos, cinema, tourism, theatre, music and art festivals, immigrant workers increase the efficiency of culturization through enlarging the dimensions of the cultural exchange between the societies as well as being effective in the spreading of national. Thus, lacking reciprocity, intercultural interaction may cause the strong countries to effect weak ones or the use of culture as means of political propaganda and cultural exploitation. This technical development called culture imperialism can also be seen and evaluated as a culturization phase (Güvenç, 2011, p. 371). Orientalism is the continuance of imperialist view in a way according to Said (1998, p. 20). The effective role of media on cultural imperialism developed parallel to globalization. Thus, we can claim that orientalism is spreading through global media today. Hollywood cinema can be given as the main example within the context of the strength of the global effect range. Helping the values of the West to travel all around the world, Hollywood films undertake the media aspect of globalization. It can be stated that the narrative of Hollywood cinema centers on the East-West controversy formed especially after September 11 attacks. In his article called The Local and the Global: Globalization and Ethnicity (1997), Stuart Hall pointed out the change of globalization throughout the history. Global mass culture is under the sovereignty of the modern cultural production means. The world is dominated by an image transpassing language borders quickly and easily and is able to speak any language in any place around the world. It is under the sovereignty of visual arts which rebuilds popular life and nightlife. Television, cinema and mass advertisement are what Hall means through visual arts. According to Baudrillard, the world is under the sovereignity of technology today. This potential holding all kinds of reality under its control left the individuals living in some kind of virtuality only the chance to demolish after being wiped away from the lands where they live. The individual is abstracted more from the real world and loses the principle of reality as s/he loses strength (2001, p. 69). The virtual reality changes the reality through covering it. As the reality gets more artificial, it is hard for the individual to stand against it. All kinds of formations are harmed by virtual reality as it is the final stage of simulation intervention. This technology-centered and artificial new world is quite hyper real that human beings got away from the idea that another world could be possible (Baudrillard, 2004, p. 31-32). Apart from the mentioned mass communication patterns, satellite TV is a principal example. Media devices originating from the national borders take the whole world under influence. Hall exemplifies this condition through West-centered cultural products. Western technology building a homogenizing way of cultural representation through keeping the capital is the reason behind this (2014, p. 139-140). It is necessary to refer to the views of Hall again to understand how the Western culture is transferred to the East through global mass culture. According to Hall, presentation is the basic concept providing representation, meaning and language to form a relationship with culture. Representation aims to state something meaningful about something and present this to other people within a semantic system. Thus, it is the main constituent of the process in which an exchange takes place among the members of different cultures (2017, p. 23). Kellner draws attention to the fact that representation investigates the dominant and competitive ideological images and discourses of the societies. Representation supports the perspectives, identities, life styles and socio-political ideas and actions of the individuals as mass mediators. Representation can be seen as a figure, image and rhetorical process (2003, p. 60). Accordingly, it can be claimed to be directly orientalism-related. Said mentioned the effect of media on representation in his work called Covering Islam: How the Media and the Experts Determine How We See the Rest 943

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of the World (1981). He emphasized media’s function on perception formation especially covering the perception formed by Western media on Muslims (1981). Within the framework of representation relationships within digital media platforms, Netflix legitimizes USA’s presence and attributes a meaning to its missions through its contents (Hachenberger, 2019, p. 47). Orientalist representations on Netflix platform are indicated through character, plotline and space. Especially representation form structured through considering ‘glocal’ fact causes higher popularity of the contents in the country where they are broadcasted. Through this way which is among its main strategies, Netflix also builds a perception on “Eastern” through West’s cultural meaning structurization.

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ORIENTALIST DISCOURSE IN THE PROTECTOR SERIES Building of orientalist discourse through cultural products such as cinema, television and series constitutes the theoretical basis of this study. We can say that digital media platforms have a principal role in transferring ideological representations today. The next section of the study will examine how the characters, time and space in Netflix’s original series The Protector produced in Turkey positions orientalist cultural representations. Starting point of orientalism analysis research in The Protector is the fact that the series is the first original content of Netflix produced in Turkey. Accordingly, discourse analysis method was used in analysis section. Discourses represent different aspects of the world such as the processes, relations and structures of the material world and ‘mental world’ of thoughts, feelings, beliefs and so forth, and the social world. It is possible to represent particular aspects of the world differently, so the relationship between different discourses has to be considered generally. Different world perspectives are provided through different discourses and they are associated with the different relations between people and the world, dependent on their positions in the world, their social and personal identities, and social relationships with other people (Fairclough, 2003, p. 123). Discourse analysis assumes that the meanings attributed to the world by the members of a culture were attributed by the members themselves and the media devices. Discourse analysis of media enables the acknowledgement and evaluation of this semantic sharing. Analyzing how an interaction is built between the humans and the world, it investigates how the meaning was built in different ways in different media texts. Discourse analysis which is an interdisciplinary action reveals the connections of the media with cultural, communal and social areas and the dominant representations (Matheson, 2005, p. 1-2). According to Van Dijk who made important contributions to the theoretical framework of discourse analysis, critical discourse analysis provides analysis through concepts like ‘power’, ‘hegemony’, ‘gender’, ‘class’, ‘race’, ‘interests’, ‘institutions’ and ‘social structure’. Discourse structure can be examined in speech text, visual or written news or other genres and contexts. The researches on discourse should primarily focus on social problems. This is due to the fact that discourse is a way of social action forming the society. It builds a connection between the text and the society (2003, p. 353-354). Shortly, any physical form emerging as the result of social interaction can be examined through analysis. Object of discourse analysis can be human and anything that can be related to human as a subject and an object (Sözen, 1999, p. 99-100). Accordingly, the discourse analysis will provide the investigation of the reflections of Eastern images on the series. It should primarily be stated that orientalism is a common concept in representation. According to Kırel, orientalist representations are mainly presented within the scope of secondary characters and space in the films (2012, p. 453). This study examining the series through discourse analysis 944

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separated it into two groups as character representation and time-space representation. The universe and cinematography built by the series were given in terms of historical items. Thus, a new layer for orientalist representations was articulated to the series.

Plotline of The Protector The main character, Hakan, is an ordinary craftsman working in an antique shop in Grand Bazaar whose life changes when a woman looking for a talismanic shirt visits the shop. Trying to sell the shirt to the woman, he learns that he is the last hope of people who were protecting the world against dark forces for centuries and that he was the last protector assigned for İstanbul. In the past, a secret mission was given to Hakan whose father was also a protector. He must wear his special cloth -talismanic shirt- to gain his mystical powers. Sewed for Yavuz Sultan Selim (Selim I) nearly five hundred years ago, this shirt worn by the sultans and princes of Ottoman Empire for protection against evil. This talismanic keepsake kept in a crate in Grand Bazaar makes Hakan strong and tough with its superhuman powers. Hakan has a special dagger which is the only thing that can kill immortals. His ring glows in the presence of immortals. ‘The loyal ones’ support and lead him all through this journey while his dreams guide him in the wars against the immortals. Another fantastic character is thousand years old Faysal who tries to destroy İstanbul just like all immortals in the narrative. Hakan brings back the immortals because of his mistakes but finally manages to save İstanbul at the end of his struggle.

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Character Representation The main character of the series, Hakan, was presented as an ordinary craftsman who became a hero by gaining some supernatural powers and represented the East. In this regard, Hakan is positioned as the mysterious and enchanted object of the story. The owner of a lot of money and power, immortal Faysal was presented through the image of a Western man with his profession and lifestyle apart from his mystical powers. He fights against Hakan, the Last Protector of İstanbul. Istanbul is an object of desire for both Hakan and Faysal. Faysal damages İstanbul. The damage the West causes in the East while trying to possess it was depicted through these two characters. A talismanic shirt with prayers and symbols on it, a dagger and a ring are what Hakan needs to protect İstanbul. While the talismanic shirt has the role of an armor for Hakan, the dagger is the only weapon that can kill the immortals and the ring leads his way through shining in the presence of an immortal. The type of objects Hakan needs can mediate the mystery of an Eastern man. They are objects with divine power to protect Hakan against danger. Faysal’s strength comes from his money and power. The loyal ones helping Hakan the Protector in the plotline guide him with their knowledge and experience. The loyal ones say the following parole to recognize each other: “As quiet as the blood in my veins. We’re mortals, we roar like a mortar. We’re the Loyal Ones.” Right from the first scene, the way the characters will be positioned in the plotline is presented through orientalist discourse. A book and a magazine on Hakan’s bedside catch our eyes. We see the GQ magazine with Faysal Erdem on its cover page with the headline “The Sultan of Success” and Rumi’s book called Sofi. Rumi is an important philosopher who contributed to the building of the basis of TurkishIslamic civilization. Çubukçu states that Rumi who knew the Eastern philosophy well, also internalized the philosophies of being, freedom, ethics and human beings. His ideas influenced both the Easterns and Westerns. His philosophy is still followed with interest even though it was built more than seven centuries ago (1984, p. 100; 118). Many resources present Rumi as a mystical poet and philosopher. 945

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Accordingly, the characteristic of an Eastern man devoted to the moral values is reflected through the book at Hakan’s bedside. The magazine with Faysal Erdem on its cover page on his bedside helps us to discover his character willing to possess materialistic values. Indeed, Hakan says “my biggest dream is to work with Faysal Erdem” during his job application in Faysal Erdem’s company in the first episode. Faysal employs Hakan because he saved the life of a child when he was leaving the job interview. Becoming the protector is Hakan’s purpose for coming to the world. He undertakes a mystical and dangerous mission while protecting İstanbul from the immortals. He quits working as a craftsman in the Grand Bazaar when his father dies and he is again positioned within a similar frame when he starts to work with Faysal Erdem. Responsible for Faysal’s security, he again faces a dangerous professional experience as his mission as the protector. Faysal’s portrayal as a holding company boss and a famous business man presents his power. Hagia Sophia is very important for Faysal. In his interview after taking Hagia Sophia restoration project, Faysal says: “Napoleon once said: ‘If the world was only one country, İstanbul would be its capital’. I change this quote to this: If the Earth were human, its heart would surely be Hagia Sophia.” With these words, Faysal emphasizes his devotion to İstanbul’s most important symbol. While his discovery of the secret door in Hagia Sophia which hadn’t been opened for five hundred years highlights Faysal’s interest in mystic values, it also maintains his power. The following dialogue takes place between Faysal and Zeynep in the secret room they entered: Zeynep: This must belong to the Byzantines. Ottomans would never leave it like this. This door must have been opened for the first time in 500 years.

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Faysal: ‘We’ are the first ones to open this door after all these years. Even when they were representatives of knowledge, all characters in the narrative preserved their connection with mystical values and knowledge. Words such as “spell, immortality, magic, elixir, prophecies, dreams” frequently repeated by the characters refer to a mystical, mysterious and surrealistic world created. Thus the story taking place in today’s İstanbul appears both realistic and epic. Hakan narrating the story as a normal person and gaining supernatural powers afterwards gives us the impression that the character passes through a threshold between the two worlds. Hakan’s surrealistic transformation can be associated with the threshold conceptualized as ‘paraxial’ by Furbey and Hines. Paraxial is the limbo between the reality and unreality where the distinction between the two worlds becomes vague. This area which is more related to the space is a metaphor showing that the reality and fantasy are related and dependent. This threshold also provides the better understanding of the borders of the real and supernatural (2014, p. 62-63). The transformation Hakan undergoes for his struggle to protect İstanbul constitutes the fantasy side of the story which also represents the East. Hakan turning into a hero with supernatural powers opens the mysterious doors of the East. Immortals representing the mysterious and dangerous aspect of the East in The Protector were positioned as the important item of the narrative. Immortals sent to the world in the period of Mehmet the Conqueror were dark forces willing to destroy Istanbul. Mehmet the Conqueror holds the immortals responsible for disasters like famine and the diseases that Istanbul faces. The presence of immortals is understood with the shining of the ring stone. The special dagger of the protector is the only way to destroy immortals. Hakan’s blood can wake the immortals who disappeared. All immortals in the series revive this way. Faysal revives her wife Rüya who had been killed. Hakan, the last protector, can travel to the past in half-dead state after drinking a magic potion. When he loses his powers, he gets himself 946

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killed and is resurrected through electroshock to reacquire his powers. When he dies after jumping in the sea, he wakes up replacing an ancestor who was the first protector. A secret door is discovered during the restoration of Hagia Sofia. An icon of Christ, a box full of gold and ‘holy grail’ were behind this door. The other immortals awaken when this glass is filled with protector’s blood. The glass here is the ‘holy grail’ used by Christ in the last supper in Christian mythology (Guenon, 1984, p. 1-2). It is believed that Christ said that the glass contained his blood with miraculous powers and the person who finds the glass would become immortal. Oriental images are started to be presented through wrestling scenes, etc after the return of the immortals. The costumes and behaviours of the immortals depicted as Western in the first seasons changed later. The costumes in the scenes where Hakan traveled to the past were presented parallel to the exotic costume descriptions in orientalist texts. These clothes emerge as the symbol’s for Hakan’s identity, time and space changing. Talismanic shirt is the symbolic mean of Hakan’s protection by divine powers. As mentioned by Öz Çelikbaş, the talismanic shirt protecting Hakan against all evil was worn by emperors in Ottoman period especially on their way to war. The ‘talismanic’ quality here gives mystical, secret and magical qualities to the shirt. The shirt is also used in rites and medicine in Shamanic societies and it is also covered in the beliefs of Buddhists, Indians and many Far Eastern countries. In Eastern cultures, talismanic shirt is worn to feel spiritually good and to win a victory (2020, p. 239). From this aspect, it can be stated that the shirt was positioned in the narrative as a representative of the East.

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Time and Space Representation Space has an important place in orientalism theory. Building the discourse through space between the East and West in the narratives affects the audience’s perception. As Henri Lefebvre mentioned in his book Critique of Everyday Life (1961), a social time different from biological, physiological and physical time is present as well as a social space different from the physical, geographical, biological and physical space. With this definition, Lefebvre drew attention to the fact that space is a reproducible concept (2013, p. 245). In films covering orientalist items, East is generally presented as a land of fairy tale and adventure (Kırel, 2012, p. 459). The Protector started with scenes transferring the whole historical richness of İstanbul to the audience. The story of The Protector which takes place in İstanbul was formed through two representation ways as spatial and temporal. İstanbul was covered as a character in the past and present of the narrative. This provides the comparison of co-existing past and presence of the East. Historical richness and sacredness of İstanbul were presented in the center of the narrative as the object of desire for both the East and West. Telling their stories, architectural works are shown in many scenes of the series. On the other hand, a part of the story takes place on skyscrapers representing the modern side of İstanbul. The plotline of the series dates back to 1453. Mehmet the Conqueror notices the enemies in the city after conquering İstanbul. These individuals harm the city. One night the Sultan sees in his dream that they can be saved from these enemies with the help of a ring, a dagger and a talismanic shirt. These objects are the symbolic presentations which would save the East. The features of the objects guide Hakan. For example, the ring stone glows when an immortal is touched. Hakan finds the last immortal he is searching for through the glowing of the stone. Being the only weapon which can kill the immortals, the dagger is the most important weapon to protect İstanbul. Making Hakan a supernatural hero, the talismanic shirt protects him against destruction by the immortals. Thus, İstanbul is portrayed in the

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 Reflection of Orientalist Discourse on Netflix Turkey

series as a place which is the synthesis of the East and West and for which the East and the West fight for to save and destroy. Hakan is the protector of the East, namely İstanbul. While Faysal and other immortals are trying to destroy İstanbul, the East becomes a field of experience, witnessing dangerous events. This feeling of raggedness is given through the narrow and messy backstreets, crowded district bazaars of İstanbul. One can come across people who try to take children’s money by putting off their cigarettes on these children’s hands on these distressing streets. Thus the space is orientalized through raggedness, insecurity and crime. On the other hand, the streets and traditional bazaars reflecting the neighborhood culture were included in the background of the narrative. The East was also associated with death as both Hakan and Zeynep lost their loved ones for the sake of this city and in different places of it. The East damaged people who tried to protect it and access its secrets. Only Faysal being able to open the door to the secret room in Hagia Sophia, immortals being buried and reviving in an unknown place again in Hagia Sophia make a reference to the raggedness of the East. Although the evil originated from the outside of the East, it was also hidden in it. Glamorous, exotic view of Hagia Sophia is turned into a dangerous image. With immortal creatures, talismanic tools and protectors wandering around and supernatural events taking place, İstanbul is depicted as a fantasy land in a way. Although it is presented as the source of worry, East is also covered as a place worth fighting for despite all its difficulties. Hakan has to solve the mystery in the past to discover his identity and to fight with dark forces. Hakan’s journey to the past takes place in a half-dead state after drinking a special elixir. When the immortals take over İstanbul and the whole İstanbul is after him, Hakan jumps in the water with the talismanic key. Going back to 1459, Hakan possesses the body of the first protector. Vizier who communicates with anyone he wants through the reflection on the mirror can also transcend time and space limits. The fantastic space here has a structure which may be real but through the breaking of time and space, it appears as the area in which the character discovers him/herself. Constant representation of İstanbul in its ancient form in the series is a discourse which somewhat makes today’s İstanbul worthless. The danger, darkness and ambiguity of today’s İstanbul are given through the scenes showing disasters like pandemic and famine. From a different point of view, the war against this raggedness can also be interpreted as a ‘resistance’. This is due to the fact that Hakan saved İstanbul by destroying all immortals in the end. As we can understand from the plotline and the dialogues, East was spatially related to ‘sacredness’, ‘historical richness’, ‘mystery’, ‘danger’, ‘dreams’, ‘fantasy’, ‘desire’ and ‘weirdness’. The first season using local items more effectively stood out with space concept. Orientalism-related patterns were inserted in the series through historical buildings, Grand Bazaar, traditional Turkish delight sellers, historical Flower Passage and street tastes like toast-tea or chicken pilaf. Cinematic image was strengthened through different camera angles especially in the scenes showing historical buildings. Authenticity of İstanbul was felt on the background in many scenes. On the other hand, the scenes in which Hakan became an officer in Ottoman Palace through time wrap were quite exotic in terms of the costumes and space representation. According to Said, the East is in accordance with the words ‘exotic, mysterious, deep and productive’ in the orientalist discourse (1998, p. 81). The series covered these discourses in the story through the themes of ‘the past’ and ‘the present’. In addition to the predominant use of the representation methods specific to the East, we can also say that the series also has a structurization articulating West into the story.

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CONCLUSION The present study analyzed The Protector which is the first original content of digital media platform Netflix Turkey within the orientalist discourse. The series interpreted it through discourse analysis. Categories such as character formation, time and space representation determined under the light of theoretical information were determined in discourse analysis application. Plotline, dialogues, costumes, images and actions were analyzed under these categories. There are surely differences between the East and the West. The point emphasized in this study is the building of East images emphasized by the West while describing the East through similar approaches. The series constituting the sampling of the study was arranged in line with the cliché type of the orientalist discourse using the East as a rich and exotic source. Thus, we can say that the series had a narrative structure built under the domination of the orientalist tradition. This discourse wasn’t completely built on the Eastern image but partially on the Western image inside the East. The East was represented through İstanbul in The Protector. Some characters of the series were living in the modern side of İstanbul. Characters trying to destroy İstanbul were somehow against the East in a way. Also the will to take over İstanbul which is the starting point of the story positioned East as an object of desire. In this regard, İstanbul’s historical buildings and magnificence were presented as the historical richness of the East. Thus, we can claim that the East was represented positively without building a negative and passive side. Telling a story combining the present and the past, the series built a semantic framework relying on cultural memory. Using back and forth time wraps, the audience also witnessed Mehmet the Conqueror’s period while seeing İstanbul of today. The East was also evaluated as a place bonded to the past. This approach is different from the views of Said, the father of orientalism paradigm. On the other hand, depiction of İstanbul as a ‘mysterious’, ‘spooky’, ‘ragged’ and ‘dangerous’ place is parallel to the ‘alienating’ structure of the orientalist discourse. Within this scope, we can say that the orientalist discourse is a determining factor in terms of character formation, time and space representation in the series. Finally, we should mention that the orientalist discourse of the series was related to the Eastern society and didn’t cover all clichés. In this direction, the interest shown towards the East’s culture as media products was effective in this preference. The clichés used to represent the East lack exaggeration. The East was interpreted through history, culture, place and character.

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FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS Use of orientalist images in the first original content of Netflix Turkey was investigated in this study. Study covering only one series makes it impossible to compare with other contents. In this regard, the study suggests the future studies to examine the Netflix contents for other countries and analyze them through the comparison of Eastern-Western images. This will reveal the similarities and differences in the use of images in the contents of Netflix which produces special content for each country. Thus, covering the way a global digital media platform represents different cultures, orientalist discourse formation can be evaluated from a larger perspective.

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REFERENCES Aydoğan, F. (2005). Medya ve Tüketim Kültürü Üzerine Eleştirel Bir Analiz. Türkmen Kitabevi. Baudrillard, J. (2001). Tam Ekran (B. Gülmez, Trans.). Yapı Kredi Yayınları. Baudrillard, J. (2004). Şeytana Satılan Ruh (O. Adanır, Trans.). Doğu Batı Yayınları. Bauman, Z. (2010). Küreselleşme Toplumsal Sonuçları (A. Yılmaz, Trans.). Ayrıntı Yayınları. Bulut, Y. (2004). Oryantalizmin Kısa Tarihi. Küre Yayınları. Çubukçu, İ. A. (1984). Mevlana ve Felsefesi. Ankara Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, 26, 97–118. Fairclough, N. (2003). Analysing Discourse Textual Analysis for Social Research. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203697078 Furby, J., & Hines, C. (2014). Fantastik (S. Yavuz, Trans.). Kolektif Yayınları. Guenon, R. (1984). The Sacred Heart and the Legend of the Holy Grail. Studies in Comporative Religios, 16(3-4), 1–7. Güvenç, B. (2011). İnsan ve Kültür. Boyut Yayınları. Hachenberger, C. (2019). Narcos and the Promotion of an U. S. (Informal) Cultural Empire Based on Processes of Stereotyping and Comparison. Forum For Inter-American Research, 12(1), 43–55. Hall, S. (2014). Yerel ve Küresel: Küreselleşme ve Etniklik (H. Tuncel, Trans.). Mülkiye Dergisi, 38(2), 133–150. Hall, S. (2017). Temsil İşi. In S. Hall (Ed.), Temsil Kültürel Temsiller ve Anlamlandırma Uygulamaları (Dündarİ., Trans.; pp. 21–98). Pinhan Yayıncılık. Hobson, J. M. (2015). Batı Medeniyetinin Doğulu Kökenleri (E. Ermert, Trans.). Yapı Kredi Yayınları. Jenner, M. (2016). Is This TVIV? On Netflix, TVIII and Binge-Watching. New Media & Society, 18(2), 257–273. doi:10.1177/1461444814541523 Kellner, D. (2003). Media Culture Culturel Studies, Identity and Policies between the Modern and the Postmodern. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203205808

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Kırel, S. (2012). Kültürel Çalışmalar ve Sinema. Kırmızı Kedi Yayınevi. Kontny, O. (2002). Üçgenin Tabanını Yok Sayan Pythagoras: Oryantalizm ve Ataerkillik Üzerine. Doğu Batı Düşünce Dergisi, 20(3), 120–136. Lefebvre, H. (2013). Gündelik Hayatın Eleştirisi II Gündelik Hayat Sosyolojisinin Temelleri (I. Ergüden, Trans.). Sel Yayıncılık. Lewis, B. (2007). Oryantalizm Sorunu. In A. Yıldız (Ed.), Oryantalizm Tartışma Metinleri (AydarF. B., Trans.; pp. 217–245). Doğu-Batı Yayınları. Lockman, Z. (2012). Hangi Ortadoğu: Oryantalizm, Tarih, Siyaset. Küre Yayınları.

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Matheson, D. (2005). Media Discourses: Analysing Media Texts. Open University Press. Netflix Official Web Sayfası. (2020). https://www.netflix.com/tr/ Osur, L. (2016). Netflix and the Development of the Internet Television Network (PhD Thesis). ABD, Syracuse University. Öz Çelikbaş, E. (2020). Tılsımlı Gömlekler ve Kam Kıyafetleri Bağıntısı. Sanat ve Tasarım Dergisi, 25, 237–249. Said, E. W. (1981). Covering Islam: How The Media and The Experts Determine How We See The Rest of The World. New York: Pantheon. Said, E. W. (1998). Oryantalizm (Doğubilim) Sömürgeciliğin Keşif Kolu (N. Uzel, Trans.). İrfan Yayınevi. Sözen, E. (1999). Söylem Belirsizlik, Mübadele, Bilgi/Güç ve Refleksivite. Paradigma Yayınları. Sutherland, A. (Yapımcı). Evrenol, Can, Aral Umut, Uyanık Gönenç, Tiryaki Gökhan (Yönetmen). (2018). The Protector [TV Series]. Netflix: O3 Medya. Turner, B. S. (2003). Oryantalizm, Postmodernizm ve Globalizm (İ. Kapaklıkaya, Trans.). Anka Yayınları. Van Dijk, J. (2006). The Network Society. SAGE Publications. Van Dijk, T. A. (2003). Critical Discourse Analysis. In D. Schiffrin, D. Tannen, & E. H. Hamilton (Eds.), The Handbook of Discourse Analysis (pp. 352-371). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. Venn, C. (2000). Occidentalism Modernity and Subjectivity. SAGE Publications. doi:10.4135/9781446217436 Yeğenoğlu, M. (2003). Sömürgeci Fanteziler, Oryantalist Söylemde Kültürel ve Cinsel Fark. Metis Yayınları.

ADDITIONAL READING Buruma, I., & Margalit, A. (2004). Occidentalism The West in the Eyes of Its Enemies. The Penguin Press. Clarke, J. J. (1997). Oriental Enlightenment: The Encounter between Asian and Western Thought. Routledge.

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Hussein, A. A. (2004). Edward Said: Criticism and Society. Verso. Iwamura, J. (2011). Virtual Orientalism: Asian Religions and American Popular Culture. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199738601.001.0001 Lewis, B. (2000). Ortadoğu. Arkadaş Yayınevi. Macfie, A. L. (2002). Orientalism. Pearson Education. MacKenzie, J. M. (1995). Orientalism, History, Theory and The Arts. Mancheter University Press. Ritzer, G. (2011). Küresel Dünya. Ayrıntı Yayınları.

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Ryan, J. (2010). A History of The Internet and The Digital Future. Reaction Books. Shohat, E., & Stam, R. (1994). Unthinking Eurocentrism: Multiculturalism and the Media. Routledge. Turner, B. S. (2011). Marx ve Oryantalizm Sonu (H. Ç. Keskinok, Trans.). Kaynak Yayınları.

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

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Digital Media Platforms: Digital broadcasting media emerging with the development of internet technologies. Discourse Analysis: The analysis method mediating to reveal both media’s connections with cultural, communal, and social areas and also the prevailing representations. Globalization: The world entering a universal phase by ascending national borders by changing in almost every area such as economy, politics, and communication. Netflix: A subscription-based broadcasting service providing online series and films. Netflix Series: Content service presented to the whole world after being produced for broadcast on Netflix platform. Orientalism: West collecting the meanings, images and values it produced in economic, social and cultural terms for the East under a single frame. It is regarded as an academic discipline. The Protector: It is the first original content of Netflix Turkey in drama, fantastic, action and science fiction genre. It was directed by Can Evrenol, Umut Aral and Gönenç Uyanık. It was broadcasted in four seasons with a total number of thirty-two episodes between 2018 and 2020. Representation: Providing the connection of meaning and language with culture and presenting it within a semantic system.

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Chapter 54

Reproducing Orientalism With Cinema: Aladdin (2019)

Deniz Yüceer Berker https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7983-8137 Istanbul Ayvansaray University, Turkey

ABSTRACT The place and importance of mass media as an ideological device is accepted without any discussion today. The sovereign states, trying to impose their ideology and world view to “others,” impose the dominant ideology by using the media as well as economic and political pressure. Cinema is like a mirror that reveals the socio-cultural and economic structures in societies and refects all changes and conficts. Therefore, the relationship between cinema and social structure is quite strong. At this point, the relationship between cinema and orientalism, which is the subject of the study, becomes important. Orientalism is constantly being reproduced through cinema, which is one of the most efective mass media. In this context, the movie Aladdin produced in 2019 will be analyzed in order to analyze how the orientalist perspective is reproduced with cinema and how the eastern image is “otherized.” In the study, critical discourse analysis method was preferred for the purpose of analyzing the social and political backgrounds of the ideologies in the flm.

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INTRODUCTION Cinema represents all socio-political and economic changes, transformations and conflicts in society, which are social dynamics. Therefore, cinema has a close relationship with the dominant ideologies that exist in every era. While this relationship sometimes comes to light as a conflict with dominant ideologies criticizing the flaws in existing systems, it sometimes appears as a means of reproducing the dominant discourse, as in the movie “Aladdin”, which is the subject of the study. Ideology is accepted as false consciousness and illusion of truth (Eagleton, 1990). Ideology, as a method of producing social reality, covers up social tensions and class differences and functions within DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch054

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 Reproducing Orientalism With Cinema

the context of reproduction of the dominant ideology. The concept of dominant ideology appears as a symbolic system that helps to reproduce a political order that serves the interests of ruling groups and classes (Erdoğan & Alemdar, 1994, p. 197). Imposing the dominant ideology on individuals takes place with consent. Sovereign discourse resorts to various ways to gain the consent of the people under its control (Bully 2013, p. 61-62). Undoubtedly, the most important means of mass media are the ways in which this society is used to get its consent. At this point, cinema is positioned as a means of cultural representation that restructures social life and reality with different elements within the framework of some ideologies, forming a common mind set in societies, maintaining and strengthening the existence of social institutions (Karakoç & Mert, 2013, p. 284) It is accepted that cinema is the a mass media that can have the largest impact on societies due to its nature and as Rotha stated, there are main reasons for the effective use of cinema as a propaganda tool of dominant ideology. • • •

Having a structure suitable to be shared by the masses, It has a convincing competence due to its simple power in terms of explanation and expression competence, It can reach people in countless ways without a certain time limitation with its repetitive mechanized quality for millions of people (Rotha, 2000, p. 40).

In the context of all these factors, regardless of the cinema narrative, it is never far from value judgments, ideological or even political tendencies (Güçhan, 1999, p. 176). The relationship between cinema and Orientalism emerges at this point. Orientalism is considered a way of thinking that Western civilizations use to define and systematically make sense of Eastern societies. Orientalism is an approach which reveals itself in many fields. Art, which is affected by social perception and life, and even nourished by it in many cases, can be shaped in line with the orientalist perspective. The orientalist approach emerges as the Western study of the East and it attempts to understand it as it is, reproducing it according to its own perspective and trying to establish superiority over the new “other” it produces. The West needed another to define itself, and this other became the East (Doğan, 2016, p. 13). In this context, the movie “Aladdin”, produced in 2019, will be analyzed in order to determine how the orientalist perspective is reproduced through cinema and how the eastern image is”otherized”. In the study, the Critical Discourse Analysis method was preferred in order to analyze the backgrounds of the ideologies in the movie and to evaluate all the forms of reproduction within the social and political context.

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ORIENTALISM Orient in the European languages is the place where the sun rises, orientalism, which derives from the Latin word Oriens, means Eastern science as a concept. Although it is not possible to find clear information about when the concept of orientalism was first used, the recognition of the concept of orientalism as an academic discipline in 1539 in Europe in Paris, the first Arabic Department at the College de France and at Cambridge University in England. It was with the establishment of the Department of Oriental Studies. (Kaya, 2010, p.7). At first, the concept of orientalism was defined positively. In this context, the purpose of orientalism was perceived as the knowledge of the folkloric knowledge of the East and ensuring academic discipline until the 18th century. However, with the 19th century, this purpose changed as 954

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the West’s desire to create an East that serves its own ideological purposes on the basis of the education, development and civilization of Eastern countries (Kaya, 2010, pp. 8-9). Edward Said’s work “Orientalism” undoubtedly had a big impact on the negative understanding of orientalism. Studies that evaluated orientalist studies negatively in the 1970s attracts attention especially with Edward Said. Said (1998, p. 26)’s starting point on orientalism is different from previous studies; It stems from the problematic of understanding the other, perceiving and then presenting. Orientalism is not only a geographical distinction, but also an imaginary and unrealistic distinction. The orientalist perspective, based on the image of the East created by the West in its own imagination, pioneers imperialism. While the West was intellectually defining the east, it also presents this situation as a legitimate definition of colonialism. As stated by Yeğenoğlu (2003); “The principles of development, progress, modernization and universality, which are the main indicators of enlightenment and humanist philosophy, also constitute the cornerstone of the “modernization and civilization” mission of the colonial power” (p.126). Therefore, Said argues that all kinds of work done by Westerners throughout the ages are distorted, incomplete and wrong, thus making a harsh criticism against the history of thought (Said, 1998). In this context, Orientalism is defined as a prejudiced thought system based on fantasies, images and dreams that enable Western civilization to dominate the Eastern world (Said, 1998). It emerges as the way Western societies perceive Eastern societies. At the same time, Edward Said states that orientalism emerged in the most severe periods of colonialism and states that the knowledge produced by orientalists was also used to expand the influence of the colonists (Yeğenoğlu, 2003, p.21). Ferguson (2017) also underlined that the dominance of Western civilization in the world is not only colonialism, but also that the West presents itself as “high mind”. Thanks to this mind, scientific revolutions took place, high class art, philosophy, and literature works emerged, and a new world was created that “others” would be inspired. This paradigm has increased the West’s self-confidence, and with this self-confidence, Western identity has been placed in a superior position than others. At this point, Ashcroft (2000, p. 50) states that as a group of disciplines, orientalism is dependent on linguistic and racist sources and arguments that revolve around the basis of national discrimination, and in this sense,it emphasizes the creation of a imaginary East through sociological, psychological, philosophical, literary, artistic, etc. products. Three main functions of the Eurocentric dominant ideology presented as the “high mind” stand out; • •

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•

Concealing the true dimensions of the capitalist mode of production. To glorify European history, to compare it with other dates, and to come to the conclusion that the capitalist miracle can only happen in Europe. Ignoring the center-periphery polarization inherent in capitalism and linking the contradictions that will arise with the spread of capitalism in the world to “internal” reasons, reinforcing the prejudices that diferent peoples have supra-historical characteristics (Amin, 1993, pp. 88-89).

According to Yetim (2012, p. 211), orientalism positions the West as a subject within the context of the subject-object relationship of societies. Objectification of non-western societies, it has revealed the discourse of an “other”, devoid of the inner dynamics of rationality, modernity and progress. The uniqueness, differences and originality of societies other than the West, which are accepted as the other, are not taken care of. Kontny (2002, p. 117) states that orientalism is based on the broadest meaning of “us and the other” or “us and them”. Because the West cannot see the reason and rationality it has with modernity in the East. In this case, the East is seen as underdeveloped and in need of improvement (Yeğenoğlu, 2003). 955

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In this context, in Said’s works, the East is the place of exotic music and dances, sensual women, tough men, mystical events, and a completely different life from the West. ‘The type of human being defined as Eastern is described with the same fixed features: weakness, helplessness, passivity, obedience, invariability, filth, cowardice, laziness, lack of logic, need to be governed, etc. (Lake, 2008). Said pointed out that as long as the East does not represent itself, it will continue to be represented through the eyes of the East. Said actually emphasizes that orientalists will be needed as long as the East accepts the mastery of the West as the supreme mind. This point brings to mind Hegel’s famous “slavemaster dialectic”. When the Master is accepted by a conscious being, its Lordship will be meaningful. Therefore, the master can be a “master” only if she can have a “slave” who considers herself to be the master (Bulut, 2004, p. 11). Therefore, it is of great importance that the cultures defined as the East can create themselves against the hegemony of the West.

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Orientalism and the “Other” Phenomenon Marginalizing is accomplished by creating differences through behavioral patterns and speech patterns that define a common identity relative to another, excluding identities other than limiting factors such as geographical and cultural boundaries, the use of certain symbols and symbols of life, common anxiety and fear (Yurdigül 2002, p. 8). The “self” imaginations of societies also affect the perceptions of the absolute “other”. The perception of the East of the West not only expresses the whole of real or imaginary images it has formed about another civilization, but also shows how the West has a “I” vision and self-consciousness (Kalın, 2007, p. 17). With the emergence of the distinction between industrial societies and agricultural societies, at the beginning of the 20th century, the West’s separation from other societies became evident. While talking about societies that did not realize the industrial revolution, the distinction between developed and underdeveloped countries has been the most important distinction used to classify societies in the 20th century (Sezer, 1998, p.42). In the context of the emphasis on development, a distinction is made between the West itself and other societies, and this distinction is maintained most strongly. “I” uses the criteria of her own culture while valuing the “other”. In this case, the “other” cannot be anything but itself incomplete. The “other” is accepted with this difference (Schnopper, 2005, p. 26). Therefore, the East is seen as the deficient form of the West. If the underdeveloped East, seen as the other, develops sufficiently with the support of the West, one day it can become one of the developed countries. The “future” promised to the East is to take place in the Western world. On the basis of the distinction between East and West, the other is established as an integral part of Europe’s material and spiritual (cultural) civilization. While the West thus presents itself as modern, progressive, democratic, developmental and individualistic, it is its opposite to what is different; It attributes characteristics such as traditional, underdeveloped, authoritarian (Keyman, 2002, p.21). According to Bauman, modernity, as required by the certainty principle of positive science understanding, is obliged to characterize the other, whom it sees as a threat element, as the enemy, even though it does not know it at all, and disregards the right to life (Kahraman, 2016, p. 395). In other words, it defines herself by inventing the “East” which is completely opposite to it. With this marginalization, it claims that the good things it has are not in the East and that all the bad things it does not have are in the East (Bulut, 2004, pp.13-14). Along with the different approaches to the “other”, Keyman gathered the different approaches regarding the “other” in Sociological and Anthropological discourses under four headlines; 956

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• • •

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•

The ‘other’ as an empirical object; It is to explain the “other”, which is seen as an object that can be understood by collecting information, based on so-called objective and real information about it. The ‘other’ as a cultural object; The ‘other’ is defned by what is not, rather than what it is. It is seen as a cultural object that has a lack of everything the modern mind has. The ‘other’ as a discursive structure; it constitutes an object of knowledge established by various discourses and institutions. The other as a diference; By allowing a critical examination of the interdependence between the colonizer and the exploited, it carries the other problem to the axis of identity / diference (1999, pp.76-78).

As Başkaya (2004, p. 77) stated, the capitalist West wants to keep the East under control in order to keep its domination. To dominate the region in an informational context, to produce discourse and to reflect this as truth is nothing but the West’s effort to dominate. The problem today is not things like the East / West or the Conflict of Civilizations. The problem is the capitalist expansionism, colonialism and imperialism policies (Başkaya, 2004, p. 77). After all, the “other” is not an object or an entity, but a discursive fiction. Orientalism, institutionally, politically, economically, culturally, discursively and historically, is the process of Western epistemology perceiving the East, establishing it as it’s opposite, thus universalizing its existence hegemonically (Keyman, 2002, p. 22). Within the context sociological domination (Arlı, 2009: 23).At this point “The bigger the stick has a greater chance of imposing their own definition of reality (Berger &Luckmann, 2008, p. 158). The existence of the other takes place in the symbolic universe. This is written in other lowercase letters. The big other is the Symbolic order. It is the subject as a whole. The West reflects the symbol of the Great Other, and the Great Other, in which the deficiency is hidden and the desired ideal, is carried out by looking at others (Arlı, 2009, p. 23). This identity creation is actually the cultural void created with the “Other” that is believed to be unlike or should not be. The distance created by the perception of similarity with those near and distant and difference creates a difficult “empty space” between similar and different ones. This distance is a mental perception rather than concreteness (Mahçupyan: 1998, p.46). According to Eagleton (1996), because of these mental illusions-ideologies, people sometimes regard each other as gods or insects. The dominant discourse, as a fictional tool, will construct ways of thinking about not only the other but also the relationship to be established with that other, with the narratives it creates. The construction of the other, according to Schnapper (2005, pp. 25-28), occurs in two ways: in the first one, the other is valued through cultural criteria. The second way traces of the policy of assimilating the other in their own culture. In the former, the attitude towards the existence of the other is derogatory, while in the latter the colonial logic prevails. Based on the idea that mass media are the carriers of the ruling class’s ideology, establishing a dominant discourse is supported by mass media. In general, the image created about the East or Eastern people through the media show them as mysterious, tough, dangerous, tyrants, lawless and uncanny. Armand Mattelart and Ariel Dorfman also support this thesis and stated that there is significant racist and imperialist aspects in some of Disney’s comedy books and put up for sale in Latin America (Schiller 1993, pp. 160-161) The main problem here, as Uluç (2011, p. 13) states, is not that there is another, but how this other’s imaged is drawn. It’s aimed to get to an understanding that leads the way to understanding the uncertain957

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ties of oneself and the world, create a mind which is open to discussion, and therefore can look at oneself with a certain distance and irony, without imposing its own identity on the other, without punishing the difference and characterizing it as abnormal. It is really important to accept differences without claiming superiority.

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Reproduction of Orientalist Discourses: Hollywood The Mass Media functions as an ideological tool in the creation, reproduction and naturalization of perspectives. McPhaill associated the ideological dimension of mass media with electronic colonialism. According to him, how much of the cultural products produced by the mass media in “third world countries” are rejected, forgotten, changed and preferred to products imported from foreign countries constitutes one of the most fundamental problems in these countries. He stated that cultural colonialism is just as dangerous as economic, military and political colonialism (McPhaill, 1991, p. 151). Cinema, which is considered one of the most effective mass media tools, facilitated the spread of orientalist discourses and their adoption as a generally accepted approach. Because, beyond reflecting a situation, with movies, a certain perspective is presented to the audience by portraying a certain image of a situation (Ryan & Kellner, 1997, p. 8). The orientalist perspective can reveal itself in cinema in different ways as an art of representation (Kırel, 2012, p. 453). Orientalist discourses in cinema take place with symbols and social structures. In the cinema that imagines the orientalist discourse, it is necessary to separate it from the dominant subject first, and draw a border between the Eastern / Western as well as the feminine / masculine, black / white, master / slave distinction in order for the other to be ‘other’ (Hall, 1996, p. 216). As Kırel (2010, p. 452) points out, it is enough to look carefully at the oriental characters that have taken place in many known and even taken for granted examples and how the east is represented as a space in order to see how orientalism is operated when it comes to cinema. In other words, the east continues to be reproduced through cinema (Kirel, 2010, p. 452). Therefore, Hollywood defines the national values and elements of its country using cinema possibilities. A collective consciousness is required to build a national culture because Nationalism feeds on others who are different. Hollywood also plays an important role in creating collective consciousness by building the integrated identity of the outside from the inside. While this goal is portraying the other “post-colonial”, the national American supports the process portraying us with historical and traditional symbols (Güngör, 2011, p. 76-77). The use of orientalist motifs in cinema may vary according to the ideology and propaganda of the West (Yiğit, 2008, p. 239). Within this context, Michel Valantin has argued that there is a connection between Hollywood and Pentagon studies. Hollywood, “The Americans are elite people” and that “They started a war just to save the world“ produces a series of movies to legitimize their thesis, but also produces movies on other subjects, not just to draw attention to the real objectives behind those movies. Valantin said that especially after the Iraq war that started in 2003, the production of movies about patriotism, national security and war against the enemies of America has been revived in Hollywood; before that, he states that “threat production” movies have increased. According to the author, such movies aim to legitimize America’s efforts to dominate the outside world through topics such as terrorism, anarchism and communism, which threaten America (Valantin, 2006, p. 213). The “other” in question varies from time to time. The orientalist discourse in the cinema is not only used to marginalize the region defined as the Middle East or Near East, the region defined as the Far 958

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East is also used as a tool in establishing the opposition of “me” and “other”. For example, in the movies of the end of the Second World War, China appears with a different image. In the movies, Far East countries such as China and Japan are shown as yellow danger or primitive societies that need to be civilized (Yiğit, 2008, p. 239). China, which is seen as a threat to America’s economy, is represented as politically-economically and culturally dangerous through cinema. At the same time, the Middle East was represented in Hollywood cinema after September 11 attacks. America has tried to legitimize its policies on the Middle East and impose it on the world with disproportionate violence, and in this regard, media and Hollywood movies, which are among their most important weapons, have done their part as an ideological tool (Baykal & Önal, 2011, pp. 112-4). As Kurtoğlu stated, everything from the names of the good and the bad elements in the movies to the choice of location is a weapon of psychological warfare and serves the dominant discourse (Kurtoğlu, 2017, p. 230).

ANALYSIS OF THE MOVIE “ALADDIN” WITHIN THE SCOPE OF ORIENTALIST DISCOURSE

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Walt Disney Walt Elias Disney, which is the founder of Walt Disney, the worldwide giant of media, is a producer, director, screenwriter and voice actor. Walt Disney came to Hollywood in 1923 and set up a small studio for himself in his uncle’s garage. Disney produced its first animation, Alice in Wonderland and this animation studio that Walt Disney founded with his brother Roy Disney has gradually become a Hollywood studio. Walt Disney, one of the most influential people of the twentieth century, established hegemony in popular culture with the company he founded. Beginning with its first feature-length animated movie, “Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs”, which production began in 1934 and completed in 1937, Disney, especially, introduced European classic fairy tales to the audience consisting of children and adults “seemingly” sexuality, violence, racism, etc. presented it after de-contenting and reinterpreting it and gained “reputation” in this way (Best & Lowney, 2009). Disney, which blending classic tales with the dominant ideology and successfully marketing them in the twentieth century, bought Pixar which was the computer-aided animation movie producer of the new century (2006). In 2009, Disney bought Marvel Enternainment and then (2019) 21st Century Fox’s entertainment for $ 71 billion. Within the scope of the agreement, the shares of Sky and Star satellite broadcasts in the UK, Europe and Asia, FX and National Geographic cable channels, Twentieth Century Fox, Fox Searchlight Pictures, Fox 2000 Pictures, 22 regional sports channels in the USA and the digital broadcasting platform of the Fox group were added to Disney. (https://pazarlamasyon.com/disney-foxu-resmen-satin-aldi/) Disney has created a huge “amusement park” with Disneyland, along with a marketing strategy that supports both television and cinema. In this way, people’s dream worlds are controlled in the triangle of television, cinema and “amusement” park. With Disneyland, the virtual reality created by television and cinema has been transformed into a “hyperreal” simulation. In the world of Disneyland, children and adults who were familiar with Disney products from their childhood can touch Mickey Mouse, chat with Donald Duck, and actually live a more real tale in that magical world of fairy tales. (Dorfman & Mattelart, 1971). Therefore, it is seen that Disney, which has contributed significantly to the spread of popular culture worldwide, also created one of the most successful examples of creat-

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ing a “place of consumption” with Disneyland, which is one of the basic conditions of the consumer society (Ritzer, 2011). Disney rejects class conflict in classic fairy tale narrative forms, supporting birth-earned rights and monarchy order, often showing those of the lower class with negative stereotypes (Dorfman & Mattelart, 1971).Disney considers class differences in society legitimate on the one hand, while ignoring the struggle between these classes (Dorfman & Mattelart, 1971). At the same time, Disney is literally a men’s world. Women, whether a humble servant or a sought-after beauty queen, play their role perfectly and in both cases is positioned under the domination of the man. The only strength she has is her traditional seduction in her enthusiastic movements. No role is given to allow her to overcome her passive, domesticated nature (Dorfman & Mattelart, 1971, p. 55). The positioning of women as the other of the man, and cannot go beyond “incomplete masculinity”. Another phenomenon within the context of Disney’s presentation for the “other” is the “east”. One of Disney’s other heroes is the subject of this study, a 1992 produced Aladdin is included as an example. Aladdin, In the 22nd week, while the ticket were still sold, the movie made revenues of 200 million dollars in the US and 250 million dollars in the international market, which is considerably high (Belkhyr, 2013, p. 1368). Aladdin was re-produced as a cinema movie in 2009.

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Methodology In this study, the movie “Alaadin”, made in 2019, was analyzed in order to answer the questions of how the orientalist perspective is reproduced through cinema and how the East’s image is portrayed. At this point, Critical Discourse Analysis Method was preferred in order to examine the relationship between cinema and dominant ideology in a comprehensive way. Because According to Van Dijk, meanings, ideas, and ideologies can be uncovered through critical discourse analysis. Although Critical Discourse analysis has often come to the fore in texts and studies that examine linguistic structures, it can trace ideology and ideological opposition in all fine art works. While accepting the fact that cinema has specific elements (story, sound, music, dialogues, camera angle, fiction), there are many similarities between written texts and cinema. In a written text, the trace of ideology and ideological opposition is continued with the emphasis, repetition, and other words used together. The lack of text in the hands of the audience in the cinema and the succession of images instead does not prevent the movie from being analyzed using the critical discourse analysis method (Öztürk, 2015). There’re two main names that comes to mind when mentioning the analysis of Critical Discourse. The first one is Norman Fairclough and the other is Teun Van Dijk. Van Dijk analyzes the connection of virility, power, sovereignty, and ideology that are reproduced within the discourse, especially in news texts, using linguistic concepts and linguistic structures. According to Dijk, discourse is an important element in the emergence of ideologies. Critical discourse analysis undertakes an explanatory task in revealing the ideological attitude underlying the discourse (Karaduman, 2017, p. 33). Because ideologies can be expressed explicitly, they can also be expressed quite indirectly, implicitly, in less obvious structures of discourse (Dijk, 2003, p. 55). Therefore, it is impossible to talk about a linguistic and communicative process independent of ideological influence, either implicitly or explicitly, because the system of semantic rules that enable the organization and production of messages is formed by ideology (Çoban, 2003, pp. 254-255). Van Dijk’s analyzes also show with examples how social differences (such as ethnic, race, gender) are positioned in a hierarchical order within the discourse. In terms of media

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studies, the concept of discourse, when considered together with ideology, provides a starting point in demonstrating the role of media texts in the establishment of social power (Karaduman, 2009, p. 45). Faircough (1995, pp. 57-62) collects critical discourse analysis under three main headings; discourse as text, discourse as discursive practice and discourse as social practice. All three are interrelated. For example, there are serious differences between the representation of a person as nationalist, racist, patriotic or terrorist, guerrilla or freedom fighter (Van Dijk, 1998, p. 31). Certainly, to analyze these differences, it would not be enough to examine a text at the level of words and phrases alone. For this reason, the ideological and hegemonic function that the discourse processes is important. This is also categorized as “discourse as a social practice” (Faircough, 1995, pp. 57-62).Fairclough states that discourse is shaped by structures, and that it also contributes to the formation and reformulation of the structures (Karaduman, 2017, p. 36). Thus, discourse practices that position things and people over the dominant meaning are tools for the production and reproduction of unequal power relations (social class, male-female, dominant-other, etc.) (Fairclough &Wodak, 1997, p. 258). Van Dijk analyzes texts in two main structures as macro and micro. In the macro structure analysis, first, sections such as news headlines, sub-headings, news entry and spots are analyzed thematically. In his study of microstructure, Dijk traces the traces of discourse reflected on the units of language. It examines the word choices, sentence structures, and the causality relationships established between sentences in relation to rhetoric (van Dijk, 1998, pp.13-85). The distinctive difference between discourse analysis and critical discourse analysis is that critical discourse analysis is not only concerned with researching a linguistic unit, as it is supposed, but about investigating complex social phenomena that require a multidisciplinary and multi-methodological approach that encompasses different courses or specialties. Because the main thing is not to do a linguistic study (Wodak & Meyer, 2009, p 2). What is important is the analysis of ideologies that affirm, nurture and reproduce virility, domination, and exploitation relations (Fairclough, 2003, p.218). In this context, critical discourse analysis is mainly interested in exposing ideologies and power by systematically examining and reviewing indicative data that is written, oral or visual (Wodak&Meyer, 2009, p. 3). According to critical discourse analysis, the research will be meaningless and inefficient unless analyzed through discourse, repetitive content, symbols, metaphors, themes and motifs. Therefore, the categories of analysis were determined accordingly in this study. The main method to be used in the analysis of the movie “Aladdin” is based on the concept of discourse and the critical discourse analysis method of Van Dijk, one of the most important theories that reveal the connection of this concept with power and ideology. At the same time, Van Dijk separates the texts into “us and them” and by asking questions to the text in question reveals the ideological background of the text. The categories suggested by Van Dijk are as follows; “Membership: Who are we? Who is ours? Who can be admitted? Activities: What are we doing or planning? What is expected of us? Objectives: Why are we doing this? What do we want to achieve? The Rules: What is and is not allowed in what we do? Relationships: Who are our enemies or friends? What is our situation in society? Resources: What’s in others? What do we have different from others?” (Van Dijk, 2003, 27-28). These questions will guide the analysis part of the study.

Analysis Categories Van Dijk’s analysis method for analyzing news texts has been adapted to the analysis of the movie “Aladdin”. The analysis categories are determined as follows; 961

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Macro Structure • •

The Plot Spaces and Representation Microstructure

• •

Establishment of orientalism through characters and dialogues ◦◦ Representation of Male and Female Use of Audio and Music

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Plot The first version of the movie Aladdin was produced in 1992 and released by Walt Disney Pictures. In 2019, the movie Aladdin was directed by Guy Ritchie. Aladdin and Abu (monkey) are two good friends who live on the streets. They know the streets very well and steal so they can feed themselves. For this reason, the Agrabahs call Aladdin a street mouse. On the other hand, the Sultan, who lives in the palace, is trying to get his daughter married to a prince. Prince candidates come and go to the palace all the time. But Princess Jasmine does not want to marry, she is bored with the palace and the rules. She is imprisoned in the palace. She is curious about the outside but does not leave the palace. The princess runs away from the palace by making a change of clothes, and while wandering around the market, she sees that two young children are hungry and looking at the apples. She goes to them and gives them apples. Meanwhile, the apple seller sees the situation. He holds the princess’ hand, he wants the money for the apple she buys, but Jasmine doesn’t have any money with her. Meanwhile, Aladdin sees the situation Jasmine has fallen into in the market and saves her from the marketplace. The palace vizier, Jafar, tries every way to reach the magic lamp that he had lost. He wants to get the magic lamp and become the ruler of Agrabah. The only person who can get the magic lamp from the cave is Aladdin who is an agile thief. Jafar captures Aladdin. If he hands over the lamp and gives it to Jafar, he’ll convince Aladdin he’ll be rich. Aladdin agrees and he and Jafar go to that cave. Aladdin enters the cave to get the lamp, the only rule is that he doesn’t touch anything out there. Aladdin and Abu come in. There they see the flying carpet. Aladdin asked him to help him find the lamp, and the carpet took him to the lamp. As Aladdin is about to pick up the lamp, Abu wants to buy the amazing diamonds he sees there. As soon as Abu picks up the diamond, the cave begins to collapse. After a long struggle, Aladdin succeeds in taking the lamp. The magic carpet saves them from death. The carpet takes them to the exit. Jafar takes the lamp, but doesn’t save Aladdin leaving him to die. Aladdin wakes up from where he fell. While he thought he’d lost the lamp, Abu must have taken over the magic lamp. Aladdin sees an inscription when he examines the lamp, and as he tries to erase it, the genie comes out of the lamp and he wants Aladdin to say his three wishes. Aladdin’s first wish is to become Prince in order to meet the Princess. The genie grants this wish. Aladdin goes to the palace as a Prince, but encounters Jasmine’s negative reaction. Because Princess Jasmine wants a love marriage. Aladdin goes and talks to her in order to convince her. Seeing Aladdin’s magic carpet, the Princess walks around with him and understands that Aladdin is actually who he sees in the market. But Aladdin continues his lie. And he says he’s mingle with the people in disguise. They fell in love. Uncomfortable with this situation and realizing that he is Aladdin, Jafar caught Aladdin and threw him into the sea. To get out of here, he used 962

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his second wish. But Jafar seizes the magic lamp and begins to rule Agrabah. At the same time, he wants to marry Princess Jasmine. But thanks to Aladdin, they survive from Jafar. Jafar is trapped inside the lamp. And Aladdin uses his last right to free the Genie, as he promised. Aladdin and Princess Jasmine get married. Princess becomes the new Sultan.

Places and Representation The movie begins on the ship with the Genie, who came out of the lamp, with his children and wife. The children looking at the huge and flamboyant ship that passes by them saying “We wish it were ours, we would be very happy” and then Aladdin and Princess Jasmine begin to tell their story by singing to the children; Imagine a Realm, In a faraway place Camel trains roamed, From every culture and language, Lots of people traveling, It’s a bit complicated but still it’s my home Join us, jump in and fly with the carpet, To another Arab night, Walking the streets, walking the markets, Spice scented countertops, you can smell it everywhere, Bargaining is the only way to shop,

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If you’re going to buy silk and satin scarves, A melody plays, New unprecedented pleasures while exploring, You’re trapped in a dance Lost in a magic

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On another Arab night Fidget is fidget, flame is flame, These mysterious lands are like dreams, Lands full of magic and sand, Let the dark side open Let the hidden riches be found Your destiny lies in your hands While going towards the place where the story takes place with the song Genie sang, there are places that match the lyrics of the song. Figure 1. Desert scene

The movie begins with the words and images that are suitable for the West’s description of the East and contain orientalist elements. Some features seen as belonging to the East in the lyrics of the introduction song in harmony with the places; “Spice-scented stalls, unseen pleasures, spells, mystical lands, lands

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Figure 2. Agrabah

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Figure 3. Cave

full of magic and sand, and hidden riches, where camel caravans roamed.” And all the places used in the movie during Genie’s song are seen respectively. As the cave where Aladdin found the magic lamp appears on the screen, a creepy voice enters the song with the phrase “find the raw diamond”. There are many diamonds and gold in the cave. This point indicates that “these distant lands, mystical lands” are “unprocessed diamonds”, as it is said in the introduction song, and that only someone who is too full of tears to touch these diamonds, that is, the West can enter. Because in Agrabah, all the people on the streets are portrayed as thieves from the beginning to the end of the movie. Therefore, this underground wealth of the East should be controlled by someone who is “blinded”. As can be seen in the squares above, the streets are neglected, dark, narrow and full of thieves. There are people who all seem alike, moving chaotically in the local dress of the spaces surrounded by neglected buildings. Besides these uncanny and scattered-looking streets, people are quite colourful. The East is both mystical and uncanny. However, despite all its insecurity, it inspires excitement with its mystical elements and waits to be discovered. Eastern death- vitality, wealth-poverty, uncanny-tempting phenomena are aimed at the same time. With images of local garments, deserts and camels (“This mystical land as if it were a dream”), the fairy tale and unreality of the East is underlined. The East is an old, primitive and backward land in need of a “real” order. Therefore, intervention in the East is essential “for their sake”.

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Figure 4. Bazaar

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ESTABLISHMENT OF ORIENTALISM THROUGH CHARACTERS AND DIALOGUES

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Male and Female Representation In the movie, men other than the protagonists are often shown as servants. The non-servant is portrayed as market vendors who lead a poor life and are not very moral. The men in the market are hungry and seeking to earn more. Aladdin, who plays the leading role, is described in the movie as “the tramp, the street rat and the thief”. In the movie, Aladdin says in the lyrics of the first song he sang while running away from the guards, “How many fates are after all, if I don’t have money?” Stealing has been seen as a result of poverty and poverty has been described as “bad fate”. The colonialism that the East was impoverished and subjected to was ignored, and poverty was presented as the fate of the lands of the East. At the same time, Aladdin’s clothes do not reflect our day, but with fez and bolero, it evokes a primitive beggar. Although many years have passed since the release of the first Aladdin movie (1992), Aladdin has remained the same. He emphasized the backwardness of the East and that it could never progress, through their clothes. While Aladdin is a good and “moral” thief, reveals his true identity by wishing to be a prince in order to be with Jasmine. Achieving his dreams and getting rid of “poverty in his fate” depends on the Genie who will come out of the lamp. For other men who want to obtain the magic lamp, their desire is to have wealth or power. In the movie, Eastern men earn their livelihood by stealing and because they are lazy they want to get rich as soon as possible. For this reason, it becomes crucial to have a magic lamp. Jafar, who also speaks English with a distorted Eastern accent, is finally trapped in the dark lamp because he does not want to be the second man and always has eyes for more. What stands out here is that the English accent of Aladdin and Princess Jasmine, who starred and was presented as a good character despite being a thief, was very smooth. Jafar, who wants war, darkness, does not want to be the second man, ruthless, innovating and wants to have underground riches in the cave alone, represents the East with his broken accent, while Aladdin and Princess Jasmine wink at the West with their perfect English and bright faces. When we look at how female characters are represented in the movie, it is seen that women do not have any special stories in the movie. No other woman has been included except Princess Jasmine and the woman who served her. These women are shallow and superficial enough to have no stories. Jasmine’s servant, the woman (Dalia), has no story except the shallow love between her and the Genie. In the movie, women are portrayed as an entity placed only at the center of sexuality, between four walls, under control, without willpower, unable to use their mind, without a say in life. So much so that when The Genie invites Dalia for a walk, Dalia doesn’t know what to do. “I haven’t done that in a long time, how was it?” asks she. He didn’t even walk alone. The women are confined to the palace, as if trapped. They have no contact with the outside world. They don’t go out on the street, they don’t see other people. Likewise, Princess Jasmine escaped from the palace in disguise because she was not allowed to leave the palace and met Aladdin. Jasmine also didn’t want to marry a Prince she does not want in favor of the state’s interests. Prince candidates come and go. She will marry the Princess, who has brought the biggest number of gifts to the Palace and the Princess. Women are like commodities that can be bought. When Aladdin becomes a prince, he first goes to the palace and tries to impress Jasmine and her father with their gifts. At this point, however, her tongue rubs off and jasmine replies, “To the question of whether I am for sale”, “yes, of course”. This “so called” slip of the tongue reflects the view of women. 966

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Figure 5. Harem

As seen above, another place where women are positioned in the movie is the Harem and dance scenes. The Harem represents a state of being hidden in the closeness of the East in the eyes of the West. As Said (2012, p. 218) stated, the orientalist, that is the Western man, who has a great curiosity about the East, wishes to discover the Oriental, the Eastern woman. The Western subject wants to reveal the hidden beauty of the East. The whole mystery in the East becomes an object of desire for the West. Hence, harem, veiled and dancing women are also objects of desire for the West. Finally, in the final scenes of the movie, Jasmine revolts against Jafar, representing evil, and sings the song “Sesame”. As Jasmine sings, everything around her disappears piece by piece. JASMINE: I won’t return this way anymore No matter what happens, I can’t live in silence from now on Because I know you can’t stop me anymore Don’t think that you can hold me Don’t think that I wait for death silently I run to my freedom with my broken wings in my hand.” Not a single thought in my mind

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Don’t underestimate me. I can’t keep quiet if they wanted this I shiver every time they try. I know very well that I will not be quiet.

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Jasmine rebelled against the villain of the movie and stated that she will run to freedom with her “broken wings”. And at the end of the movie, Jasmine becomes the Sultan. At this point, as mentioned above, although there is no difference in the image of women from the old orientalist point of view, in the new version of Aladdin, the song of Jasmine is referring to the women’s movements in the East. However, at the end of the movie, this reference to women’s movements remained very weak and imprecise due to both the effects used and the excessive caricatures of the concepts of bad and good. At the same time, jasmine is separated from the other Eastern people with her state, attitude and perfect English. And it is also noteworthy that jasmine is the superior mind who will be the Sultan of the people at the end of the movie.

Use of Sound and Music The use of sound in cinema is as important as image. Some films use sound to support the image, while in others sound can be used alone to create a meaning. Sound, first of all, creates a unique emotional state. The sound can also guide the audience on how to perceive the image.

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Figure 6. Palas

The soundtrack of the movie contains orientalist tunes from the beginning to the end. Arab melodies are frequently used in the movie, which is stated to take place in the Arabian Peninsula. In addition, in order to capture the spirit of the time, “Rap” music style was used in the songs of the movie. When the music used in the movie is combined with the locations, the Eastern imagery appears in our minds easily. Apart from music, the voices of marketers, especially in street scenes, evoke a life of noise and chaos. In the movie, when the music and images used in the dance scenes in the harem combine with the music that Aladdin entered as Prince in Agrabat, it creates an exotic carnival atmosphere. The songs sung in the movie stand out more than the dialogues of the movie. Therefore, the effects of the songs in the movie are quite high in recognizing the characters and understanding the plot.

CONCLUSION Orientalism can be interpreted as a form of understanding that legitimizes the West’s desire to dominate the East. Although the orientalist motifs used in the cinema in the context of the policies of the Western countries have changed over time, certain stereotypes are still valid, as seen in Aladdin. Hollywood

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cinema has produced and continues to produce many movies that reflect the orientalist perspective. While the East is stereotyped in this way, America is constantly reproducing its dominant ideology. At this point, this study tries to how orientalism is reproduced through cinema and how the eastern image is marginalized taking the example of the movie Aladdin. With orientalist movies that attract worldwide attention, Hollywood uses the image of the mystical East as an indispensable décor. This indispensable décor has made it possible for the West to create an image of the other in order to be noticed and show its superiority over the east. The orientalist discourse and the image of the East created within this discourse are parallel to the development of the West in the historical stage. Originally established as an academic discipline to know, understand and make sense of the East, orientalism functions as a means of legitimizing colonialism. As we saw in the movie Aladdin, the East is seen as a complex place full of underground riches but too backward to handle itself. Therefore, it is up to the West to discover and use the hidden beauties of the East. The name of this colonialism is reflected in real life as philanthropy under the name of “taking democracy” or “bringing together civilization”. In order for this “philanthropy” to be accepted by societies, perceptions about the East should be regularly renewed with an Orientalist perspective. At this point, cinema, which is an effective Mass Communication Tool, has a big task. In this context, cinema movies are an effective weapon due to their ability to influence the audience. Motion pictures often reproduce ideologies and communicate them to the audience; a similar situation applies to Orientalist thought. The dressing styles of Arab men and women are also depicted with an orientalist perspective in the movie. The people on the streets look poor, dirty and primitive. However, the women in the harem are very colourful and charming. The world filled with all these fantasies is created by Westerners. Although the movie is a new adaptation to Aladdin, it draws on all the stereotypes unique to orientalism and consists of a narrative formed around the contrasts between East and West. In the narrative of the movie; The East is transformed into the other of the West through oppositions such as primitive / civilized, moral / immoral, obedient / free. Thus, the East is reflected and adopted as the “unexplored distant lands” over which the West should dominate. Finally, the point to be mentioned is that the movie Aladdin is watched by children quite often. The children’s opinions that form most of their ideas about the world are built through mass media, and hence they are deeply influenced by Hollywood movies that are watched that much. Through its heroes, Hollywood is able to secretly transfer its ideology to the audience and make them perceive a certain consent unconsciously. Hollywood offers people many things like hope, power, happiness, health, money, love, thanks to the superior features it presents on its protagonist. And under what circumstances, he gives clues and leads to the possibilities they may have. Thus, the audience unwittingly naturalizes the dominant ideology presented through the movie and believes in the reality of what is presented. Those who try to awaken people from this dream are marginalized just like the East. In the movie, every frame in which the East is marginalized actually tells the audience about the privileges of being Western, how difficult it is for non-Westerners to live. One of the most important tools used by an ideology to gain legitimacy is self-universalization and immortalization. Immortalization can only exist through re-production. There is no system that makes re-production better and more serial than cinema, especially Hollywood. Hollywood operates in favor of the dominant discourse and supports the existing sovereign discourse with its products.

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FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTION As seen in the research, cinema is quite effective in reproducing the existing dominant ideologies. Through cinema, dominant ideologies are constantly being repeated and settled in the minds of the audience. The movie Aladdin, which is the subject of this study, is also frequently watched by children. Today, most of the children’s ideas about the world are constructed through mass media. At this point, it will be informative in terms of understanding how children perceive the orientalist elements they see in movies and their effects on them.

REFERENCES Amin, S. (1993). Avrupamerkezcilik Bir İdeolojinin Eleştirisi (M. Sert, Trans.). Ayrıntı. (Original work published 1993) Arlı, A. (2009). Oryantalizm, Oksidentalizm ve Şerif Mardin. Küre. Ashcroft, B. (2000). Edward Said. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203137123 Başkaya, F. (2004). Doğu-Batı Çatışması Değil, Kapitalist Emperyalist Saldırı. In S. Öngider (Ed.), Doğu Batı Kıskacında Türkiye. Aykırı Güncel Pubs. Baykal, K. C & Önal, H. (2011). Klasik Oryantalizm, Yeni Oryantalizm ve Oksidentalizm Söylemi Ekseninde Sinemada Değişen “Ben” ve “Öteki” Algısı. Zeıtschrıft Für Dıe Welt Der Türken / Journal Of World Of Turks, 3(3), 107-28. Belkhyr, S. (2013). Defining the ‘self’ and the ‘other’ in Disney song lyrics. International Journal of Human Sciences, 10(1), 1366–1378. Best, J., & Lowney, S.K. (2009). The Disadvantage of a Good Reputation. Disney as a Target for Social Problems Claims. The Sociological Quarterly, 50, 431-449. Bulut, Y. (2004). Oryantalizmin Kısa Tarihi (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). İstanbul: Marmara University Institute of Social Sciences. Dorfman, A., & Mattelart, A. (1977). Emperyalist Kültür Sanayi ve Walt Disney (A. Atilla, Trans.). Gözlem.

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Eagleton, T. (1985). EleştiriveIdeoloji (E. Tarım & S. Öztoplar, Trans.). Ayrıntı. Eagleton, T. (1996). İdeoloji (M. Özcan, Trans.). Ayrıntı. Etyen, M. (1998). Doğu veBatı: BirZihniyetGerilimi. Doğu Batı Düşünce Dergisi: Doğu Ne? Batı Ne, 2, 46. Fairclough, N. (1995). Critical Discourse Analysis: The Critical Study of Language. Longman Pubs. Fairclough, N. (2003). Analysing Discourse: Text Analysis for Social Research. Routledge Publications. doi:10.4324/9780203697078

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Fairclough, N., & Wodak, R. (1997). Critical Discourse Analysis. In T. V. Dijk (Ed.), Discourse Studies: A Multidisiplinary Introduction. Sage Pubs. Göl, B. (2008). Amerikan Sinemasında Yeni Oryantalizm. Altyazı Dergisi, 72, 18–21. Güçhan, G. (1999). Türk Sineması, Görüntü ve İdeoloji. AnadoluÜniversitesi. Hall, D. (1996). The West And The Rest: Discourse and Power. In Modernity And İntroduction To Modern Societies (pp. 185-225). Oxford: Blackwell. Herbert, S. (1993). ZihinYönlendirenler (C. Cerit, Trans.). Pınar Publications. Kabadayı, L. (2013). Film Eleştirisi. Ayrıntı Publications. Kahraman, F. (2016). Zygmunt Bauman’da toplum ve toplumsa düzen kavramsallaştırması. Karabük Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi içinde, 6(2), 395-404. Retrieved from http://joiss.karabuk. edu.tr/Makaleler/1876484289_6.%20Fatih%20KahramanYrd.%20 Do%C3%A7.pdf Kalın, İ. (2007). İslam ve Batı. İsam Pubs. Karaduman, S. (2017). EleştirelSöylemÇözümlemesininEleştirel Haber AraştırmalarınaKatkısıveSund uğuPerspektif. MaltepeÜniversitesiİletişimFakültesiDergisi, 4(2), 31–46. Karakoç, E. & Mert, A. (2013), Sinemada Siyasal İktidar, İdeoloji ve Medya Üçgeni: Wag The Dog Filminin İncelenmesi, Selçuk Üniversitesi Türkiyat Araştırmaları Enstitüsü. Türkiyat Araştırmaları Dergisi, (34), 279-297. Kaya, A. (2010). Sinemada Oryantalist Temsiller: Fatih Akın ve Ferzan Özpetek Filmleri (Unpublished master dissertation). Abant İzzet Baysal Üniversitesi. Keyman, E. Fuat (2002). Globalleşme, OryantalizmveÖtekiSorunu: 11Eylül SonrasıDünyaveAdalet. Oryantalizm-II, Doğu-BatıDergisi, (20). Keyman, F. (1999). Farklılığa Direnmek: Uluslararası İlişkiler Kuramında “Öteki” Sorunu”. Oryantalizm Hegemonya ve Kültürel Fark. İstanbul: İletişim Publications. Kıran, A., & Kıran, Z. (2007). Yazınsal Okuma Süreçleri. Seçkin Publications. Kırel, S. (2010). Kültürel Çalışmalar ve Sinema. Kırmızı Kedi Publications.

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Kontny, O. (2002). Üçgenin Tabanını Yok Sayan Pythagoras: Oryantalizm ve Ataerkillik Üzerine, Doğu Batı (Oryantalizm I). Dergisi, 20, 117–135. McPhaill, T. L. (1991). Yanlış bir başlangıç. In Enformasyon Devrimi Efsanesi. Kayseri: Rey Yayıncılık. Ritzer, G. (2011). Küresel Dünya. Ayrıntı Pub. Rotha, P. (2000). Belgesel Sinema (İ. Şener, Trans.). İzdüşüm Pub. Ryan, M., & Kellner, D. (2010). Politik Kamera (E. Özsayar, Trans.). Ayrıntı Pub. Said, E. (1998). Oryantalizm. İrfan Publications. Said, E. (1998). Oryantalizm (N. Uzel, Trans.). İrfan Publications.

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Schnapper, D. (2005). Öteki ile ilişki / sosyoloji düşüncesinin özünde. Bilgi Üniversitesi Pub. Sezer, B. (1998). Doğu Batı Ayrımı, Doğu Ne? Batı Ne? Doğu Batı Dergisi, (2). Şirin, Y. (2019). Oryantalizm Bağlamında Ferzan Özpetek Sineması (Unpublished master dissertation). Maltepe Üniversitesi. Stam, R. (2014). Sinema Teorisine Giriş (S. Salman & Ç. Asatekin, Trans.). Ayrıntı Publications. Valantin, M. (2006). Hollywood, Pentagon ve Washington. Babıalı. Van Dijk, T. A. (1998). Ideology: A Multidisciplinary Approach. Sage. Van Dijk, T. A. (2003). Söylem ve İdeoloji: Çok Alanlı Bir Yaklaşım. Barış Çoban (N. Ateş, Z. Özarslan, & B. Çoban Eds. & Trans.). Su Pubs. Wodak, R., & Meyer, M. (2009). Critical Discourse Analysis: History, Agenda, Theory and Methodology. In Methods of Critical Discourse Analysis (pp. 1-33). Los Angeles: Sage Publications. Yeğenoğlu, M. (2003). Sömürgeci Fantaziler Oryantalist Söylemde Kültürel ve Cinsel Fark. Metis. Yetim, N. (2012). İş ve Örgüt Yazınında Oryantalist Eğilimler ve “Diğeri”ninYüzü. Sosyoloji Dergisi, 3(24), 209–232. Yiğit, Z. (2008). Hollywood Sineması’nın Yeni Oryantalist Söylemi ve 300 Spartalı. Selçuk İletişim dergisi, 5(3), 236-249. Yurdıgül, Y. (2002). Türkiye’de Televizyon Haberlerinde Sıra Dışı Kimliğin Sunumu: Travesti Konulu Haberler (Unpublished master dissertation). İstanbul Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü.

ADDITIONAL READING

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Kellner, D. (1978). Ideology, Marxism, and Advanced Capitalism. Socialist Review, 42(Nov-Dec), 37–65.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

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Critical Discourse Analysis: Critical discourse analysis reveals the relationship between all parties of the discourse and pays sufficient attention to political, social and economic conditions that would affect the comments and individuals in the background. Dominant Ideology: Dominant ideology is typically an ideology of a dominant social bloc composed of classes and sub-groups whose interests are not always the same and the agreements and separations reflect on the ideology as are. Ideology: Ideology can be enumerated as meaning in social life, production process of indicators and values, cluster of thoughts by a specific social group or class, misconceptions used to legitimize the dominant political power, something which provides a specific position to subject. Mass Media: Mass media refers to a diverse array of media technologies that reach a large audience via mass communication. Orientalism: The design, image or illusion of “East” that is carried, transferred and reproduced in the collective memory of the Westerners. Otherized: Othering is a phenomenon in which some individuals or groups are defined and labelled as not fitting in within the norms of a social group. Reproduction: The concept of reproduction is the reproduction of the class structure, power relations and culture of capitalism.

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Orientalist Approaches in Advertising:

Sample Advertising With Nike’s “What Will They Say About You?” Slogan Simge Kırteke https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0621-8177 Independent Researcher, Turkey

ABSTRACT Brands ofer indicators to audiences through advertisements in many topics such as political, ideological, economic, and cultural. In particular, while creating their advertisements, international brands make use of the indicators that assume the cultural and demographic structure of the geographic location they are published in and carry out advertising campaigns under the infuence of Orientalism. With these advertisements, it is presented how the West shows the East with an Orientalist perspective to the audiences that the advertisement reaches both in the geographical location where it is published and in the international geography. Within the scope of this study, the Nike brand, which emerged in Western societies and became a big name in the international arena, the advertising campaign with the slogan “What will they say about you?” and the SHE (Saudi Heroines Empowering a Nation) advertisement were examined and compared with the method of semiotic analysis, and their relationships with Orientalism were explained.

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INTRODUCTION Brands aim to establish an emotional bond with the brand by influencing the consumers with different experiences and methods with the advertising campaigns they create. When looking at today’s ads, instead of product benefit or price information, it is seen sub-texts created by the brand through indicators. For example; in the advertising campaign of a cosmetic brand, texts and indicators emphasizing women’s freedom are conveyed to the consumer and in this way, the opinions of the brand are more prominent than DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-7180-4.ch055

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 Orientalist Approaches in Advertising

the product. Brands use this strategy with many topics such as politics, gender inequality, freedom and culture. From time to time, topics that are on the agenda in society are used in advertising campaigns. The East-West distinction is an issue that shows its existence in every field from past to present. This subject, which was frewuently encountered in works of art in the past, has become an academic fields of study in time and has been used in various fields. The name of this distinction used in academic research is orientalism. The basis of these studies is that the West evaluates the East from a single perspective. It is seen that also the subject of orientalism has been the subject of many fields from past to present. One of these areas is advertising. Thanks to mass media, which is one of the best ways to reach individuals and masses, brands are also preparing communication methods in accordance with their target audiences. With the changing and developing world, the limitations of the language used in advertisements are also decreasing. They can easily convey the messages that individuals or masses want to convey to the subconscious through indicators. Nowadays, brands create advertising campaigns by creating product-subject integrity even on issues that are not related to their products. World-renowned brands can be more powerful in preparing advertising campaigns on issues affecting societies. In other words, after proving themselves to a certain target audience, they can convey the brand message to the target audience with more bold methods. With the language, image and sound elements they use, they can touch on very deep issues that concern societies even through “a shoe”. The advertisement film of the Nike brand, which has been examined in this section, is an example of the efforts to influence the consumer with product-subject integrity. The focus of this commercial is a discourse that criticizes the point of view of society instead of the product, and the subject of orientalism is mentioned in the subtext of this focus. In this episode, Nike brand’s “what will they say about you?” the advertisements with the slogan was examined with semiotic analysis and what was said in the subtext of this advertisement was explained. And examples showing that there are thoughts reflecting the opposite of this advertisement in eastern countries.

BACKGROUND

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Advertising In the most general definition, advertising is paid announcements. If a more detailed definition is made, advertising is the preparation of messages appealing to the eye/ ear in order to inform the consumer about the existence of a product or brand and to maket he consumer choose the brand, product or service, and the transmission of these messages to the target audience with paid advertising tools (Kurtuluş, 1976: 27-28). Since the advertising concept has emerged, it has been defined many times. According to Maviş, considering the concept of advertising from the point of view of businesses, advertising has a lot of contribution in terms of announcing the produced goods or services to the consumer, choosing them before competing brand products in the same sector, keeping the need and demand fort he product or servise alive (Bir and Maviş, 1998: 17). According to the definition of Ünsal, advertising is the promotion of a good or a service in mass media for a fee and announcing it to a wide audience (Ünsal, 1984: 12). Another definiton is that the actions taken to present a message regarding a product or service to the target audience verbally or visually are called advertising (Classer, 1972: 30). In short, advertising is the process of bringing a product or service to the target audience with the right channels and correct communication methods and convincing the target audience. 975

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Advertising is a visual element and representations are created through images in advertisements. Images are the messages of the advertisement. Advertiments have tree types of messages, namely visual, auditory and linguistic, according to their type. Representation arise from these tree messages (Küçükerdoğan, 2005: 31). A group or individual is summarized as whole social group through representations. Traditions and rules are presented through the representations created in line with the sign. The meanings of the representations are formed through these indicators (Çolakoğlu, 2011: 63-64). The messages given with these indicators used in the advertisements do not always reflect the truth. While cultural images are used to increase the effect of advertisements, they may be exaggerated at some points. Advertisements also create culture. The rate of exposure to advertisements also varies, especially depending on the level of education. This is why advertising not only sells a product but also a lifestyle. Advertisements create and change community values (Twitchell, 1996: 4). Coding social identity and cultural values is a part of ideology. Through advertisements, ideologies are transmitted over a period of time using specific words and pictures, and over time can persuade the consumer to accept this ideology (Mooney, 2011: 20). Many well-known brands convey messages about social issues to the masses through advertising. Words and images skillfully used in advertisements can directly transmit messages to the subconcious of societies or individuals. When these words and images combined with brand recognition and reliability, it increases persuasion on people. Many advertisements are seen and heard in daily life. Even if the newspaper is not read or television is not watched, many advertisements appear in front of people while walking on the street. These advertisements are sometimes seen on shop windows, sometimes on billboards and sometimes on car windows as a card. Judith Williamson, advertising not only sell goods and services, but are also commodities, one of the most common forms encountered in commercial photography (Williamson, 1978: 57). Brands do not only persue commercial purposes through advertising, they also aim to create a “sensitive” perception of the brand on their target audience by addressing current issues in social life.

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Orientalism The origin of the Word orientalism comes from the word Orior. Orior means “sunrise and rising” and is of Latin origin. This word, which has spread to western languages over time, has turned into the word Orientalism. Orientalism is a word that needs to be handled bilaterally, due to its birth and formation. This word, which expresses the East in terms of meaning, has also entered the lithium with the definition of the West. For this reason, East and West should be considered together in orientalism (Çaycı, 2018: 11-12). Orietalism is the West’s curiosity to know the East and the desire to discover the unknown about the East. Orientalism is part of the western way of thinking. Orientalism, which can be defined as the perception of the West’s images of the East or the Western collective imagination of the east, in other words, the perception of the East through a discourse embellished with the cultural and ideological institutions of the West, the words, images and doctrines created by these institutions, it is effective in many disciplines from politics to art, from sociology to anthropology, from history to international relations (Uluç, 2009: 141-142). Some of the people working on the East-West opposition are Edward Said, Helene Cixuous and Gayati Chakravorty Spivak. Cixous has argued that if the concept of the ‘other’ really existed, it could not be theorized because it would remain outside and become the ‘other’ entirely (Young, 1990: 1), and cast doubt on the reality of the ‘other’ in history.

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Focusing on the sound/ silence of the East, Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak discusses the West’s objectification of the East and self-subjectivation. Spivak called the act of naming the subject ‘the other’ ‘epistemological violence’ and develops this discussion by combining Faucault and Deleuze with the claim that “when given the opportunity, the subgroup can be heard”. According to Spivak, The main problem is that no other route has been drawn apart from the knowledge presented by the West (Spivak, 1988). What Spivak argues is that the vreated ‘other’ is a memory problem. According to said, orientalism, as an institution dealing with the Orient and by making determinations about the Orient and by legitimizing the views about it, by placing it there, by ruling it, in short, by dominationg the Orient, it reconstructs the Orient, and it is standing on the Orient. It can be analyzed as a Western style used to construct (Said, 2016: 26). Based on today’s debates, it can be said that the distinctions between East and West do not make any sense, but are only symbolic. Geographical distinctions such as East-West, North-South do not make sense at the social level together with the phenomenon of lobalization; In today’s world, ehere even the distances between geographies have become symbolic boundaries, the markings of East and West will have a meaning more than orientalism discussions (Polat & Polat, 2016: 258). The concept of “West and East” is an ontological and epistemological division with roots in Greek civilization. The curiosity of the western world towards the east emerged before the 18th century and has been increasing since then (Germaner, 1989: 11). In the 18th century, the west’s view of the east in a certain framework was influenced by the Romanticism movement and the expressions that wrote and differentiated/ othered the east in this period (Kabbani, 1988: 15). Since the late 18th century, there has been a considerable, disciplined, an deven organized traffic between the academic and more or less imaginary meanings of orientalism. The disciplines that study the eastern and eastern peoples and their cultures are called orientalism, and the people who conduct these studies are called orientalists. (Bulut: 1-2). After these periods, the orientalist way of thinking started to be used not only in literary texts but also in works of art. As soon as western artist got stuck in the developing technology, they started to search for new things in their dreams with the understanding of the pure and exotic East (Erzen, 1989: 21). Orientalism is a tool that the West reconstructs to use the East, orientalizes it, and effectively uses it to establish hegemony over the East (Bulut, 2016: 8). Lamartine expressed the observations of him, one of the Western travelers, after his eastern trip as follows: “The East is the land of cults, miracles an deven superstitions. The great thought that shapes imagination there is religion. The lives, laws and traditions of all these people are based on religion . The West has never been like this. Why is that? Because they are a more primitive, simpler race, the affspring of barbarians who are still intact.” (Parla, 2005: 68). This discourse clearly reveals the point of view of that period. The concept of orientalism ceased to be an academic admiration for different cultures, but became the legendary and stereotyped eastern creation from the west. This concept, which was used to describe pictorial art at the beginning of the 19th century, began to be used in the 80-90s with a new negative meaning (MacKenzie, 1995: 12-13). Eastern culture has become a center of attraction for western writers, academics, researchers and travelers. Occidentalism, on the other hand, is the search for knowledge of the West that is a candidate for beign a kind of opponent of the “East”, the object of knowledge created by orientalism (Arlı, 2009). Occidentalism fictionalizes the binary oppositions that always present the West with positive in orientalism from its own point of view (Vinck, 1988: 5). Orientalism is the West’s perception of the East, occidentalism is the East’s perception of the West (Metin, 2013). Occidentalism, contrary to orientalism, is a field founded on the study of non-westerners of the West.

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Orientalism causes the society to perceive itself with a western understanding and perspective by placing some prejudices within the society and allowing people to internalize it. The orientalist perspective and discourse divides the world into East-West and causes the westerner to see and perceive with these stereotyped images while looking at the east. According to orientalism, east are uniform and unchangeable, and the East is expressed as the “other” of the West. While Western studies on orientalism disparage the East and Islam, they see them in need of development, modernization and progress. In the orientalist discourse, the Easterners represent the unchanging and traditional, the westerns the modernism and change (Yavuz, 1998:115). Orientalist discourses are conveyed to societies via mass media, mostly TV broadcasts. Sometimes even advertisements go beyond their aims and convey orientalist discourses and images through the brand.

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Orientalism in Advertising With its images and rich cultural representations, advertising that is defined as the “not -so- slint partner” of the mass media capable of influence like other forms of media are consumable products in themselves (Wilson & Gutierrez, 1995). Advertising as a means of sending a call to action also means the degree of interaction between viewer and product, “the viewer also actor, the audience is participant” (Schudson, 1989). Messages and indicators are used in the content of advertising that differs between cultures in accordance with the target audience in the geography where the advertisement is published. While the act of creating an East in the minds of Western societies was carried out by travelers, artists sor researchers in the past, today the media and media organs do this. In advertising, which is one of these media organs, there are many advertisements produced with an orientalist perspective (Kocabay, 2010: 53). According to Uluç, Orientalism imposes a negative and narrow perspective on Muslims in advertising, and looks to the East with the perspective of the West (Uluç, 2009: 332). Considering that advertising plays an important role in influencing the masses, this point of view is maintained by being transferred to new generations in the society over time. In the orientalist discourse, it is seen that the “Eastern” image created in the minds of individuals and societies is presented to the masses in a similar way. Orientalism, which is thought to have remained in the 19th century, continues to produce information on the one hand, and the information produced on the other hand becomes stereotyped in Daily life and orientalism as a discourse is not questioned. Stereotypes that are presented by advertisements and similar media organs and internalized over time are often unconsciously accepted (Keyman, 1996: 9). It is a visible reality that advertising, which has an integral effect on social change and development processes, forms and strengthens the discourse of the current order (Çamdereli, 2013: 122). Advertisements guide the cultural standardization process. In Roland Marchand’s book ‘Advertising the American Dream’, he examined the advertisements of the 1920s and 1930s and observed that all media, including advertisements, taught immigrants how to be American (O’Barr, 1994: 6).

MAIN FOCUS OF CHAPTER The concept of orientalism manifests itself in many fields such as painting, theater, cinema, TV series and advertisement from past to present. Said is one of the first names to treat the concept of orientalism from different angles. Prior to Said’s work titled Orientalism (1998), the subject of orientalism was an 978

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academic discipline and an area where the East was exhibited only in artistic areas from exotic, erotic and mystical persperctives, but after Said’s studies it gained an ideological and political content (Utku and Said, 2002: 219). Western writers, painters and screenwriters have depicted the East in their works for years and conveyed them to the reader/ viewer. The aim of this study is to reveal the main message that the Nike brand, which has a western origin, wants to convey to its target audience by making a semiotic analysis of the commercial film with eastern theme.

SOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Comparison of Nike – “What Will They Say About You?” and SHE Saudi Arabia – “How Well Do You Know Her?” Advertisings As an example of the use of orientalism in advertising, in this study, where its examined the advertisement prepared -in 2017- by the Nike brand with the method of semiotic analysis, we also see in which patterns the West placed the East. In the advertisement, the products of the brand are conveyed to the audience through women in an Arab country. Indicators: Human, Action, Human. Figure 1. ­

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Figure 2. ­

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Indicative: Arab woman with hijab, Attitudes of the arab women with a hijab. Shown: Anxiety, Judgment, Blame. In the first scene, a woman wearing a black hijab, a green sportswear and shoes with a Nike emblem takes to the street with an anxious look. In the frames that follow (Fig. 1), the woman is shown jogging and she still has an uncomfortable expression on her face. Suddenly the camera is shown from the perspective of the running woman, and the biased look of an old woman wearing a white hijab and brown coat walking down the street at the running woman (Fig. 2). When the woman leaves the house, she looks around in anxious attitudes, which means that what she will do soon is not very welcome in the environment where she is. Then she starts to run and still anxious while running. The reason for its is seen on the screen shortly. An old woman looks at the running woman with a harsh and judgmental gaze. The old woman here represents the eastern culture. The White hijab that the woman wears is a hijab for prayer and mostly pilgrims use it. The woman who jogs represents the eastern woman trying to emancipate. This scene features both orientalism and self-orientalism. The brand’s shooting of this scene in this way is within the scope of orientalism. The female figüre trying to become emancipated on the stage represents self-orientalism. The old woman is completely against the west, and the woman who runs is the image of a woman trying to become westernized. The architectural structures in the images represent the old and undeveloped, far from today’s architecture and aesthetics.

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Figure 3. ­

Indicators: Action, Human, Human. Indicative: Arab woman with hijab, Arab man. Shown: Anxiety, Judgment, Blame. In the second frame of the advertisement (Fig. 3), she is shown skateboarding in empty street, wearing a black topcoat, a shawl, a black tight trousers underneath, and a white socks and snicker shoes over the trousers. And in this scene the female voice in the background starts talking.The woman speaks arabic and first begins with the phrase “what will they say about you?”. It is seen that the girl in this scene covers her hair with a more half veiling style. In the continuation of the scene of the girl shown from behind at the beginning of the stage, her face is zoomed in and a facial expression is seen in the girl. A man in a blue shirt (Fig. 4), apparently over middle age, stares at the girl with a frown. In this scene

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Figure 4. ­

the woman in the background says “That you shouldn’t be out here?” sentence is heard. The next image shows the girl looking at the man with a dull expression. Skateboarding of young people in the streets is an activity that is consitered quite normal in western societies. In this scene, this man who disturbs the skateboarding girl with a prejudiced gaze symbolizes the eastern view of the West. The phrase “what will they say about you?” that the woman said in the background was also used to refer to the perception of “What the people say?” in the society. “That you shouldn’t be out here?” the sentence actually refers to the prejudices astablished by the eastern society on women. According to orientalist thought, women’s thoughts are ignored in the east, and beign seen too much on the streets is not welcome. Underdevelopment is also striking in the architecture shown here.

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Figure 5. ­

Indicators: Action, Action. Indicative: Two Arab women. Shown: Ambition, Anger. In the third frame of the advertisement (Fig. 5), two Arab women with uncovered heads work in the box ring set in a desert environment away from the city. And in this scene the woman in the background says “That is unladylike?”. The sports clothes worn by the women in this scene are such that they cover

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their legs. The Nike emblem is displayed on the women’s sportswear and the sports bag on the rim of the ring. In this scene, women are practicing in an apparently old box ring, in a desert environment far from the city. With this image, it is tried to convey to the audience what difficulties women struggle to achieve their dreams in the East. The city, which appears to be a distant silhouette, imagines the exclusion of women doing sports in society. The sentence “that is unladylike?” heard in this scene also refers to stereotypes in society.

Figure 6. ­

Indicator: Action. Indicative: Arab woman. Shown: Perseverance. In the fourth frame of the advertisement (Fig. 6), inside the swimming pool, you can see the legs completely and box bandages on their hands. In this scene, while the young woman is shown with her eyes closed in the pool, she suddenly opens her eyes. In this scene the woman in the background says “That you’re not built for this?”. This sentence is also refers to stereotypes in society.

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Figure 7. ­

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 Orientalist Approaches in Advertising

Indicator: Action. Indicative: Arab woman and an horse. Shown: Power. In the cut scene (Fig. 7), a woman with her white horse raised in the desert is shown in cultural dress. And in this scene the woman in the background says “They’ll say you’re strong.” The white horse on the stage symbolizes the victory and the noble revolt fort he sake of freedom. With this image, the struggle to liberate the traditional is conveyed. In the bacground, sentences that prepare and encourage change are heard. Figure 8. ­

Indicator: Action. Indicative: Arab women playing soccer. Shown: Achieving the goal.

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In this scene (Fig. 8) relatives playing a football match are seen. The woman, who creates a western figure with her physical appearance, pushes the woman whose wear black hijab with her hand and continues to play. And the woman in the background says “That you can’t be stopped.” In this scene of women playing football, a woman in a western image is seen in a struggle with a woman wearing hijab. Here, the woman sybolizing the West is going towards scoring goals by pushing the woman symbolizing the East. The sound in the background becomes even more encouraging with the accelerating images. Indicator: Action. Indicative: Arab woman. Shown: Ambition. In the cutscene (Fig. 9) show a woman that wear sportif clothes with Nike emblem exercising on the roofs of buildings. Meanwhile, the woman in the background says “That you’ll always find a way.”

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Figure 9. ­

Figure 10. ­

In the scene, the woman training on the building roofs refers to the inability of women in the east to exercise comfortably in visible areas. Background sound is now conveyed in harmony with the visuals to encourage complete change.

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Figure 11. ­

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Indicators: Action, Action. Indicative: Arab woman and dark gym, Four Arab women. Shown: Perseverance, Luxury. In the following scenes, first a woman wearing hijab skating in the dark gym (Fig. 10), then five women on motorcycles looking at the camera with fearless eyes and wearing local clothes and gold jewelery are shown in succession (Fig. 11). On this stage, the following sentences are heard “That you make it look easy. That you make it look good.” The image of a woman dancing on the dark ice rink in the first image of the scene underlines the invisibility of her women. In the next square, eastern figures and western figures are completely intertwined. With their bold gaze on the engines, they completely carry the east and the west on them. However, traditional clothes and accessories prevent them from wearing sportswear. The gaze of women symbolizes an uprising, but they have not completely gotten out of eastern culture. It tries to influence its target audience for change and development with the sound in the background and visuals that do not completely detach from the eastern figures. Figure 12. ­

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Indicator: Human. Indicative: An Arab girl. Shown: Innocence. And in the last scene a little girl is seen at the entrance of the ice rink (Fig. 12), at which moment the voice in the background says “or maybe” and when the girl takes her first step on the rink with an excited and confused look, “they’ll say you’re the nex big thing.” she says. In the last scene a little girl is seen staring anxiously towards a light scene. Contrary to stereotyped information such as that girls are not educated in the east and they are married at an early age, here both the girl in the image and the audience are tried to be encouraged with the words in the background. In the commercial film prepared -in 2018- by SHE, it is seen that a woman who is understood to be from her Arabian origin, speaks in front of a black background with black hair, an almost makeup-free face and a black dress that covers her throat.

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Figure 13. ­

Figure 14. ­

When the woman is speaking, the only movement on the screen is on the woman’s face (Fig. 13) and she says: “You know me well. A woman full of potential. Fearlessly independent. I am ambitious. I am bold. Perform the large of stages. A broken records. A skill mountains. I am traditional. I am modern. I am carrier women and I am a mother. But you now have to ready.”

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Figure 15. ­

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While her conversation is continuing, the woman suddenly take off the wig on her head and a black hijab appears and she says: “or did you?” Now a woman with a black hijab and clear eyes can be seen on the screen and at the same time “Before you judge us by the way we are covered. Know us better.” is written on the screen. In this advertising “self-disclosure” is involved. The fact that the background color and everything on the woman are in black color directs the attention of the audience to what is spoken. There is only one woman in the advertisement, but this woman is the spokesperson for eastern women. In this study, which was prepared to break prejudices and change the perception in society, the woman speaks the English language, which is accepted as the common language in the world. This shows that he wants to make her voice heard not to a single audience but to everyone who has prejudices. Comparing Nike’s commercial about women in Arab countries with certain patterns and the commercial prepared by SHE (Saudi Heroines Empowering a Nation) to destroy the perception of women in the Arab world, there are differences between the West’s meaning to the East and the East’s self-expression. Today, the steps of modernism taken is eastern countries are seen. Abu Dhabi born Zahra Lari (in Fig. 16), one of the indicators of modernism in the field of sports, goes down in history as the world’s first headscarved figure skater.

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Figure 16. ­

Another example of the influence of modernism on the East is Farida Osman (in Fig.17). She is an Egyptian competitive swimmer who specializes in butterfly and Freestyle events. An All-Africa Games gold medalist and Egyotian national champion and record-holder. Farida Osman is the fastest female swimmer in Egypt and Africa.

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Figure 17. ­

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS In this study, in which the concept of orientalism is examined and explained over the example of its use in advertising, it is conveyed how the West identifies the east and which patterns it builds on. In future studies, commercial films based on the concept of occidentalism can be examined and how the West is perceived by the East can be transferred by semiotic method.

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CONCLUSION In the advertisement prepared by Nike brand, the general judgments of the people in the region where the advertisement is shot are conveyed to the audience along with the images and discourses. Later discourses are replaced by more encouraging discourses. With this advertisement designed for women in Eastern culture, the audience tells the audience that women in this culture are not free in many issues, they are exposed to al lot of social pressure, even their lives are based on these pressures. It explains that women in Western societies have to do the activities they do in their Daily lives in a secret way, and this convey that they were still anxious even while doing it. The advertising of this brand, which is a sportwear brand, is based on sports and it is shown here that women in the eastern culture do their sports training in areas such as home, a desert away from the city, an empty street, building roofs, empty and dark gym. This commercial is an example of how it is portrayed in te minds of the West on the East. As a result of this study prepared based on the analysis of an advertisement prepared on women’s position in sports in eastern culture and containing pieces from orientalism, it is seen that the definition of the East of the West may not always reflect the truth fully. The examples given in the study about the achievements of women in eastern culture prove this discourse. Some academic concepts that have emerged as a result of the ongoing East-West polarization for years are used in communication environments to influence the masses in both cultural and political fields. In this study, where we examine, it is seen that the perception of the “East” of a western brand is transferred to the audience through signs and discourses. While conveying these indicators and dis988

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courses, a women’s voice speaking the language of that region in the background and images of the women of that region are used in the advertising. In tihs way, it is emphasized that even some women living in eastern culture think that this culture needs to be developed (westernized). At this point, it is observed that there is not only the concept of orientalism but also an concept of self-orientalism in this study prepared by a Western-based brand. However, when looking to the East, the opposite studies are also seen. For example; in the advertisement prepared by SHE, there are expressions and indications to break prejudiced opinions on Arab women. In this study, it seen that the East expresses and reveals itself. Stereotypes within societies do not always show the truth completely. And artistic, academic, sportive and scientific studies in this field will help break stereotypes in societies.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Advertising: It is the delivery of a brand, product, or service to the target audience via mass media. Brand: The brand includes any signs such as words, figures, letters, numbers, the shape of the goods or their packaging, which can be displayed by drawing or expressed similarly, broadcast by print and reproduced, provided that it enables the goods or services of one business to be distinguished from the goods or services of another business. Nike: It is a sporswear brand. Occidentalism: It is the field of study where the east defines the west from its own perpective. Orientalism: It is the field of study where the west defines the east from its own perspective. Orientalism in Advertising: Prepared with an orientalist point of view and presented to people through mass media. Otherize: View or treat (a person or group of people) as intrinsically different from and alien to oneself. Self-Orientalism: It is self-orientation of a society or an individual.

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Žižek, S. (2004). Organs without Bodies: On Deleuze and Consequences. Routledge.

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About the Contributors

Işıl Tombul graduated from Ege University Communication Faculty Radio Television and Cinema Department. She got her master and PhD degree at Ege University Social Sciences Institute Radio Television Cinema Department. Her research areas are new media, digital culture studies, gender, and cinema. Gülşah Sarı works as an Assistant Professor at the Department of Radio Television and Cinema, in Bolu Abant Izzet Baysal University, Turkey. She became a Ph.D. in İstanbul University, Department of Radio Television and Cinema in 2016. She held a master degree in Marmara University, department of Cinema in 2010. She has published several papers in journals and books including women’s studies, gender, digital communication, communication studies. ***

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Nurdan Akiner received her Ph.D. degree from Marmara University completing a thesis on the “The Patriotism in US Media Afterwards September 11 Terrorist Attacks” in 2004. She has approximately seven years of professional journalism experience on newspapers in Istanbul, as a reporter. She is the author/editor of eight books. Her teaching areas include media research techniques, international media systems, international media and global south. She has selected as a Fulbright scholar and completed the Summer Institute for Journalism and Media Scholars proposed by the College of Journalism and Communications, University of Florida. Her research interests also include semiotics and postcolonial studies. Prof. Dr. Nurdan AKINER was awarded the International Neva Award in 2017 for her academic studies in the field of communication sciences. Eşref Akmeşe is a Ph.D. Research Assistant at the Department of Radio, Television and Cinema, in Inonu University, Malatya, Turkey. He received his master and Ph.D. degrees in Radio Television and Cinema in the Graduate School of Social Sciences from the Ege University, İzmir, Turkey. His research areas include film studies, cinematic philosophy, documentary, cinema and sociology, political cinema. Onur Akşit was born in 1980 in İzmir, Turkey. After graduated from Anadolu University Department of Cinema and TV, completed his PhD (Technoculture in Science Fiction Cinema) in Ege University Department of Radio, TV and Cinema. Works in Ege University since 2005. Gina Al Halabi from Damascus, Syria, is a Digital Game Design undergraduate minoring in Psychology at Istanbul Bilgi University, Turkey. There, Gina has acquired skills regarding visual design, 

About the Contributors

game design, game development and programming. She holds internship experience in game development and has assisted her professor a few terms in a game mechanics related course during her studies. After graduation, Gina plans to pursue a master’s degree and focus on social impact games where she can apply her interest in Psychology. Mehtap Anaz is PhD candidate at Tunis El Manar University in Tunis, Tunisia. Her study areas include Tunisian political elite, democratization, Tunisian civil society, Tunisia-Turkey relations and elite perceptions. Necati Anaz is associate professor at the Department of Political Science and International Relations of Istanbul University. He completed his Ph.D. in 2012 at the University of Oklahoma. Anaz previously worked at Turkish National Police Academy in Ankara and Necmettin Erbakan University in Konya. His current research interests include geographical imaginations, geopolitics of security, soft power, popular geopolitics, geography of film audiences and electoral geography. He publishes in international and national academic journals. Tülây Atay currently teaches at Hatay Mustafa Kemal University (HMKU), Antakya, Hatay, Faculty of Communication, Department of Journalism as a faculty member (Assistant Professor) and a researcher. She was born and bred in Istanbul, Turkey and graduated from Istanbul University. She holds BA degree in Mass-Media Communication & Journalism & PR. She has her Master’s degree in Cultural Anthropology and Gender & Women’s Studies. She earned her Ph.D. from the Department of Agriculture Economics and Extensions at Çukurova University, Adana, Turkey in October 2013. She produced her Ph.D. thesis on the division of labour amongst ethnically different two villages near Hatay province in the context of changing social life and Women’s & Gender Studies. She is holding sociology BA degree obtained from Open Faculty, Anadolu University, Eskişehir, Turkey. She is a Ph.D. of journalism obtained from İstanbul University, İstanbul, Turkey.

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Hüdai Ateş was born in Afyonkarahisar in 1988. He completed his BA degree in 2012 and his MA degree in 2017 at Selçuk University in Konya. Currently, the researcher, who continues his PhD studies at Ege University, is doing research in the field of “orientalism in documentary films”, on the other hand he continues his associate degree education in the field of Islamic sciences. Hüdai Ateş is also the director of 11 documentary films, nearly 10 short films and many commercials. The academician-director has won nearly 20 awards in national and international film festivals in the last 10 years. Barış Atiker, after graduating from Bilkent University Graphic Design Department (2000) with a special talent scholarship and with a High Honor degree, completed Master of Graphic Design (2004) and Proficiency in Art (2009) thesis studies at Hacettepe University, Institute of Social Sciences with the “Motion Graphic Design” expertise. Besides his academic studies, he professionally worked as an art director in various design and production companies. He has completed more than 150 international visual identity projects as a freelance designer since 2001, while his work was awarded and printed by many publishing companies. He teaches Motion Design, 2D&3D Animation, Interaction Design at Bahcesehir University. Also, he gives workshops focused on Creative Leadership, Design Thinking, Personal Branding, Storytelling, and Artificial Intelligence Design for corporate companies, managers, and professionals. cxxviii

About the Contributors

Baran Barış graduated from two master’s programs at Celal Bayar University and Ege University. He continues his academic studies, which started in Turkish Language and Literature and Women’s Studies, at Dokuz Eylül University, General Linguistics Department, Ph.D. Program. Literature, cinema, semiotics, Critical Discourse Analysis, language and gender are among Barış’s research subjects. İbrahim Beyazoğlu completed his MA and PhD at the Faculty of Communication, Eastern Mediterranean University, North Cyprus. He was a visiting scholar at the Department of History, Leeds University for two semesters on a EU scholarship. He has been a lecturer at the Eastern Mediterranean University since 2014. His interests lie in the areas of postcolonialism, cultural/critical theory and media studies. He is fond of working on the relationship between Scandinavian mythology and the culture industry. Selim Beyazyüz was born on 15 August 1989 in Samsun. He completed his primary, secondary and high school education in Bursa. He graduated from Erciyes University, Faculty of Communication, Department of Radio, Television and Cinema in 2012. He completed his master’s degree in Selcuk University, Institute of Social Sciences, Department of Radio, Television and Cinema in 2017. He still continues to do his doctorate in Selçuk University, Institute of Social Sciences, Department of Radio Television. He is working as a research assistant in Düzce University, Faculty of Art Design and Architecture, Department of Radio, Television and Cinema. He is married and has a child.

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Serkan Biçer was born in Ordu/Turkey in 1980 and completed his primary, secondary and high school education in Ordu. He graduated from Gazi University, Faculty of Communication, Department of Radio-TV and Cinema in 2003. He worked as a journalist for CNN Türk for a short time. Following his journalism experience, he completed his master’s degree at Gazi University, Institute of Social Sciences, Department of Radio-TV and Cinema.In 2013, He received his doctorate degree from Anadolu University Institute of Social Sciences Communication Design and Management Department. Serkan Biçer worked as a research assistant at Gazi University and Anadolu University He has been working as an Assistant Professor at Fırat University since 2014. His academic interests are “New Media”, “Game Studies”, “Qualitative Studies” and “Cultural Studies. Selin Bitirim Okmeydan graduated from Ege University, Faculty of Communication, Public Relations and Publicity Department in 2005 as the top of the faculty. The author, who completed her graduate education at Ege University Institute of Social Sciences, Department of Public Relations and Publicity, has been a master’s degree in 2007 and after that a doctorate degree in 2014. Since she started graduate education, many studies of her in the field of communication have been published nationally and internationally. Currently she continues her academic studies at the same institution as a member of faculty and she teaches undergraduate and graduate courses. Okmeydan’s main fields of studies are intercultural communication, critical approaches in public relations, information and communication technologies, international public relations and city branding. Filiz Cicek is an artist, Fulbright scholar and an art, culture and film critic who has been attending international film festivals at Cannes, Berlin, istanbul and Sundance. Dr. Cicek received her MFA and PhD from IU, Bloomington and has been teaching gender, art and cinema courses at various IU campuses as well as at Bogazici University summer school in Istanbul. As a curator she organized BloomingtonKatmandu, Museum of Broken Relationships and Women Exposed International Art Exhibits. As an artist, cxxix

About the Contributors

she has exhibited her work in museums and galleries in New York, Chicago, California, The Kinsey Institute, IU School of Fine Arts Gallery and various venues in Bloomington. Since 2009, Dr. Cicek has been contributing to The Ryder Magazine as a co-editor, writer, artist, graphic designer, and as an event coordinator. She has also written for local national and international journals and newspapers on art, gender and cinema. She is the regional coordinator for The Feminist Art Project based at Rutgers University, New York. Nebahat Akgün Çomak is graduated from Istanbul University Turkish Literature and Linguistic Department in 1986. She had her master degree at Istanbul University Turkish Literature and Linguistic Department in 1988, and her Ph.D degree at Istanbul University in Journalism Department. Her PhD thesis was about print media discourse in Ottoman newspapers. Her research areas are critical text analysis, print media, semiology, narrative semiotics and linguistic. She has so many national and international research papers and books in these areas. Alfonso Corral graduated from Universidad San Jorge, Spain, Department of Journalism in 2010. He also got his M.A (2011) and PhD (2017) in Communication and Media Studies from Universidad San Jorge. He works as Assistant Professor at Institute of Humanism and Society, in Universidad San Jorge. His recent interests include media discourses about the Arab-Islamic World, especially the Arab Spring, Islamophobia, immigration, or minorities.

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Can Diker had graduated Visual Communication Design department of Istanbul Commerce University in 2004, graduated in 2008 in the first place. He had completed studying at Yeditepe University, Radio Television Cinema master degree program with the thesis “Male Character Examination in Turkish Cinema During the 2000s”. He has completed his Ph.D. in Yeditepe University’s Media Studies program, with the dissertation name “Effects of the Eurimages Fund on the Content of Turkish Cinema After the 1990s”. He is currently working at Üsküdar University’s Faculty of Communication as an Assistant Professor in Radio, Television and Cinema Department. His research interests are orientalism, cultural imperialism and critical political economy of culture industry. Ozan Evren, after graduating from Yıldız Technical University, Department of Economics, worked in various multinational companies in the informatics, fmcg, finance, media and digital marketing sectors. He worked in Tokyo, Japan for a while, taking an active role in a big-budget enterprise resource planning project. In Turkey he worked for various startups operating in the fields of e-commerce, digital marketing and blockchain. Being enthusiastic about new digital businesses and entrepreneurship ecosystem he decided to go back to academy. After graduating from the Faculty of Communication of Istanbul University, where he entered for his master’s degree, he continues his doctoral studies at the same faculty and produces digital-based local, national and international media and communication projects. Suat Gezgin graduated from Aix-Marseille University, Faculty of Literature, Department of Sociology-Ethnology. He completed his master’s and doctoral studies at Pierre Marie Curie Paris University, Department of Anthropology and Prehistory. He worked as an assistant, a chief assistant and an associate professor at the Anthropology Laboratory of Aix-Marseille University between 1983-1993. He served as the Deputy Director of the Department of Anthropology at the Paris Museum General Directorate. In 1993 he returned to Turkey, and started working at the Istanbul University Faculty of as a lecturer. He cxxx

About the Contributors

served as Vice Dean between 1993-2000 and as Dean between 2000-2010. He holds the title of the first scientists from Turkey to receive the “Science Award” issued by the Principality of Monaco History of Humanity Institute and Alber the 1st Foundation. Feride Zeynep Güder was born in Antakya, in 1969. After her high school education in Hatay she completed her BA on English Language and Teaching at Ataturk University in Erzurum in 1994. Her Ph.D thesis entitled “Political Humour in Political Communication: The analysis of the caricatures in Güle Güle İstanbul by Semih Balcıoğlu” analyzes her academic agenda to political communication, humour and space studies. She participated in several International conferences. After having worked for 18 years at Istanbul Kultur University, she has been an Associate Professor in the Department of Media and Communication at Uskudar University as of September 2016. She is at the present the Head of New Media and Communication Department at Uskudar University. The courses she gives in Master Classes are Popular Culture and Humour, The Critical Approach to Popular Culture. In the Communication Faculty she gives courses entitled as Alternative Media, Political Communication, Intercultural Communication, Media and Ideology, Communication Theories and Semiology. Mustafa Gülsün was born in 1985 in Muş. After completing primary and high school here, in 2011, Karadeniz Technical University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Business Administration He completed his undergraduate education in his department and his master’s degree in Communication Sciences at İnönü University in 2020. After completing his undergraduate education, he started to work as a lecturer at Muş Alparslan University Malazgirt Vocational School in 2015, after working as a teacher in MEB for 1 year and in a financial institution for 1 year. He is still performing this duty and doing academic studies in the fields of cinema and communication. Gökhan Gültekin was born in Elazığ in 1985. He graduated from Selçuk University, Faculty of Communication, Radio Television and Cinema Department in 2009. He completed his master’s degree in July 2012 and PhD degree in December 2017. Gültekin, whose main field of activity is cinema, has various publications on popular cinema, cinema semiotics, crime films, cinema ideology, cinema-aesthetics, cinema-reality, and cinema-philosophy.

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Erol Gülüm works as an Assistant Professor at the Department of Turkish Language and Literature in Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey. He graduated from Hacettepe University, Department of Turkish Language and Literature in 2010. He also got his M.A (2012) and PhD (2017) from Hacettepe University, Department of Turkish Folklore. His recent interests include digital culture studies, cultural studies, cultural creative industries, and intangible cultural heritage. Günseli Gümüşel is graduated from Middle East Technical University, History department. She studies Ottoman-Turkish modernization and Principles of Atatürk and Turkish Revolution History. She is a lecturer in Atılım University. Uğur Gündüz graduated from Marmara University (the Department of Business Administration, the Faculty of Political and Economic Sciences) in 1999. He gained his PhD in Journalism at Istanbul University, for his dissertation “Westernization Concept in the Press: A Comparison of Young Turk Journalism and Present Journalism” in 2009. His research interests are the Sociology of Communication, cxxxi

About the Contributors

New Media, History of Communication and Westernization, the Press and Modernization in Turkey. He is currently a Professor of the Department of Journalism at Istanbul University, Istanbul, Turkey. Elif Güntürkün graduated from Ege University, Faculty of Communication, Department of RadioTelevision and Cinema in 2016. She is Master student at Ege University, Department of Radio-Television and Cinema. She works as a Research Assistant at the Department of Cinema and Television in Anadolu University, Turkey. Her research interests are cinema studies, visual culture, gender studies and body representation. Her areas of interest are body representation, gender studies and visual culture. İlknur Gürses Köse graduated from Ege University in 2004, received her MA degree in 2007 and PhD degree in 2013 at Ege University. She is appointed as Associated Professor at the section of Photography and Graphics, Radio-Television and Cinema Department at Faculty of Communication, Ege University since 2007. Her researches focus on Cinema and Photography, Mythology, Intertextuality, and Gender. Berna Ileri works an Assistant Professor at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Faculty of Fine Arts, Department of Traditional Turkish Arts. She received her master’s degree in 2010 from Dokuz Eylul University Instıtute of Fine Arts and Proficiency in Arts degree (equivalent to PhD) in 2017 from Gazi University Institute of Fine Arts. She received the title of Assistant Professor in 2018. She has been working on sustainable silk and textiles for 8 years. She has been doing projects on sustainable silk in Hatay and Canakkale. She participated in exhibitions and published articles. Nural İmik Tanyildizi is associate professor of public relations at the Firat University. Here main research topics are Public Relations, Political Communication, Politics, Media, Elections Songs, Communication, Mass Media. She has published more than 35 scientific paper and conference articles in the field on public relations. She has 125 citations to his papers. H-index of his is 7.

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Aya Kamperis received her BA(Hons) in Psychology with Art, Media and Design in London before moving to Oxford to study for an MA in Interdisciplinary Arts, specialising in Contemporary Arts, and a PhD in Creative Practice. She is the founding director of CARU | Contemporary Arts ReSearch Unit (@CARUpage), an interdisciplinary research platform currently based in Oxford, UK. She has received numerous awards and funding for producing academic and cultural events, including Social Entrepreneur of the Year from OBSEA (Oxford Brookes Social Entrepreneur Awards). Huri Karcı graduated from the Department of English Language and Literature in Hacettepe University, Ankara. She completed her Master degree and PhD degree in the Department of Public Relations and Publicity in Selçuk University, Konya. She works in Ankara Medipol University as the department head of Public Relations and Advertising. She focuses on new media, advertising, transmedia, branding. Simge Kırteke graduated from the Visual Communication Design department of Yeditepe University in 2017. While she was continuingher undergraduate studies, she did a minor in Advertising Design and Communication department at the same university. She is currently a graduate student in the department of Communication Sciences at Inonu University.

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About the Contributors

Esma Koç graduated from Atatürk University Faculty of Theology in 2015. She completed her master’s degree at Üsküdar University in the field of Media and Cultural Studies. She completed her thesis study with the title of “Evaluation of the Perception of the East in the Context of Orientalism in Western Cinema: A Documentary Case for Born Into Brothels”. She still continues her studies on orientalism, cinema, and gender equality. Ezgi Seda Kunaçaf, who was born on 1994, 30 Agust in İstanbul, graduated from the Translation and Interpreting Department at Beykent University. As a Master’s Degree, she completed the MBA program at Bahçeşehir university and wrote the thesis upon ‘Health Tourism Within the Service Marketing Approach.’ Now she continuous her Ph.D. at Bahçeşehir University in Public Relations and Advertising department. After working in international patient services in the Acıbadem Healthcare Group for four years, she is currently continuing her career as a consultant in health tourism operations and marketing. Ahmet Kuşci was born in 1978 in Gaziantep. He completed my primary, secondary and high school education in Gaziantep. He graduated from Pamukkale University, Department of History. Richard Landes was trained as a medievalist at Princeton and taught at Columbia U, U of Pittsburgh and Boston U. He specializes in millennialism (messianic movements) and shame-honor culture. He is now working on books about millennial beliefs in the first Christian millennium (33-1033) and in the 21st Century. He is retired and lives in Jerusalem. Azra K. Nazlı graduated from Bahçeşehir University in 2014 with a Bachelor degree in Advertising. Since the same date, she has been continuing her studies at Ege University Institute of Social Sciences. As a PhD candidate, her study subjects are communication and technology.

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Julijana Nicha Andrade holds a Doctorate in Political Science from the Federal University of Minas Gerais, Master’s in Public Policies and Development from the Institute of Social Studies and the University of York, part of the Erasmus Mundus Master Program, and Undergraduate in IR from the American College of Thessaloniki. Her research circles around the topics of development, arts and culture, IR and policies. Feridun Nizam graduated from Gazi University, Faculty of Communication, Department of Radio, Television and Cinema. He completed his master’s degree at Gazi University Institute of Social Sciences, Department of Radio, Television and Cinema with his thesis titled “The Harmonization Of Turkish Media Laws With The European Union Media Laws And The Problems Faced”. He completed doctorate degree at Ege University Institute of Social Sciences, Department of Radio, Television and Cinema with his dissertation titled “Re-Regulation Of Radio And Television Broadcasting In Turkey. His area of expertise is Communication Law. He has book chapters, articles, and notices in the fields of communication law, media politics, transmedia, health communication, media ethics, advertising, social media and fame, news program production. He is still a faculty member at Fırat University, Faculty of Communication, Department of Radio, Television and Cinema. Cudi Kaan Okmeydan, after completing his undergraduate studies at Faculty of Communication in Public Relations and Advertising Department at Yaşar University, completed his Master degree at Yaşar cxxxiii

About the Contributors

University in the major field of communication. He completed his Ph.D. degree at Ege University in the major field of Public Relations and Publicity. He started his academic career as a teaching staff at Yaşar University. He is currently working at Yaşar University as teaching staff at Faculty of Communication in the Department of Public Relations and Advertising. His research interests are public relations, political communications, social media, customer relations management and marketing communications. Héctor J. Oliva graduated from Universidad San Jorge, Spain, Department of Advertising and Public Relations in 2010. He also got his M.A (2011) and PhD (2017) in Communication and Media Studies from Universidad San Jorge. He works as Assistant Professor and Director of Department of Film, TV, and Digital Media, in Universidad San Jorge. His expertise on researching is focused on Film History, Entertainment Industry, and Film Editing. Emel Özdemir was born in 1982. After completing his high school in Antalya Karatay Super High School, she graduated from Ege University, English Language and Literature Department in 2004. In 2007, she has received his master degree from the Department of Translation and Interpreting at Muğla University. She began his doctoral studies at Ege University, Department of General Journalism and received his Ph.D. degree in 2012 with his thesis “The Evaluation of The Turkish Image That is Constructed in The Globalized World in The Foreign Press”. She works in Akdeniz University, The Faculty of Communication, Department of Journalism in Antalya. Murat Özdemir graduated from Sakarya University, Department of Turkish Language and Literature. He is a PhD candidate in the field of Media and Communication Studies at Istanbul Commerce University. He has published articles on Cultural Studies, gender studies, new communication technologies, and political communication.

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Meltem Ozkan Altinoz graduated from Art History Department at Ankara University in 2001, and completed her graduate studies in Architectural History Program at Middle East Technical University in 2013. She spent a research period concerning her PhD studies at Universidad Autonoma de Madrid (UAM) in Spain. She became a post-doctoral researcher in Maryland University where she pursued her researches on industrial heritage preservation difficulties and its effects on built environment during 2014-2015. She is an associate professor at Art History Department of Ankara University. Her research field encloses Modernism, Industrial Heritage Studies, Iberian Studies, Orientalism and Jewish Studies. Elvan Ozkavruk Adanir graduated from Ege University Faculty of Engineering, Textile Engineering Department. She received her master’s degree in 1992 and Proficiency in Arts (equivalent to PhD) in 1997 from Dokuz Eylül University Institute of Social Sciences. She received the title of Assistant Professor in 1999, Associate Professor in 2002 and Professor in 2008. She published six books, ten book chapters, many papers and articles. She translated the book written by J. Bronowski-B. Mazlish named “Western Intellectual Tradition from Leonardo to Hegel”. Her art works are exhibited in international textile art biennials and national exhibitions and accepted for international and national permanent collections. Her artwork together with Jovita Sakalauskaite, named Appear, Disappear Re generate won the honor mention award in 7th International Biennial of Contemporary Textile Art in Montevideo Uruguay, October 2017. Since 2011, she has been working as the head of the Department of Fashion and Textile Design, Faculty of Fine Arts and Design in Izmir University of Economics. cxxxiv

About the Contributors

Yasemin Özkent is an assistant professor at Department of Radio Television and Cinema, Faculty of Communication, Selcuk Unvertsity, Turkey. She is an interdisciplinary scholar who teaches radio, television, new media, digital media platform, and cinema. Gizem Parlayandemir was born in Istanbul in 1985. She graduated from Darüşşafaka Schools in 2003. She obtained her undergraduate degree at Istanbul University Faculty of Economics in 2009 and her master’s degree in Cinema at Marmara University in 2011. She obtained a Doctoral degree in RadioTelevision Cinema at Istanbul University in 2015 and has become an Associate Professor in Cinema in 2017. Since 2005, she has worked as a camera assistant, production design assistant, editor, assistant director, and director in various national and international projects. She made 4 short films and 1 feature film. Since October 2014, she has been working in Istanbul University Faculty of Communication, Department of Radio-Television Cinema. She gives lectures on History of Communication, Social Media User, Digital Video, Digital Video and Film Production, Transmedia Narratives, National Cinemas, Media and Nationalism, Cinema Sociology, Film Music, and Film Theories. Besides her teaching expertise, her research interests are New Media, Gender, and Cinema. Alev Fatoş Parsa graduated her BA in Dept. of Cinema-TV-Photography from Faculty of Fine Arts, Dokuz Eylül University, Izmir, Turkey. She worked for three years the news program Hürriyet TV Production as a director of photography & producer. She took her MA and PhD in Institute of Social Sciences in Radio-TV-Film Studies from Ege University in İzmir where she has been working as a Prof. Dr. since 1997. She has written many books, articles in periodicals, paper presentations in international conferences and has also awarded documentary film as a director. Research interests are directed primarily toward 21. century literacy research in a variety of interrelated areas which include new media and visual literacy. Besides another research interests are directed to lectures thought about documentary film making (preproduction / production and post-production process) and visual images in the semiotic methodology. She has been in the Annenberg School for Communication at the University of Pennsylvania (UPENN) for three months as a visiting scholar in 2011. She has two daughters.

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Nilüfer Pembecioğlu, as the academic Istanbul University Faculty of Communication Radio Television Cinema Department, has many articles on a national and international basis regarding education, communication, journalism, peace education and peace journalism, new media, children, women and advertising fields. Specialized in Children & Media Issues and Media Literacy, her academic interests cover Social Discrimination and Exclusion, Cyber Bullying, Systemic Family Therapy, Film Therapy. She has research on refugees, gifted, deaf and handicapped. She also has 15 books, many book chapters, academic papers as well as international research projects. Brenda Pérez graduated from Universidad San Jorge, Spain, Faculty of Communication and Social Sciences in 2018. She also got his M.A (2020) from Universidad San Jorge, Faculty of Communication and Social Sciences. Currently, she is working on her PhD in Information and Communication at Universidad de Zaragoza, Spain. Her recent interests include communication and audiovisual media, especially the cinematographic industry, and culture and digital content. Hülya Semiz Türkoğlu graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Communication, Department of Journalism in 2005. Türkoğlu, who started his master’s degree in the Department of Journalism at cxxxv

About the Contributors

Istanbul University Institute of Social Sciences in the same year, completed his master’s degree in 2008 with his thesis titled “The Views of Journalist Sabiha Sertel on the Period During the Second World War”. He completed his doctorate in 2014 with his thesis. In 2009, he was appointed as a research assistant at the Journalism Department of Istanbul University. In 2017, Dr. Lecturer Working areas of Türkoğlu who is a member; Communication Sciences, Women’s Studies, New Media, Digital and Media Literacy. Türkoğlu is married with a child. Işık Sezer was born in İzmir in 1965. In 1986 she graduated from Dokuz Eylul University Faculty of Fine Arts, Master of Arts . Between 1987-99 Dokuz Eylul University she worked as an expert in the Faculty of Architecture. Between 1995-1997at D.E.Ü. Institute of Social Sciences. Performing Arts in “Architectural Photography and Dusseldorf School” she completed her master’s thesis entitled. Between 1997-2002 at D.E.Ü. Institute of Social Sciences, Performing Arts in “Landscape Photography and Post-1970 Conversion”, she completed her doctoral thesis entitled. Between 1999-2020 at DEU GSF she began working as a research assistant in the photo section. Currently she is assistant Professor at the same university continues to be an instructor. Subir Sinha is an Indian scholar and a Lecture (State Aided College Teacher) in the Department of Journalism and Mass communication of Dum Dum Motijheel College (Affiliated under West Bengal State University). He was formerly attached with the Department of Journalism of Surendranath College (Affiliated under University of Calcutta) and Vijaygarh Jyotish Ray College (Affiliated under University of Calcutta) as a Guest Faculty. He was also remained attached with Indra Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) under convergence scheme with Dum Dum Motijheel College as an Academic Counsellor of PGJMC for a short period. Among his interest- impact of media, role of new media, social media, communication, and development communication are significant. He presented various papers in National and International seminars and conference and published various articles in various books and journals.

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Bahar Soğukkuyu was born in 1984. In 2007 she was graduated from Gazi University, Graphic Design Teaching. In 2010 she was graduated from master’s degree and in 2013 doctoral degree in Dokuz Eylul University, Department of Fine Arts, Fine Art Teacher Education. She worked in Afyon Kocatepe University, Fine Arts Faculty, Department of Communication Design and Graphics. Since October 2015, she works as assistant professor in Dokuz Eylul University, Buca Faculty of Education, Fine Arts Education. She became an associate professor in graphic design in 2019. She studies about the links between graphic design, typography, photography, arts, urban, new media, virtual space, social awareness, and social-cultural data. She has national and international papers, article publications, and participates in exhibition events. Fatih Söğüt was born in 1982 in Trabzon. He entered Erciyes University Fine Arts Faculty CinemaTelevision Department in 2002 and graduated from the same department in 2006. He completed his master’s degree in 2009, which he started in 2006 at Erciyes University Institute of Social Sciences, Department of Radio Cinema and Television. In 2018, he completed his doctorate at Erciyes University, Institute of Social Sciences, Department of Communication Sciences. He has been working as a lecturer at Kırklareli University Vocational School of Social Sciences since 2013. He has published studies in the field of new media.

cxxxvi

About the Contributors

Selin Süar Oral obtained her Ph.D. from Marmara University Institute of Social Sciences, Department of Cinema in the field of collective memory in cinema. She graduated from Ege University, Communication Faculty, Department of Radio, TV, and Cinema. Later on, she received her Master’s degree from Dokuz Eylül University Institute of Fine Arts, Cinema-TV Department with her dissertation entitled “Asia Minor Problematique in Greek Cinema”. In 2010, she published her first novel “Synagogue Street”, which tells the multi-cultural atmosphere of İzmir within a love story. She has worked as a director and text writer on many TV channels and has directed short films that have received awards from various national and international festivals. Currently, she continues her studies at İstanbul Aydin University, Faculty of Fine Arts, Department of Digital Game Design. Ertuğrul Süngü has started his career as a video game critique and as a columnist in LEVEL Gaming magazine in 2012 and still working in this magazine as a writer and editor. In 2015, he began his PhD studies in Bilgi University Communication Department where he wrote a dissertation called “A Historical Approach to Gaming Subculture in Turkey.” He has been teaching lessons at Bilgi University Digital Game Design department since 2016 and since 2019 in Bahçeşehir University Digital Game Design department. He is giving courses on themes such as Games and Culture, Game and Narrative, Game and Philosophy, Game Journalism and Complex Game Mechanics. He is also doing some counseling work for video game publishers and game designers. He is an editor a book called “Türkiye’de ve Türkiye’den Oyun Çalışmaları” with Assoc. Prof. Barbaros Bostan. He is full time Asst. Prof. in Bahçeşehir Digital Game Desing since 2020 October. ÖzcanYılmaz Sütcü is an associate Professor in the department of philosophy at İzmir Katip Çelebi University, Turkey. He completed his master’s and doctorate degrees on cinema and philosophy. He has a book called: “Gilles Deleuze’de Bir İmge Hareketi Olarak Sinemanın Felsefesi”.

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Aslı Telseren graduated from Yıldız Technical University, Department of Political Science and International Relations. She received her M.A degree in Political Sociology and Philosophy and Ph.D. in Sociology from Sorbonne Paris-Cité Paris 7-Diderot University (University of Paris). Between 20132017, she lectured on sociology at Paris 13 and Evry-val-d’Essonne Universities and held seminar courses on Gender and Neo-Orientalism at USPC-Diderot and EHESS, now she is assistant professor at Doğuş University (İstanbul) and affiliated researcher at the Laboratoire du Changement Social et Politique (LCSP) and the Centre d’Enseignement, de Documentation et de Recherches pour les Études Féministes (CEDREF) of the University of Paris. Aslıhan Topal completed his primary, secondary and high school education in Aydın. The author, who graduated from Ankara University, Faculty of Communication, Department of Journalism in 2000, completed his master’s degree in Journalism at Gazi University Institute of Social Sciences in 2005. Aydın works as a lecturer at Adnan Menderes University Aydın Vocational High School. He has academic works such as book chapters, articles and conference papers in the field of communication. Nihal Toros Ntapiapis was born in İstanbul in 1979. She graduated from İstanbul University Faculty of Letters, American Culture and Literature Department in 2001. Toros completed her MA at Marmara Marmara University Faculty of Communications / Public Relations and Publicity Department in 2004 with the thesis “The Role of Sociodrama in Internal Communications” and her PhD at the same unicxxxvii

About the Contributors

versity and department with the thesis “A Sectoral Analysis About the Effectiveness of Word of Mouth Marketing As An Alternative Marketing Method”. She worked at Turkey’s first PR company, A&B Communication, then at Movenpick Hotel Istanbul, Sofa Hotel and Skyturk. She started her academic life at Aydın University in 2009. Her academic studies are on marketing communications, word of mouth marketing, internal communications, viral marketing and public relations. Süleyman Türkoğlu graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Communication, Department of Journalism in 2004. Türkoğlu, who started his master’s degree in the Department of Journalism at Istanbul University Institute of Social Sciences in 2016, received his master’s degree in 2008 with his thesis titled “Corporate Identity in Visual Communication Design and the Example of Istanbul University”. He completed his doctorate in 2014 with his thesis titled “research research”. In 2007, he was appointed as a lecturer at Istanbul University Faculty of Communication. In 2014, Dr. Lecturer Working areas of Türkoğlu who is a member; Printing and Publishing, Communication Design, Interactive Media Design, Media and Communication Systems, Database Systems, Operating Systems. Türkoğlu is married and has a child. Seray Yalçın, after graduating from Istanbul University, Faculty of Communication, Department of Journalism, worked as a publishing editor in various publishing houses and agencies and worked as a reporter for newspapers. Currently, she is continuing his master’s degree in Kocaeli University Faculty of Communication, Department of Journalism and his undergraduate education in Istanbul University, Faculty of Literature, Department of Anthropology. She currently works as a scholar in TUBITAK 1001 Project lead by Assoc. Dr. Elif Korap in “Right to be Forgotten in the memory and Digital Journalism Perspective Applicability: A Field Study in Turkey.”

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Meltem Yaşdağ is a culture and tourism expert at the Turkish Ministry of Culture and Tourism; graduate of Ankara University of Art History Department, holder of MA in History of Architecture, Middle East Technical University; PhD at the Department of Art History, Ankara University; participated in the British Museum’s International Programme of Museology and conducted studies at museums in the UK; with post-doctoral research into orientalism, cultural heritage, museums and postcolonial architecture from the 1923 Turkish-Greek Forced Population Exchange, she is the numerous scholarly publications on these subjects. Barış Yetkin graduated from Akdeniz University School of Tourism and Hotel Management. He has held various positions in the media sector as page secretary, researcher, copywriter, reporter and producer-director. In addition to the responsibility of the Akdeniz University Press, he worked in the Communication Research and Application Center as an expert. He completed his master’s degree in Public Relations and Publicity Department and his doctorate in Communication Department at the same University. He still teaches page design and journalism as a doctor lecturer at Giresun University, Tirebolu Communication Faculty, Department of Journalism. He conducts academic studies in the fields of journalism, media research, new media, and political communication. Ayşe Yolcu was born in 1981 in Arapgir/Malatya. After completing his primary education in Arapkir, secondary education and high school in Malatya, she won the Marmara University Communication Faculty Public Relations and Publicity department in 1999. She graduated from here in 2003. Between cxxxviii

About the Contributors

2004-2005, he worked as an agent in the call center department of a GSM company. In 2005, She was appointed to a public institution with KPSS as a civil servant. At the same time, She studied Turkish Language and Literature at Boğaziçi University between 2009-2013 and successfully completed it. In 2013, She left her work and started to work as a lecturer in a public university and still continues her duty. Married with two children.She completed her master’s degree in Communication Sciences at Fırat University. She still continues her doctoral education in the same department. Deniz Yüceer Berker graduated from Marmara University, Faculty of Communication, Department of Radio, Television and Cinema. She completed her master’s degree in Galatasaray University, Department of Public Relations and Communication Strategies. She completed her PHD in Yeditepe University Media Studies program. She is an active lecturer and head of radio, television and cinema department at İstanbul Ayvansaray University.

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Yusuf Yüksekdağ is an Assistant Professor at Istanbul Bilgi University. He works and teaches in the fields of applied ethics, media studies and philosophy. He received his PhD from the Department of Culture and Communication, Linköping University, Sweden. He has worked on migration ethics in particular, and more recently he is concerned with media/data ethics and ethics of/on urban space.

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Index

12T’s approach 536, 539, 543 19Th Century 2, 6, 22-23, 40, 57, 183, 185, 188-189, 257-258, 261, 264, 268-269, 271-272, 274-275, 277-278, 281, 284, 288-289, 293, 302, 330, 376, 381, 397, 423, 426, 470, 491, 510-511, 547, 651, 667, 719, 731-732, 754, 765, 821, 861, 892, 905, 909, 911-912, 920-923, 929, 932-933, 937, 954, 977-978 9 1-5, 7, 9-12, 14-25, 29-81, 84-94, 96-100, 104-105, 107-114, 116, 118-129, 131-133, 135, 137-138, 140-154, 156-158, 160-174, 176-190, 192, 194209, 211-219, 221-234, 237-243, 246-249, 251255, 257-258, 260, 262, 264-271, 273, 275-276, 279-281, 283-284, 288-290, 292-298, 301-315, 318-330, 333, 335-346, 348-351, 353-360, 362, 365-369, 372-389, 396-415, 417-421, 424-431, 435-441, 443-453, 455-464, 466-468, 470-479, 483-485, 486, 488-498, 500-522, 524, 532-544, 547, 549-550, 553-560, 562-568, 570-576, 578579, 581-584, 586-589, 591-618, 623, 626, 628638, 642, 644-648, 650-654, 658-660, 662-670, 672-674, 677-685, 696-697, 699, 702-710, 713, 715, 717, 719-723, 725-738, 740-742, 744-745, 756-758, 760, 762-766, 768, 774-785, 787-788, 790-791, 794-802, 804-807, 809-810, 812, 815816, 818-828, 830-836, 838, 840-842, 844-845, 849-850, 856, 858-859, 861-866, 868, 870-877, 879-880, 883, 885-895, 901-902, 904-915, 917929, 931-937, 939-945, 947-948, 950-962, 966, 970-972, 974-979, 983-984, 989-990 9GAG 760-761, 766-769, 772, 777

A Abdulhamid II 185-186, 398, 405-409, 416, 420 Accented Cinema 126, 142-144 Advertisement 63, 474, 687, 706-707, 710-713, 716, 891, 894, 943, 974-976, 978-982, 987-989 Advertising 17, 58, 68, 365, 389, 395, 485, 555, 588,  Volume I: 1-

630, 663, 669-670, 706-707, 709, 714, 743, 818, 834-836, 874, 893, 901-904, 974-976, 978-979, 987-990 advertizing 818-821, 823-828, 830-833, 837 African American 81, 88, 507, 531, 535, 826 Aladdin 109, 241, 290, 292-293, 953-954, 959-963, 965-966, 968-970 Anatolia 138, 217, 253, 377, 624, 633-644, 646, 822, 828, 889, 920, 937 Anatolian 21, 186, 216, 377, 627, 633-634, 636-638, 640, 642-643, 646, 669 anime 197-200, 203-209, 211-212 Antakya 838-846, 848-849, 851, 854-857 anthropocentrism 197 Antioch-on-the-Orontes 838, 851 apocalyptic 40-43, 45, 48, 51, 199-200 Application 53-54, 66, 70, 343, 357, 370-371, 374, 670, 718, 900, 946, 949 Arab Spring 36, 49, 107-108, 112-115, 122, 419, 591-592, 610 Arab World 34-37, 46-48, 54, 107, 109, 111, 116, 119, 121, 183, 376, 383, 450, 582, 610, 674, 927, 987 Architecture 56, 69, 96, 121, 125, 183, 222, 226, 230, 249, 275, 283-285, 288-291, 293-295, 302-303, 344, 360, 365, 379-380, 397, 406, 435, 470, 493, 601, 663, 669-670, 710, 849-850, 893, 908, 912, 931, 933, 980-981 aromavision 109, 115, 122 Arthur Koestler 197, 204 Artifcial Intelligence 200, 202, 207, 366, 370, 372374, 718 Assimilation 123, 128, 134, 313, 507, 542, 661 Augmented Reality 160, 355, 361-362, 371, 374, 551, 718 Aura 112, 598, 659, 678, 875-877, 879, 886-887 Auto 662, 680, 758, 911

485; Volume II: 486-990

Index

B Balance 60, 117, 164, 244, 246, 248, 362, 368, 371, 428, 494, 614, 618-619, 629, 651, 658, 668-669, 818, 833, 893, 896, 900, 902 Ballet Russes 214, 223-224 BBC 44, 46, 63, 115, 460, 462-463, 708, 791, 797, 844, 858-859, 866, 870-872, 874 Body Of Lies 438-439, 441-444, 447-450, 452, 932 Brand 15, 17, 36, 63, 99, 371, 374, 423, 455, 467, 663, 707, 735, 819, 823-825, 830-832, 891, 914, 974976, 978-980, 988-990 British Art 268, 273, 281, 292

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C Caliphators 40, 42-43, 45, 51 Capitalism 3, 8, 14, 53, 75, 135, 177, 179, 200, 208, 326-329, 373, 428, 440, 468, 494, 501, 505, 514515, 577, 580, 587-588, 659, 663, 667, 678, 800, 818, 821-822, 824, 828, 835, 941, 955, 972-973 Caps 223, 760-761, 765-774, 777 Captions 402, 766, 777 Caricature Representation 398, 419 Cartoons 279, 399-403, 405, 414-415, 417-420, 458, 714, 745, 932 Cinema 6, 15-16, 19-20, 22-25, 29, 60, 70, 75, 80, 83, 87, 108, 110, 122-128, 130-131, 139, 141-144, 146, 165-166, 172, 177-178, 181-184, 188-189, 192, 194, 197-199, 202, 231-233, 240-250, 261266, 269-270, 278, 283, 304-305, 318-319, 321, 324, 326, 334, 343-344, 350, 354, 364-365, 421422, 429-431, 434-435, 437, 439, 441, 443, 446, 448, 451-452, 457-458, 464, 477, 482, 496, 507, 538, 544, 549, 552-553, 556, 574-575, 577-579, 581-590, 609-610, 624, 633-634, 641, 645-646, 653-654, 658, 660, 663, 681-686, 692, 701-705, 708-709, 714-715, 723, 731-732, 742-746, 754755, 763, 776, 823, 875-878, 881-883, 885-887, 893-894, 901, 910-911, 923, 931, 940, 943-944, 953-954, 958-960, 968-970, 978 City Identity 838-839, 850-851 Clash Of Civilizations 36, 48, 266, 532, 610, 658, 660, 747, 753, 758 Cloud Computing 374 Cognitive Semiotics 838-839, 842, 848, 850 Cognitive Warfare 33, 51 colonial gaze 124-125, 144 Colonialism 1, 4, 22, 29, 32, 38, 55, 57, 77-78, 84-85, 90-91, 128, 165-166, 182, 194, 215, 226, 252, 256, 269, 271, 274, 303-305, 308, 310-311, 314,

316-319, 329-330, 355, 359, 369, 429, 439-440, 443, 449, 452, 485, 507-508, 510-511, 513, 515516, 519, 532, 535, 580, 585, 593, 596, 610-611, 652, 733-735, 745, 753-754, 800-801, 861, 890, 905, 907, 909, 912, 916, 927-928, 930, 941, 955, 957-958, 966, 969 Communication 6, 8-9, 11-17, 24, 28-30, 32, 61, 63, 68, 75, 80, 89-90, 109, 145-147, 153, 160-161, 163-164, 171, 181, 238, 281, 312, 323, 343, 345, 353, 356, 358, 368-369, 373, 397, 403, 416, 418, 423, 429, 449-450, 453, 457, 465, 467, 470-476, 483-485, 486-487, 489, 494, 496-498, 500-501, 503-506, 533, 536-538, 540, 542-543, 553-554, 556, 566, 571, 573, 578, 581, 588, 597-598, 614, 618, 629-631, 636, 641, 657, 663, 679-680, 686, 702, 706-708, 717-718, 721, 730-731, 743, 755, 757-758, 760-761, 765-766, 775-776, 780, 782-783, 792, 794, 796-799, 805-807, 814-815, 817-818, 821, 823, 825-828, 830, 834-838, 840841, 849-850, 862, 873, 875, 892-893, 899-901, 904-905, 909-910, 913, 916-918, 934-935, 943, 952, 969, 973, 975, 988, 990 Comparative Historicity Perspective 618, 632 comprehensiveness 818-819, 829-831, 837 Consumer Society 324, 336-337, 434, 888, 960 Contamination 323 Contemporary Orientalist art 92 Content Analysis 152, 449, 573, 799, 806, 808, 814, 817, 849 Counter Culture 324-327, 329, 331, 333, 335, 337 countryside 633-641, 644, 646, 670 Creative Economy 662, 671-672, 676, 679-680 critical discourse analysis 508, 522-523, 532, 570, 632, 840, 850, 944, 951, 953-954, 960-961, 970-973 Critical Political Economy 574 Cross Culture 240, 250 cultivation theory 542, 818-820, 825-828, 830-831, 833, 837 Cultural Hybridity 658, 661 Cultural Industry 72, 75, 111, 578-579, 581, 590, 662663, 667-677, 680 Cultural Memory 269, 376, 679, 888-889, 891, 893, 899, 901-902, 949 Culture 1-4, 6-7, 11, 13-15, 17-18, 24, 34, 36-37, 3940, 43-45, 47-48, 51-53, 58-59, 61-63, 68-71, 73-76, 79-80, 83, 85-89, 91, 94, 96-97, 99-100, 104-105, 113-114, 116, 125-129, 134, 136, 140-143, 149-151, 153, 157-158, 161, 163, 168, 179-180, 182-183, 187, 189, 196-197, 199-201, 203, 209, 212, 214-216, 220, 223, 226-227, 230, 232, 234-236, 239-240, 242, 245-246, 248, 250, cxli

Index

252, 257, 264, 266-269, 272-280, 282-285, 288, 290, 293-294, 297, 301, 303, 310, 320-322, 324337, 342-346, 350, 354-356, 358, 360, 373, 376, 378-379, 383, 388, 391-392, 397, 401, 403, 415416, 418-419, 421-425, 427-431, 433-435, 439, 442-443, 445-446, 449, 451-452, 455-459, 464, 468-469, 482-483, 485, 486-487, 489-491, 494497, 499, 503-505, 508, 516, 519-521, 537-544, 550-553, 565, 569-571, 573-582, 584, 586-589, 594, 597-598, 609, 612, 615-617, 619, 623-629, 631-632, 634-635, 638, 641, 643, 646, 648-656, 659, 662-663, 666-670, 675-680, 683-684, 686687, 690, 697, 705-707, 709-712, 718, 720-723, 726-728, 732-733, 737-738, 742, 746, 753-754, 757, 760, 762-763, 765-767, 769, 773-777, 779, 782, 788, 800-802, 804-805, 819-821, 823-824, 826-829, 833-836, 840, 843, 846, 849-851, 858861, 865-866, 870, 873, 880, 882, 887-888, 890891, 895, 900-902, 905-912, 915-916, 918, 922, 925-926, 929, 936, 939, 941, 943-944, 948-952, 956-959, 963, 973, 975-977, 980, 985, 988-990 Cyberspace 179, 197, 200-201, 213, 321, 850 cyborg 202, 204, 206-207, 209, 213

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D Da’wa 41, 51 Daguerreotype 379-380, 397 Dar al Harb “Realm of the Sword” 51 Dar al Islam “Realm of Submission” 51 Dearabisation 122 Decolonization 9, 43, 168, 178, 180, 278, 609, 719 Deconstructivism 213 Delacroix 93, 98, 103, 182, 194, 270-271, 280, 375-376, 379, 381-382, 388, 391, 397, 449, 877, 911, 932 Delacroix (Ferdinand Victor Eugène) 397 Democracy 29, 36-37, 40, 43-44, 49, 89, 107, 111, 115-116, 119, 148, 177, 280, 321, 399, 427, 442, 448, 456-458, 473, 493, 598-600, 616, 667, 683, 736, 811, 813, 822, 835, 916, 969 Depiction 32, 63, 100, 103-104, 112, 128, 153, 164, 182, 202, 234, 264, 267, 303, 332, 360, 401-402, 411, 419, 421, 482, 488-489, 538, 566, 573, 590, 596, 626, 657, 726, 752, 762, 791, 820-821, 846, 868, 874, 923, 949 design elements 888, 893, 896, 900, 902 design principles 888, 893, 896, 900, 902 Dhimmi (“Blameworthy”) 51 Dichotomy 13, 27, 54, 57-58, 63, 71, 111, 144, 198, 201, 226-227, 254, 324, 327-328, 330-331, 334335, 337, 440, 442, 519, 527, 531, 556, 871, 878, cxlii

880, 886-887 Digital 1, 4, 6-13, 16-20, 25, 29-30, 32, 113, 160, 171, 194, 204-206, 285, 355, 357, 361, 367, 369-370, 372, 374, 383, 387, 395-396, 486-487, 496-497, 499, 501, 504, 506, 571-572, 607, 663, 676, 717718, 720-726, 728-732, 746-747, 755, 766-767, 776-777, 783, 792, 796, 829, 836, 838-844, 846, 848-851, 870, 888, 891, 900, 902, 914, 916-917, 930, 939-940, 942, 944, 949, 952, 959 Digital City Narration 851 Digital Communication 11, 486, 496, 506, 796 Digital Games 6-7, 10, 285, 372, 572, 717-718, 720726, 728-729 Digital Media 194, 487, 497, 501, 571, 663, 676, 838-842, 846, 848, 850-851, 888, 902, 939, 944, 949, 952 digital media platforms 838, 842, 939, 944, 952 Digital Orientalism 1, 4, 6-11, 849 Digital Platforms 12-13, 16-17, 19-20, 29-30, 755, 767, 839, 851, 916-917 Dignity Culture 51 Disaster 85, 145, 149-150, 152-155, 157, 160-164, 173, 199, 604 Discourse 1, 3-7, 10-13, 18, 42-43, 45, 54, 57-58, 61, 67-69, 72, 75-76, 78, 83-84, 86-87, 90-91, 94, 107-113, 119-120, 124, 131-132, 139, 150, 152153, 165, 174, 181-182, 184, 190, 201-203, 213, 236, 238, 252, 254, 304-307, 313-316, 318-319, 334, 338, 340-342, 348-351, 353, 357-358, 372, 399, 402-403, 413, 416, 418, 427, 429, 435, 438441, 443-444, 448-449, 452, 455-456, 458, 461, 463-464, 467, 476, 485, 487, 491-493, 495, 497, 507-508, 513, 515-517, 519-523, 527, 529, 532, 536-539, 542-544, 553, 557-567, 569-575, 577580, 586-587, 591-594, 598, 607, 613-614, 616617, 632, 643, 648-659, 662-670, 675-677, 679, 681-685, 688, 692-693, 702-703, 706, 708-709, 714, 716, 719-720, 724, 728, 731-739, 741-744, 746, 748, 753, 755, 758, 760-763, 768, 774, 777, 795, 799, 801-802, 806-808, 810-817, 821-822, 829-830, 834, 840, 850, 858-859, 861-863, 865878, 880, 882-883, 886-887, 890, 904, 906-907, 909-911, 913-917, 922-923, 926, 928, 930, 934, 937, 939-941, 944-945, 947-955, 957-961, 969973, 975-978, 988 Discourse Analysis 150, 153, 252, 485, 507-508, 521-523, 532, 536, 539, 543, 557-561, 563, 570571, 573, 632, 799, 806-808, 812-814, 816-817, 840, 850, 858-859, 862, 865-867, 874-876, 887, 922-923, 939-940, 944, 949, 951-954, 960-961, 970-973

Index

Distant 161, 166, 203, 221, 235, 256, 272, 290, 299, 328, 332, 348, 380, 440, 598-599, 633, 636, 646, 651, 939, 941, 957, 965, 969, 982 diversity positive 72, 75-77, 79, 88, 91 Documentary Film 19, 32, 110, 582 Documentary Series 12-13, 17, 24-25, 29-30, 870 Dominant Ideology 18, 72, 78-79, 87, 91, 325, 581, 685, 953-955, 959-960, 969, 973 dominant ideology, 953 Duality 84, 86, 201, 337, 342-343, 346, 351, 544-545, 548, 556, 587, 595, 614, 692, 763, 820

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E East 1, 3-9, 11-13, 20-23, 27-29, 33, 36, 46-49, 53-55, 57-59, 70-71, 76-78, 93-95, 98, 100, 104, 106-108, 110-114, 116-117, 120, 122, 124-129, 134-135, 138-142, 144-145, 147, 150-153, 160-162, 181184, 186, 188-190, 194, 196-197, 199, 201-203, 214-217, 221-227, 229-237, 240-241, 245-254, 257-258, 260-262, 264, 266-281, 283-285, 288290, 292-293, 296-297, 299-301, 307, 312, 324, 326-327, 329-332, 334-335, 337-338, 341-343, 351, 354-358, 360, 362-363, 367, 370-371, 374, 376-380, 382, 385, 387, 391, 397, 418, 420, 424-425, 427, 429, 433, 435, 441-442, 444-445, 449-451, 454-459, 461-471, 476-478, 482-483, 485, 507, 509, 516, 518-521, 531-532, 535, 537-538, 543-545, 548, 550, 557-560, 562-564, 566, 568-570, 572-573, 575-576, 579, 582, 584, 588-589, 591-594, 596, 598, 612-613, 615-618, 624-629, 631-635, 648-657, 659, 661, 664-665, 668, 670, 672, 674-676, 680-683, 685, 692-693, 697, 701-702, 704-708, 711, 714, 716-720, 723726, 728, 730-738, 740, 742-746, 748, 752-755, 758-765, 768-769, 773-774, 778-779, 786, 799802, 805-806, 808, 810, 812, 814, 817, 819-823, 825, 827-829, 834, 836, 838, 840-841, 850-851, 858-873, 875, 878-885, 889-890, 903-916, 920934, 936-943, 945-949, 952, 954-960, 964-969, 973-979, 981-985, 987-990 East Travel 324, 326-327, 329, 337 East-West Discussions 920, 937 East-West Discussions,Edward Said 920 East-West or Nature-Culture Dualism 337 Edward Said 4-5, 8, 10-12, 20, 23, 29, 33, 47-48, 50, 53-54, 78, 93, 107-108, 123-124, 181, 201, 214215, 239-241, 251-252, 257, 284, 297, 304, 306, 330, 376, 396, 415, 440, 453-455, 466-467, 471, 476, 483-484, 516, 519, 534, 558, 573-574, 588, 593, 608-609, 612, 648-653, 658, 677, 683, 705,

718-721, 723, 726, 728, 731, 734-735, 741, 745, 753-754, 758, 760-761, 764, 775-776, 800-801, 817, 819-820, 822, 851, 858-862, 864-865, 873876, 878, 887, 903, 905-907, 909, 916, 920-922, 924-928, 935, 937, 951, 955, 970, 976 Edward W. Said 265, 280, 468, 470, 485, 757, 776, 873, 935, 940 Entertainment Industry 108, 110, 119-120, 122, 283, 288, 301, 581, 722 Epistemic Violence 310-311, 611-612, 614, 618, 629, 632 Essentialism 33, 48, 62, 66, 69, 323, 736, 863 Ethnocentrism 1, 3, 11, 161, 305, 459, 464, 468, 618 Eurocentrism 78, 451, 571, 609, 648, 650, 659-661, 940, 952 Exhibition 68, 93, 99, 225, 268, 270-282, 537, 543, 606, 670, 877, 911 extended reality 355, 359-360, 362, 369, 373-374

F Fanonism 72, 77-79, 87-88, 91 Fatih Akin 123-124, 138-139, 141-144, 911 Feminism 177, 196, 322, 339, 353, 426-427, 438-439, 450, 452, 681, 684, 705, 754, 819 Film 13, 17-20, 22-25, 27-28, 32, 55, 57, 59, 62, 67, 72-77, 79-81, 83, 85, 87-88, 90-91, 95, 108-110, 124-134, 136-144, 151, 172, 177, 179-180, 182, 188-190, 192-194, 196-198, 202-203, 205, 207209, 231, 233-237, 239, 241-243, 248-250, 259, 262-265, 283, 290, 292-295, 301, 304-309, 311, 313-315, 319-320, 330-332, 335, 338, 340-341, 343-344, 346-352, 356, 359-360, 362-364, 367, 370, 373, 383-384, 421-422, 429-437, 441-442, 444-445, 447, 449, 451, 459-460, 479-481, 508, 521, 523-525, 527-532, 536-539, 541-552, 555556, 574-575, 577-579, 581-590, 592, 595-597, 601-606, 609-610, 612, 617, 619-629, 634-642, 644-646, 648-649, 653-660, 663, 678, 681-684, 687, 689-690, 692, 695, 701-710, 743-744, 746, 750, 755, 757, 831-832, 875-877, 879-885, 887, 891-892, 916-917, 942, 953, 971, 975, 979, 985 Film Analysis 13, 234, 330, 430, 523, 536, 543 Film Festival 141, 198, 340, 587, 590, 645 Film Industry 20, 74-76, 79-80, 88, 91, 241, 459, 574575, 578-579, 585, 684, 744, 887 Films 12-13, 16-20, 22-25, 29-30, 32, 75-77, 79-80, 87-90, 108-109, 112, 121, 123-128, 130-132, 135, 137-141, 143-144, 151, 157-158, 164, 177, 182, 184-185, 197-198, 200, 208-209, 211, 233, 236-237, 261-262, 283, 285, 293, 296-297, 301cxliii

Index

302, 304-306, 319-320, 326, 330, 334-335, 350, 421, 429-430, 436, 448-449, 451, 523, 538-539, 542, 544, 547, 549, 552, 574-575, 577-579, 581587, 590, 592-594, 596, 598, 600-602, 604-605, 610, 617-619, 623-626, 629, 631, 636, 654, 659, 682-684, 702, 707-709, 717, 725-726, 729, 732, 742-746, 754, 758, 764, 818, 821-822, 824, 827, 831, 875, 878, 881, 891, 906, 910-911, 914-915, 943-944, 947, 952, 968, 988 Flow 17, 365, 368-369, 385, 509, 537, 593, 599-601, 604-605, 626, 634, 639, 647, 686, 720, 737, 794, 939 Foreign Press 148, 156, 158, 160, 538, 799, 802, 806, 808, 811, 814, 817 Foucauldian Violence 633, 646

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G Game Studies 303, 568, 729 Games 6-7, 10, 73, 75, 112, 122, 158, 172, 187-188, 204, 234, 283, 285, 296-297, 299-303, 356, 362-364, 366, 368-369, 372-374, 427-428, 464, 544, 557-573, 599, 628, 717-718, 720-729, 810, 868, 914, 987 Gaming Studies 717 Gen 53-55, 57, 65-67, 71, 198, 208, 833 Gender 61, 64, 66, 77, 90, 98, 123, 125, 128, 139-140, 144, 146, 162, 164, 181-182, 186, 196, 198, 211, 255, 338-343, 347-354, 401, 421-422, 424-428, 430-431, 434-441, 448-449, 451-452, 487, 490491, 495-496, 498, 538, 541, 560, 572, 681-682, 684, 702, 722, 729, 778-779, 781, 783, 785, 792, 796, 798, 804, 818, 820, 824, 827-828, 830, 835, 876, 878, 887, 944, 960, 975 gender and orientalism 123, 342 Geographical Discoveries 1, 3-4, 11, 508-510, 531, 942 Geographical Imagination 420 geographical imaginations 398, 416 Geopolitics 180, 398, 418-420, 589 George Gerbner 818, 820, 826, 837 German Turkish Cinema 123 Get Out 72-73, 79-82, 84-85, 87-91, 643, 831, 861, 962 global Caliphate 33, 40-41, 51 global Jihad 33, 40, 43, 45 Globalization 12-16, 28-30, 32, 75, 94, 101-102, 144, 179, 202, 358, 360, 440, 493-494, 498, 505, 546, 575, 581, 587-588, 611, 630, 636, 658, 660, 707, 761, 909, 939-940, 942-943, 952 graphic design 888, 892-893, 896, 900-903, 908

cxliv

H Hamam 135, 141, 188, 190, 228, 536, 538-539, 543546, 548-552, 555-556 Harem 96-97, 114, 124-125, 130, 135, 141, 181-190, 192-196, 218, 220, 224, 227, 251-252, 254, 257259, 262-267, 269, 273, 276, 375-376, 380, 382, 385, 392, 442, 446-448, 450, 467-468, 484, 582, 589, 704, 889, 912, 922, 931-933, 967-969 Harem Suare 181-182, 188-189, 192-193, 195-196, 484, 704 Harlem Renaissance 88, 91 Hate Speech 45, 52, 468, 717, 726, 729, 741, 746, 772, 829, 843 Headline 154, 156, 164, 272, 791, 809-810, 945 Head-On 123-131, 133, 135, 137-140, 142 Hegemony 7-8, 11, 15, 63, 88, 120, 232, 245, 262, 338, 340-342, 347, 349-350, 352, 354, 371, 426427, 440, 458, 468, 489, 514, 519-521, 574-576, 613-614, 630, 651, 666-667, 669, 682, 733, 738, 743, 762, 815, 829, 882, 917, 929, 941, 944, 956, 959, 977 Henry Jenkins 818, 831 History as a Retro Scenario 875, 885 History Of Orientalism 9, 265, 465, 589, 595, 652, 731, 859, 885, 905, 920, 924, 937 Hollywood 20, 23-25, 29, 61-62, 72, 74-77, 79-80, 88, 90-91, 107-110, 114, 116, 120-122, 127, 129, 135, 139, 208, 212, 224, 226, 233, 238, 240-250, 262, 265, 293, 301, 305, 326, 429, 431, 434, 438439, 441, 445-450, 452, 459, 534, 572, 574-575, 577-579, 581-583, 585-587, 592, 608, 654, 660, 703-704, 715, 728, 732, 743-745, 756, 758, 818, 878, 910, 918, 923, 931, 935-936, 943, 953, 958959, 968-969, 972 Hollywood Renaissance 72, 88, 91 Homi Bhabha 70, 123-124, 134, 142, 819 Homo Islamicus 109, 122 Honor-Shame 33, 48 Humour 760 Hyperreality 877, 879, 887 Hyper-Reality 203, 213, 593

I Identity 21, 35, 54, 64, 73, 78, 84, 86, 94-98, 101, 103-104, 113, 116, 122, 127, 140-143, 146, 149150, 170, 175-177, 180, 201-203, 211, 220, 228, 232-233, 251, 255-256, 259, 269, 278, 308, 314315, 329-333, 339-343, 347, 349-350, 352-353, 355, 357-358, 362, 372, 374-375, 383, 385-387,

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Index

389, 395-396, 418-419, 422, 424-426, 429, 433, 445, 449, 455, 458, 462-463, 466, 482, 486-487, 489-493, 495-503, 505-506, 520, 524, 536-538, 540-542, 544, 546, 548, 552, 554, 556, 560, 562, 566, 593-594, 607, 614, 630, 636, 638, 651-652, 654-655, 658, 663, 669-670, 676, 678, 682, 702, 705, 708, 721-722, 725-726, 733, 736-738, 740, 743, 754, 760-761, 763-765, 770, 772-774, 779, 782, 792, 800, 802-805, 811, 813-814, 816-817, 838-840, 842, 846, 850-851, 859-861, 863, 867, 869, 871, 878, 885, 887-888, 907, 914-916, 930, 932, 934, 947-948, 950, 955-958, 966, 976 identity construction 607, 803, 817 Ideology 3, 5, 18, 22, 27, 46, 50, 55, 64, 69, 72, 7879, 85-87, 90-91, 113, 136, 194, 201, 216, 227, 232, 238, 264, 269, 274, 278, 288, 306-307, 323, 325, 328, 338-339, 341-342, 347-348, 352, 354, 356, 440, 450-451, 489, 493, 497-498, 501, 503, 508, 513-514, 519, 521, 533, 567, 575-576, 579-582, 584-588, 590, 594, 607, 613, 616, 654, 656, 660, 666-667, 669, 677-678, 681-686, 692, 695-697, 704, 730, 732-733, 738, 741-746, 754, 774, 807, 814-816, 818, 821, 861, 866, 878, 907, 913, 915-916, 925, 929, 953-955, 957-961, 969, 972-973, 976 Image 6-7, 10, 27-28, 53-56, 58-59, 62-63, 71, 80, 94, 102-104, 108-109, 111, 116-118, 126-127, 129-131, 140, 145-154, 157, 160, 163-164, 173, 183, 192, 194, 201, 204-205, 209, 224, 228, 230, 232-237, 242, 244-248, 251-254, 256-258, 262, 264-265, 273, 279, 288, 297-299, 301-302, 310, 313-314, 318, 325, 329, 332, 335, 341, 348, 350, 352, 361, 363-364, 366-367, 369-370, 376, 378-380, 382, 384, 397-400, 403, 406-413, 416, 420, 424-425, 429, 433, 443, 446-447, 453-455, 457-467, 471, 477, 482-483, 486-489, 496, 499, 504, 506, 515, 543, 547, 549-550, 553, 558, 568, 570, 578, 592-597, 599-602, 604-608, 610, 616617, 619, 621, 624-626, 628, 630, 634-636, 638, 642, 650, 656, 659, 664-665, 680, 682-683, 702, 704, 708-711, 714, 719, 723, 741, 743, 745, 747, 752-753, 755, 757, 760-761, 764-767, 769-770, 772-774, 776-777, 780, 782, 787, 792, 799, 803806, 808, 810-815, 817, 821, 825, 839, 845-846, 849-850, 864, 871, 874, 879, 883, 888, 891, 893895, 900, 902, 908, 914, 916, 922-924, 930, 939, 943, 945, 948-949, 953-955, 957-960, 968-969, 973, 975, 978, 980-983, 985 Imagined Dualism 53-55, 71 Immersion 363, 369-370, 373-374, 571, 603 Imperialism 1, 10-11, 15, 33, 38, 40, 58, 76, 91, 105, 108,

113, 138, 179, 196, 225, 265, 267-268, 273-274, 301, 304, 321, 377, 450, 452, 456, 468, 470, 477, 482, 485, 493, 510, 519, 537, 573-574, 576, 581, 586-587, 589, 593, 609-610, 674, 719-720, 735, 754, 762, 820-821, 907, 921, 941, 943, 955, 957 Implicit Orientalism 114, 330, 453, 456, 468, 617, 708 Indian Cinema 242, 421, 429-430, 704 information literacy 728, 778, 792, 794, 798 information warfare 33, 51 Ingres 96, 98, 182, 189, 227, 381, 388, 395, 877, 932 Intersubjectivity 53 Intertextuality 181, 196, 397, 405, 550 Iraq War 208, 452, 591, 610, 958 Islam 11-13, 21, 25, 28-35, 37, 39-52, 94, 99, 107-111, 113-114, 117-118, 120-122, 138, 185, 195, 241, 252-253, 255-256, 259-260, 265-267, 271-272, 276, 284-285, 297, 302, 360, 399, 406, 411, 415, 419, 438, 440, 449-450, 457-459, 463-464, 467468, 488, 533, 535, 553, 558, 571, 591, 593-594, 596, 598, 609-610, 624-625, 628, 632, 648-649, 651, 653-654, 656-661, 689, 691, 697-699, 703, 708, 715, 718, 723-724, 726-728, 731-732, 737742, 745, 748, 750-752, 754-758, 760, 764, 770, 773-774, 776-777, 795, 801, 815-816, 834-835, 841, 873-874, 880, 890, 900, 915-916, 918, 921922, 924, 926-928, 931, 933-934, 936-937, 943, 951, 971, 978 Islamophobia 42-44, 52, 121, 458-459, 464, 467-468, 610, 648, 660, 717-718, 726, 729-731, 738-742, 745-746, 755-758, 774-777, 865, 872

J Jane Naomi Iwamura 53 Japan Panic 201, 213 Jean Baudrillard 593, 608, 875-876, 879 Jeremy Carrette 55, 64 Jihad 28, 33, 40-41, 43, 45-48, 52, 138, 142, 657, 660661, 727, 739, 764, 821, 865, 868, 871 Jihad (“Struggle”) 52 John Galliano 214, 224, 226, 228 Joseph Abboud 224-225, 229 Journalism 5, 110, 145, 148, 152, 161-164, 630, 782785, 794, 850

K Kafe Fasset 224 Kemalism 616, 630, 662, 669, 679-680 Keywords: Media 304

cxlv

Index

L Lady Mary Wortley Montagu 218, 230, 932 Lady Montagu 182, 214, 219, 226 Laura Mulvey 702 Le Petit Journal 398-399, 404-416, 420 Léon Bakst 214, 223 Literature Review 453-454, 471, 499, 685, 717, 729730, 819-820 Logocentric Bias 213 Logocentrism 304, 319, 323 Lost Aura 875 Lustful 24, 251-252, 254-255, 257-258, 261-262, 264267, 763-764, 800, 821

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M Ma 53-54, 56-57, 65, 69, 71, 115 Machine Learning 370, 374 Madonna Whore Complex 144 Manifest Orientalism 453, 456, 468, 664, 801-802, 820-821, 823, 926, 941 Marginalization 74, 78, 202, 232-233, 237, 284, 329, 429, 440, 455, 458, 462, 478, 508, 513, 518, 520, 527, 548, 574, 586, 650, 661, 675-676, 682, 685, 691, 702, 726, 730, 732, 735-736, 738, 746, 751, 759-761, 769, 772, 858-859, 903, 915, 923-924, 933-934, 956 Masculinity 59, 70, 103, 129, 144, 260, 262, 338-342, 347-348, 350-354, 425, 428, 435, 547, 820, 960 Masquerade 214, 217, 219-221, 228, 530-531 Mass Media 6, 14-15, 29, 56, 62-63, 77, 108, 147, 279, 359, 369, 422, 429, 437, 453, 457, 474, 489-490, 499, 521, 558, 565, 572, 574-575, 577, 580, 587588, 590, 600, 612, 677, 707, 721-722, 727, 731, 742-743, 745, 754-755, 782, 792, 798, 823, 827, 837, 859, 892, 904, 913, 915, 930-931, 953-954, 957-958, 969-970, 973, 975, 978, 990 Materialities 169, 180 Media 6, 13-18, 20, 25, 29-31, 33, 35, 37, 43-44, 49, 51, 53-56, 61-63, 66, 71, 75-77, 83, 90, 95, 98, 103, 108, 112, 115, 120-122, 130-132, 135, 140, 143, 145-147, 149-151, 153-154, 160-161, 163-167, 171-172, 177-178, 192, 194, 203-204, 212, 233, 238-239, 245, 251-252, 257, 261-262, 264-268, 270-275, 277-279, 281, 284-285, 290, 300-304, 319, 337, 350, 356-360, 362-363, 368-369, 371, 399-400, 404, 409-410, 414, 418-420, 422, 426, 428-429, 434-435, 437-438, 440, 443, 451-466, 468-470, 473-478, 482, 485, 487, 489-490, 497, 499, 501, 503, 505, 507, 514, 521, 533, 537-538, cxlvi

542, 544, 546, 550-551, 553-555, 558-560, 563, 565-575, 577-580, 586-592, 594, 597, 599-600, 604, 607-613, 616-619, 628-630, 632, 654-656, 660, 663, 667, 669, 676-680, 683, 704, 706-708, 717-718, 720-731, 737-738, 741-743, 745-746, 751-752, 754-755, 761, 763-764, 766-767, 772, 774-796, 798-799, 805-806, 808, 810-812, 814819, 821-824, 826-844, 846, 848-851, 858-859, 862-865, 867-868, 870-876, 879-880, 885-892, 899-900, 902, 904, 906, 910, 913-915, 917-918, 920-921, 923-924, 930-931, 933-934, 938-940, 942-944, 949-954, 957-961, 969-970, 973, 975, 978, 990 Media Literacy 146, 151, 550, 778, 792, 794, 798 Media Representation 458, 463, 469 mediation 607, 818, 828, 911 medientalism 818, 830, 833, 837 Melodramatic Formula 140, 144 meme 760, 766, 775-777 MENA region 111, 115-116, 119, 122 meta narration 839, 842, 846, 848, 851 meta-narration 838, 841-842 Michael Haneke 165, 177-178 Middle East 5, 7, 23, 28, 33, 36, 46-47, 49, 57, 93-95, 107-108, 110-114, 116-117, 120, 122, 144, 214, 226, 230, 240-241, 247-248, 250, 268-270, 272274, 276, 279, 281, 293, 307, 362-363, 376-380, 418, 441-442, 444-445, 449-451, 455-456, 458459, 466-468, 477, 485, 532, 550, 557-558, 560, 566, 570, 572, 589, 624, 648-649, 651, 654-657, 659, 661, 674, 697, 702, 723-726, 728, 732-734, 740, 744, 752, 762, 819, 821, 834, 836, 889-890, 912, 920-921, 926-928, 930, 937, 941, 958-959 Millennialism (“Thousand Years”) 52 minimalism 53-54, 56, 62-63, 70, 224 Missionary 4, 11, 134, 734-735, 905 Modern 5, 7-8, 10, 13, 22-23, 26-27, 33, 35, 37, 3940, 54, 56, 59, 61, 68, 70, 75, 78, 100, 102-104, 128, 146, 152, 158, 160, 170-171, 177, 179, 181, 186, 194, 196, 200, 220, 225, 227-228, 230, 232, 237-238, 241-242, 246-247, 249, 252, 254-256, 266, 270, 277-278, 300, 304-305, 307, 312, 316, 321, 329, 334, 341, 357, 367, 397, 399, 417, 429-431, 443-446, 450, 453, 456-457, 462, 464, 468-473, 477-478, 480, 482-483, 485, 486-487, 489, 491-495, 500, 504, 506, 510, 514-515, 519-520, 538-541, 545, 555, 561, 566-567, 572, 574, 576-577, 580-581, 584-586, 594, 596, 605, 612, 615, 617, 624, 627-629, 635, 637-638, 640, 648, 653, 655-657, 659, 663-664, 666, 668, 674, 676, 678, 684, 688-689, 693-694, 698, 700-701,

Index

710, 713-714, 723-724, 727, 731, 734, 736, 738, 741-742, 748, 754, 761, 763, 772, 779, 792, 795, 819, 825-826, 833-835, 838-839, 841-842, 846, 851, 861, 863, 868-869, 871-873, 879-881, 890, 892, 904, 909, 914, 921, 925, 933, 941-943, 947, 949-950, 956-957, 971, 986 Modernism 183, 324-325, 327-329, 333, 337, 397, 491-494, 498, 536, 539, 542-544, 556, 588, 637638, 862, 865, 909, 941, 978, 987 Modernization 8, 186, 197-198, 202, 213, 223, 256, 321, 491, 518, 536, 546, 576, 579-580, 615-616, 631, 636, 643-644, 657, 663, 665-669, 675, 737, 871, 910, 913, 924, 955, 978 Moksha 240, 247, 250 monist 304, 313, 323 Museum 56, 191, 225-226, 229-230, 268-271, 273, 275, 277-281, 383, 436-437, 854, 911, 936 Muslims 7, 21, 23-24, 27-28, 30, 32-33, 35-36, 39-42, 44, 47, 51-52, 107, 109-111, 114-116, 119-122, 130, 138, 186, 234, 237, 251-253, 255-256, 260, 267, 276, 284, 288, 299, 315, 342, 377, 399, 418, 440-441, 443-445, 456-458, 463-464, 468, 515, 559-560, 582, 588, 591, 594, 596, 598, 616, 632, 649, 651, 655-659, 697, 704, 718, 723-729, 735, 738-742, 745, 750-752, 754-756, 758, 764-765, 770, 772, 774, 777, 812, 821, 865, 882, 907, 926, 928, 944, 978 Myth 47, 67, 80-81, 251-253, 256-257, 267, 306, 312, 344-345, 419, 443-444, 450, 501, 504, 566, 574-575, 577, 580-581, 585-586, 609, 760, 768, 839, 923

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N Namaskar 240, 247, 250 Narrative 25, 33, 45-46, 63, 74-76, 79-80, 93, 95, 102, 104-105, 110, 114, 117, 119, 124, 129-132, 136137, 139, 144, 150, 165-167, 171-174, 177, 197, 223, 231, 233, 262-263, 305-306, 312-313, 315, 319, 323, 326, 331, 335, 341, 343-344, 347-352, 356, 360, 372-373, 429, 432, 442-443, 507-508, 521, 525, 527-528, 531, 537-538, 543, 545-546, 548-553, 558, 564, 566-567, 569, 572, 575, 579, 584-585, 587, 592, 595, 598-600, 602-603, 605, 607, 614, 657, 683-684, 686, 689, 692-693, 696, 709, 721, 723, 730, 748, 751, 754, 807, 836, 844, 846, 870, 880-881, 883, 886, 888, 931, 943, 945949, 954, 960, 969 Natives 4, 81, 246, 304, 306, 311-312, 314-317, 319, 329, 334, 515, 524, 670, 745, 900 Neoliberalism 53, 577, 587, 590

Neo-Orientalism 92, 94, 99-101, 104, 106, 285, 355, 357, 371, 378, 438-441, 447-448, 450-453, 456, 466-469, 558, 571, 821, 927 Netfix 12-13, 17-20, 24-25, 29-32, 62, 120, 177, 205, 209, 373, 649, 730-732, 746-748, 758, 870, 939940, 942, 944, 949-952 Netfix Series 62, 205, 730, 732, 939, 952 Neuromancer 203, 211 Neutralisible Opposition 540, 548, 556 New Media 6, 15, 17, 20, 30, 53-54, 62, 145-147, 268, 551, 678, 718, 720, 727, 731, 746, 755, 761, 763, 774, 776-778, 781-784, 792, 795, 815, 821, 826, 829, 831, 833, 840-841, 843, 848-849, 875-876, 880, 910, 939, 942, 950 News 13, 26, 75, 130-131, 141, 145-162, 164, 236, 277, 282, 347, 403-405, 407-410, 413, 416, 420, 428, 449, 453-454, 458, 460-467, 471, 474-475, 477, 504, 522-523, 554, 567, 571, 600, 605-606, 612, 718, 727, 737, 763-764, 778-780, 782-795, 797-799, 802, 805-818, 827, 849-851, 863-865, 871, 891, 910, 913-914, 944, 960-961 Niche 164, 551 Nihonjinron 203, 213 Nike 824, 831, 974-975, 979-980, 982-983, 987-988, 990 Normative 165-166, 170-172, 176, 180, 541, 860 Nuri Bilge Ceylan 633-636, 645-646

O Occidentalism 57-58, 68, 71, 518, 571, 588-589, 615, 648, 651-652, 658-659, 661, 705, 732-733, 800, 818-822, 825-826, 830, 833-837, 862, 873, 885, 889-890, 900, 906, 909-910, 941, 951, 974, 977, 988-990 Odalisque 96-97, 131-132, 140, 192, 227, 375, 379, 381, 388, 391, 394, 397 Orient 5, 20-21, 23, 33, 36, 38, 40, 54-55, 57-64, 67, 71, 75, 77-78, 93-94, 101, 103, 105, 109, 123-125, 127-131, 133-140, 148, 181, 183-184, 195-196, 201, 215-216, 223, 230-231, 240-242, 252-254, 261-262, 271-273, 276, 278-280, 284-285, 293, 296, 301-303, 305, 356-357, 360, 373, 380, 397398, 404, 414-416, 420, 440-441, 444-445, 450, 452, 516, 519-521, 542, 557-558, 560, 573, 579, 587, 589, 592-593, 595-596, 609-610, 613, 615, 623, 628, 632, 649-651, 653, 664, 667, 678, 682, 719, 732, 734, 762, 801, 816, 819-820, 822-823, 831, 837-838, 840, 860-861, 865, 871, 874-876, 878, 882-883, 887, 890, 906-907, 909, 916, 920, 923, 925, 928, 938, 941, 954, 977, 989 cxlvii

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Index

Oriental Carpet 230 Oriental Monk 53-55, 58-59, 61, 71 Oriental Painting 230 Oriental women 226-227, 342, 438-441, 443-449 Orientalism 1-13, 20-23, 25, 28-30, 32-50, 53-59, 61-64, 66-71, 75, 78, 90, 92-96, 98-99, 102105, 107-108, 111, 114, 116, 120-121, 123-125, 139-142, 144, 178, 181-182, 184, 189, 194-196, 201-203, 209, 212, 214-217, 219, 221-233, 236, 238-242, 245-254, 257, 261, 264-273, 275-281, 283-285, 289, 302-305, 307-308, 310-312, 317321, 330, 336, 338, 341-342, 352-361, 368, 372-373, 375-378, 382-383, 389, 392, 395-399, 413-416, 418-421, 424, 429, 434-435, 438-441, 447-461, 464-468, 470-471, 476-478, 482, 485, 507-508, 515-516, 518-521, 531-532, 535-544, 546, 548-551, 555-556, 558, 571-572, 574-577, 581-582, 586-598, 600, 604, 607-613, 615-619, 624, 629-632, 648-653, 656, 658, 660-669, 675, 677-683, 685, 693, 701-709, 714-715, 717-720, 722, 727-736, 738, 743-744, 746-747, 753-757, 759-764, 774-777, 799-803, 806, 808, 810-812, 814-823, 825-826, 830, 833-837, 840-841, 844, 848-851, 858-863, 865-866, 871-878, 885-890, 893, 900-901, 903-917, 919-935, 937-944, 947, 949, 951-958, 962, 966, 968-969, 973-980, 988-990 Orientalism and Media 924, 938 Orientalism in Advertising 714, 974, 978-979, 990 Orientalism In Cinema 123, 574, 732, 744 Orientalist 1-13, 22-24, 27, 29, 33, 35-40, 43-44, 55, 58, 61, 64, 67, 92-98, 100-106, 108, 110, 125, 127-128, 130, 138, 145, 148, 151, 161, 166, 181184, 188-190, 192-194, 196, 201-202, 214-216, 222-224, 226-229, 231-233, 236-239, 252-253, 256, 259, 261, 264, 266, 268-271, 273-282, 284, 303-314, 316-317, 319, 324, 327, 329-332, 334-335, 337-338, 341-343, 350, 352-353, 356, 359-360, 366-368, 372, 375-391, 395, 397, 399400, 414-416, 435, 438-444, 446-448, 453-454, 456-465, 468, 470-471, 476-478, 480, 482-483, 507, 519, 528, 530-531, 540, 543-545, 548, 550, 558-559, 571, 573, 575, 577-579, 581-582, 584, 587, 591-594, 597-598, 600-601, 604, 607, 611612, 615-616, 618-619, 623-624, 627-629, 631, 648-653, 656-659, 664-666, 670, 675, 681-683, 685, 687-688, 691-693, 695-697, 701-702, 706709, 711-712, 714-720, 723, 725-726, 730-734, 742-744, 746, 748, 751, 754-755, 760-761, 764765, 770, 772-774, 776-777, 779, 799, 806, 808, 810, 812-814, 817, 825, 828, 838-843, 846, 848, cxlviii

858-872, 874-878, 880, 882, 887, 890, 904-917, 922-927, 929-934, 939-941, 944-945, 947-949, 953-955, 958-960, 964, 967-970, 974, 977-978, 981, 990 Orientalist Approach 151, 202, 278, 329, 335, 359, 372, 380, 400, 435, 453-454, 458, 460-463, 465, 470-471, 478, 480, 482, 543, 548, 593, 616, 624, 656, 732, 813-814, 825, 828, 838, 841-843, 846, 907, 914, 954 orientalist discourse analysis 858-859, 865-867, 874 Orientalist media 841, 871, 904 Orientalist Painting 93, 96, 181, 183-184, 192, 196, 215, 268-271, 273, 277, 279-282, 356, 375-376, 378-379, 387, 389, 397, 442, 875-877, 924, 932 Orientalist Photo 397 Orientalist Photography 375 Orientaslim 760 Other 2-8, 10-11, 13-16, 20, 22-24, 28-30, 33-36, 38, 4143, 46, 51-61, 63-71, 75-78, 80-81, 83, 85-86, 88, 90, 94-95, 97, 99, 102-103, 106, 108-120, 127, 132, 134-136, 139-140, 142-144, 146-151, 153-156, 159-162, 164-176, 178, 180, 182-190, 194, 196, 198-202, 204, 207, 211, 215-218, 220, 222, 227, 230-235, 237, 241, 244-246, 252-253, 255-257, 259-264, 266-267, 269-276, 279, 285-286, 289, 293, 297, 299-300, 304, 307-308, 310-311, 313320, 322, 325-326, 328-335, 337, 340-351, 354, 357-358, 361-363, 365, 367-371, 374, 377-378, 381-382, 387, 390, 395, 397-398, 400-401, 403405, 407-408, 410-411, 413-416, 420, 423-425, 427-430, 433, 435, 440, 442-443, 445-446, 448, 451-459, 462-465, 472-475, 478, 482-483, 485, 486, 489-493, 495, 497-499, 507-508, 510-515, 517-521, 523-528, 532, 535, 537-542, 544-552, 555, 558, 563-571, 573-575, 577-587, 591-600, 602-604, 606-610, 612-620, 622, 624-626, 628630, 632-644, 646, 650-655, 657, 661, 664-665, 667, 669-670, 677, 681-683, 685-686, 689, 691-693, 696-697, 701-702, 707-709, 716-718, 721-722, 724-726, 728, 731-738, 741, 743-746, 752-755, 760-765, 767, 769, 772-776, 779, 782783, 786-787, 791, 794, 800-808, 811-813, 817, 819-824, 827, 829-831, 835, 839-842, 844, 846, 848, 858-874, 876-878, 880-883, 886-887, 889892, 899-900, 904-917, 919, 922, 924-926, 928, 930, 932-933, 937, 940-945, 947-949, 954-960, 962, 966, 968-970, 975-978 Othering 41, 61, 64, 66, 165-167, 170, 202, 304, 341, 438, 445, 447-449, 452, 485, 490, 507-508, 518, 521, 527, 545, 575, 610, 717, 725, 729-730, 735-737, 746, 754, 759, 805, 817, 836, 862-863,

Index

910, 973 Otherization 231, 237, 571, 730, 735, 746, 799, 806, 808, 810, 812, 814, 817-820, 823, 825-831, 833, 837, 860 otherize 492, 682, 871-872, 990 Otherized 203, 635, 765, 818, 861, 953-954, 973 Otherness 102, 113, 179, 184, 211, 213, 216, 237, 279, 310, 313, 318, 321, 438-444, 446, 448, 489, 496, 552, 582-583, 585, 636, 737, 746, 801, 804, 813, 817, 835, 844, 863, 908, 911, 990 Ottoman 125, 138, 141, 145-148, 150-153, 156, 160162, 181-182, 185-188, 190, 195-196, 215-221, 223, 230, 251, 253-257, 260-261, 266-267, 272, 276, 281, 302, 356, 378-379, 382, 397-399, 403-406, 408, 410-418, 420, 468, 470-473, 478, 482-483, 485, 543, 555, 589, 615-616, 620-622, 624, 627-628, 632, 636-637, 667-668, 670, 675, 678-680, 707-708, 710, 760, 764-765, 770, 774, 821, 867-872, 880, 888-890, 893, 895, 899-900, 911-913, 915, 921-925, 928-929, 945, 947-948 Ottoman Image in France 398, 420 Ottomans 147-148, 160, 162, 186, 251, 254, 256-257, 261, 267, 272, 377, 404, 409-413, 467, 478, 482, 615, 667, 761, 770, 901, 946

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P Panopticon 170-171, 175, 179-180, 572 particapatory culture 760 participatory culture 760, 765-767, 774-775, 777 Patriarchy 128, 338-339, 352, 354, 440, 446, 685, 704 Paul Poiret 214-215, 224, 230 Perception 4-5, 12-13, 18, 23-25, 27, 56, 58, 67, 75, 78, 109, 111, 120, 161, 187, 198, 221, 252, 262, 264, 266, 270, 272, 277-278, 284, 286, 293, 301, 311, 313, 319, 329-332, 350, 360, 368, 376, 382, 384, 399-401, 404, 411, 430, 438-439, 454-455, 457464, 468, 474, 477-478, 488, 493, 496, 501-502, 506-507, 514, 519, 541, 544, 552, 557-558, 560, 564, 568-570, 573, 575-577, 584, 587, 591, 607, 615, 634, 655, 664, 674-676, 682-683, 685-686, 701, 708, 725, 737, 740, 742-743, 745-746, 752, 755, 761, 779-780, 787, 795, 799, 803, 805-806, 808, 810, 814, 824-827, 839, 875-876, 905, 909910, 914, 917, 919-920, 925, 930, 932, 944, 947, 954, 956-957, 976-977, 981, 987-988 Philip Kotler 818, 837 Philosophy 14, 56-57, 61, 70, 127, 134, 165, 172, 178, 180, 215, 250, 253, 318, 320-321, 325, 327-328, 333, 335, 337, 343, 378, 397, 456, 488-490, 496, 501-502, 511, 537, 632, 677, 707, 776, 815, 887,

905, 909, 927, 940-941, 945, 955 Political Advertising 485 Political Communication 470-476, 484-485, 618, 631 Political Economy 14-15, 21, 574-575, 577-579, 581, 583, 587-588, 590, 593, 613 Political Poster 485 political posters 470, 483 Politics And Media 143, 278, 470, 485, 612 popular geopolitics 398, 418-420 Portrayal 108, 111, 118, 125, 203, 237, 246, 300, 314, 363, 400, 402, 451, 544, 556-560, 565, 569, 607, 630, 821, 824, 832, 839, 842, 846, 946 Post-Colonial 33, 40, 43, 45, 89, 91, 176, 304, 322, 355-356, 577, 719, 734, 836, 863, 958 Postcolonial Feminism 196, 438-439, 452 Postcolonial Studies 90, 180, 313, 322, 440, 878 Postcolonialism 72, 77-78, 90-91, 105, 178, 322, 357, 418, 429, 611 Poster Design 888, 894-897, 903 Post-History and Geography 213 posthuman 202-203, 211 Postkolonyalism 72 Postmodern art 375, 397 Postmodern Photo 397 postmodern subject 324-325, 331-332, 337 Postmodernism 10, 88, 324-325, 331, 337, 358, 366, 368, 373, 397, 493-495, 498-500, 588-589, 632, 651, 660, 680, 850, 879, 901, 913 Post-Modernity 202, 486, 506 Press 9-11, 32, 39, 46-51, 62, 68-71, 88-91, 105, 108, 120-122, 141-143, 145-154, 156, 158-161, 163, 177-179, 194-195, 212, 224, 228-229, 238-239, 249, 265-267, 281, 302-303, 320-322, 353-354, 372-374, 396, 402, 404, 410, 414, 416-418, 435, 449-451, 458, 468, 473-474, 484, 501-506, 532534, 538, 553-555, 570-573, 588-589, 608-610, 630-632, 645-646, 659-660, 668, 677-679, 703705, 715, 727-729, 731, 752, 755-757, 775-777, 787, 791, 793-794, 799, 802, 806, 808, 811, 814-817, 825, 834-836, 849-850, 864, 873-874, 885-886, 913, 917, 951, 989-990 Primitivism 116, 329, 336-337 Promotion Ads 611 Psychoanalysis 53, 70, 238, 492, 514, 638, 887

Q Question dê Orient 920, 923, 938

cxlix

Index

R

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Recognition 8, 17, 38, 59, 93, 95, 117-118, 170-171, 304, 306, 309-313, 319, 376, 541, 559, 584, 613, 636, 674, 737, 839, 954, 976 Refection 2, 6, 65, 67, 88, 112, 116, 119, 152, 181, 203, 235, 240, 242, 245-248, 255, 262, 284, 334, 342, 425, 428, 453-454, 465, 482, 488-489, 519, 541-542, 556, 607, 629, 638, 664, 685, 701, 726, 762, 764, 823, 839, 851, 869, 879, 893, 910, 912, 925, 933, 939, 948 Representation 2, 7, 10, 13, 21, 24, 32, 54, 57, 59, 6667, 71, 75-76, 83, 93-95, 98, 101-104, 107-109, 113-114, 116-117, 119-121, 124-125, 144, 146, 150-151, 153, 155, 162, 164-171, 173, 176-178, 180-181, 184, 194, 197, 202-203, 216, 226, 229, 231, 233-236, 244, 262-263, 267, 269, 273, 283, 285, 289-290, 293, 296, 298-301, 305, 307, 322, 326, 331-332, 335, 348, 350-351, 353, 362, 365, 398, 418-419, 421, 426, 439, 441-442, 445, 447, 449-450, 452-454, 456-459, 463, 469, 486-492, 495-496, 498-500, 504, 506, 508, 515-516, 518, 520, 522, 529-530, 533, 535, 537-538, 553-554, 556, 559, 561, 563-564, 568-569, 571, 576, 582, 588, 591, 593, 599, 601, 604, 608, 612-614, 625, 646, 648-650, 652-654, 656-659, 664, 681, 683685, 687, 691-692, 697, 700, 702, 708, 717-723, 725-730, 732, 735, 742-746, 764-765, 768, 775, 778-780, 782, 785, 792, 801, 807, 824, 826, 835, 838-842, 845-849, 851-852, 859, 864, 872, 876-880, 883, 885-887, 907, 923, 932, 937, 939941, 943-945, 947-949, 952, 954, 958, 961-963, 966, 976 Representation Studies 166, 180 Reproduction 75, 301, 365, 367-368, 380, 434, 438439, 443, 445, 449, 451, 501, 514, 521, 523, 577-578, 600, 614, 649, 665-668, 675-676, 680, 683, 719, 807, 872, 876-877, 885, 887, 899, 954, 958, 961, 973 Rhizome 202, 213 Richard King 55, 64 Rifat Ozbek 224-225

S Saracen 774, 777 second nature 207, 211, 213 Self-Identity Theory 92, 104 self-organization 94, 102, 104, 106 Self-Orientalism 57-58, 62, 92, 94, 101, 104, 106, 308309, 455, 471, 478, 485, 574-577, 581, 585-587, cl

590, 611-612, 615, 630, 632, 662, 665-666, 675, 680, 758, 825, 858-859, 862-863, 871, 873-874, 927, 930-931, 974, 980, 989-990 self-schemas 94-95, 102-103, 106 Semiology 344, 716, 760, 777 Semiotic Analysis 12, 24-25, 347, 681-682, 685, 687, 705-707, 709, 819, 824, 834, 897-899, 974-975, 979 Semiotics 72, 80, 172, 338, 343, 346, 354, 686-687, 705-706, 709, 716, 768, 838-839, 842, 848, 850, 888, 893, 898, 901, 903 Semiotics, 338, 343, 687, 706, 709, 768, 850 Series, 17, 25, 29-30, 62, 131-132, 172, 204, 206-207, 243, 383-385, 387, 464, 503, 561, 566, 674-675, 708, 723, 725, 730, 732, 746-748, 750-755, 758, 889, 891, 900, 906, 914, 931, 939, 945 SFX 240, 247, 250 shame-honor 34, 37-38, 44, 52 Simulation 332, 364-366, 368, 371-372, 374, 488, 591, 593, 599-601, 603-604, 606-607, 609-610, 726, 862, 879, 885-886, 943, 959 Slave 24, 73, 81, 85-86, 90, 172, 183, 187, 252, 258260, 262-263, 342, 489, 507-508, 510-511, 521, 523-532, 535, 763, 956, 958 Slaves 4, 73-74, 76, 78, 81, 84-85, 259, 263, 376, 510511, 523-528, 530-531 Social Science 14, 241, 249, 400, 419, 437, 486, 501, 506, 553, 590, 715, 734, 776, 796, 840 Social Thriller 72, 80, 88, 91 Space 14, 54, 56-57, 60-61, 65-67, 69-71, 77, 83, 96, 110, 115, 125, 127-129, 131, 133-134, 138, 140-142, 144, 178-179, 184, 186, 190, 198, 202203, 213, 232, 237, 257, 271-272, 278, 283-286, 290-291, 296, 299, 311, 321, 327-328, 330, 337, 340, 344-345, 350, 354, 356, 363, 367, 370-371, 382, 384, 404, 434, 440, 442, 445-446, 476, 487, 493, 496-497, 500, 539, 546, 556, 583-584, 594595, 598, 600, 604, 628, 635, 639-640, 643, 650, 656-657, 672, 683-684, 696, 702, 718, 720, 730, 784, 801, 839, 861, 882, 893, 895, 900, 908, 911, 927, 939-940, 944, 946-949, 957-958 Spiritual 39, 43, 127, 200, 204, 208, 213, 240, 247-248, 250, 253, 265, 325, 423, 430, 492-493, 511, 521, 614, 638, 640, 642, 693, 697, 701, 890, 928, 956 Sports 98, 421-422, 427-428, 431, 433, 435, 663, 667, 686, 782, 959, 981-982, 987-988 Stereotype 27, 84, 109, 116-117, 128, 151, 246, 332, 358, 447, 453, 458-459, 462, 469, 483, 490, 506, 541, 555, 557-559, 561-564, 567, 569, 573, 596, 692, 727, 763, 765, 824 Stereotypes 36, 42, 76-78, 80, 83, 86, 88, 97-98, 101-

Index

104, 107, 110-111, 113, 116, 118-120, 127, 139, 143, 151, 161, 182, 192, 220, 258, 261, 285, 319, 342-343, 352, 355, 362, 400, 421-422, 425-426, 434, 436, 441-443, 445-448, 458-459, 461, 464465, 468, 478, 490, 495, 505, 552, 554, 557-560, 562-566, 568-572, 577, 598, 610-612, 618, 625, 629, 655-657, 659, 670, 702, 723-724, 726, 728, 736, 742, 754, 792, 805, 814, 828, 830-831, 835, 837, 865, 911, 915, 931, 960, 968-969, 978, 982, 989 Stereotypical 88, 92-93, 96, 99, 104, 116-117, 126, 146, 240, 242-246, 248-250, 285, 369, 415, 443, 557, 560-561, 564, 566, 568-570, 670, 682, 754, 772, 824, 826, 906 Stereotyping 36, 93, 108, 110-111, 113-115, 146, 151, 211, 358, 416, 464, 478, 485, 500, 502, 538, 541, 567, 569, 581-582, 598, 664, 670, 726, 848, 878, 950 Subaltern 59, 165, 167, 170, 173, 176-180, 311, 321323, 440-441, 445-446, 448, 614, 632, 836, 886 Subjectivity 67, 165-166, 168-170, 172-173, 175-176, 180, 311, 358, 374, 489, 514, 557, 560, 563, 565, 862, 951 Sunken Place 72, 83-84, 88-89, 91 Symbol 28, 59, 75, 97, 209, 257-258, 278, 297, 349, 376, 379, 401, 442, 463, 486, 488, 498, 506, 594, 697, 701, 711-713, 725, 752, 774, 779, 805, 808, 821, 831, 842, 880, 884, 894, 898, 912, 915, 946-947, 957

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T Tailoring Identities 536 Tanzimat 185-186, 662-663, 668-670, 675-677, 680, 913 Techno-Animism 213 techno-city 203 techno-orientalism 9, 197, 201-204, 211-212, 231, 236-237, 239, 360, 485 Television 6, 15-18, 23-24, 29-32, 53, 55, 62, 75, 77, 81, 86-87, 107, 110-112, 122, 141, 146, 162, 164, 197-199, 204, 207-208, 236, 244, 261, 281, 283, 359, 367-368, 429, 474-476, 496, 504, 542, 548, 553-555, 566, 572, 580, 590, 605-606, 612, 640, 663, 674-675, 683, 708, 718, 730-732, 743, 746, 763, 785, 798, 815, 819, 826, 828, 830-831, 835, 859, 865, 870, 874, 886-887, 889-893, 910, 914915, 931, 940, 942-944, 951, 959, 976 Tensions in Mediterranean 799, 817 Terrorism 10, 13, 24-25, 27, 29-30, 41-43, 46, 50, 108-109, 111-115, 117, 119, 236, 285, 297, 415,

439, 450, 457-458, 466, 568, 572-573, 594, 600, 608, 648, 659, 705, 723-727, 739, 741, 745-747, 864, 958 Tetsuro Watsuji 54, 57, 67 The Content Analysis 152, 799, 806, 808, 814, 817 The Matrix 199, 201, 203, 206 The Other 2-8, 15, 20, 22-23, 28, 35-36, 41, 52-53, 57-61, 63-64, 66-68, 75-78, 81, 85, 94-95, 99, 102, 108, 111, 113-117, 127, 132, 139-140, 146149, 154-156, 161-162, 165-174, 176, 182-185, 188-190, 198, 201-202, 207, 211, 218, 231-234, 237, 245, 252-253, 257, 260-261, 263-264, 266, 269-270, 272-273, 276, 279, 289, 304, 310, 313319, 326, 328, 333-334, 340-346, 348-351, 357358, 365, 378, 382, 387, 389, 395, 397, 400, 408, 415-416, 420, 423-424, 427, 430, 433, 442-443, 445-446, 453, 455-459, 462, 464, 478, 483, 486, 489-492, 495, 497-499, 508, 510, 512, 515, 517521, 524-525, 527, 532, 537-542, 544-545, 548550, 552, 555, 564-567, 571, 575, 577, 581-582, 584-585, 587, 594-596, 606-607, 609, 614-618, 624-625, 629, 635-637, 641-644, 653-654, 657, 661, 665, 667, 669-670, 681-683, 685, 691, 693, 696-697, 708-709, 722, 724-726, 733, 735-738, 743-745, 752-753, 760-761, 763-765, 767, 769, 772-776, 801-805, 807, 812, 819-824, 829-830, 835, 844, 846, 848, 859-868, 870-873, 876-878, 880-883, 887, 889-890, 892, 900, 905, 908-909, 911, 913, 915, 917, 919, 924-925, 932, 940, 947949, 955-958, 960, 962, 968-969, 977-978 The Protector 258-259, 261-262, 264-265, 408, 939940, 942, 944-949, 951-952 The Wind and The Lion 875-876 third space 61, 70, 125, 128, 131, 134, 140, 142, 144 Tight Dress 681-682, 685, 687-689, 692-693, 696-697, 700-701, 705 Titanic 145, 149-150, 152-164 Tolerance 40, 76, 154, 164, 462, 498, 543, 547, 689, 842, 846 Tourism 73, 268, 279, 282, 329, 336, 430, 466, 477, 482, 538, 553, 611-612, 617, 619, 624, 628-629, 631-632, 663, 670, 672, 678-679, 822, 824, 836, 838-843, 848-850, 873, 943 Traditional Culture 442, 662-663, 667, 670, 675-676, 680 transmedia storytelling 551, 570, 818-820, 826, 828, 831-834, 836-837 Transnational Cinema 143-144 Triumphalist Religiosity 44, 48, 52 TRT 10, 474-475, 483, 797, 858, 870-872, 874 Turk 126-128, 132-133, 135, 139, 228, 251-252, 254cli

Index

258, 260-262, 264-267, 485, 543-544, 556, 628, 770, 772, 774, 776, 805, 868 Turkey 1, 12, 18, 37, 72, 108, 118, 123-127, 132-136, 138-140, 145, 147-149, 151-152, 161, 165, 181, 188-189, 197, 214, 216-217, 220-221, 223, 225, 227-231, 251, 253, 255, 267-269, 272-275, 277, 279, 281-283, 289, 299, 321, 324, 338, 355, 375, 398, 408-409, 415, 420-421, 423, 438, 453-454, 459-465, 468, 470-471, 473-475, 477-478, 480, 482-483, 485, 486, 501, 507, 536, 538-540, 544550, 552, 557, 574, 591-592, 611-612, 616-621, 623-633, 635, 644-646, 648, 662-663, 669-676, 679-681, 684-685, 687-688, 701-703, 706, 708, 710, 717, 730, 732, 734, 742, 760-761, 764, 768, 772, 775, 777-778, 785-786, 795, 797, 799, 802803, 806-814, 817-819, 821-822, 835, 838, 849, 858, 866-868, 872, 874-875, 888-889, 891, 893, 902, 904, 911, 915, 920-921, 923-925, 928, 930, 937, 939-940, 942, 944, 949, 952-953, 974 Turkish Cinema 123, 130-131, 141, 143, 263, 266, 538, 549, 553, 633, 646, 681, 684, 701-703, 886 Turkish costume 222 Turkish Image 140, 256, 378, 461, 682, 708, 760, 765, 772-774, 799, 804-806, 808, 810-814, 817, 821 Turkish political life 399, 470, 472, 474, 476, 485 Turquerie 214, 219-221, 225, 229-230 Turquierie 230

U US Propaganda 107

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V Valentino 121, 214, 224-225 victimization 83, 153, 164 Victimizing 145 Video Games 7, 10, 75, 122, 158, 204, 303, 356, 364, 557-566, 568-573, 599, 721, 725-729, 914 Violence 34, 37, 40-42, 44, 51-52, 74, 80, 83-84, 100, 109, 113, 117, 141, 143, 146, 150, 153, 170, 173-174, 177, 183, 236, 242, 252, 257-258, 260-261, 264, 284, 297, 310-311, 314, 322-323, 399, 415, 422, 440, 442, 450-451, 456, 458, 461, 467, 512, 514-515, 531, 553, 592, 596-597, 599, 607, 611-612, 614, 618, 629, 632-634, 637-641, 644, 646, 655, 659, 689-690, 695-696, 701, 718, 729, 739-742, 745, 755, 760, 764, 773, 778-783, 785-787, 790-798, 821, 830, 864, 880, 959, 977 violence against women 690, 695, 778-781, 783, 785, 787, 790-798 clii

Virtual Orientalism 53-55, 61, 69, 71, 951 Virtual Reality 160, 200, 284, 301, 321, 355, 359, 361, 363, 365, 368, 370-371, 373-374, 551, 599, 943, 959 visual literacy 778, 780, 792, 794, 798 Visual narratives 95, 106 Visual Representation 173, 604, 839-840, 842, 845847, 851-852 VO 53-55, 61, 63-64, 66-67, 71

W Werner Herzog 165, 172, 177 West 1, 3-9, 12-13, 15, 20-24, 27-29, 32-43, 47-48, 54-55, 57-59, 62-63, 68, 71, 73, 76-78, 92-94, 98, 100-101, 106, 109-111, 113, 116-118, 121, 124-129, 134-135, 138-145, 147, 150-153, 160162, 164, 181-187, 189-190, 192, 195-197, 199203, 211, 214-216, 223-224, 226-227, 230-237, 240-241, 243-245, 249, 252-255, 257, 260-262, 264-266, 268-270, 272, 274-279, 281, 283-285, 288, 294, 301-302, 307, 312, 317, 322-323, 325-330, 332-335, 338, 341-342, 354-360, 362, 366-367, 371-372, 374, 376-378, 385, 387, 404, 411, 420, 424-425, 427, 429, 433-435, 449-450, 453-459, 461-465, 470-471, 476-478, 480, 482483, 485, 489, 495, 506-507, 509-510, 517-521, 530-533, 535, 538, 544-545, 548, 550, 557-558, 560, 566-570, 573-579, 581-587, 589, 591-594, 596, 598, 610-611, 615-616, 618, 623, 625-626, 628-629, 632-635, 646, 648, 650-661, 664-666, 668-670, 672, 674, 676, 679, 681-683, 688, 692693, 697-698, 700-702, 705, 707-708, 716-720, 725-726, 731-734, 737-738, 740-743, 745, 748, 751, 753-754, 760-765, 769, 773-774, 776, 799801, 803, 805-806, 808, 810, 814, 819-825, 827829, 831, 834-835, 837, 840, 844, 851, 858-871, 873-874, 878-885, 890, 904-916, 922, 924-930, 932-934, 937-938, 940-941, 943-945, 947-949, 951-952, 954-958, 964-969, 971, 974-981, 983, 985, 987-988, 990 Westernization 148, 185-186, 227, 551, 581, 611, 615616, 632, 668-670, 737, 862, 913, 924 white mythology 304, 309-313, 322-323 White Washing 323 Winter Sleep 633-636, 638-640, 642, 644-646 Winter Sleep (2014) 633-634, 644, 646 Woman 25, 27, 59-60, 67, 79, 86, 97-98, 100-103, 110, 114, 119, 124, 126, 130-132, 134-135, 138, 149, 152, 181-190, 205, 207, 209, 218-219, 252, 256-257, 260, 262-263, 275, 307-308, 322, 328,

Index

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333, 339-341, 347-349, 351-352, 375-376, 381, 383, 386-387, 422, 425, 427-428, 431, 441-444, 446-449, 451, 468, 499, 514, 520, 594, 602, 620623, 625-626, 648-649, 654-656, 658, 681-682, 684-685, 688, 690-693, 696, 700-702, 705, 712714, 723, 744, 778-780, 782, 786-787, 790-792, 795, 824, 831, 875, 879-881, 883-885, 899, 945,

966-967, 980-987 women image 145-146, 150, 153 Women Television Channels 164 worlding 310, 319, 323

cliii